url stringlengths 19 199 | title stringlengths 0 173 | institution stringclasses 19 values | author listlengths 0 19 | publish_date stringlengths 0 138 ⌀ | category listlengths 0 42 | state stringclasses 6 values | markdown stringlengths 0 366k |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/private-water-well-setback-distances | Private Water Well Setback Distances | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Jason Barrett"
] | null | [
"Water Resources",
"Publications",
"Health and Safety"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Private Water Well Setback Distances
## Private Water Well Setback Distances
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: MississippiWellOwner Network |
|---------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3319 | View as PDF: P3319.pdf |
| | MISSISSPI STATE UNIVERSITY. EXTENSION |
| PRIVATE WATER WELL | Private Water Well Setback Distances |
| | Distances shown here are minimum setback distances. If possible, greater setback distances are preferred. |
| 3 FT | Building · Building Overhang |
| 10 FT | Frost-Proof Yard Hydrant · Electric Line · LP (propane) Tank · Gas Pipe |
| 20 FT | Animal Kennel · Petroleum Storage Tank (aboveground, less than 1,100 gallons) · In-Ground Swimming Pool |
| 35 FT | Lake · Stream · Pond · River |
| 50 FT | Septic Tank · Abandoned Well · Petroleum Storage Tank (belowground, less than 1,100 gallons) Animal Feedlot (1 to 300 animal units )· Animal Building/Poultry House (greater than 1 animal unit ) Buried Sewer (Municipal or Other with unapproved materials/untested) |
| 100 FT | Drainfield (Soil Dispensal System, less than 10,000 gallons per day )* · Petroleum Pipeline Animal Feedlot (granger than 300 animal units ) 2.3 |
| 150 FT | Agricultural Chemical · Hazardous Substance Petroleum |
| 300 FT | Drainfield ( Soil Dispensal System, greater than 10,000 gallons per day )* |
## 20 feet
- Animal kennel
- Petroleum storage tank (aboveground, less than 1,100 gallons)
- In-ground swimming pool
## 35 feet
- Lake
- Stream
- Pond
- River
## 50 feet
- Septic tank*
- Abandoned well
- Petroleum storage tank (belowground, less than 1,100 gallons)
- Animal feedlot (1 to 300 animal units)$^{2}$.3
- Animal building/poultry house (greater than 1 animal unit)$^{3}$
- Buried sewer (municipal or other: with unapproved materials/untested)
## 100 feet
- Drainfield (soil dispersal system, less than 10,000 gallons per day)*
- Petroleum pipeline
- Animal feedlot (greater than 300 animal units)$^{2}$.3
## 150 feet
- Agricultural chemical
- Hazardous substance
- Petroleum
## 300 feet
- Drainfield (soil dispersal system, greater than 10,000 gallons per day)* 3
*As stated in 41-67-7 (2)(d) of the Mississippi individual on-site wastewater disposal law.
1A well between 5 and 10 feet from an electric transmission line, gas pipe, or liquid propane (LP) tank must be placarded, and work must not be performed on the well unless the line is de-energized and grounded or shielded, and the LP tank does not contain flammable gas.
2"Animal unit" is the average weight of the animal divided by 1,000 and is equal to one slaughter steer or one horse.
3A water-supply well that has less than 50 feet of watertight casing and is not cased through a confining layer, such as a clay layer, at least 10 feet thick is considered to be a "sensitive water-supply
" and it must be located at least twice the indicated distance from the potential contaminant source.
## Publication 3319 (POD-05-22)
Adapted by Jason Barrett, PhD, Associate Extension Professor, Water Resources Research Institute, from Minnesota Department of Health "Isolation Distances from a Water-Supply Well" in Minnesota Rules, Chapter 4725.
Department: Water Resources Research Institute
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webtbeam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors
Dr. Jason Barrett
ASSocExtensionProf. AssocDir
Water&WastewaterUtilities,Economics &NaturalResources,CommunityDevelopment,
Your Extension Experts
Dr. Jason Barrett
ASScExtensionProf. AssocDir
## Related News
MARCH 25, 2025
MSU Extension offers free water well testing, training
MAY 7, 2024
MSU Extension offers free water well testing, training
FEBRUARY 5, 2024
MSU Extension offers free water well testing, training
APRIL 21, 2022
MSU Extension Well Owner Network sponsors sampling effort
1
2
next\_
last\_
## Related Publications
```
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P1872
Protecting Your Private Well
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3078
What to Do about Coliform Bacteria in Well Water
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P1869
Managing Household Wastewater: An Environmental Self-Assessment for Homes with Private
Wells
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P1871
Managing Household Wastewater
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
``` |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/sumrall-covid-19-sales-subject-sales-tax-analysis | Sumrall COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | " Publications " Publication s Sumrall COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis
## Sumrall COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3480-344
View as PDF: P3480-344.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Lamar County
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
Related News
OCTOBER 3, 2024
Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition
FEBRUARY 1, 2024
Filed Under: Economic Development
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998 Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374 Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375 Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/hickory-retail-analysis | Hickory Retail Analysis | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Hickory Retail Analysis
## Hickory Retail Analysis
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P2945-118 | |
| View as PDF: P2945-118.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension-Newton County | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
| Select Your County Office | Select Your County Office |
| Your Extension Experts | Your Extension Experts |
| Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor | Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor |
| Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II | Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II |
| Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor | Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor |
| Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor | Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor |
| Related News | Related News |
| OCTOBER 3, 2024 Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition | OCTOBER 3, 2024 Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998 Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374 Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375 Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/hertford-county-forestry-impacts-2020 | Hertford County Forestry Impacts 2020 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Suzanne Teague",
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Hertford County Forestry Impacts 2020
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Aug. 9, 2022
Authors
Stephanie Chizmar
Suzanne Teague
Rajan Parajiuli
Robert Bardon
[ ] View/Download PDF http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=hertford- county-forestry-impacts-2020#zoom=page-fit N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/plum-curculio | Plum Curculio | NC State Extension | [
"Jim Walgenbach"
] | null | [
"Pest Management",
"Entomology",
"Agriculture"
] | NC | ## Plum Curculio NC STATE EXTENSION Background and Description
Plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar, PC) are weevils (s snout beetles) that are native to North America and occur from Canada to Florida and west to central Nebraska. Historically, they were sporadic pests of apples in western North Carolina, but in recent years they have become a significant problem in some orchards. In addition to apple, PC will attack peach, plum, cherry, and blueberry.
PC adults are approximately ¼ inch (6.5mm) long, with a curved snout about one-third of the length of the body. The body itself is warty and brown-gray with patches of white, and there are two bumps on each wing cover that help to differentiate PC from other common weevils. When disturbed, adults fold their legs close to their bodies and remain motionless. (In this posture, their strong resemblance to bark or debris makes them extremely difficult to detect.) Full-grown larvae are ½ inch (7.5mm) long, leggless, and white with brown heads.
Plum curculio pupa.
Attribution: J. F. Walgenbach file
## Life history
Adult PC overwinter in leaf litter and around orchards. In the spring, when the daily maximum temperature exceeds 70°F (near bloom or petal fall), adults emerge, mate, and lay eggs under fruit skin. Depending on weather conditions, new adults can continue to enter until at least the first cover spray. Eggs hatch within a few days of being laid and feed in the fruit. First generation adults usually emerge about 8 to 10 weeks later. There are two generations per year in most areas of the Southeast, but only one generation occurs in higher elevations of the southern Appalachians.
Attribution: J. E. Walgenback file
## Damage
A female PC uses her snout to cut a crescent-shaped slit beneath each egg she lays in order to keep the growing apple from crushing the egg. This slit becomes a crescent-shaped scar as the apple grows, though the damage is often only cosmetic. However, larvae sometimes bore tunnels, and heavily-infested fruit may become knotty or fall to the ground. Later in the season, adult beetles may create numerous round punctures in fruit skin.
Internal PC feeding.
Attribution: J. F. Walgenbach file
Attribution: J. F. Walgenbach file
## Monitoring and Control
For detailed information on insect emergence times, degree-day calculations, and the most current control practices (including mating disruption and recommended insecticides), read the "Pest and Orchard Management Program," "PM Practices for Selected Pests," and "Relative Effectiveness of Insecticides and Miticides" sections of the Integrated Orchard Management Guide for Commercial Apples in the Southeast.
PC activity is correlated with weather conditions after bloom: infestation tends to occur the first day after petal fall when high temperatures exceed 70° F. After bloom, check fruit twice weekly for feeding and egg-laying scars. Typically, an insecticide at petal fall and first cover (if adult emergence is protracted) is used for control. However, second generation adults emerge and can damage apples from late June through July, depending on location. Additional insecticides should be applied if any new damage is observed.
## Author
## Jim Walgenbach
Extension Entomology Specialist (Fruits/Vegetables) Entomology
Publication date: Feb. 23, 2015
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/pesticideinformation/2022/09/29/applicas-pesticidas-tienes-preguntas/ | Aplicas Pesticidas? Tienes preguntas? | University of Florida | [
"Entomology Emily"
] | 2022-09-29 | [
"4-H & Youth",
"Emily Kraus",
"Pesticide Information Office",
"pesticide safety",
"Spanish Language"
] | FL | Home » Pesticide Information » Aplicas Pesticidas? Tienes Preguntas?
## Aplicas Pesticidas? Tienes preguntas?
iHola fumigadores! Si aplicas pesticidas y tienes preguntas, nosotros tenemos las respuestas y los recursos que necesitas. En la Oficina de Información de Pesticidas (PIO) a UF/IFAS tenemos mucha información de seguridad sobre el uso de los pesticidas. Tenemos recursos de UF EDIS y de otras organizaciones. Aquí, voy a describir alguno de estos recursos y donde puedes buscarlos.
## Cursos en Canvas
Tenemos dos cursos disponibles en español en Canvas: las etiquetas de los pesticidas y la exposición a los pesticidas. Estés cursos están disponibles para unidades de educación continua (CEUs). Estos cursos tienen un valor de $25. Esperamos añadir dos más antes del fin de ano. Además, tenemos tres cursos de matematicas libre de costo y en inglés. En estos, puedes practicar problemas matemáticos en preparación a tu examen.
Página principal de CANVAS con los cursos en inglés y español
## Manuales para Estudiar
Si necesitas estudiar para tu certificación, y prefieres a leer en español, hay dos manueles. Uno es para la categoría privada:
"Control de Plagas Agrícolas para Aplicadores Privados". Y el otro es el manual medular de los conceptos básicos: "Aplicación Correcta de Plaguicidas". Esperamos que estén disponibles en la librería UF/IFAS para el 2023.
Una página modelo del manual privado.
## UF/IFAS EDIS
Este es una plataforma en línea de artículos variados por temas incluyendo pesticidas. Aquí es el lugar ideal para obtener información sobre los pesticidas y su aplicación. Por el momento,
Todos de los exámenes están disponibles en línea en inglés, los cuales puedes tomar en la oficina de un agente de extensión o a través del Internet en su casa. Con solo ir a nuestra página de examen de pesticidas, solicitas el examen y recibes tu voucher. En este momento, no podemos ofrecer exámenes en español.
## Exámenes en Línea
Todos de los exámenes están disponibles en línea en inglés, los cuales puedes tomar en la oficina de un agente de extensión o a través del Internet en su casa. Con solo ir a nuestra página de examen de pesticidas, solicitas el examen y recibes tu voucher. En este momento, no podemos ofrecer exámenes en español.
Aqui es la pagina donde aplica y programara su examen
## Resumen
La Oficina de Información de Pesticidas (PIO) a UF/IFAS tenemos respuestas y recursos. Tenemos cursos en Canvas, manuales privados y medulares, artículos de pesticidas, y exámenes en línea en inglés. En el futuro, esamamos a ofrecer los exámenes en español. Además, si tienes trabajo en agricultura, puedes buscar en PERC información adicional sobre la ley de protección al trabajador para pesticidas agrícolas. Para más preguntas, puedes llamar nuestras oficinas o enviar un correo electrónico.
## Otros Recursos
EDIS : https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/entity/topic/spa\_pesticides
PERC : https://pesticideresources.org
Canvas : https://ifas-pes.catalog.instructure.com
1
by Entomology Emily
Posted: September 29, 2022
Category: 4-H & Youth
Tags: Emily Kraus, Pesticide Information Office, Pesticide Safety,
Spanish Language
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- What's The Deal With EPA Funding?
- No Tricks Just Treats This Halloween
- Pesticides And Florida Lakes
- EPA Endangered Species Act Workplan |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/weaning-and-management-of-weanling-horses.html | Weaning and Management of Weanling Horses - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Kris Hiney"
] | 2020-01-09 | [] | OK | ## Weaning and Management of Weaning Horses
Published Sep. 2020 |
Id: AFS-3978
By Kris Hiney
Print-friendly PDF (/factsheets/print- publications/afs/weaning-andmanagement-of-weanlng-horsesafs-3978.pdf)
JUMP TO:
Options for Feeding the Foal / Creep Feeder Design / Creep Rations / Weaning Systems / Post-weaning Care / Feeds and Feeding / Housing and Exercise / Summary / References
Young, weaned horses below the age of one year are called weanlings. During this time of life, the foals have been separated from their dams, are rapidly growing and receiving training and management practices that have life-long effects. This Fact Sheet provides recommendations on preparing the foal to be weaned, weaning methods and care and management of the weaning horse. More information on growing horses can be found in Extension Fact Sheets ANSI- (/fact-sheets/foaling-management-and-care-of3985the-nursing-foa.html).
, "Foaling Management and Care of the Nursing Foal" and ANSI- (/fact-sheets/managing-young-horses-for- sound-growth.html)
## Preweaning Care
In free-roaming or feral horses, foals are naturally weaned around eight to nine months of age, while most management systems will wean foals between 4 months and 6 months of age. Foals will spend the first 4 months to 5 months by their dam's side, receiving nutrition from the mare's milk. The foal's nutritional requirement is met solely from the mare's milk for the first several months. As the foal becomes larger, their nutrient needs exceed the nutrients available from the mare's milk. Foals will begin eating small amounts of grain within weeks after birth. If given access to grain, most will consume substantial amounts by two to three months of age. Most foals will readily eat from the dam's trough; however, to ensure access, many farms use creep feeders. Creep feeding, supplying a separate feed source to nursing foals, is especially important on farms that wean later than four months of age. By this age, the foal's nutritional needs exceed what is available from their dam's milk. In addition to the benefit of the added nutrition of creep feeding while still nursing, foals accustomed to eating grain will likely continue to eat through the weaning process and be less stressed during weaning.
## Options for Feeding the Foa l
Supplying the correct nutrients to the growing foal can be accomplished through a variety of options. Foals can be fed in a stall with a mare using commercial feeders. These feed-ers have adjustable slotted bars that allow the foal's nose to fit through the feeder, but not the mares. Foals can be briefly separated from the mare while both eat their concentrate ration, but should remain in close proximity and visual contact. Foals also will eat out of the same feeder or trough as the mare. If allowing the foal to simply eat with the mare, it is important to ensure its nutrient needs are being met. Finally, creep feeders can be built in the environment that allow access to only the foal.
## Creep Feeder Design
Cree p feeders should be designed to allow for easy, safe entry and exit of foals while restricting access of mares to the creep feed. The height and width (around 4 feet tall and 2 feet wide for most light horse breeds) of the opening must restrict the entrance of mares to the feed source. Mares may spend large amounts of time trying to enter creep feeders, so sturdiness of construction is important. Some mares may be quite determined to reach the feed, and will even crawl through an opening, requiring manual extraction. The mare should not be able to reach feed by protruding their head and neck over or through openings, thus defeating the purpose of a creep feeder.
As foals characteristically will eat together, feeders must be large enough to accommodate several foals at one time. A 10foot X 10-foot area should be sufficient for one or two foals; however, it might be too small or a larger number foals. Foals must be able to turn around easily while inside the feeder. Feeders that are too corninning may increase food stress and injury. Restricting visual contact to mares while the foals are inside the feeder may restrict feeder usage and increase foal injury. Also, multiple entry and exit points will reduce the chance that foals will become panicky because they did not have quick access to an exit.
Feed offered to supply only a 24-hour ration will reduce feed spoilage/wastage, and also minimize health risks associated with mares breaking into the feeder. Feeders must be cleaned routinely and soundness of construction checked.
Many types of creep feeders are available and the choice will depend on facility design, number of horses etc.
Stall feeders for foals are designed so that only the foals nose fits between the spacing bars, not the mares. Spaces between bars can typically be adjusted.
To encourage use, the location of the feeder should be near the mare's feeding area, a water source or other areas visited frequently by mares and foals. This is especially important in large pastures.
At first, foals may need to be shown how to enter a feeder. One method for teaching foals is to place two or three inside for a few minutes and show them the feed. Usually, once foals identify the feed source with the creep feeder, they readily enter and exit without problems. Also, this practice will make "teachers" for the other foals.
Foals generally eat small amounts very frequently. Intake of creep feed varies greatly between foals, and from one day to the next with the same foal. Foals may consume 1 pound to 5 pounds of creep feed per day. Providing smaller allotments during the day, such as when mares are fed, is more desirable than supplying large single feedings. Even though the capacity and appetite of foals of this age guards against overfeeding, large amounts left in creep feeders increase the chance of spoilage and desire of mares to gain access. Feed should be checked at least once daily and any wet or moldy feed should be replaced.
Creeep feeds must contain a balanced amount of energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. Many commercially developed rations designed for weanlings will contain appropriate nutrient densities to be used also as a creep feed. A typical creep feed will supply approximately 1.4 Megacalories of digestible energy per pound (Mcal DE/lb) of feed. Creep feeds should contain 14% to 16% crude protein, about 0.8% calcium and 0.5% phosphorus to ensure a correct balance with this energy concentration. Commercially developed mixes will also contain additional minerals and vitamins.
The feed should be highly palatable and coarsely processed to enhance digestion; e.g. pelleted, extruded, rolled or crimped oats and cracked or steam-flaked corn. Pelleted and extruded creep feeds have the advantage of reducing the amount of sorting of individual ingredients.
## Management and Health Programs
Following separation, the foal usually enters into increased contact with human handlers, with an increased need for behaviors that promote safety for the foal and human. The foal should be taught to accept basic handling and be comfortable and relaxed around humans before weaning. Haltering, brushing and leading the foal while still on the side of the mare will be helpful for later training.
Because weaning can be very stressful, the foal should be in good health before being separated from its dam. Several vaccinations are recommended to begin between 3 months to 6 months of age. For specific needs to be met, vaccination and deworming schedules need the supervision of a veterinarian that is familiar with your farm practices and location.
## Weaning Systems
## Time of Weaning
The choice of age for weaning foals depends on factors such as the health status of the mare and foal, temperament of the mare, the environment into which the foal will be weaned, maturity of the foal at a given age and the level of management on a given farm. If necessary, foals can be weaned as early as a few days post birth; however, the usual age for weaning is between 4 months and 6 months. Newborn foals rely on the mare for nutrition, protection and security. As such, foals weaned at extremely young ages require intense nutritional and behavioral management, and may not develop some of the natural behaviors associated with horses. By 4 months of age, however, the foal should be eating freely and becoming less dependent on its dam for protection and emotional sup-port. Weaning before this age may increase weaning stress, especially if environmental conditions are harsh, the foal is not eating grain or the foal is heavily
dependent on the mare. Prolonging weaning until 6 months may result in a more robust foal with less social disturbance than foals weaned at an earlier age.
Many breeders prefer to separate a mare with adverse disposition or vices from her foal as soon as advisable. Behavioral tendencies in mares often are repeated in their offspring, however it is difficult to interpret whether this is a result of shared genetics or the environment the mare created for the foal. Some behavior patterns can be learned from the mare and with an earlier separation, the mare's behavior may have less influence on the foal's behavior. Conversely, calm mares that interact readily with humans tend to create foals with similar behavior patterns in their offspring. There are also substantial differences between individuals in the strength of the mare/foal bond, which may be necessary to consider in terms of time and method of weaning.
## Weaning System
There are a variety of weaning methods utilized in the horse industry. The management level of the breeding farm, the condition and temperament of the mare and foal, facilities and the number of foals to be weaned during a given period of time will ultimately affect decisions on how foals are weaned. While long-term studies on different weaning methods and their effects on subsequent growth and development have not yet been performed, many studies have reported on the short-term behavioral and physiological response to weaning methods. Minimizing stress is critical, as stressed foals may be immunocompromised during this period and more susceptible to gastrointestinal and respiratory pathogens. Behavioral indicators of stress are increased vocalization, movement and loss of appetite. Physiological indicators such as increased heart rate and cortisol concentrations also accompany the stress of weaning.
Regardless of method, foals weaned together and those consuming feed prior to weaning will have less weaning stress.Weaning systems range from an abrupt separation in
which the foal and mare are separated immediately from all contact (sight, sound, smell) to a more progressive separation. Com-plete, abrupt separation usually involves moving the mare to another turnout area, or moving the foal into confinement and separated completely from any type of mare contact. If using this method, it is best to not isolate the foal entirely. Foals weaned individually exhibit a higher level of proliferation of white blood cells than foals weaned in pairs. Foals weaned by complete, abrupt separation may have more weaning stress than foals weaned with progressive separation in which the foal and mare are allowed a period of time with visual, auditory (sound) and olfactory (smell) contact before complete removal. Instead of immediately removing the mare from all contact, a mare and foal are separated by being placed in enclosures with a common side. Once separated, the foal and mare are not allowed contact that facilitates nursing; however, fences or stall partitions allow for visual contact. The presence of the mare in an adjoining enclosure allows the foal to retain the security and comfort of its dam during the first several days after separation even though nursing is restricted. After being housed in an adjoining area for several days to a week, the mare and foal should be moved completely away from one another. Alternative methods will allow for more contact with peers, or remain in a more stable social environment. One of the best ways of lessening weaning stress is to maintain familiar surroundings by leaving the foal in the same area it occupied previously and by weaning with other foals like size and age. This can be accomplished by simply removing the dam of the oldest foals first, leaving the foal in its familiar environment with the other dams and foals. The presence of other tolerant adults also may lesson the stress of weaning. Foals housed with unrelated adults also show less stress (lower cortisol and vocalization) and fewer behavioral abnormalities (increased aggression) than foals weaned with only their peers. Presumably, this mimics a more natural weaning system than abrupt weaning into a young horse only group. For example, paired weaned foals may exhibit more inter-aggressive behaviors than foals weaned in their stable social groups in familiar environments. It is not advised to
introduce weaning through short-term mare/foa separation, because it results in no improvement in behavior upon weaning, and seems to increase the mare's maternal behavior upon return to the foal. In fact, it has been suggested to sensitize the stress response to separation.
Regardless of system, foals should be watched closely when weaned, especially the first 12 hours to 24 hours. Also, facility construction and design must emphasize safety. Any protrusions, such as feed troughs, can readily result in injury of nervous foals. Any opening larger than a foal's hoof has the potential for trapping the leg of a foal.
## Stereotypes
Stereotypies are patterns of behavior that occur repetitively with no apparent function, typically in response to stress. Development of abnormal behaviors also may occur during weaning. These may include oral stereotypies such as cribbing. The stress of weaning combined to a shift to a high grain diet fed at infrequent intervals can result in increased acidity of the stomach. Foals that demonstrate cribbing behavior have a higher degree of inflammation and ulceration of the stomach. It is therefore recommended to not only supply forage throughout the day for the weaning to allow continual eating patterns, but to try and divide the concentrate potion of the diet into more frequent feedings. In addition, foals weaned in groups in a pasture were found to develop less stereotypes over time than foals weaned in stalls or barns, whether singly or in pairs. Despite the method chosen for weaning, it is important that the foal is already accustomed to its diet prior to weaning.
## Mare Care During Weaning
Most mares calm down more quickly than their foal, especially mares who have foaled in past years. The time required for her to resume normal behavior may vary from a few hours to several days.
If the mare still has significant milk production, the manager should decrease grain intake and increase exercise. A small amount may periodically be mild out by hand if the udder becomes very tight, but this practice is discouraged unless absolutely necessary. If the udder is still tight four days after weaning and the mare's temperature rises significantly, or other indications warrant it, the milk should be checked for the presence of mastitis (infection) and appropriate therapy instituted. Veterinarian assistance is recommended.
## Post-weaning Care
## Management and Health Care
Hoof care should include periodic trimmings and inspection for cracks, bruises and abscesses. The frequency of trimming will be influenced by the conformation of the foal, the normal wear of hooves, exercise and housing. One advantage to pasturing weanlings is that continual access to exercise may benefit normal hoof growth and wear. Stalled weanlings probably will need more intensive and frequent hoof care.
Handling practices will vary with the use of weanlings. Weanlings that are shown in halter classes or fitted for sales will receive daily handling and training. Brushing and other normal cleaning routines not only help the general health status of the weanling, they also serve to gentle and train the weaning to accept handlers. Those weanlings housed in pastures that do not receive the daily care of stalled weanlings should be periodically handled, brushed and led. These handling sessions will better prepare weanlings for when they receive ground training and breaking to saddle in subsequent years.
Commonly recommended vaccinations include tetanus, sleeping sickness, rhinophneumonitis, influenza, rabies, West Nile and strangles. Deworming products are specific to types of worm infestation, and frequency of administration is influenced by product efficacy, reinfestation rates and environmental conditions. Vaccination and deworming
schedules will be influenced by your locale and management practices, so consultation with a veterinarian is recommended.
## Feeds and Feeding
Generally, 50% to 60% of mature weight and 80% to 90% of wither height is reached by 12 months of age. The exact body condition and rate of gain needed to promote sound growth of muscle and bone is debatable and perhaps somewhat flexible. Individual differences in genetic makeup create so much variation that general recommendations are limited in scope and accuracy.
Generally, weanlings should be fed individually at rates to maintain a moderate body condition. Weanlings expected to mature at 1,100 to 1,200 pounds should gain between 1.25 to 2.0 pounds a day. Most weanlings will consume between 1.5 and 2.0 pounds of grain per 100 pounds of body weight per day; and 0.5 to 1.0 pound of forage per 100 pounds of body weight per day to meet their needs for growth in moderate conditions.
Extremes in body condition should be avoided. Rations should be reduced when large amounts of body fat are deposited, and increased if the ribs or other bony structures become apparent. Also, weanlings fed to grow at consistent rates will have less structural problems, when compared to those restricted in growth for several months, then fed to gain rapidly.
There are numerous grain mixes available that have been formulated to contain the proper balance of protein, minerals and vitamins to energy for weaning horse needs. This balance ensures adequate amounts of these nutrients at different energy intakes and rate of growths. Most weanling rations will have between 1.2 and 1.3 Megacalories of digestible energy per pound. To ensure adequate protein and minerals, these rations (forages and grain combined) should contain 13% to 15% crude protein, 0.6% calcium and 0.45% phosphorous. The concentration of nutrients in the grain mix will depend on the
type and level of hay or pasture forage. To ensure adequate nutrient intake with different forages, grain mixes formulated for weanlings typically will contain a minimum of 14% crude protein, 0.7% calcium and 0.5% phosphorus.
The most common problems with nutrition of growing horses are from over- or under-feeding, making sharp increases in rates of gain by sudden changes in amounts of feed or by feeding unbalanced rations. Unbalanced rations commonly occur when grains are added to commercially formulated mixes on-site, or feeding grains without vitamin or mineral supplementation.
## Housing and Exercise
Many weaning horses are turned out in pastures with other similarly aged horses. There are several advantages to managing weanlings together in a pasture as compared to housing in stalls. Weanlings will interact with one another, and the behavior the weaning exhibits later in life may be more characteristic of expected behaviors in all horses as compared to weanlings housed separately. The need for forced exercise is lessened, and research suggests that weanlings managed extensively in pastures will have less frequency of bone growth problems. This is most likely due to a combination of factors related to free access to exercise and nutrients in the pasture forage. Continuous, free access to exercise may benefit bone strength and hoof formation. Also, horses may be managed for slower growth rates in pastures.
Those showing or marketing young horses require horses to be managed and housed individually. Stalled horses generally receive more individual care, regulated feed intake and hair can be kept in better condition. Exercise is important, as stalling without forced exercise can inhibit development of bone strength in weanings. Single exercise bouts should be short in duration and apply enough stress to stimulate sound muscle and bone growth without over-exertion.
Successful forced exercise programs for stalled weanlings have incorporated a number of practices: timed turnouts with other growing horses, ponying, longing and use of mechanical devices, such as horse walkers and treadmill s. One practical management method has been to follow shortduration, controlled exercise bouts with longer-duration, freeaccess turnouts. Exercise programs must be individualized
and adjusted with the development of each horse. Exercise level and intensity should begin conservatively and increased as positive responses are achieved. Evidence of mild soreness or joint swelling must be recognized before becoming severe and the subsequent level of exercise reduced until the horse responds more favorably.
## Summary
- 1. In most management systems, foals are weaned between four and six months of age.
- 2. Weanlings require a more nutrient-dense diet and should be fed accordingly.
- 3. Creep feeders must only allow access by the foal, be safe, sturdy and checked often.
- 4. If possible, wean foals gradually or in groups with their peers in familiar environments.
- 5. Ensure foals are eating their weaning ration prior to separation.
- 6. Monitor health status, as the stress of weaning can result in an immunocompromised foal.
## Doforonces
- K. Malinowski, N.A. Haliquist, L. Helyar, A.R. Sherman, C.G. Scanes. Effect of different separation protocols between
- mares and foals on plasma cortisol and cell-mediated immune response. J Equine Vet Sci , 10 (5) (1990), pp. 363-368
HenryS. Zanella AJ, Sankey, C, Richard Yris, MA, Marko A and Hausberger M. Adults may be used to alleviate weaning stress in domestic foals ( Equus caballus ). Physiology and Behavior .
106(4): 428-438.
Waran, N.K.N. Clark, M. Farnworth. The effects of weaning on the domestic horse ( Equus Caballus ) Applied Animal Behavior Science . 110 (1-2): 42-57
## Kris Hiney
## Extension Equine Specialist
Print-friendly PDF ( /factsheets/print-seasheets/weaning-andmanagement-of-weaning-horsesafs-3978.pdf)
Topics: Horses ( /topics/plants-and-animals/livestock/horses/) Livestock ( /topics/plants-and-animals/livestock/)
## Was this information helpful?
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NO |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/osprey/ | Osprey | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Deforrest R. Allgood",
"Mark D. Smith"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Forestry",
"Wildlife",
"Birds of Prey"
] | AL | ## Osprey
*This is an excerpt from Common Birds of Prey of Alabama, ANR - 1386.
Feeding exclusively on fish, ospreys are usually found along coasts, lakes, and other large bodies of open water. At an average weight of 3.5 pounds, the osprey is a relatively large raptor. Adult ospreys have a dark brown back and wings with a white crow, forehead, and throat along with a characteristic dark eye-line running from the beak to the name of the neck. Ospreys were one of the species hardest hit by the use of DDT, experiencing sharp population declines during the 1950s through the 1970s. However, their numbers have recovered in most areas since the use of DDT discontinued.
Read here to learn more about common birds of prey of Alabama.(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/bird-watching/common-birds-of prey-of-alabama/)
Download a PDF of Common Birds of Prey of Alabama.ANR - 1386.(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR1386.BirdsofPrey\_092120L\_A.pdf)
■ Read More
Read More
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/common-birds-of-prey-of-alabama/)
Common Birds of Prey of Alabama (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/common-birdsof-prey-of-alabama/)
Sep 20, 2018
## Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/soil-ph-and-buffer-index.html | Soil pH and Buffer Index - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Hailin Zhang"
] | 2017-01-02 | [] | OK | ## Soil pH and Buffer Index
Published Feb. 2017 |
Id: PSS-2229
By Hailin Zhang
Print-friendly PDF (/fact sheets/print-publications/pss/soil ph-and-buffer-index-pss-2229.pdf)
```
JUMP TO: High pH / Low pH /
How to Use the Buffer Index
```
The purpose of this fact sheet is to explain the general concept of soil pH and Buffer Index and to show how these soil test values are used in making Aglime recommendations. Soil pH is a very important soil chemical property because it strongly influences availability of plant nutrients in the soil and can have a drastic effect on crop production.
Crops vary in their tolerance, or ability to grow, in soil at very high and very low pH (see Table 1). A soil pH of 7.0 is neutral and is used as a reference to categorize soils as acidic (pH less than 7.0) or basic (pH above 7.0). For the production of most crops a slightly acid soil, about pH 6.5, is most desirable.
| | pH Range |
|----------------------------------------------------------------|------------|
| Legumes | |
| Cowpeas, Crimson Clover, Soybeans, and Vetch | |
| Aliske, Red and White, (Ladino) Clovers, and Arrowleaf Clover | |
Alfalfa and Sweet Clover
6.3-7.5
Non-Legumes
Fescue and Weeping Lovegrass
4.5-7.0
Buckwheat
5.0-6.5
Sorghum, Sudan and Wheat
5.5-7.0
Bermuda
5.7-7.0
Barley
6.3-7.0
## High pH
The soil pH is seldom too high (basic or alkaline) to interfere with crop production. However, when crop production declines due to high soil pH, it is usually because the pH is 8.5 or higher and water movement into the soil is drastically reduced. This problem can be corrected if the soil has good internal drainage, or it can be provided for, and the alkali salts such as sodium can be leached out. The leaching will only be possible after the required amount of gypsum has been applied. For more information on alkali soils see Fact Sheet PSS- (fact-sheets/reclaiming-slick-spots-and-salty- soils.html )
, "Reclaiming Slick-Spots and Salty Soils."
Well-drained, productive soils under good management will slowly become acidic because acidity is a natural result of high crop production. In addition, the amount of rainfall, soil
texture and reserve of basic minerals in the soil will influence the time required for neutral and basic soils to become acidic.. It will take some of our productive Oklahoma panhandle soils more than 100 years to become acidic; while some soils in northcentral Oklahoma have become acidic in just the last 20 to 30 years. Irrigated soils adjust with time to the pH of the irrigation water. Extremely acid soils may not be productive because of the presence of increased amounts of toxic elements such as aluminum and manganese.
## The Soil Reservoir
The soil is often regarded as a reservoir of nutrients and water for plant growth. In addition, the soil solids are a reservoir of basic or acidic material, which regulates soil pH. It is this reservoir feature of soils that makes them so resistant to rapid change in spite of large annual additions of fertilizer materials and mineral removals by crop production. The buffer capacity of soils is the capacity of soils to resist change. In relation to soil pH, the soil Buffer Index is a measure of the soil reservoir of basic material, which will serve to resist change in soil pH. By comparison, soil pH measures the current acid or basic condition of the soil, as the plant experiences it, and provides no information about the soil acid or basic reservoir. The relationship between these two soil properties, soil texture and liming, is illustrated in Figures 1 and 2.
Figure 1 . The relationship of basic materials in soil solids to pH of the soil.
## Buffering
Figure 1 shows that soil pH is related to the level of bases (calcium, magnesium, potassium, etc.) or basic materials in the soil water. As crops remove bases from soil water in the reservoir on the right, bases from the large reservoir of soil solids on the left move to the soil solution and replenish the supply. Because of this relationship and the large reserve of bases from soil solids, the pH does not change much from month to month or even year to year. Also, since the large reservoir on the left is shaped like a pyramid, pH can be changed more easily by liming at pH near 6 than in the very acid pH 4.5 to 5.5 range.
From these diagrams it is easy to understand why it takes much more lime to raise the pH of a clayey soil with its large reservoir than it does for a sandy soil and its small reservoir. Also, because the reservoir of sandy soil is small, if acidifying conditions are equal sandy soil will tend to become acid more rapidly and need to be limed more frequently than clayey soil. The soils must each be limed. The amount of lime required will depend on the size of the large reservoirs and how empty they are of bases.
## The Soil Test
Buffer Index (BI) measured in the laboratory, as a part of the Oklahoma State University soil test, is an indirect estimate of the soil reservoir size for storing basic material. Because the
test involves adding basic (lime-like) material to soils of pH less than 6.5 and then measuring pH again, the BI pH is larger when the reservoir is small. The two soils illustrated in Figure 2
need to be limed. The Pond Creek Silt Loam soil would have a BI value of about 6.2. About 4.2 tons of ECCE lime would be required to raise the soil pH to 6.8. The sandy soil, having the
| over 7.1 | none | none |
|------------|--------|--------|
| 7.1 | 0.5 | none |
| 7 | 0.7 | none |
| Buffer Index | Lime Required (pH 6.8) | Lime Required (pH 6.4) |
|----------------|--------------------------|--------------------------|
| 6.9 | 1 | none |
| 6.8 | 1.2 | 0.7 |
| 6.7 | 1.4 | 1.2 |
| 6.6 | 1.9 | 1.7 |
| 6.5 | 2.5 | 2.2 |
| 6.4 | 3.1 | 2.7 |
| 6.3 | 3.7 | 3.2 |
| 6.2 | 4.2 | 3.7 |
* Effective calcium carbonate equivalent guaranteed by lime vendor.
Tons material required = Tons ECCE required ±% ECCE of the lime x 100
## How to Use the Buffer Index
Considering a soil test result of pH 5.8 and Buffer Index 6.8, where establishment of alfalfa is intended the following steps are taken to determine lime requirement.
First, the soil test pH of 5.8 is compared to the preferred pH for alfalfa in Table 1. Since the soil pH 5.8 is below the lowest pH in the preferred range, lime must be added to raise the pH to the desired level.
The amount of lime required is determined from Table 2 by locating the Buffer Index value of 6.8 in the left hand column and matching it to the number directly across from it (dashed
line) under the middle column of numbers. In this case, 1.2 tons of ECCE lime would be required.
If the intended crop were wheat instead of alfalfa, no lime would be required this year because Table 1 shows that pH 5.8 is satisfactory for wheat production. Since the pH is satisfactory for wheat, the lime requirement would not be reported, even though the Buffer Index was measured. It would be important to regularly test this soil, especially if it were sandy, so lime could be applied before the soil became seriously acid (below pH 5.0) for wheat production, especially grazing is considered.
For situations where the soil has become extremely acid, as illustrated in Figure 2, for wheat production it is possible to apply less than the total lime required to raise the soil pH to 6.8. For example, of the 4.2 tons total required to raise the pH of the Pond Creek soil to 6.8, about 1.2 tons would bring the pH out of the danger zone and allow near normal production for three to five years (see OSU Fact Sheet PSS-/fact-sheets/managing-acid-soils-for-wheat2240production.html) 'Managing Acid Soils for Wheat Production'). With this approach soil pH should be closely monitored and more lime should be planned in the next year or two.
Remember, Buffer Index is only used as a guide for how much lime should be added to an acid soil when it is necessary to raise soil pH.
Hailin Zhang
Director, Soil, Water and Forage Analytical Laboratory
Print-friendly PDF /( fact sheets/print-publications/pss/soilph-and-buffer-index-pss-2229.pdf)
Topics:
Soil (/topics/environment-and-natural-resources/soil/)
## Was this information helpful?
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https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FP253 | Hibiscus coccineus Scarlet Rosemallow, Texas Star Hibiscus, Swamp Hibiscus | University of Florida | [
"Edward F. Gilman",
"Ryan W. Klein",
"Gail Hansen"
] | 2024-02-11 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Hibiscus coccineus Scarlet Rosemallow, Texas Star Hibiscus, Swamp Hibiscus
Edward F. Gilman, Ryan W. Klein, and Gail Hansen
## Introduction
The scarlet rosemary is a narrow, upright, herbaceous perennial that can reach a height of 4 to 8 feet. The 5-to 6-inch-long leaves of this plant are palmately lobed into 3, 5, or 7 parts These finger-like lobes are slender and have jagged teeth along their margins. Deep red flowers that are 5 to 6 inches wide appear in mid to late summer. These flowers are funnel form and occur on long axillary peduncles. There are 10 or more involueral bracts present on the flower. They are curved upward and are much shorter than the calyx lobes.
## General Information
Scientific name: Hibiscus coccinus
Pronunciation: hye-BISS\_kuss\_kock-SIN\_ce-use
Common name(s): scarlet rosemary, Texas star hibiscus, swamp hibiscus
Family:
Malvaceae
Plant type: perennial; herbacoeus
USDA hardiness zones 8 through 10 (Figure 3)
Planting month for zone 8: year-round
Planting month for zone 9: year-round
Planting month for zone 10 and 11: year-round
Origin: native to Florida
Invasive potential: not known to be invasive
Uses: accent; border; mass planting; attracts butterflies; attracts hummingbirds
Availability: somewhat available, may have to go out of the region to find the plant
| Height: 4 to 8 feet | |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------|----|
| Spread: 3 to 4 feet | |
| Plant habit: upright | |
| Plant density: open | |
| Growth rate: fast | |
| Texture: fine | |
| Foliage | |
| Leaf arrangement: alternate | |
| Leaf type: simple | |
| Leaf margin: lobed; serrate | |
| Leaf shape: star-shaped | |
| Leaf venation: palmate | |
| Leaf type and persistence: deciduous | |
| Leaf blade length: 4 to 8 inches | |
| Leaf color: green | |
| Fall color: no fall color change | |
| Fall characteristic: not showy | |
| Flower | |
| Flower color: red | |
| Flower characteristic: summer flowering | |
| Fruit | |
| Fruit shape: elongated | |
| Fruit length: 1/2 to 1 inch | |
| Fruit cover: dry or hard | |
| Fruit color: unknown | |
| Fruit characteristic: inconspicuous and not showy | |
| Trunk and Branches | |
| Trunk/bark/branches: typically, multi-trunked or clumping stems | |
| Current year stem/twig color: reddish | |
| Current year stem/twig thickness: very thick | |
| Culture | |
| Light requirement: plant grows in part shade/part sun | |
| Soil tolerances: extended flooding; acidic; sand; lam; clay | |
Drought tolerance: moderate
Soil salt tolerances: poor
Plant spacing: 24 to 36 inches
## Other
Roots: not applicable
Winter interest: no special winter interest
Outstanding plant: plant has outstanding ornamental features and could be planted more
Pest resistance: very sensitive to one or more pests or diseases which can affect plant health or aesthetics
## Use and Management
The scarlet rosemallow is frequently used as a specimen and can be placed in a border. It may also be utilized around the edge of a pond or along a stream since this type of site is similar to their native Georgia and Florida habitat.
Although the scarlet rosemallow is native to wetland area it is tolerant of somewhat drier soils. This plant requires a full sun or partial shade location in the landscape. Flowering and growth in the shade are poor.
Cultivars include: Lord Baltimore, deep red flowers.
Hibiscus coccincus can be propagated by seed or division.
## Pest and Diseases
The scarlet rosemary may be occasionally bothered by a stalk borer. Grasshoppers also enjoy chewing the foliage and flower buds. This can spoil the flower display. Be prepared to provide control for this pest. I usually squash them between my hands in the evening as a means of mechanical control.
Publication #/FPS-253
Release Date:
February 12, 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-fp253-1999
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprise
Contacts: Claire Lewis Wendy Wilher
View PDF
About this Publication
This document is FPS-253, one of a series of the Department of Environmental Horticulture, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date October 1999. Revised October 2023. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.uf.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Edward F. Gilman, professor emeritus; Ryan W. Klein, assistant professor, arboriculture; and Gail Hansen, professor, sustainable landscape design; Department of Environmental Horticulture, UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 326611.
Related Pages
Shrubs Fact Sheets
403 Publication(s) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/producing-conventional-tobacco-transplants-in-greenhouses-water-quality | Producing Conventional Tobacco Transplants in Greenhouses—Water Quality | North Carolina State University | [
"Matthew Vann",
"Michelle McGinnis",
"Kristin Hicks"
] | null | [
"Tobacco",
"Tobacco Production",
"Tobacco Greenhouse",
"Greenhouse"
] | NC | Producing Conventional Tobacco Transplants in Greenhouses-Water Quality
North Carolina tobacco growers have produced tobacco transplants in greenhouses since the early 1990s. The controlled environment of the greenhouse allows for a wider window of seeding dates and increases seed germination, leading to high plant uniformity when compared to outdoor plant beds. Management is also generally easier and labor costs are much lower. This publication discusses the sources and water chemistry essential to economically producing uniform, high-quality transplants.
Water quality is an important aspect of greenhouse transplant production. Regardless of the source, all water contains some impurities, typically consisting of elements and chemical compounds such as sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, boron, and bicarbonate. Some of these substances (boron, for example) can benefit plant growth when present in small quantities. Others, such as sodium and chloride, can be detrimental in large quantities. Careful selection of the water source, evaluation of its chemical components through water analysis, and corrective measures when necessary are essential to successful transplant production.
## Water Source
An on-site well is the most desirable water source. Water from shallow wells is generally of acceptable quality; water from deep wells may be of poor quality in certain areas of the state. Municipal water that is treated and filtered varies in usability for transplant production, depending on the area of the state and the source of the water. Prior to selecting a municipal water source, producers are encouraged to check with municipalities to ensure that chloride (Cl)-content is not an issue.
Surface water is much more likely than well water to contain excessive levels of iron (Fe), which can lead to iron toxicity in seedlings. Surface water is also more likely to contain pathogens that cause tobacco diseases; black shank has been reported on seedlings when pond and river water are used. Surface water may also contain harmful herbicides that have entered the water in surface runoff from nearby agricultural fields. For these reasons, avoid using surface water, if possible.
## Water Sampling
Transplant production can be successful using water containing a wide range of chemistry if a sample is analyzed and corrective action is taken before seeding. The North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services (NCDA&CS) analyzes water samples at a moderate cost; for more information on water analysis and fees, visit the Agronomic Services web page. Forms and information on collecting and submitting samples are available from local N.C. Cooperative
Extension centers and the NCDA&CS website. When the analysis is completed, you will receive a detailed report with a recommendation on the suitability of the water for transplant production and any corrective action that may be necessary.
A 16-ounce water sample from each potential water source is needed for analysis. A clean, plastic soft-drink bottle with a screw-on cap makes an excellent sample container. Allow the water to run for several minutes before collecting the sample (long enough to clear standing water from the pipes). Afterward, rinse the bottle several times using the water to be tested. Do not wash bottle with soap. For recently constructed wells, let the water run at least 30 minutes to flush the system of impurities from new piping and water purification treatments that might lead to an incorrect analysis.
| Parameter | Source Water | Nutrient Solution | | | | | | | | |
|------------------------------|----------------------|----------------------|-------------|----------|--------------|-------------------------------|-----|-----|----|----|
| Nitrogen (N) | 0-3 ppm | 100-150 ppm | | | | | | | | |
| Phosphorus (P) | 0-5 ppm | 35-50 ppm | | | | | | | | |
| Potassium (K) | 0-10 ppm | 100-150 ppm | | | | | | | | |
| Calcium (Ca) | 20-100 ppm | 40-100 ppm | | | | | | | | |
| Magnesium (Mg) | 6-25 ppm | 15-35 ppm | | | | | | | | |
| Sulfur (S) | 0-25 ppm | 15-35 ppm | | | | | | | | |
| Boron (B) | 0-2 ppm | 1-2 ppm | | | | | | | | |
| Chloride (Cl) | 0-70 ppm | < 70 ppm<nl> | Sodium (Na) | 0-70 ppm | < 70 ppm<nl> | Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) | 0-4 | ≤ 4 | | |
| Electrical Conductivity (EC) | 0-75 10 -5 S/cm | 50-100 10 -5 S/cm | | | | | | | | |
| | 0-0.75 mS/cm | 0.50-1.00 mS/cm | | | | | | | | |
| Alkalinity | 0-100 ppm CaCO$_{3}$ | 0-100 ppm CaCO$_{3}$ | | | | | | | | |
| Total Carbonates | 0-2 meq/L | 0-2 meq/L | | | | | | | | |
| pH | 6.0-6.5 | 6.0-6.5 | | | | | | | | |
## Bicarbonate and Alkalinity
Water in North Carolina may be high in carbonates that are usually associated with bicarbonate salts (HCO$\_{3}$-). Coggines 1993 indicated that excessive levels of bicarbonate are very detrimental to seedling growth, as shown in Table 2. Seedlings produced with water containing bicarbonate at concentrations greater than about 2 milliequivalents per liter (mega/L) or 100 parts per million (ppm) CaCO$\_{3}$ are stunted and yellow, and have small, brown root systems. Their leaves are often cupped downward. While HCO$\_{3}$ -is not directly toxic to seedlings, high levels raise the pH of the growing media, which has an impact on nutrient availability. High-bicarbonate water is made suitable for transplant production by adding acid to neutralize some of the bicarbonate. The most common product used for bicarbonate neutralization is sulfuric acid (H SO$\_{4}$), which provides some sulfur for plant use.
| | Carbonate Concentration † | Fresh Weight | Dry Weight |
|--------------------------|-----------------------------|----------------|----------------------------------------------------|
| Total Carbonates (meg/LC | Alkalinity (ppm CaCO$_{3}$) | (grams/plant) | Stem Length (cm/plant) Percentage of Usable Plants |
| 0 | 0 | 6.3 a | 6.3 a 58 a |
| 2 | 100 | 5.6 a | 5.3 b 53 a |
| 6 | 300 | 3.9 b | 2.0 c 17 b |
| 10 | 500 | 0.0 c | 0.0 c 0.0 d 0 c |
## Alkalinity and pH adjustment
Water is acidic, neutral, or basic (alkaline), depending on its chemical composition. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral; pH below 7 and above 7 are acidic and basic/alkaline , respectively.
Alkalinity indicates water's tendency to neutralize acids or resist a drop in pH when acid is added. Carbonates (CO$\_{2}$)$^{2-}$, bicarbonates (HCO$\_{3}$)$^{2-}$, hydroxides (OH$^{+}$) are the major contributors of alkalinity. Alkalinity is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate (CaCO$\_{3}$) equivalency in ppm or total carbonates (TC) as a concentration in meq/L . Alkalinity in ppm of CaCO$\_{3}$ can be converted to TC by this formula:
$$\mathrm { T C \left ( m e g / L \right ) = A l k a l i n t y \left ( p p m \, C a C O _ { 3 } \right ) \times 0. 0 2$$
If enough acid is added to water, the pH is reduced as a result of the neutralization of CO$\_{3}$$^{2-}$, bicarbonate, and OH.
Sulfuric acid is commonly used to neutralize alkalinity. It can be obtained as ordinary battery acid or as 93% reagent-grade acid.
Acid strength is measured in terms of its normality (N). Battery acid is 9.19 N H$\_{2}$SO$\_{4}$. Reagent-grade 93% H$\_{2}$SO$\_{4}$ is much stronger: 34.7 N. Both are frequently used to reduce transplant water acidity. One unit (1 meg/L) of acid neutralizes one unit (1 meg/L) of alkalinity.
CAUTION: Use extreme care when mixing acid and water. The chemical reaction can cause acid to splash into the eyes or onto skin and clothing. ALWAYS ADD THE ACID TO THE WATER, NOT THE REVERSE. Add the acid slowly in very small portions and mix thoroughly before adding more. The reaction generates heat. WEAR SAFETY GOOGLES AND PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. Have a large supply of clean water readily available to flush any area of the body contacted by the acid. Remove clothing if necessary. Do not work alone; have an assistant nearby who can summon medical assistance if necessary.
Formulas are available to compute the amount of acid needed to neutralize a given level of alkalinity (TC) in a volume of water. The NCDA&CS recommends the following formulas to neutralize 80% of the CO$\_{3}$ $^{2-}$.
- 1. For alkalinity expressed as ppm or milligrams per liter (mg/L) of CaCO$\_{3}$:
V = (0.204 × CaCO$\_{3}$) + N
where:
V = fl. oz. of acid to add to 100 gal. of water
N = normality of the acid
CaCO$\_{3}$ = alkalinity expressed as ppm of CaCO$\_{3}$
- 2. For alkalinity expressed as meq/L of TC:
V = 10.2 × TC + N
where:
V = fl. oz. of acid to add to 100 gal. of water
N = normality of the acid
TC = TC concentration in meq/L
Example calculations:
For neutralization with battery acid (9.19N):
= (0.204 × 300) + 9.19 = 6.7 fl. oz. battery acid/100 gal. water
For neutralization with 93% H$\_{2}$SO$\_{4 }$(34.7N):
V = (0.204 × 300) + 34.7 = 18 fl. oz. 93% H$\_{2}$SO$\_{4}$/100 gal. water
- 2. The water source alkalinity is 8 meqL/o of TC per liter. For neutralization with battery acid (9.19N):
V = (10.2 x 8) + 9.19 = 8.9 fl. oz. battery acid/100 gal. of water
For neutralization with 93% H$\_{2}$SO$\_{4}$(34.7N):
V = (10.2 x 8) + 34.7 = 2.4 fl. oz. 93% H$\_{2}$SO$\_{4}$/100 gal. water
## Fertilizatio n and alkali nity
Several fertilizers can provide the essential nutrients in float production systems. Good quality transplants are produced by using 150 ppm nitrogen (N) concentration made from 20-10-20 fertilizer in the float water 7 to 10 days after seeding, followed by an additional 100 ppm of N four weeks later. Plants respond best in alkaline water when at least 75% of the N is in nitrate (NO$\_{3}$ ) form. Nitrogen can be lost through volatility when a large proportion of the N is in urea or ammonium (NH$\_{4}$ $^{+}$) form.
Some fertilizers (such as 20-10-20, 20-20-20, and 21-5-20) are acidic, whereas others are alkaline. When water is marginally alkaline (TC = 2 to 3 meg/L), an acid fertilizer can reduce pH in the nutrient solution. When water is moderately acid (ph 4.0 to 5.0), a basic fertilizer (such as 15-5-15) can be used to raise the pH.
When water is only marginally alkaline (with a TC = 2 to 3 meq/L), be careful not to over-acidify.
Generally, either an acid treatment or an acid-forming fertilizer (not both) is required when alkalin ity is marginally high. A solution sample should be tested a few hours after acid treatment or fertilization to confirm that pH and nutrient concentrations are within the desired ranges.
## Sodium
Tobacco seedlings in float systems are very tolerant of sodium (Na). Coggins 1993 reported that seedling growth was normal at Na concentrations up to 500 ppm. However, Na can alter physical properties of the medium and interfere with calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) uptake if their concentrations are less than the minimum values shown in Table 1. Sodium salts can also accumulate to excessive levels in the root zone, particularly in the upper one third of the cell. A good indicator of the Na hazard of water is the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), which is the proportion of Na to Ca plus Mg. The SAR should always be less than 4.0.
If Na levels are too high, adding Ca and Mg will provide increased competition with Na for plant uptake in both float and overhead-watered systems. When Na levels are high, the media in trays should be kept moist to limit root injury. Ca and Mg can be added to nutrient solutions by using fertilizer with formulas such as 15-5-15 or 16-4-16 or by furnishing a portion of the N using calcium nitrate and adding magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) to the solution. Check the fertilizer bag label to verify the presence of Ca and Mg.
Excessive Na (and Cl) concentrations have also been found in tobacco media analyzed following tray sanitation with bleach-containing (sodium hypochlorite) solutions. In most of these situations, trays were not properly rinsed following sodium hypochlorite Cl' exposure. Avoid Cl' solutions for tray sanitation--use steam when possible.
## Chloride
High levels of Cl i can cause root damage in tobacco. Unlike with Na, adding Ca or Mg will not mitigate the toxic effects of Cl i . Chloride may occur in North Carolina source waters through saltwater intrusion or storm deposition into aquifers and ponds, primarily in the coastal plain. Cl i may also be introduced into municipal water as a sanitation measure. Chloride concentrations in North Carolina source waters are typically less than 10 ppm but have been measured as high as 500 ppm. Levels greater than 70 ppm have the potential to burn roots of seedlings. At levels above 100 ppm, it is advisable to dilute with another water source or use an alternate water source.
An additional source of Cl i in the float system is tray sanitation products. These products are problematic because their residue on tray surfaces contains a high concentration of Cl i . Once wet, Cl i moves from the surface of the tray into the media, where it often accumulates in the root zone. Seedling leaves with excessive Cl i uptake often have a rubbery appearance and high moisture content, and they bruise easily when lightly pressed between your fingers (Figure 1).
## Boron
Boron (B) deficiency causes bud distortion and death. It has been observed on flue-cured and burley seedlings grown in float systems in the piemond and mountains. In all cases, the source water did not contain B and the seedlings were held for an extended period in the greenhouse at very low fertility levels because field conditions were not suitable for transplanting.
If an analysis of the source water indicates inadequate B, use a fertilizer containing a trace level of this element in the nutrient solution. If a fertilizer with B is unavailable, adding no more than 0.25 oz. of Borax or 0.125 oz. of Solubor per 100 gal. of nutrient solution is adequate to prevent a deficiency. Excessive B can be extremely toxic to transplants; therefore, a deficiency must be confirmed prior to supplemental application. See NC State Extension publication AG-439-54, Cold Injury and Boron Deficiency in Tobacco Seedlings , for more information about B nutrition.
## Calcium
Calcium is commonly found in most groundwater sources used for greenhouse production in North Carolina; however, concentrations will vary among growing regions. Most tobacco greenhouse media also contain a reasonable quantity of Ca because of added gypsum (calcium sulfate). When Ca content of source water and growing media is moderate to high, transplant needs are often
satisfied. However, if the source water Ca content is low, you should treat float beds with fertilizer that contains Ca. Common greenhouse fertilizers, such as 16-5-16 and 20-10-20, do not contain Ca; therefore, gypsum should be added to the float water prior to floating trays at a rate of 5 oz./100 gal. of float water.
It is not uncommon to observe Ca deficiency late in the greenhouse season. Deficiency is characterized by deformed bud leaves with a "pinched" leaf tip that may be slightly chlorotic (yellow) to necrotic (brown/black) (Figure 2). In most cases, Ca reserves in the float water and in the growing media have been exhausted because of rapid growth and large plant size, or transplants have simply been in the greenhouse too long. It is also important to recognize that Ca is absorbed by the root tip, so uptake late in the seedling production season also depends on root mass. Factors that limit root growth, such as Pythium and black root rot, will also limit Ca uptake. If you are within about one week of transplanting, don't apply fertilizer. Alternatively, if you are within a few weeks of transplanting, applying gypsum or greenhouse grade calcium nitrate (15.5-0-0) is appropriate. Note that 3.5 oz. of 15.5-0-0 per 100 gal. of float water will provide about 50 ppm Ca and 40 ppm N (as nitrate).
## References
Coggins, T. E. 1993. Effect of Sodium and Bicarbonate on Tobacco Seedling Production in the Greenhouse Float System. Master of Science thesis. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC p. 129.
NCDA&CS. 2013. Solution Analysis for Tobacco Transplant Float Beds . Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services-Agronomic Division.
## Authors
Matthew Vann
Assistant Professor & Tobacco Extension Specialist Crop & Soil Sciences
Michelle McGinnis
Section Chief, Agronomic Division N.C. Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services
Kristin Hicks
Section Chief, Agronomic Division N.C. Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services
Publication date: May 1, 2020 Reviewed/Revised: Feb. 5, 2025 AG-488-03
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN1220 | Spotted Lanternfly Lycorma delicatula (White) (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae) | University of Florida | [
"Taryn B. Griffith",
"Jennifer L. Gillett-Kaufman"
] | 2022-12-13 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | Skip to main content
## Spotted Lanternfly Lycorma delicatula (White) (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae)
Taryn B. Griffith and Jennifer L. Gillett-Kaufman
The Featured Creatures collection provides in-depth profiles of insects, nematodes, arachnids, and other organisms relevant to Florida. These profiles are intended for the use of interested laypersons with some knowledge of biology as well as academic audiences.
## Introduction
Originating from northern China, the spotted lanternfly , Lycoma delicatula (White), is a serious pest due to their high reproductive capacity and large host range. Spotted lanternfly is the approved ESA common name, however these insects are also referred to as the spot clothing wax cicada , or the spotted wax cicada (Figure 1). The spotted lanternfly is not native to the Americas, although it has become established in Pennsylvania (Hao et al. 2016). The first report of the pest was in 2014 in Berks County, PA (Barringer et al. 2015), and an additional report was made in 2018 in Frederick County, VA (Day 2018), as well as Delaware (Murillo 2018). It is unknown how far this infestation is able to spread.
## Distribution
The native range of Lycorma delicatula includes China, India, and Vietnam. It was first reported outside these countries in South Korea in 1932 and has since been abundant there. Scientists have modeled potential distributions in different regions including Australia, America, and Europe. These models help regulatory agencies determine the potential distribution of this insect and establish plans to prevent the pest from spreading into areas where it could thrive (Jung et al. 2017). In the United States., it has currently (July 2018) been found in Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, but its wide host range makes it likely to establish a wider distribution.
## Description and Life Cycle
## Eggs
During the fall, Lycorma delicatulata lay their eggs in an ootheca, or egg casing, which is covered by a brownish gray waxy secretion (Figure 2). The species is unvollotine; however, females lay multiple masses of eggs once per year. The spotted lanternfly overwinters in the egg stage on surfaces like trees with smooth bark, specifically Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven; an introduced tree in the US, native to China), (Dara et al. 2015, Han et al. 2008) or even buildings (Zhai et al. 2014). Although the spotted lanternfly prefers stable and smooth surfaces, any surface with at least approximately 2.5 cm of relatively smooth area will suffice (L. Donovall, personal observation).
The majority of eggs are laid on the lower portions of the tree (Tomisawa et al. 2013); however, eggs were observed 1 to 3 m up the tree and are laid as far up as 13 m on Prunus with rough lower bark (Kim et al. 2011). Eggs have also been observed at a height of as low as 1 cm (L. Donovall and M. Park, personal observation), but laying eggs at breast-height on woody trees with a diameter larger than 15 cm was most frequently observed. In Korea, an average of 3.4 egg masses were laid on each tree; however, the concentrations can be dramatically higher in Pennsylvania, with up to 197 egg masses per tree (Lee et al. 2014).
## Nymphs
All four instars (nymphal growth stages) are mostly black, but the fourth and final instar has a different marking pattern. The first three instars have white spots and the fourth instar has red markings on the body (Figure 3). Early instars are easily knocked off trees by wind (Choi et al. 2012), but they fall less frequently as they develop (Kim et al. 2011). Nymphs aggregate on the host plant to feed, preferring woody stems as they grow older and progressing onto tree trunks and branches as they develop into the fourth instar. When the density of nymphs on a host plant is high, it is more likely that aggressive behavior between nymphs will occur as they compete for the best feeding locations. During these encounters, the residing nymph will raise its forelimbs at the approaching nymph, which will either leave or attempt to mount the residing nymph. If the residing nymph is mounted, it attempts to throw the intruder off. In this scenario, it is most likely for the original nymph to maintain control over its feeding space rather than the new nymph taking control (Choi et al. 2011).
In Korea, eggs hatch in May, with nymphs ascending up the host plant after emerging in the early morning from the operculum, an oblong opening at the end of the ootheca (Han et al. 2008; Anderson et al. 2016). Large groups of nymphs feeding on the same host will cause the affected area to wilt and eventually die (Han et al. 2008).
Adult Lycorma delicatula have light brown forewings dotted with black spots, and the base color darkens along the tips of the wing. The cryptic coloration allows for Lycorma delicatula to blend against the branches of the host plant (Figure 4) (Frantsevich et al. 2008). The hindwings are brightly colored, red with black spots. They also have a white band separating the red from the black tips of their hindwings. Females are slightly larger than males, having a body length of 20 to 25 mm versus 17 to 20 mm (Barringer et al. 2015). Another account measures females at 22 to 27 mm and males at 21 to 22 mm from head to tip of the wings (Dara et al. 2015). Females have longer legs as well, ranging from 18 to 22 mm while the male leg length is between 15 and 18 mm (Barringer et al. 2015).
The spotted lanternfly has piercing-sucking mouthparts that are adapted to feeding from plant stems. The mouthparts are located under the front portion of the head capsule and consist of a cone shaped and a tubular labrum (upper lip). There is a deep longitudinal groove along the dorsal surface containing the stylet fascicle (cylindrical mouthpart used to pierce the surface of the plant to feed). Like all other hemipterans, the stylet fascicle is comprised of four parts, two mandibular and two maxillary styles. The size of the mouthparts correlates to body size (Hao et al. 2016).
The adults of Lycorma delicatula rely largely on camouflage and the coloration of their wings to defend against predators. The bright red warning coloration of the hindwings is used to ward off predators. When disturbed, Lycorma delicatula flashes its wings open to reveal the bright, contrasting colors of the hindwings, to startle potential predators and warn them that the insect is chemically defended. Adults use cytotoxins as chemical defenses to deter predators (Barringer and Smyers 2016). These are acquired through feeding from host plants, mainly the tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima (Barringer and Smyers 2016).
Lycorma delicatula is reported to be a weak flier, rarely flying over 3.3 m (Chou 1946); however, it has been noted that a spotted lanternfly dispersal behavior is to fly up into wind that can transport them over 10 m, this behavior is repeated to travel even greater distances (Barringer, personal communication). In addition, Lycorma delicatulata can hop 1 to 1.3 m (Chou 1946) to escape predation if a predator is unperturbed by their coloration (Frantsevich et al. 2008). After emergence, adults begin to disperse. First appearing in July, the adult Lycorma delicatulata becomes more abundant in August. Adults begin to lay eggs in September, then begin to die off by November after one or two hard frosts. The insect overwinters as egg masses (Dara et al. 2015; Anderson et al. 2016).
## Host Plants
Lycorma delicatula is found on over 70 known host plants, with 25 identified in Pennsylvania, ranging from apples, grapes, birch, cherry, lilac, maple, poplar, stone fruits, and the tree of heaven (Barringer et al. 2016; Dara et al. 2015). Lycorma delicatulata primarily feeds on Ailanthus altissima , greatly preferring it over many other species, and is likely to establish itself where Ailanthus altissima is present (Anderson et al. 2016). Lycorma delicatula and the tree of heaven are both equally invasive species originating from the same native regions of China and other parts of Asia. Using their haustellate (suckingly) mouthparts, typical of the order Hemiptera, they feed on the sap in the phloem (Ding et al. 2006). Their host range includes economically important plants, particularly Vitis vinifera (common grape vine), which makes them an unsuitable biological control agent for the tree of heaven (Ding et al. 2006).
## Damage
Nymphs and adults of the spotted lanternfly feed on the sap of a host plant through the phloem of young leaves and stems, affecting photosynthesis and potentially causing the plant to experience stunted growth and/or mortality (Ding et al. 2006; Anderson et al. 2016). In addition, the spotted lanternfly excretes a sugary excrement known as honeydew Honeydew buildup promotes the growth of fungal sooty mold by providing a rich substrate for mold growth. Sooty mold grows in black mats, interrupting the host plants ability to photosynthesize by blocking sunlight from the surfaces of the leaves.
## Management
North American management efforts focus on early detection to prevent the spread of the spotted lanternfly to new locations. Eggs can be removed by hand by scraping egg masses off trees. Sticky traps can also be made by wrapping paper around the trees and coating them with adhesive (Anderson 2015). Due to their high level of mobility and the possibility of the insecticide affecting a beneficial insect, it is difficult to determine a location on the tree to use insecticides for management, making the most effective insecticides systemic (absorbed by the tree and affects the insect when they feed) or spraying the tree entirely (Anderson 2015). Alternatively, both the adults and nymphs are equally repelled by lavender oil, but adults are more adversely affected by linalool oil than nymph s (Yoon et al. 2011).
In China, a native parasitic wasp, Anasatus orientalis (Hymenoptera: Eupeliidae), is reported to have attacked up to 69% of eggs; however, it currently is not considered as a biological control in North America because it is not native and the potential effects of introduction have yet to be evaluated (Choi et al. 2014). Chinese native insect predators include Dryinus brownii (Yan et al. 2008) and Dryinus komae (Dong 1983; Dong 1987; Yang 1994). Ooencyrtus kuvanae , an egg parasitoid of Lycorma delicatula is under investigation by researchers to the University of Delaware (Lui and Mottern 2017).
Predation of the spotted lanternfly was first observed in 2015; the predator was a wheel bug , Arilus cristatus (Hemiptera : Reduvidiidae) (Barringer et al. 2016). The wheel bug, a type of assassin bug, is a common generalist predator of insects, including forest pests, and is widely distributed through the US. The second observation was of the predatory stink bug , Apoecilus cyricum . Hemiptera: Pentamotidae, feeding on the underside of a spotted lanternfly. Both the nymphs and adults of the spotted lanternfly and the stink bug are found commonly on maple trees. Both accounts of predation were observed in Berks County, PA (Barringer et al. 2016).
Special thanks to Christian Fowkes and family for collecting specimens of Lycorna delicatula we used for photographs in this publication and for inclusion in the University of Florida insect teaching collection.
## Selected References
Anderson H, Baufeld P, Bourgoin T, Donovall L, Montecchio L, Park M, Sanchez Pena G, Wang X, Chouibani M, Petter F, Grousset F. 2015. "Pest risk analysis for Lycorma delicatula (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae)". European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization 16-21777.
Barringer E, Donovall L, Spichiger S, Lynch D, Henry D. 2015. "The first New World record of Lycorma delicatula (Insecta: Hemiptera: Fulgoridae)." Entomological News 125: 20-23.
Barringer E, Smyers E. 2016. "Predation of the spotted lanternfly, Lycorma delicatula (White) (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae) by two native Hemiptera." Entomological News 126: 71-73.
Choi M, Yang Z, Wang X, Tang Y, Hou Z, Kim J, Byeon Y. 2014. "Parasitism rate of egg parasitoid Anastatus orientalis (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) on Lycorma delicatula (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae) in China." Korean Journal of Applied Entomology 53: 135-139.
Choi D, Kim K, Kang K. 2011. "Agonistic interactions between nymphs of Lycorma delicatula (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae)." Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology 14: 21-25.
Dara SK, Barringer L, Arthurs SP. 2015. "Lycorma delicatula (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae): A new invasive pest in the United States." Journal of Integrated Pest Management 6: 1-6.
Day E. 2018. Spotted Lanternfly in Virginia . Virginia Cooperative Extension. Accessed 2/5/2018. https://ext.yud.agriculture/commerce/chemical\_horticulture/spotted-lanternfly.html
Ding J, Wu Y, Zheng H, Fu W, Reardon R, Liu M. 2006. "Assessing potential biological control of the invasive plant, treeof-heaven, Ailanthus altissima." Biocontrol and Technology 16: 547-566.
Donj JF. 1983. "Studies on the biology of Dryruns sp., a hymenopterous parasitoid of Lycorma delicatula White (Homopt: Fulgoridae)." Natural Enemies of Insects 5: 228-230.
Donj JF. 1987. "Rearing method of Drynus lycormae Yang." Henan Science & Technology 1: 17-18.
Frantsevich L, Ji A, Dai Z, Wang J, Fransevich L, Gorb SN. 2008. "Adhesive properties of the aroleum of a lanternfly, Lycorma delicatula (Auchenrhonycha, Fulgoridae)." Journal of Insect Physiology 54: 818-827.
Hao Y, Dietrich CH, Dai W. 2016. "Structure and sensilla of the mouthparts of the spotted lanternfly Lycorma delicatula (Hemiptera: Fulgoromaphorm Fulgoridae), a polyphagous invasive planthopper." PLOS ONE. 11. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0156640
Han JM, Kim H, Lim EJ, Lee S, Kwon Y, Cho S. 2008. "Lycorma delicatula (Hemiptera: Auchenrhornychna: Fulgoridae: Aphaeniainae) finally, but suddenly arrived in Korea." Entomological Research 38: 281-286.
Jung J, Jung S, Byeon D, Lee W. 2017. "Model-based prediction of potential distribution of the invasive insect pest, spotted lanternfly Lycorma delicatula (Hempitera: Fulgoridae), by using CLIMEX." Journal of Asia Pacific Biodiversity 30: 532538.
Kim JG, Lee EH, Seo YM, Kim NY. 2011. "Cyclic behavior of Lycorma delicatula (Insecta: Hemiptera: Fulgoridae) on host plants," Journal of Insect Behavior 24: 423-435.
Lee J, Moon S, Ahn H, Cho S, Yang J, Yoon C, Kim G. 2009. "Feeding behavior of Lycorma delicatula (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae) and response on feeding stimuliants of some plants." Korean Journal of Applied Entomology 48: 467-477.
Lee YS, Yang MJ, Kim JY, Kim JR. 2014. "The effect of winter temperature on the survival of lantern fly, Lycorma delicatula (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae) eggs." Korean Journal of Applied Entomology 53: 311-315.
Liu H, Motterm J. 2017. "An old remedy for a new problem? Identification of Ooencyrtus kuvanea (Hymenoptera: Encrytidae), an egg parasitoid of Lycorma delicatula (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae) in North America." Journal of Insect Science 17: 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijsesa/ewl114
Murillo. 2018. New invasive species in Va. threatens grapes and hops crops. Washington's Top News. Accessed 2/13/2018. https://www.top.com/virginia/2018/02/new-invasive-species-va-threatening-grape-hops-crops/?
Park J, Kim M, Lee S, Shin S, Kim J, Park I. 2009. "Biological characteristics of Lyccorma delicatula and the control effects of some insecticides." Korean Journal of Applied Entomology 48: 53-57.
Tomisawa A, Ohmiya S, Fukutomi H, Hayashi K, Ishikawa T. 2013. "Biological notes on Lyccorma delicatula (White) (Hemiptera, Fulgoridae) in Ishaika Prefecture, Japan." Japanese Journal of Entomology 16: 3-14.
Yoon C, Moon S, Jeong J, Shin Y, Cho S, Ahn K, Yang J, Kim G. 2011. "Repellency of lavender oil and linalool against spot clothing wax cicada, Lycroma delicatula (Hemiptera: Fulgoridae) and their electrophysiological responses." Journal of AsiaPacific Entomology 14: 411-416.
Zhai YL, Gao JS, Yan LL, Zhang JL. 2014. "Occurrence of Homoptera insects in Prunus armeniaca species, and control methods." Entomological Research in Centre China 10: 223-227.
## Publication #EENY-714
Release Date:
December 14, 2022
DOI: doi.org/10.32473/edis-in-1220-2018
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Elena Rhodes
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## About this Publication
This document is EENY-714, one of a series of the Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date August 2018. Revised October 2019 and December 2022. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication. This document is also available on the Featured Creatures website at http://entnemdetp.ufl.edu/creatures/.
## About the Authors
Taryn B. Griffith; and Jennifer L. Gillett-Kaufman, associate Extension scientist, Entomology and Nematology Department; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 332611.
## Related Pages
## Featured Creatures collection
772 Publication(s)
Hemiptera (true bugs)
Gillett-Kaufman, Jennifer L.
external
Texas A&M University
Rhodes, Elena M.
staff
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772 Publication(s) |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1996/1-bossis.pdf | OVARIAN AND ENDOCRINE CHANGES BEFORE THE ONSET OF NUTRITIONALL | Oklahoma State University | [
"Bossis et al"
] | Error: time data 'D:19970121112035Z' does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | OVARIAN AND ENDOCRINE CHANGES BEFORE THE ONSET OF NUTRITIONALLY INDUCED ANOVULATION IN BEEF HEIFERS
I. Bossi, S.D. Welty, R.P. Wettemann, J.A. Vizcarra$^{4}$ and L.J. Spicer 5
## Story in Brief
To determine endocrine and ovarian changes preceding nutritionally induced cessation of ovarian cycles, three heifers were fed a diet to maintain body condition, while six heifers were fed a restricted diet to lose 1% of their body weight per week. During the experimental period, estrous cycles of all heifers were synchronized with PGF-x$\_{2 }$to a length of 16 days. Ultrasonography of the ovaries was performed and blood samples were collected from day 8 of the estrous cycle (day 0 = estrus) until ovulation (day 1 of the subsequent cycle) to determine growth rate of the ovulatory follicle, follicle size at ovulation, maximum corpus luteum size and concentrations of progesterone, estradiol, glucose, nonesterified fatty acids and urea nitrogen in plasma. During the last two cycles before the cessation of ovarian cycles, the rate of growth and the size of the follicle at ovulation were reduced in nutritionally restricted heifers compared with the maintenance heifers. The maximum size of the corpus luteum and concentrations of progesterone and estradiol were also less in restricted than maintenance heifers during the last two cycles before anovulation. In addition, reduced nutrient intake resulted in decreased concentrations of glucose and increased concentrations nonesterified fatty acids. Urea nitrogen concentrations in plasma were not affected by dietary restriction. These results indicate that follicular growth and luteal function are reduced and energy metabolism is altered before the cessation of ovarian cycles in nutritionally restricted beefheifers.
(Key Words: Beef Heifers, Nutrition, OvariesAnestrus.)
## Introduction
Nutritional management is one major factor that controls reproduction. The mechanism by which nutrition influences reproduction in cattle has not been well established, but the effects of body weight and body condition on reproductive performance have been documented. Cows bred while losing weight and body condition have decreased pregnancy rates compared to cows maintaining weight and body condition (Richards et al., 1986). Reduced
nutrient intake results in decreased luteal activity and cessation of ovarian cycles in part due to insufficient gonadotropin stimulation (Richards et al., 1989). Cows fed diets limited in energy develop subfunctional CL during the transition from cyclicity to anestrus (Schrick et al., 1992). Moreover, dietary energy restriction alters follicular growth in postpartum cows and cyclic heifers (Murphy et al., 1991). The present study was designed to investigate effects of dietary energy restriction on endocrine and metabolic responses during the last two cycles before cessation of ovarian cycles in beef heifers.
## Materials and Methods
Nine cyclic Angus x Hereford heifers with a body condition score (BCS) of 5.5 ± .2 and weight of 370 ± 10 kg were used. Three heifers were fed to maintain BCS (M group), while six heifers were fed a restricted diet to lose 1% of their body weight per week (R). Body weights were recorded every 16 days to determine weight changes for maintenance and restricted heifers. At the initiation of the study, estrous cycles of all heifers were synchronized with two injections of PGF$\_{2}$α (Lutalyse, 25 mg; Upjohn Co.) at an 11 day interval. Starting on day 13 of the induced cycle, heifers were given PGF$\_{2}$α , and every 16 days thereafter to synchronize cycles to 16 days. After heifers lost approximately 12% of their initial body weight and until they became anovulatory, transrectal ultrasonography was performed daily to monitor the ovaries from day 8 of the cycle until ovulation (day 1 of the subsequent cycle). Size of the ovulatory follicle (mm), growth rate of the ovulatory follicle (mm/day) and maximum corpus luteum (CL) size were measured. Blood samples were collected from day 8 until ovulation and plasma was stored at -20°C until analyzed. Progesterone and estradiol-17β were quantified by radioimmunoassay. Glucose, non-esterified fatty acids and plasma urea nitrogen were assayed by colorimetric procedures. Differences between treatment means for size of the ovulatory follicle, growth rate of the ovulatory follicle and maximum CL size were determined by split-plot analysis of variance with treatment (M or R) in the main plot and cycle (-2 or -1 before anovulation) in the split plot. Treatment effects were tested using animal within treatment as the error term and cycle and treatment x cycle effects were tested using the residual as the error term. Differences between treatment means for progesterone, estradiol, glucose, nonesterified fatty acids and plasma urea nitrogen concentrations were determined by split-split-plot analysis of variance with treatment in the main plot, cycle in the split plot and day of cycle (8 through ovulation) in the split-split plot. Cycle and treatment x cycle effects were tested using animal within treatment x cycle as the error term and day, treatment x day, cycle x day and treatment x cycle x day were tested using the residual as the error term.
## Results
Reduced nutrient intake in R heifers resulted in loss of body weight and cessation of estrous cycles at 33.5 ± 4.2 wk after initiation of feed restriction. Average daily gain and average daily loss were .35 kg/d and -.40 kg/d for M and R heifers, respectively (Figure 1). Heifers became anovulatory after losing
The ovulatory follicle emerged on day 9 or 10 of the estrous cycle and was identified at a diameter of ≥4 mm. Maintenance heifers had larger (P
In both M and R heifers, CL were at maximal size on day 13 of the cycle. A treatment x cycle interaction (P
Concentrations of glucose were less (P
## Discussion
The loss of both BCS and body weight illustrates that restricted heifers were nutritionally stressed and metabolizing body reserves to meet energy demands. Because NEFA were elevated in restricted heifers, the weight loss that occurred in these heifers was likely associated with a decrease in adipose tissue due to lipolysis. The alteration in body energy metabolism in restricted heifers was further indicated by a decrease in peripheral glucose concentrations. The reduced growth and steroidogenic capability of the corpus luteum and the ovulatory follicle during the last two cycles before anovulation indicates that
the transition from cyclicity to anestrus is not abrupt but gradual. Although the mechanism by which nutrient intake and body energy reserves regulate the hypothalamo-pituitary-ovarian function is unknown, our results indicate that metabolic signals can act either on the hypothalamus-pituitary axis reducing gonadotrophin secretion or/and at the ovaries altering gonadotrophin responsiveness and steroidogenic ability. In summary, growth of the ovulatory follicle, maximum CL size and concentrations of progesterone and estradiol are reduced and energy metabolism is altered during the last two cycles before nutritionally inducedanova lutiona
## Literature Cited
Murphy, M.G. et al. 1991. JReprod.Fert. 92:333. Richards, M.W. et al. 1986. JAnim. Sci. 62:300. Richards, M.W. et al. 1989. JAnim. Sci. 67:1520. Schrick, F.N. et al. 1992. Domest.Anim. Endocrinol. 9:187.
Figure 1.Body weight changes of maintenance and restricted heifers during the experimental period (arrow = point ofnovulation).
Figure 2. Concentration of progesterone fg/ml) during the last two cycles before anovulation in maintenance and restricted heifers (treatment x day interaction, P
Figure 3. Concentrations ofestradiol (pg/ml) during the last two cycles before anovulation in maintenance and restricted heifers (treatment x cycle x day interaction, P |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/tools-to-make-the-cut | Tools to Make the Cut | NC State University | [
"Barbara Fair"
] | null | [
"Landscaping",
"Pruning",
"Tree",
"Landscape Maintenance",
"Shrub Maintenance",
"Shrub",
"Pruning Tool"
] | NC | ## Tools to Make the Cut
## Pruning Trees & Shrubs
Many different pruning tools are available in the trade. The types of tools you will need depend on the size of plant you intend to prune. Quality and price vary dramatically among tools. Here, we offer tips on selecting the right tool for the job and for evaluating a tool's quality. Check the feel of several styles, as each design is unique. Any tool can cut, but if it is not comfortable to use, then it is of little use. High-quality tools will cost more but will last longer if taken care of and are often worth the expense.
## Pruning Shears
Use pruning shears to cut small limbs, typically less than % inch in diameter. There are two styles of pruning shears: anvil and bypass (Figure 1). Anvil style shears have one sharpened blade that cuts into a thicker, flat anvil (Figure 2A).
Many people consider anvil shears to be poor-quality tools, but this is not necessarily true. Newer designs have a curved anvil and blade rather than the typical flat style, and this creates a much cleaner cut (Figure 2B).
Select a brand made with high-quality steel that fits your hand well, has a slim cutting-head, and a curved blade or anvil that prevents crushed stems.
Another type of pruning shears called bypass shears works almost like scissors (Figure 3). They have one sharpened blade that slices past the curved anvil. When sharp, they make clean cuts and get into small branch angles easily. Some shears have a hooked end to prevent branches from slipping, while others have a ratchet action to cut through slightly larger diameter stems. There are numerous brands available for both anvil and bypass shears, ranging in cost from about $25 to more than $90.
There are other hand shears -scisor, bonsai, and ratchet-used for special pruning projects. All of these tools work similarly to bypass pruners but with differently shaped blades.
You can use scissor shears for deadheading, cutting flowers, or pruning herbaceous plants.
Bonsai shears have strong but fine-pointed ends for snipping in tight places that are typical of many bonsai plants. They do come in different sizes to accommodate various-sized bonsai plants and to accomplish different pruning goals.
Ratchet pruners have an extra mechanism that allows you to cut with less hand strain. As you squeeze the pruners they latch so you can release and squeeze again. Each time you squeeze, the ratcheting mechanism clicks and moves to the next setting, providing ever-increasing pressure as you cut.
No matter the type of hand pruners you choose, never cut a stem too big for your tools. You will know this is happening if you have to squeeze too tightly to make the cut. Not only will you damage the tissue of the plant, but you may damage your pruners.
EXTENSION
## Loppers
Use loppers to prune branches that are ½ inch to about 1½ inches in diameter. Loppers also come in anvil or bypass style (Figure 4), and some brands may offer the ratchet style. They are available in various lengths-from about 20 to 40 inches. Some styles have handles that telescope for a longer reach, and some have a fixed length (Figure 5). Any extra mechanisms, such as gears or ratchets, add weight that can make the tool cumbersome if working for long hours and will likely cost more. Handles are made of wood, metal, or fiberglass.
For big jobs, there are also pneumatic, hydraulic, and electrically operated shears or loppers. Again, weigh the pros and cons of each brand and style. Try them out if possible, and select the best tool you can afford for the types of jobs you most commonly encounter.
## Pole Pruners or Saws
If you need to cut above your head, select a pole saw or pruner (Figure 11). There are options that have both saw and pruner heads, but these tend to be much heavier. The best one to use depends on the branch size, branch angle, angle of cut, and the purpose of pruning. Working above your head is challenging for many reasons. It is hard on the neck, arms, and upper back, so be sure to
take sufficient rest breaks to minimize any long-term injuries. In addition, it is difficult to achieve the proper cutting angle. Therefore, the pruning wound may not be properly located. Do the best you can, or hire an arborist to climb the tree and make the cuts. You can also rent a cherry picker or bucket truck to prune taller trees, both of which get you closer to the branches and make pruning much easier. It is best not to prune from a ladder, unless you are an experienced arborist.
Newer pole saw and pruner designs use relatively rigid aluminum. The poles come in sections, are quick locking, and are oval shaped, which allow for smooth sliding through your hands and easier cutting. Fiberglass is lighter but very flexible, which makes control more challenging. Dielectric fiberglass poles made especially for tree clearance work do not conduct electricity, and the aluminum poles often have a handmade of nonconductive material. However, you MUST BE specially trained and certified to work around electrical utilities. (A person who can do this is called a utility arborist.) Without such training, bring in a certified
arborist with the proper accreditation. This is true no matter what work you are doing around electrical lines! To learn more about hiring a certified arborist or tree care professional, see How to Hire a Tree Care Professional (NC State Extension publication AG-691).
## Bow Saws
Bow saws have a straight, sharp, quick-cutting blade. Most people do not use these for pruning because the shape prohibits use in tight branch unions. Use a bow saw to cut downed wood, debris, or firewood (if you are looking for a good workout!).
## Chainsaw
Chainsaws are highly efficient, albeit potentially dangerous tools. Most arborists or tree climbers use chainsaws (Figure 12) quite skillfully to remove and prune larger trees and limbs. Chainsaws are invaluable when doing prolonged pruning of large-diameter limbs and ground clearance work.
However, you should use a chainsaw only after proper training . If you are the foreman of a team, you must ensure that your employees are properly trained in the safe use of chainsaws according to Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards. Remember, as with anything you do in the landscape, use proper personal protective equipment (PPE), which could include eye protection, hearing protection, chaps, head protection, and steel-toed boots. Similar basic PPE is needed whether you're operating a chainsaw or a gas-powered pole saw.
Clearing brush is one of the most dangerous landscape maintenance tasks. For clearing brush, you must wear eye and ear protection and may need chaps and gloves (in some cases).
There are numerous chainsaw brands available, some gas powered and others electric or battery operated. Select the one that fits your needs and budget. Prices vary dramatically.
## For Consumers With Only Occasional Cutting Needs
Homeowners typically need a chainsaw to clean up after a storm, remove small trees or large shrubs, and to cut firewood. If this is the case, you do not need a professional-grade chainsaw; you need an easy-starting engine and basic safety features. Select the size saw for the size material you will be typically cutting. In vest safely versus size. It is unlikely you will need a chainsaw with a bar length of more than 16 inches for most common household uses.
A chainsaw has three major components -an engine, bar, and chain. Most manufacturers design chainsaws with numerous safety and ease-of-use features. Gas chainsaws have a two-cycle engine that requires a mixture of gas and oil in the tank. This mix supplies fuel and lubrication so you do not need to perform oil changes. There is also a portal to add bar oil, which ensures that the cutting chain slides smoothly. Select a chainsaw model that has an automatic bar oiler and a vibrationdampening feature. Weights will vary based on the size of the chainsaw, but the vibration is what will really tire you out!
A real necessity is a chain brake. One of the most common causes of serious chainsaw-related injuries is kickback . Kickback can occur when the moving chain at the tip of the guide bar touches an object or when the tip is pinched by the wood. These actions can cause a very fast reverse action, sending the bar up and back toward the operator. This can cause you to lose control of the chainsaw and lead to serious injury to you or anyone around you. The chain brake stops the chain, thereby reducing the extent of injuries.
A well-maintained chainsaw will last for years. Learn how to clean it, replace the spark plug, sharpen the blades, change and adjust the chain, and complete other maintenance tasks.
There is nothing wrong with selecting an electric or battery-powered chainsaw (Figure 13), particularly if you infrequently need one. Consider the following tips before deciding on an electric, battery-powered, or gas-powered model.
## For Professionals
Professional chainsaws offer different features. Professionals use chainsaws when climbing in a tree, which requires a lightweight model, and to cut down large trees, which requires a large chainsw at with a long bar. Manufacturers design these chainsaws to run every day and to operate all day. They have a very rugged design.
Some models have a top handle. These models are often lighter and allow for greater mobility and accuracy when pruning tree branches. Make sure the saw you select has a balanced design. One with the engine inline directly behind the cutting bar offers the most balance and makes it easier to hold, thus reducing hand stress.
Some professional-grade models also offer two-year commercial-use warranties. These may be hard to find but are important if you use your chainsaw eight hours or more every day.
## Hedge Shears
Most landscapers have some type of formal shrubs to maintain, so hedge shears (Figure 14) are a necessary tool. You can find hedge shears in gas, electric, battery-powered, and manual models. Which you choose depends on how many plants need shearing. Most professionals have both manual and gas-powered shears on hand. The key to quality projects is to ensure that your shears are sharp, particularly the manual version. Manual hedge shears come in several lengths with either straight or wavy-edged blades. Some users find the wavy-edged style cuts better. Manual hedge shears cost about $20 to $90, while the gas-powered models (Figure 15) run about $150 to more than $400. Shears are also a great tool for cutting down grasses and large perennials.
## Summary
Finding the right tool at the right price is easy with so many different brands and models available. A visit to a home show or industry trade show will give you the chance to try out several different products. Also, check out reviews of makes and models online. There are many online and mailorder catalogs available as well.
Once you have invested in high-quality tools, you are just about ready to head outside. Be sure to check out the rest of the pruning publications in the "Pruning Trees & Shrubs" series to learn more:
Before the Cut (AG-780-01)
General Pruning Techniques (AG-780-03)
How to Prune Specific Plants (AG-780-04)
This series is a revision of a previous publication: Powell, M. A. 1998. Pruning Trees & Shrubs: A Guide for Grounds Managers (AG-071). Raleigh: NC State University, NC Cooperative Extension.
## Important Terms
certified arborist -a person who has received certification from the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) confirming that they have the technical knowledge of tree care practices. In addition, they have passed a rigorous exam, have worked in the industry for a number of years, and maintain their certification through continuing education programs.
dielectric -an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in
a conductor.
kickback-occurs when the teeth on a chainsaw's chain catch on something as they rotate around the tip of the blade. The teeth may have enough force to cause the blade to kick back violently toward the operator. Three situations can cause kickback-when the nose of the blade strikes another object, when a bore cut is started improperly, or when the blade nose or tip catches the bottom or side of a saw cut during reinsertion. The best defense against kickback is to keep the tip guard on the chainsaw. Some kickback control can also be maintained by keeping a firm hold on the saw and using a saw that has a chain brake or kickback guard. Always be watchful for bladepinching situations and plan accordingly. Cut branches at the base of the blade; don't saw with the tip of the blade. Use a high chain speed when reinserting the blade in a cut or removing it from a cut. Keep the saw teeth sharp so they will cut. Dull teeth are more likely to cause a kickback. Always cut below shoulder height; otherwise, the saw is difficult to control and is too close to your face.
OSHA-Congress created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration in 1970 to ensure healthful working conditions by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education, and assistance. OSHA is part of the U.S. Department of Labor. The administrator for OSHA is the assistant secretary of labor for Occupational Safety and Health. OSHA's administrator answers to the secretary of labor, who is a member of the cabinet of the president of the United States. OSHA covers employers and their employees either directly through federal OSHA or through an OSHA-approved state program. State programs must meet or exceed federal OSHA standards for workplace safety and health.
personal protective equipment (PPE)-OSHA requires the use of personal protective equipment to reduce employee exposure to hazards when engineering and administrative controls are not feasible or effective in reducing these exposures to acceptable levels. Employers are required to determine whether PPE should be used to protect their workers. If PPE is to be used, a PPE program should be implemented. This program should address the hazards present; the selection, maintenance, and use of PPE; the training of employees; and the monitoring of the program to ensure its ongoing effectiveness. For typical arboricultural applications, the following items may constitute PPE (depending on the job): safety glasses, hearing protection, chaps, face shield, gloves, climbing helmet, climbing saddle, ropes, safety vest, and steel-toed boots.
ratchet prinners -pruners that use a ratcheting mechanism that allows continuous cutting motion; they increase cutting power without requiring additional hand strength.
two-cycle engine-a type of internal combustion engine that completes a power cycle in only one crankshaft revolution and with two strokes, or up-and-down movements, of the piston (in comparison to a four-stroke engine that uses four strokes to complete a power cycle). A two-stroke cycle is accomplished by the end of the combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke, happening simultaneously and performing the intake and exhaust functions at the same time. Two-stroke engines often provide high power-to-weight ratio, usually in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the power band, and have far fewer moving parts than four-stroke engines.
utility arborist-a utility arborist or forester typically works for an electric utility company. Duties can include responsibility for all utility vegetation management activities and programs at the utility company. These workers usually have a strong background in arboriculture, forestry, or both and a strong understanding of electric distribution and transmission systems.
## Author
Barbara Fair
Extension Horticulture Specialist and Assistant Professor Horticultural Science
Publication date: April 1, 2020
Reviewed/Revised: March 5, 2025
AG-780-02
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/orangeco/2021/07/28/new-vegetable-gardener-herbs-are-a-cool-season-crop-in-central-florida/ | New Vegetable Gardener — Herbs are a Cool Season Crop in Central Florida | University of Florida | [
"Ed Thralls"
] | 2021-07-28 | [
"Agriculture",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Health & Nutrition",
"Horticulture",
"Work & Life",
"fruits and vegetables",
"New Vegetable Gardener",
"vegetable gardening"
] | FL | ## New Vegetable Gardener Herbals are a Cool Season Crop in Central Florida
As you have already learned, the environment is unique in Florida and the seasons for growing vegetables is different from what you may be used to or what you have learned from social media sites that are not in the Central Florida area. Herbs too, need to be grown in seasons you may not be used to. We will be starting seedlings of the Cool Season vegetables in late September. This would also be a great time to start some seedlings for fresh herbs that you will plant out in October. Herbs prefer a cooler season for the best growth and production. The cool season gives you an herb gardening season with almost six months of growing the tastiest herbs. It will be cooler, it will have fewer insect pests, and it will be bountiful. You should visit the UF EDIS webpage for information about herbs in Florida.
What is an herb? The Herb Society of America New Encyclopedia of Herbs and Their Uses (New York: Doling Kindersley, 2001. P. 18) defines herbs as "trees, shrubs, annuals, vines, and more primitive plants, such as ferns, mosses, algae, lichens, and fungi, valued for their flavor, fragrance, medicinal and healthful qualities, economic and industrial uses, pesticidal properties, and coloring materials" (dyes)." However, for our purposes, we will define herbs as "herbaceous plants (do not have woody stems) that are grown for the special flavor and aroma of their various parts." We use herbs to enhance the taste or aroma of certain foods. They are not classified as vegetables because they are not primary dishes. With the similarity of herb growth habits and cultural requirements, they are often included with vegetables in the garden.
Herbs are quite amazing in that they stimulate many of our senses; hairy leaves (touch), aromatic (smell), silver and green foliage (sight), have interesting tastes. We can tuck them into existing flower beds, grow them indoors and outdoors in containers and they have few
pests and fungal problems. Additionally, herbs have different water and nutrient needs than vegetables. They should be planted in their place in the garden and not mixed in with the vegetables.
Herbs are grown with the same considerations as vegetables or ornamentals. The soil should be fertile, organically amended, with good drainage, a soil pH between 5.8 and 6.5, and if grown in containers, a soilless mix should be used. The soil should be allowed to dry out between irrigation events except for parsley, chervil, and members of the mint family.
Have you planned your herb garden? What are you going to grow in the cool season (October - February)? As with vegetables, ask your family members what herbs they like. This will help you determine what you are going to plant. Do you have enough space to grow the herbs? Understand the mature size of the herbs you intend to grow so you can space them properly in the herb garden to promote air circulation and reduce insect/disease issues. Most herbs are grown as vegetables. Basil, dill, chervil and fennel should be planted 12" between plants. Oregano and rosemary should be planted 24" between plants and parsley can be planted 6" between plants (depending on variety). Do you have enough room to make all the herbs fit into the garden space allotted to them? By planning the garden, you will know how much space you will need and how many herbs to grow in the herb garden.
The best place to locate the herb garden is where it will receive at least 6 hours of direct sunlight. Some may prefer light shade. Group herbs according to light needs. Also, group herbs according to water needs; moist (parsley, mint), slightly moist rosemary, thyme, or dry between watering (aloe). Few herbs are perennials, so should be grouped together.
Once you have determined that there is enough space near the vegetable garden to plant some herbs, prepare the area by removing old, poorly performing plants and weeds, loosen up the soil, add organic matter, level the area, and rake smooth. Add about 1-2 pounds of a complete fertilizer such as 6-6-6 to a 100 square foot area. Water the area lightly.
Are you going to grow your herbs from seeds or transplants? By growing them from seed you will have a greater choice in what varieties you will grow. Purchasing transplants from the garden center may limit the varieties you grow because of the limited selection. If you choose to grow herbs from seed, do not plant them deeper than 3 times the diameter of the seed. If you choose to grow
transplants, make sure the garden bed is moist, try not to damage the root system as you remove the plant from the transplant container, and plant no deeper than the plant was growing in the container. You may want to use a "starter fertilizer" (a half strength liquid fertilizer) but it is usually not necessary.
Herbs are grown for the various plant parts: parsley (leaves), nasturtium (flowers), caraway (seeds) and ginger (roots and rhizomes). Annu als are usually cultivated by seed but some can be propagated by cuttings. The few perennials are propagated by cuttings (mints) or division (lemon grass).
Care for the garden as necessary. Weed often and keep pests under control. Few pesticides are labeled for use on herbs. If you use a pesticide, choose pesticides only after you have identified the pest, so you make a good choice on how to control the pest. Often it will only require you hand pick the pest from the plant and dispose of in a container of soapy water.
Herbs are used for flavoring purposes. Their flavor comes primarily from the volatile or essential oils contained in leaves, seeds, and fruits. For flavor retention, harvest herbs at the right time and properly cure and store. The young, tender leaves can be used fresh at any time during the season, but after the season they should be harvested when the plants begin to flower and should be dried rapidly in a well-ventilated, darkened room. The leaves should be washed in cold water and thoroughly drained before drying. Growing herbs during the summer months is challenging with increased diseases from the high humidity and high nighttime temperatures; herbs often lose those volatile oils and taste very bland as a result.
Most of all, care for the garden as needed and enjoy the best tasting herbs ever - your own.
For more information about herb gardening in the south, refer to publications found at Land Grant university sites such as this one from the University of Georgia.
Come back and read more about the "New Vegetable Gardener."
## o
by Ed Thralls
Posted: July 28, 2021
Tags: Fruits And Vegetables, New Vegetable Gardener, Vegetable Gardening
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Stuck In The Mud
- · New Vegetable Gardener --- Florida Soil Needs Help
- · Simple Things You Can Do To Prepare For A Hurricane.
- Chasing The Worm, Identifying The Species--Mezcal Science |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/wireworms-in-turf | Wireworms in Turf | NC State Extension | [
"Terri Billeisen"
] | null | [
"Insect Management",
"Turfgrass Pest",
"Turf Insect",
"Wireworm"
] | NC | ## Wireworms in Turf
Turffiles
## Description
Wireworms are worm-like larvae of click beetles (Elateridae). Larvae have a shiny and hardened appearance and can range in color from tan to dark brown, although they are generally slightly darker at both the anterior (head) and posterior ends (Figure 1). They range in length from 1/3 to 1/2 in and have three pairs of legs. The final segment at the posterior end can be forked on larger larvae. Adult click beetles are elongate, slender beetles with a tapered posterior end. Adults can range in size and color but have a shield-like structure (pronotum) the back corners of which stretch back into points. When placed on their backs, these beetles snap their thoracic segments which causes their bodies to flip up in the air in an effort to right themselves. This behavior produces a characteristic "click" noise.
Attribution: Photo credit: R Brandenburg
## Biology
Adults and larvae overwinter in the soil and emerge in early to mid-spring. They are generally active through the end of summer in NC. Females dig burrows around the base of plants and lay eggs that hatch within 2-4 weeks. Larvae can remain in that life stage for up to 3-4 years, depending on species. Generations will overlap throughout the year so it is possible to find all four life stages (egg, larva, pupa and adult) at one time in the soil.
## Damage
Only wireworms (larvae) are pests of turfgrass, the adults do not cause damage. Wireworms feed on the roots and crowns of plants, causing irregular patches of yellowing (Figure 2), stunted growth, and necrosis. Damage is most evident in the fall but can occur at any time insects are active. Wireworms will also feed on seeds and seedlings so newly-seeded stands are more likely to show damage symptoms.
EXTENSION
Attribution: Photo credit: R Brandenburg
## Monitoring
Soil sampling: Use either a cup cutter, shovel or sod cutter to sample a fixed area of turfgrass. If using a cup cutter or shovel, slowly break apart the soil, and examine the lower 1-3 inches (2.5-7.6 centimeters) for wireworms. If using a sod cutter, roll back the turf like a mat. Slowly rake through the soil and examine for insects. If possible, time your sampling to follow a rainfall event as wireworms are likely to be closer to the soil surface.
## Control
## Cultural Control
Healthy turfgrass is less likely to show symptoms of damage. Fertilize, irrigate and conduct regular soil analysis testing to minimize plant stress and maintain a healthy turf stand.
## Chemical Control
Many products used for wireworm control are restricted-use and intended for agricultural use only. Active ingredients that can be used for wireworm control in home lawns include: bifenthrin, pyrethrins, and zeta-cypermethrin. Be sure to apply insecticides when the wireworms (larval life stage) are present in the soil.
## Author
Terri Billeisen Extension Associate Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: Sept. 21, 2023
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
NC Cooperative Extension prohibitlea discriminacion por raza, color, nacionalidad, edad, sexo (incluyendo el embarazo), discapacidad, religión, orientación sexual, identidad de género, información genética, afliciación política, y estatus de veteran.
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&TState University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/flaglerco/2020/06/09/a-j-take-on-the-gator-pit/ | A & J Take On The Gator Pit | University of Florida | [
"Ilana Shimmel"
] | 2020-06-09 | [
"Uncategorized"
] | FL | ## A & J Take On The Gator Pit
Each year the University of Florida offers an entrepreneurial journey, The Gator Pit. This journey is a free 3 month program open to all youth ages 14-18 in the state of Florida. Youth are taught how to transform an idea into a viable business through 6 virtual teaching sessions. All of these concluding with a one-day pitch competition at the end of May in Orlando. Even though the opportunity to present in Orlando was not an option this year, it is still opportunity and experience that many youth look forward to each year.
I am beyond thrilled to announce that one of our very own Flagler County 4-H Bulldog Robotics members, Alex Houghton and business partner John Magee participated in the 2020 Gator Pit program. Alex and John were able to launch and pitch their business ideas with the creation of A and J's Organic Cookie Company. Not only did these two-youth win 2nd place, but they were also granted $300 to go towards the purchase of supplies to test run products in support of their business. I am so proud of these two boys. They never let a virtual platform get in the way of them fulfilling their idea and dream!
The new 4-H year will be open for enrollment beginning September 1$^{st}$. I encourage all youth in Flagler County to join one of our amazing school, community or project clubs. Being a member of a 4-H club teaches youth so many wonderful life skills that will last for a lifetime. For more information on joining a club, please contact the 4-H office.
Contributed by Alisha Hutchinson, UF/IFAS Extension Flagler County 4-H Agent
The University of Florida is an Equal Opportunity Institution
O
by Ilana Shimmel
Posted: June 9, 2020
Category: \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Take Yourself On A Field Trip At River To Sea Preserve!
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- · Florida Mangroves |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/highlandsco/2020/08/27/is-beekeeping-for-you-2/ | Is Beekeeping For You? | University of Florida | [
"David Austin"
] | 2020-08-27 | [
"Agriculture",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Horticulture",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"gardening",
"Highlands County",
"Highlands Horticulture Digest",
"Hometown Gardener",
"honey",
"insects",
"Master Gardener",
"Master Gardeners",
"polliNATION"
] | FL | ## Is Beekeeping For You?
To bee or not to bee?
Could that be the question you are asking yourself? Because of my love of honey, the answer was yes for me. As Learned more about the honey bee and its uniqueness, I became fascinated with this insect. Like the fact that it could create an intricate nest of wax created from a wax gland in its own abdomen. Or that it had the persistence to make a million trips from its home, returning each time with tiny amounts of flower nectar, and somehow fashioned it into a pound of honey. These were just a couple of many things that make honey bee interesting and different from any other animal on the planet. Click here for info our online beekeeping course.
A foraging honey bee howers around an 'Indigo Spires' Salvia. Photo by David Austin
Honey bee history Honey bees we raise here are not native to the United States but to
Europe. They have been here so long that it may seem as they are native. I believe most sources show them coming to the United States in the early 1600s. They were brought here by early settlers.
That makes them about as native here as the European Settlers. In Africa, they have a honey bee that is more aggressive. In the 50s they were brought to Brazil in the hope that they would increase honey production. They escaped their confines and moved throughout South America and the southern United States. They have been mixing with European Bees in the United States since the 80s. You cannot tell the difference between the two strains with the naked eye. Only those bees mixed with the African strain are more aggressive. DNA testing is required to distinguish the two.
## Pilgrimage to Florida
In January and February, beekeepers come to Florida from all over the Eastern United States bringing their European stock honey bees with them so they can be in on one of the coveted nectar flows in the country. Late February, while northern climates are still icy, it is then that the oranges begin to bloom in Central Florida, and the bees buzz to the blooms in drops to gather the nectar. This is also the
time of year when bees start getting antsy and swarm from their hives to find a new home. Because of this, there is quite a large feral
or wild population of European honey bee escapes here and the African strains are less prevalent than other areas.
## Divide and conquer
During swarming, the honey bee queen leaves the hive with a large portion of the bees. They land in a nearby tree, shrub, or structure where the worker bees gather up in a large ball surrounding the queen. From this ball, containing up to 70 % of the hive's bees, they will send out scouts that will find a new home. The bees left behind in the old hive pick several eggs or very young larvae and start to make new queens. One of these new queens will dominate the others as it hatches, soon mates, and becomes the new queen and egg layer of the hive. Learn more about swarms here.
## Are you a Keeper?
The honey bee is while scout bees search the area for a fascinating and can be a new place to make a hive. Photo by fun hobby for many and business for others.
Becoming a beekeeper is not for the faint of heart. If you are allergic to bee stings it isn't recommended. If being stung occasionally is not something you can't tolerate or risk, then you may want to admire them from afar. For me the reward of their rich honey keeps me going and I can't imagine a time in my life that I wouldn't be a beekeeper.
## UF/IFAS Extension, Online Class
Is Beekeeping for you? Find out on September 12 th by taking our online beekeeping class. Sign up and learn more at this Eventbrite link. That's what's new from the Hometown Gardener. Like and Follow me on Facebook at Hometown Gardener.
Read my other blogs by clicking here.
## Stay in touch!
In Highlands County, our office is at 4509 W George Blvd., Sebring. The Master Gardener Help Desk is open Monday - Friday from 9 AM to 3:30 PM. Sign up for our Highlands County Master Gardener Volunteer , "Putting Down Root" Newsletter Here. Join our Facebook groups Highlands County Master Gardeners, Heartland Beekeepers, Central Florida Butterfly, and Pollinator Club, and Science-Based
o
by David Austin
Posted: August 27, 2020
Category: Agriculture, Fruits & Vegetables, Horticulture, UF/IFAS
## Extension
Tags: Agriculture, Gardening, Highlands County, Highlands
Horticulture Digest, Hometown Gardener, Honey, Insects, Master
Gardener, Master Gardeners, Pollination
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Blossom End Rot On Tomatoes
- · Growing Equals Knowing.
- · Growing Florida Vegetables
- · Some Call It Black Gold |
https://extension.okstate.edu/topics/environment-and-natural-resources/rangeland-management/invasive-weeds/kudzu/index.html | Kudzu - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2019-12-19 | [] | OK | KUDZU
## Filter by
Sort by: Date posted
Search Kudzu
Filter results by keywo
## Problem Horticultural Plants (https://extension.okstate.edu/fact- sheets/problem-horticultural-plants.html)
A list and descriptions of invasive plant species to avoid in the garden.
Gardening & Lawn Care /tags/gardening-and-lawn-care/)
Invasive Weeds /tags/invasive-weeds/)
Kudzu /tags/kudzu/)
Old World Bluestem /tags/old-world-bluestem/)
Rangeland Management /tags/angeland-management/)
Shrubs /tags/shrubs/)
Trees /tags/trees/) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/milkweed-bug | Milkweed Bug | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Pest",
"Bug",
"Milkweed"
] | NC | ## Milkweed Bug
PDIC Factsheets
## Description and Biology
Milkweed bugs, Oncopeltus fasciatus , are reddish orange insects with a conspicuous black band across the middle and two large diamond-shaped black patches fore and aft. They are 1/2 to 3/4 inch long. Female milkweed bugs lay 25 to 35 eggs per day in small clusters. Eggs are light yellow but turn reddish before they hatch five days later. The nymphs emerge as tiny, elongate, red insects that soon become oval in top view. The nymphs develop and grow through five molts. Adult bugs emerge from the fifth molt. Nymphs become increasing spotted as they develop and their wing buds become more pronounced with each molt. New adults are yellow with black markings, but the yellow parts change to reddish-orange as they mature. Adults can mate a week or so after the last molt, and a week to two weeks later, females start to lay eggs. Females that have plenty of milkweed seeds available lay considerably more eggs than females on short rations. Once a new generation of adults matures, milkweed bugs migrate to sheltered spots to spend the winter, spring, and early summer. Once milkweed weeds develop seed pods, milkweed bugs emerge from their sheltered spots to feed and produce a new generation of bugs.
EXTENSION
Milkweed seeds seem to be the only host food of the milkweed bug (although adults can be artificially maintained on cracked watermelon seeds). It has also been reported from oleander, a plant in the same plant family as milkweed.
## Residential Recommendations
If the milkweed weeds infested with milkweed bugs are grown as food plants for monarch butterflies it may be better to live with the damage to the seeds rather than apply an insecticide. Milkweed bugs do little plant damage and are present for only a month or so. Remove leaf litter and spent stalks in the fall to eliminate overwintering sites. If the presence of the bugs is repulsive and no monarch butterfly caterpillars are present, use an insecticidal soap to kill the bugs as the dried residue of insecticidal soaps is not particularly toxic to caterpillars that might hatch shortly. If the milkweed s are not part of a butterfly garden, any of the various insecticides labeled for landscape use should give more than
adequate control. Although Sevin and other insecticides have a negative impact on pollinators, milkweed bugs seem to flourish late in the growing season after milkweedweeds have already formed seed pods and ceased blooming.
## References
- Large-milkweed bug. Anonymous. 2016. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
- Life History and Respiration of the Milkweed Bug Oncopeltus Fasciasutus (Dallas). Niswander, R. E. 1951. The Ohio Journal of Science. 51 (1): 27-33.
- Milkweed Bugs. Anonymous. 2008. Ward's Science.
- Milkweed bugs. Anonymous. No date. Missouri Botanical Garden.
- Extension Plant Pathology Publications and Factsheets
- Horticultural Science Publications
- North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension center.
This Factsheet has not been peer reviewed.
## Author
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology
Publication date: Nov. 27, 2013
Reviewed/Revised: Nov. 3, 2023
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/ailanthus-webworm | Ailanthus Webworm | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Webworm",
"Entomology",
"Pdic"
] | NC | ## Ailanthus Webworm
PDIC Factsheets
## Description and Biology
The ailanthus webworm, Atteva aurea, is the immature stage of an ermin moth, a small (1/2 inch), yellow-orange insect traversed by four blue-black bands marked with conspicuous white spots on the wings. The wings are held tight against the body when not in flight. Ailanthus webworms are slender, brown to almost black, and sometimes have four white dots on the top of each segment. The head is noticeably lighter in color and may also have white spots. Some thin white and olivegreen stripes might show along each side of the abdomen. They spin a frail silken web on the leaves of ailanthus. Moths mate in the moming, and female moths lay their eggs in the webbing usually in the evening. When mature, webworms molt into pupae that are also suspended in the loose webs. The caterpillars remain in the web during the day, but leave it to feed at night. During the growing season, all stages may be found in a web. Development from egg to moth takes about a month, so we have several generations per year in North Carolina. Eggs overwinter and hatch in mid to late spring.
Ailanthus webworm moths are brightly marked.
Attribution: Richard Gardner, Bugwood.org
## Host Plants
Although Ailanthus trees have a wonderful common name (tree of heaven), in North Carolina they seem to be more of a weed tree growing in vacant lots and in cracks in pavement. The ailanthus webworm also infests paradise tree, Simarouba glauca , as well as Simarouba amara . Adults are considered good pollinators as they visit many species of flowers during the daytime.
## Author
James Baker Professor Emeritus Entomology & Plant Pathology Publication date: March 11, 2019
Reviewed/Revised: Dec. 20, 2023
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/by-ingredients/live-well-recipe-pasta-and-kale-salad/ | Live Well Recipe: Pasta and Kale Salad | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sondra Parmer"
] | 2018-07-26 | [
"Recipes",
"Nutrition",
"Healthy Eating"
] | AL | ## Live Well Recipe: Pasta and Kale Salad
Our Pasta and Kale Salad recipe is light but filling and perfect for lunch. Serves 8.
## Ingredients
4 cups raw kale, shredded
1/4 cup Ranch salad dressing
Squeeze of lemon juice
1 tomato, diced
1/3 cup crumbled feta cheese or other shredded cheese
1 cup dry pasta (shell, elbow macaroni, rotini, orzo), cooked according to package
## Directions
Toss kale with salad dressing and lemon juice.
Massage kale well with hands for about 2 minutes. It's OK to squeeze!
Allow kale to sit for an hour in the refrigerator.
Toss other ingredients with kale and serve.
Download the recipe here: Printable Pasta and Kale Salad (https://www.accs.edu.upw- content/uploads/2018/07/FC\_S\_2196\_LiveWellAlabamaRecipeCardsPastakKaleSal
Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement. (https://www.acces.edublogtopics/live-well-alabama/usdonscrimination statement/)
(blog/category/home-family/nutrition/live-well-alabama/)
OK
Cookie Notice |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/AG310 | Mulato II (Brachiaria sp.) | University of Florida | [
"J. Vendramini",
"B. Sellers",
"L. E. Sollenberger",
"M. Silveira"
] | 2017-11-27 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Mulato II (Brachiaria sp.)
J. Vendramini, B. Sellers, L. E. Sollenberger, and M. Silveira
## Introduction
Brachiariagrasses, including Mulato II, are tropical warm-season forages native to Africa (Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Rwanda, and Burundi). Brachiariagrasses were first introduced in tropical Australia in the early 1960s and subsequently in tropical South America in the early 1970s (Pansons 1972; Sedulsky 1978).
Brachiariagrasses are the most widely grown forages in tropical South America, occupying over 80 million hectares (Boddey et al. 2004). They are extensively used as pasture grasses, but Brachiaria species are not commonly used for harvest forage. Exceptions include creeping signalgrass (Brachiaria humidicola) and a few other species that are used for hay (Boomman 1993; Stur et al. 1996). The growing interest in brachiariagrassies has prompted an urgent need to develop new cultivars with outstanding agronomic characteristics, greater range of adaptation, greater biomass production and nutritional quality, and resistance to rhizotic fungus (a disease-causing fungus) and spittle bug species.
Mulato II is the result of three generations of crosses and screening conducted by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia, including original crosses between Brachiaria genus Rizzini & Ermard von eine 46 sexual tetragonal stipella Brachiariacum dehumidicus (Stapfl. Basiliskus (apomictic tetraploid.) Sexual progenies of this first cross were exposed to open pollination to generate a second generation of hybrids. From the second generation of hybrids, a sexual genotype was selected for its superior agronomic characteristics and was again crossed, producing Mulato I. Subsequent progenies of this clone confirmed their apomictic reproduction, and results with molecular markers (microstates) showed that Mulato II has alleles that are present in the sexual mother B. cannicensis , in B. dehumbens cv . Bassikl., and in other B. brizantha accessions, including cv. Marandu.
## Morphology
Mulato II is a semi-rectepenal apomictic grass that can grow up to 9 ft tall. It is established by seed, although it could be propagated vegetatively with stem segments, if necessary. It produces vigorous cylindrical stems (some with a semi-prostrate habit) capable of rooting at the nodes when they soil. They have lanceolate and highly pubescent leaves of 15 to 25 inches in length and 1 to 15 inches width (Guiot and Melendez 2003).
## Region of Adaptation and Growing Season in Florida
Mulato II is adapted to many soil types ranging from sand to clays; however, it does not tolerate poorly drained soils. Even short periods of standing water may reduce stands considerably. The origin of the Brachiarias limits their productivity and persistence in latitudes above 28°(north of Interstate 4). In South Florida, Mulato and Mulato II grow well from spring (May) to fall (late October). They are selective to cold weather, and above-ground forage browns quickly after a frost.
## Establishment
Summer is the best time to establish Mulato II in Florida because of the greater probability of adequate temperature and moisture conditions. Spring planting may be used, but there is greater risk of dry conditions and stand failure. Commercial seed has good vigor, and when placed in a moist, firm seedbed, it germinates in 5 to 10 days. Seeds should be broadcast at 10 lbs/A and covered with ½ inch of soil. A cauliflower-type pea seed or drill can be used for more precise seed placement. Using a rolling device after seeding is recommended to assure adequate seed-soil contact and better soil moisture retention.
## Fertilization
Before establishing any crop, soil testing is strongly recommended. Although UF/IFAS does not have a specific recommendation for Mulato II fertilization, the stargrass recommendation can be used. Target soil pH should be between 5.5 to 6.0. For new plantings, apply 30 lbs/A N, all of the P$\_{O}$$\_{4}$ and half of the K$\_{2}$O recommended on your soil test report after germination. Apply additional N fertilization and remaining K$\_{2}$O according to the target production. For established stands, apply 50 lbs/A N and recommended P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$ and K$\_{2}$O in the springs. Greater N rates may be applied if greater forage production is desired. It is not recommended to apply more than 100 lbs/A N in one single application because of increased chances of losing by leaching and/or volatilization.
## Weed Control
As with any forage species, proper fertility and grazing management are very important for weed control. Because Mulato II is a bunch grass, weed management may be more challenging than for bahrigais and bermudags. As a result, soil fertility and grazing management are very important components of an integrated weed control approach.
Herbicides may be applied to Mulato II only after at least two true tillerates have formed after planting seed. Available herbicides include 2,4-D, WeedMaster (2,4-D + dicambar), Forefront, Milestone, Pasturegard, Remedy, and Cleanwave. These herbicides may be applied at labeled application rates specific to the weed species present in the pasture. However, there may be some damage from triclopyrpen-containing herbicides (Pasturegard). Remedy (if applied under hot, humid environmental conditions when Mulato is rapidly growing. Cimarron Plus, Cimarron X-tra, and Impose have not been investigated for their tolerance on Mulato.
## Utilization
Mulato II has been primarily used for grazing beef cattle in South Florida. The vigorous and prostrate-type growth during the summer makes rotational grazing recommended for Mulato II pastures. Rotational grazing facilitates the adjustment of optimum stocking rate and control of grazing stubble height. The target stuble height for grazing Mulato II should be 6.10 inches. With respect to nutritive value, Mulato II has generally CP of 11-6% and TND of 55-60%.
Research was conducted at the UF/IFAS Range Cattle Research and Education Center to evaluate the performance of yearlingheifers grazing Mulato and bahagirias from June to September 2007 at different stocking rates, 1,6,3,2, and 18 helpers F11-16 controls pastures received 14 lbs nitrogen/A split in three applications. Results showed that the highest stocking rate pastures (4.8 heifer/A) were overregulated; resulting in decrease in Mulato stand and greater area occupied by common berkheda, and broadleaf weeds. Heifers grazing at the 1.6 and 3.2 hefstocking resulted similar daily gains; however, the 3.2 hef/B after a resulted in the greatest animal gain per acre. In addition, heifers grazing muloto 3.2 hef/B arekers had greater average daily gain and gain per acre than heifers grazing bahagirais at the same stocking rates.
In Marinata, F.I., a research project was conducted to compare the performance of beef heifers grazing Mulato III Pearl millet, and sorghum-sudan and verify the potential of using Mulito II as a warm-season annual forage. The forage characteristics (production and nutritive value) were similar, resulting in similar animal performance among the forage species. Mulito II established later than pearl millet and sorghum-sudan, however, it had an extended growing season.
Although Mulito II has not typically been used as a conserved forage by producers, its vigorous growth and superior nutritive value compared to bahagirass make it a very attractive option for hay haylage. Research conducted on InFa, L.L. compared forage production and nutritive value of ten different species and cultivars of warm-season grasses. Mulato II had similar production to Bermudagrass, starrgass, and limpoprass, but Mulito II and Tifton 85 had the greatest forage digestibility (67%).
## Summary
## Advantages of Mulato II
- 1. Vigorous growth and superior nutritive value compared to bahigrass
- 2. Established by seed
- 3. Can be utilized for pasture, hay, or haylage
## Disadvantages of Mulato II
- 2. Forage brownies following frost and plant survival may be reduced by extended periods of temperatures below 32°F
- 3. Shorter growing season than limpoprass, bahagirais, or bermudagrass
## References
Boddey, R.M., R. Macedo, M.R., Tarre, E. Ferrari, O.C. de Oliveira, C. de P. Renzende, R.B. Cantuanti, J.M. Periiera, B.J.R. Alves, S. Urquiaga, 2004. "Nutrient cycling of Brachiaria pastures: the key to understanding the process of pasture decline." Agric. Ecosys. & Environ. 103: 389-403.
Boonman, J. G. 1993. East Africa's gasses and fidders: Their ecology and husbandry. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publication.
CIAT. 2000. Annual Report 2000. Project IP-5. Tropical grasses and legumes: Optimizing genetic diversity for multipurpose use. 191p.
CIAT. 2001. Annual Report 2001. Project IP-5. Tropical grasses and legumes: Optimizing genetic diversity for multipurpose use, 110-12.
Guiot, J.D., and F. Melendez, 2003a. Pasto Molta. Bracharia fibrido (CIAT 36061). Excelente alternative para producción de carme y leche en zonas tropicales. Publicacio de Estado Cáshaboa, Semillas Palafela i ESPROTABIL. Viabilityemorasebastabe(Mexico). Novembre de 2003. 23p.
Miles, J.W. 1999. "Nuevos hibridos de Brachiaría". Pasturas Tropicales 21(2): 78-80.
Vendramini, J.M.B., A.T. Adesogan, M.L.A. Silvierera, L.E.Sollenberger, O.C. Quieroz, and W.E. Anderson. 2010. "Nutritive value and fermentation parameters of warm-season grass silage." Prof. Anim. Sci. 26:193-200.
## Publication #SS AGR 303
Release Date:
November 28, 2017
Reviewed At:
December 24, 2024
DOI: 10.3243/eldis-sig-3100-2008
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprise
Contacts: Joe Vendramini
## Disclaimers
The use of trade names in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information. UF/IFAS does not guarantee or warranty the products named, and references to them in this publication do not signify our approval to the exclusion of other products of suitable composition.
About this Publication
This document is SS AGR 303, one of a series of the Department of Agronomy, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date May 2008. Revised March 2011, February 2014, and November 2017. Visit the EDIS website at http://dizfs.ifas.edu/ledu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
J. Vendramini, professor, Department of Agronomy, UF/IFAS Range Cattle Research and Education Center; B. Sellers, professor, Department of Agronomy, UF/IFAS RCREC; L. E. Sollenberger, professor, Department of Agronomy; M. Silveira, professor, Department of Soil, Water, and Ecosystem Sciences, UF/IFAS RCREC; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Poaceae |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/in-schools/body-quest-helps-prevent-childhood-obesity/ | Body Quest Helps Prevent Childhood Obesity | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Tara M. Barr"
] | 2021-09-30 | [
"In Schools",
"Nutrition",
"Childhood Obesity",
"Health"
] | AL | ## Body Quest Helps Prevent Childhood Obesity
Third-grade classrooms in Alabama are transformed each year into a dojo to combat childhood obesity.
A group of six Body Quest Warriors -a group of animated characters designed by Alabama SNAP-Ed at Auburn University -are leading the charge to teach students about the power of making good food choices.
The warriors engage students through a SNAP-Ed curriculum called Body Quest, an innovative childhood obesity prevention initiative that empowers third graders and their parents to make healthier choices.
## Body Quest
This statewide effort employs a combination of theory-driven classroom instruction, technology, and evidence-based approaches to prevent and reduce childhood obesity. The Body Quest Warriors challenge elementary youth to develop healthy behaviors through Apple iPad apps.
Third graders are energized in new and exciting ways to eat fruits and vegetables offered through the National School Lunch Program (https://www.fns.usda.gov/nsp/national-school-lunch-
(blog/category/home-family/nutrition/live-well-alabama/)
## Cookie Notice
Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement, (https://www.acs.edu/blog/topics/live-well-alabama/usdandiscrimination-statement/) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/cotton-information/cotton-classification | Cotton Classification | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Keith Edmisten"
] | null | [
"Cotton",
"Agriculture",
"Extension Services"
] | NC | ## Cotton Classification
Department
Crop & Soil Sciences
Publication Date
Jan. 30, 2025
Authors
Keith Edmisten
View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=cottonclassification#zoom=page-fit
## Other Publications in 2025 Cotton Information
County Extension Personnel Working with Cotton
Situation and Outlook
The Cotton Plant
Developing a Management Strategy: Short-Season Timeliness
Planting Decisions
Variety Selection
Cotton Seed Quality and Planting Decisions
Fertilization
Suggestions for Growth Regulator Use
Disease Management in Cotton
Nematode Management in Cotton
Weed Management in Cotton
Managing Insects on Cotton
Cotton Defoliation
Cotton Production with Conservation Tillage
Sprayer Calibration
Cotton Classification
Cotton Terminology
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FA002 | Dissolved Oxygen for Fish Production | University of Florida | [
"Ruth Francis-Floyd"
] | 2021-04-06 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | Skip to main content
## Dissolved Oxygen for Fish Production
Ruth Francis-Floyd
## What is dissolved oxygen?
Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to oxygen gas that is dissolved in water. Fish "breathe" oxygen just as land animals do. However, fish are able to absorb oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream using gills, whereas land animals use lungs to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere.
## What are the sources of oxygen in an aquatic environment?
There are three main sources of oxygen in the aquatic environment: 1) direct diffusion from the atmosphere; 2) wind and wave action; and 3) photosynthesis. Of these, photosynthesis by aquatic plants and phytoplankton is the most important in outdoor pond systems.
In ponds or tanks with algae or plants, oxygen, derived from photosynthesis, is produced during the day when sunlight shines on the plants in the water. Oxygen levels drop at night because of respiration by plants and animals, including fish. These predictable changes in DO that occur every 24 hours are called the diurnal oxygen cycle (Figure 1).
## What is oxygen depletion?
Oxygen depletion refers to low levels of DO and may result in fish mortality. A concentration of 5 mg/L DO or more is recommended for optimum fish health. Sensitivity to low levels of dissolved oxygen is species specific, however, most species of fish are distressed when DO falls to 2-4 mg/L. Mortality usually occurs at concentrations less than 2 mg/L. The number of fish that die during an oxygen depletion event is determined by how low the DO gets and how long it stays down. Usually larger fish are affected by low DO before smaller fish are.
## What causes oxygen depletion?
Oxygen depletion occurs when oxygen consumption exceeds oxygen production. Increases in oxygen consumption can be caused by an over-abundance of aquatic plants or algae in the ecosystem, "turnover" if a body of water (see Stratification/Pond Turnover section), increased organic waste entering the water (i.e., manure from feedloots, septic tank waste water, and excess fish feed), death and decay of organic matter (i.e., plant or algae die-offs), or by certain chemicals (i.e., formalin) that remove oxygen directly from the water column.
## Why are oxygen depletion events most troublesome in the summer?
In outdoor ponds, oxygen depletion events can occur at anytime, however, they are most likely to cause fish kills during hot summer weather. A decrease in oxygen production is caused by incidents such as cloudy weather and plant or algae die-offs that shut down photosynthesis. Heavy populations of plants or algae are the most important producers of oxygen in the system. However, they are also the most important users of oxygen. There are several reasons why oxygen depletion events are more common in the summer and they are discussed below.
## High Water Temperature
Warm water is much less capable of holding oxygen gas in solution than cool water. For example, water that is 90°F can only hold 7.4 mg/L DO at saturation, whereas water that is 45°F can hold 11.9 mg/L DO at saturation. This physical phenomenon puts the fish in double jeopardy because at high water temperatures their metabolic rates increase, hence their physiologic demand for oxygen increases.
## Cloudy, Still Weather
Muggy, overcast summer days often precipitate oxygen depletions. During cloudy weather, the intensity of light reaching surface waters is greatly diminished, resulting in a marked decrease in oxygen production from photosynthesis. Oxygen consumption, however, remains unchanged. This results in a net loss of oxygen over each 24-hour period. This loss of oxygen from decreased production is confounded by still, muggy, humid weather common on overcast summer days. Oxygen transfer (from the atmosphere into the water) is minimal because there is little or no wind/wave action. The net result over a period of several days is oxygen depletion and, often, fish kills.
## Stratification/Pond Turnover
During hot weather, surface waters warm up more rapidly than deeper waters. As the difference in temperature increases between warm surface water and cool bottom water, a thermocline develops. A thermocline is an area of rapid temperature change that acts as a physical barrier between warm water at the surface (epilimion) and cold water at the bottom (hypolimmon). When a thermocline is present there is no mixing of surface and deep layers of water. Because photosynthesis and oxygen production only occur near the surface, water in the deep layer becomes devoid of oxygen and develops an oxygen demand. Decomposition of organic matter, including eaten food or dead plant material, occurs at the bottom of the pond and is an oxygen consuming process. Hence the bottom layer becomes anxious because the oxygen present is used up but there is no source of new oxygen molecules due to presence of the thermocline.The thermocline can be broken by heavy wind and cold rain, common during summer thunderstorms. When the thermocline breaks down, the oxygen-rich surface waters mix with oxygen-deficient bottom waters. If the oxygen demand is sufficient, all DO present will rapidly be removed from the water column, resulting in severe oxygen depletion and a fish kill.
## How to Determine if Low Do Is the Cause of a Fish Kill
- · All fish die at approximately the same time (often during the night or in the pre-dawn hours).
- · Large fish may be affected more than small fish.
- · Morblind fish may be seen at the surface 'gasping' for oxygen (this is called 'piling').
- · Some species may die with their back arched, gills flared and mouth open. This is most commonly seen in hybrid striped bass and, occasionally, in catfish.
- · The weather immediately prior to the fish kill may have been hot, still and overcast. A severe thunderstorm may have occurred immediately prior to the fish kill.
- · An oxygen depletion event severe enough to result in significant fish mortality is often observed in water with heavy populations of algae or aquatic plants.
## What to Do if Low Do Is Suspected as the Cause of a Fish Kill
The most important thing to do if fish are dying from low DO is to turn on an aerator. If emergency aeration is not available, little can be done to help the fish. To confirm the problem, oxygen levels should be tested while the fish kill is in progress. Some county extension agents are equipped with water testing equipment. In addition, biologists with the Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission or an UFIFAS Extension Aquaculture Specialist may be available to assist.
## Preventing Oxygen Depletion
An oxygen depletion event can be predicted and, therefore, prevented by monitoring dissolved oxygen levels in a pond. The most efficient tool for measuring DO is an electronic oxygen meter. These instruments are available through most aquaculture supply companies at a variety of prices. Chemical test kits are also available. These are more troublesome to run, but are accurate and do not require as great an investment by pond owners.
Commercial catfish farms often hire night oxygen crews to monitor the DO concentration in each pond at two-hour intervals through the night. This is the surest way of avoiding a fish kill caused by low DO. Aeration systems can be turned on if oxygen levels drop below a certain concentration (usually 2-4 mg/L) depending on the fish species.
Monitoring oxygen throughout the night is impractical for recreational pond owners and part-time fish farmers. For these people it is easier to "predict" an oxygen depletion by measuring DO levels in the late afternoon (5pm-6pm) and late evening (8pm-10pm). The decline in DO during the night can be predicted by graphing DO concentration against time on standard graph paper (Figure 2). If the projected concentration of DO is below 4 mg/L before 7am emergency aeration is recommended.
## Summary
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is oxygen gas (O$\_{2}$) that is dissolved in water. Most DO in ponds is produced during photosynthesis by aquatic plants and algae. For this reason DO increases during daylight hours, declines during the night, and is lowest just before daybreak. Dissolved oxygen concentrations below 5 mg/L may be harmful to fish and piping (gulping air at the surface) may be observed when DO falls below 2 mg/L. Low levels of DO are most frequently associated with hot, cloudy weather, algae die-offs, or heavy thunderstorms. Dissolved oxygen can be monitored using an electronic oxygen meter or chemical test kit. Emergency aeration should be supplied whenever DO falls below 4 mg/L or environmental conditions favor an oxygen depletion event.
Publication #FA27
Release Date: April 7, 2021
Reviewed At: September 30, 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-fa002-1992
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Ruth Francis-Floyd
View PDF
About this Publication
This document is FA27, one of a series of the School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date September 1992. Revised February 2003. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.uf.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Ruth Francis-Floyd, professor, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences (College of Veterinary Medicine) and School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences, Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Ponds
## Francis-Floyd, Ruth
Specialist
University of Florida |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/flue-cured-tobacco-information/extension-personnel-working-with-tobacco | Extension Personnel Working with Tobacco | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"NA"
] | null | [
"Tobacco",
"Agriculture",
"Extension Services"
] | NC | ## Extension Personnel Working with Tobacco
Department
Crop & Soil Sciences
Publication Date
Jan. 8, 2025
Authors
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=extensionpersonnel-working-with-tobacco#zoom=page-fit
## Other Publications in 2025 Flue-Cured Tobacco Guide
Extension Personnel Working with Tobacco
The Tobacco Plant
US Flue-Cured Tobacco Situation and Outlook
Compling with North Carolina Farm Labor Regulations
Selecting a Variety
Producing Healthy Transplants in a Float System
Managing Nutrients
Managing Weeds
Topping, Managing Suckers, and Using Ethephon
Managing Diseases
Tobacco Insect Management
Curing and Mechanization
Protecting People and the Environment When Using Pesticides
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/chinese-mantid | Chinese Praying Mantid | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Entomology",
"PDIC",
"Mantid"
] | NC | ## Chinese Praying Mantid
PDIC Factsheets
## Description and Biology
The Chinese praying mantid, Tenoderma sinensis , is a slender, brown or green insect 3 inches (males) to 4 ¾ inches (females) long. The fore legs are adapted for grasping prey and are often held against the thorax in a "praying" position. The head is triangular with very slender antennae and prominent eyes. The Chinese mantid can swivel its head 180 degrees. Wings are held flat over the abdomen when not in flight. Females are flightless. Toward the end of their lives, females find a suitable stem and lay 50 to 600 eggs in a frothy mass that hardens around the eggs (the ootheca) that protects the eggs over winter. In spring, tiny nymphs hatch and sometimes dangle down from the ootheca in a small mass. Their soft integument soon hardens, and they disperse to find tiny insects upon which to feed. Nymphs molt six or seven times as they grow. Nymphs resemble smaller versions of adults, but lack wings (although older nymphs have noticeable wing buds).
Chinese mantid nymph.
Chinese mantid nymphs develop wing buds as they grow.
Attribution: Photo by Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State Univ., Bugwood.org
## Prey
Chinese mantids feed on just about any animal they can subdue including butterflies, cockroaches, crickets, flies, grasshoppers, moths, and spiders. They have even been photographed feeding on humming birds! On the other hand, Chinese mantids are themselves fed upon by larger birds, reptiles, and insectivorous mammals.
## Residential Recommendations
Chinese mantid ootcheca are sold as biological controls. If one purchases an ootheca, it is best to refrigerate it or keep it outdoors during the winter. A problem with bringing these egg masses indoors is that warm indoor temperatures cause the eggs to hatch prematurely, and the house is soon crawling with tiny praying mantids at a time of year that is very difficult to find insects to feed them. They then start to eat each other. It is a fascinating thing to feed a cricket or other small insect to a mantid. If kept in captivity, they need to be fed frequently and provided with a source of water. Websites that give directions for the care of mantids as pets are plentiful.
## Other Resources
- · Bird Predation By Praying Mantises: A Global Perspective. Nyfeller, M. M. R. Maxwell, and J. V. Remsen. 2017. The Wilson J. of Ornithology, 129(2):331-344.
- · Caring for a mantis. Anonymous. 2019. Keeping Insects, Caring for a praying mantis, butterflies, stick insects and beetles.
- · Chinese Praying Mantis - Biology, Diet, Distribution, Lifespan, Growth, Cannibalism,and its Predatory Behavior. Waleed. No Date. Praying-Mantis.org
- · Praying Mantises Hunt Down Birds Worldwide. Nyfeller, M. 2017. University of Basel.
- · Extension Plant Pathology Publications and Factsheets
- · Horticultural Science Publications
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension center.
This Factsheet has not been peer reviewed.
## Author
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: April 13, 2019
Reviewed/Revised: Oct. 26, 2019
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/craven-county | Craven County Forestry Impacts 2012 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"James Jeuck",
"Robert Bardon",
"Dennis Hazel",
"Corey Sugerik"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Craven County Forestry Impacts 2012
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Jan. 1, 2014
Authors
James Jeuck
Robert Bardon
Dennis Hazel
Corey Sugerik
NC STATE EXTENSION |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/columbiaco/2020/05/07/columbia-connections-newsletter-may-2020/ | Columbia Connections Newsletter May 2020 | University of Florida | [
"Jay Capasso"
] | 2020-05-07 | [
"Uncategorized"
] | FL | ## Columbia Connections Newsletter May 2020
The Columbia Connections Newsletter May 2020
See link below for the May 2020 edition of the Columbia Connections newsletter! In this months edition we included educational articles from each of our extension agents on peanut production, cashing your stimulus check, lovebugs, mindfulness, and weed identification.
Columbia Connections Newsletter May 2020
o
by Jay Capasso
Posted: May 7, 2020
Category:
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Mindfully Gardening
- Staying Well Through The Holidays: Plan Your Holiday Eating
- Peanut Soil Management
- Awareness And Intelligence With Emotions |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/soybean-crusting | Soybean Crusting | NC State Extension | [
"Rachel Vann",
"Donald Stokes"
] | null | [
"Soybean Production",
"Soybean",
"Field Crop"
] | NC | ## Soybean Crusting Introduction
Soil crusting is a problem that can occur after soybean planting before the soybeans have emerged. Soybeans have epigeal emergence; this means that the hypocotyl arch needs to pull the cotyledons through the soil surface and unfavorable soil conditions from crusting can prevent this. The most common cause of crusting in North Carolina soybeans is physical crusting due to structural degradation at the soil surface. Further textured soils with low organic matter that are historically cultivated and have minimal residue are more prone to crusting. Crusting is also more likely following a heavy rainfall event when the heavy rainfall can cause soil aggregates to move into the open pore space ultimately causing cementing of the soil. Limited rainfall after the heavy rainfall event can intensify the chance for soil crusting. Soil crusting causes soybeans to use all their energy trying to emerge from the soil and can ultimately result in an unacceptable stand or kill the plants if the issue is not addressed.
Soil crusting minimizing soybean emergence.
Attribution: Photo courtesy of Rachel Vann, NC State Extension specialist
## Symptoms
A physical crust may be observed. If a severe crust has formed, limited or uneven soybean emergence will occur. Swelling of the hypocotyl may be evident. Broken and damaged hypocotyls and cotyledons can be observed under the soil surface.
Variability in soybean emergence from crusting.
Attribution: Photo courtesy of Rachel Vann, NC State Extension specialist
## Management
If you are on crust-prone soils, several management strategies can be implemented at planting in an effort to minimize the issue. On soils prone to crusting, you need to make sure you are not planting soybeans too deep. The deeper soybeans are planted, the more difficult it is for them to break the crust while emerging because they must expend more energy trying to emerge from greater depths. Higher seeding rates can be used in fields prone to crusting so the soybeans can use the emergence force from one another to break the crust. Closer seed spacing in wider rows can also help break a crust compared to a similar population on narrower row spacing. Growers with crustprone fields should avoid planting soybeans when soil temperatures are below 60°F because these conditions can prolong emergence and allow more time for a crust to form.
If a crust does form, growers can break the crust with some type of shallow tillage implement, such as the rotary hedge. The shallow tillage should occur only deep enough to break the crust but not deep enough to cause excessive seed damage. Running the tillage implement too deep will result in unacceptable crop damage. Some seed damage is expected as variation in emergence progress across the field is likely. Operating the equipment in the same direction the rows were planted can help minimize crop damage. If soybeans are in the crook stage, they are most susceptible to damage from the rotary hedge. Growers should stop and check frequently during the tillage process to assess crop damage and decide if adjustments need to be made.
Longer-term management strategies include increasing residue on the soil surface which helps with aggregate stability following heavy rainfall events and improving soil structure (ie increasing organic matter, limiting cultivation) through long-term management.
Crook stage soybeans when use of the rotary hoe should be avoided.
Attribution: Photo courtesy of Rod Gurganus, N.C. Cooperative Extension agent
## Additional Resources
Soil Crusting (PennState Extension)
Improving soybean emergence in soils prone to crusting (MSU Extension)
Soil crust-busters (Iowa State University Extension and Outreach)
## Authors
Rachel Vann
Assistant Professor and Extension Soybean Specialist Crop & Soil Sciences
Donald Stokes
Extension Intern Crop & Soil Sciences
Publication date: June 1, 2020
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
NC Cooperative Extension prohibit lea discriminación por raza, color, nacionalidad, edad, sexo ( incluyendo el embarazo), discapacidad, religión, orientación sexual, identidad de género, información genética, afliciación política, y estatus de veterin.
The use of brand names in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University of the products or services named nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned.
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/new-houlka-census-profile-2010-2020 | New Houlka Census Profile (2010-2020) | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home
» Publications
» Publications » New Houkla Census Profile (2010-2020)
## New Houlka Census Profile (2010-2020)
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3716-313 | |
| View as PDF: P3716-313.pdf | |
| Presentation File: | |
| new_houlka_census_presentation.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension- Chickasaw County. | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to | |
| all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
| Select Your County Office | |
| SELECT A COUNTY | |
| Your Extension Experts Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor | |
| Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II | |
| Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Asssiotant Professor | |
| Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor | |
| Related News | |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/chinch-bug-in-turf | Chinch Bugs in Turf | NC State Extension | [
"Rick Brandenburg",
"Terri Billeisen"
] | null | [
"Pest Management",
"Insect",
"Insect Pest",
"Turfgrass Pest",
"Chinch Bug"
] | NC | ## Chinch Bugs in Turf
TurffFiles
## Introduction
There are more than 20 Blissus species native to North America but only four are reported pests of turfgrass: the common chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus leucopterus Say), the hairy chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus hirtus Montandon), the southern chinch bug (Blissus insularis Barber) and the western chinch bug (Blissus occiduus Barber). Of those four species, only the southern chinch bug is a common turfgrass pest in the Southeast.
## Description
Southern chinch bug adults are oblong, oval, and black with shiny white wings; each wing bears a distinctive, triangular black mark. They are approximately 0.1-0.2 inch long. Adults look similar to, but should not be confused with, big-eyed bug adults (Figure 1). Nymphal instars are smaller (0.040.1 in) and change in color and appearance as they develop. First and second instars are bright orange with a white band across the abdomen. As they grow, later instars darken to orange-brown, dark brown or black and wing pads start to appear (Figure 2).
## Pest Status
Southern chinch bugs are most commonly reported as pests on St. Augustinegrass but can also infest centipedegrass, zoysiagrass, bahiagrass, torpedograss, pangol grass, and permudagrass. Southern chinch bugs are primarily more of a problem on thick mats of turf in sunny, open areas.
## Biology
Females lay around four eggs per day in leaf sheaths, thatch, and soft soil and can lay up to 250 eggs in a lifetime. Eggs will hatch in 1-2 weeks and nymphs complete a series of five molts before maturing into adults. Chinch bug populations in the southeast are active year round, with the
occasional winter season dormancy period for adults when conditions are cold. As a result, chinch bugs generally do not leave their feeding ground and remain sheltered around the roots and base of St. Augustinegrass. During the warmer months, populations could have 7-10 overlapping generations.
## Damage
Nymphs and adults cause damage by sucking fluid from a turfgrass plant. As they feed, a salivary secretion can be injected into the plant which interferes with water and nutrient movement which causes the plant to wilt and discolor (Figure 3). Winter frost and drought damage can sometimes be mistakenly diagnosed as southern chinch bug feeding in the spring. The southern chinch bug thrives during warm, damp periods and infestations generally peak in early July.
Attribution: B. Royals, NC State University
## Cultural Control
Good cultural management can reduce the need for chemicals. Thatch can provide protection for chinch bugs and impede the movement of pesticides through the turf environment so be sure to observe proper mowing, fertilization, watering, and specific lawn care practices for St. Augustinegrass to minimize thatch (see St. Augustinegrass Lawn Maintenance Calendar ). If possible, in areas of high pest pressure, avoid planting the 'Raleigh' variety of St. Augustinegrass, which is highly susceptible to chinch bug damage. 'Flatorange' and 'Floralawn' varieties show varying degrees of resistance, however, they lack cold-hardiness. Check with your local Cooperative Extension center to see how these varieties perform in your area.
Cool, cloudy weather promotes fungal pathogens which attack chinch bugs and keep populations low. Proper irrigation can help reduce the likelihood of chinch bug damage.
## Biological Control
Chinch bugs are attacked by several predatory insects. Apply insecticides only when necessary since the repeated use of chemicals on a lawn may reduce the number of beneficial insects present.
## Chemical Control
If you suspect you have a chinch bug infestation, part the grass at the edge of the affected (yellowing, wilted) areas and examine the soil and base of the turf. Be sure to check in several places. You should be able to see chinch bug nymphs and adults crawling around the disturbed turf. Another sampling method is the "plastic bag" technique. For this, you place and seal a large square of turf in a sealed, clear plastic bag. Place the bag in the sun for several minutes. As the bag heats, insects will leave the turf and collect on the inside of the bag where they can be counted. An approximate treatment threshold is 20-25 chinch bugs per square foot. If the problem is localized, spot treatment of off-color turf and around the perimeter of the affected spot is appropriate and preferred.
Specific recommendations for commercial control and home lawn can be found in the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual.
| Insecticide and Formulation | Amount per 1,000 sq ft | Precaution and Remarks |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| acephate* (Orthene T, T&O) 75 S | 1.2 to 2.4 oz | |
| chlorantraniliprole (Acelepryn) | 0.184 to 0.46 fl oz | |
| bifenthrin* (Menace, Talstar, others) F, GC; G form also available | 0.25 to 0.5 fl oz | |
| carbyl* (Sevin) 80 WSP | 2.5 to 3 oz | |
| chlothianidin (Arena) .5G | 1.4 to 1.8 lb | |
| cholthianidin (Arena) 50 WDG | 0.2 to 0.3 oz | |
| cholthianidin + bifenthrin (Aloft) | See label | |
| cholthianidin + bifenthrin (Aloft) | 0.27 to 0.44 fl oz | |
| cholthianidin + bifenthrin (Aloft) | 0.27 to 0.54 fl oz | |
| LC SC | 1.8 to 3.6 lb | |
| chlothianidin + bifenthrin (Aloft) | GC G | |
| LC G | 1.8 to 3.6 lb | |
| cypermethrin (Demon) TC | 0.33 to 0.65 fl oz | |
| chlorpyrifos* (Dursban), 2E, 4E, 50 WP, Pro | See label Label. | |
| cyfluthrin (Tempo 2) | 0.2 fl oz | Home lawns only. |
| deltamethrin (Deltagard) G | 2 to 3 lb/1,000 ft | |
| lambda-cyhalothrin* (Battle, Scimitar, Cyonara) | See label | Do not make applications within 20 feet of any body of water. No reentry until spray has dried. |
| permethrin* (Astro) | 0.4 to 0.8 fl oz | |
|----------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|------------------|
| dinofeturan (Zylam) 20SG | 1 oz per 1,000 ft² | For suppression. |
| zeta-Cypermethrin, bifenthrin, and imadacloprid (Triple Crown) | 20-35 fl oz/acre | |
## References
- · Carolina Lawns: A Guide to Maintaining Quality Turf in the Landscape . Bruneau, A. H., et al. editors. 2008. NC State Extension Publication. AG-69.
- · Chinch Bugs in St. Augustine Lawns . Merchant, M. E. and D. A. Mott. 2006. Texas A&M AgriLife Extension. Publication E-420. 5 pp.
- · 2018 Pest Control for Professional Turgrass Managers . Bowman, D. et al. 2017. NC State Extension Publication AG-40B.
- · Managing Southern Chinch Bug in Warm Season Turgrasses . Buss, E. A., B. M. Whitman, and A. G. Dale. 2018 (revised). University of Florida EDIS.
- · Southern Chinch Bug , Scientific Name: Blissus insularis . Sutherland, A. M., M. L. Flint, and M. A. Harivandi. 2016 (revised). UC ANR Publication 3365-T
- · NC State Extension Plant Pathology Publications and Factsheets
- · NC State Horticultural Science Department Publications
- North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local Cooperative Extension center.
## Authors
Rick Brandenburg
Extension Specialist (Peanuts & Turf) & Department Extension Leader Entomology & Plant Pathology
Terri Billieisen
Extension Associate Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: Oct. 25, 2017
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/head-underneath-both-forelegs/ | Head Underneath Both Forelegs | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Taylor Gwynn",
"Soren Rodning",
"Michelle Elmore",
"Paul Dyce",
"Julie Gard Schnuelle",
"Misty Edmondson",
"Andrew Lovelady",
"B. J. Newcomer",
"Kim Mullenix"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Beef",
"Calving",
"Livestock"
] | AL | ## Head Underneath Both Forelegs
The first step in providing assistance during calving is assessing the problem. There are several common situations encountered when delivering a calf. Sometimes a calf can have its head underneath both forelegs. The head must be placed on top of the forelegs, and then delivery can proceed.
When in doubt, call your veterinarian. The outcome is always more favorable if assistance is provided sooner rather than later. Waiting too long unnecessarily risks the life of the cow or heifer and her calf.
Read here to learn more about how to manage a successful calving season.(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/managing-a successful-calving-season/)
Download a PDF of Managing a Successful Calving Season, ANR-1403,(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR1403\_ManagingSuccessfulCalvingSeason\_031618.pdf)
- ■ Read More
Cookie Notice (https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php)
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/managing-a-successful-calyving-season/)
Managing a Successful Calving Season (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/managing-a successful-calving-season/)
Sep 19, 2018
## Cookie Notice
( https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php ) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/the-history-and-use-of-kudzu-in-the-southeastern-united-states/ | History and Use of Kudzu in the Southeastern United States | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Nancy J. Loewenstein",
"Stephen F. Enloe",
"John W. Everest",
"James H. Miller",
"Donald M. Ball",
"Michael G. Patterson"
] | 2022-03-08 | [
"Forestry",
"Wildlife",
"Invasive Species"
] | AL | <!-- This page is cached by the Hummingbird Performance plugin v3.6.0 - https://wordpress.org/plugins/hummingbird-performance/. --><!DOCTYPE html>
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text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-4897 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
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<article id="post-4897" class="post-4897 aces_content_piece type-aces_content_piece status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry category-forestry-wildlife category-invasive-species tag-anr-2221 tag-history-and-use-of-kudzu-in-the-southeastern-united-states tag-invasive-species first last odd" role="article" aria-label="History and Use of Kudzu in the Southeastern United States">
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History and Use of Kudzu in the Southeastern United States </div>
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<li>March 8, 2022</li>
<li class="meta-author">Posted by: Nancy J. Loewenstein, Stephen F. Enloe, John W. Everest, James H. Miller, Donald M. Ball, and Michael G. Patterson</li>
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/the-history-and-use-of-kudzu-in-the-southeastern-united-states/"></div><div id="attachment_93335" style="width: 410px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-93335" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" class="wp-image-93335" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Screen-Shot-2022-03-08-at-4.01.39-PM-600x382.png" alt="EDDMapS. 2022. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System. The University of Georgia - Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available online at http://www.eddmaps.org/; last accessed March 2, 2022." width="400" height="255" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Screen-Shot-2022-03-08-at-4.01.39-PM-600x382.png 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Screen-Shot-2022-03-08-at-4.01.39-PM-768x489.png 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Screen-Shot-2022-03-08-at-4.01.39-PM-1536x978.png 1536w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Screen-Shot-2022-03-08-at-4.01.39-PM-275x175.png 275w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Screen-Shot-2022-03-08-at-4.01.39-PM.png 1772w" sizes="(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px" /><p id="caption-attachment-93335" class="wp-caption-text">EDDMapS. 2022. Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System. The University of Georgia – Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available online at http://www.eddmaps.org/; last accessed March 2, 2022.</p></div>
<p>Kudzu is a classic example of a plant that was introduced with good intentions but that resulted in bad outcomes. Learn about the history and use of kudzu in the southeastern United States.</p>
<p>Kudzu is an aggressive vine familiar to most people across the southeastern United States. It is a classic example of a plant that was introduced with good intentions, but that has resulted in many bad outcomes. Landowners know all too well that kudzu can stifle agricultural production as well as timber growth. It often becomes a weed in noncropland areas such as right-of- ways, old fields, vacant lots, or yards of abandoned or little-used buildings.</p>
<p>Kudzu is also a serious weed of urban forests, and homeowners often struggle to effectively control its aggressive growth. Kudzu can quickly overtake any type of vegetation and suppress or kill it by heavy shading. Given the problems it causes, many people often question how such an invasive plant could have been purposefully introduced. This publication provides a short history of kudzu in the Southeast and explains the reasons behind the problem it has become.</p>
<h1>Description</h1>
<div id="attachment_5708" style="width: 410px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5708" decoding="async" class="wp-image-5708" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-2-kudzu-foliage1-e1646777713875-600x420.jpg" alt="Figure 1. Kudzu has trifoliate leaves. Each of the three leaflets is usually slightly lobed and has a pointed tip." width="400" height="280" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-2-kudzu-foliage1-e1646777713875-600x420.jpg 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-2-kudzu-foliage1-e1646777713875-768x537.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-2-kudzu-foliage1-e1646777713875-1536x1074.jpg 1536w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-2-kudzu-foliage1-e1646777713875.jpg 1955w" sizes="(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px" /><p id="caption-attachment-5708" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 1. Kudzu has trifoliate leaves. Each of the three leaflets is usually slightly lobed and has a pointed tip.</p></div>
<p>Kudzu (<em>Pueraria montana var. lobata</em> [Willd] Maesen & S. Almeida) is a large, trifoliate-leaved, semi-woody, trailing or climbing perennial vine in the Fabaceae (legume or pea) family. Up close, kudzu might at first be confused with a vigorous poison ivy plant. But kudzu stems are distinctly hairy, and the vines twine rather than use hairy rootlets to climb as poison ivy does. The vines may grow up to 60 feet in a single season and as much as 1 foot during a single day in the early summer. This amount of vine growth is supported by starchy, tuberous roots that can reach a depth of 12 feet in older patches and weigh as much as 200 to 300 pounds.</p>
<p>Kudzu is well-adapted to Alabama and is found throughout the state. It will grow on a wide range of soil types but does better on deep, loamy soils compared to very light sands or poorly drained, heavy clay soils or those with high pH. Kudzu exhibits a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which may help explain its successful growth on heavily eroded sites.</p>
<p>Vines grow outward in all directions, and roots grow down from a root crown located on the soil surface. Vines growing along the ground can root every foot or so at the nodes and form new root crowns that can become independent plants. Mature stands may contain tens of thousands of plants per acre and can create mats up to 8 feet thick. Vines climb by twining, but cannot twine around smooth objects with diameters greater than approximately 8 inches. Trailing, prostrate vines generally die back to the root crown after the first heavy frost. Vigorous, climbing vines greater than one-quarter inch in diameter can overwinter, but the leaves will be killed by the first frost. Climbing vines can reach 10 inches and greater in diameter, putting on what appear to be annual growth rings and developing rough, dark brown bark.</p>
<p>Kudzu blooms from July through September. The fragrant, pealike purple flowers are typically produced on plants that are climbing or draped over vegetation or other objects, as vines rarely flower when trailing on the ground. Flowers are followed by flat, hairy seed pods; however, seed production and viability are highly variable. Seeds mature on the vines in October and November. The longevity of seeds in the soil is not known. Because the seeds have very hard coats, it is thought that those that don’t succumb to predation may lie dormant in the soil for several years before they germinate.</p>
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<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/the-history-and-use-of-kudzu-in-the-southeastern-united-states/anr-2221-fig-3-twining-kudzu-stem/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-3-twining-kudzu-stem-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Figure 2. Young kudzu vines are covered with erect golden hairs and climb by twining." decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-1-5709" loading="lazy" /></a>
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Figure 2. Young kudzu vines are covered with erect golden hairs and climb by twining.
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<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/the-history-and-use-of-kudzu-in-the-southeastern-united-states/anr-2221-fig-4-kudzu-root-crown/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-4-kudzu-root-crown-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Figure 3. Kudzu roots grow down from a root crown located on the soil surface." decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-1-5710" loading="lazy" /></a>
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Figure 3. Kudzu roots grow down from a root crown located on the<br>soil surface.
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<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/the-history-and-use-of-kudzu-in-the-southeastern-united-states/anr-2221-fig-5-kudzu-flower/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-5-kudzu-flower-e1646777947271-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Figure 4. Kudzu flowers are typically produced on plants that are climbing or draped over vegetation or other objects. Note the kudzu bugs at the base of the flower." decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-1-5711" loading="lazy" /></a>
</dt>
<dd class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-1-5711'>
Figure 4. Kudzu flowers are typically produced on plants
that are climbing or draped over vegetation or other objects. Note the kudzu bugs at the base of the flower.
</dd></dl><dl class='gallery-item'>
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<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/the-history-and-use-of-kudzu-in-the-southeastern-united-states/anr-2221-fig-6-kudzu-fruit1/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-6-kudzu-fruit1-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Figure 5. Kudzu fruits are flattened seed pod legumes." decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-1-5712" loading="lazy" /></a>
</dt>
<dd class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-1-5712'>
Figure 5. Kudzu fruits are flattened seed pod legumes.
</dd></dl><br style="clear: both" />
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<h1>History</h1>
<p>Approximately 15 species of kudzu (<em>Pueraria</em> spp.) are known throughout the world, all native to China, Taiwan, Japan, and India. For more than 2,000 years, Asian cultures have found great value in kudzu. Chinese records tell of kudzu roots being dried and diced for medicinal purposes as early as 1578. Kudzu fiber from vines and stems was used to make “grass” cloth and paper by 1665. During the 1700s, kudzu was imported into Japan where the roots were ground into flour. Kudzu flour is still imported to the United States and sold in many Asian grocery and health food stores.</p>
<p>Kudzu first arrived in the United States in 1876 as a display at the Japanese Exhibition of the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. However, all the plants were destroyed by law after the exhibition. Kudzu was also later displayed in the United States in 1883 at the New Orleans Exposition. In the late nineteenth century, kudzu seeds were imported and sold for use as an ornamental vine to shade porches and courtyards of southern homes. It was also appreciated for the grape-like fragrance of its flowers and for its vigorous growth.</p>
<p>By the turn of the century, kudzu was available through mail-order catalogs. By 1905, through the efforts of C. E. Pleas of Chipley, Florida, kudzu was promoted as inexpensive forage for livestock.</p>
<div id="attachment_5714" style="width: 410px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5714" decoding="async" class="wp-image-5714" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-7-historical-photo-USDA-archives-e1646778038842-600x373.jpg" alt="Figure 6. During the 1900s, kudzu was promoted as an inexpensive forage and for erosion control. (Photo credit: USDA NRCS Archive, USDA, NRCS, Bugwood.org.)" width="400" height="249" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-7-historical-photo-USDA-archives-e1646778038842-600x373.jpg 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-7-historical-photo-USDA-archives-e1646778038842-768x478.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-2221-Fig-7-historical-photo-USDA-archives-e1646778038842.jpg 1536w" sizes="(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px" /><p id="caption-attachment-5714" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 6. During the 1900s, kudzu was promoted as an inexpensive forage and for erosion control. (Photo credit: USDA NRCS Archive, USDA, NRCS, Bugwood.org.)</p></div>
<p>In the 1930s, kudzu reached the height of its prominence. The Soil Erosion Service (later renamed the Soil Conservation Service and now the Natural Resource Conservation Service), established by Congress in 1933, was charged to reduce soil erosion caused by poor farming practices in the South. About 85 million kudzu plants were given to southern landowners by the Soil Erosion Service for land revitalization and to reduce soil erosion and add nitrogen to the soil. The Civilian Conservation Corps also planted kudzu throughout the South. The government offered up to $8 per acre as an incentive for farmers to plant their land in kudzu. About 3 million acres of kudzu had been planted on farms by 1946. Ironically, due to difficulties in establishment, many of these initial plantings did not survive.</p>
<p>In the 1940s, numerous kudzu clubs were formed throughout the South. Kudzu festivals were held, and kudzu queens were crowned. In 1943, Channing Cope, a journalist and radio show host in Covington, Georgia, founded the Kudzu Club of America, which eventually had a membership of about 20,000 individuals. He became known as the “Father of Kudzu.”</p>
<p>By the early 1950s, kudzu had largely become a nuisance. It had spread rapidly throughout the South because of the long growing season, warm climate, plentiful rainfall, and lack of disease and insect enemies. Abandonment of farmland during this time contributed to the uncontrolled spread of kudzu. In 1953, the United States Department of Agriculture removed kudzu from the list of cover plants permissible under the Agricultural Conservation Program. In 1962, the Soil Conservation Service limited its recommendation of kudzu to areas far removed from developed areas. Finally in 1970, the USDA listed kudzu as a common weed in the South. Congress voted in 1997 to place kudzu on the Federal Noxious Weed list, where it remained for a few years. While no longer on the Federal Noxious Weed list, kudzu is currently listed as a noxious weed in 13 states.</p>
<p>It is estimated that kudzu may cover more than one- quarter million acres in Alabama. Kudzu has spread north into Pennsylvania and Illinois and west into Texas, Oklahoma, Iowa, and Nebraska. There are also scattered reports of kudzu as far north as Michigan and New York, with populations in Ontario, Oregon, and Washington.</p>
<h1>Forage Uses</h1>
<p>Kudzu produces high-quality forage that, when young, is quite palatable to livestock and poultry. The forage quality varies with management and season, but it is not unusual for kudzu hay to have a crude protein content of 15 to 18 percent and a total digestible nutrient value (TDN) of more than 60 percent (on a dry-matter basis). The overall quality decreases as the number of large vines increases relative to leaves. Kudzu also retains its forage value until frost and can even be of some value for grazing for a short time after frost.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, the use of kudzu as a forage plant has definite limitations. Although kudzu appears to make a great deal of growth, it produces low to moderate forage yields, usually around 2 to 4 tons of dry matter per acre per year. In addition, kudzu is difficult to harvest and bale because of its vining growth habit. It is possible to remove two cuttings of hay per year without damaging the kudzu stand. The first cutting should be made in late June or early July and the second in the fall, just before frost. Because it will not shed water well, kudzu hay should be placed under shelter for protection after it is baled. Kudzu can also be harvested for silage, but the silage is light and difficult to pack.</p>
<p>Some Alabama farmers still harvest kudzu from fields managed for this purpose by annual or biennial harvesting. It is most frequently used in this manner during dry periods because its deep root system allows it to obtain moisture for growth when other forage species cannot.</p>
<p>All types of grazing animals will readily eat kudzu, but frequent defoliation over 3 to 4 years can destroy stands. Therefore, kudzu has limited value as a grazing crop except on a very temporary basis. The negative impacts of livestock on kudzu tend to relegate it to forests, roadsides, right-of-ways, and non-crop areas where livestock do not have access. Goats and sheep have been used in vegetation management programs for kudzu control. Deer are known to browse kudzu but do not have any meaningful negative impacts. The interactions of kudzu with other herbivores are largely unknown.</p>
<h1>Impacts</h1>
<p>Although kudzu is widely assumed to have significant negative ecological impacts, the influence of kudzu on biodiversity and ecological processes is surprisingly poorly studied. Anecdotal reports and general observations suggest that the dense shading created by kudzu significantly reduces native plant biodiversity. Kudzu growing in forest plantations can weigh down and smother seedlings and saplings. Larger trees blanketed by kudzu may be more prone to windthrow. Utility and railroad companies spend significant amounts of time and money controlling kudzu growing over utility poles and railroad tracks. Considerable time and money are also spent at national and state parks as well as other federal and state lands to control kudzu, especially when threatening national monuments, historical sites, or other sensitive areas.</p>
<p>Kudzu is a nitrogen-fixing species, and dense infestations have the potential to significantly affect nitrogen cycling. Alteration of the nitrogen cycle can affect soil fertility, water quality, and biodiversity. Kudzu also has the potential to affect air quality, as it is an intermediate to high emitter of isoprene. Isoprene is a photochemically reactive hydrocarbon that can contribute to ozone and smog production. All plants produce isoprene, but not all produce as much as kudzu. Depending on what species a kudzu infestation has replaced, isoprene levels may be higher in the vicinity. This is especially the case during hot and dry periods of the year.</p>
<p>Kudzu also serves as a host for significant agricultural diseases and insect pests including Asian soybean rust and the kudzu bug (<em>Megacopta cribraria</em>). Kudzu bugs are of special importance as they were first detected in 2009, but within a few years, these strong fliers have spread throughout much of the southeast. A true stink bug, kudzu bugs suck sap from kudzu and many other plants, including soybeans. On average, kudzu bugs have reduced soybean yields by 18 percent, but losses as high as 47 percent have been reported. Kudzu bugs are also an urban pest as they congregate around homes and other buildings and emit a foul-smelling chemical. Kudzu bugs do damage kudzu and appear to reduce its vigor and climbing ability. However, to date, their impact has not yet been enough to control kudzu.</p>
<h1>Conclusions</h1>
<p>The history of kudzu in the United States is a compelling story, but also a cautionary tale of how good plants can go bad. Although scientists now use risk assessment tools to evaluate the potential for invasiveness in new plant introductions, it is still an imperfect process, and there is much yet to be learned. Without a doubt, kudzu is here to stay. Although landowners can get effective kudzu control, eradication from the United States is not currently feasible. It is clear that kudzu is continuing to expand its range in the United States and has yet to reach its ecological potential. Future research will help clarify the full impacts of kudzu and what can be done about it.</p>
<p> </p>
<hr />
<p><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" class="size-full wp-image-46702 alignleft" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Peer-Review-e1623271002323.jpg" alt="Peer Review" width="175" height="117" />Reviewed by <strong>Nancy J. Loewenstein</strong>, <em>Extension Specialist</em> and Research Fellow, Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University. Originally written by <strong>Nancy J. Loewenstein</strong>, <em>Extension Specialist</em> and Research Fellow, Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University;<strong> Stephen F. Enloe</strong>, former<em> Extension Weed Specialist</em>, Auburn University; <strong>John W. Everest</strong>, former <em>Extension Weed Specialist</em>, Professor Emeritus, Auburn University; <strong>James H. Miller</strong>, Emeritus Research Ecologist, USDA Forest Service; <strong>Donald M. Ball</strong>, former <em>Extension Agronomist</em>, Professor Emeritus, Auburn University; and <strong>Michael G. Patterson</strong>, former <em>Extension Weed Specialist</em>, Professor Emeritus, Auburn University</p>
<p>Reviewed March 2022, <strong>History and Use of Kudzu in the Southeastern United States</strong>, ANR-2221</p>
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/control-fire-ants-your-yard | Control Fire Ants in Your Yard | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Blake Layton"
] | null | [
"Insects",
"Fire Ants",
"Lawn and Garden",
"Pests"
] | MS | Home
» Publications
» Control Fire Ants in Your Yard
## Control Fire Ants in Your Yard
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under: Insects, Fire Ants, Lawn and Garden, Insects-Home Lawns, Pests
Publication Number:
P2429
View as PDF: P2429.pdf
Fire ants are easier to control than many people realize. The key is to understand their biology, apply the right treatments at the right times, and understand how each treatment works.
Fire ants are the most common insect pests of home lawns. They occur in practically every lawn in the state! Even if you manage to achieve a totally fire ant-free yard, it probably won't stay that way long because newly mated fire ant queens will quickly recolonize it. And new fire ant colonies thrive especially well in areas that are free of other, competing colonies. Fire ant control is a never-ending battle in the South, but there are steps you can take to keep your lawn and landscape relatively free of these troublesome pests.
The easiest, cheapest, most effective thing you can do to control fire ants is to use baits properly and preventively, and you will reduce the number of mounds in your yard by 80 to 90 percent. If you want even better control, you can supplement your bailing program with some additional tricks, like spot-treating mounds that survive the bait treatments.
This is the smallest possible fire ant colony. This newly mated queen has completed her mating flight and shed her wings, and is excavating a gallery to begin her nest.
## Bait
The key to success with baits is applying them as broadcast treatments instead of treating only individual mounds. You will never win the battle against fire ants by only treating individual mounds. In addition to the big mounds you can easily see-or trip over-there are a lot of little colonies that are just getting started. If you eliminate only the big mounds, the small colonies will thrive because they have less competition, and they will quickly grow into large mounds. Broadcast bait treatments target all colonies in the yard, regardless of size.
Not sure you have enough fire ants to justify a bait treatment? Use potato chips, the greasy unfavored kind, to check for fire ant foraging activity. If there are active foragers in the area, they will usually respond within 30 minutes or so. If they respond to potato chips, they will respond to granular fire ant bait.
Early spring is one of the best times to apply fire ant baits because fire ants are actively foraging for food at this time. If you are going to treat only one time per year, do it in the spring. But you can improve control by treating again in midsummer and a third time in the fall, especially if you live in a rural area where fire ants are abundant. In more urban areas, you may only need to treat once or twice per year.
Be proactive! Don't wait until you see more big mounds to make the next bait treatment. If you don't like to have big fire ant mounds in your yard, you have to treat before you have big fire ant mounds in your yard. Use the holidays-Easter, Independence Day, and Labor Day-to remind you when it is time to put out fire ant bait. Try to pick a time when it is not likely to rain for a couple of days. This gives the ants time to collect the bait and carry it back to the mound before it is washed away. You also need to avoid watering for a couple of days after applying bait.
For small areas like home lawns, most broadcast fire ant baits are easily applied using a small, handpowered spreader. Don't try to use your fertilizer spreader-it will put out way too much! Most fire ant baits are applied at rates of 1 to 21/2 pounds per acre. That's not very much material, and it's easy to over-apply fire ant baits if you don't read and follow the label directions. Bafts are a cheap way to control fire ants if you use the proper rate, but they can be very expensive if over-applied.
## This foraging fire ant worker is carrying a granule of fire ant bait back to the colony.
A few baits are formulated for application at higher rates so they can be applied with a lawn fertilizer spreadrear. These products usually give suggested spreader settings on their labels and are applied at rates of around 20 pounds per acre.
Maintaining uniform coverage is less important when applying fire ant baits than when applying fertilizers, herbicides, or other lawn insecticides. The foraging fire ant workers will compensate for any narrow untreated areas that may occur between swaths. It is not necessary to apply fire ant baits in a crisscross pattern, as informally done with seed, fertilizers, herbicides, or granular insecticides. Apply baits when the ground is dry and when ground temperatures are between 70 and 90ºF with no forecast of rain.
Remember that fire ant baits are supposed to be slow-acting. The worker fire ants pick up the bait granules and carry them back to the colony. Adult fire ants can't eat solid food; they have to feed it to the larvae, which digest and liquefy it. This liquid food, which still contains the insecticide, is then collected from the larvae by other workers and passed among the ants in the colony, eventually reaching and killing the queen.
The insecticides used in fire ant baits have to be slow-acting to allow time for the insecticide to be spread throughout the colony. A fast-acting insecticide would kill the worker ant before she got back to the colony with the bait granule, defeating the objective. Depending on which bait you use, it can take 2 to 6 weeks to obtain maximum control. Bafts work great, but you have to be patient!
Where they are properly applied two to three times per year, baits will give 80 to 90 percent control. You can improve control by spot-treating any mounds that survive the bait treatments. It's best to wait several days after applying baits before you treat individual mounds with contact insecticide treatments. This allows time for foraging worker ants to carry the baits into the colonies and improves your chances of killing the queen.
You can use baits to treat individual mounds, but they won't work as fast as other types of mound treatments. If you do use baits for individual mounds, don't put the bait directly on top of the mound. The ants won't find it up there on the roof! Instead, spread the specified amount of bait on the area around the mound so that foraging workers can find it readily. Ever wonder where the door of a fire ant mound is? Worker ants enter and exit through underground tunnels that radiate away from the
mound. The entrances to these tunnels are anywhere from 5 to more than 20 feet away from the mound.
Use a small, hand-held spreader to preventively apply a granular fire ant bait two or three times per year, and you will have a lot fewer fire ant mounds in your yard.
## Bails for Control of Fire Ants in Home Lawns 1
| Brand Name (insecticide) (% ai) | Rate/mound 2 | Rate/acre 3 |
|----------------------------------------------|----------------|---------------|
| Amdro Fire Ant Bait (hydramethylnon) (0.73%) | 2 to 5 Tbsp | 1 to 1.5 lb |
| Brand Name (insecticide) (% ai) | Rate/mound$^{2}$ | Rate/acre$^{3}$ |
|------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|-------------------|
| Adviron Fire Ant Bait (indoxacarb) (0.045%) | 4 Tbsp | 1.5 lb |
| Come & Get It Bait (spinosad) (0.015%) | 4 to 6 Tbsp | 2.5 to 5 lb |
| Distance (pyriproxyfen) (0.5%) | 1 to 4 Tbsp | 1 to 1.5 lb |
| Extinguish Professional Fire Ant Bait (methoprene) (0.5%) | 3 to 5 Tbsp | 1 to 1.5 lb |
| Extinguish Plus (methoprene) (0.25%) + (hydramethylnon) (0.365%) | 2 to 5 Tbsp | 1.5 lb |
| Siesta Insecticide Fire Ant Bait (metaflumizone) (0.063%) | 2 to 4 Tbsp | 1.5 lb |
$^{1 }$Avoid applying baits immediately before or after irrigation or rainfall. Baits may require 4 to 8 weeks to provide maximum results.
$^{2 }$Apply baits around the mound, not on top of the mound.
There are 43,560 square feet in 1 acre.
## Mound Treatments
Can't wait 4 weeks for a bait treatment to control that big mound by the edge of the patio? Individual mound treatments containing contact insecticides provide much quicker control than bait treatments, and they are the best way to quickly eliminate mounds that are especially troublesome. There are two basic methods of treating individual fire ant mounds: liquid drenches and dry mound treatments.
The liquid drenches provide the quickest control, but they are time-consuming to mix and apply. The dry mound treatments are easy and convenient to use, but these are less effective and usually take a few days to work. Regardless of which method you use, don't disturb mounds before treating . If you do, the workers may take the queen or queens to safety, by moving them either deep into the mound or out one of those underground tunnels to establish satellite mounds.
Use a watering can to mix and apply liquid drenches. Just mix the specified amount of insecticide in water and pour over the mound. The key to success with liquid drenches is to use enough liquid to thoroughly soak the mound. Depending on the size of the mound, this ranges from 1 to 2 gallons of mixed drench. Begin by applying about one-fourth of the total volume to a 10- to 12-inch band around the outside of the mound. This prevents the queen from escaping through those underground foraging tunnels and improves control of workers. Then apply the rest of the drench directly to the mound. Failure to use enough drench to thoroughly soak the mound is the main reason for unsuccessful mound-drenching efforts.
| Insecticide | Brand Name (example) | Rate |
|--------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------|-----------------|
| bifenthrin (2.4% concentrate) | Hi-Yield Bug Blaster | 0.5 fl oz/gal |
| permethrin (2.5% concentrate) | Bonide Eight Insect Control | 0.67 fl oz/gal |
| permethrin (10% concentrate) | Hi-Yield Lawn, Garden, Pet, and Livestock Insect Control | 1.5 fl oz/gal |
| permethrin (38% concentrate) | Hi Yield 38 Plus | 1.6 fl oz/gal |
| spinosad (0.5% concentrate) | Monterey Garden Insect Spray 2 | 2 fl oz/gal |
'Depending on the size of the mound, it takes 1 to 2 gallons of water-insecticide mix to drench a fire ant mound effectively. Drench the mound and an area approximately 10 to 12 inches around the perimeter of the mound. Do not disturb mounds before or after drenching.
Dry mound treatments may not work as fast as drenches, but they sure are convenient, and they provide a quick, easy way to treat that mound you spotted while mowing the lawn. Sprinkle the specified amount of powder over and around the mound, and be patient. It can take a few days for a dry mound treatment to work.
Dry mound treatments containing acephate as the active ingredient are the most effective, but acephate stinks, and the odor can linger in the treated area for weeks. For this reason, many people prefer to use dry mound treatments that contain active ingredients like deltamethrin or cyfluthrin. They don't work quite as fast, but they don't have the odor, either.
Keep a can of one of the dry fire ant mound treatment products on hand to spot-treat mounds you notice while doing lawn chores.
| | Dry Mound Treatments Applied as Powders 1 | Dry Mound Treatments Applied as Powders 1 |
|-----------------|---------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Insecticide | Brand Name (example) | Amount/mound |
| acephate | Ortho Orthene Fire Ant Killer (50%) | 1-3 Tbsp |
| acephate | Martin's Surrender Fire Ant Killer (75%) | 1-2 tsp |
| beta-cyfluthrin | BioAdvanced Fire Ant Killer (0.5%) | 1 tsp |
| deltamethrin | Bengal Ultra Dust 2X Fire Ant Killer (0.1%) | 1 tsp |
| deltamethrin | Terro Ant Dust (0.05%) | 1 Tbsp |
## Dry Mound Treatments Applied as Granules 1
| Insecticide | Brand Name (example) | Amount/mound |
|--------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------|
| bifenthrin | Ortho Fire Ant Killer Broadcast Granules | 0.5 cup |
| zeta-cypermethrin + bifenthrin | GardenTech Sevin Insect Killer Lawn Granules | 0.5 cup |
'Sprinkle dry product on and around mound as directed on label. Do not disturb mounds before or after treatment.
## Broadcast Insecticide Treatments
Broadcast insecticide treatments are contact insecticides that are applied over the entire lawn. They are generally more time-consuming and costly to use than baits. They are more commonly used in highly managed areas, such as athletic fields and golf courses, than in home lawns. Broadcast insecticide treatments may be formulated as liquids, which are mixed according to label directions and sprayed over the turf area, or as granular treatments, which are spread over the turf area using an appropriate spreader.
Don't confuse granular contact insecticides with granular baits. Bails are impregnated with oil or some other food substance and a small amount of slow-acting insecticide. The worker ants actively collect the bait granules and carry them back to the colony. Granular insecticides are simply granules that are impregnated with insecticide. They are not attractive to ants. Instead, the insecticide in the granules moves into the soil and controls foraging ants and newly settled queens by contact activity. Consequently, obtaining uniform coverage is more important when applying broadcast insecticide granules than when applying granular baits.
Many of the insecticides used as broadcast treatments for fire ants also control other lawn pests, such as chinch bugs, white grubs, or mole crickets. If you have multiple pest problems, this can be useful to know. Choose the right insecticide and you can control fire ants and mole crickets, or fire ants and white grubs. Before buying a broadcast insecticide, read the label carefully to be sure that the insecticide you choose controls the particular group of pests you need to control. See Extension Publication 2331 Control Insect Pests In and Around the Home Lawn for additional information.
| | Broadcast Insecticide Treatments Applied as Sprays' | Broadcast Insecticide Treatments Applied as Sprays' |
|-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| Insecticide | Brand Name (example) | Rate/1,000 sq ft |
| bifenthrin (0.3% concentrate) | Fertilome Broad Spectrum Insecticide | 12 fl oz (1.5 fl oz/gal) |
| bifenthrin (2.4% concentrate) | Hi-Yield Bug Blaster | 3 fl oz (0.5 fl oz/gal) |
| Insecticide | Brand Name (example) | Rate/1,000 sq ft |
|-------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------|
| bifenthrin (0.3%) + zeta-cypermethrin (0.075% concentrate) | Ortho Bug B Gon Insect Killer for Lawns and Gardens | 12 fl oz (1.5 fl oz/gal) |
| cyfluthrin (0.36%) + imidacloprid (0.72%) | BioAdvanced Complete Insect Killer | 6 fl oz |
| gamma-cyalothrin (0.25% concentrate) | Spectracide Triazicide Insect Killer | 2 fl oz |
| permethrin (38% concentrate) | Hi-Yield 38 Plus Turf, Termite, & Ornamental Insect Concentrate | 0.8 fl oz |
'Most broadcast treatments will provide control for approximately 4 to 8 weeks.
## Broadcast Insecticide Treatments Applied as Granules$^{1}$
| Insecticide | Brand Name (example) | Rate/1,000 sq ft |
|------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|---------------------|
| bifenthrin (0.2% granules) | Ortho Max Fire Ant Killer Granules | 2.3 lb |
| gamma-cyalothrin (0.05% granules) | Triacidic Soil & Turf Insect Killer Granules | 2 lb |
| permethrin (0.5% granules) | Hi-Yield Kill A Bug II Lawn Granules | 2 to 3 lb |
| zeta-cypermethrin (0.029%) + bifenthrin (0.115% granules) | GardenTech Sevin Insect Killer Lawn Granules | 4 lb |
$^{1}$Most broadcast treatments will provide control for approximately 4 to 8 weeks.
Note: TopChoice (filproin 0.00143%) is a granular insecticide treatment that can be applied only by a professional pest control company or other properly licensed commercial applicator. This product is costly but provides long-lasting residual control of fire ants with only one application per year. Application rate is 2 lb of product per 1,000 sq ft. Homeowners who are willing to spend extra money in order to obtain improved fire ant control in sensitive areas may be interested in arranging with a commercial applicator to provide this service. For application only by licensed commercial applicants .
If you have an especially low tolerance for fire ants and are willing to go the extra mile to control them, you may wish to use a combination of methods. Some people use broadcast insecticide treatments on those areas where they really don't want to see any fire ant mounds-like around the patio and in pet yards and play yards (follow re-entry interval specified on label). Then, they use baits on the rest of the yard, as well as these especially sensitive areas.
## For more information on fire ants, fire ant biology, and fire ant control in other settings, visit extension.msstate.edu/insects/fire-ants .
This work is partially supported by Crop Protection and Pest Management Extension Implementation Program grant no. 2021-70006-35580/CRIS Number 1027242 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
The information given here is for educational purposes only. References to commercial products, trade names, or suppliers are made with the understanding that no endorsement is implied and that no discrimination against other products or suppliers is intended.
Publication 2429 (POD-08-23)
By Blake Layton , PhD, Extension Professor, Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Entomology, and Plant Pathology.
Department: Biochemistry,Molecular Biology,EntomologyandPlantPathology
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https://extension.okstate.edu/e-pest-alerts/site-files/documents/2010/wheat-disease-update-november-11-2010.pdf | Microsoft Word - PA9-36.docx | Oklahoma State University | [
"rgranth"
] | Error: time data "D:20101111083503-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University 127 Noble Research Center, Stillwater, OK74078 405.744.5527
Vol. 9, No. 36
## Wheat Disease Update
Bob Hunger, Extension Wheat Pathologist
No significant disease occurrence has yet been observed so far in the 2010 Oklahoma wheat crop. Low rainfall this fall explains this lack of disease. I have not observed any foliar diseases in wheat around Stillwater. Even trials planted in mid-September, which show significant growth, are completely clean of foliar disease. Calls made to northwestern OK/panhandle (Rick Kochenower; Area Research & Extension Specialist - Agronomy), north central OK (Roger Gribble; NW District Area Extension Agronomy Specialist), and southwestern OK (Terry Pitts; Area Extension Specialist - IPM) all indicated that no foliar diseases have been observed or reported. Aphids have been seen, but in relatively low numbers. The Plant Disease and Insect Diagnostic Lab (PDIDL) has received several samples over the last 3-4 weeks. These samples had plants with discolored roots and/or sub-crown internodes. The fungal root rot pathogens Bipolaris and/or Fusarium were isolated from these samples. For more information on the root rots caused by these fungi, go to: http://entoplk.ostate.edu/dd/diseases/rootrots.pdf
Recent updates from other states: Kansas (Dr. Erick De Wolf, Extension Plant Pathologist, Kansas State University): I have been checking wheat in Kansas for symptoms of disease this fall. This included a survey of western Kansas in September and visit to a local farm here in Manhattan (Northeast, KS). These monitoring efforts indicate that leaf rust is common in volunteer wheat (some fields with 70-100% incidence). This is somewhat surprising given the dry conditions in some areas of the state. The incidence of leaf rust is much lower in field planted this fall.
It is normal for us to find leaf rust in Kansas this time of year. In most years the winter conditions will eliminate the disease in many areas of the state. The importance of these finds cannot be determined until spring.
Dr Richard Grantham Director, Plant Disease and Insect Diagnostic Laboratory
Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, age, religion, disability, or status as a veteran in any of its policies, practices or procedures. This includes but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May & June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Robert E. Whitson, Director of Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Director of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural.
Discoloration of the sub-crown internodes (SCIs) of wheat plants due to common root rot. Note creamy-white color of the SCI of the seedling on the left.
Wheat seedlings with rotted roots due to Fusarium root rot. |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/owls | Owls | North Carolina State University Extension | [
"Mark Megalos",
"Liessa Bowen",
"Christopher Moorman"
] | null | [
"Wildlife",
"Wildlife Management",
"Bird",
"Owl"
] | NC | ## Owls
NC STATE
## Working With Wildlife
## Introduction
Owls are birds of prey that primarily are active during the night and during twilight hours. Often mysterious to man, owls figure largely in myths, folklore and superstition. Much like hawks, owls prey on rodents, reptiles and other small animals, including invertebrates. Specific prey include crayfish, mice, snakes, lizards, birds, rabbits, and the occasional fish. Typically solitary feeders, owls may occasionally gather in winter roosts or at an abundant food source.
## Owl Adaptations
- · Large retinas - Vision is 50-100 times better than humans in poor light
- · Many rods - High concentrations of rods in eyes (light-gathering cells)
- · Binocular vision - Fixed eyes view the same scene from slightly different angles - improving depth perception
- · Large head with wide ear spacing - Disk-like design receives sound at minute thresholds; large ear openings and asymmetric ear positions improve hearing
- · Stealth feathers - Leading wing feathers have soft-serrated edges for noiseless flight
- · Regurgitation - Owls absorb nutritious foods through stomach walls but regurgitate "pellets" of indigestible hairs, feathers, bones, and claws
## Habitat
Owls are found across North Carolina. Owls are largely forest birds with most requiring cavities in dead or hollow trees or dense vegetation to seek refuge during the day. Habitat requirements vary among owl species, so it is important to consider the food and cover requirements of each species when developing a habitat management plan.
Common owl species.
| Great-Horned Owl | Barn Owl Habitat | | |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Open forests, fallow fields, and shrubland; Benefits from openings and clearings. Nests in old crow, heron, or hawk nests. | Abandoned fields, pastures, and marsh areas; Benefits from openings and nest boxes. Nests in man-made structures: silos, barns, and buildings. Footh | | |
| Rabbits, woodrats, mice, grouse, squirrels, and other birds | Voles, rats, and mice | Snakes, frogs, turtles, small mammals, and occasional birds | |
| | length: 15 - 20 inches wingspan: 44 inches weight: 20 - 24 | length: 20 inches wingspan: 44 inches weight: 2 pounds | |
| length: 20 - 23 inches | mouth gray underside with dark bars; a white band of feathers on the upper breast; rust colored face | long-legged, light color with a heart- shaped face; (also known as "monkey- faced" owl) white or pale cinnamon belly with buffer or rusty upper feathers | rounded head, brown eyes; lacks ear tufts; gray- brown plumage with white spots on the back; whitish or grayish underparts barred with buff or deep brown |
## Owl Management
## General
- · Create a diversity of stand ages intermixed with openings.
- · Create and maintain early successional vegetation using prescribed fire, herbicides, disking, and to a lesser extent bush hogging.
- · Maintain larger tracts of forest. Most species of owl use forests for roosting, nesting, and foraging.
- · Maintain and create snags in large diameter trees, typically at least 10" in diameter at chest height.
- · Manage bottomland hardwoods in large blocks and long harvest rotations of at least 80 years.
## Direct Improvements
- · Erect nest boxes for cavity-testing owl species (Figure 1). Detailed plans for building owl nesting boxes can be found from the Cornell Ornithology Lab's All About Birdhouses.
- · Construct brush piles to attract the rodents that owls eat.
| Owl box dimensions. | Owl box dimensions. | Owl box dimensions. | Owl box dimensions. | Owl box dimensions. |
|-----------------------|------------------------|-----------------------|--------------------------------|-----------------------------|
| Species | Cavity Floor* (inches) | Cavity Side (inches) | Entrance Above Floor (inches) | Entrance Hole Size (inches) |
| Barn owl | 11 x 22$^{3}$/4 | 12$^{3}$/8 x 16 | 4 | 3$^{¾}$ x 4$^{½}$ |
| Screech owl | 10 x 11$^{¾}$ | 10 x 16 | 11$^{½}$ | 3 |
| Barred owl | 11$^{½}$ x 13 | 13 x 23 | 12 | 7 |
## Working With Wildlife
North Carolina State University Extension - Forestry
Working With Wildlife Series
Bats
Black Bear
Bobwhite Quail
Building Songbird Boxes
Eastern Cottontail Rabbit
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Endangered Species
Herbaceous Plants for Wildlife
Hummingbirds and Butterflies
Low Cost Habitat Improvements
Managing Beaver Ponds
Managing Edges for Wildlife
Mourning Dove
Owls
Pools for Amphibians
Raccoon
Ruffed Grouse
Snags and Downed Logs
Songbirds and Woodpeckers
White-Tailed Deer
Wild Turkey
Wildlife Terms
Wood Duck
Woodland Wildlife Nest Boxes
## Authors
Mark Megalos
Extension Professor Forestry & Environmental Resources
Liessa Bowen
Wildlife Biologist
Christopher Moorman
Professor (Wildlife) Forestry & Environmental Resources
Publication date: July 1, 2019
Reviewed/Revised: May 28, 2024
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forages-hay-soils/introducing-annuals-in-grazed-pastures/ | Hay and Forages Soil | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"NA"
] | null | [
"Farming",
"Healthy Soils",
"Hay and Forages"
] | AL | ## Introducing Annuals in Grazed Pastures
Annual cover crops introduce quality forage at opportune times of the year, help to create more diverse farm habitats, and provide opportunities to rejuvenate pastureland. Overseeding summer perennial pastures with winter annuals can provide many benefits including: an extended grazing season, reduced erosion, and increased animal gains.
Grasses and legumes such as annual ryegrass, rye, wheat, oats, clovers, and vetch are commonly-used for overseeding. Brassicas are also viable options. Brassica as include: forage radishes, turnips, and rape. Mixed cover crops have the
For more information about annuals in grazing pastures, see the Southern SARE publication Introducing Annuals in Grazed Pasture (https://southern.sare.org/resources/introducingannuals-in-grazed-pastures/).
This product was developed with support from the Southern Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (Southern SARE) program, which is funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture--National Institute of Food and Agriculture (USDANIFA). Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed within do not necessarily reflect the view of the Southern SARE program or the U.S. Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/sumterco/2020/09/21/water-wednesdays-recap-diy-beeswax-food-wraps/ | Water Wednesdays Recap – DIY Beeswax Food Wraps | University of Florida | [
"Yilin"
] | 2020-09-21 | [
"Conservation",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"Water",
"beeswax",
"Food Wraps",
"microplastics",
"plastic",
"UF IFAS Extension Water Agents",
"water",
"Water RSA",
"Water Wednesdays",
"yilin zhuang"
] | FL | ## Water Wednesdays Recap DIY Beeswax Food Wraps
Water Wednesdays in September will feature Microplastics.
Microplastics include plastic particles with an upper size limit of 5 mm (0.2 inch). They come from a variety of sources. If you missed the talk on Sept. 9, here is your recap: Water Wednesdays Recap- What Are Microplastics.
Last Water Wednesdays, we learned how to make our own reusable beeswax wraps to reduce plastic use.
Using homemade beeswax wrap to cover a bowl
## How to do it:
- · Tape or place one piece of parchment paper to the ironing board.
- · Place your cloth on the parchment paper.
- · Sprinkle beeswax pellets on the cloth.
- · Make sure it is evenly spread and the edges are covered.
- · Cover your cloth and beeswax with a second piece of parchment paper.
- · Set iron on cotton setting. Iron gently over the top of the parchment paper.
- · Make sure that wax is melted into all areas. It is better to have too much wax than not enough. If there is not enough wax, liquids will pass through the cloth. If there is too much wax, use an extra cloth to soak up some excess wax. Lay a second piece of cloth on top and then parchment paper. Iron gently until the original cloth has a nice amount of wax.
- · Remove the parchment paper.
- · Wait a few moments for the cloth to cool enough to touch.
- · Gently remove the cloth and let it cool.
## How to use it:
- · Use it as cling wrap or Ziploc bag alternative.
- · Use the heat of your hands to shape and secure it.
- · Beeswax melts at 62 °C to 64 °C (144 °F to 147 °F). Heating softened the wax and makes it easier to mold and easier to stick to itself.
## How to maintain it:
- Wash with cold water with mild soap.
- Add small amount of wax and re-iron when your wrap loses wax.
- These wraps are made only of cotton cloth and beeswax. They will not be sticky like commercial beeswax wraps, which also contain tree resin and plant oil. These beeswax-only wraps will also acquire folds and creases over time. They may develop areas of "low-wax". You can add wax and re-iron to refresh the wraps at any time.
To watch the recording, please click the video below:
```
o
by Yllin
Posted: September 21, 2020
```
Category: Conservation, UE/IFAS Extension, Water
Tags: Beeswax, Food Wraps, Microplastics, Plastic, UF IFAS
Extension Water Agents, Water, Water RSA, Water Wednesdays, Yllin
Zhuang
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Water Wednesdays Recap - Growing Needs In Urban Agriculture
- A Few How-To's For A Healthy Lawn
- Manage Thatch, Manage This Pest-Tropical Sod Webworm
- Water Wednesday Recap - Water Gone Virtual |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/composting-at-nc-residential-and-summer-camps | Composting at NC Residential and Summer Camps | NC State Extension | [
"Rhonda Sherman",
"Eric Caldwell"
] | null | [
"Composting",
"Waste Reduction",
"Vermicomposting",
"Youth"
] | NC | ## Composting at NC Residential and Summer Camps
Residential camps generate food scraps from meal preparation, plate scrapings, and leftover or spoiled food. Many camps have horses, resulting in manure to manage. Composting and vermicomposting are viable options for managing food scraps, horse manure, and other types of organic waste materials.
Composting is the aerobic decomposition of organic materials by microorganisms under controlled conditions, resulting in a soil-like substance called compost . During composting, microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes break down complex organic compounds into carbon dioxide, water, minerals, and stabilized organic matter (compost). The process produces heat, which can destroy pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms, such as e.coil) and weed seeds. To reduce pathogens below detectable concentrations, a compost window needs to be maintained at 131°F or higher for 15 days and turned at least five times. Aerated static piles and in-vessel composters must maintain temperatures at 131°F or higher for three days. Most weed seeds are killed at temperatures of 140°F in compost piles.
Vermicomposting is a process that relies on earthworms and microorganisms to help stabilize organic materials and convert them to a valuable soil amendment and source of plant nutrients. Vermicomposting is different from composting: it should not produce heat and does not require turning to keep the system aerated.
## North Carolina Composting Regulations
Two North Carolina state agencies in the Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) issue permits for commercial composting facilities: (1) Division of Waste Management's (DWM) Solid Waste section regulates facilities that compost food scraps, manure, yard debris, wood waste, paper products, municipal and industrial waste, and sewage sludge, and (2) Division of Water Resources (DWR) regulates facilities that compost manure and other organic materials in large quantities.
If 51 percent or more of the nitrogenous organic material to be composted is food waste, then DWM issues the permit. If 51 percent or more of the waste is manure, then DWR is the regulatory agency issuing the permit.
Nitrogenous wastes contain high amounts of nitrogen. Examples include food waste, manures, coffee grounds, vegetable scraps, grass clippings, hay, alfalfa, and garden waste.
## Composting at North Carolina Camps
Residential camps that are planning to set up a compost site should determine if they have mostly food waste or manure to compost. Manure comprises 51 percent or more of the nitrogenous compost mix, the camp will be required to use the composting rules established by DWR. Camps with fewer than 75 horses, however, are exempt from permitting by DWR.
The Division of Waste Management considers camps as educational projects, and a permit is not required if the following criteria are met:
- · Compost is less than 1 cubic yard of nitrogenous material per week.
- · Sources outside of the camps are not composted.
- · Compost product is not used on food crops grown at the camp or distributed to the public, and camp participants are not allowed to take the compost home with them.
## Guidelines for Using Manure and Food Waste Compost at Camps
Manure and food waste composts or mixtures can be valuable soil amendments and should be used in practical ways that minimize risks to both plants and humans. Composting is not highly technical, but it is an active process that involves management and oversight to ensure maximum biological activity (decomposition) and pathogen reduction. Failure to properly manage the process can damage crops, contaminate surface water, and introduce pathogens into the food supply. Due to these risks, great caution must be used in making compost application decisions.
We recommend that you follow these guidelines:
- · If possible, avoid using manure, food waste, or mixed compost on edible crops. Well-managed compost can be applied to pastures or landscaped areas with minimal risk. Use plant-based (non-food) or purchased "STA-certified" organic matter on the vegetable garden. STA-certified compost has been tested through the Seal of Testing Assurance program of the U.S. Composting Council (details at compostingcouncil.org/sta-benefits.)
- · If manure, food waste, or mixed compost must be used on a garden, apply the compost in the fall after the fruits and vegetables are harvested. Applying compost during the growing season dramatically increases the risk of human disease transmission and plant-related problems. It is
best to wait 120 days after application until the first crops are harvested. Measuring the sustained temperature of the compost pile is important to ensure that risks are being reduced.
- Be aware of herbicides used on the pasture that may be present in manures. The herbicide active ingredients of greatest concern are picloram, clopyralid , and aminopyralid . These chemicals can remain active in hay, grass clippings, piles of manure, and compost for an unusually long time. This is another reason to consider applying the manure compost only to the pasture.
## Composting Methods
There are several methods for composting including:
- Turned windows
- Aerated static piles
- Bins
- In-vessel
- Vermicomposting
Managing compost systems requires the proper mixing of feedstock material, monitoring temperature and moisture, and providing aeration by either turning or using passive or mechanical systems. A compost system should be tailored to match the size of your waste stream and the physical, topographical, and labor constraints of your operation. For more information about composting, see NC State Extension publication AG-593, Large-Scale Organic Materials Composting. Information about vermicomposting is at on the Vermicomposting.page on the Extension Composting.portal.
Technical assistance and possible cost-share aid may be available through your local Cooperative Extension center, Soil and Water Conservation District, and USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).
## Additional Resources
- · Contact your local Cooperative Extension center
- · Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs)
- · NC State Extension Composting.portal
- · Cornell Waste Management Institute
- · US Composting Council
## Authors
Rhonda Sherman
Extension Solid Waste Specialist Horticultural Science
Eric Caldwell
Retired West District Extension Director District Directors
Publication date: Nov. 28, 2022
AG-773
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/information-sheets/prepare-poultry-houses-for-cooler-weather | Prepare Poultry Houses for Cooler Weather | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Jessica Benoit Wells",
"Dr. Kenneth S. Macklin",
"Mr. Jonathan Wayne Moon"
] | null | [
"Poultry",
"Agriculture",
"Extension Services"
] | MS | " Publications " Information Sheets " Prepare Poultry Houses for Cooler Weather
## Prepare Poultry Houses for Cooler Weather
INFORMATION SHEETS
Filed Under: Poultry
Publication Number: IS1951
View as PDF: IS1951.pdf
When summer begins to wind down, Mississippi poultry growers should prepare their houses for the cooler weather ahead. Gas prices continue to increase, and growers must get the most out of every dollar spent on fuel. This means houses and equipment must be at peak performance.
Routine maintenance is critical to keeping houses operating efficiently. Poultry houses and the equipment inside have to last for many years. This will only happen if the houses and equipment are well taken care of with regular maintenance.
Without question, the top maintenance priority heading into colder weather is house tightness. Tightness is important throughout the year for proper environmental control, but it is critical during winter to minimize air leaks and reduce fuel use. Air leaks increase fuel consumption and have a detrimental effect on bird performance. Chicks easily become chilled from air leaks around footings, loose curtains, and end doors and may never recover. Performance may suffer throughout the flock because of poor environmental conditions.
Fuel costs may also be excessive. A crack as small as one-eighth of an inch along both sides of a 500foot house is equivalent to more than a 10-square-foot hole in the wall. Make sure end doors and footings are sealed to prevent air leaks. The only air that enters your house should be the minimum ventilation air, and it should enter through the vent doors, not loose curtains, footings, or end doors.
Curtains must be tight with flaps in place and should properly seal at the bottom. Broken strings should be replaced to prevent curtains from sagging. It is impossible to have a tight seal at the top if curtain strings are broken. Tunnel curtains require special attention. They are usually insulated and, therefore, heavier than regular sidewall curtains. They may snag or hang up at either end of the cool cell when closing, preventing a proper seal at the corners; and the extra weight adds increased tension on strings, causing them to break more often.
If your houses have tunnel doors instead of tunnel curtains, they should seal snugly in front of the cool cells. If houses have a drop ceiling, there should be no holes in the vapor barrier that will allow warm air to escape into the attic. This wastes fuel and allows condensation to form in the attic, reducing the effectiveness of loose fill insulation.
Vent doors should be checked regularly to verify they open and close properly and seal tightly when closed. Vent door strings often work loose from the steel rod that opens and closes the doors when the vent machine runs. Vent machines may run thousands of times on a winter batch of birds. These machines have gears and grease fittings under the cover that protect the gears from much of the dust and dirt in the chicken house environment. Don't forget the fittings need grease from time to time to work properly.
Regularly test house static pressure (difference in air pressure between inside and outside the house) to determine tightness. Static pressure can be tested by closing all vents, fan shutters, end doors, and so forth before turning on one tunnel fan and then reading the static pressure from the house controller. A curtain-sided house should be able to pull at least a 0.12 static pressure (0.20 and higher is common and often a minimum on solid sidewall houses); otherwise, proper minimum ventilation will be hard to achieve. A high static pressure is necessary to adequately mix and warm cold incoming air before it falls to the floor and chills birds. Improper mixing can affect temperature sensors, resulting in greater fuel usage, and it may be detrimental to bird health.
Temperature sensor placement is critical to bird comfort. Years ago, it seemed that almost everyone hung the one temperature sensor for the entire house maybe 50 feet from the brood end wall and about 3 feet off the floor (even though chickens were on the floor!). Today, in a single house, it is common to have multiple sensors that remain at approximately bird level, regardless of bird age. Often these sensors are attached to a water line cable and raised with the water line as the birds grow. This ensures the sensors always remain at approximately bird height throughout the flock. Each sensor controls only the temperature in the designated "zone" where the sensor is located. This way, if one zone is cool and all other zones are satisfied, only heating units in the cool zone will run, thereby maintaining house environment as efficiently as possible. Having sensors at bird level guarantees the proper temperature is maintained at bird level.
Sensors collect a thick coating of dust and dirt during summer when cool cells and tunnel fans are operating. These sensors need to be cleaned before winter.
Another priority is sufficient gas pressure to operate brooders and furnaces. Brooders and furnaces are designed to operate most efficiently at a specific pressure. Forced-air furnaces require a higher operating pressure than brooders. (When high efficiency infrared brooders are used, many integrators no longer require gas furnaces in new construction or remodeling projects.) A gas pressure problem is generally not noticeable at the farthest distance from the propane tank. If tanks are at the middle of the house, brooders/furnaces at either end will be the first to act up. When pressure is too low, heating units will only produce a weak, yellow flame (providing little heat) instead of the strong blue flame associated with normal operation.
Forced-air furnaces will show a problem before brooders because of their higher pressure demand, but brooders can have the same problem if pressure is low enough. While the problem is often associated with too little gas in the tanks, undersized piping inside and/or outside the chicken house also can cause it, especially if you have recently remodeled and added additional brooders/furnaces without changing piping.
Don't forget about gas leaks. Sometimes you can smell a leak because of the chemical added for just that purpose. However, you can also take a spray bottle of soapy water and spray on pipe joints, regulators, and other parts, and look for bubbles that will indicate leaks that perhaps you didn't smell.
Remember there are differences in operating pressure between propane and natural gas systems. Propane units often operate on 10 to 12 inches of water column while natural gas units operate on 6 to 8 inches. Your gas provider should be able to test regulators on your farm to make sure you have adequate pressure settings.
Also, brooder orifices match the type of gas you are using (propane or natural). If you switch from propane to natural gas, you will have to change orifices in all your heating units. Check your orifices (both pilot, if so equipped, and burner) going into cooler weather to make sure they are not clogged
with dust, dirt, spider webs, mud daubers, and so forth after a long, hot summer. The reason a brooder fails to ignite may not be a lack of gas, inadequate pressure, or a faulty igniter, but simply a clogged orifice. If you have direct spark brooders without pilot lights, keep a few spare igniters on hand just to be safe.
Fans are critical to any minimum ventilation program. Fans and shutters must be kept clean to operate properly. They should be washed between flocks to maintain optimum efficiency. Belts must be tight for fans to operate at their best. Belts that squeal and slip or have excessive play or wobble should be changed. Belt drive fans also have bearings that must be decreased occasionally.
Stir fans may be an option to consider if you do not have them. Stir fans can help reduce temperature stratification by moving hot air off the ceiling. This can help increase moisture removal from the litter.
Fans not used for minimum ventilation (i.e., tunnel fans) should be covered during winter to prevent air leakage around shutters and cones. Covers must be able to blow off as needed to reduce heat buildup or in case of an emergency.
Don't wait until cold weather arrives to take action. Start early and you'll be prepared for the cooler weather ahead. Routine maintenance will result in energy savings and keep your operation running smoothly and efficiently. If you have questions or concerns, contact your service technician or your local county Extension office.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webtem or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
| SELECT A COUNTY | ► |
|------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| Authors | Dr. Jessica Benoit Wells Assistont Teaching Professor |
| Your Extension Experts Dr. Kenneth S. Macklin Professor and Head | |
| Dr. Jessica Benoit Wells Assistont Teaching Professor | |
| Related Publications | Publicication Number: P3982 4-H Poultry Chain Project Guide |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4090 Hydration Gel Bead Supplementation for Broiler Chicks | Publicication Number: P1182 Hatching Quality Chicks |
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2919
Composting Mortality in an Avian Influenza Outbreak
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2754
Water Quality Critical to Broiler Performance
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/palm-leaf-skeletonizer | Palm Leaf Skeletonizer | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Pest Control",
"Pest Management",
"Entomology",
"Palm Leaf Skeletonizer",
"Pdic"
] | NC | ## Palm Leaf Skeletonizer
PDIC Factsheets
## Description and Biology
The palm leaf skeletonizer, Homaledra sabalella , is a native moth that attacks palms in the southern United States where it sometimes causes serious damage. The moth is a uniformly silvery light brown or beige with a black spot on the thorax and two black spots on each wing. When at rest, it is slender (just over 3 times as long as wide) and about 5/1 inch long. Females lay groups of about three dozen eggs on older palm leaves and then cover the eggs with a brown, papery material. After the caterpillars hatch, they usually construct silken tubes that are dark brown with grass. The caterpillars are almost colorless except for a brown patch on the thorax and the brown head. The tubes occur in dense groups and probably protect the caterpillars from the elements and perhaps from some predators. Eventually the caterpillars feed under a communal silk mat that is covered with frass. The caterpillars feed in groups of up to 100 on both the upper and lower surfaces of older leaves. They pupate under the silk webbing and sometime afterward, new moths emerge to mate and continue their "wheel of existence." Up to five generations occur per year, and there is no diapause.
## Host Plants
Palm leaf skeletonizer feeds only on palms, including cabbage palmetto, Canary Island date palm, coconut palm, Latan palms, Puerto Rico hat palm, sabal palm, and 73 other palm species.
Residential Recommendations Palm leaf skeletonizers are plagued with predators such as ground beetles and parasites including tachinid flies and small parasitic wasps. However, sometimes these biological controls are not effective enough to prevent unsightly damage. Experience in Florida where this pest is fairly abundant has shown that insecticides are often not effective in reducing palm leaf skeletonizers because the caterpillars are protected by their silk webbing. If large numbers of palms are damaged, cutting and burning infested leaves is reportedly an effective method of control. Specimen palms may be treated by washing the infested portion with a sponge or, if the palm is tough, spraying the infested areas with high pressure water to wash away the silk mat and dislodge the relatively fragile caterpillars.
- · Palm Leaf Skeletonizer. Culbert, D. F. 2010. University of Florida IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Okeechobee County Extension Service.
- · Palm leaf skeletonizer. Homaledra sabalella (Chambers) (Lepidoptera; Colephoridae). Anonymous. No Date. Forest Pest Insects in North America: a Photographic Guide.
- · Extension Plant Pathology Publications and Factsheets
- · Horticultural Science Publications
- · North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local Cooperative Extension Center.
## References
## Author
James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology and Plant Pathology
Publication date: Dec. 6, 2017
Reviewed/Revised: Oct. 27, 2022
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
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This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/vtmd/preventive-medicine-programs-for-horses-equine-vaccination-programs-vtmd-9119.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20180518090007-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Preventive Medicine Programs for Horses:
## Equine Vaccination Programs
Elisabeth J. Giedt, D.V.M., M.B.A. Director of Continuing Education, Extension and Community
Engagement Center for Veterinary Health Sciences Oklahoma State University
Preventive medicine programs for horses address vaccinations, deworming, exercise and nutrition. Programs designed in cooperation with your veterinarian address the risks and benefits of each aspect of each plan.
Vaccinations are one aspect of preventive medicine programs designed by your veterinarian to protect the long term health of horses. Vaccination programs may vary from farm to farm. Veteransign design vaccination programs based on many factors including risk of exposure, history of disease, potential for adverse reactions and age of animal. Vaccination without good management is not adequate to prevent disease. Working with your veterinarian ensures the appropriate vaccination protocol is followed. This includes the choice of vaccines for each horse and the timing of those vaccines.
Infectious diseases are best managed by both vaccination and infection control. Control programs should be directed toward reducing exposure to infectious agents in the environment. Quarantine any incoming horses away from the rest of your herd for a minimum of four weeks. Isolate sick horses from healthy horses. Good management practices that reduce disease exposure also include excellent ventilation for horses housed in barns and reducing overcrowding in paddocks and pastures. Ensuring an adequate nutrition and exercise program is in place will enhance immunity. The risk for disease increases with:
- Stress
- Parasitism (see Fact Sheet VTMD-3976)
- Contaminated water sources
- Poor rodent, bird and insect control
- Movement of vehicles, people and equipment off and on facilities during an outbreak
## Core Vaccines
The American Veterinary Medical Association defines core vaccinations as those "that protect from diseases that are widespread in a region, those with potential public health significance, required by law, virulent/highly infectious and/ or those posing a risk of severe disease. Core vaccines have clearly demonstrated efficacy and safety, and thus, exhibit a high enough level of patient benefit and low enough level of risk to justify their use in the majority of patients."
For diseases transmitted by biting insects such as West Nile Virus and Encephalitis, all horses are at risk, whether
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets are also available on our website at: http://osufacts.okstate.edu
they reside at a large boarding stable, work or travel to competitions or live on a large acreage without exposure to other horses. Veterinarians routinely recommend all horses be vaccinated for West Nile Virus and Encephalitis.
Rabies is spread by the saliva of any infected (rabid) mammal through a bite wound and vaccination for rabies is often considered part of the core vaccines. Many veterinarians also will recommend all farm dogs and cats remain current on their rabies vaccination to help protect both them and the people andhorses around them(See FactSheetVTMD-9127).
Horses are particularly sensitive to Tetanus . Wounds are infected by soil contact with the organism, so tetanus is also considered a core vaccine. This disease often is fatal to infected horses. When purchasing a new horse without a history of tetanus vaccination, it is essential to consult your veterinarian regarding protection. Even the smallest puncture wound can become deadly if the horse is infected.
## Risk-Based Vaccination Guidelines
These are vaccinations included in a vaccination program after the performance of a risk assessmentbyyourveterinarian. The use of risk-based vaccinations may vary regionally, from population to population within an area, or between individual horses within a given population. Disease risk may not be readily identified by layerspersons; is important to consult a veterinarian when developing a vaccination program.
Anthrax is a serious and rapidly fatal disease caused by the organism Bacillus anthracis . Horses are infected when they ingest, inhale or have a wound contaminated by the soilborne spores of the organism. Anthrax is encountered only in limited geographic areas where alkaline soil conditions favor survival of the organism. There have been reported outbreaks in Oklahoma. Vaccination is indicated only for horses pastured in prevalent areas.
Botulism is caused by another soilborne organism, Clostridium botulinum . This organism produces lethal toxins that are ingested by horse. Botulinum toxin is a very powerful toxin that blocks the transmission of impulses in nerves, resulting in weakness and progressing to paralysis, inability to swallow and frequently, death. Botulism in the horse may be associated with contaminated wounds. Horses may ingest toxin in decaying plant material including improperly preserved hay
or haylage, or animal carcass remnants present in the feed. This sometimes is referred to as Forage Poisoning. Ingested organisms can produce Shaker Foal Syndrome in the newborn.
There are several types of Equine Herpesvirus that affect horses. Individual strains can attack different systems in the body. Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) and equine herpesvirus type 4 (EHV-4) can each infect the respiratory tract, causing disease that varies in severity from sub-clinical to severe and is characterized by fever, lethargy, anorexia, nasal discharge and cough.
EHV-1 causes epidemic abortion in mares and the birth of weak nonviable foals. This strain also is associated with sporadic neurologic disease (equine herpesvirus myelencephalopathy-EHM) that may cause weakness and paralysis due to its impact on the brain and spinal cord.
Both EHV-1 and EHV-4 are spread via aerosolized secretions from infected coughing horses. The organism also can survive on equipment and clothes and spread from horse to horse. In the case of EHV-1, contact with aborted fetuses, fetal fluids and placentas is associated with abortions.
Like herpes viruses in other species, these viruses may establish hidden infections in horses, which do not show clinical signs, but may experience reactivation of infection and shedding of the virus when stressed. Those epidemiologic factors seriously compromise efforts to control these diseases and explain why outbreaks of EHV-1 or EHV-4 can occur in populations of horses. Horses may appear normal for weeks and months, but when stressed begin shedding the virus to expose other horses.
Both viruses are widespread in most equine populations. Most prevention programs use equine herpesvirus vaccines for the prevention of EHV-1-induced abortion in pregnant mares and reduction of signs and spread of respiratory tract disease (rhinopenumonitis) in foals, weanlings, yearlings, young performance and show horses that are at high risk for exposure. Consult your veterinarian about the frequency and type of Rhino vaccines to use in your herd health program. (See Fact Sheet ANSI-3985 Foaling Management.)
Equine viral arteritis (EVA) is a contagious disease of horses caused by equine arteritis virus, found in horse populations in many countries. While typically not life-threatening to otherwise healthy adult horses, EVA can cause abortion in pregnant mares; uncommonly, death in young foals; and establish a long-term carrier state in breeding stallions.
Historically, outbreaks of EVA have been relatively infrequent. However, the numberofconfirmedoccurrences appears to be increasing, likely attributable to increases in:
- 1) global movement of horses
- 2) accessibility of carrier stallions through fresh or shipped semen
Cooled and frozen semen can both transmit the virus to a mare. (See Fact Sheets VTMD-9132 and ANSI-3985 Foaling Management.)
Equine influenza is one of the most common infectious diseases of the respiratory tract of horses. It is prevalent in the equine population of the U.S. and throughout much of the world. Equineinfluenza virus does not constantly circulate, even in large groups of horses, but is sporadically introduced by an infected horse.
Infection can be avoided by preventing entry of the virus into an equine population (i.e. by the quarantine of newly
arriving horses for at least 14 days) and by appropriate vaccination before exposure. All horses should be vaccinated against equine influenza unless they live in a closed and isolated facility.
To date, the most important factors associated with increased risk of infection have been identified as age and frequent contact with large numbers of horses. Horses under the age of five are more susceptible, but all horses can be infected when exposed to large amounts of virus at shows or similar athletic events. Equine influenza is highly contagious and the virus spreads rapidly through groups of horses in aerosolized droplets dispersed by coughing. Your veterinarian should be consulted about the type and frequency of your influenza vaccination program. (See Fact Sheet VTMD-9120 Respiratory Diseases in Horses: What You Can Do to Prevent Them.)
Equine monocytic erhliiosis/Potomac Horse Fever is caused by Neorichettssici risticii (formerly Ehrlichia risticii). Originally described in 1979 as a sporadic disease affecting horses residing in the eastern U.S. near the Potomac River, the disease has since been identified in various other geographic locations in the U.S. and Canada. The disease is seasonal, occurring between late spring and early fall in temperate areas, with most cases in July through September, at the onset of hot weather.
Clinical signs are variable but may include fever, mild to severe diarrhea, laminitis, mild colic and decreased abdominal sounds. Uncommonly, pregnant males infected with N.risticii (usually in the middle trimester between 90 and 120 days) can abort due to fetal infection at seven months of gestation.
If Potomac Horse Fever has been confirmed on a farm or in a particular geographic area, it is likely additional cases will occur in future years. Your veterinarian should be consulted about thetype and frequency of your PHF vaccination program.
Rotavirus , an RNA virus, is a major infectious cause of foal diarrhea and has been documented to cause 50 percent or more of foal diarrhea cases in some areas. Fifty percent of susceptible foals may become ill when exposed to the virus, but the mortality is low (less than 1 percent) with veterinary intervention.
Equine rotavirus is transmitted via the fecal-oral route and damages the small intestinal villi, resulting in cellular destruction, maldigestion, malabsorption and diarrhea.
As many as 70 percent of all foals in the U.S. will have at least one diarrheal episode prior to weaning. Mare owners need to be aware that strict biosecurity and disinfection during the foaling season also lessens the morbidity associated with most types of infectious foal diarrheas and other contagious diseases.
Vaccination of mares results in a significant increase in foals'rotavirus antibody titers. Field trials of rotavirus vaccination in pregnant mares have shown a decrease in incidence and severity of foal diarrhea on farms that historically had annual rotaviral diarrhea cases. (See Fact Sheet ANSI-3985 Foaling Management.)
Streptococcus equis subspecies equi (S. equiv ar. equi) is the bacterium which causes the highly contagious disease Strangles (also known as distemper). Strangles commonly affects young horses (weanlings and yearlings), but horses of any age can be infected. The organism is transmitted by direct contact with infected horses or sub-clinical shedders, or indirectly by contact with water troughs, hoses, feed bunds,
pastures, stalls, trailers, tack, grooming equipment, nose wipe cloths or sponges, attendants' hands and clothing or insects contaminated with nasal discharge or pus draining from lymph nodes of infected horses. Streptococcus equi has demonstrated environmental survivability, particularly in water sources and when protected from exposure to direct sunlight and disinfectants, and can be a source of infection for new additions to the herd. Vaccination against S. equii is recommended on premises where strangles is a persistent prevalent problem or for horses that are expected to be at high risk of exposure.
## Snake Bite
Venomous snake bite of equips occurs in certain areas of NorthAmerica.The risk of rattlesnake envenomation may justify
the use of Crotalus atrox (Western Diamondback Rattlesnake) toxoid vaccine in equids. Pre-exposure vaccination may be recommended for those animals in geographic areas or for those traveling to areas where exposure to venomous snakes justifies vaccine usage.
Your veterinarian will consider the overall health, age, breeding status and travel and show plans when designing a program appropriate for your horse. Your veterinarian can provide valuable guidance in the development of an appropriate vaccination program for the horses on your farm.
## References
American Association of Equine Practitioners
Infectious Disease Committee
http://www.aaep.org/ Go to "Owners page."
## The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Bringing the University to You!
The Cooperative Extension Service is the largest, most successful informal educational organization in the world.Itis a nationwide system funded and guided by a partnership of federal, state, and local governments that delivers information to help people help themselves through the land-grant university system.
Extension carries outprograms in the broad categories of agriculture, natural resources and environment; family and consumer sciences; 4-H and other youth; and community resource development. Extension staff members live and work among the people they serve to help stimulate and educate Americans to plan ahead and cope with their problems.
Some characteristics of the Cooperative Extension system are:
- · The federal, state, and local governments cooperatively share in its financial support and program direction.
- · It is administered by the land-grant university as designated by the state legislature through an Extension director.
- · Extension programs are nonpolitical, objective, and research-based information.
- · It provides practical, problem-oriented education
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S.Department of Agriculture, Director of Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma.This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President for Agricultural Programs and Has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 10 cents per copy. Revised 0518 GH.
- for people of all ages. It is designated to take the knowledge of the university to those persons who do not or cannot participate in the formal classroom instruction of the university.
- · It utilizes research from university, government, and other sources to help people make their own decisions.
- · More than a million volunteers help multiply the impact of the Extension professional staff.
- · It dispenses no funds to the public.
- · It is not a regulatory agency, but it does inform people of regulations and oftheir options in meeting them.
- · Local programs are developed and carried out in full recognition of national problems and goals.
- · The Extension staff educates people through personal contacts, meetings, demonstrations, and the mass media.
- · Extension has the built-in flexibility to adjust its programs and subject matter to meet new needs. Activities shift from year to year as citizen groups and Extension workers close to the problems advise changes. | |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/WC465 | Leading Teams #5: Norming | University of Florida | [
"Matthew Gold",
"Rachel Biderman",
"Sarah A. Bush",
"Laura L. Greenhaw",
"Carrie N. Baker"
] | 2024-07-18 | [
"Organizational Goals"
] | FL | ## Leading Teams #5: Norming
Matthew Gold, Rachel Biderman, Sarah A. Bush, Laura L. Greenhaw, and Carrie N. Baker
## Introduction
Following the forming and storming stages, the norming stage is hallmarked by agreement, consensus, and shared understanding of roles and responsibilities (Tuckman, 1965; Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). This publication is part of the Leading Teams series and focuses on the norming stage of team development. This article provides an overview of what leaders and team members should know and includes helpful tips for working through the norming stage of team development.
## What is norming?
Members should begin to feel more cohesive at this point in team development. Teams reach the norming stage once they have worked through their initial interactions and conflicts (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). In this stage, the roles, responsibilities, and behaviors of team members are established and regulated (Levi, 2016). During norming, team members' confidence in the team and individual members increases, and trust and interdependence of team members are strengthened (Levi, 2016). This stems from team members consistently meeting and upholding ground rules, or norms, established in earlier stages. Moreover, teams in the morning stage have learned how to manage conflict productively and experience less counterproductive conflict at this point.
In the norming stage, team members respect and adhere to ground rules, or norms, established in the forming stage. Norms help teams express their values, establish predictable behaviors, encourage participation from everyone, and create a group identity that will help the team persist when personal motivations interfere, or uncharacteristic behaviors occur (Feldman, 1984). Positive norms should include effective decision-making processes, open discussion of team challenges, taking on shared leadership roles, and establishing a workflow pattern. These norms promote team productivity. By this stage, team members should have a strong understanding of their role and the team's direction and goals. In functional teams, members are committed to their teams and upheld their individual responsibilities for reaching the collective team goals (Lencioni, 2002).
## What Leaders Should Know
As a team leader, it is important to understand that teams may not follow a linear path through the stages of team development (Franz, 2012). Teams may skip stages or go back to storming if necessary. Successfully moving through the norming stage requires teams to establish relationships and methods for navigating conflict through the forming and storming stages. The team leader may need to remind team members to rely on the established ground rules and encourage them to work through any conflicts that may arise. The team can still experience tension in the norming stage, particularly when establishing team roles and task assignments. However, the team leader should help team members recall the processes they have developed and use the techniques refined in the storming stage to continue navigating these challenges.
Team norms can be developed in different ways. They may evolve gradually over time -with or without being discussed explicitly by team members. Alternatively, leaders may need to set a precedent or expectations (Feldman, 1984; Levi, 2016). Leaders must be aware that team members may enter a new team with norms and behaviors from previous team experiences. While this is not inherently negative, leaders should help the team ensure that the norms adopt are appropriate for and reflect the culture of the current team. This is why establishing ground rules, discussing desired team norms, and producing team contracts are so helpful in the forming stage. These tools assist in building trust and keeping people invested in the team. Team size may affect member participation during this stage (Wheelan, 2009). Leaders should revisit team policies often and help facilitate discussion within larger groups to ensure all team members' voices are heard.
The norming stage also presents an opportunity for shared leadership roles. While the team may have an assigned leader, emergent leadership and balancing of roles should begin to occur in this stage. The assigned leader should promote shared leadership experiences and encourage team members to take on leadership roles that match their strengths and assigned tasks. It is important for members to feel valued, heard, and appreciated by other team members for their contributions. Providing this type of support is paramount for a team to move to the performing stage.
## What Team Members Should Know
Developing team norms and establishing behavioral expectations are integral to the team's success (Feldman, 1984; Levi, 2016; Tuckman & Jensen, 1977). Team members share responsibility for ensuring positive and productive norms guide their behavior. It is important for team members to adhere to established work processes, collaborate authentically, share responsibility for achieving team goals, and build cohesion within the team.
While norms will help to provide structure, it is also important to know that individuals will take on different roles. The three primary types of roles are tasks roles, social or relationship roles, and dysfunctional roles (Benne & Sheats, 1948). Task
roles are purposely created to ensure that all members have meaningful work that contributes to the collective team goal (Levi, 2016). Task roles may include initiator, information seeker, information giver, evaluator, energizer, etc. (Benne & Sheats, 1946). Relationship roles, which can be a facet of task roles, are roles that team members can take on informally (Levi, 2016). These can include things like encourager, harmonizer, compromiser, follower, etc. (Benne & Sheats, 1948). Dysfunctional roles are those that disrupt group processes and include things like aggressor, recognition seeker, selfconfessor, etc. (Benne & Sheats, 1948). Dysfunctional roles should be avoided; when recognized, teams should rely upon their established norms to address them. Each team member is responsible for knowing what roles they fill on a team. For example, if a team member has a humorous personality, they may benefit the team by helping defuse tensions during stressful situations. Likewise, if someone on the team is very focused on achieving the goal, they may be "assigned" the role of keeping the team focused when fatigue starts to set in. If a team member is aware that they tend to be a disrupter of the team, they may ask a teammate or the leader to help them regulate how often they act in this role. Informal relationship roles may not be as well-defined as formal task roles; however, they are important for meeting the team's needs and reducing the amount of ambiguity within the team (Feldman, 1984).
## Support your team through successful norming
During the norming stage, it is important to establish and define team culture. Culture can be thought of as the shared values, beliefs, and behaviors among teammates. Teams can accomplish this through prioritizing social norms, such as scheduling activities to connect, both during work hours and outside of work time. Culture will be reinforced through the actions of both the leader and team members. Team members should hold themselves and each other accountable and provide regular feedback. Team identity will also be solidified during this time. Team names, logos, member titles, and the way people dress all convey identity as well as team culture (Griffith & Dunham, 2014). Team leaders can deliberately create team culture, or they can let culture develop more organically.
Teams and leaders can utilize specific morning activities to elicit input from all members. These activities can be facilitated anonymously if it helps group members feel more comfortable sharing. Activities that encourage open sharing and feedback should be prioritized. Leaders can provide examples of team norms to help encourage conversation if team members have difficulty articulating norms.
Writing a team contract and ground rules can help solidify roles and tasks and provides a tangible document that members can consult when conflict arises. A team contract is a document that defines the expectations of all team members and holds teams accountable throughout the performing stage. A team contract also helps team members stay focused by clarifying specific tasks (Levi, 2016).
What types of norms should your team discuss and establish? Below are a few examples of norms:
- · Communication : How will your team communicate? Will you have virtual or in-person meetings? How often? Do you prefer emails, phone calls, or text messages?
- Conflict resolution : How does the team prefer to navigate conflict? How is accountability handled?
- Problem solving and decision making : How do you make decisions? Is it through majority or consensus? Do you have a distinct set of problem-solving processes?
- Formal roles : How are roles assigned to meet specific goals? Are they delegated or volunteered for? How are deadlines enforced?
- Informal roles : Who is responsible for writing meeting minutes? Are people bringing snacks?
- Attendance and socialization expectations : How do you hold individuals accountable for not attending meetings? What is your policy on side conversations during or outside of a meeting? Is responding to email, text messages, and phone calls acceptable during team meetings?
## Conclusion
Norming is a vital stage of team development which allows team members to organize roles and tasks, establishes team culture and identity, and guides teams through future conflict. As teams move into the next stage of development, performing, it is important that teams rely on their norms and team contract to ensure that they are successful in accomplishing their goals.
## References
Benné, K. D., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functional roles of group members . Journal of Social Issues , 4(2), 41-49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1948.tb01783.x
Feldman, D. (1984). The development and enforcement of group norms . Academy of Management Review , 9(1), 47-53. https://doi.org/10.2307/258231
Franz, T. M. (2012). Group dynamics and team intervention: Understanding and improving team performance (1$^{st}$ Edition). Wiley-Blackwell.
- Griffith, B. A., & Dunham, E. B. (2014). Working in teams: Moving from high potential to high performance . Sage.
Lencioni, P. (2002). The five dysfunctions of a team. Jossey-Bass.
- Levi, D. (2016). Group dynamics for teams (5$^{th}$ Edition). Sage.
Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin , 63(6), 384 -399. https://doi.org/10.1037/h022100
- Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. C. (1977). Stages of small-group development revisited. Group & Organization Management , 2(4), 419-427. https://doi.org/10.1177/105960117700200404
Wheelan, S. A. (2009). Group size, group development, and group productivity. Small Group Research , 40(2), 247-262. https://doi.org/10.1177/104694608328703
## Appendix A: Leading Teams Series Overview
## Leading Teams #1: Introduction
A description of teams that discusses the benefits of and challenges faced by teams, ways that teams are different from groups, and a brief review of models and concepts to be expanded on through the series.
## Leading Teams #2: Stages of Group Development
An in-depth description of the stages of group development model by Tuckman & Jensen (1977).
## Leading Teams #3: Forming
An explanation of the forming stage of group development, accompanied by strategies to effectively lead teams through the forming stage. This publication provides tactics to help clarify team purpose, establish team culture, and guide team member socialization.
## Leading Teams #4: Storming
A description of the storming stage of group development. This publication supplies strategies for conflict management, communication, and decision-making approaches.
## Leading Teams #5: Norming
An outline of the norming stage of group development. This publication discusses approaches to defining roles and responsibilities, establishing an ideal team climate, and building organizational culture.
## Leading Teams #6: Performing
An explanation of team performance and the performing stage of group development. This publication provides tips for leading effective meetings, supporting collaboration, enhancing team cohesion, and using proper evaluation and feedback procedures.
## Leading Teams #7: Other Considerations for Leading Teams
This publication concludes the series with a short overview of adjourning and other suggestions and considerations for leading teams, including working with virtual teams, encouraging motivation, and managing team adjournment and team member termination.
Release Date: July 19, 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-Wc465-2024
Critical Issue: Organizational Goals
Contacts: Laura Greenhaw
View PDF
## About this Publication
This document is AEC804, a publication of the Department of Agricultural Education and Communication, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date June 2024. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ufas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication. © 2024 UFIFAS. This publication is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.
## About the Authors
Matthew Gold, master's student and graduate assistant, Department of Agricultural Education and Communication; Rachel Biderman, M.S., Department of Agricultural Education and Communication; Sarah A. Bush, assistant professor, leadership education, Department of Agricultural Education and Communication; Laura L. Greenhaw, assistant professor, agricultural leadership, Department of Agricultural Education and Communication; and Carrie N. Baker, graduate assistant, Department of Agricultural Education and Communication; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Greenshaw, Laura L.
Specialist
University of Florida
Specialist
University of Florida
BergenburgAuSraL
Specialist
University of Florida |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/for-you/healthy-eating-from-head-to-toe/ | Healthy Eating from Head to Toe | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Katie Funderburk"
] | 2018-07-25 | [
"Nutrition",
"Healthy Eating",
"Child Development"
] | AL | FOR YOU
## Healthy Eating from Head to Toe
For kids, getting the right nutrients is important for healthy growth. Helping your child eat a variety of foods from all food groups is the best way to make sure your child gets all the nutrients needed for growth and development. Here are just a few examples of foods that are packed with nutrients to help kids grow healthy and strong.
## Foods for Growth and Development
(post\_type=aces content piece&p=3223&preview=true)
## Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/columbus-county-forestry-impacts-2020 | Columbus County Forestry Impacts 2020 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Suzanne Teague",
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Columbus County Forestry Impacts 2020
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Aug. 9, 2022
Authors
Stephanie Chizmar
Suzanne Teague
Rajan Parauli
Robert Bardon
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN1169 | Balios Eulophid Baeoentedon balios Wang, Huang & Polaszek (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) | University of Florida | [
"Muhammad Z. Ahmed",
"Yisell Velazquez Hernandez",
"Antonio Francis",
"Gregory Evans",
"Eric Rohrig",
"Lance Osborne",
"Catharine Mannion"
] | 2021-09-20 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Balios Eulophid Baeoentedon balios Wang, Huang & Polaszek (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)
Muhammad Z. Ahmed, Yisell Velazquez Hernandez, Antonio Francis, Gregory Evans, Eric Rohrig, Lance Osborne, and Catharine Mannion
The Featured Creatures collection provides in-depth profiles of insects, nematodes, arachnids and other organisms relevant to Florida. These profiles are intended for the use of interested laypersons with some knowledge of biology as well as academic audiences.
## Introduction
Most parasitoids commonly used for biological control of whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodiidae) belong to the chalcoidid family Aphelinidae. Whitefly parasitoids belonging to other families, such as those in the genus Baeoentedon (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), are often ignored as potential biological control agents because there is little to no knowledge about their biology and behavior. Girault (1915) erected the genus Baeoetedon with a single species, Baeoentedon peculicornis Girault , from Australia. Baeoentedon was mistakenly presumed to be a parasitoid of true bugs, Psylloidea, and later suspected to be a parasitoid of whiteflies based on its clear relationship with other genera of Eudermphalini: Eulophidae (Lasalle and Schauff 1994). Wang et al . (2014) found three new species of Baeoentedon in China: Baeoentedon balios, Baeoentedon boucei, and Baeoentedon virgatus. Among them, Baeoentedon balios was recorded from the whitelyf, Pealius spina , a serious pest of Ficus religiosa, Ficus arnotiana , and Ficus benghalensis .
In our survey, we discovered the first known instance of Baeoentedon balios in the New World found in Homestead, Florida in December 2014 attacking the ficus whitelyf, Singhellia simplex , a pest of at least eleven species of ficus including Ficus altissima, Ficus aurae, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus carica, Ficus benjamina, Ficus elasticica, Ficus racemosa, Ficus pumila, Ficus lyrata, Ficus macellandii, and Ficus micropara. In Florida, Ficus benjamina appears to be the preferred host of ficus whitelyf. Several ficus species are commonly grown in the southern Florida landscape creating thousands of miles of Ficus benjamina hedges and trees. Ficus benjamina is a favored hedge plant species for numerous reasons such as low cost, fast growth, and ability to withstand heavy pruning to form various shapes including privacy walls. The trend of using ficus hedges in Florida began at least 90 years ago and has since become extremely popular (Gordon and Thomas 1997, FNGLA 2000). This changed in 2007 when ficus whitelyf, Singhellia simplex , arrived in Florida and became a major problem in landscapes (Avery et al. 2011, Hodges 2007, Legaspi et al. 2013, Mannion 2010a, Mannion 2010b).
If no control applications are applied, the ficus whitelyf can cause severe defoliation. In some cases, branch dieback and ultimately plant death may occur (Mannion 2010a, Mannion 2010b). Numerous natural enemies including parasitoids, have been reported attacking ficus whitelyf populations, but none are sufficient to stop or mitigate severe damage. In our 20142016 survey, we found at least three parasitoids in Florida attacking ficus whitellyf, including Amitus bennetti , Baeoentedon balios, and Encarsia protransvena (Figure 1). Two of these species have been reported in previous surveys (2007-2013) conducted at various times and locations with Encaris protransvena being the most prevalent (Mannion 2010a). Recent surveys suggest that Baeoentedon balios has been self-distributing over the last two years and becoming the most consistent and dominant parasitoid attacking ficus whitellyf in southern Florida (Figure 2).
Credit: Muhammad Z. Ahmed, UF/IFAS
## Description and Biology
Baeoentedon balios develops through six life stages: egg, three nymphal instars, a pupal-like stage, and adult. Adults have a body length of about 0.9 mm, with the head and thorax color metallic blue-black, and the abdomen mostly pale yellow. The antennae have a mostly white scape and the legs are pale yellow. Figures of male and female adults of this parasitoid and of another ficus whitely parasitoid , Amitus bennetti , are presented to differentiate between them (Figures 4 and 5); videos of nymphs being parasitized by these parasitoid species are also provided (Video 1-7).
Biological studies of the life history (egg to adult) of Baeoentedon balios were conducted at the UF/IFAS Tropical Research and Education Center in Homestead. The development time is approximately 19-24 days at room temperature (25±1°C, 65±5% RH, 12:12 L.:D). Baeoentedon balios development in a whitelif e is depicted in Figure 6. Maximum observed female longevity was 28 days, and adult survival of both males and females after emergence was more than 50%. These characters suggest that Baeoentedon balios could be a potentially effective biological control agent of ficus whitefly.
## Parasitism Potential
Baeoenteidon balios can parasitize the first through the third instars of the ficus whitefly. Approximately 2% (3 out of 60) of ficus whiteflies were parasitized during the first instar, 16% (10 out of 60) during the second, and 12% during third (7 out of 60), suggesting that Baeoentedon balios exhibits a preference for the second instar (Figure 7, Videos 1-3). In addition, many of the non-parasitized whitefly nymphs died after being probed and/or fed on by parasitoid adults. Mortality rates were 76% (46 out of 60) for first instar nymphs, 46% (28 out of 60) for second instar, and 36% (22 out of 60) for third instar. This evidence suggests that Baeoentedon balios can control ficus whitefly nymph populations by killing them during the process of feeding, probing, and parasitizing.
| Parasitoid inserting its ovipositor in the dorsal thorax of the second instar; (b) Close-up of Figure 7a, showing inserted ovipositor. |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Credit: Muhammad Z. Ahmed and Yisell Velazquez Hernandez, UF/IFAS |
## Parasitism Symptoms
- tiny pinhole marks on middle right side of whitefly nymphs
Videos 1-7 . Parasitoids on ficus whitefly nymphs. Video 1 and Video 2 : Baeoentedon balios parasitizing the first instar. Video 3 : Baeoentedon balios feeding and probing the second instar. Video 4 : Amitis bennetti attempting to parasitize the eggs and first instar nymph. Video 5 : Amitus bennetti parasitizing the first instar. Video 6 : Amitis bennetti parasitizing the second instar. Video 7 : Amitus bennetti parasitizing the third instar. Videos by Muhammad Z. Ahmed and Mauricio Jose, UF/IFAS.
## Hyperparasitism
We also found a male specimen of a hyperparasitoid, Encarsia variegata (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), parasitizing ficus whitefly nymphs that had already been parasitized by Baeoentedon balios. This male was found at a site where Encarsia variegata females, which are primary parasitoids, were also found parasitizing another whitefly species, the solanum or pepper whitefly, Aleurotrachelus trachoides , which feeds on Duranta hedges (Figure 8).
Credit: Muhammad Z. Ahmed and Yisell Velazquez Hernandez, UF/IFAS
Figure 9. Pupal exuvia of whitefly and parasitoid adults. (a) The T-shaped emergence hole indicates it is the pupal exuvia of whitefly adult; (b) The circular emergence hole indicates it is the pupal exuvia of parasitoids; (c) Multiple circular holes indicate multiple emergences of either parasitoids or hyperparasitoids.
Figure 10. The developmental stage of Baeoentedon balios Wang, Huang & Polaszek. (a) The hyperparasitized larva of Baeoentedon balios within a ficus whitefly nymph; (b) The dead pupal stage of Baeoentedon balios within a ficus whitefly nymph; (c) Pupal exuvia of Baeoentedon balios . Credit: Muhammad Z. Ahmed and Yisell Velazquez Hernandez, UF/IFAS
## Hosts
Whitefiles are considered the primary hosts of Baeoentedon balios . Thus far, it has only been observed parasitizing two ficus whitefly species , Singhiella simplex and Pealius spina .
## Maintaining Populations in the Field
Although adult Baeoentedon balios can fly or be carried by wind and spread over small distances, the primary mode of distribution is likely through the movement of ficus plants with parasitized ficus whitefly nymphs. In most of our surveys of sprayed hedges, we often found populations of this parasitoid at the edges where pesticide application may have been less thorough. In greenhouse experiments, populations of ficus whitelifted remain low in the presence of Baeoentedon balios . In one survey, we observed differences in the level of defoliation (visual observation of leaves) on hedges planted opposite to each other at the same site. The hedge with less defoliation contained a higher number of natural enemies, including this new parasitoid, compared to the hedge with more defoliation (Figure 11). Both hedges were infested with ficus whitefly and were likely treated similarly because they were maintained by the same landscapeer. It was noted that the hedge with more natural enemies and less defoliation was in closer proximity to a papaya grove and other ornamental plants, and the hedge with more defoliation was closer to an open, grassy area. It is possible that other plants might provide a refuge for natural enemies and potentially contributed to the increased activity on the hedge with less defoliation.
Careful monitoring for natural enemies is essential before any heavy pruning or pesticide applications. Natural enemies, including parasitoids, may encounter pesticides directly from foliar sprays or residues on plant surfaces but also may be exposed indirectly through ingestion of, or exposure to, pesticide-treated hosts. Insecticides can be severely detrimental to parasitoids. Therefore, the presence of untreated refuge such as banker plants/crops allows natural enemies to escape pesticide exposure and may be helpful to their establishment and persistence (Smith and Liburd 2015). Insecticide applications can also be manipulated by adjusting timing, placement or method to minimize exposure to parasitoids.
## Selected References
Avery PB, Mannion CM, Powell CA, McKenzie CL, Osborne LS. 2011. Natural enemies managing the invasion of the fig whitefly , Singhiella simplex (Hemiptera: Aeryodidae), infesting a Ficus benjamina hedge. Florida Entomologist 94: 696698 .
FNGLYPHGLYPHLA. 2000. Green island Ficus was recognized by the Florida nurserymen and growers association (ENGLYPHGLYPHLA)asapplant oftheyearfortheyear.WholesaleNurservy.Naples.Florida.(9January2017)
Girault AA. 1915. Australian Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea IV. Supplement. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 3: 190.
Gordon DR, Thomas KP. 1997. Florida's invasion by nonindigenous plants: History, screening, and regulation. In Strangers in Paradise, Impact and Management of Nonindigenous Species in Florida. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp.21-37.
Hodges G. 2007. The fig whitefly singlella simplex (Singh.)(Hemiptera: Aleyrodida): An euxotic whitefly found on Ficus species in South Florida. Pest Alert DPI-FDACS. (9 January 2017)
Lasalle J, Schauff ME. 1994. Systematics of the tribe Euderomphalini (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae): Parasitoids of whiteflies (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Systematic Entomology 19: 235-258.
Legaspi JC, Mannion C, Amalin D, Legaspi Jr BC. 2013. Biology, ecology and control of the Ficus whitefly , Singhiella simplex (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) Penan, J. (ed.) Potential Invasive Pests of Agricultural Crops. CABI, Oxfordshire, U. K. (Book Chapter). pp. 363-372.
Mannion C. 2010a. Ficus Whitefly and other pests of ficus. UF/IFAS Tropical Research and Education Center. (3 June 2021) Mannion C. 2010b. Ficus whitefly, management in the landscape. UF/IFAS Extension. (3 June 2021)
Smith HA, Liburd OE. 2015. Intercroping, Crop Diversity and Pest Management. ENLY862. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in2922
Wang ZH, Huang J, Polaszek A. 2014. Three new species of Baeoenstedon Girault ( Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) from China, with the first record of whitefly host association (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Zootaxa 3826: 591-600.
Publication #EEENY-676
Release Date:
September 21, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3247/edis-in1169-2017
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Elena RhodesLance Osborne
View PDF
About this Publication
This document is EENY-676, one of a series of the Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date March 2017. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication. This document is also available on the Featured Creatures website at http://entnemdept.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/.
About the Authors
Muhammad Z. Ahmed, post doctoral associate, Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Tropical Research and Education Center; Yisell Velazquez Hernandez, Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Tropical REC; Antonio Francis, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry; Gregory Evans, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, USDA; Eric Rohrig, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry; Lance S. Osborne, professor, Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Mid-Florid REC; and Catharine Mannion, professor, Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Tropical; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
772 Publication(s) |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/mrec/2020/09/16/weed-of-the-week-hairy-bittercress/ | Weed of the week : Hairy Bittercress | University of Florida | [
"Yuvraj"
] | 2020-09-16 | [
"Agriculture",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Home Landscapes",
"Horticulture",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"apopka",
"Chris Marble",
"edis",
"environmental horticulture",
"Extension",
"greenhouse weed management",
"horticulture",
"Marble",
"MREC",
"ornamental weed management",
"weed control",
"weed management",
"weed science",
"weed science wednesday",
"weed Wednesday",
"yuvraj khamare"
] | FL | ## Weed of the week : Hairy Bittercress
Last Updated on September 16, 2020 by Yuvraj
Welcome to Weed Science Wednesday, a weekly series aimed at helping homeowners and horticulture professionals better identify and manage common landscape weeds in Florida.
The weed of the week is Hairy bittercress (Cardamine hirsuta ). Hairy bittercress is native to Europe and Western Asia and has been introduced and naturalized in the United States. It is a winter annual but in Florida, it can persist year - round in moist and shaded areas. It is a common weed in greenhouses, container pads, growing media, and nursery pots. It is often found in irrigated or shaded areas but can also grow in full sun.
Credit: Chris Marble, UF/IFAS Bittercress with clumping growth habit in container
Hairy bittercress has an upright growth habit or forms a dense basal rosette. The stems are often reddish to purple in color towards the base of the plant. It usually grows 3 to 8 inches long. The leaves are compound, alternately arranged on the stem, and often clubshaped. The flowers are white with four petals and found at the top of the stem in clusters. One bittercress plant can produce about five thousand seeds that have no dormancy requirement and can germinate quickly.
Credit: Shawn Steed, UF/IFAS Mature bittercress. Note the purplish color and leaves forming a basal rosette at the bottom of the stem
For more information on Hairy bittercress, including specific recommendations for chemical, physical and cultural weed controls, please consult Biology and Management of Hairy Bittercress (.Cardamine hirsuta) in Ornamental Crop Production
by Yuvraj
Posted: September 16, 2020
## Category: AGRICULTURE, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Home
Landscapes, Horticulture, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFASE Research, UF/IFAS Teaching
Tags: Apopka, Chris Marble, EDIS, Environmental Horticulture,
Extension, Greenhouse Weed Management, Horticulture, Marble,
MREC, Ornamental Weed Management, Weed Control, Weed
Management, Weed Science, Weed Science Wednesday, Weed
Wednesday, Yuvraj Khamare
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Weed Of The Week: Praxelis
- · Water Wednesdays Recap - DIY Beeswax Food Wraps
- · Water Wednesday Recap - All About Your Toilet
- · Weed Of The Week : Artillery Weed |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/EP480 | Florida Foliage House Plant Care: ZZ Plant | University of Florida | [
"R. J. Henny",
"J. Chen"
] | 2019-11-20 | [
"2. Water Quality, Quantity, and Supply"
] | FL | Skip to main content
R. J. Henny and J. Chen
## Introduction
ZZ plant is enjoyed for its unique appearance, its ability to grow under low light conditions, and its tolerance to drought. ZZ's naturally glossy leaves are so shiny that the plant appears to have been polished (Chen and Henny 2003).
ZZ is stemless (Figure 1). Petioles arise directly from the rhizome. Leaflets along the petiole are arranged alternately. A ZZ variety with variegated leaflets is occasionally available for sale through specialty outlets. ZZ plant is often used as a pseudo-bonsai.
Common names: ZZ plant, arid palm, African cootonic, arum fern, cardboard palm
Scientific name: Zamioclusa zamifolia Engler and Prantl
Plant family: Araceae (the ardoid family)
Origin: Native to eastern Africa, Kenya, South Africa, and Tanzania.
## Indoor/Home/Office Cultivation Information
Light requirement: ZZ is easily maintained under low light interiors in homes and offices.
Soil preference: Any well-drained peat- or bark-based potting soil can be used.
Water requirement: Do not allow ZZ to sit in water. Allow the soil to become dry between watrings.
Drought tolerance: ZZ is very drought tolerant, although leaf drop may occur (see Outdoor Cultivation below).
Fertilizer requirements: ZZ is a slow-growing plant, even under favorable conditions. Apply low-dose liquid fertilizer according to manufacturer instructions twice per year.
Salt tolerance:
Flowering: ZZ will not bloom under low light conditions, but it may produce inflorescences under certain outdoor conditions (see Outdoor Cultivation below).
Temperature preference: Warm, tropical 65°F-90°F.
Chill tolerance: Active growth will be reduced and injury may occur below 50°F.
Freeze tolerance (below 32°F): No.
Pets: No diseases or pests are an issue for this plant. Root rot may occur if ZZ plants are grown in poorly drained soil with excessive water for an extended period of time. If you experience problems with your ZZ plant, take samples to your local UF/IFAS Extension office for diagnosis and to receive treatment recommendations.
## Outdoor Cultivation Information
Outdoor year-round planting: Okay for USDA Hardiness Zones 10B-12.
Soil preference: ZZ is tolerant of a variety of well-drained soil types.
Light requirement: Strong, filtered light, but no direct sun.
Water requirement: Maintain moisture, but provide adequate drainage.
Drought tolerance: Very drought tolerant. During drought conditions, leaflets and the upper portion of the petiole (i.e., rachis) fall off; leaving the swollen petiole base to tide the plant over until the next irrigation or rain.
Fertilizer requirements: Apply a well-balanced, slow-release pelletized fertilizer according to manufacturer recommendations during the warm growing season. Note that ZZ is a slow-growing plant even under favorable production conditions.
Salt Tolerance: slight salt tolerance. Avoid saline or alkaline conditions.
Flowering: In areas of sufficient light, mature ZZ plants may produce blooms. Flowering occurs on mature plants during spring and early summer. The inflorescence appears just above the soil level and consists of a green spacre enclosing a fleshy spadix.
Temperature preference: Warm, tropical 65°F-90°F.
Chill tolerance: Active growth will be reduced and discoloration may occur below 50°F.
## Freeze tolerance (below 32°F): No.
## Additional Resources
Bown, D. 2000. Aroids: Plants of the Arrum Family (2nd ed.). Portland, OR: Timber Press.
Chen, J. and R.J. Henry. 2003. "ZZ: A unique tropical ornamental foliage plant". HortTechnology 13:458-462.
## Publication #ENH1219
Release Date:
November 21, 2019
Reviewed At:
January 3, 2023
DOI: doi.org/10.32473/edis-ep480-2013
Critical Issue: 2. Water Quality, Quantity, and Supply
Contacts: Jiainn Jun Chen
## About this Publication
This document is ENH11219, one of a series of the Environmental Horticulture Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date July 2013. Revised November 2016. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ufas.edu/ for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
R. J. Henny, professor; and J. Chen, professor; Department of Environmental Horticulture, UF/IFAS Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Apopka, FL. 32703.
## Related Pages |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/muestrear-el-suelo-cuidadosamente-la-clave-para-obtener-informacion-confiable-sobre-el-analisis-de | Muestrear el suelo cuidadosamente: la clave para obtener información confiable sobre el análisis de suelo | NC State Extension | [
"Luke Gatiboni",
"Deanna Osmond",
"David Hardy"
] | null | [
"Análisis De Suelo",
"Muestreo De Suelo",
"Fertilidad Del Suelo",
"Salud Del Suelo"
] | NC | Muestrear el suelo cuidadosamente: la clave para obtener información confiable sobre el análisis de suelo
## Datos sobre el suelo
Cuando usted envía muestras de suelo para que se las analicen en el laboratorio, usted necesita y espera resultados confiables. Ya que las decisiones sobre aplicación de cal y fertilización se basan en el reporte del análisis, su precisión puede afectar sus costos y sus rendimientos. En otras palabras, obtener resultados precisos puede causar efectos que se míden en dólares y centavos.
Sin embargo, la confiabilidad del análisis del suelo no puede superar la de las muestras que se envían. Para obtener resultados confiables, es de vital importancia tomar muestras de una manera que represente con preci s ión el suelo de su finca.
Esta publicación explica cómo obtener muestras de suelo representativas y cómo enviarlas para que las analicen.
## Dónde tomar muestras
Usted puede obtener una fotografía aérea de su finca en la Agencia de Servicio Agrícola (Farm Service Agency, FSA) del condado. Delinee los límites de su finca o campo directamente sobre la foto o haga un mapa más grande y detallado usando la foro como guía. Luego asigne un código permanente a cada campo o área de administración. La codificación de las áreas le permitirá llevar registros de los tratamientos aplicados al suelo y los rendimientos de los cultivos obtienidos de cada área. Para su conveniencia al enviar muestras de suelo, asigne a cada área un código que no contenga más de tres caracteres: números, letras o ambos.
Cada muestra de suelo que someta a análisis debe contener entre 15 y 20 submuestras tomadas de lugares al azar en el campo o área. La muestra debe contener submuestras de no más de aproximadamente 20 acres, aún cuando el suelo parceza ser únfimo en una área grande.
Tenga en mente que cada muestra debe representar solo un tipo o condición general de suelo. Si en el campo que está muestrando hay áreas que son obviamente diferentes en cuanto a pendiente, color, drenaje y textura, y si esas áreas pueden ser fertilizadas por separado, presente una muestra separada (que conste de 15 a 20 submuestras) por cada área (Figura 1).
Al tomar las muestras, evite áreas pequeñas donde las condiciones del suelo sean obviamente diferentes de las del resto del terreno, por ejemplo lugares húmedos, con abono vejo y orina, lugares donde se han quemado pilas de madera o leña, áreas gravemente erosionadas, sitios de construcción vieja, lugares cercados, botaderos de basura, áreas de hileras de quema, etc. Evite
también las franjas con fertilizante en los campos donde se haya cultivado en hileras. Ya que las muestras tomadas de estos lugares no serían típicas del suelo en el resto del campo, incluirlas podría producir resultados engañosos.
Las áreas dentro de un campo donde se han sembrado diferentes cultivos en el pasado se deben muestrear por separado, incluso sia ahora planea cultivar la misma planta en todo el campo.
Las áreas encaladas y fertilizadas de manera diferente del resto del campo también deben ser muestreadas por separado.
come una muestra separada de cada área que tenga su propio tipo de suelo.
## ' Areas con problemas de muestreo
En campos o en áreas donde los problemas de fertildad parecen ser la causa del crecimiento anormal de los cultivos, las muestras deben tomarse de manera algo diferente en comparación con la toma de muestras para análisis de rutina. Al mismo tiempo que toma muestras de la capa superficial del suelo, tome muestra del subsuelo a una profundidad de 8 a 16 pulgadas, pero mantenga separados los dos tipos de muestras. Siga las paítas para tomar una buena muestra representativa, tome submuestras en ubicaciones aleatorias en toda el área problemática, aunque sea relativamente pequena. AL mismo tiempo, tome una muestra representativa de las áreas normales del mismo campo.
Hay información más detallada sobre toma de muestras de áreas problemáticas en el formulario AD-2, "Información de muestra de suelo para diagnóstico" (AD-2. "Diagnostic Soil Sample Information"). Se pueden obtener copias de este formulario en el centro local de Extensión Cooperativa (Cooperative Extension), de los agronomos regionales del Departamento de Agricultura y Servicios al Consumidor de Carolina del Norte (North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services, NCDA&CS), de las empresas agrícolas locales o de la División de Agronomia del NCDA&CS, cuya dirección postal es 4300 Reedy Creek Road, Raleigh, NC 27607-6465.
## ' Cuándo tomar muestras
Tome muestras de tres a seis meses antes de que sea el tiempo para sembrar. Así le llegaré el reporte del análisis a tiempo para planificar su programa de aplicación de cal (encalado) y fertilización antes de la ajeteada temporada de siembra. Si envía muestras inmediatamente
después de la cosecha en el otófo, es probable que reciba los resultados rápidamente porque la carga de trabajo del laboratorio es menor en esa época del año que en la primavera. Si es posible, trate de tomar sus muestras en la misma época del año cada año.
No tome muestras cuando el suelo esté demasiado húmedo porque eso dificulta mezclar las submuestras. Como regla general, si está demasiado húmedo para tomar muestras.
Tome muestras del suelo de las áreas en que se cultivan plantas pernenes o césped de tres a cuatro meses antes de establecer el cultivo o aplicar cal o fertilizante.
## Con qué frecuencia se deben tomar las muestras
Si su finca se encuentra en la región de la llanura costera, es mejor analizar el suelo cada dos o tres años. Los suelos arenosos de esa región no conservan los nutrientes tanto como los suelos de otras partes del estado, y son más propensos a volverse ácidos por adicio de nirónógeno. Los niveles de nutrientes en los suelos limosos y franco arillosos del Piedmont y las regiones montañosas cambian menos rápidamente con las aplicaciones de cal y fertilizantes. En estas áreas, las pruebas de suelo una vez cadara cuatro años suelen ser suficientes.
Un buen plan es muestrear entre un tercio y la mitad de cada año si su financ sta en la llanura costera, y una cuarta parte de sus campos cada año si se encuentra en el Piedmont o en las montañas.
## Cómo tomar una buena muestra
Herramientas . Tome las muestras con herramientas de muestreo de acero inoxidable o cromado y cubetas de plástico para evitar contaminar las muestras con rastros de elementos químicos (micronutrientes) de las herramientas de muestreo. Evite las herramientas de latón, bronce o galvanizadas. En la Figura 2 se muestra una herramienta de muestreo de suelo adecuada.
Asegúrese de que las cubetas y las herramientas de muestreo estén limpias y sin residuos de cal o fertilizante. Incluso una cantidad pequeña de cal o fertilizante transferida de las herramientas de muestreo al suelo pueden contaminar seriarmente la muestra y producir resultados inexactos.
Profundidad de muestreo . En las áreas en las que se siberman cultivos de campo, tome las muestras a la misma profundidad que se ara el campo (generalmente alrededor de 8 pulgadas) porque esta es la zona en la que se ha incorporado la cal y el fertilizante (Figura 3).
En los campos en que se mantienen cultivos penrenes tales como la festuca, la alfalfa y el césped, las muestras tomadas a una profundidad de 4 pulgadas representarán mejor las necesidades de cal y fertilizante del cultivo. Sin embargo, en lugares en que se vayan a establecer estos cultivos penrenes, tome la muestra a la profundidad normal del arado.
Figura 3. Tome la muestra a una profundidad de 8 pulgadas en campos arados para cultivos en hileras, 4 pulgadas donde se cultivar pastos perennes o cósped.
## Envío de la muestra
Las muestras de suelo son analizadas por la División Agronómica del NCDA&CS . Cada muestra debe enviarse en una caja de muestra de suelo estándar y debe ir acompañada de una copia completa del formulario AD-1, "Información de muestra de suelo". Las casjas y formularios están disponibles en el Centro de Extensión de su condado, a través de los agrónomos regionales del NCDA&CS , en las empresas agrícolas locales o en la División de Agronomía del NCDA&CS , cuya dirección postal es 4300 Reedy Creek Road, Raleigh, NC 27607-6465.
Envie sus muestras solo en las cajas estándar que le dieron en alguno de los lugares mencionados, como se muestra en la Figura 4. Las muestras enviadas en bolsas u otros contenedores no serán compatibles con el sistema de procesamiento usado en el laboratorio. No ponga una bolsa de plástico en la caja de muestra. Selle la caja de envío si las muestras de suelo son de un área en cuarentana.
Es probable que su muestra con 15 a 20 submuestras sea más grande de lo que quepa en la caja. Por lo tanto, antes de echar la tierra en la caja, pulverice y mezclen bien las submuestras en la cubeta. Luego llene la caja de muestra hasta aproximadamente los dos tercios.
Escriba en la caja el código que ha asignado al área de la muestra.
Recuerde que la identificación no puede ser de más de cinco números, letras o una combinación de los dos.
Las instrucciones para llenar el formulario AD-1 y la hoja de información del suelo están impresas en la parte de atrás del formulario. Para aprovechar al máximo su análisis de suelo, tomese el tiempo para llenar todos los espacios en blanco y asegúrese de indicar el cultivo o cultivos que va a sembrar. Asegúrese también de que el código que escriba en el formulario corresponda al código de la caja de muestra y al mapa de la finca. Envíe por correo el formulario completo con la caja de la muestra y guarde una copia para su referencia.
Si necesita ayuda para interpretar los resultados del análisis de suelo o para desarrollar un plan de tratamiento de suelos, consulte a sus asesores agrícolas locales.
## Agradecimientos
Esta publicación es una revisión de una versión anterior. El autor desea agradecer a Carl Crozier, Jack V. Baird, Steven C. Hodges y M. Ray Tucker por sus contribuciones anteriores.
## Authors
Luke Gatiboni
Especialista en Fertilidad de Suelos de Extensión y Profesor Asistente Departamento de Ciencias de Cultivos y Suelos
David Hardy
Jefe de Sección, Servicios de Agronomia - Análisis de Suelos Departamento de Agricultura y Servicios al Consumidor de Carolina del Norte
Publication date: June 8, 2022
AG-439-30
There is an alternate English language version of this document here: Careful Soil Sampling-The Key to Reliable Soil Test Information
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/healthy-soils/alabama-soils-appalachian-plateau/ | Healthy Soils | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [] | 2018-08-21 | [] | AL | ## Characteristics:
- Sandstone Plateau soils tend to be shallow.
- These soils are well-drained.
- Sandstone soils are acidic (because sandstone is an acidic rock) and low in nutrients.
- Sandstone is mostly sand (silicone dioxide), which contains few plant nutrients.
- Much of North Alabama is a region of limestone valleys and sandstone plateaus. Sand Mountain, in northeastern
Alabama, is the best-known and largest sandstone plateau. It is part of the Cumberland Plateau. Lookout Mountain is also a sandstone plateau. The cities of Jasper, Cullman, Arab, Albertville, Boaz, and Rainsville all sit on sandstone and shale plateaus.
## Considerations
These are some of Alabama's most environmentally sensitive soils. Anything put on or in these soils, such as septic tanks or animal manures, is subject to leaching toward bedrock and directly into the groundwater sources. Concerns about the quality of surface and groundwater have been expressed to do high rural populations, many small industries, and a huge animal-based agricultural industry. Major efforts are underway to protect watersheds, such as the Sand Mountain, Lake Guntersville, Bear Creek and Flint Creek watersheds. |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/master-cattleman/program-information.html | Contact Master Cattleman - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2021-05-20 | [] | OK | ## CONTACT MASTER CATTLEMAN
One of the best commitments you can make to improve your beef cattle management skills is to
participate in the OSU Master Cattleman certification
program. A good ranch manager has a plan for
present risks, including those out of your control such as weather and market forces.
Whether you are a beginning rancher or an experienced rancher, the OSU Master Cattleman program can help you get the most out of your investments in time, energy and money.
David ( https://experts.okstate.edu/david.lalman ) Lalman
Program Coordinator
Department of Animal & Food Science
201 Animal Science Building
(405)744-6060(tel:4057446060)
david.lalman@oksstate.edu(mailto:david.lalman@oksstate.edu? subject=Master%20Cattleman%20Program)
Kellie (https://experts.okstate.edu/kellie.raper)
Curry Raper
Program Coordinator
Department of Agricultural Economics 514 Agricultural Hall
(405)744-9819(tel:4057449819)
kellie.raper@oksstate.edu(mailto:kellie.raper@oksstate.edu?
subject=Master%20Cattleman%20Program)
The Master Cattleman program is conducted at the county level, drawing on experts across all of OSU Extension on topics relevant to your beef operation. A program fee of $175 is required. Participants receive the popular Oklahoma Beef Cattle Manual, and upon successful completion of the course, also receive a Master Cattleman certificate, portfolio notebook, and a ranch gate sign. If you are interested in finding out more about participating in the program, please complete the form below.
## Name*
Email Address*
Phone*
Town/City
County*
SUBMIT
CLEAR |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/information-sheets/sun-sense | Sun Sense | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"David Buys"
] | null | [
"Health",
"Growing Well"
] | MS | The website encountered an unexpected error. Please try again later.
PDOException : SQLSTATE[HY000] [2002] No such file or directory in lock\_may\_be\_available() (line 167 of /websites/muscares/content/includes/lock.inc). |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/cary-census-profile-2010-2020 | Cary Census Profile (2010-2020) | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Cary Census Profile (2010-2020)
## Cary Census Profile (2010-2020)
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3716-137
View as PDF: P3716-137.pdf
Presentation File:
cary\_census\_presentation.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Sharkey County.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
Related News
OCTOBER 3, 2024
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Filed Under: Economic Development
## Extension provides training for tourism professionals
NOVEMBER 10,2023
MSU Extension specialist receives leadership award
OCTOBER 24,2023
First tourism leadership class graduates recognized
OCTOBER 23,2023
MSU Extension expertise helps boost Mississippi tourism
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ... next > last>
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998 Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374 Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P33375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/conservation-tillage-row-crop-soils/soil-health-stewards-annie-dee/ | Conservation Tillage | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Annie Dee"
] | 2018-08-09 | [
"Farming",
"Soil Health",
"Conservation Tillage"
] | AL | Annie Dee discusses soil health stewardship. Dee runs Dee River Ranch with brother, Mike Dee, in Aliceville, Alabama in Pickens County. The family farm has been operating for more than 25 years.
Dee said they began using cover crops on all of their crop land in the early '90s. Early on, wheat was the primary cover crop; but in the early 2000s Dee began using cover crop mixtures. Learn more about Deer River Ranch's use of cover crops in this edition of Alabama Soil Health Stewards with Annie Dee. |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2013/09/23/traditional-building-techniques-from-around-the-world/ | Traditional Building Techniques from Around the World | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2013-09-23 | [
"Healthy Housing",
"History",
"Housing",
"Sustainability"
] | GA | ## Traditional Building Techniques from Around the World
Written by
September 23, 2013
Pamela Turner
Several cultures continue to build houses as they did in the past. These traditional building techniques take advantage of local materials and work with the wind and sun to create houses that to build workable houses. An exhibit in Weil Am Rhein, Germany, at the Vitra Design Museum shows traditional houses and new construction that was inspired by these traditional techniques. The exhibit - Learning From Vernacular - ends September 29, 2013, but you can see several examples by clicking on the link below. This geodesic dome house was built in 1975.
[houzz=https://www.houzz.com/ideabooks/17668358/list/On-Show-The-Ingenuity-of-AncientArchitecture w=300]
Posted in: Healthy Housing, History, Housing, Sustainability.
Tags: architecture, Batak dwelling, community, geodesic dome, Germany, hakka tulou, Shell house, Shibam, simple ideas, sustainable buildings, tata, traditional houses, Traditional Kassena house, UGA, vernacular design
One response to "Traditional Building Techniques from Around the World"
Alicante May10,2023
This is a fascinating exploration of the many different ways that people have built homes and structures throughout history. I appreciated the inclusion of photographs to illustrate each method. Your discussion of the benefits of traditional building techniques, such as their sustainability and the use of locally-sourced materials, was particularly interesting. I also appreciated your examination of the cultural significance of these techniques and how they have been passed down from generation to generation. Can you share any examples of modern architecture that incorporate traditional building techniques?
## Reply
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2021/11/22/suwannee-valley-agricultural-community-celebrates-uf-ifas-center-pavilion/ | Suwannee Valley agricultural community celebrates UF/IFAS center pavilion | University of Florida | [
"Samantha Murray"
] | 2021-11-22 | [
"Agriculture",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"Andra Johnson",
"Bob Hochmuth",
"Florida Farm Bureau",
"News",
"North Florida Research and Education Center-Suwannee Valley"
] | FL | ## Suwannee Valley agricultural community celebrates UF/IFAS center pavilion
On Nov. 18, the UF/IFAS North Florida Research and Education Center - Suwannee Valley (NFREC-SV) celebrated its newly constructed 4,200-square-foot pavilion with a ribbon cutting ceremony.
The pavilion, which can be converted from an open-air space to an enclosed one, was made possible by more than 80 donors from the Suwannee Valley area, said Bob Hochmuth, assistant center director.
"The support from our agricultural community to make the pavilion a reality made the fundraising phase one of the most humbling yet rewarding things I have ever done. The overwhelming generosity of the 80 donors has provided the funds for us to build an incredible pavilion which will enhance future educational events in this community for decades to come," Hochmuth said.
Located on 400 acres in Live Oak, Florida, the center maintains numerous research projects related to the region's major commodities, such as watermelon and peanuts, as well as specialty crops, hydroponics and water resources.
Scott Angle
president for agriculture and natural resources and the leader of UF/IFAS. "The pavilion will allow us to deliver to larger groups and in a setting more conducive to learning what farmers need to know to stay profitable under changing conditions. The donors' support tells us there's an appetite for this information, and that they trust UF/IFAS to deliver it."
The ribbon cutting took place during the annual Florida Farm Bureau Suwannee CARES event, which several hundred people attended.
The North Florida Research and Education Center is a shining star for agricultural research and education in Florida and especially the Suwannee Valley," said Kevin Morgan, assistant to the president, of
the Florida Farm Bureau. "Producers depend on cutting edge science and the type of practical and profitable solutions that are generated by this center. The improvements to the center over the last few years will greatly enhance learning opportunities for all
producers. Florida Farm Bureau is proud to support UF IFAS and the North Florida Research and Education Center." To give to the center, visit the UF Foundation website or contact the UF/IFAS Advancement team at 352-392-1975 or advancement@ifas.ufl.edu.
## o
by Samantha Murray
Posted: November 22, 2021
Category: Agriculture, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Research
Tags: Andra Johnson, Bob Hochmuth, Florida Farm Bureau, News,
North Florida Research And Education Center--Suwannee Valley
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
## More From Blogs.IFAS
Holidays are primetime for pork, the protein that packs a punch with Florida goodness
UF/IFAS
research: Can artificial
UF/IFAS
research:
can
artificial
infelligence
smart invasive
species?
instelligence
smart invasive
instelligence
smart invasive
instelligine
smart invasive
smart invasive |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/beef-cattle/hay-racks | Hay Racks | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [
"Agriculture",
"Beef Cattle"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive » Beef Cattle » Hay Racks
## Hay Racks
BEEF CATTLE
Publication Number: 5777
View as PDF: 5777.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
## Related News
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Detection of plant disease leads to citrus quarantine
MARCH 6, 2025
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PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4082
How to Raise Your Google Business Profile to Attract More Customers
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## Crafting Social Media Messages Your Customers Can't Ignore
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4083
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## Recent Issues
4H ANIMAL LINES NEWSLETTERS March 2025 - 4-H Animal Lines
MISSISSPI PI MARKETMAKER Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners
DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Exit Routes
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https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/plant-id/plant-profiles/shumard-oak/index.html | Shumard Oak - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2021-04-01 | [] | OK | ## SHUMARD OAK
Common Name
Shumard Oak
Species Name
Quercus shumardi
Family Name
Fagaceae
| Plant Facts | Plant Facts |
|----------------|-----------------------------------|
| Origin | North America |
| Sun Preference | Full Sun |
| Susceptibility | Mites, scale, borers and oak wilt |
## Plant Facts
| USDA Cold Hardiness Zone | 5° |
|----------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Notes | Drought tolerant and more pH tolerant than Q. palustris; one of the most commonly used oaks in Oklahoma and for good reason |
## ID Characteristics
Plant and Leaf Characteristics
+
## Habitat/Ecology
Soil Preference
Well-drained
Topics: |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/miamidadeco/2023/06/12/summer-break-spot-free-meals-for-kids-and-teens/ | Summer Break Spot – Free Meals for Kids and Teens | University of Florida | [
"Kenan Bridges"
] | 2023-06-12 | [
"4-H & Youth",
"Change Category",
"Food Safety",
"Health & Nutrition"
] | FL | ## Summer Break Spot - Free Meals for Kids and Teens
Haz clic aqui para efe es te artículo en español.
As the warm sun rays beckon the arrival of summer, we often think of joyful moments, relaxation, and adventure.
However, for many children, summer break can be a time of
uncertainty, particularly when it comes to access to proper nutrition.
Fortunately, there is a
solution: the Summer
break Spot Program. In
this blog, we will explore
the invaluable benefits of
this program and why it is
crucial for us to spread the
word. Our voice can help
ensure that children in our
neighborhoods stay well-
fed and nourished throughout the summer months.
## What is the Summer Break Spot Program?
The Summer Break Spot program is part of a nationwide initiative that aims to provide nutritious meals to children during the summer break when school meals are not available. This program is funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and administered by Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, local organizations, and schools. Its primary goal is to bridge the hunger
gap and ensure that children in need have access to healthy meals. The program offers nutritious meals at no cost to children 18 and under .
## Key Benefits of the Summer Break Spot Program:
Eliminating Food Insecurity: Unfortunately, many children rely on school meals as a significant source of nutrition. When schools are closed during summer break, these meals become inaccessible, leading to food insecurity. The Summer Break Spot Program steps in to fill this gap, providing nutritious meals to children who might otherwise go hungry.
Health and Well-being: Proper nutrition is crucial for children's growth, development, and overall well-being. The program offers a range of well-balanced meals that meet USDA nutritional guidelines, ensuring children receive essential nutrients during the summer months. By participating in this program, we can help children thrive and set them up for success in the upcoming school year.
Community Engagement: The Summer Break Spot Program relies on community involvement to reach those in need. Local organizations volunteer their sites and staff to serve meals to youth in the community. By promoting and advertising the program within our communities, we can contribute to its success and make a positive impact on the lives of children. Together, we can build a strong and supportive network, ensuring that no child goes hungry during summer break.
## How Can You Help?
Spread the Word: One of the simplest yet most effective ways to support the Summer Break Spot Program is by spreading the word. Share information about the program with friends, family, neighbors, and community organizations. Utilize social media platforms, local newsletters, and community bulletin boards to reach a broader audience. By raising awareness, we can ensure that families in need are aware of this valuable resource.
Connect with Local Organizations: Reach out to local schools, community centers, places of worship, and other organizations that cater to children and families. Encourage them to participate in the program and provide information on how they can get involved. Collaboration between community organizations is key to expanding the reach and impact of the Summer Break Spot Program.
Volunteer and Support: Many Summer Break Spot Program sites rely on dedicated volunteers to distribute meals and organize activities for children. Consider volunteering your time to support these efforts. By giving just a few hours each week, you can make a significant difference in a child's life and foster a sense of community spirit. If you are a larger organization, consider offering your facilities as sites.
The Summer Break Spot Program plays a vital role in ensuring that children have access to nutritious meals during summer break, a time that can be challenging for many families. By actively promoting and advertising this program within our communities, we can contribute to its success and help keep children fed and nourished throughout the summer months. Together, let's create a network of support, ensuring that no child goes hungry and every child has the opportunity to thrive. Join the Summer Break Spot Program today and be a part of the solution!
Remember, a well-fed child is a happy and healthy child.
For more information about this program, visit Florida Families -Summer Break Spot Food Service Program . If you have additional questions, contact their office at InfoFNW@FDACS.gov or by phone at 1-800-504-6609.
Miami-Dade County 4-H is a proud community partner of the Summer Break Spot Food Service Program. Each summer, during the month of July, 4-H serves as a meal distribution site.
```
1
by Kenan Bridges
Posted: June 12, 2023
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Category: 4-H & Youth, , Food Safety, Health & Nutrition
```
Category: 4-H & Youth, , Food Safety, Health & Nutrition
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Swarming: The Natural Reproductive Process Of A Honey Bee Colony
- · Plan Before You Plant, Waiting For Rain...
- · Tropical Fruit---Jackfruit
- · Lo Que Debe Saber Sobre El Virus Del Mosaico De La Caña De Azúcar (SCMV) Y La Necrosis Viral Letal (...)
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/andrajohnson/2024/10/11/hurricane-milton-recovery-resources/ | Hurricane Milton Recovery Resources | University of Florida | [
"Andra Johnson"
] | 2024-10-11 | [
"Disaster Preparation",
"disaster recovery",
"featured",
"hurricane",
"Hurricane Milton",
"special topics"
] | FL | ## Hurricane Milton Recovery Resources
I hope that you and your loved ones are safe from harm. Late Wednesday evening, Hurricane Milton made landfall along Florida's central west coast as a Category 3 hurricane. The combination of tornadoes, storm surge, high winds, heavy rain and flooding has caused widespread damage and has resulted in 15 deaths reported so far. As of Friday, many areas of central Florida are without power as search and rescue operations are still underway. Most UF/IFAS Extension offices will be reopened today or Monday, and faculty and staff are out assessing damage and helping with relief efforts.
No matter how carefully we prepare for a disaster, we can be left with many questions in its aftermath. How long will the electricity be out? Is my food and water safe to eat or drink? What's the safest way to clean up? How do I get assistance to get back on my feet? Everyone's situation is different-it's hard to predict what we'll be left to deal with after disaster strikes.
To help answer some of your questions, UF/IFAS Extension has a wide array of useful resources about the steps you can take to recover from Hurricane Milton.
## En Español
## Disaster Handbook
Written in English, Spanish, and Haitian Creole, the UF/IFAS Extension Disaster Handbook has over 75 brief tip sheets on disaster preparation and recovery. Post-disaster topics include food and water safety, home cleanup and repair, filing insurance claims and seeking assistance, and assessing damage to your farm business.
## What to Do If the Power Goes Out
Even if you're lucky enough to avoid structural damage, you could be left without electricity for hours, days, or even weeks. Suddenly all the things we take for granted - refrigeration, air conditioning, internet connection - are not there to serve us. Make sure that your food and water remain safe to consume and know how to safely operate devices like gas-driven generators.
Keeping it Fresh: How long is food still good after a power outage?
Keeping it Fresh: How long is food still good after a power outage? Whether a rat knocked out your freezer plug (that was actually the subject of the last phone call I received at my job), or the wrath of a hurricane leaves you powerless, situations arise where the electricity supply to your freezer or ... Continue reading
En Español
## Cleaning Up after the Storm
Cleaning up from the storm can be arduous-and dangerous. These resources can help you avoid hazards while putting your home back in order.
## En Español
## How to Apply for Assistance
Getting the assistance you need is an important step to recovering from a disaster. No one should have to do it alone-these resources can help you assess the damage to your home or business and seek every avenue of assistance from insurance and government relief programs.
## En Español
Also, it's sad but true - there are people out there who will try to scam you in your hour of need. Be alert to the warning signs of identity theft and fraud.
## Spotting scams after the storm
Para acceder a esta comunicación en español, por favor utilice este enlace After disasters sweep through an area, an unfortunate reality usually follows: fraudulent offers of funding and/or services to those regaining their bearings in the first hours, days and weeks of recovery. Heidi Copeland, UF/IFAS Extension Leon County family and consumer sciences agent and ... Continue reading
## Don't Neglect Mental Health
Dealing with the aftermath of a disaster can be overwhelming. Make sure that you pay as close attention to your mental health as you do to your knees, back, and shoulders. UF/IFAS Extension resources can help you deal with stress and care for the well-being of your loved ones.
## En Español
We are all in this together, and in the coming days and weeks, UF/IFAS Extension faculty and staff in all of Florida's 67 counties will be cleaning up and assisting in relief efforts in your community, serving as information first-responders to get you the answers you need to move on from Hurricane Milton and build up resilience for the future.
To find the UF/IFAS Extension office near you, visit sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu
## Additional Disaster Assistance and Recovery Resources
- Disaster Assistance Resources:
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/topics/disaster-assistance
- Disaster Recovery Resources:
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/topics/disaster-recovery
- Steps in Making an Insurance Claim:
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/dh199
- Replacing Lost or Damaged Documents:
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/dh215
o
## Related posts:
Update on Hurricane Helene 9/27
This Hurricane Season, Be Prepared for Anything
After the Storm Passes - What to Do
by Andra Johnson
Posted: October 11, 2024
Category: Disaster Preparation
Tags: Disaster Recovery, Featured, Hurricane, Hurricane Milton,
Special Topics
More From Blogs.IFAS
Update on Hurricane Milton, 10/9
After the Storm Passes: What to Do
Be Prepared for an "Above Normal" Hurricane Season
1
1 |
https://extension.msstate.edu/node/33195 | Adams County Economic Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Pub Adams County Economic Profile
## Pub Adams County Economic Profile
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P2977-2 | |
| View as PDF: P2977-2.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension-Adams County | |
| Print PDF | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
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## Related Publications
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/polkco/2021/08/25/edible-flower-recipe-roselle-tea/ | Edible Flower Recipe: Roselle Tea | University of Florida | [
"anikolai"
] | 2021-08-25 | [
"Health & Nutrition",
"Edible Flower",
"edible gardening",
"flower",
"healthy living",
"Roselle",
"tea"
] | FL | ## Edible Flower Recipe: Roselle Tea
You might have seen this plant around Florida, but have you ever had a fresh Roselle flower in your tea? Whether it's hot or cold, you can enjoy your favorite plant in your favorite drink!
## Roselle Origins and Facts
Although originally from parts of Africa, Roselle is a popular plant in Florida and even in the Caribbean. In fact, in the Caribbean, hibiscus is used as a special Christmas drink. It also does well in climates like India. Roselle is usually planted around August in Florida, and appreciates well-drained soil and water during droughts. Around October and November, the calyces (the flowers) are nice and plump and are perfect for picking. (1)
## Roselle Tea
## Ingredients
- · 2 cups Fresh Roselle Flowers (calyces)
- · 8 cups Water
- · 1/4 cup Honey (optional)
- · 3 tablespoons Fresh Lime Juice
## Instructions
- 1. Remove the green part at the base of the flower where the stem is attached.
- 2. Place flowers and water in a pot and bring the pot to a boil. Once boiling turn off the stove and cover the pot, then you may also throw in other herbs like basil, mint, lemon balm, and rosemary.
- 3. Let the tea steep for 15-20 minutes. Mix in the honey (optional) and lime juice until thoroughly mixed. Strain the tea to remove the solids. The remaining liquid is the tea.
- 4. You can serve hot or you can stick in the refrigerator for a couple of hours, and serve it cold.
## Benefits of Roselle Tea
Roselle has been used as a mild laxative, a diuretic to help with urination, and as a treatment for cracked skin, sores, and sore throat. The tea provides high amounts of the following vitamins and minerals (2):
- Carotene
- Riboflavin
- Anthocyanins
- Niacin
- Calcium
- Iron
- Vitamin C
## References
- 1. https://gardeningsolutions.ifas.ufu.edu/plants/edibles/vegetables/roselle\_html
- 2. https://medcraveonline.com/JNHFE/nutritional-and-health-importance-of-hibiscus-sabdariffa-review-and-indication-for-researchneedsbsp.html
- 3. https://myfoodstory.com/hibiscus-ta-recipe/
This blog was written by Family and Consumer Sciences Intern, Mr. Caleb Dowdy, under the supervision of Family and C
by anikolai
Posted: August 25, 2021
Category: Health & Nutrition
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Turkey Express: Instant Pot? Temperature?? Thawing? Your Questions Answered
- Should I Use Soap Or Other Cleaners To Wash Produce?
- Annual Peanut Butter Challenge: 2024 Wrap Up
- Fruit And Fruit Trees In 15 Minutes: An On-Demand Webinar Series! |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/nrem/app-rxburntracker-nrem-2898.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20151021102358-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## App: RxBurnTracker
John R. Weir Research Associate Natural Resource Ecology and Management
## R. Seth Coffey
Graduate Research Assistant Natural Resource Ecology and Management
It has been said, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." This is also true with land management practices because change on the landscape occurs slowly overtime. Having some way to maintain a photographic record of this change will assist land managers in making decisions about previous and future management options. A new application, or app, called RxBurnTracker for smart phones and tablets has been developed. It allows land managers a quick and simple way to monitor and document burn units before, during and after prescribed fires. The main goal of RxBurnTracker is to help land managers determine how effective their prescribed burn was compared to management goals. RxBurnTracker also allows land managers to track the progress of individual burn units relative to the number of prescribed fires that have been conducted on that site. RxBurnTracker can even be used with other management practices, such as mechanical or chemical applications to see effectiveness or vegetative progression through time.
RxBurnTracker is available free for both Android™ and Apple™ devices at their respective app stores. This app uses the photograph capabilities of the users phone or tablet to capture and record images. After initial photos have been taken, the unique ghost image capabilities of the app allow the previous image of that site to be aligned with the current image of the particular spot for precise reference. The app also allows the user to record burn information, such as burn date, temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and direction for each time the unit is burned.
## How to Use the App
RxBurnTracker is user friendly and easy to operate. The home screen of RxBurnTracker opens to Burn Units (Figure 1). To begin documenting burns, click the "+" symbol, which will allow the user to add and name a new burn unit. Once the burn unit is named, tap the screen or "+" symbol to add a photograph or burn data. If "Photo" is selected, tap "add location" and type the name or description of the new photo point, selecting "Done" when finished.The new photo label will have a check mark by it, select "Go" to allow the user to take the desired photograph. The app will prompt the user to "Use Photo" or "Retake". This will take the user back to the burn unit where more photo points can be added by selecting the "+" and following the previous steps. Once the unit is burned,
the user can add the burn data by selecting the burn unit, selecting "+ , then " Burn Data ", to add the burn information, then select " Done ". When the user is ready to begin adding post-burn photos, select the desired burn unit, then "+ , then " Photo ", select " Start New " select the name of the desired photo point, it will have a check mark when selected, then " Go ". This will take the user to the camera. A transparent or ghost image of the previous photo from that particular point will appear on the screen. Transparency of the ghost image can be adjusted by sliding the white button located in the lower right of the screen. The ghost image feature allows the user to line up the current photo with the previous photo (Figure 2). This feature ensures that the new image is taken in the same place and position as before, so a consistent photographic record can be maintained (Figure 3). RxBurnTracker automatically puts all photos and burn data in chronological order beginning with the newest first. At any point, the user can go back to a burn unit and add new photos or new photo points as time progresses.
RxBurnTracker is a tool land managers can use to observe and document the regrowth of vegetation following a prescribed fire. RxBurnTracker is a simple way for land managers to see short-term progress within their long-term prescribed fire management goals. This app is also a great way for land managers to know where they are relative to their management goals and, more importantly, to show them where they have been.
Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VII and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 (Higher Education Act), the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal and state laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, genetic informa tion, sos age, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, disability, or status as a veteran, in any of its policies, practices or procedures. This provision includes, but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services. The Director of Equal Opportunity. 408 WHithereuthor, USON. Stillwater, OK 74078-1035; Phone 405-744-5371; email: eo@okstate.edu has been designated to handle inquiries regarding non-discrimination policies: Director of Equal Opportunity. Any person (student, faculty, or staff) who believes that discriminatory practices have been engaged in based on gender may discuss his or her concerns and file informal or formal complaints of positive violations of Title IX with OSU's Title IX Coordinator 405-744-915. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1974, in cooperation with the U.S Department of Agriculture, Director of Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma.This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President, Dean, and Director of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 42 cents per copy. 1015 GH | |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/tomato-yellow-leaf-curl-virus | Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus | NC State Extension | [
"Leighann Murray",
"Ella Reeves",
"Inga Meadows"
] | null | [
"Virus",
"Tomato Disease",
"Plant Pathology",
"Plant Disease"
] | NC | ## Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus
Plant Disease Factsheets
## Introduction
Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) is a viral disease of tomato that has limited distribution in the United States. TYLCV can cause devastating losses to tomato growers once established in the production site. This viral disease can also be found in temperate, tropical, and sub-tropical regions of the world. TYLCV is transmitted by adult whiteflies and is difficult to control once introduced to an area.
## Pathogen
TYLCV is within the genus Begomovirus and family Gemiviridae . TYLCV causes yellowing of young leaves, upward and downward leaf curl (Figure 1), stunting, busy appearance, and flower drop, which occurs prior to fruit set and dramatically reduces fruit yield.
Attribution: Inga Meadows
## Host Plants
TYLCV predominately causes disease in tomatoes. It can infect other hosts in the Solanaceae family (pepper, eggplant, potato, tobacco, jimsonweed), as well as common bean ( Phaseolis vulgaris L.), and ornamentals including petunia and lisianthus. In the absence of symptoms, these hosts may serve as a reservoir of the pathogen.
## Signs and Symptoms
On tomatoes, the primary symptoms of TYLCV are interventional and marginal chlorosis of young leaves ( Figure 2 ), an overall crumpled appearance of the leaves, and upward and downward leafcurling. Plants infected with TYLCV will also be stunted in height (Figure 3 ), and appear bushy due
NC STATE
EXTENSION
to shortened internode length. Flower drop will occur with an accompanying reduction in yield. When young plants are infected, the disease may be so severe that no fruit is produced. Symptoms can take up to three weeks to develop after infection.
## Look-alike conditions
Initial symptoms of TYLCV can resemble other disorders that affect tomatoes, including potassium deficiency, magnesium deficiency, micronutrient deficiencies, and leaf curl. In general, any of these nutrient deficiencies are likely to be consistent across the entire crop whereas plants infected with TYLCV will be patchy across the field and not uniform. This pattern may be used to help diagnose the problem. Potassium deficiency causes the margins of mature leaves to turn necrotic along with interveinal chlorosis. In severe cases, interveinal chlorosis will progress to middle-aged leaves. The primary symptom of magnesium deficiency consists of interveinal chlorosis on the older leaves. TYLCV differs from symptoms of nutrient deficiencies in that the marginal and interveinal chlorosis first appears on young leaves. Deficiencies in micronutrients such as iron, zinc, manganese, and boron may cause chlorosis and deformation of young leaves. Leaf curl can occur during periods of high temperatures and/or drought when the plant's water supply is disrupted; however, this is often not accompanied by interveinal chlorosis and will first appear on lower leaves. Curing of new leaves may also be caused by excessive aphid feeding or other viruses. It is highly recommended to confirm the diagnosis by a plant disease clinic or extension specialist since there are several lookalike diseases and disorders.
for symptoms on tomato to appear due to the movement of symptomless infected plant material spreading the disease over long distances. A high population of white flies in mature stages of fieldgrown tomato production may serve as an inoculum source for younger plantings nearby.
This disease currently poses a threat to tomato production in the Mediterranean, Caribbean, Mexico, Japan, and the southern United States . Bermesia whitelflies are intolerant of winter temperatures. Therefore, the virus is not as much of a threat where the climate does not currently support populations of Bermesia whiteflies , such as in western North Carolina. Tomato transplants produced in other regions infected with TYLCV have been observed in tomato fields in western North Carolina.
## General Disease Management
## Use disease resistant cultivars
In both field and greenhouse production, planting resistant cultivars is an economical option to manage this disease. Resistant varieties are less effective if tomatoes are infected early in the season. Seed suppliers usually provide disease resistance information. Included below is a table in the Southeastern Vegetable Crop Handbook that includes resistance information for numerous tomato cultivars.
| Fruit Type | Tomato yellow leaf curl resistant variety |
|--------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Cherry/grape | Apple Yellow F1 |
| | Ella Bella |
| | Carina |
| | Conde |
| | Conan F1 |
| | Mistral |
| | Red Coral F1 |
| Plum | BHN-1050 |
| | BHN-1045 |
| | Brenda F1 (Roma) |
| | Buena Vista |
| | Corleone F1 |
| | Davinci (Saladette) |
| | Daytona F1 (Saladette) |
| | Invincible |
| | Katya |
| | Mochomo |
| | Oyamel (Saladette) |
| | Pomodoro (Squisito) |
| | Roble |
| | Santa Lucia |
| | Shelby |
| | Valerio |
| Fruit Type | Tomato yellow leaf curl resistant variety |
|--------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Round | Bejo 3353 (aka Patsy) |
| | Botero |
| | Camaro F1 |
| | Carina F1 |
| | Champion II F1 |
| | Charger F1 |
| | Fenda F1 |
| | Grand Marshall |
| | Gunney Gir's Hybrid |
| | Jolene |
| | Katana F1 |
| | Laguna Red F1 |
| | Marmont F1 |
| | Marnouar F1 |
| | Mountain Gem |
| | Pamella |
| | Purple Zebra |
| | Rally F1 |
| | Red Eclipse F1 |
| | Red Snapper F1 |
| | RidgeRunner |
| | Security 28 F1 |
| | Seventh III |
| | Simplicity |
| | Skyway F1 |
| | Skyway 687 F1 |
| Fruit Type | Tomato yellow leaf curl resistant variety |
|--------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Sophya F1 | |
| STM 2255 | |
| STM 8135 | |
| Sunrefresh | |
| Thunderbird | |
| Tribute F1 | |
| Varsity F1 | |
## Source clean transplants
Avoid planting transplants that look unhealthy. Look for transplants grown in cooler climates such as western North Carolina since virus transmitting whiteliefs do not overwinter in cooler climates. Therefore, avoid transplants from Florida and Georgia.
## Rotate with non-host crops on an annual basis
These include non-solanaceous crops such as brassicas (broccoli, kale, cabbage), grain crops (corn, wheat), and winter cover crops (rye, winter pea, etc.). Crop rotation helps prevent the spread of TYLCV and minimizes the chance of the virus being present during the next growing season.
## Avoid planting other host plants close to tomato
As a preventative measure, it is best to avoid planting within close proximity to other fields of tomato, pepper, or bean, as they may be reservoirs of the virus.
## Monitor the whitefly population in and near the field
Whitely population management involves the use of pesticides and cultural practices. Adult whites flies are attracted to white and yellow colors. Placing white and yellow sticky traps in and around a tomato field can help monitor the population. Whiteflyes are often found on the undersides of leaves where they lay their eggs. Whitefly eggs are white in color and change to dark blue before hatching. Whitefly nymphs begin feeding with their piercing mouthparts just hours after they hatch. Leaves that have been fed on will exhibit chlorosis and whiteliefs will often be visible.
## Use reflective mulch
Reflective mulches repel whiteliefs and reduce the spread of the virus.
## Utilize whitelify proof screening, and ultraviolet (UV) absorbing plastic screens or 50mesh density covers in greenhouse production
In closed greenhouse production, these measures aim to prevent initial infection with TYLCVvia whitelifes. UV blocking plastic screens and 50-mesh density covers can be purchased at agricultural supply stores, home improvement stores, and hardware stores.
## Remove infected plants and destroy them
Infected plants should be removed from the greenhouse or field and disposed of in the landfill or burned.
## Disease management for conventional growers
There are various insecticides available for use on tomatoes to reduce whitefly populations which will aid in preventing the spread of TYLCV. Insecticide applications are recommended 4-5 weeks after seedlings are initially planted and should continue as the fruit ripens. Rotate the pesticides to manage whitelies and avoid insecticide resistance in the pest . Please refer to the list of insecticides labeled for management of whitefly on tomato in the 2023 Southeastern U.S. Vegetable Crop Handbook.
## Disease management for organic growers
Implementing preventative measures is the most effective way for growers to avoid TYLCV. Using disease resistant cultivars and rotating the fields with non-susceptible crops are important methods that can reduce the occurrence of TYLCV.
## Disease management for homeowners
Homeowners should use the disease management recommendations listed above. Additional products are available for homeowners from home improvement and hardware stores. Neem, pyrethrin, or insecticidal soaps can minimize severe whitelief infestations. Treatments should be applied to the undersides of leaves. The previously listed treatments are most effective when at least two insecticides are rotated during each spraying.
## References
Cranshaw, W. 2013. Greenhouse Whitefly - 5.587.
Disease-resistant tomato varieties. 2022. Cornell Vegetables.
Flint, M. 2015. Extension Entomologist Emerita, Department of Entomology, UC Davis Produced by University of California Statewide IPM Program.
Gilbertson, R., Rojas, M., and Natwick, E. 2013. Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl: A New Disease in California Tomatoes. University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources Statewide IPM Program.
Jones, J., et al. 2016. Compendium of Tomato Diseases and Pests , Second Edition. , 15-119.
Moriones, E., Navas-Castillo, J., Tomato yellow leaf curl virus, an emerging virus complex causing epidemics worldwide, Virus Research, Volume 71, Issues 1-2, 2000, Pages 123-134, ISSN 01681702, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1068-1702(0)00j0193-3.
Osborne, L. PestAlert: Whiteflies.
Perez-Padilla, V., Fortes, I. M., Romero-Rodriguez, B., Arroyo-Mateos, M., Castillo, A. G., Moyano, C., De Leon, L., Moriones, E. 2019. Revisiting seed transmission of the type strain of tomato yellow leaf curl virus in tomato plants. Phytopathology 110:121-129.
Simone, G. Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus Management for Homeowners.
Smith, H. et al. 2019. Management of whiteflies, whitefly-vectored plant virus,.and insecticide resistance for tomato production in southern Florida.
Walker, K. 2006. Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV). Begomovirus.
## Additional Resources
The NC State Plant Disease and Insect Clinic provides diagnostics and control recommendations
The NC State Extension Plant Pathology Portal provides information on crop disease management
The Southeastern US Vegetable Crop Handbook provides information on vegetable disease management
## Acknowledgements
This disease fact sheet was prepared by the Meadows Plant Pathology Lab.
Additional review of this factsheet done by Cora McGhee.
## Authors
Leighann Murray Research Technician Entomology & Plant Pathology
Ella Reeves Research Associate Entomology & Plant Pathology
Inga Meadows Extension Associate, Vegetable and Herbaceous Ornamental Pathology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: July 14, 2023
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/selection-and-management-of-efficient-hand-move-solid-set-and-permanent-irrigation-system | Selection and Management of Efficient Hand-Move Solid Set and Permanent Irrigation System | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Robert Evans",
"R.E. Sneed"
] | null | [
"Irrigation",
"Agriculture",
"Engineering"
] | NC | NC STATE
## Selection and Management of Efficient Hand-Move Solid Set and Permanent Irrigation System Introduction
Rainfall is the principle source of water for North Carolina crops. However, many farmers are turning to irrigation to supplement precipitation. There are many types of irrigation systems. But, most farmers have limited choices for their particular farm or field. Some systems are inherently more water and energy efficient while others are designed to overcome limitations such as irregular field shapes, sloping land, or limited water supplies. All of these factors should be considered before selecting a particular type of system.
Hand-move systems are normally used to irrigate small fields. Solid-set and permanent sprinkler irrigation systems are used for irrigation, frost/freeze protection, evaporative cooling, and land application of nutrient-rich effluent. Selection and management considerations for hand-move solid set and permanent sprinkler irrigation systems are discussed in this article. Selection and
management criteria for other types of irrigation systems are presented in articles EBEAE 91-150:
Self-Propelled Gun Traveler Irrigation Systems . EBAE 91-151: Center Pivot and Linear Move Irrigation Systems, and EBEA 91-153: Low Volume Irrigation Systems.
Sprinkler irrigation systems have been available for more than 70 years. The early systems used lightweight steel pipe and nonrotating sprinklers. Rotary impact sprinklers were introduced in the late thirties. However, it was not until after World War II, when aluminum pipe became available, that portable hand-move system became practical. Most of the early rotary impact sprinklers were low capacity, medium pressure, and constructed of brass. Some companies supplied gun sprinklers, but early models were not very satisfactory, because of the high application rate and potential for runoff. Over the years, the trend has been toward larger sprinklers. Several companies now supply a low capacity (i.e., low application rate) gun sprinkler which has reduced some of the runoff problems typically associated with gun type sprinklers. Sprinklers are now available with plastic, brass, aluminum, and some stainless steel components. Improvements in bearings contribute to longer life and less maintenance. Quality control has also improved.
The major change in aluminum pipe has been a trend toward thinner wall aluminum pipe and stronger alloys. Couplers and gaskets have been improved to reduce leaks at joints. The number of coupler manufacturers has been reduced. Most of these changes have occurred because of the introduction of other types of irrigation systems such as self-propelled gun travelers, center pivots, linear move, low volume, and sub-irrigation. Sprinkler spacing's for portable irrigation systems range from 40 feet by 40 feet for small sprinklers to greater than 200 feet by 200 feet for gun sprinklers. Spacing's may be square, rectangular, or triangular. Spacing's are usually about 60 percent of sprinkler wetted diameter, but may need to be adjusted for wind conditions. Single-or double-nozzle
sprinklers may be used. The double- nozzle sprinkler generally provides better uniformity, because the second nozzle provides water close to the sprinkler. Smaller sprinklers, because they are less affected by wind, provide better uniformity than gun sprinklers.
However, the labor required for moving pipe when smaller sprinklers are used is increased considerably. (Smaller sprinklers require more lateral lines.)
## Hand-Move Portable Systems
Figure 1a shows a typical layout of a portable hand-move aluminum pipe system. Two laterals are operated at one time. Spacing between sprinklers is 60 feet and spacing between laterals is 60 feet. The first and last sprinklers on each lateral are 30 feet from the edge of the field. This is done to provide more uniform water distribution around the edges of the field.
Laterals and sprinklers are typically moved twice per day which requires 4.5 days to irrigate the 30acre field shown in Figure 1b. Each setup and movement of the pipe is referred to as a "set". Approximately 22.5 man-hours are required to move pipe each time the field is irrigated. For the field length and shape shown, the lateral pipe size required is 4-inch, and the main line size required is 6inch. A pump capacity of 425 gallons per minute (gpm) would supply an application rate of 0.28 inches per hour when two laterals are irrigated per set. When operated for four hours (l/2 day per set), the total application to each set is just over one inch of water.
In the above example, only one inch of water could be applied per week, unless the pipe was moved and the system operated over the weekend. Thus, the system shown only has the capacity to supply about one-half the crop water requirements during peak water use periods. (Peak water use is nearly 0.3 inches per day or 2 inches per week for most crops grown in North Carolina.) In terms of size (number of acres irrigated), the 30 acre example is a relatively small system indicating that hand-move portable systems are not practical for irrigating large acreage.
There are, however, practical applications for portable, hand-move systems. Some practical applications include the irrigation of:
- · plant beds such as tobacco or sweet potato beds, which are typically moved from one year to the next;
- · small acreage of high cash-value crops which also need to be rotated from year to year making solid set or permanent systems unsuitable;
- small scattered fields separated by non-cropped areas; and
The labor required for moving pipe, and the introduction of other types of irrigation systems have diminished the popularity of hand-move potable systems. Instead, growers have shifted to solid-set and permanent systems.
## Solid-Set and Permanent Irrigation Systems
The solid-set system uses aluminum pipe, but instead of moving lateral lines once or twice as is done with portable systems, enough lateral pipe is purchased so that pipe may be left in place during the irrigation season. Main line for the solid-set system can be aluminium pipe or buried polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic pipe.
The permanent system normally uses buried main and lateral lines. However, some growers use above ground PVC plastic lateral lines. These systems are used more in orchards where the system is installed after the orchard is planted and in some container nursery operations. Permanent systems have been used for many years to irrigate turf areas such as golf courses, recreational playing fields, and commercial and residential turf. In more recent years, these systems have been used for agricultural irrigation to include nursery crop production.
Most of the solid-set and permanent systems for agricultural irrigation (including chemigation and fertigation) are used on high value crops such as nursery crops, tree fruits, small fruits, vegetables, and, to a small extent, tobacco. Many of the systems for fruits and vegetables are also used for environmental modification such as frost/freeze protection and crop cooling.
These uses require a dependable water supply during the critical environmental period. For crop cooling, it may be possible to cycle the system on and off to reduce the total volume of water pumped.
Solid-set and permanent systems designed for frost/freeze protection and crop cooling normally use small sprinklers and application rates in the range of 0.12- to 0.25- inch per hour. Normally, single nozzle sprinklers are used on spacing's of 40 feet by 40 feet to 66 feet by 72 feet. Spacing's are normally 50 to 65 percent of sprinkler wetted diameter. Lateral spacing's and sprinkler spacing's on
the lateral are adjusted to meet row and tree spacing's. Sprinkler pressures are normally 10 to 15 psi higher than those used for irrigation to give small droplets and therefore, better coverage and higher sprinkler rotation speeds.
Frost/freeze protection using sprinkler irrigation operates on the principle of latent heat of fusion. Water, as it changes state from liquid to solid, generates heat. The heat being given off maintains the temperature of the plant near 32 F if adequate water is being applied. Higher sprinkler pressure provides smaller droplets and faster sprinkler rotation and, therefore, better protection (i.e., smaller droplets freeze faster than large droplets). But, windy conditions reduce the added protection of smaller droplets because wind causes evaporation. The heat required to evaporate water is 7.5 times the heat given off when water freezes. Just as smaller droplets freeze faster which improves frost/freeze protection, smaller droplets also evaporate faster. Thus high pressure resulting in small droplets should not be used where windy conditions occur frequently. Also, lateral line spacing's and sprinkler spacing's along the lateral should be reduced due where windy conditions are prevalent. Good frost/freeze protection requires that liquid water be available on the plant at all times.
Figure 2a shows a typical layout for a solid-set system for frost/freeze protection of strawberries. A triangular sprinkler spacing is used. Sprinklers are spaced 60 feet on the lateral and laterals are 60 feet apart. The first and last laterals are 30 feet from the edge of the field. Using the triangular spacing requires that the first and last sprinkler on every other lateral on the edge of the field. Lateral pipe size is 2-inch aluminum. Main line size is 8-inch aluminum. Pump capacity required to provide frost/freeze protection for the acreage and setup shown in Figure 2b is about 900 gpm.
In the last several years, a number of solid-act and permanent systems have been installed for land application of nutrient-rich effluent. Several agencies are promoting this practice as an environmentally safe method to utilize this resource. Some land application systems are being installed on golf courses and public turf areas. This is an approved practice in many states.
North Carolina Cost Share funds are being used to fund one intensively grazed, land application of nutrient-rich effluent demonstration in each county. These areas are normally grazed, but producers may elect to produce hay crops rather than use the fields for grazing.
Sprinkler spacing's on land application systems are typically in the range of 80 feet by 80 feet, using single-nozzle sprinklers. Other spacing's can be used and some of the sites use gun sprinklers on wider spacing's. Normal spacing is 60 to 70 percent of sprinkler wetted diameter.
Figure 3a shows a typical layout for a permanent irrigation system for land application of nutrient rich effluent. Sprinkler spacing is 80 feet on the lateral. Spacing of laterals is also 80 feet. Lateral pipe size is 2.5 inch. Main pipe size is 3 inch. One lateral is usually operated at one time. Sprinklers may be located on each lateral; or, sprinklers may be moved from one lateral to another lateral. By moving sprinklers, initial system cost is reduced. To operate one lateral as shown, pump capacity required is about 120 gpm. Note that there is a 70-foot border around the edge of the field to insure that no effluent is applied outside the field. (Figure 3b).
Friction loss in aluminum and plastic lateral lines should not exceed 20 percent of recommended sprinkler operating pressure. Following this rule will assure reasonably uniform water distribution. As sprinkler pressure is reduced, due to friction loss down the lateral line, the volume of water applied by the sprinkler and the diameter of coverage is reduced.
## Energy Conservation
Most portable, solid-set and permanent sprinkler systems are medium to moderately-high in energy
consumption, depending on whether small sprinklers or gun sprinklers are used.
Certainly, gun sprinklers will require higher pressures, increasing the power required. Many of the portable systems use gun sprinklers. Some growers are willing to trade off the higher energy costs for the savings in labor costs. There are some gun sprinklers that will operate satisfactorily at lower pressures and some growers are using these, but they have reduced radius of coverage and, therefore, higher application rates, assuming equal flow rates.
There are some low pressure impact sprinklers that have been marketed for the last several years. They also have reduced radius of coverage and this may increase the application rate.
Fuel costs (and conversely fuel savings) are computed based on the energy required to deliver the required flow rate at the desired operating pressure. To compute horsepower (Hp) requirements, use the formula shown in the box at the top of the next column.
Horsepower = [ TDH (feet ) × Flow (gpm)] /[3960 × Pump Efficiency]
Total dynamic head (TDH) or operating pressure at the pump includes the sum of the following:
- · sprinkler operating pressure
- · friction loss in the main line
- · friction loss in the lateral line
- · elevation difference between the water supply and the highest point in the field, and
- · height of sprinkler above the ground (riser height)
Flow is the rate water is being delivered to the sprinklers. After computing TDH, a pump efficiency should be assumed so that horsepower can be computed using the above formula. Refer to Extension Publication AG-452-6: Pumping Plant Performance , for a discussion of recommended pump efficiencies to select. Once the power requirements have been determined, the fuel cost can be computed (again, refer to AG-452-6 for more information). By comparing costs of several operational and system alternatives (i.e., operating pressure, low pressure sprinklers, etc.) the most energy efficient system can be identified for the given situation.
## Summary
If proper design guidelines are used and sprinklers are operated at the manufacturers' recommended mid-range of operating pressures, these systems should be reasonably energy efficient. Pump selection should include the use of high efficiency pumps and matched power units.
Hand-move, solid-set, and permanent irrigation system can be energy efficient. Solid-set and permanent systems are normally more energy efficient than portable hand- move systems.
Unfortunately, some of the older systems have sprinklers, pumps, and power units that are 20 or more years old and need replacing. Many growers have replaced sprinklers and often have several sizes of orifices on the same system.
Growers often purchase used equipment and combine components from several systems to make one system. When this is done, little opportunity exists to incorporate recommended design guidelines to properly size and match system components.
If your system is more than three years old, you should have it evaluated. Contact your county Extension office or local irrigation dealer for more information and assistance. Making a profitable decision about repairs like when to replace worn system components requires a complete economic analysis of existing system performance and the projected cost of alternatives.
## Authors
Robert Evans
Professor Biological & Agricultural Engineering
R.E. Sneed
Publication date: June 1, 1996
Reviewed/Revised: Nov. 15, 2024
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/rations-for-horses-nutrients-feedstuffs-and-safety.html | Rations for Horses: Nutrients, Feedstuffs and Safety - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"David W. Freeman",
"Kris Hiney"
] | 2017-01-02 | [] | OK | ## Rations for Horses: Nutrients, Feedstuffs and Safety
Published Feb. 2017 | Id: AFS-3929
By David W. Freeman, Kris Hiney
Print-friendly PDF (/factsheets/print- publications/afs/rations-forhorses-nutrients-feedstuffs-andsafety-afs-3929.pdf)
JUMP TO: Meeting Nutrient Needs / Energy./ Protein / Minerals / Vitamins / Feedstuff Selection and Feeding Practices / Carbohydrates / Protein Quality./ Utilization of Mineral and Vitamins / Safety./ Clean / Consistent / Regulating Feedstuff Variety, Amount and Timing of Feeding
Ask a group of horse owners the question, 'Why do you feed your horse the feedstuffs you feed?' You will receive a range of answers. Cost, availability and what has been fed traditionally will make up a significant portion of the answers. Although not stated as often, marketing also greatly influences our decisions on feed purchases. The primary purpose of feeding certain feedstuffs is to supply proper nutrition. The intent of this fact sheet is to identify the nutritional basis for decision making for feed selection, specifically safely meeting nutrient needs and following feeding practices that aid digestion.
## Meeting Nutrient Needs
Feedstuffs supply nutrients. Nutrients are substances needed for life which must be taken in from the environment. Ration balancing means that requirements have been estimated and intake of nutrients have been arranged to meet estimated nutrient requirements. In general, nutrients are classified into energy, protein, minerals, vitamins and water. Energy is not actually a particular nutrient; rather feedstuffs contain compounds that supply energy. Requirements for nutrients are on a nutrient weight needed per day (i.e. pounds of crude protein per day). When balanced, a ration will contain certain concentrations of nutrients, usually percent of the feed weight (e.g. percent crude protein). These percentages are based on supplying the needed amount of nutrient with an assumed level of feed intake.
Nutrients not only have to be provided in a ration, the nutrients have to be digested and absorbed into the horse's body. The horse can digest all types of nutrients; however, the digestive efficiency is quite variable and influenced by amounts fed and structure of compounds in the feed. For example, energy or protein in hay can range from highly digestible (e.g. 60 percent to 70 percent), to extremely indigestible (e.g. 30 percent to 40 percent). Differences in digestibility within particular forage are largely a function of maturity, as digestibility typically will decrease with plant growth. Differences in digestibility between forage species is largely a function of leaf to stem ratios as increases in leaf content typically will increase digestibility. Most grains are highly digestible (70 percent to 80 percent), and some compounds such as plant oils are near 100 percent digested at levels typically contained in horse diets.
| Table 1. Comparisons of Daily Energy, Protein and Mineral |
|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| Requirements for Sedentary, Nature Horses of Different Body |
| Size of Horse | Digestible Energy (Mcal/day) b | Crude Protein (lbs) | Calcium (grams) | Pho (gra |
|------------------------|----------------------------------|-----------------------|-------------------|------------|
| Maintenance (1,000 lb) | 15 | 1.2 | 18 | 13 |
| Maintenance (1,100 lb) | 16.5 | 1.4 | 20 | 14 |
| Maintenance (1,200 lb) | 18 | 1.5 | 22 | 15 |
a Nutrient requirements are estimated from the National Research Council's Recommendations for Nutrient Requirements of Horses 2007.
- b Mcal is Megacalories (1000 Calories), a unit of energy potential.
## Energy
Energy needs are quantified into Megacalories of digestible energy (Mcal DE). Megacalories are 1,000 Calories, which are the units of measure used in human nutrition. Digestible energy needs are higher with larger body size, growth and production states such as lactation, pregnancy, and exercise (Tables 1 through 3). Feed tags do not provide guarantees for energy concentration because of variability in energetic compounds and digestion efficiency of different feedstuffs by different animals. However, general estimates for digestible energy concentration of commonly fed feedstuffs are available from calculations based on compounds contained in the feedstuff and research trials. High energy grain mixes intended to be fed with forage are usually formulated to contain between 1.3 to 1.6 McAl DE/lb of feed. On the other end of the spectrum, grass hays may contain as little as half that concentration of DE.
Most horse rations are developed with expected intakes on an as fed basis of 2.25 percent to 2.5 percent of body weight per day. This level is below the expected daily voluntary intake of 2.75 percent to 3 percent per day for horses consuming an all hay diet. Designing ration intakes lower than 2 percent to 2.5 percent of body weight per day would require meal feeding of
high energy compounds, which as discussed in the following section on safety, might increase incidence of digestive disturbance. These intakes are suggested for harvested feeds, which have consistent and relatively narrow ranges of water content. When horses are consuming all forage diets of immature growing forage, intakes may be much higher because of the large amount of water contained in the forage on an as fed basis. A mature, 1,100-pound horse consuming 25 pounds of ration per day, estimated to need 17 Mcal DE/day, would require the
A mature, 1,100-pound horse consuming 25 pounds of ration per day, estimated to need 17 Mcal DE/day, would require the ration (daily allotment of feed from all sources) to contain about 0.7 Mcal/lb on an as fed basis. Based on the energy content of commonly fed hays and pastures, this horse could consume an all forage diet and meet energy needs for maintenance. However, energy requirements can increase 80 percent or more if the same horse is producing milk. The same ration would have to contain 1.2 Mcal/lb if 30 Mcal DE are needed per day to maintain the body and produce milk. As such, grain would need to be included in the ration unless very high energy dense forage is fed at maximum intakes. Otherwise, decreases in body weight and milk production would be expected. Heightened requirements for production and growth generally require a shift to a larger portion of the ration supplied as grain as well as increases in total amounts of ration fed per day.
| Class of Horse | Digestible Energy (Mcal/day)b | Crude Protein (pounds) | Calcium (grams) | Pho: (gra |
|-----------------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------|-------------------|-------------|
| Breeding Stallion | 22 | 1.7 | 20 | 14 |
| Broodmare | | | | |
| Early pregnancy | 17 | 1.4 | 20 | 14 |
| 8 months pregnancy | 18.5 | 1.7 | 28 | 20 |
| 11 months pregnancy | 21 | 2.0 | 36 | 26 |
| Lactation (lst month) | 32 | 3.4 | 59 | 38 |
| Lactation (3rd month) | 31 | 3.2 | 56 | 36 |
| Lactation (5th month) | 28 | 2.9 | 40 | 25 |
| Working Horse | 20 | 1.5 | 30 | 18 |
| Light exercise | 23 | 1.7 | 35 | 21 |
| Moderate exercise | 23 | 1.7 | 35 | 21 |
| Class of Horse | Digestible Energy (Mcal/day)b | Crude Protein (pounds) | Calcium (grams) | Pho: (gra |
|------------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------|-------------------|-------------|
| Heavy exercise | 27 | 1.9 | 40 | 29 |
a Nutrient requirements are estimated from the National Research Council's Recommendations for Nutrient Requirements of Horses 2007.
- b Mcal is Megacalories (1,000 Calories), a unit of energy potential.
| | Age of Horse (Weight/growth) | Digestible Energy (Mcal/day) b | Crude Protein (pounds) | Calcium (grams) |
|------------|--------------------------------|----------------------------------|--------------------------|-------------------|
| 6 months: | 475 lb/2 lb/day | 15.5 | 1.5 | 39 |
| 12 months: | 700 lb/1 lb/day | 19 | 1.8 | 38 |
| 24 months: | 940 lb/0.4 lb/day | 19 | 1.7 | 37 |
## Protein
Protein needs are a function of how much protein tissue the horse is building, verses how much it loses to naturally occurring breakdown and losses from the body. The bigger the horse, the larger are the needs to replace naturally occurring losses. Growing horses will need more protein per day in relation to body size as compared with needs when fully grown. For example, a mature, nonproducing 1,100-pound horse is estimated to need 1.4 pounds of dietary crude protein per day. The same horse would have needed 1.8 pounds of crude protein per day when growing. Diets for growing horses will need to be more concentrated in crude protein because needs are larger and expected intake is less than when mature. For example, a mature horse consuming 25 pounds of feed per day can easily meet its crude protein needs with a ration containing as little as 6 percent crude protein ration. The same horse as a 700-pound yearling might only consume 16 pounds to 18 pounds of total ration per day which would relate to needing an 11 percent to 12 percent crude protein diet. As grass hays may contain around 8 percent crude protein, the crude protein needs for the mature horse may be met with an all grass hay diet. The growing horse would need some type of protein supplement such as addition of grain with more protein per pound of feed.
Ideally, estimated needs for protein should be expressed as digestible protein instead of crude protein. Crude protein is simply the amount found in the feedstuff. Unfortunately, requirement estimates have not been refined sufficiently to be expressed on a digestible protein basis. Estimates for crude protein needs assume about an 80 percent digestibility even though digestibility likely varies similarly to energy estimates.
The actual need for protein is for amino acids. Some of the needed amino acids cannot be made by the horse's body. It is essential that these amino acids be supplied in the diet. Protein quality, a term used to relate essential amino acid profiles in feed to dietary needs, is especially important in rations fed to growing horses as they use large amounts of
essential amino acids to build lean tissue. Lysine is the most limiting essential amino acid, which means it is the essential amino acid needed in largest amounts. The routine check is to ensure that lysine makes up about 4 percent of the total amino acids in the crude protein of the daily ration. Because grain mixes usually make up only a portion of the total ration, grain mixes for growing horses will be formulated to contain higher amounts of lysine as a portion of crude protein.
## Minerals
Minerals, like other nutrients, are needed to replace naturally occurring losses for maintenance and additional levels for production and growth (Table 4). The two most needed, most often balanced for minerals are calcium and phosphorus. Rations are balanced for actual needs of these minerals as well as the ratio of each to the other. For example, an 1,100pound horse may need about 20 grams of calcium and 14 grams of phosphorus per day to replace naturally occurring losses at maintenance. Needs increase for pregnancy for the development of the unborn foal and lactation because of the large amounts secreted through milk.
The growing horse needs more minerals as compared to mature horses because of the need for bone development. As such, mineral concentrations for growing horses and lactating mares in particular are larger than rations for maintenance. For example, a mature, nonproducing horse consuming 25 pounds of feed per day could meet its calcium and phosphorus needs by a ration containing 0.2 percent calcium and 0.12 percent phosphorus. Even feedstuffs low in minerals, i.e. native grasses, will contain these levels, so deficiencies are not a large concern. However, needs for lactation will triple the estimated requirements, so rations will need to be more concentrated in these minerals even when considering intakes will be higher. Also, needs for growth are double what is needed when mature. So, rations for growing horses have to be more concentrated in minerals considering the lower daily intake with these larger needs.
Regardless of production status, calcium needs are larger than phosphorus needs. The typical ranges of ratios that keep these needs in check are between 1.5 to 2.0 times more calcium than phosphorus in the total diet. Too much phosphorus may keep calcium from being absorbed, even when adequate calcium is supplied in the diet.
Other minerals of concern include sodium and chloride, which can be supplied free choice. Zinc and copper levels are checked because many forage varieties are low in these minerals. Checking the level of zinc and copper is especially important in growing horse diets. Also, there are a large number of minerals needed in very small amounts, electrolytes, which receive attention in exercising horses because of increased losses in sweat.
| State of Production | Copper (grams) | Zinc (grams) | Magnesium (grams) | Pota |
|------------------------|-------------------|-----------------|----------------------|--------|
| or Growth | | | | |
| Maintenance | 0.1 | 0.4 | 7.5 | 25 |
| 12 months of age | | 0.32 | 5.4 | 17 |
| Early Pregnancy | | 0.4 | 7.5 | 25 |
| Lactation (3 months) | | 0.5 | 11 | 46 |
| Moderate Exercise | | 0.12 | 0.5 | 12 |
a Nutrient requirements are estimated from the National Research Council's Recommendations for Nutrient Requirements of Horses 2007.
b These levels take into account all sources of minerals in the diet including hay, grains and supplements.
| State of Production or Growth | A (IU) | D (IU) | E (IU) |
|---------------------------------|----------|----------|----------|
| Maintenance | 15,000 | 3.300 | 500 |
| 12 months of age | 14,500 | 5,600 | 642 |
| Early Pregnancy | 30,000 | 3,300 | 800 |
| Lactation (3 months) | 30,000 | 3,300 | 1,000 |
| Moderate Exercise | 22,500 | 3,300 | 900 |
' Nutrient requirements are estimated from the National Research Council's Recommendations for Nutrient Requirements of Horses 2007.
- b These levels take into account all sources of vitamins in the diet including hay, grains and supplements.
- c Different sources of vitamins will have differing concentrations of vitamins so accounting for ingredients and reading labels is important.
## Vitamins
Vitamins are grouped into two classes, water or fat soluble. The water soluble vitamins are largely the B vitamins: biotin, thiamin, Vitamin B12, and others not as frequently marketed. Supplementation usually isn't necessary because fresh feedstuffs contain large amounts of these vitamins and the microbes in the horse's digestive tract also provide a substantial source of these vitamins. However, grain mixes
will contain supplements of these vitamins because of the variability of need and supply as well as the comparably low cost.
The fat soluble vitamins, Vitamins A, D, E and K, are also supplemented to ensure adequate levels. The need for Vitamin A is larger than the others. Requirements lead to supplements to contain ratios of A, D and E in the ranges of five times more A than D, and about four times more D than E. Horses in production will require more vitamins per day, so supplements are more warranted for exercising, pregnant or lactating horses. Vitamin needs for growth increase the need for D more so than A or E, so supplements will need closer to a 2:1 ratio of vitamin A to D as compared to 5:1 ratio more typically recommended for mature horse diets.
## Feedstuff Selection and Feeding Practices
Feeding practices direct the types of feedstuffs which can be fed safely. Alternatively, the types of feedstuffs direct feeding practices. Given the availability, horses will generally eat between 2.5 percent to 3.5 percent of their body weight per day in harvested feed (i.e. 25 to 35 pounds per 1,000 pounds of body weight). To encourage water intake, enhance motility of the digestive tract and help the horse's natural desire to eat more or less continuously, most rations are designed to meet needs of horses at around 80 percent of maximal intake limits (i.e. 20 to 30 pounds per 1,000 pounds of body weight). These amounts are designed for significant levels of fibrous feedstuffs and for sufficient highly digestible energy sources, i.e. fat, starches and sugars, to be fed to meet nutrient demands not supplied in forages.
The horse's digestive tract is very efficient in absorbing nutrients when feeding practices fit the feedstuff; but can be very inefficient when the two factors are not considered in relation to each other. The first portions of the digestive tract that feed travels, the stomach and small intestine, will absorb
energy containing compounds, amino acids from protein and minerals and vitamins needed for sound production and maintenance. This occurs from action of enzymes and other chemicals secreted by the horse's digestive tract, and substances that transport compounds into the horse's body. This process is very efficient as long as amounts of feedstuffs do not overwhelm this ability and the feed contains compounds that can be acted upon by enzymes.
The remaining parts of the digestive tract, the large intestine and cecum, house large numbers of bacteria and protozoa, which digest much of what was previously not absorbed into the horse's body. This hindgut digestion by microbes allows for additional nutrients to be absorbed before nutrients are lost as manure. Some compounds are not digestible in the small intestine but are digestible by these microbes. Other compounds which were digestible may have been supplied in amounts that overwhelmed the capability of the small intestine. These compounds also will be digestible by hindgut microbes.
## Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant compounds in plants. Carbohydrates supply energy. There are two broad types of carbohydrates: fibrous and nonfibrous. These two types are digested differently and in different locations in the digestive tract. Grains generally contain high concentrations of nonfibrous carbohydrates. Nonfibrous carbohydrates comparably are highly digestible, so have the advantage of supplying a readily, usable source of energy. However, too much nonfibrous carbohydrate intake at one time leads to digestive upset.
Nonfibrous carbohydrates, starches and sugars, which are found in greatest amounts in grains, are nearly 100 percent digestible. Ideally, most of the nonfibrous carbohydrates should be digested and absorbed in the small intestine. What is not digested in the small intestine will be broken down by the microbes in the large intestine and cecum. This microbial digestion supplies additional sources of energy to horses that
would otherwise be lost in manure. However, too much of these compounds presented to microbes in the hindgut cause adverse changes in the digestive tract, which lead to colic and founder. Daily allotments must be regulated so amounts presented to the microbes are at a low level. As such, in addition to meeting our scheduling needs, meals are designed to help digestion and increase safety.
Feedstuffs containing large amounts of nonfibrous carbohydrates (e.g. grains) are generally rationed so that no more than 5 or 6 pounds per 1,000 pounds of body weight are fed at one time. Rations containing high levels of nonfibrous carbohydrates are split into two or three a day feedings, so to keep at least 8 hours between feedings. Some grains, e.g. corn, have so much nonfibrous carbohydrates that strict regulation is imperative. Other grains (e.g. low quality oats) may have less starch and sugar as part of total weight, so small changes in amounts per meal are not as critical. Grain mixes may include significant amounts of highly fibrous feedstuffs as part of the mix, so the amounts that can be safely fed in one feeding may be more than the guideline stated above.
Whole plants will contain larger amounts of fibrous carbohydrates. Fibrous carbohydrates range in digestibility from levels near those characteristic of nonfibrous carbohydrates to sources that are completely indigestible. Fibrous carbohydrates are digested almost exclusively in the hindgut by microbes. Digestibility of fibrous carbohydrates will vary greatly because of differences in the structure of the many forms of fiber. Some plants are very digestible, ranging around 80 percent, while others may be less than 30 percent digestible because of the different levels of fibrous compounds. Immature, small grain pastures (e.g. oat, rye or wheat) are examples of a highly digestible fibrous feedstuff that may be so nutritious that intake must be regulated similarly as grain intakes. The less digestible the feed, the more would have to be consumed to meet needs. Because of low digestibility, mature, native pastures or hay with plant varieties with low leaf to stem ratios may not meet energy needs for maintenance even when fed free choice.
Highly fibrous feedstuffs are whole plants or are feed byproducts that have been milled to remove the nonfibrous carbohydrate portions. Because of limited digestibility, many of the high fiber feedstuffs can be fed free choice with little concern for overfeeding. Thus, rations using highly fibrous feeds (hay and pasture) reduce the need to meal feed and regulate intake. Feeding highly fibrous feedstuffs has limitations when costs rise too high for the nutritional value of the feedstuff and when needs for nutrients require a ration with more concentrated ingredients.
Most rations are forage based so to allow for longer, more continual intake and to avoid providing too much nonfibrous carbohydrates. As such, hay or pasture make up significant portions of the total ration for most horses. Grains are added to balance and supplement what is not supplied in the forage. Significant amounts of grains are needed with some production states in order for needs to be met below intake limits. Rations for horses will range from 100 percent forage to near 50:50 ratios of forage to grain by weight. If forages are unavailable or not desired, then grain mixes will contain significant levels of high fiber feeds. These mixes, which are intended to be the sole source of feed, are classified as 'complete feeds.'
## Protein Quality
High quality protein sources are fed to meet demands for amino acids. Enzymes in the small intestine will break down protein into amino acids and these amino acids will be transported into the horse's body intact. Protein in high protein feedstuffs such as soybean meal may be 70 percent digestible in the small intestine as compared to hay digestibility of 40 percent within the small intestine.
Protein not absorbed from the small intestine becomes feed for the microbes in the hind gut. These microbes destroy the amino acids, so what is produced in the hindgut is not a supply of essential amino acids. Rather, protein is broken down into carbon and nitrogen. Any nitrogen that is absorbed is used to
build amino acids that a horse's body can make, or other compounds needing nitrogen as part of its makeup. Because the need for essential amino acids are higher for growing horses as compared to mature, nonproducing horses, rations for growing horse are higher in percent protein and higher in essential amino acids. Splitting daily intakes into several meals per day can guard against overwhelming small intestinal digestion, so young horses are typically meal fed at least twice daily when fed high quality protein feeds. There is some research that suggests feeding weanlings and yearlings three times daily maximizes amino acid intake in the small intestine.
## Utilization of Mineral and Vitamins
Less is known about the value of feeding different mineral and vitamin sources. Some mineral sources are likely to be more digestible than others, especially sources which are chelated (combined chemically) with organic compounds. However, equine research on digestibility of different sources of minerals is very limited and results between studies appear contradictory. As intake levels of minerals affect the apparent digestibility, influencing factors such as amounts fed and variability of other types of compounds in the diet likely affect results. Even less is known about the absorption of vitamins.
## Safety
Feed is intended to supply nutrients to horses, not make them sick. However, colic leads the list of most serious and recurring problems identified with the feeding of horses. Colic, meaning pain in the abdominal cavity (gut), can and will likely happen to some extent to all horses. Nutritionally induced colic is but one cause of abdominal pain, but one that is too often alluded to when incidences occur.
Horses can efficiently and safely digest a variety of feedstuffs: growing plants, harvested forages, grains and grain products. No feeds are 100 percent safe, 100 percent of
the time; even the most commonly fed feedstuffs may trigger a colic episode. Feed selection and feeding routines have to be directed toward safety to keep severity and frequency of colic to a minimum. Some of the more important characteristics of feeds and feeding patterns as related to feed safety follow.
## Clean
Clean refers to being free of contaminants that might be harmful. The list is large, maybe endless, when thinking about the possibilities of contaminants: feed through drug products not intended for horse rations, toxic levels of minerals inadvertently being included, naturally occurring toxins in certain feeds, insects, sand, indigestible materials and so forth.
The term clean is also used to describe feed that is fresh and has little to no small particle size in the mix. Particle size is not necessarily the problem in itself, as ground mixes have been fed successfully to horses in a variety of management routines. Rather, feed with a high level of dust and small particle size may have feedstuffs that aren't intended to be in the mix (i.e. grain screenings), may suggest poor milling practices or may be more prone to contain mold when stored for long periods of time or in humid environments.
## Consistent
Consistent refers to uniformity of the ingredients of the feed mix and the physical size and appearance of individual particles within successive batches of a feed. Lack of consistency is more of a concern with mixes containing processed feeds, e.g. pelleted mixes. Pelleted feed is successfully fed to hundreds of thousands of horses daily, so one can't simply point at the manufacturing process as unsafe. However, one of the discussed concerns with pelleted feed is that different batches may appear the same but contain different feedstuffs. Also, certain feedstuffs that work
well with the pelleting process increase the variability of nutrients more than desired because of the increased variability of carbohydrate compounds in the feedstuffs.
The largest concern with individual feedstuff variability is with the different levels of carbohydrates that grains and grain byproducts might contain. To safeguard against this variability, mixes should restrict the allowable level of feedstuffs that are high in nonfibrous carbohydrates or are feedstuffs that are likely to be highly variable in amounts of these carbohydrates from source to source. Also, consistency in particle size and density (hardness of pellet) will influence consumption rates and digestion of feedstuffs. As such, purchasers of feeds want assurance of consistency of nutrient concentrations of feedstuffs and uniformity of the physical characteristics of grain mixes.
## Regulating Feedstuff Variety Amount and Timing of Feeding
Feeding managers regulate amounts and timing of feedstuffs in efforts to increase safety. Given free access to abundant feed, horses will self limit their intake mainly to their mechanical capacity to keep their digestive tract full. Unless over conditioning (too fat) is a concern, some feedstuffs can be offered free choice in unregulated amounts and timing, and in reality, may be best fed that way. Others fed free choice almost guarantees episodes of severe colic. Of all the commonly fed compounds, overeating of nonfibrous carbohydrates is the largest safety concern. Intake of nonfibrous carbohydrates, the starches and sugars, needs to be carefully regulated. Consuming unregulated amounts of feedstuffs high in the nonfibrous carbohydrates (e.g. grains) easily overwhelm the capacity of safe digestion in the horse. These feedstuffs are rationed by meal feeding routines.
Diets of horses come in a variety of forms and contain a vast array of feedstuffs. In an effort to promote consistency, some owners feed a single grain and a forage source (e.g. the traditional feeding of oats and alfalfa hay). Others feed grain mixes containing a variety of feedstuffs and alter forage with available options of hay and pasture from season to season.
Grain mixes are balanced to meet the requirements of the horse, assist digestion and can increase the variety of feedstuffs that can be fed. However, mixing can produce feeds similar in size and appearance that are very different in nutrient content. For example, a pelleted corn, wheat midds and alfalfa meal combination might be formed into a pellet that appears similar to a pellet containing only alfalfa meal. Not knowing differences in nutrients that the pellets contain can easily lead to over or under feeding. Also, the simple difference in density of rations, the weight per volume, can lead to unsafe feeding when rationing diets on a volume basis.
Timing of meals will be influenced by management and use needs. Small amounts of grain (i.e. 5 pounds or less for a 1,000-pound horse) may be fed in a single feeding per day with expectations that forage will be available the majority of the 24-hour period. Diets higher in amounts of grain or high quality forage are usually rationed into two feedings per day, with the total daily allotments of grain and forage fed at the same time rather than splitting the feedings by feedstuff type, (i.e. all the grain in the morning and forage in the evening). For the overwhelming majority of management situations, there appears to be little to no benefit for digestion to provide grain and/or forage prior to the other during a single meal (i.e. waiting 30 minutes following grain before allotting forage). In general, two a day feedings are best utilized when maintaining a minimal time period of 8 hours between feedings. Those management situations where young, rapidly growing horses are fed high quality protein in efforts to maximize rate of gain may increase absorption of essential amino acids when grain is split into three feedings per day.
Related OSU Fact Sheets on Horse Nutrition and Feeding Management:
David W. Freeman
OSU Extension Equine Specialist
## Kris Hiney
OSU Extension Equine Specialist
Print-friendly PDF (fact sheets/print - publications/afs/rations-for horses-nutrients-feedstuffs-and safety-afs-3929.pdf)
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/cals/2022/08/03/high-school-students-earn-scholarships-through-florida-youth-institute/ | High school students earn scholarships through Florida Youth Institute | University of Florida | [
"Caroline Nickerson"
] | 2022-08-03 | [
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"Florida Youth Institute",
"Food Insecurity",
"World Food Prize"
] | FL | ## High school students earn scholarships through Florida Youth Institute
GAINESVILLE, Fla. - Seven high school juniors and seniors earned scholarships to the University of Florida/IFAS College of Agricultural and Life Sciences (CALS) through participating in the Florida Youth Institute.
Based on their outstanding engagement and participation in the week-long program, the following students were offered a scholarship to attend CALS:
- · Isabella Farhat, Bishop Kenny High School, Jacksonville
- · Emilia Fiebel, Sheridan Technical High School, Hollywood
- · Alani Haile, Atlantic High School, Port Orange
- · Carly Legler, Williston High School, Williston
- · Isabella Minderman, Merritt Island High School, Merritt Island
- · Adam Hughes Putnam, Houston High School, Germantown, Tenn.
- · Hunter Taylor, Eustis High School, Eustis
"We know that many high school students are not familiar with the broad range of majors offered in CALS, so through FYI, they see science in action while also learning how to be agents for positive change in their local communities," said CALS Dean Elaine Turner. "These scholarships are given to students who stood out during the week for their curiosity and meaningful interactions with peers, speakers and program staff."
The Florida Youth Institute is a residential summer program that introduces students to college majors and career opportunities pertaining to agriculture, natural resources and the environment, while exploring global food security. The students also prepare an
Week 2 scholarship winners, L to R: Emilia Fiebel, Hunter Taylor, Isabella Farhat with Dean Elaine Turner
and proposed solutions to address the issue.
"I went into this program thinking that everybody was going to impress me. We met tons of experts and tons of farmers, but when actually meeting these people, they more than exceeded my expectations," said Farhat, a rising senior. "This week has probably been the best week of my life, by far. I've learned so much and met some amazing people."
Throughout the week, the Florida Youth Institute participants explored several UF/IFAS departments, including animal sciences, food science and human nutrition, and entomology and nematology; spoke with local agricultural organizations like the Florida Farm Bureau Federation and Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Sciences Division of Plant Industry; and presented their essays to experts in agriculture and related sciences.
'I think we had a lot of opportunities to learn from people in the industry,' and that's what kept me so engaged,' said Fieleb, an inspiring senior. 'We're just teenagers, and we still have so much to learn because we are so young. This week I was just able to learn so much more than I thought I would.'
The Florida Youth Institute is a program developed in partnership with the World Food Prize Foundation and Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services.
## ###
## ABOUT THE UF/IFAS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND LIFE SCIENCES
The College of Agricultural and Life Sciences (CALS) administers the degree programs of the University of Florida's Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS). The mission of the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences is to deliver unsurpassed educational programs that prepare students to address the world's critical challenges related to agriculture, food systems, human wellbeing, natural resources and sustainable communities. The college has received more total (national and regional combined) USDA teaching awards than any other institution.
O
by Caroline Nickerson and Jarred Shellhouse
Posted: August 3, 2022
Category: UE/IFAS Teaching
Tags: Florida Youth Institute, Food Insecurity, World Food Prize
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Women At The Helm Inspire The Next Generation Of Agricultural And Biological Engineers
- Food And Resource Economics Advisor Receives Professional Award
- Wetland Science Pioneer Receives University Service Award
- Alumna Highlight: Pam Hyatt |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/stlucieco/2023/05/03/my-adventure-birding-at-lakeside-ranch/ | My Adventure Birding at Lakeside Ranch | University of Florida | [
"Ken Gioeli"
] | 2023-05-03 | [
"Agriculture",
"Change Category",
"Natural Resources",
"Recreation",
"Water",
"Wildlife",
"audubon",
"Audubon Moment",
"Bird",
"birding",
"Martin County"
] | FL | ## My Adventure Birding at Lakeside Ranch
About Lakeside Ranch STA
On an early Saturday morning in April, I went on an amazing birding excursion at Lakeside Ranch Stormwater Treatment Area (STA). South Florida Water Management District manages the approximately 2,700 acre site which is available for visitors on foot or on a bicycle. Its main function is to improve water quality flowing into Lake Okeechobe. Audubon of Martin County conducts educational outreach at the site because of the amazing abundance of birds that flock to it. The best time of year to visit is usually wintertime when birds are migrating, but I knew my trip there would be worthwhile. Audubon of Martin County regularly conducts birding excursions at the site. Learn more about their birding programs online.
## Birding with John Nelson
I met up with my friend John Nelson who is one of the best birders I have ever met. I first met John in 2011 when he took one of my Florida Master Naturalist courses. His love for Florida's environment grew and he became President of Audubon of Martin County. He is also creator of the Audubon Moment. I knew I was in for a special treat with John's expertise. I wrote a blog "Florida Master Naturalist 2Oth Anniversary Graduate Spotlight on John Nelson - Creator of the Audubon Moment" if you want to learn more about John.
Of course, nothing goes completely as planned. My original intention was to bring our UF/IFAS Extension St. Lucie County video camera equipment to shoot some video on site. I forgot it at the office and I did not have time to retrieve it. Fortunately, John had a spotting scope he let me use. The photos in the blog below were taken using my iPhone 12 through John's spotting scope. The birding was amazing. John mentioned that we should do this again when migrating birds are over-wintering in the STA. Sign me up!!
## So what birds did we see?
There was an abundance of birds at Lakeside Ranch Stormwater Treatment Area. White pelicans were plentiful as were great egret, gallinules, red winged black birds, osprey, stilts, grackles, snail kites, snowy egret, and more. Birders can head out to the site with a good camera and scope and probably see many more than I listed here.
A sandhill crane tending to the eggs in the nest. Photo credits: K. Gioeli, UF/IFAS Extension
References
Audubon of Martin County
South Florida Water Management District Lakeside Ranch Stormwater Treatment Area (STA).
2
by Ken Gioeli
Posted: May 3, 2023
Category: Agriculture , NATURAL RESOURCES, Recreation, Water,
Wildlife
Tags:
Audubon, Audubon Moment, Bird, Birding, Martin County
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · 10 Useful Zoom Tips And Tricks
- · Florida Master Naturalists Celebrate 20th Anniversary With Permitted Sea Turtle Night Hike
- · Balloons Can Endanger Florida's SeaTurtles
- · Try My Super-Secret Mango Guacamole Recipe For National Avocado Day 2022 |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/landscaping-to-attract-butterflies-and-moths.html | Landscaping to Attract Butterflies and Moths - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Emily Geest",
"Eric Rebek",
"Dwayne Elmore",
"David Hillock",
"Mike Schnelle",
"Tom Royer"
] | 2021-01-06 | [] | OK | ## Landscaping to Attract Butterflies and Moths
Published Jun. 2021 |
Id: HLA-6430
By Emily Geest, Eric Rebek, Dwayne Elmore, David Hillock, Mike Schnelle, Tom Royer
Print-friendly PDF (/fact-sheets/printpublications/hla/landscaping-to-attract-butterflies-andmoths-hla-6430.pdf) Share Fact Sheet
JUMP TO: Food Plants / Location / Shelter / Attractants / Choosing Plants / Oklahoma Native Plant Suppliers / National Native Plant Suppliers / Tables Symbol Key.
Butterflies and moths are some of our most beautiful insects. Their striking colors, patterns, and behavior add to the aesthetics of our landscapes. They allow for closer and easier observation than many other species of wildlife. With a few exceptions, moths are active primarily at night while butterflies are active during the day. Butterflies and moths are important pollinators, with some species only pollinating a single plant species.
Additionally, butterflies and moths are an essential part of the diets of many songbirds, bats, reptiles, and amphibians, which depend on insects in order to survive. The best way to conserve butterflies and moths is to provide habitat for them, which includes sources of nectar for adults, and food plants for larvae.
## Food Plants
Butterflies and moths are dependent on two types of food, host plants for larvae and necating plants for adults. Nectar plants should be planted in large groups according to color. Butterflies recognize the blooms more quickly this way. Also, it is wise to select nectar plants that bloom at different times, so that a continuous food source is provided throughout the growing season, increasing feeding activity and your observing opportunity. When planting nectar plants, provide plants of different height. Not only will your flower garden look more organized, it will give both you and the butterflies a wider visual picture of the colorful blossoms.
Most larvae do not feed on the same plants as adults; therefore, provide plants that are attractive to females for oviposition (egg laying). Some larval host plants include vegetable and herb crops such as tomato, cabbage, dill, or fennel. Consider sacrificing some of these from your garden as necessary food sources for caterpillars, and when possible, plant more than one of each plant. Some weedy plants like clover, which is both a nectar and larval food plant, may already occur in your yard already assuming you do not use excessive herbicide to control for weeds. When seeded to an area that is not mowed, clover will become a beautiful flowering addition to your garden. Many colorful species are now available at your garden center.
## Shelter
Shelter is another essential ingredient for a butterfly garden. Butterflies and taller plants need protection from strong gusts of wind. Cooling winds lower the body temperature of butterflies and limit blooming time of flowering plants. Shelter can be provided by wind breaks in the form of deciduous plants, confiers, or even heat-absorbing rock fences. Vining plants such as passionvine, blackberries or Dutchman's pipe can be grown on fences or trellises to provide both shelter and a nectar source. Regardless of the type of
shelter used, it should be located on the north and west sides of your garden to block prevailing winds. To shelter insects from cold temperatures, leave leaf litter through the winter.
## Figure 3. A viceroy ( Limenitis archippus ) (A) and tawny emperor ( Asterocampa clyon ) (B) on cantaloupe. (Photo
by David Hillock, Oklahoma State University)
## Attractants
Elements other than plants can be used to attract butterflies and moths to your yard. Try using attractants such as mud puddles, wet sand, fruit, or sap. There are also tried-andtrue moth "brews" that can be made from simple ingredients and painted on tree trunks to allow you to get a closer look at the often unseen night-flying moths. This technique is called sugaring. Most recipes simply consist of mashed, fermented fruit, yeast and alcohol. Mashed bananas and a small amount of stale beer alone work extremely well. When trying to observe or photograph moths at night, keep in mind that they are usually inactive on full moon evenings yet prefer hot, humid nights before a storm. Also, moths seem to have an affinity for white flowers and those emitting their fragrances at night. Intensely bright lights will drive them away, whereas a simple flashlight equipped with a red or yellow filter, or even a paper towel, will not disturb them very much. Some moths remain relatively active through November. When trying to attract insects to your yard, the use of broad-spectrum insecticides is not recommended. Integrated pest
management (IPM) strategies can be used to reduce the need for insecticides to manage key garden pests. For more information, refer to OSU Extension Publication E-1023: Conserving Beneficial Arthropods in ( /fact-sheets/conserving-beneficialResidential Landscapes .
## Sugaring recipe:
- Brown sugar
- Overripe fruit (bananas work well)
- Beer (preferably stale)
- Melasses
No need to measure, just mix together. Allow to sit for one day to two days before applying to tree trunks
## Choosing Plants
When landscaping to attract butterflies and moths, keep in mind these principles for formulating your garden plan. Be sure to mix perennials and annuals. Annuals bloom for one season only and may have delayed blooming if grown from seed. Perennials, however, already have established roots and tend to bloom within a predictable time frame. Some perennials may be annuals if they cannot survive the winter temperatures in your area. Winter mulching may provide the extra protection they need from the cold.
When possible, include at least three plants that bloom during early, middle, and late season. Use mostly native plants, which are beautiful, well adapted to the region in which they grow, and can help provide habitat for many regional pollinators and other beneficial insects. Native seeds perform better if planted during the fall-winter.
It may be more economical to plant seeds than established plants if working with larger areas. However, some plants such as milkweedseas difficult to establish from seed and are better purchased as an established plant. When buying plants, be careful that the plants have not been treated with neonicotinoids, a class of insecticides known to be harmful to pollinators. Research the seller, examine plant labels, or speak with nursery managers to determine if plants have been treated with neonicotinoids. Local nurseries will have more information about the plants they sell than large chains.
Figure 4.
.
.
.
.
## Other pollinators
If you want to expand your butterfly/moth garden to benefit other pollinators such as our native wild bees, consider leaving hollow-stemmed plants (e.g., sunflower) standing through the winter, as bees often overwinter in these. Leaving some bare ground can benefit ground-nesting bees and wasps.
## Oklahoma Native Plant Suppliers
## Bustani Plant Farm
1313 East 44th Avenue
Stillwater, OK 74074
bustanipplantfarm.com/(https://www.bustanipplantfarm.com/)
## Johnston Seed Co.
319 West Chestnut
Enid, OK 73701
johnstonseed.com/(https://www.johnstonseed.com/)
## Prairie Wind Nursery
Norman, OK
prairiewindnursery.square.site/(https://prairiewindnursery.square.site/)
## Sunshine Farm and Nursery
Route 1, Box 4030
Clinton, OK 73601
facebook.com/sunhinenurseryok/(https://www.facebook.com/sunhinenuruseryok/)
## Wild Things Nursery
Seminole, OK
wildthingsnursery.com/(https://www.wildthingsnursery.com/)
## National Native Plant Suppliers
Booth Hill Wildflowers
921 Boothhe Hill
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
## Larner Seeds
P.O. Box 407
Bolinas, CA 94924
https://larnerseeds.com/(https://larnerseeds.com/).
## Moon Mountain Wildflowers
P.O. Box 725
Carpinteria, California 93014-0725
## Niche Gardens
1111 Dawson Rd.
Chapel Hill, NC 27516
## Ontario Seed Co.(OSC)
77 Wellington St S, Kitchener, ON N2G 2E9, Canada
www.oscseeds.com/(https://www.oscseeds.com/)
## Park Seed Co.
P.O. Box 46
Greenwood, SC 29647
parkseed.com/(https://parkseed.com/)
## Prairie Moon Nursery
32115 Prairie Lane
Winona, MN 55987
prairiemoon.com/(https://www.prairiemoon.com/)
## Prairie Nursery
P.O. Box 306-R
Westfield, WI 53964
prairenursery.com/(https://www.prairenursery.com/)
W. Atlee Burpee Co.
300 Park Ave.
Warminster, PA 18974
burpee.com/(https://www.burpee.com/)
## High Country Gardens
(Many plants suitable for Western Oklahoma)
highcountrygardens.com/ (https://www.highcountrygardens.com/)
## Izel Plants
(a marketplace for plants native to the contiguous U.S.; not a nursery)
izeplants.com/(https://www.izelplants.com/)
## Tables Symbol Key
- · Plant type : TRE = tree, SHR = shrub, VIN = vine, AN = annual, BI = biennial, PR = perennial
- · Blooming season : SP = spring, SU = summer, AU = autumn, W = winter
- · Sun : F = full, S = shade, P = partial, A= all exposures
- · Moisture : D = dry, W = wet, M = moist, WD= well-drained
- · Soil : B = broad range, C = clay, L = loamy, S = sandy
- · Color : BL = blue, L = ilac, PI = pink, W = white, BR = brown, PU = purple, Y = yellow, G = green, O = orange, R = red, M = many colors
- · *Bolded text : The monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is a species of widespread conservation concern. Plants that are of particular importance to monarchs are provided in bold text..
Note : Some of these native plants are not easily found in a nursery, however most of them can be found as seed online. Plants listed are meant simply as a starting point; consult with a green industry professional from a local garden center or nursery for additional plants that may serve niche purposes described earlier.
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|----------------------------|--------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| Adam's needle | Su | F, P | M, D | |
| yucca (Yucca filamentosa) | SU | B | | |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|--------------------------------------------|-------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| Azaleas (Rhododendron spp. and hybrids | SP | P, S | M, W | S, L |
| Blackberry (Rubus trivialis) | SP | F, P | M, W | S, L |
| Boxelder (Acer negundo) | SP | F, P | M, D | B |
| Buckeye (Aesculus spp.) | SP | P, S | W, M | B |
| Butterflybush (Buddleia spp.) | SU | F | M, D | B |
| Buttonbush occidentalis) | SP, SU | F, P | W, M | B |
| Cherry (Prunus serotina) | SP, SU | F | M, W | S, L |
| Corallberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) | SU | P, S | M, D | B |
| Crapermytle (Lagerstroemia spp.) | SU | F | M, D | B |
| Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia macrophylla) | SP | F, P | M | L |
| Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis) | WP | F, P | M, D | L |
| Dogwood (Cornus spp.) | SP, SU | F | M, W, D | S, L |
| Glossy abelia (Abelia x grandiflora) | SU | F, P | M, D | B |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| Hard hack (Spiraea tomentosa) | SP | F | M, D | B |
| Hawthorn (Crataeus spp.) | SP, SU | F, P | M | B |
| Jasmine winter (Jasminum nudiflorum) | W, SP | F | M, D | B |
| Lilac (Syringa spp.) | SP | F | M | L |
| Moundily yucca, Spanish dagger (Yucca gloriosa) | SU | F, P | M, D | B |
| Narrowleaf meadowsweet (Spiraea alba) | SP | F | W, M | L |
| New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus) | SU | F | D | S, L |
| Oak (Quercus spp.) | SU | F | M, D | L |
| Paw paw (Asimina triloba) | SP | P | M, W | L |
| Plums (Prunus spp.) | SP, SU | F | M, D | S, L |
| Red mulberry (Morus rubra) | SP | F | M | B |
| River birch (Betula nigra) | SP | F, P | M | S, L |
| Spicebush (Lindera benzoin) | SP | F, P | M | S, L |
| Sumac, shining, winged sumac (Rhus spp.) | SP | F, P | M, D | S, L |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil | | |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------|-------|------------|--------|----|----|
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | SP | F, P | W, M | S, L | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) Sweet mockorange (Philadelphus coronarius) | | | | | | |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun Soil | | |
|----------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|-------------|------|------|
| Asters (Symphyotrichum novae-angliae, S. novi-belgii) | SU F, P | M, D | L | |
| *Wild bergamot, Beebalm (Monarda fistulosa) | SU F, P | M | L | |
| *Black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia hirta var. pulcherrima) | SU, A | F, P | M | B |
| Blanketflower (Gaillardia x grandiflora) | SU, AU | F | M, D | S, L |
| *Blue mistflower (Conoclinium coelestinium) | SU, AU | F, P | W, D | L |
| *Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) | SU, AU | F | W, D | S, L |
| Bush clover (Lespedeza capitata) | SU | F | D | S, L |
| *Butterflyweed (Asclepias tuberosa) | SU, AU | F | M, D | S, L |
| Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema x grandiflora) | AU | F, P | M | S, L |
| Common evening primrose (Oenothera speciosa) | SU | F | W, M | B |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|--------------------------------------------------|-------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| Coreopsis (Coreopsis auriculata) | SU, AU | F | M, D | S, L |
| Daffodil (Narcissus spp.) | SP | F, P | M | S, L |
| Dogbane, intermediate (Apocynum medium) | SU | F, P | M, D | L |
| Dogbane, hemp (Apocynum cannabinum) | SU | F | M, D | L |
| Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) | SU, AU | P, F | M, D | S, L |
| Fleabane (Erigeron spp.) | SP, SU | F | M | L |
| *Sage(Salvia spp.) | SU | F, P | M, D | B |
| *Gayfeather, dotted(Liatris punctata) | SU, AU | F, P | M, D | S, L |
| *Gayfeather, Kansas (Liatris pycnostachya) | SU, AU | F, P | D | L |
| *Gayfeather, tall (Liatris scariosa, L. spicata) | SU, AU | F | M | S, L |
| *Golden crown beard(Verbesina helianthoides) | SU | F | WD | B |
| *Goldenrods (Solidago spp.) | SU, AU | F | D, M | B |
| Grape hyacinth (Muscari spp.) | SP | F, P | M, D | B |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|---------------------------------------------------|--------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| *Horsement (Monarda citriodora) | SU | F,P | M | L |
| Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) | SP, SU | F | D | B |
| Iris ( Iris spp.) | SP, SU | F, P | M, D | L |
| *Leadplant (Amorpha canescens) | SU | F | M,D | L |
| Lupine, wild (Lupinus perennis) | SP, SU | A | M, D | L |
| Madonna lily (Lillium candidum) | | | | |
| *Maltesse cross (Silene chalcedonica) | | | | |
| *Maximilian sunflower (Helianthus maximiliani) | | | | |
| *Milkweed, broadleaf (Asclepias latifolia) | | | | |
| *Milkweed, green ( Asclepias viridis) | | | | |
| *Milkweed, showy (Asclepias speciosa) | | | | |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun Sun Moisture Soil |
|----------------------------------------------------------|--------------------|----------------------------|
| *Milkweed, swamp (Asclepias incarnata) | SU | F,P M,W B |
| Nettle-leaved bellflower (Campanula trachelium) | SU | F,P W,D L |
| Obedient plant (Physostegia virginiana) | AU | F,P M,D B |
| Oriental poppy (Papaver orientale) | SU | F M,W S,L |
| *Oxeye sunflower (Heliopis helianthoides) | SU,AU | F M B |
| Zark sundrop (Oenothera macocarpa) | SP | F D L |
| Pearly everlasting, cudweed (Anaphalis margaritacea) | SU, AU | F M,D L |
| Peony, garden (Paeonia spp.) | SP | F,P M,D L |
| *Prairie blazing star(Liatris pycnostachya) | SU,AU | F,P M L |
| Prairie thistle (Cirsium undulatum) | SU, AU | F M,D B |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun Moisture Soil |
|-----------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| *Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) | SU | F M,D B |
| Purple prairie clover (Dalea purpurea) | SU | F WD B |
| *Rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus) | SP, SU | F M L |
| Sedum showy stonecrop (Hylotelephium spectabile) | Shasta daisy (Leucanthemum x superbum) | Shasta daisy (Leucanthemum x superbum) |
| (Helianthus multiflorus) | SU, AU | F M,D L,S |
| Soloman's seal (Polygonatum biflorum) | SP | S M,W L |
| Sweet violet (Viola odorata) | SP | S M B |
| Thyme (Thymus spp.) | SP | S,P M L |
| *Tickseed sunflower (Bidens aristosa) | SP, SU | F M,W S,L |
| Torch lily (Kniphofia uvaria) | SU | F W,D S,L |
| Turk's cap (Malvaviscus arboreus) | SU, AU | F,P D |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|-------------------------------------------------|--------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| Turtlehead (Chelone glabra) | SU | F | W, M | L |
| Vetches (Vicia spp.) | SU | F | M, D | B |
| Wax mallow (Malvaviscus spp.). | SU, AU | F, P | WD | B |
| *Western sunflower (Helianthus occidentalis) | SU-AU | F | M,D | S,L |
| *Scarlet bergamot (Monarda didyma) | SU | F,P | M | L |
| Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) | SU | F | M,D | L |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|--------------------------------------------|--------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| *Asters (Aster and Symphyotrichum spp.) | | | | |
| Begonia (Begonia spp.) | SU | F | M,D | S,L |
| Borage (Boroago officinalis) | SU | F,P | M | L |
| Canterbury bells (Campanula medium) | SU | F,P | M | S,L |
| SPP.) | SU | F,P | M | L |
|---------------------|------|-------|-----|-----|
| Officinalis) | SU | F,P | M,D | S,L |
| (Campanula medium) | SU | F,P | M | S,L |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil | |
|----------------------------------------------|-------------------|-------|------------|--------|----|
| Cosmos (Cosmos bipinnatus) | SU | F | D | A | |
| Cowpen daisy | SU-AU | F | | | |
| (Verbesina encelioides) | L, SP | F | M, D | A | |
| Dill (Anethum graveolens) | SU- AU | F | P | M | L |
| Flowering tobacco (Nicotiana alata) | SU- AU | F, P | M | L | |
| Four o'clock (Mirabilis jalapa) | SU- AU | F, P | M | A | |
| Geranium (Pelargonium x hortorum) | SP- SU | F, P | M, W | L | |
| Heliotrope (Heliotropium arborescens) | SP- SU | F, P | M | S, L | |
| Lantana (Lantana camara) | SU | F | M | L | |
| *Leavenworth eryngo (Erygnium leavenworthii) | AU | F | D | S | |
| Marigold (Tagetes spp.) | SU- AU | F | M, D | L | |
| Mexican sunflower (Tithonia rotundifolia) | SU | F | M, D | L | |
| Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus) | SU- AU | F, P | M, D | S, L | |
| Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) | SP | F, P | M | L | |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|--------------------------------------------|--------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| Pentas (Pentas lanceolata) | SP-AU | F, P | M | L |
| Petunia (Petunia x hybrida) | SP-AU | F, P | M | L |
| *Phlox(Phlox spp.) | SP, SU | F | M | L |
| Pot marigold (Calendula officinalis) | SP | F | M, D | L |
| *Scarlet sage, salvia (Salvia splendens) | SU | F | M,D | L |
| Scarlet star glory (Quamoclit coccinea) | SU, AU | F | M, D | L |
| Spider flower (Cleome hasslerana) | SU-AU | F, P | M, D | L |
| *Sunflower, dwarf (Helianthus annuus) | SU, AU | F | M,D | B |
| Touch-me-not, pale (Impatiens balsamina) | SU, AU | S, P | W, M | S, L |
| Touch-me-not, spotted (Impatiens capensis) | SU | S | W, M | L |
| *Verbena (Verbena hybrida) | SU-AU | F | M | S, L |
| Winter savory (Satureja montana) | S-AU | F, P | M, D | S, L |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|-----------------|-------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| Zinnia ( Zinnia | SU-AU | F, P | M | L |
| | Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|-------------------------------------|--------|-------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| Birch (Betula spp.) | SP | F, P | M, W | L | |
| Blueberry (Vaccinium virgatum) | SU | F, P | M | L | |
| Cottonwood (Populus deltoides) | SP | F | D | B | |
| Elm, winged (Ulmus alata) | SP, AU | F | D | A | |
| Hackberry (Celtis spp.) | SP | F | M, W | L | |
| Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) | SP, SU | F, P | M | B | |
| Hop tree (Ptelea trifoliata) | SU | F, P | WD | B | |
| Mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) | SP | P | M | S | |
| *Leadplant ( Amorpha spp.) | SU | F | D | B | |
| Locust, black (Robina pseudoacacia) | SP | F, P | D | B | |
| Passionvine (Passiflora incarnata) | SU | F, P | M, D | S, L | |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | Soil |
|----------------------------------------------------|--------------------|-------|------------|--------|
| Pipevine (Aristolochia macrophylla) | SU | P | M | B |
| Red maple (Acer rubrum) | SP | F, P | WD | B |
| Shagbark hickory (Carya ovata) | SP | F, P | WD | L |
| Snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus) | SU | F, P | WD | B |
| Soapberry (Sapiundus saponaria var. drummondii) | SP, SU | F, P | M | B |
| Tulip tree (Liroidendron tulipifera) | SU | F, P | W, M | L |
| Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) | SU | F, P | WD | B |
| Walnut (Juglans nigra) | SP, SU | F | M, WD | L |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture | So |
|------------------------------------------------|--------------------|-------|------------|------|
| Dill (Anethum graveolens) | SU | F | WD | S |
| Everlasting, cudweed (Gnaphalium purpureum) | SU, AU | F | D | S, L |
| Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) | SU | F, P | WD | L |
| *Smartweed (Polygonum spp.) | SU, AU | F | M | CL |
| *Sneezweed (Helenium spp.) | SU, AU | F | D | B |
| Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) | SP | F | M | L |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun | Moisture & Soil | Color |
|---------------------------------------|--------------------|-------|--------------------|-----------|
| Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) | AU | F | W, D | LPU, R |
| Blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) | SU | F | D, M | BY |
| *Butterflyweed (Asclepias tuberosa) | SU, AU | F | M, D | S,L|O, R |
| Cinquefoil (Potentilla neumanniana) | SP, SU | F, P | WD | S, L|Y |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun Sun & Soil | Moisture Color | |
|--------------------------------------------|-------------------|------------------|------------------|--------|
| Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) | SU | F | M | BY |
| Sedge (Carex spp.) | SU | F, P | M | BG |
| *Indian paintbrush (Castileja coccinea) | | | | |
| Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans) | AU | F | M, D | BY |
| Clematis (Clematis spp.) | SU | F, P | M | BPU, B |
| *Knotweed (Polygonum spp.) | SU, AU | F | M, W | C.L|PI |
| Little bluestem (Schizachryrium scoparium) | AU | F | WD | BPU |
| *Milkweed, broadleaf (Asclepias latifolia) | SP, SU | F, P | M, D | BG |
| *Milkweed, green (Asclepias viridis) | SP, SU | F | M | BM |
| *Milkweed, showy (Asclepias speciosa) | SP, SU | F, P | M | BR |
| *Milkweed, swamp ( Asclepias incarnata) | SU | F, P | M, W | BN |
| Name | Blooming Season | Sun & Soil | Moisture Color | |
|------------------------------------------------|--------------------|---------------|-------------------|--------|
| Partridge pea, showy (Cassia fasciculata) | SU, AU | F | D | BY |
| Purple prairie clover (Dalea purpurea) | SU | F | WD | BPU, R |
| Senna (Senna marilandica) | SU | F | M | SY |
| Sorrel, rosy canaigre (Rumex hymenosepalus) | SP | F | D | BR |
| Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) | AU | F | WD | BPI |
Management Coordinator
## Print-friendly PDF (/fact-sheets/printpublications/hla/landscaping-to-attract-butterflies-andmoths-hla-6430.pdf)
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/moore-county-forestry-impacts-2020 | Moore County Forestry Impacts 2020 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Suzanne Teague",
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Natural Resources",
"Economics"
] | NC | ## Moore County Forestry Impacts 2020
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Aug. 9, 2022
Authors
Stephanie Chizmar
Suzanne Teague
Rajan Parauli
Robert Bardon
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=moorecounty-forestry-impacts-2020#zoom=page-fit
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https://extension.okstate.edu/announcements/family-and-consumer-sciences-newsletters/january-fcs-newsletter-2023.html | Begin a New Year with a Physical Activity Plan to Improve Health - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2022-12-13 | [] | OK | ## Begin a New Year with a Physical Activity Plan to Improve Health
Tuesday, December 13, 2022
The start of a new year is a time when many people decide to make positive changes in their lives. For those interested in living a healthier lifestyle, they make a goal for themselves to become more physically active.
Jenni Klufa, Oklahoma State University Extension associate state specialist for youth programs, said physical activity is good for all ages.
"Being physically active is one of the best things you can do to improve your overall health both immediately and long-term," Klufa said. "Some of the immediate benefits of physical activity for adults include improved sleep quality, reduced feelings of anxiety and reduced blood pressure."
There are numerous long-term benefits of regular physical activity, too, including reducing the risk of dementia, improving bone health, reducing the risk of weight gain and lowering the risk of certain types of cancer. Physical activity can also lower a person's risk of heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes.
Klfua said Oklahoma residents have high rates of many of these chronic diseases. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Oklahomaans lead the nation with heart disease being the number one cause of preventable death.
"Sometimes people think they have to spend hours a day exercising to reap the benefits, but that's not true. For adults, moderate-intensity exercise as little as 30 minutes five times per week is all it takes," she said. "You don't have to join a gym or even have any fancy equipment at home to start down your path to better health."
Where should you start? Walking for 30 minutes is beneficial. Any activity that increases your heart rate will count toward this goal. Do you like to dance? Put on some music and dance around the house.
One obstacle many people say they face is simply being too tired to be physically active. One way to overcome this roadblock is to schedule your exercise around the time of day when you feel energetic. Try getting up 30 minutes earlier to squeeze in a quick walk or workout. If time is limited in the morning, consider a walk during your lunch break at work. If it helps, break the 30 minutes into two or three shorter sessions. Another option to help you stay motivated is to join a class or find an accountability partner.
"Understandably, parents of young children are busy with their families, but remember, kids benefit from exercise, too. Children who are physically active regularly tend to sleep better, do better in school, get sick less often and have stronger bones and muscles," Klufa said. "Another positive aspect of physical activity is it can reduce the risk of depression. Getting your kids involved in your physical activity is a great way to spend time together. Plus, being physically active early in life leads to a greater chance of it becoming a life-long habit, which will be helpful throughout the aging process."
Children ages 3 through 5 years need to be regularly active throughout the entire day. Children and adolescents ages 6 through 17 need to be active for at least 60 minutes every day of the week. |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/marketing-your-timber-forest-products | Marketing Your Timber: Forest Products | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. Rubin Shmulsky",
"Dr. Brady Self"
] | null | [
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"Timber Harvest",
"Wood Products"
] | MS | Home
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Publications » Marketing Your Timber: Forest Products
## Marketing Your Timber: Forest Products
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under:
Marketing, Timber Harvest, Wood Products
Publication Number: P1777
View as PDF: P1777.pdf
Forest products and Mississippi have a long history. Southern yellow pine lumber from Mississippi helped rebuild Chicago after the great fire of 1871. Pine poles and piling s used to build the Panama Canal came from Mississippi. Millions of hardwood croossies from Mississippi helped build the railroads that forged this nation. Mississippi hardwoods can be found in homes and businesses all over the world, in flooring, furniture, cabinets, and panels.
The forests of Mississippi provide timber for a multitude of products. Southern yellow pines (lobollyl, slash, shortleaf, and longleaf) are used to make structural lumber, plywood, trusses, poles, timbers, and decking. Hardwood species (more than 30 commercially important) of Mississippi are used to produce lumber, furniture, flooring, cabinets, and caskets, along with many more specialty products.
Depending on what the final finished product is, the price of the timber will vary. Buyers are willing to pay more for standing trees if they will be used to make high-value products. For this reason, it is important for landowners to understand what products are produced. Depending on the current market for the end product, there may be more or less demand for trees of a certain species, either driving up or lowering the price a buyer is willing to pay.
## The Products
While there are many products that can be made from both pine trees and hardwoods, there are products that are not interchangeable. To help forest landowners understand what products are made from which type of timber, the beginning of each section lists the type of trees that are used by two simple classifications, pine and hardwood.
## Pulpwood
Trees used: pine and hardwood
Pulpwood has been an important forest product in Mississippi for many years. It is defined as wood primarily cut for the production of pulp and paper, while in recent years some pulpwood has gone into oriented strand board (OSB).
Any size trees can be used as pulpwood, but mainly trees that are 5 to 9 inches in diameter at breast height (DBH; 4½ feet above the ground) are used because they are not very useful for other products. Most pulpwood is cut from thinning of forest stands to reduce the overall number of trees per acre and to allow more growing space for defect-free trees that will grow into trees of high quality. This does not mean that large-diameter trees cannot be pulpwood; if a tree has a defect, such as rot or severe crookedness, it also may only be acceptable as pulpwood.
Pulpwood is often measured in cords or, more recently, in tons. A cord is a stack of wood 4 feet high, 8 feet long, and 4 feet wide, including wood, air, and bark. Cords are a measure of volume, and the amount of wood in a cord varies somewhat depending on the size of the logs in the stack. (A cord of logs that is 20 inches in diameter will have less air space than a cord of logs that is 8 inches in diameter). For this reason, and because transport of pulpwood by truck has become common, the forest industry favors weight measurements of pulpwood. Today, most pulpwood is referred to in tons.
Though the weight of a unit of wood can vary by species, size, and season, standard pulpwood weights are often used for conversions. The following are weights for a cord of pulpwood:
| Species | Weight (pounds) | Weight (tons) |
|----------------|-------------------|-----------------|
| Pine | 5,200 | 2.7 |
| Soft hardwood | 5,400 | 2.7 |
| Mixed hardwood | 5,600 | 2.8 |
| Hard hardwood | 5,800 | 2.9 |
To some extent, these weights will vary with seasonal changes.
## Energywood
Trees used: pine and hardwood
Energywood is basically pulpwood that is being used for making products that are used to generate energy. Many coal-fired powerplants are doing what is called co-firing, where wood chips or pellets are added to the coal in order to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. Here in Mississippi, there are several wood pellet plants that are turning pulpwood and sawmill residues into pellets for heating and energy production for use both in the United States and oversees. In the future, there will be more opportunities for wood to be used in this way.
## Chip-n-Saw
Trees used: pine
Chip-n-Saw is a registered trade name for a sawing machine that cuts small logs into lumber and chips in a single operation. This innovation is about 40 years old and has only begun to affect Mississippi markets since the mid-1980s. As the use of this machine spread, some forest industry firms began to purchase a category of smaller logs commonly called "chip-n-saw." Some firms that previously had used only sawlogs installed chip-n-saw mills and began using smaller logs, also. The result has been the creation of a category of forest products called "chip-n-saw" that includes the large pulpwood and small sawlog diameter range. Chip-n-saw logs are usually between 8 and 12 inches DBH (although some chip-n-saw machines can process up to a 22-inch log), and, since chip-n-
saw logs yield lumber and chips, they can bring higher stumpage prices to the landowner than can pulpwood.
Chip-n-saw logs are not just large pulpwood. Because they will be used to make lumber (typically 2-by4s or 2-by-6s), the qualifications for a log to be chip-n-saw are stricter than for pulpwood. Usually the specifications for chip-n-saw logs will include a minimum butt diameter, minimum top diameter, minimum length, and low allowance for defects such as disease or crookedness. All chip-n-saw can be used for pulpwood, but all pulpwood is not good enough to be chip-n-saw.
Chip-n-saw is commonly purchased and handled in tree lengths like pulpwood, with prices being quoted by the cord or ton, but prices also can be quoted by merchantable board-foot (MBF), similar to sawtimber. If you, as a landowner, are confused about which offer might be best among offers given in different measurement units, ask the buyers to tell you their conversion factors or to furnish you a bid in a unit you prefer.
Landowners should also take into consideration that chip-n-saw logs are only valuable if there is a mill that can take them within a reasonable hauling range.
## Sawtimber
Trees used: pine and hardwood
Sawtimber (also sawlogs) is the most important category of Mississippi forest products and accounts for nearly two-thirds of the annual harvest value. Both pine and hardwood species are harvested each year, but the pine sawlog harvest volume is usually more than twice that of hardwood.
Sawtimber or sawlogs are defined as trees large enough to be cut into lumber. Specifications for sawlogs refer to length and diameter inside the bark (d.i.b.) at the small end. Log specifications are regional and vary between pine and hardwood. Most mills have log specifications based on the type of equipment being used in their particular mill. Several industries purchase sawlogs using exact specifications for special products. Some of these will be discussed in a later section of this publication.
Sawtimber is usually measured in board feet. A board foot is a unit of measurement defined as a board 1 inch thick, 12 inches long, and 12 inches wide when it is rough and green. Board feet is used as a measure because the aim of lumber manufacturing is to produce rectangular lumber from round logs. Board feet estimates how much lumber a certain size log will yield. Normally, logs are measured in thousands of board feet (MBF).
Log rules estimate the lumber volume in logs. A log rule is a mathematical formula that predicts lumber yield based on log measurements and sawing variables. Hundreds of log rules have been developed since the 1800s. In Mississippi, the Doyle log rule was the official, statutory unit for sawlog transactions for many years until the law was changed in 1996. Today, sawlog purchases may be made by volume, using cubic feet or the Doyle, Scribner Decimal C, or international quarter-inch log rules. In addition, sawlogs may be purchased by weight in standard 2,000-pound tons.
As with pulpwood, the forest industry has begun to purchase sawlogs by weight. Weight scaling is a fast and convenient method for some mills but does not apply to all operations. Uniform weights for sawtimber have not been established as they have in pulpwood, primarily because weight conversion of logs to lumber volume is much more complicated. Factors such as species, origin of the logs, location in the state, log diameter, and mill equipment make uniform weights for sawtimber difficult
to calculate and less useful. Each mill may have its own unique conversion table for comparing log weight (tons) into MBF.
## Poles and Pilings
Trees used: pine
Poles and pilings are another special category of pine logs. Although in other regions of the country hardwood species have been used for poles and pilings, most of the market is now dominated by softwoods. Southern pine is a major species used for poles and pilings because of its availability, strength, and treatability. Poles are used for applications such as electrical and utility transmission and distribution lines, street lights, outdoor billboards, pole buildings, and many others.
Piles are poles or heavy timbers that are driven into the ground to provide a secure foundation for structures built on soft, wet, or submerged sites. Pilings are used for buildings, wharfs, and bridge foundations built near water or on soft soils. Specifications for poles and pilings are very exact and are described by the American National Standards Institute. To qualify as a pole or piling, a tree must meet criteria for diameter, length, straightness, grain, knots, and rate of growth, among others. Poles are divided into 15 classes, each with minimum size and length requirements. Trade in the smaller class poles is the most consistent business for pole companies. These utility poles used for distribution lines usually range from 35 to 50 feet long. This means poles can be merchandised out of sawtimber and sometimes chip-n-saw sales, so landowners should not forget the pole market as a marketing opportunity. As few as five to ten utility poles per acre, or just two larger poles (80 feet or longer) per acre can be an acceptable cut. Poles are purchased on a per-thousand-board-feet basis, such as sawtimber, or by the piece. Poles also have strict density requirements. Six growth rings per inch in the outer part of the tree is a common requirement. Thus, trees grown quickly may not qualify for pole manufacturing. You should identify and contact pole companies in your market area to explore the opportunities for selling poles before making a timber sale.
## Veneer Logs
Trees used: pine and hardwood
Both hardwood and pine logs are used to make veneer (also called peeler logs or plywood logs). Pine logs
are used mostly to make veneer for Southern pine structural plywood. There are several pine plywood mills in Mississippi, largely in the central and southern parts of the state.
Hardwood logs produce veneer that is used for many interior and decorative purposes. Hardwood veneers are used for furniture, boxes, cabinets, doors, baskets, plywood, flooring, and other products. The most common hardwood species used for veneer in Mississippi are red oak, white oak, yellow poplar, sweetgum, and pecan.
Pine veneer logs are often purchased from landowners by a procurement forester as sawtimber or from other companies who merchandise their logs. You can increase your odds of capturing this value by asking plywood companies to bid when you market timber.
It is less common in Mississippi for landowners to market veneer hardwood logs. Usually, veneer logs are sold as part of a hardwood sawtimber sale and then merchandised to the veneer market from the mill. The main reason for this is that hardwood log value depends on grade, and few landowners are experienced enough to recognize they have veneer-grade material. Also, because only high-quality
logs are suitable for decorative veneers and only a few species may be in demand at a particular time, veneer logs often represent a small portion of the sale volume. The mill yard is a logical and efficient place for a veneer buyer to purchase logs.
If you have a stand with enough volume and quality of veneer-grade trees, you should explore the veneer market. As a first step, consult a forester to see if your trees meet the veneer grade. Then, a few phone calls to local hardwood mills should help identify a veneer buyer for your area.
## How Does Product Knowledge Affect You?
Have you ever sold a car? To market that car properly, you have to know how old it is, how it works, how many miles it has been driven, and who owned it before. You should also know many other facts about it. Without a detailed understanding of that car, your ability to sell it for maximum value will be limited, especially if you're trying to sell it to an experienced buyer, like a used car dealer. The same is true when marketing your timber. You must know the type of timber you have, what species it is, which mills are nearby or within hauling range, and what products can be made from your timber. For example, forest landowners who sell pine poles for sawtimber prices miss a chance for additional income.
Through a lack of knowledge, many landowners may not get full value from their timber when it is sold. Landowners who educate themselves about forest products before marketing their timber will be more likely to be satisfied with their efforts when the timber is sold. Marketing is an important stage in the life of your forest. Before you market your timber, learn all you can about what is in your forest. By doing so, you will help yourself get full value for your forest and ensure that a new forest will take its place for the future.
## Publication 1777 (POD-12-21)
Revised by Rubin Shmulsky, PhD, Professor and Head, Sustainable Bioproducts, from an earlier edition by Robert A. Daniels, PhD, retired Extension Professor, Forestry.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
| SELECT A COUNTY |
|------------------------|
| Authors |
| Dr. Rubin Shmulsky |
| Professor and Head |
| Your Extension Experts |
| Dr. Brady Self |
| Extension Professor |
## Related News
DECEMBER 19, 2023
Timber value ranks third with increased harvest
SEPTEMBER 27, 2023
Loggers, foresters partner to provide outreach, education
APRIL 28, 2023
Trying to salvage timber? Call a forestry specialist
DECEMBER 19, 2022
Timber ranks third with increased harvest, prices
JULY 6, 2022
Mississippi adds mill capacity, timber moving
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## Recent Issues
THE OVERSTORY
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https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/co-parenting/site-files/documents/problem-solving-tips.pdf | The Talk.pub | Oklahoma State University | [
"masri"
] | Error: time data "D:20211020160942-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Problem-Solving Tips
When it comes to working through some of the issues regarding parenting your children, try your best to use some of these problem-solving tips.
- I. Some problems can't be solved; also, no relationship is perfect, so lower your expectations. If you and your co-parent can come up with a solution, perfect!
- · Recognize your own emotional process, state and reactions
- Don't try to problem solve when you are emotionally upset.
## 2. Stay on task; stick to topic of discussion
- · Push through on one topic at a time. If you can't agree on something, move on to a new item on the agenda
- 3. Don't become historical
- · Many parents stockpile issues to address all at the same time because they have bitten their tongue for so long. Keep things in the present and follow the rule, "That was then, what do I want for my children in the future?"
- 4. Never communicate with your co-parent in anger
- · This is a tough rule to follow...because if things are going well, you wouldn't be needing to communicate to solve a problem
- 5. Manage the negatives
- · Filter through anything that is not related to the well-being of your child. Dwell only on the things that pertain to this too; ignore the stuff that does not need your response
## 6. Wait to respond (texts, emails)I
- · There is no rule that you have to immediately respond to a text message or return a call if you missed it, but don't wait for five days either
- · Find healthy ways to clear your mind (not ignoring issues either or blocking them by drinking) and then come back to the issue
## 7. Take a 'time-out'
- · Like a coach, stop, regroup, determine what needs to happen, create a plan
- · Better to let each other calm down than risk blowing up and making things worse for the children
- · Unlike in sports, most relationship time-outs require at least 30 minutes to calm down and allow the stress hormones to get out of your system. If you come back together too soon your body will be primed to fight
- · Attend to danger signs of communication such as withdrawing, making negative interpretations and dismissing the other person's thoughts/feelings
- · Meditate, pray
- · Take deep breaths; calm heart rate down
- · Write things down; journal
## 8. Agree to never fight in front of the childrenI
- · This should be your very first rule
## 9. Find a mediator who can help you work things out
- · Call a friend and vent; but set stage for turning the venting into something productive rather than simply justifying your position and getting more stuck! Find friends who won't simply agree with your side but who will truthfully give you their opinion. Be open to hearing it, good or bad |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/CG027 | 2024–2025 Florida Citrus Production Guide: Best Management Practices for Soil-Applied Agricultural Chemicals | University of Florida | [
"Davie M. Kadyampakeni",
"Larry W. Duncan"
] | 2024-08-20 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | 2024-2025 Florida Citrus Production Guide: Best Management Practices for Soil-Applied Agricultural Chemicals
Davie M. Kadyampakeni and Larry W. Duncan
Over the past few decades, certain pesticides and nitrates have been detected in some shallow groundwater locations on the sandy ridge soils of central Florida. Federal and state regulatory agencies emphasize the need to protect groundwater and all drinking water supplies and in-turn, have restricted the timing and use of certain widely used agricultural chemicals. As a result of these concerns more and stronger regulatory policies and best management practices (BMPs), growers will have to assume increasingly more responsibility for the crop management practices they choose: The fate of the environment depends, in part, on the agricultural chemicals they use. Specific BMPs are currently being implemented to optimize crop production and environmental protection for both ridge and flatwoods citrus production; this state-sponsored, voluntary program encourages citrus growers to develop and add site-specific BMP plans for controlling agriculminmental contamination of state water resources. Growers who formally adopt BMPs and can produce a documented plan will receive a waiver of liability from the state for any inadvertent environmental contamination events. Many different environmental factors and management components can be involved in the BMP plan.
To prevent or reduce the movement of chemicals to groundwater, users must consider many different site-specific BMPs, including the following: integration of crop and pest management strategies, product selection, application rates, timing, placement in relation to the root system, weed cover, soil properties, and irrigation management strategies.
## Application Rates, Frequency, Timing, Placement, and Other Considerations
Integrated pest management (IPM) requires one to (1) monitor activities for the presence and abundance of pests within the groove, (2) determine whether pest population densities are high enough to cause economic loss, and (3) select a profitable, worker-safe, and environmentally compatible management option. Pesticide application should only be considered after the results of monitoring activities have been completed and other potential causes of tree or grove decline are evaluated and corrected. In addition, a truly integrated strategy requires consideration of pesticide selection, when the choice exists, prior to application.
Pesticite selection should be based only on cost-effectiveness but also on mode of action rotation; consideration of the latter helps avoid resistance buildup, toxicity to nontarget species, and product solubility, persistence, and leaching, depending on the potential of the pesticide in question. This also considers regarding the irrigation schedule based on soil type, and other site characteristics. Various sources of information available for identifying specific soil types and ideal irrigation schedules help to predict and minimizing movement and leaching potential of most toxic agrochemicals.
Once a need for pest control has been established and a chemical has been selected, the grower must decide on rate and timing of application. Agricultural chemicals should be applied only at the labeled or recommended rates. Lower rates applied more frequently combined with sound irrigation management practices can significantly reduce chemical movement beyond the root zone. Split applications of pesticides or fertilizers will reduce the amount applied at any one time, thereby reducing the amount that might be reached at a given time.
Controlled release (encapsulated) formulations, when available, also provide the advantage of reduced leachingability.
The timing for application of most pest management/crop production chemicals should not be based on the calendar on the permit population biology, abundance, and tree growth periods. Applications during the summer season should be varied whenever possible. Sites require treatment during times when rainfall can be expected, but if heavy rainfall is imminent, application should be delayed due to subsequent adjustments adjusted to account for rainfall amounts.
Most soilborne pests are associated with citrus roots. Active pesticides targeting soilborne pests and diseases, pesticide efficacy occurs primarily within the zone of application, and a much to lesser degree -due to the systemic effects of these pesticides -within around the root surface outside of the application. Because a large majority of fibrous roots grow within the top 24 -30 days of soil microbes and increase canopy tolerance, the trunk to the root canopy of the mildew under-camouflage coverage is critical importance. Pecticle placement under the tree canopy the trunk to the root fibroid rest density and possibly do so, this placement can significantly improve overall pest control and minimize leaching. Tree skins may need to be raised by pruning to improve application equipment access under the tree canopy.
Cultural practices that promote excessive vegetative growth, such as overwatering and excessive nitrogen fertilization, can intensify some pest problems and should be avoided in the control of some plant diseases (e.g., Alternaria borealis strawberry). Under canopy growth may reduce pesticide effectiveness by interception or absorption of pesticide residues targeted for citrus roots or pits in the soil. Under canopy weeds take air through microsparkler systems without interference or compromised uniform coverage of chemigated compounds. At the individual tree level, excessive irrigation, when coupled with unmanaged weed growth, can promote local deep soil penetration of partial-polluted pesticides or fertilizers, resulting in groundwater contamination.
## Soil and Chemical Properties
The potential for leaching of agricultural chemicals below the root zone depends on both soil and chemical characteristics. Persistence, sorption, and water solubility are the primary characteristics of chemicals that determine leaching potential. Organic matter is one of the most important soil characteristics in determining the leaching potentials of many agricultural chemicals. Rates of leaching are lower for soils with high organic content. Deep Ridge lands, low inorganic matter (typically less than 1%), are particularly vulnerable to a limited variety of leukable soils that allow chemicals to be easily leached by obtained from the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), formerly Soil Conservation Service).
Chemical persistence is the length of time required for a material to break down and is often expressed in terms of half-life. Half-life is the amount of time required for one-half of the applied pesticide to be broken down in the soil. Pesticides in the soil are bound to particles, particularly organic matter, though a process called sorption. This binding retards their movement through the soil. A useful means of quantifying pesticide sorption on soils is the partition coefficient (K$\_{c}$): the relative affinity or attraction of a pesticide to soil materials.
Species with a high K$\_{c}$ are strongly adsorbed and thus less subject to leaching.
Chemicals with shorter half-lives and higher K$\_{c }$values are less likely to contribute to groundwater contamination. If possible, more leachable products should be used during the drier seasons. Products with short half-lives and high K$\_{c}$ values should be reserved for periods of high rainfall, if needed.
## Irrigation
Both rain and irrigation water move agricultural chemicals through the soil. Hence, it is important to consider best irrigation management practices that minimize water movement below the root zone. Failure to irrigate properly may jeopardize the future use of some important soil-applied chemicals. The ability of soils to hold water affects their ability to retain pesticides and nutrients. Many Ridge soils have a low water-holding capacity and a high hydraulic conductivity, which allows water to easily percolate through the soil. These soils require frequent irrigation. If more water is applied than is used by the tree, water will move below the root zone. Repeated irrigation or rainfall events will leach soluble nutrients and pesticides below the root zone where they become both economic losses and potential pollutants of groundwater.
Excessive irrigation and rainfall can also promote buildup of some pests such as Phytophthora spp., Alterimitation, and various weeds. Reduced residence time of pesticide compounds in shallow soil horizons contributes to losses production efficiencies and pest control efficiency. To avoid premature leaching from the root zone, soil-applied fungicides, nicentrices, insecticides, herbicides, and fertilizers should be targeted to under-canopy areas of high frost bulbosity and not should be followed by excessive invagination. Given the sandy, permeable nature of citrus soils and their low soil organic matter content, irrigation schedules based on soil moisture deficits are likely both to improve pest control and grove response to treatment by maximizing retention of toxic portions concentrations in the tree root zone as well as to prevent problems of environmental contamination.
Best water-use management practices rely upon the use of accounting methods and the use of soil watersensor (eg., ionsemeters, capacitance probes, or other sensors) and irrigation apps to determine how much irrigation water to apply irrigation event and when to apply it. Irrigation based on ten sensitometers will likely require the instruments to be installed at two depths in the well-drained soils of the entire region. Rising bidigation will be estimated whether ten thermometer readings are specified set of point soil water depletion. The deeper tensor can be monitored when the water content in the root zone reaches a point, to indicate a bug on one of the points on which to input daily rainfall, irrigation, and evapotranspiration data. The set points for irrigation are based on accumulated daily depletion of available soil water throughout the soil profile and on tree growth stage. The irrigation apprts provide the guideline for what content in the root zone reaches a point, such as below, c.g. below 25% for 33 available water, whereby interpreting an irrigation event to occur.
The water-holding capacity of the soil and the diameter channel application rate to the wetted-undercanado range are necessary data to determine the duration of irrigation that would meet only the appropriate root zone depth. Data on the water-harrowing capacity of oils cells can be found in UF/IFAS publications SCL 193, "Common Soils Used for Citrus Production" Circular 114, "Citrus Fertilizer Management on Calcareous Solids", Circula 140, "Fertigton Nutrient Sources and Application Considerations for Citrus"; or in the soil survey report each county.
Total volume of irrigation water not necessarily duration (irrigation run time) of the sprinklers -is important in driving the movement of chemicals through the soil profile. Careful planning and management of irrigation can improve pesticide fertilizer and fertilizer efficacy and reduce the potential for groundwater contamination. For more information on microrightication management, see UF/IFAS publications Circular 1406, Understanding Water Quality Parameters for Citrus Irrigation and Damage Systems ; Circular 1413, "Control and Automation
in\_Citrus Microcriturgitation Systems*; Bulletin 265, "Eiseld Evaluation of Microrigistration Water Application Uniformity"; and HSS958, "Management of Microsprinkler System for Florida Citrus".
## Publication #HIS-185
Release Date:
August 21, 2024
DOI: doi.org/10.32473/edis-cg027-2023
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises
Contacts: Lauren Dispensbrock
View PDF
## About this Publication
This document is HIS-185, one of a series of the Horticultural Sciences Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date December 1995. Revised annually. Most recent revision May 2024. Visit the EDIS website at https://cdis.ufas.edu for the currently supported version of this publication. 0 2024 UF/IFAS. This publication is licensed under CC BY NC-ND 4.0.
## About the Authors
Davie M. Kadyampakeni, associate professor, Department of Soil, Water, and Ecosystem Sciences; and Larry W. Duncan, professor, Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Circus REC; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL. 32611.
## Related Pages
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Horticultural Sciences |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/manateeco/2023/01/17/cortez-kind-celebrating-over-100-years-of-commercial-fishing/ | Cortez Kind: Celebrating Over 100 Years of Commercial Fishing | University of Florida | [
"Angela Collins"
] | 2023-01-17 | [
"Coasts & Marine",
"Community Volunteers",
"Events",
"Water",
"Work & Life",
"Commercial fishing",
"Cortez",
"fishing",
"Florida Sea Grant",
"manatee county",
"Manatee County Extension",
"Sarasota Bay",
"Sarasota County",
"seafood",
"working waterfronts"
] | FL | ## Cortez Kind: Celebrating Over 100 Years of Commercial Fishing
41st Annual Cortez Commercial Fishing Festival:
The Cortez Kind are Getting Ready to Party with a Purpose!
Every February for the past four decades, people have gathered in one of Florida's last true fishing villages to celebrate the cultural history of the region and to honor the men and women who supply us with fresh local seafood. The village of Cortez and the Florida Institute for Saltwater Heritage (F.I.S.H.) are excited to welcome the public back to the shores of Sarasota Bay for the 41st Annual Cortez Commercial Fishing Festival on February 18 & 19, 2023 .
Working waterfronts are critical to Florida's seafood economy and convey a sense of tradition and purpose that is hard to compare. Development, population growth and shifting priorities have contributed to the decline and disappearance of many fishing villages, but Cortez has survived the changing tides and remains a true vestige of old Florida. The Cortez Commercial Fishing Festival is organized to share the importance of local seafood production with the public. Cortez has been fishing for over 100 years, and this year marks the 100th Anniversary of Starfish Co., one of the Gulf Coast landmarks for fresh seafood. In honor of this centennial, this year's festival will be at the west end of the village in front of Starfish Co.
The 2023 Festival theme is " Cortez Kind," which you can interpret however you wish. I like to think of the Cortez kind as "one of a front of A.P. Bell and Starfish Co. is no other place like this on Earth. The uniqueness and grit of the community is evident as soon as you step foot into the village, which continues to thrive in
the face of storms (actual and proverbial - hurricanes, regulations, red tides, pollution, development, foreign competition...even a global pandemic.)
Cortez was settled in the 1800s by families lured by the bountiful marine resources in our region, and many of those original families' namesake still live in the village today. This small but mighty fishing village was built on mulet, and has diversified over the years to remain a top producer of Florida seafood. Grouper, snapper, stone crab and baitfish are all landed in Cortez, in addition to the everpresent and forever mighty mullet. If you are eating wild caught Florida seafood, there is a very strong chance that it crossed the docks of Cortez.
## The Festival is a party with a purpose.
The persistence and determination of Cortezians is evident in this annual Festival, which has been going for 41 years strong. The event is organized entirely by a fleet of dedicated volunteers and led by the Florida Institute for Saltwater Heritage (F.I.S.H.), a non-profit organization whose mission is to preserve and promote Florida's traditional maritime cultures and the environment upon which they depend. Every penny that the Festival earns is put right back into the community and supports the restoration and conservation of the EISH Preservey. This 95+ acre parcel of coastal habitat borders the east end of Cortez Village and is the last stretch of undeveloped waterfront property left on North Sarasota Bay. It was purchased through a grassroots, community effort and now enjoys a conservation easement to protect it from development. Proceeds from the Festival help pay the mortgage on this land and contribute to restoration efforts. How's that for Cortez Kind?
## Get a taste of the REAL Florida.
Come on out February 18 & 19 to celebrate a real working waterfront community dedicated to preserving their fishing way of life. Soak in the sunshine along Sarasota Bay while you boogie to live local music, peruse aisles of original artwork and nautical crafts, sip cold beverages and sample some really tasty seafood. Check out the Florida Maritime Museum and the Cortez Cultural Center, which are steeped in history of the region. Buy a raffle ticket to be entered to win one of the beautiful, refurbished custom boats lovingly restored by the F.I.S.H Boatworks. Get up close and personal with local marine life and feed your science side during "DockTalks."
educational spiels put on by University of Florida & Florida Sea Grant (the touch tanks and the Dock Talks are located on the Fulford Docks, right across from the Kids area and next to Starfish Co.)
So grab your sunglasses and your appetite, and come on out to
celebrate on the shores of Sarasota Bay during the 41st Annual Cortez Commercial Fishing
Festival.
2023 Cortez
Commercial
## Fishing Festival Details:
This party with a purpose has something for everyone. Admission is only $5 and kids under 12 are free.
When: February 18 & 19, 10am-6pm
Where: In front of Starfish Co. and A.P. Bell (and between 123 and 124th St W), Cortez, FL 34215.
Admission $5.00, kids under 12 free.
More Info: Cortez Kind: 2023 Cortez Commercial Fishing
Festival or fishcortez.org
6
by Angela Collins
Posted: January 17, 2023
Category: Coasts & Marine, Community Volunteers, Events, Water,
Work & Life
Tags: Commercial Fishing, Cortez, Fishing, Florida Sea Grant,
Manatee County, Manatee County Extension, Sarasota Bay,
Sarasota County, Seafood, Working Waterfronts
More From Blogs.IFAS |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/nrem/application-of-poultry-litter-to-pine-forests-nrem-5037.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20070509124305-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## OKLAHOMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE NREM-5037
## Application of Poultry Litter to Pine Forests
Marley Beem Area Extension Specialist
Donald J. Turton Associate Professor, Forest Hydrology
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets are also available on our website at: http://osufacts.okstate.edu
Charles J. Barden Associate Professor and Extension Forestry Specialist, Kansas State University
Poultry litter is a mixture of poultry manure, uneaten feed, and bedding material such as wood shavings or rice hulls. It contains approximately 4% nitrogen, 2% phosphorus, and 3% potassium and has long been used as a fertilizer on pastureland. In some locations, such as eastern Oklahoma, the rate of growth in the poultry industry has been rapid. There are concerns that the amount of poultry litter being produced will exceed the capacity of nearby pastures receiving litter applications and potentially effect the quality of surface or ground water.
Nitrates in drinking water can be a health hazard, especially for pregnant women and infants. Because nitrates can readily move downward through soils, care must be taken when applying nitrogen fertilizers on sites where depth to groundwater is shallow. Phosphorus is the nutrient most often responsible for excessive growth of algae in streams and lakes. This leads to problems such as bad tastes and odors in drinking water, fish kills, and lowered oxygen levels which prevent bass and many other desirable fish species from being able to reproduce and survive. The term for this excessive nutrient enrichment is eutrophication.
This publication reports on some preliminary research into the application of poultry litter to a pine plantation and attempts to answer the following questions:
After thinning equipment could be driven down the rows where trees had been removed
The high (8 tons/acre) and high (16 tons/acre) rates were applied with a basic tractor drawn manure spreader.
- What is the potential for poultry litter applications on forest land to harm surface or groundwater?
- What is the effect of poultry litter applications on pine tree growth?
- What are other practical concerns which may limit the use of poultry litter as a fertilizer on forest lands?
## Study Site and Methods Used
The location for the study was near the community of Broken Bow in McCurtain County, Oklahoma. The site was an overstocked, 16-year-old loblolly pine plantation with a nearly level slope (0 to 2%) and sandy loam soils. Prior to the application of litter, the stand was thinned to 180 trees per acre. After the thinning, a severe storm blew down many trees, reducing stand density to 80 to 100 trees per acre. Five different fertilizer treatments and a control were used on randomly selected, one-third acre plots.
The chemical fertilizer treatment was similar to the fertilization conducted by some forest industries on pine plantations following thinning operations. The two and four ton poultry litter application rates were similar to the rates of application commonly used on pastureland.
## Amounts and types of fertilizer used on experimental plots.
| Treatment | Fertilizer Type | tons/acre | N | P | K |
|-------------|---------------------------------|-------------|-----|-----|-------|
| Control | NA | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Chemical | Diammonium Phosphate and Urea-N | 0.25 | 200 | 50 | trace |
| Low | Poultry litter | 2 | 120 | 100 | 130 |
| Medium | Poultry litter | 4 | 230 | 210 | 250 |
| High | Poultry litter | 8 | 460 | 420 | 500 |
| Very high | Poultry litter | 16 | 930 | 830 | 1010 |
The following four items were measured during the study:
- · Soil water is water contained in the spaces between soil particles. It was collected from depths of one and two feet by means of lysimeters, which allowed the application of a vacuum to a porous ceramic cup.
- · Stream water was collected above and below the study site following rainfall events by ISCO ® automatic stream samplers.
- · Foliage samples were stripped from the last full flush of the branch in late winter of each year, placed in labeled brown paper bags, and dried at 70°C for 24 hours and shipped to the laboratory.
- · Tree dimensions were measured for total height in feet and diameter at breast height (DBH) in inches. After the application of fertilizers, a sampling schedule was carried out as follows, over a two-year period:
| Material Sampled | Frequency | Parameters Measured |
|-----------------------------------------|-------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|
| Soil Water - at depths of 1-2 feet | Every significant storm | Nitrate-Nitrogen, Soluble Phosphorous |
| Soil Water - at depths of 1-2 feet | Every significant storm | Soluble Phosphorous |
| Soil Water - at depths of 1-2 feet | Every significant storm | Every significant storm |
| Stream Water- aboveand below study site | Every significant storm | Nitrate Nitrogen, Soluble Phosphorus |
| Stream Water- aboveand below study site | Every significant storm | Annual |
| Foliage | Annual | Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Magnesium, Calcium |
| Foliage | Annual | Total weight, Diameter (DBH) |
Soil water nitrate concentrations in the high and very high poultry litter plots showed significantly higher levels than the plots which received no fertilizer. This effect lasted throughout the entire monitoring period. The medium and the chemical treatments resulted in significantly higher concentrations only through the tenth storm, approximately one year after application. The low treatment showed no statistical difference from the control treatment. Soil water phosphorus concentrations varied widely, making the statistical model invalid for most storm events. Phosphorus concentrations in the very high treatment were significantly greater than in other treatments for several storm events.
Foliage samples were collected at the same time each year.
## Soil Water Nutrient Concentrations - Average of 1- and 2- foot depths
| | Nitrate-N | Phosphorus* |
|-----------------|-------------|---------------|
| Control | 0.2 ppm | 0.04 ppm |
| Chemical | 3.5 | 0.01 |
| Poultry litter: | Low | 0.00 |
| Medium | 3.4 | 0.09 |
| High | 5.3 | 0.05 |
| Very high | 11.4 | 0.25 |
"Values are only from those four storm events for which the statistical model was valid
## Stream water
Stream water was sampled during storm events at sites above and below the study area. In the 15 storms following fertilizer application, nitrate-N levels were significantly higher below the site than above it, but the average increase was less than 0.1 ppm. Phosphorus remained at pre-treatment concentrations.
## Average Stream Water Nutrient Concentrations (ppm)
| | Nitrate-N | Phosphorus | Sophosphorus |
|-------|-------------|--------------|----------------|
| Above | Below | Above | Below |
| Site | Site | Site | Site |
| 0.12 | 0.22 | 0.03 | 0.03 |
## Tree measurements
Tree height increased 4.8 feet and diameter increased 2.2 inches across all plots, including the control, over three growing seasons. The only statistically significant increase in growth, over the control, occurred in tree height in the high poultry litter treatment. The lack of faster growth in fertilized treatments was attributed to the fact that initial levels of N and P in the foliage showed no nutrient deficiency. In addition, the increased growth due to the heavy thinning conducted at the start of the study may have masked the fertilization responses.
## Average Tree Dimensions and Growth
| Treatment | Tree Diameter (DBH, inches) | Tree Height (feet) | | |
|----------------|--------------------------------|----------------------|-----------------|-----|
| Pretreat- ment | Growth '93'-'96 | Pretreat- ment | Growth '93'-'96 | |
| Control | 7.6 | 2.1 | 47.4 | 3.3 |
| Chemical | 8.6 | 2.3 | 48.3 | 4.8 |
| 2 | 7.8 | 2.1 | 50.8 | 5.9 |
| 4 | 8.1 | 2.3 | 47.6 | 4.0 |
| 8 | 8.0 | 2.1 | 47.9 | 6.1 |
| 16 | 7.8 | 2.3 | 47.9 | 4.5 |
## Foliage samples
Foliage nutrient concentrations showed uptake of both nitrogen and phosphorus from all fertilized treatments. In the first two years, foliar nitrogen in both chemical fertilizer and poultry litter treatments was higher than in the control. Furthermore, in the second year, foliar nitrogen in all poultry litter treatments was higher than in the chemical fertilizer treatment, indicating that there was a continued release of nitrogen from the poultry litter. By the third year, differences between the treatments had largely disappeared. Foliar phosphorus levels in the poultry litter applications remained significantly higher than the controls throughout all three years of the study.
## Average foliar nitrogen (% dry weight)
| | 1994 | 1995 | 1996 |
|---------------------|--------|--------|--------|
| Control | 1.28 | 1.21 | 1.16 |
| Chemical | 1.45 | 1.31 | 1.32 |
| Poultry litter: Low | 1.4 | 1.39 | 1.25 |
| Medium | 1.46 | 1.46 | 1.25 |
| High | 1.44 | 1.45 | 1.36 |
| Very high | 1.46 | 1.5 | 1.31 |
| | Average foliar phosphorus (% dry weight) | Average foliar phosphorus (% dry weight) | Average foliar phosphorus (% dry weight) |
|---------------------|--------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|
| | 1994 | 1995 | 1996 |
| Control | 0.11 | 0.1 | 0.09 |
| Chemical | 0.11 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
| Poultry Litter: Low | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.1 |
| Medium | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.11 |
| High | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.1 |
| Very High | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.1 |
## Conclusions
Poultry litter has potential for use as a fertilizer on some forest lands. In this study, potential increases in growth may have been masked due to the effects of low stand density, moderate levels of native soil fertility , and a relatively short three year study period. No ill effects on trees were seen, even at the heaviest litter application rates. Rugged terrain and the potential for stumps to damage tires and the undercarriage of applicator vehicles are practical barriers to the application of poultry litter on forest land.
The potential for surface and ground water to be affected by improper poultry litter application to forest lands exists. This study provided indications that nitrogen from poultry litter could move to soil water. In addition, while only one stream sampler was used above and below the study area, our results showed a consistent increase in nitrogen downstream. However, even with the high rates applied in the study, the close proximity of the treatment areas to the stream, and the fact that majority of the watershed was occupied by the study area, nitrogen concentrations in stream water rose only slightly in absolute level. Before forest land managers attempt to use poultry litter on an operational basis, further research is needed to determine guidelines that take into account such factors as
- · slope
- · distance to streams and other surface waters
- · depth to groundwater
- · soil permeability
The results of this preliminary study should not be used as the basis for operational litter applications because different
forest sites vary widely in soils, slopes, tree species, stand age, distance to ground or surface waters, and other factors. Further research is needed before specific application rate guidelines can be developed for the application of poultry litter to forest land.
## Acknowledgments
Oklahoma Department of Agriculture - Forestry Services U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Oklahoma Secretary of the Environment The Weyerhaeser Corporation OSU Kiamiichi Forestry Research Station OSU Department of Forestry Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
For further information on this study refer to:
D. J. Turton, C. Barden, L.D. Condenen, R. Miller and D. Wilson, Poultry Litter Application to a Pine Plantation in Southeastern Oklahoma, USEPA Final Report
OSU Videotape VT-524, "Poultry Litter Application on a Pine Plantation," available in Oklahoma through county Extension offices and out of state for $24.95 from OSU Ag Communications, 111 PIO Building, Stillwater, OK 740786041, (405) 744-4050. | |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/understanding-chapter-12-bankruptcy-for-agricultural-producers | Understanding Chapter 12 Bankruptcy for Agricultural Producers | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Kevin N. Kim",
"Brian E. Mills"
] | null | [
"Agricultural Economics",
"Agri-business",
"Small Business",
"Family Financial Management"
] | MS | ## Understanding Chapter 12 Bankruptcy for Agricultural Producers
Filed Under: Agricultural Economics, Agri-business, Small Business, Financial Health and Wellness PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3956
View as PDF: P3956.pdf
Ideally, agricultural business owners will be able to maintain a financially healthy business throughout their lifetime. However, in the event of extreme financial distress where financial obligations cannot be met, business owners may have to declare bankruptcy. Depending on your situation, there are several options available and benefits to these options.
Under the bankruptcy code of the United States, there are different bankruptcy chapters available, such as liquidation bankruptcy (Chapter 7) and reorganization bankruptcy (Chapter 11), among other bankruptcy filings. The Department of Justice and U.S. courts offer a special bankruptcy chapter to agricultural producers, called Chapter 12 bankruptcy. In this publication, we will look at the eligibility criteria for Chapter 12 and major characteristics of Chapter 12. The intent of the publication is to introduce some of the filing considerations and benefits of Chapter 12 relative to other bankruptcy chapters, not to give specific legal recommendations. If you are considering Chapter 12 bankruptcy, you should consult with a local bankruptcy attorney who is an expert in Chapter 12 cases.
## Benefits of Chapter 12
Chapter 12 bankruptcy adjusts the debts of a family farmer. The farmer filing bankruptcy is called the "debtor." Under Chapter 12, an individual farmer, couple, or sometimes a corporation or partnership can file a petition for relief. If relief is granted, debtors will receive a court order protecting them from their creditors.
One of the biggest benefits of Chapter 12 is that it allows the family farm business to stay open. When you file a petition under Chapter 12, it automatically stops most collection actions against the family farmer and the family farm. Thus, it allows the farm's daily operations to continue. If the business is the family's only means of income, the automatic stay is a vital lifeline. It can help the farmer navigate through a tough financial period.
Under Chapter 12, the farmer can reduce the obligation on secured debt to the value of the collateral. This feature is called "cramdown provision." A cramdown allows the debtor to reduce the obligation on secured debt to the value of the collateral. For example, assume that a farm has a secured debt of $50,000 secured by collateral valued at $30,000. Because of cramdown, the debt value would be reduced to $30,000. The remaining $20,000 would become an unsecured debt and can be discharged in bankruptcy.
Other benefits include a more streamlined filing process for Chapter 12 relative to other reorganization filing procedures. Chapter 12 is a good option if the farmer is interested in continuing
the farm operation. If this is not the goal of the farmer, then liquidation (no continuation of operation) filing may provide a faster process.
## Eligibility Requirements of Chapter 12
Not all agricultural operations can file Chapter 12 bankruptcy due to several restrictions. To be eligible for Chapter 12, the following criteria must be met:
- · The individual or individual and spouse must be engaged in a farming or commercial fishing operation.
- · Total debts must not exceed $11,097,350 (if a family farmer) or $2,268,550 (if a family fisherman) if filing in 2023.
- · If a family farmer, at least 50 percent, and, if a family fisherman, at least 80 percent of the total debts that are fixed in amount must arise out of a farming or commercial fishing operation.
- · More than 50 percent of the gross income of the individual or the individual and spouse for the preceding tax year (or, for family farmers only, for each of the second and third prior tax years) must have come from the farming or commercial fishing operation.
## Number of Chapter 12 Filings in Mississippi
In Mississippi, Chapter 12 filings have been low and decreasing since 2001 (Figure 1). Since 2000, Chapter 12 filings have represented less than 0.5 percent of all bankruptcy filings in most years, suggesting possible underutilization of Chapter 12 in the state.
| Years | Number of Chapter 12 Filings |
|---------|--------------------------------|
| 2001 | 5 |
| | |
| Years | Number of Chapter 12 Filings |
|---------|--------------------------------|
| 2002 | 8 |
| 2003 | 33 |
| 2004 | 2 |
| 2005 | 10 |
| 2006 | 16 |
| 2007 | 10 |
| 2008 | 4 |
| 2009 | 6 |
| 2010 | 19 |
| 2011 | 7 |
| 2012 | 5 |
| 2013 | 4 |
| 2014 | 3 |
| 2015 | 4 |
| Years | Number of Chapter 12 Filings |
|---------|--------------------------------|
| 2016 | 10 |
| 2017 | 5 |
| 2018 | 7 |
| 2019 | 6 |
| 2020 | 10 |
| 2021 | 1 |
| 2022 | 1 |
## Overview of Chapter 12 Filing Process
Here, we provide a broad overview of the Chapter 12 filing process in Mississippi. Again, the purpose of the publication is to introduce some of the basics of Chapter 12 relative to other bankruptcy chapters, not to give specific legal recommendations.
To file Chapter 12 in Mississippi, a debtor must pay a $200 filing fee and a $78 administrative fee. The debtor must file a petition with the bankruptcy court serving the area where their business operates or they reside.
Usually, the debtor will have to compile the following information:
- 1. a list of assets and liabilities
- 2. a schedule of current income and expenditures
- 3. a schedule of executory contracts and unexpired leases
- 4. a statement of financial affairs to the court
- 5. a list of all creditors, amounts, and nature of their claims
- 6. the source, amount, and frequency of the debtor's income
- 7. a list of all the debtor's properties
- 8. a detailed list of the debtor's monthly farming and living expenses
Items 5 through 8 are required in the official bankruptcy forms of petition. Once the petition is filed, an impartial trustee is appointed to administer the case. Filing the petition under Chapter 12 automatically stops most debt collection attempts by creditors.
Between 21 to 35 days after the petition is filed, the Chapter 12 trustee will hold a "meeting of creditors." During the meeting, the trustee puts the debtor under oath, and both the trustee and creditors may ask questions. The debtor must attend the meeting and answer questions regarding the current financial affairs of their business and the proposed repayment plan. Normally, a debtor must file a repayment plan with the petition or within 90 days after filing the petition. The plan should provide information on the fixed payments to the trustee on a regular basis over the next 3 to 5 years.
The debtor will receive a discharge after completing all payments under the Chapter 12 plan. The court may grant a "hardship discharge" --discharge of debts without plan completion-to a debtor even though the debtor has failed to complete plan payments. Generally, a hardship discharge is available only to a debtor whose failure to complete plan payments is due to circumstances beyond the debtor's control and through no fault of the debtor.
Again, it should be noted that a person interested in filing Chapter 12 bankruptcy should consult with a lawyer for any legal advice. To avoid financial distress and make a proper plan, please refer to other Mississippi State University Extension publications including the Farm Financial Analysis Series. Other useful sources on bankruptcy include:
- · U.S. Court Bankruptcy Basics
- · Southern District of Mississippi Bankruptcy Basics
The information given here is for educational purposes only. References to commercial products, trade names, or suppliers are made with the understanding that no endorsement is implied and that no discrimination against other products or suppliers is intended.
## Publication 3956 (POD-11-23)
By Kevin N. Kim, PhD, Assistant Professor and Brian E. Mills, PhD, Assistant Professor, Agricultural Economics.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
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| Authors | Dr. Kevin Nooree Kim |
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## Dr. Dominga Elizabeth Canales Medina
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/roxie-retail-analysis | Roxie Retail Analysis | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Roxie Retail Analysis
## Roxie Retail Analysis
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under: Economic Development
Publication Number: P2945-234
View as PDF: P2945-234.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Franklin County
Print PDF
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
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Extension Professor
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Talking Retail Trade |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/landscaping/planting-establishing-woody-landscape-plants/ | Planting & Establishing Woody Landscape Plants | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Kerry Smith",
"Tony Glover",
"Jennifer Derrow"
] | 2023-05-01 | [
"Landscaping",
"Horticulture",
"Gardening"
] | AL | Learn eight steps to ensure healthy and thriving plants-from analyzing the site and choosing the right plants to mulching and watering. Included are an irrigation schedule geared to the size of tree trunks and tips for pruning and staking.
Successful establishment of woody landscape plants involves a balance of soil, air, and soil moisture.
- · Take advantage of dormancy and the rainy season. Plant in fall or winter.
- Analyze the site. Place plants based on mature size.
- Match the right plant to its best-suited environment.
- Prepare the site. Healthy soil grows healthy plants.
- Plant correctly. Consider the type of stock, planting hole depth and width, and mulch.
- Water properly and every day for several weeks.
- Stake and prune if needed.
## Success from the Start
## Cookie Notice
Several plants are too big for the area where planted.
## Several preliminary steps can help ensure healthy, thriving plants, but the most important step involves the soil-healthy roots need a mix of soil, air, moisture, and nutrients. If this part is done right, other mistakes may still allow for a healthy plant. But if you neglect the soil, other air, moisture does correctly cannot remedy a weak root system. Unhealthy roots lead to unhealthy plants.
Fall and winter planting is a simple, yet often ignored, technique to increase successful establishment. Water is critical for any new planting and is easier to manage in the cool fall and rainy winter seasons. Because trees and shrubs are dormant in this season, they need less water than they need in the growing seasons.
To grow plants that thrive instead of just survive, follow these eight steps to success.
## Step 1. Analyze the Site
Site analysis matches the plants suited for the light, wind exposure, available growing space, and soil conditions that exist on site. A good rule to follow is Don't fight the site. In other words, choose the right plant for the site you have.
If you choose an azalea, but the site has poorly drained soil, the azalea will likely die unless you improve the drainage. Build a berm or raised bed to position the plant above the poorly drained soil.
Plant location is also defined by the space available for plant growth. Avoid planting a large growing tree directly under a utility line. Do not plant larger growing shrubs 3 feet apart or 2 feet from your home's foundation. Plants with plenty of space grow better and have fewer pest problems.
A soil test and report complete the site analysis and guide you to make needed adjustments in soil pH and fertility. Soil pH is important to growing healthy plants and plant roots. The Auburn University Soil, Forage & Water Testing Laboratory offers an inexpensive soil test. See www.aces.edu/solistet.
The AU Soil, Forage & Water Testing Laboratory has online calculators to help you determine the right amount of fertilizer based on your soil test results. See www.aces.edu/solitest. Choose Calculators .
## Step 2. Choose the Right Plant
Closely related to site analysis is plant choice. Pant OK requirements can differ widely among species, and iswiess spend time researching the needs of the plants. Choosing the right plant minimizes future problems and maintenance requirements. Once well-chosen plants are established, most require little supplemental water, fertilizer, or pesticide.
If you have high-maintenance plant, it's a good indication that we require regular, supplemental watering, pest management, and other maintenance considerations, at least you know their needs ahead of time. It's wise to limit these finely plants to select areas you are willing and able to maintain.
If you want to grow hybrid tea roses, you should know in advance that they require specially prepared, deep, well-drained soil. Hybrid tea roses also need supplemental irrigation, regular pest management, and frequent pruning. Know your plants and match them to your expected gardening activities.
Seek additional information beyond what is provided on the plant tag. A plant tag may indicate full sun, but that plant may perform quite well, and possibly better, with partial shade when grown in a hot Alabama summer. Another tag may indicate that the plant needs moist soils, but your soil may have periods of excessive moisture. You need to know if the plant can withstand only occasional or frequently flooded soils.
## Step 3. Prepare the Site
Soil preparation may involve adding additional topsoil if the existing topsoil is poor or nonexistent. When mixing organic matter into a planting, imagine the full area that the plant's roots will eventually occupy. If altering the upper soil layer, add the soil test recommended nutrients (ferritizers) or pH adjustment (domolic lime) or if both, add at the same time.
It is never a good idea to dig individual holes and backfill with organmitter or with another soil having a contrasting texture or water-holding capacity compared to the native soil. Either way, it is difficult to regulate and maintain the correct mix of air and water when one isolated area (the planting hole) has sharply different soil from the surrounding native soil type.
If the soil you have is poorly drained, adding organic matter to an individual planting hole causes water to move in easily, but it then drains out of the planting hole very slowly. On the other hand, if the soil has good clay content and drains well, the isolated organic material dries out faster than the surrounding native soil.
Adding organic matter increases the water- and nutrient- holding capacity if your soil is very sandy or sandy loam. Always use well-composted organic matter and add to a broad area. It is not necessary to be exact. Adding organic amendments to any expanse of poor soil is better than none. Using 2 to 4 inches of compost tilled into the upper 6 to 8 inches of soil is ideal.
## Step 4. Plant Properly
Trees and shrubs can be bought as container grown, field dug, or bare root. Each type of plant stock is handled and planted differently. Regardless of the plant type, it is always best to digest shallow and wide planting holes and to plant at the proper depth.
Horticulturists agree that it is better to plant too high than too deep. As such notice notes should be slightly above or level with the original soil grade. Pulling loose soil above the exposed lateral roots prevents drying out but allows for sufficient moisture and oxygen. See "A Well-made plianting" .
Bare-root plants should be carefully handled, keeping the roots moist before planting. Dig the planting hole just deep enough to accommodate the roots. Create a mound in the middle, set the plant at the top, and spread out the roots. Gradually backfill with loosened native soil. Water the soil as you add the backfill to get good soil-to-root contact. Firm up, but do not pack, the soil around the root system. Bare-root transplants require close attention to water needs because the root system is often very small; many roots are potentially lost in the digging and shipping process. Because the plants are normally small, however, they often establish quickly and perform well with fall planting.
Container-grown plants have the advantage of larger, intact root systems but present other concerns. Most container-plant nurseries use a solless media comprised mostly of pine bark or similar organic matter. This provides a good environment for root growth while in the containers, but it is not a good environment when isolated in the new planting hole. Before removing plants from the container, water them thoroughly. After allowing time for water absorption, remove plants from the container and spread out the root system in one of two methods.
- (1) Use a sharp knife and make 3 or 4 scoring cuts lengthwise and about 1/2 inch deep into the root ball. This type of root pruning cuts circling roots, stimulates root branching, and allows you to untangle and spread out thick root systems laterally.
(2) If the plant is not pot bound (excessive circling roots), simply wash the solless media away from the root ball and plant the nearly bare-root plant as described above. Removing as much of the loose media as possible allows for better root to-soil contact and makes water management easier.
Field Bulging in the ground and water zone buried plants. The plants are much heavier than containergrown plants and may require specialized equipment for handling. Avoid damaging the trunk or limbs and never lift one by its trunk. If plants are not planted immediately after delivery, store them in a shady location where the root ball can be watered as needed. If it is winter and extreme cold is predicted, insulate the roots with a thick mound of mulch or a blanket to avoid freezing. Avoid storing B&B stock from more than a week.
## Step 5. Size the Planting Hole (B&B Stock)
Locate the topmost lateral root by washing away just enough soil to expose it. Measure the root ball depth from the top lateral root. Prepare the planting site by digging a hole at least twice the width of the root ball to allow for rapid lateral root growth. Allow room for removing the wrapping or wire. The depth of the planting hole should be no deeper than the height of the root ball. If concerned about settling, dig the hole 2 to 4 inches less than the root ball height.
Once the root ball is in place, remove any rope, string, and wrapping. B&B plants are usually wrapped in burlap or maybe a synthetic burlap-like material. Remove as much of the material as possible after the plant is in the planting hole and before adding the backfill. Cut away the wrapping near the bottom of the root ball or peel it away from the root ball and leave it in the planting hole bottom.
## Preparing the root ball for planting is an opportune time to remove circling roots that can girdle the plant trunk in the future. If such roots exist, cut them back near the trunk.
Larger B&B plants may have a wire basket to provide easier handling and security for the root ball. Leave the wire intact until the plant is placed in the planting hole. Once in place, either bend the top row of wires down into the hole or remove this top row entirely with bolt cutters. Although the wire basket weave has large spaces, the wire can interfere with the expansion of larger tree roots in later years.
When the plant is in the final position, backfill with the loosened native soil to half the planting depth and water thoroughly. Finish backfilling and water again. Firm up, but do not pack the soil to remove air pockets and to help keep the soil close from easily washing away. Avoid excess soil over the root ball at planting and only cover exposed roots. Deep planting kills trees.
Planting on sloping land may require you to build a small dike around the rooting area on the down slope side to slow the water flow and reduce runoff and soil erosion. This is less critical if you are using drip irrigation or some slow method of water delivery.
## Step 6. Create Mulch and Water Zone
Build a low (2 to 3 inches tall) circular berm of soil to hold water where it is needed and mulch the berm for stability. Just to the outside of the berm, add a 3-inch-deep surface layer of mulch in a circular size roughly 2 to 3 feet in diameter per each inch of trunk diameter (measured at ground level). You can add a very little layer of mulch over the root ball itself but so for aesthetic purposes only. Deep mulch layers in this zone interfere with water moving to the vulnerable re-establishing root system. Remove the circular berm after 3 or 4 months.
Mulch rings are important for both the establishment period and long-term health of the tree or shrub. They provide a barrier between turf and trunk, reducing the chance of injury from a mower or string trimmer and an area of reduced plant competition (weeds and turf) for water and nutrients. The ideal mulched area should enlarge as the plant continues to spread and extend past the limb spread.
The shadiness underneath a tree is a poor environment for turf to grow, so a large, mulched area solves two problems.
## Step 7. Water Properly
Current research shows that new transplants establish quickest with light and frequent irrigation.
Irrigate every day if transplanting in the warmer seasons and every other day if planting in the cooler seasons. Use 2 gallons of water per inch of true diamond diameter. This regular schedule is important and should continue for several months. Avoid supplemental watering when the soil is saturated and use a watering method that allows all the water to soak into the newly planted root ball. Use a spade or trowel to investigate soil moisture.
If planted in a spring followed by a droughty summer, the water regime should start again the following spring as leaves appear. Continue this regime through the second summer.
If a tree trunk is 2 inches in diameter, water with 4 to 6 gallons each time you water buckets punched with a few holes and placed on opposite sides work well, or find commercially available water bags. Irrigate daily for 1 month, then every other day for 3 months, and then weekly until established. Shift the watering zone away from the original root ball by 6 inches every 2 to 4 weeks.
When a plant survives having little or no supplemental irrigation, it is considered to be well established. The time for this to occur depends on several factors already discussed. In general, larger plants require more time-up to 16 months for a 2inch diameter tree.
Print "Table 1. Irrigation Schedule for Vigor or Survival" table from our
Apply 2 to 3 gallons per inch of trunk diameter with each watering event.
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( Циїря ./ www.auvuvu.in . считалишіло аційній отражувати усергі технології )
## Download this article as a PDF
- Д ( https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/ANR-0410\_PlantingandEstablishingWoodyPlants\_042523L-G.pdf) Planting & Establishing Woody Landscape Plants . ANR-0410 (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/ANR-
0410\_PlantingandEstablishingWoodyPlants\_042523L-G.pdf) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/northern-harrier/ | Northern Harrier | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Deforrest R. Allgood",
"Mark D. Smith"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Forestry",
"Wildlife",
"Birds of Prey"
] | AL | ## Northern Harrier
'This is an excerpt from Common Birds of Prey of Alabama, ANR - 1386.
Though most raptors hunt from high above, the northern harrier is frequently seen hunting just a few feet above the ground in marshes and grasslands. Commonly referred to as the marsh hawk or sparrow hawk, females of the species are mostly dark brown above with a pale underside barred with dark brown. Males on the other hand, are mostly pale gray above and white below. The characteristic that most easily distinguishes them from other gray raptors are the black wingtips visible from both below and above during flight and a white rump patch.
Read here to learn more about common birds of prey of Alabama.(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/bird-watching/common-birds-ofprey-of-alabama/)
Download a PDF of Common Birds of Prey of Alabama,ANR - 1386,( https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR1386\_BirdsofPrey\_092120L\_A.pdf)
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Common Birds of Prey of Alabama ( https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/common-birdsof-prey-of-alabama/) Sep 20, 2018
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https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1980/80-38.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20090306102358-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Roughage-
## Concentrate Associative Effects
R.G. Teeter, F.N. Owens J.E. Williams and Wendy Benton
## Story in Brief
Seven mature ruminally cannulated steers (1220 lb) were limit fed whole shelled corn at about 1.2 percent of body weight. Cottonseed hulls or chopped alfalfa hay was added to the corn to form 40 percent roughage supplemented rations. Cottonseed hull addition reduced fecal starch by 85 percent, starch output in feces per day 54 percent and increased starch digestibility from 91.7 to 96.2 percent over the 0 roughage treatment. Alfalfa hay addition reduced fecal starch 20 percent but increased starch output per day by 219 percent. Added alfalfa hay lowered starch digestibility to 82.4 percent. Starch disappearance from nylon bags suspended in the rumen of steers fed the various rations was 150 percent faster for steers fed alfalfa hay than those fed corn alone and 128 percent faster than the cottonseed hull-feed steers. Results suggest that roughes differ in their effects upon rate and extent of starch digestion.
## Introduction
Roughages are included in feedlot rations to supply bulk to aid in prevention of acidosis and to enhance palatability. Many workers have examined roughage to concentrate ratio effects on animal performance. These studies usually have replaced grain by forage and decreased concentrate intake. The objective of this study was to determine if starch digestibility of a whole shelled corn ration is altered by either cottonseed hulls or chopped alfalfa hay addition while corn intake is held constant.
## Materials and Methods
Seven mature mixed cross steers were allotted to three treatments: 1) whole shelled corn (WSC), 2) WSC plus 40 percent cottonseed hulls and 3) WSC plus 40 percent chopped alfalfa hay. Each steer was assigned an intake of WSC and supplement (Table 1) at approximately 1.2 percent of body weight. WSC intake remained constant with roughage addition. Steers were rotated among rations for the three periods.
To examine digestion in the rumen alone, four particle sizes of corn were placed in nylon bags and suspended in the rumen of steers fed the three diets to digest. Particles consisted ofwhole corn grain, scratched whole kernel grain, corn grain ground through 6-mm screen or ground through 3-mm screen. Nylon bags were removed at 1.5, 3, 6, 12, 24 and 48 hours of digestion in the rumen to estimate rate of starch digestion. The starch digestion rate was calculated using the linear portion of the digestion curve after correction for undigested material washing through the bag.
## Results and Discussion
Results demonstrate a large effect of added roughage (Table 2). Fecal starch was reduced by 84.7 percent with addition of cottonseed hulls and 20.0 percent by added alfalfa. Part of this is due to increased fecal output. Total loss of starch in feces was higher with the alfalfa supplemented than the whole shed corn ration alone. Cottonseed hull addition reduced starch loss in the feces. Starch digestibility with cottonseed hulls was over 96 percent, compared with 82 percent for the alfalfa supplemented ration.
Nylon bags containing whole corn, scratched corn or corn ground through a 6-or 3-mm screen were ruminally incubated (Table 3). Results suggest that roughage source at the 6- and 3-mm screen sizes and corn grinding effect rate of starch disap-
| | Basal ration, % |
|---------------------|-------------------|
| Corn grain | 96.6 |
| Urea | 0.74 |
| Dicalcium phosphate | 2.03 |
| KC1 | 0.61 |
| Vitamin D | + |
| Vitamin A | + |
| | Roughage | Roughage |
|--------------------------|------------|-------------|
| | Basal + | Basal + |
| | 40% CSH | 40% alfalfa |
| Fecal dry matter, % | 32.6a | 28.8a |
| Fecal dry matter, kg/day | 1.2a | 3.7b |
| Fecal starch, % | 25.5a | 3.9b |
| Starch output, kg/day | 0.36a | 0.17b |
| Starch digestibility, % | 91.7a | 96.2b |
| | Ration | Ration |
|-----------|----------|-------------|
| | Basal + | Basal + |
| | 40% CSH | 40% alfalfa |
| Whole | 0.06 | 0.06 |
| Scratched | 0.09 | 0.08 |
| 6 mm | 0.93 | 1.21 |
| 3 mm | 1.42 | 1.67 |
. peared. Rate of starch disappearance did not differ between whole or scratched kernels and appeared to be independent of roughage source. Grinding corn through the 6- or 3-mm screens increased rate of starch disappearance markedly. Roughage addition to the ration increased starch disappearance with the greatest effect from alfalfa hay. This is opposite what might have been expected from the digestion study. Therefore, roughage must have effects beyond that on rate of digestion in the rumen. These may include e/ects on rumination (chewing and extent and rate of particle size reduction) and on time for digestion in the rumen or intestines. Although the reasons why roughages differ in their effect on starch digestion are unclear, results suggest that the type of roughage chosen with whole shelled corn rations may drastically alter digestibility of starch by mature cattle. | |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/bristly-roseslug | Bristly Roseslug | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker"
] | null | [
"Entomology",
"Pdic",
"Caterpillar"
] | NC | ## Bristly Roseslug
PDIC Factsheets
## Description and Biology
The accidentally introduced bristly roseslug, Cladius difformis , is called "bristly" because the larvae have bristly-like setae that protrude along the sides and back. These caterpillars are very small, and the setae are not noticeable without magnification. Adult bristly roseslug sawflies are black, stout, wasp-like insects about '½ inch long. Female antennae are slender and male antennae are pectinate (somewhat comb-like at the base). Tiny (about 1/32 inch), more or less oval eggs are inserted in the upper surface of the petiole of the leaf in rows of three or more. Larvae soon hatch and resemble slender slugs. Bristly roseslug feed on the underside of rose leaves causing leaves to appear skeletonized. Older larvae chew large holes and also notch the leaf margins. The larvae are about ½ inch up to ¾ inch long when full-grown and yellow-green with an orange head. When fully grown, they spin a cocoon on the host plant or eventually fall on the soil surface to spin a cocoon and pupate. Bristly roseslugs overwinter as pupae in earthen cells. Unlike the common or American rolesslug sawfly ( Endelomyia aestihops ), which has only one generation per year or the less common curled roseslug ( Allanthus cinctus ), which has two generations per year, the bristly roseslug has multiple generations each year.
Bristly roseslug sawflies are small, dark, thick-waisted wasps.
## Host Plants
Wild and cultivated roses and spirea are hosts listed for the bristly roseslug . Young caterpillars feed as leaf skeletonizers on the lower leaf surfaces. The epidermis on the upper leaf surface becomes a white spot that eventually drops out, leaving a hole. Older bristly roseslugs feed between the main veins and chew holes in leaves. Because it is a larger insect than the other two roseslugs and because it has multiple generations per year, the bristly roseslug can be quire damaging.
This is a good time to treat for bristly rose caterpillars before they have done a bunch of damage.
## Residential Recommendations
Look for transparent spots on roseleaves caused by the young bristly roseslug on the under surface. Small infestations can be removed by hand and dropped into soapy water. Spraying infested roses with a garden hose should dislodge and injure sawfly larvae. Most insecticides labeled for residential landscape use are effective except those based on the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel or Thuricide). It is not a good idea to spray open flowers because bees and other pollinators will be killed. Try to direct any spray upward to the lower leaf surface where the bristly roseslugs are feeding.
## Other Resources
- · Bristly Roseslugs Continue to Cause Damage. Boggs, J. 2016. Bug Bytes, The Ohio State University Extension.
- · Rose Sawflies: Out With a Vengeance! Cloyd, R. 2021 (updated). Extension Entomology, Kansas State University.
- · Rose sawflies (roseslugs)-Allanthus cinctus , Claudius difforms , and Endolomyia aethiops . Anonymous. No Date. Pests in Gardens and Landscapes, UC IPM, Statewide IPM Program.
- · Roseslug. Rosetta, R. L. (2016 latest). Extension Nursery IPM, Dept. of Horticulture, Oregon State University.
- · The Rose Slugs . Chittenden, F. H. 1908. Circular No. 105. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology.
For assistance with a specific problem, contact your local Cooperative Extension center.
## This factsheet has not been peer reviewed.
## Author
## James Baker
Professor Emeritus Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: May 22, 2021
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/specialty-cover-crops-soils/managing-a-cover-crop/ | Managing a Cover Crop | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Audrey Gamble"
] | 2018-07-30 | [
"Cover Crops",
"Farming",
"Healthy Soils"
] | AL | Careful management is essential to maximize benefits from a cover crop. This is no different from the care and intensive management farmers in invest cash crops. Planting quality seed at recommended rates and depths to ensure adequate biomass levels. Consider the planting date, as it is critical for proper development. Plant winter covers at least 2 to 4 weeks before the average killing frost. Plant summer covers when soil temperatures are suitable and moisture is in the forecast.
In order to maximize biomass production for cover crops, maintaining soil fertility is important. Maintain potassium and phosphorus according to soil test recommendations. For cereal cover crops, supplemental nitrogen may be recommended.
## Cookie Notice |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/sarasotaco/2021/11/19/grocery-shopping-for-your-health-poultry/ | Grocery Shopping for Your Health: Poultry | University of Florida | [] | 2021-11-19 | [
"Food Safety",
"Health & Nutrition",
"Money Matters",
"Work & Life",
"chicken",
"FIN",
"food",
"Groceries",
"grocery",
"GroceryShoppingForYourHealth",
"health",
"Money",
"Nutrition",
"Pgm_FCS",
"poultry",
"save",
"saving",
"shop",
"shopping",
"turkey"
] | FL | ## Grocery Shopping for Your Health: Poultry
In our last post in the "Grocery Shopping for Your Health" series, we focused on the home pantry. Today, we trek back to the store, hitting the poultry area to talk turkey (and chicken and more).
In the poultry area, you will find more than just chicken and turkey. Here you can also find duck, goose, Cornish hens and even qual it at some stores and markets. You can find poultry as fresh or frozen products, ground or whole, cooked or uncooked, in bulk or portions, pre-packaged and more.
Whatever your preference, you can pretty much find it in the poultry area.
And you can generally find healthy, economical optionspoultry products generally are economical purchases, with chicken and turkey high in protein, (usually) very lean, and providing healthy options.
As with everything, there are caveats.
Though generally lean, you can further reduce the fat content of poultry by using white-meat cuts, such as the chicken or turkey breast, rather than thighs, legs or other dark-meat pieces. Removing the skin also trims the fat content. And, roasting these cuts with minimal or no oil added keeps the fat levels at a minimum.
Check the nutrition facts label for sodium content, too. Uncooked poultry might be injected with a saltwater solution to keep the cut moist during cooking, add flavor, and tenderize the meat. Make sure to read the label, if sodium levels are a concern.
If ground meat is on your shopping list, you might try to swap it out for ground turkey or ground chicken. Again, remember that if the ground turkey is combined with the dark meat and skin, it will have a higher fat content. Check the nutritional facts label on the product to make the comparison.
A shopper grabs a whole, frozen chicken from a display case at a grocery store. [CREDIT: UF/IFAS, Tyler Jones]
the most recent date. This is important whether you are buying prepackaged, prepared poultry, or a fresh or frozen product.
Next, look for meaty birds that have a creamy-to-yellow skin color, with no torn or dry looking skin. The skin should be free of bruising, should not have any tiny feathers and the packaging should be intact with no holes.
As Thanksgiving is approaching, you might consider purchasing a whole turkey. And you're likely to find a wide range of options in the grocery store, including the "self-basting" bird. But, what is a "selfbasting" turkey?
Simply, self-basting turkeys have been injected with a fat-andsodium solution to keep the turkey moist and add extra flavor. But, that adds, well, fat and sodium, which can be problem for anyone watching their diet. For a healthier option, consider purchasing a bird that is not self-basting and baste the turkey yourself, with a broth of your choosing or just the juices released by the turkey during cooking.
Remember, too, that roasting any whole bird with the breast side up helps keep the meat moist(er).
## Thanksgiving turkey
We'd be remiss if we didn't discuss the Thanksgiving turkey before we leave this blog. Many of us will buy a frozen turkey as we plan and prepare for the big holiday meal. If that includes you, keep in mind that you can store a frozen turkey for up to a year in your freezer without losing quality, and you should only thaw it if you are ready to cook.
On that note, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) notes three ways to safely thaw a turkey:
- · Refrigerator : Thaw your turkey in the refrigerator, which should be set between 35 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Keep the turkey in its original wrapping, and place the turkey in a dish so that it will catch any juices that may leak from the wrapped bird. Depending on the weight of the bird, it may take several days to thaw in your refrigerator, so plan ahead. As a rule of thumb, you
PROTIP Keep your poultry dish moist by cooking it breast side up.
will need 1 day of thawing for every 4 to 5 pounds of bird. So, for example, a 15-pound turkey would need at least three days to thaw. Cook your turkey within two days of thawing.
- · Cold water : Submerging a frozen turkey in cold water will thaw the bird more quickly than the refrigerator method. Keep the turkey in its original wrapping, and submerge the package into cold water in a sink or other container, making sure to change the water every 30 minutes (with fresh, cold water). Be careful that juices don't leak into the water during thawing. When thawing turkey this way, allow approximately 30 minutes per pound. Cook the turkey immediately after it is thawed to avoid foodborne illnesses, and do not freeze the meat.
- · Microwave : This is the quickest option, but be sure your turkey will fit into your microwave before you make plans to thaw your bird this way. Remove all of the outside wrapping from the bird and place it in a microwave-safe dish, to catch juices, before placing it into your microwave. Check your microwave operating manual for the proper power level/setting and approximate minutes-per-pound to thaw. Allow for 6 minutes per pound, as a general rule. After this thawing process is complete, you will need to cook your turkey immediately to avoid any foodborne illness.
For more information on how to safely thaw your turkey, go to my blog, 'How to SafelyThawA Turkey' (Nov. 12, 2018).
## Thanksgiving food safety
And, while we're talking about Thanksgiving, keep these food safety tips in mind:
- · Don't leave cooked or re-heated dinner or food items sit out at room temperature for more than two hours. It's important to refrigerate your leftovers promptly to avoid foodborne illnesses.
- · Divide your leftovers into smaller portions and refrigerate or freeze in a covered shallow dish, to help speed the cooling process.
- · Enjoy the leftover, refrigerated turkey, stuffing and gravy within 3 to 4 days.
o
by Maria Portelos-Rometto
Posted: November 19, 2021
Category: Food Safety, Health & Nutrition, Money Matters, Work&
Life
Tags: Chicken, EIN, Food, Groceries, Grocery,
GroceryShoppingForYourHealth, Health, Money, Nutrition,
Pqm FCS, Poultry, Save, Saying, Shop, Shopping, Turkey
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · The Danger Zone: How Food Becomes Unsafe
- · Florida Seafood At Your Fingertips LIVE: Grilled Mahi-Mahi Wrapped In Banana Leaves
- · Estudio De Mitigación De La Marea Roja: Tendremos Resultados Pronto
- · Sarasota County's Natural Areas Story Map Brings Nature To You |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-h/what-is-4-h/ | About 4-H | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Molly Gregg"
] | 2018-09-27 | [
"4-H",
"Youth Development",
"Community Engagement"
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margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-5114 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-48681797"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
$('#aces-primary-search-q').val($('#aces-primary-search-s').val());
});
});
</script>
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-h/what-is-4-h/"></div><p>4-H is the nation’s largest youth development organization. The idea of 4-H is simple: help young people and their families gain the skills needed to be a proactive force in their communities and to develop ideas for a more innovative world. 4-H empowers youth to reach their full potential by working and learning in partnership with caring adults.</p>
<p>Alabama 4-H provides meaningful opportunities for all youth and adults to work together to create sustainable community change. This is accomplished within three primary content areas–civic engagement and leadership, healthy living, and science. These areas also reiterate the founding purpose of Extension through agriculture (e.g., community leadership, quality of life, and technology transfer) in the context of twenty-first century challenges and opportunities.</p>
<h1>What does 4-H provide?</h1>
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<li><strong>A place to belong</strong>. 4-H provides a positive relationship with a caring adult and a safe environment where everyone feels included.</li>
<li><strong>An opportunity to practice independence</strong>. Youth have an opportunity to feel they have control over their future, they can pursue their own interests and abilities, and make their own choices.</li>
<li><strong>A place to engage in generosity</strong>. Youth have an opportunity to value and practice service for others, and learn they can make a difference.</li>
<li><strong>A safe place to take risks and discover mastery</strong>. Youth are involved in the learning process and have an opportunity to master skills.</li>
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<h1>4-H members are…</h1>
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<li>4X more likely to contribute back to their communities</li>
<li>2X more likely to be civically active</li>
<li>2X more likely to participate in STEM programs outside of school</li>
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<p><em>Tufts University, 2010</em></p>
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/needs-assessment-step-step-through-practical-examples | Needs Assessment: Step-by-Step Through Practical Examples | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Warner Creekmore",
"Nesma Osman"
] | null | [
"Research and Extension Centers",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Needs Assessment: Step-by-Step Through Practical Examples
## Needs Assessment: Step-by-Step Through Practical Examples
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Research and Extension Centers |
|---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3983 | |
Through Extension, we aim to improve people's lives by responding to their needs through research and education-based efforts. The first step in offering effective and efficient educational programs that address people's needs is identifying and prioritizing the community's needs, which we call a needs assessment. A needs assessment allows you to construct a more objective picture of needs than you would receive depending on one person's perspective. As Extension professionals (agents and specialists), a needs assessment is crucial for informing your educational program decisions and enhancing their effectiveness and value.
4
5
6
7
## Needs Assessment Step-by-Step
- 1. Clarify the reasons for conducting the needs assessment.
Outline the purpose and planned use of the results.
## Example
The purpose of conducting a needs assessment is to identify topics for 4-H programs and activities. The results will be used to determine the three programs that will be implemented during summer break.
## Keep in mind!
- What is the purpose?
- What do you aim to accomplish?
- Who will use the results?
- Identify the individuals who play a significant role before, during, and after conducting the needs assessment.
Identify individuals who: a) share their perspectives on current issues; b) hold decision-making power; c) assist in prioritizing the gathered needs; d) aid in reaching out to the community or target audience and share the findings from the assessment; and e) communicate results to key stakeholders.
## Example
Create a list of individuals, sponsors, administrators, interest groups (Farm Bureau, CREATE Foundation, United Way, or the Minority Farmers Alliance), and the county advisory board. These groups or individuals need to be included because they can share their perspectives on current situations, communicate the results of the assessments, directly influence the community's priorities, and be part of the decision-making process.
## Keep in mind!
- Identify the stakeholders.
- Build your networks.
- Reach out to your community.
## Gather existing information to decide if a needs assessment is warranted.
Understand the history of the problem and what information/data already exists in your county by seeking expert advice, visiting the area (if possible), establishing local contacts, and building community relations (attending local events and town hall meetings, partnering with local organizations, forming an advisory council, etc.).
## Example
Consider attending a community event such as a farmers market; observe the participants, meet people, and collect information from as many individuals as possible.
## Keep in mind!
4. Identify secondary data (what is known) and pinpoint what you still want to know.
Secondary data will give you a quick sense of what is going on in your community.
## Example
Agriculture and natural resources agents rely on county data from the Agricultural Census, where data such as age, race, and sex are listed for all the counties in Mississippi. The Agricultural Census is a helpful source for assessing needs in your county. However, primary data should be collected directly from those individuals connected to the community problems, ranging from clients and advisory groups to opinion leaders, to enhance an understanding of community needs. Example sources of secondary data include the following:
- · Kids Count
- · U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
- · Census of Agriculture
- · U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
- · National Center for Education Statistics
- · Food and Nutrition Information Center
- · USDA Economic Research Service
- · Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- · Mississippi State University Extension Service
- · National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
- · Mississippi Department of Education
- · United States Department of the Interior
- · Mississippi State Department of Health
- · World Factbook
- · Mississippi Department of Agriculture and Commerce
- · Health and nutrition statistics
- · Local and regional media reports that have stories that impact your communities
- · Regional and county level data at local libraries or chambers of commerce
## Keep in mind!
- Using a mix of primary and secondary sources provides a rich and comprehensive assessment. · Secondary data provide detailed information from a large sample size that would be difficult and unrealistic for you to collect independently. They also provide information over several years, helping to identify trends.
- It is important to look at county-level statistics and not just statewide data because each county might have hidden issues.
## 5. Determine the data-collection technique to gather the needed data.
Choose methods that help discover more specific issues and gain different perspectives from various sources.
## Example
Use techniques you are comfortable with and that are applicable to the target audience. An older population may prefer a written survey or an interview, while a younger population may prefer an online survey using a QR code. The information you are attempting to gather may also determine the
method. A roundtable discussion may be more successful for Extension agents when collecting data from their advisory council. A roundtable discussion is a more personal method of gathering data, helping to establish group relationships.
## Keep in mind
- · A needs assessment must consist of several methods. Looking at only one dataset will not accurately reflect what is happening in a community.
- · Many methods can be used to gather data, including individual methods (surveys and key informant interviews) and group methods (focus groups, advisory committees, and the Delphi method). The key is to be aware of the pros and cons of each technique to ensure their effective use.
## 6. Analyze the data you collected and prioritize needs .
Analyzing data means breaking down the collected information to identify key findings, areas of agreement or disagreement, and agreed-upon conclusions about the identified needs. Sorting and prioritizing needs means organizing and ranking each identified need and determining which ones to address first.
## Keep in mind!
- · Participants in the prioritization process should include volunteer staff, community leaders, legislative leaders, and representatives of funding organizations.
- · Establish and develop criteria to evaluate each issue, and then determine the priority issue (e.g., using propriety, economics, acceptability, resources, and legality-the PEARL test).
- 7. Use the data to set program priorities, create an action plan to address the needs, and share the results.
## Example
According to a review of secondary data, beekeeping is a growing industry in Lee County, Mississippi. County residents also reported that it is a growing hobby and expressed interest in both beginner and advanced beekeeping. To address and identify the needs of Lee County residents, we planned two different beekeeping workshops. We created priorities related to beekeeping topics of interest and implemented a program to address them. We selected speakers based on the education necessary for each group, chose dates for each workshop, made promotional materials, ordered complementary publications for the topic, and secured a location at the back of our office. After promoting the workshops, we waited for individuals to sign up, effectively putting our plan into action.
## Keep in mind!
- · A needs assessment is only completed once the results are shared and used.
- · Create an action plan, accept that plans may change, and be prepared to adapt and modify the action plan as needed.
- · There are several ways to share the results with stakeholders, including a detailed report or executive summary. These could be sent via email or posted on the organization's website for everyone to see.
## Summary
When considering needs assessments in your community, listen closely, be observant, and be diligent. Set your goals and act with enthusiasm. Feel free to ask for help. Including your community increases the likelihood of buy-in regarding the action plan.
## References
Benge, M., & Warner, L. (2019). Conducting a needs assessment #2: Using needs assessments in extension programming .
Caffarella, R. S., & Daffron, S. R.(2013). Planning programs for adult learners: A practical guide ( 3rd ed.) Jossey-Bass.
Israel, G., Harder, A., & Brodeur, C. W.(2021). What is an Extension program? EDIS.
Jimenez-Marty, B. (2018). Community resources: Why use community resources?
Mississippi Department of Agriculture and Commerce. (2023). MississippiAgriculture Snapshot.
United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. (2023). Agriculture and its related industries provide 10.4 percent of U.S. employment.
Publication 3983 (POD-03-24)
By Warner Creekmore, Extension Agent, Lee County, and Nesma Osman, PhD, Assistant Professor, School of Human Sciences.
Department: School of Human Sciences
Print
=
PDF
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/poultry-waste-management/media/summer-2021.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [
"Josh"
] | Error: time data "D:20210604143644-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | The actual value to the end-buyer depends on the nutrient needs of the field. Additionally, the cost of loading, transportation and application will affect the end buyer's total cost and should be considered when comparing the cost and benefits of litter vs.commercial fertilizer.
While keeping those facts in mind, the nutrient value of litter is commonly estimated based on current commercial ferti lizer prices (reported as price/lb nutrient) and the litter nutrient analysis (reported as lbs/ton). For example, if calculating the N, P and K value of litter, we know that on average boiler litter contains 63, 61 and 50 lbs/ton of N, P$\_{2}$O$\_{5 }$ and K$\_{2}$O, respectively.
Using Spring 2021 average prices for commercial N, P2O5 and K$\_{2}$O and assuming long-term availability of 70% for N and 100% for P and K, we can calculate the potential major nutrient value of the litter.
Litter N: $0.554/lb x 62 lbs/ton X 70% availability Litter P: $0.696/lb x 64 lbs/ton =$45.42/ton Litter K: $0.342/lb x 53 lbs/ton =$18.11/ton Liming Value
Total Potential Nutrient Value: $86.92/ton
## For more information:
## extension.okstate.edu/poultrywaste
Great reference site for OSU publications, Oklahoma regulations and the education opportunities available for poultry producers and poultry waste applicators.
## solltesting.okstate.edu
Home of the OSU Soil, Water and Forage Analytical Laboratory, providing soil testing and analysis of animal waste and water samples. Site includes instructions for submitting samples, and the current price list.
## nrcs.usda.gov
Natural Resources Conservation Service site including listing of State Offices, resource guides and program details.
## websollsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov
On-line tool to view aerial photography of your specific location and access soil data, slope and acreage.
## mesonet.org
Constantly updated weather information from 120 automated stations in Oklahoma. Data available includes rainfall amounts, wind speed and temperature.
Okahoma State University, as an equal opportunity employer, complies with all applicable federal and state laws regarding non-discrimination and affirmative action. Oklahoma State University is committed to a policy of equal opportunity for at individuals and does not discriminate based on race, age, sex, color, national origin, marital status, sexual orientation, gender identity, disability, or veteran status with regard to employment, educational programs and activities.
and admission forms. For more information, visit https://iee/okeoal.edta.in issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Director of Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stilwater, Oklahoma This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President for Agricultural Programs and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 0.6 cents per copy. 0621
## Oklahoma Litter Market
Promoting the movement and application of poultry litter in Oklahoma
## Sellers and Service Providers
| Business Name / Contact Name | Contact Telephone | City/ State | Cleaning | Loading | Services Offered | Litter for sale | BMPs, Inc./ Sheri Herron |
|-------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|----------------------------|------------|-----------|---------------------------------------------|-------------------|----------------------------|
| (866) 304-2784 | Farmington, AR | X | X | X | X | X | |
| (620) 515-1162 | Welch, OK | X | X | X | X | X | |
| (918) 962-3650 | Spiro, OK | X | X | X | X | X | |
| (918) 397-5825 | Westville, OK | X | X | X | X | X | |
| Craig County Conservation District | (918) 256-5647 | Vinita, OK | | | (spreader for rent to surrounding counties) | | |
| DAT Farms/ Dave Thiem | (580) 612-1377 | Broken Bow, OK | | | X | | |
| Green Country Poultry Litter, LLC/Austin Butler | (479) 215-7846 | Westville, OK | X | X | X | X | |
| JW Ag Products (jwagproducts@gmailcom) | (918) 636-7505 | Ramona, OK-but will travel | | | X | | |
| Kauffeld Farms Custom Litter Service / Jamie Kauffeld | (479) 228-2206 | West Siloam Springs, OK | X | | X | | |
| Kingcade, Mitchell | (479) 228-1619 | Westville, OK | | X | X | X | |
| Mayes County Conservation District | (918) 825-3673 | Pryor, OK | | | (sprayer and spreadrear for rent) | | |
| Pham, Long | (469) 450-5407 | Garvin, OK | | | X | | |
| Poor's Poultry Services / Shannon Poor | (918) 649-3107 | Cameron, OK | X | X | X | X | |
| Rising Phoenix Farms / Roy Weathers | (479) 283-4379 | Sloam Springs, AR | X | X | X | X | |
| Roquet, Greg | (918) 857-6514 | Duncan, OK | X | X | X | X | |
| Tinney, Raymond | (918) 473-6722 (918) 689-6249 | Checotah, OK | X | X | X | X | |
| Taylor's Shavings / Mike Traylor | (479) 846-3870 | Prairie Grove, AR | X | X | X | X | |
| Unique Farm Services, LLC/Mike Smith | (417) 818-6189 | Rogersville, MO | | | X | | |
| VL Farms, LLC 918vifarms@gmail.com | (918) 207-2176 (Lee) (918) 557-5765 (Toua) | Westville, OK | X | X | X | X | |
| Yates Trucking / John Yates & Tracy Smith | (918) 485-3430 | Wagoner, OK | | X | X | X | |
The Oklahoma Extension Service does not endorse any specific service provider listed. Producers should be diligent when selecting an applicator to ensure that both the land owner and applicator are compliant with all rules and regulations.
******An applicator must have a current poultry waste applicator's license certification with ODAFF*****. If you would like to be listed, please contact Rachel Allen at rachel.allen@okstate.edu or 918-686-7800. The most current list can be found at extension.okstate.edu/poultrywaste . | |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/swsdept/2021/12/15/a-degree-many-years-in-the-making/ | A degree many years in the making | University of Florida | [
"Meredith Oglesby"
] | 2021-12-15 | [
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"EMANR",
"environmental management in agriculture and natural resources",
"graduation",
"Soil and Water Sciences",
"UF Online"
] | FL | ## A degree many years in the making
More than 15 years after starting his bachelor's degree, Jason Coby is graduating with a degree in environmental management in agriculture and natural resources (EMANR). Although Coby encountered a number of obstacles in his educational journey, UF Online provided a way for him to accomplish his goals and become a college graduate.
Coby first set foot on campus at the University of Florida in 2005 on a pre-professional track. His goal was to eventually start a career as an environmental lawyer for the Environmental Protection Agency. For the next five years, Coby experienced a number of challenges related to mental health and substance abuse, compounded by what he admits was his own lack of discipline. Ultimately, he made the decision to leave UF in 2010.
Following a nine-year hiatus from the university, Coby reco nneced with his former advisors, including Susan Curry, senior lecturer in the UF/IFAS soil and water sciences department, and Michael Sisk, soil and water sciences academic advisor. Curry remembered Coby and with additional support from his parents and family, he was able to return to school.
"It's taken a lot of people to help me get back to life," Coby said, recognizing the struggles he has overcome since first starting his undergraduate experience. "I can't thank my advisors enough. They didn't give up on me. I wouldn't be here without them."
His advisors set up a course plan that would allow him to graduate within two years, but Coby's life was no longer near the Gainesville campus. Fortunately, the EMANR degree is one of the majors
available in UF Online. Co by also minored in agriculture and natural resource law.
"Relocating back to Gainesville really wasn't an option," Coby said. "But with UF Online, I have been able to finish what I started while also maintaining my family."
Coby loves spending time outside exploring nearby parks with his two-year-old daughter.
love of exploring the outdoors with his daughter and his interest in previous courses like agricultural risk management. Being an online student allowed Coby to manage his priorities, and the flexible schedule of an online student allowed him to stay ahead on his assignments.
'When I was on campus before, I was a big procrastinator,' Coby said. 'Now I turn my assignments in early and email my teachers for any advice, critiques, or pointers. I make sure I don't get overwhelmed.' And since starting as a UF Online student, Coby has received 11 straight A grades in his courses.
Through his online classes, Coby has made connections with other UF students. In some of his courses, the students will create a group message where students can discuss class topics and ask questions.
"It doesn't really feel like an online situation. It's kind of like if I was there [in Gainesville], I could sit in and I would see the same thing," Coby said.
Living in Boca Raton, Florida, Coby feels the reach of Gator Nation. When he spends his Sundays visiting the sea turtle rescue and aquarium with his daughter, he looks forward to the "Go Gators spirit" among Gator fans as they discuss the football game and other events that week.
"It's definitely a bond between people who went to UF," Coby said. "We all have a connection."
Now, Jason Coby plans to take the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) with plans to obtain a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree. Although Coby's goals may have changed slightly since starting in 2005, he still hopes to find an
Coby needed a degree program that offered balance. His life as a student was in addition to a full-time job and being a dad to his 2-year-old daughter. The EMANR program through UF Online combined his
environmentally-focused career. He has learned to take advantage of the opportunities placed in his life and make the most of these experiences.
"I am proud to be a Florida Gator. This is something I have worked for very long and very hard to get to," Coby said. "I am forever grateful for the opportunity available through UF Online because, without it, I wouldn't be a college graduate."
## O
by Meredith Oglesby
Posted: December 15, 2021
Category: UF/IFAS Teaching
Tags: EMANR, Environmental Management In Agriculture And
Natural Resources, Graduation, Soil And Water Sciences, Uf Online
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Students Present Work At Undergraduate Research Symposium
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- Soil And Water Summer Experience - Paula Sanchez Garzon
- Remembering Peter Nkedi-Kizza, Professor Emeritus |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/ffgs/2020/03/15/covid-19-and-uf-ifas-extension/ | COVID-19 and UF/IFAS Extension | University of Florida | [
"BLOGS.IFAS"
] | 2020-03-15 | [
"4-H & Youth",
"Agribusiness",
"Agriculture",
"Camp",
"Clubs & Volunteers",
"Coasts & Marine",
"Community Volunteers",
"Conservation",
"Crops",
"Curriculum",
"Disaster Preparation",
"Events",
"Farm Management",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Food Safety",
"Forests",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Health & Nutrition",
"Home Landscapes",
"Home Management",
"Horticulture",
"Invasive Species",
"Lawn",
"Livestock",
"Money Matters",
"Natural Resources",
"Pests & Disease",
"Professional Development",
"Recreation",
"Relationships & Family",
"Turf",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"Uncategorized",
"Water",
"Wildlife",
"Work & Life",
"Covid-19",
"Featured Hot Topic",
"Hot Topic"
] | FL | ## COVID-19 and UF/IFAS Extension
Updated 03/15/20
As we continue to monitor COVID-19 in Florida, I wanted to take a moment to update our UF/IFAS Extension community about our current status, best practices and next steps.
The personal health and safety of everyone in the UF/IFAS Extension community is my first concern. Therefore, we're taking every measure to protect your safety while assuring that UF/IFAS Extension continues to serve the people of Florida through this situation.
Know that we have not experienced anything like this in most of our lifetimes. This is a very contagious, serious and potentially deadly virus. We all must do what we can to minimize gatherings of people to lessen the spread of this virus.
## In-Person Gatherings, Out-of-State Travel Suspended
All UF/IFAS in-person events and gatherings scheduled through the end of April 2020 should be postponed. This extends to UF/IFAS Extension volunteer meetings, workshops, demos, conferences and events such as field days and open houses. No business-related outoff-state travel is permitted for volunteers, faculty or staff. However, I recommend that we all refrain from unnecessary travel at this time.
All county Extension offices should stay in close communication
with their county leadership.
## Extension Facilities Remain Operational
Until otherwise notified, UF/IFAS Extension offices will remain open and fully operational.
## Alternative Program Delivery
Our community is nothing if not innovative. We see this as an opportunity to make use of alternative delivery of information and education, i.e. through online learning, Zoom meetings, conference
calls, electronic delivery of information, etc.
## Taking Care of Yourself and the Community
Follow good hygiene practices to prevent the spread of COVID-19, and stress their importance to co-workers, family and clients. Wash and sanitize your hands frequently, avoid touching your face and cough or sneeze into your elbow, not your hand. Stay at home if you feel unwell-even if you have mild symptoms such as a headache and slight runny nose.
## Staying Informed
To keep up with the status of COVID-19 response through UF/IFAS Extension, we have posted and will continue to update pages on our website in coordination with UF and health authorities. Below are some additional resources:
- · UFCCOVID-19 Home: Updates from the University of Florida and answers to frequently asked questions for students, faculty, staff and larger UF community.
- · Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- · Florida Department of Health: News and updates about COVID19 in Florida
We are entering into uncharted waters with COVID-19, but I have no doubt that if we follow precautions and stay in close communication with county and UF/IFAS leadership, we will continue to draw on our innovation and can-do spirit to serve our communities with practical solutions based on applied science.
## Stay Safe and Stay Tuned!
For all of our UF/IFAS Extension faculty and staff, there will be an Extension Connections session Monday, March 16 at 11 am, where we will be discussing the latest updates about COVID-19. Please join via Zoom at https://ufl.zoom.us/j/731596904 .
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Category: 4-H & Youth, Agribusiness, Agriculture, Camp, Clubs & Volunteers, Coasts & Marine, CommunityVolunteers, Conservation, Crops, Curriculum, Disaster Preparation, Events, Farm Management, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Food Safety, Forests,
Fruits & Vegetables, Health & Nutrition, HOME LANDSCAPES, Home Management, Horticulture, Invasive Species, Lawn, Livestock,
Money Matters, Natural Resources, Pests & Disease, Pests & Disease, Professional Development, Recreation, Relationships & Family, Turf, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Research, UF/IFAS Teaching , Water, Wildlife, Work & Life Tags: Covid-19, Featured Hot Topic, Hot Topic
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Wetland Science Pioneer Receives University Service Award
- Gator Giving Day: Support Our Programs
- Congratulations Ben And Louann Williams Of Wetland Preserve: 2021 Jon Gould Florida Outstanding Tree...
- SFGFS Launches Florida Marine Data Hub Website And Newsletter |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/abe/2022/08/19/uf-abe-extension-blog-dr-michael-dukes/ | UF ABE Extension Blog: Dr. Michael Dukes | University of Florida | [
"McKenzie Wynn"
] | 2022-08-19 | [
"Agriculture",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"Water",
"ABE",
"Agricultural and Biological Engineering",
"Extension",
"research",
"UF-IFAS",
"water"
] | FL | ## UF ABE Extension Blog: Dr. Michael Dukes
If you think about it, watering the yard with sprinklers is one of the rare situations in which the product is sprayed away from the target in order to apply it. Sprinklers do this in order to distribute the water over large areas and let water "rain down" on plants, but in the process, water is sprayed up into the air where part of it evaporates and part of it can be blown away. The water then falls on the top of the plants from which another portion of it evaporates as it works it way down through the foliage to its true target: the soil and plant roots. With sprinkler irrigation, up to half the water used never reaches the plant. Most of it goes up into the air, and next time your sprinkler is running, make a note of how much water simply runs off and down the driveway or gutter.
It has been estimated that a third of the water used by a typical home goes into watering the landscape, but many homes use more, with landscape watering taking up to 70% of their monthly water use. Whatever your landscape water use is, up to half of it never helps your plants. Multiply this by the millions of homes that are watering landscapes, and we have trillions of gallons of water a year being wasted in the U.S. This not only affects individual utility bills, but it has critical implications for communities, many of which have been dealing with water shortages for years as the number of people living in cities and suburbs increases and as climate change causes regional rain shortfalls and droughts.
However, if this problem is caused by the habits and water use of millions of households, it can also be solved that way. If all those households adopted better irrigation techniques, billions of gallons of water a day would be saved.
This is Michael Dukes' specialty. He has done a great deal of work on this problem and its solution as part of a career focused on irrigation water in both urban settings and in agriculture. Dukes has worked on all aspects of these issues, including use of modern irrigation systems, controllers, and practices, as well as system testing, water requirements of various plants and landscapes, water quality,
fertilizer
use, and others.
His compreh ensive approach to the problem has given him an equally comprehensive understanding, which has made him a valued researcher and consultant.
Dukes is valued as well as Director of the Center for Land Use Efficiency (CLUE; formerly, Center for Landscape Conservation and Ecology), where he leads a diverse team of faculty specializing in many areas of water use and its impact on communities, economics, water quality, and sustainability. Also included are faculty whose focus is communications and social marketing.
The CLUE team has worked on many engineering aspects of water conservation, and research continues to confirm that water conservation technologies and practices, coupled with educational efforts through Extension and other agencies, are making a difference in water use. The U.S. Geological Service has reported that per capita water use in Florida dropped by just over 20 percent in the years 2000 to 2020 - at the same time that Florida's population grew by 25%! Extension efforts to encourage conservation through research and education have played an important role in Florida's water savings. The CLUE annual report for 2021 estimated that Extension conservation programs alone helped save over 300 million gallons of Florida water in 2020.
In recent years, CLUE faculty have become more focused on one of the most complicated aspects of conservation: the human element. Research has also shown that this aspect of water conservation remains critical.
In 2020, Dukes summarized 20 years of smart irrigation control use in U.S. landscapes for the national irrigation symposium "Beyond 2020: Visions of the Future" Included in his report was work done by a variety of CLUE faculty that looked at human factors like perception, adoption, and use of irrigation controllers and the impact of those factors on actual conservation. User satisfaction with irrigation systems was key to positive perception, and like any technology, the researchers found that if users became frustrated with operating the system or felt that it was not saving water, they became dissatisfied. Dukes reported that key to preventing these problems was education of both homeowners and installers, and it was suggested that homeowners needed repeated educational support regarding system operation and best practices. One example of this support is an Innovative smartphone app developed at UF that allows homeowners to control their irrigation system based on local weather. This type of aid is attractive to many potential owners of irrigation systems and makes it more likely that homeowners will interact successfully with the system. Altho Future Research Needs hugh Education BMP Regional Hum Specialized Agents -> on-farm demo education on-farm demonstration. Additional Education BMP Regional University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
Understanding how people interact with technology and finding ways to help make that interaction positive are important tasks for improving water conservation behaviors and practices. This is how the problem becomes the solution: when millions of Floridians are improving their water conservation practices, millions of small savings add up to billions of gallons of water saved. There are dollar savings as well, for individuals, for utilities, and for communities.
We've focused on domestic water use, but just as much could be said about agricultural water use, which is about equal to the state's domestic water use. Florida's 47,000 farms take up almost 10 million acres and use 750 billion gallons of water each year, which presents an opportunity for significant savings with the right support. Dukes and CLUE work with agricultural producers to determine precise water needs for their crops and how best to put the right amount of water in the right place at the right time. CLUE faculty conduct studies of specific crops, such as corn, peanut, potato, and many other important Florida crops and supply technical guidance to help producers reduce their water use and their utility costs while preserving the productivity of their fields. The work that Dukes and CLUE are doing is very important for Florida, where one of our most important resources - and attractions - is water. We turn on the hose or the kitchen tap, and we don't have to think about it much, but that's where the conservation revolution begins. And the global implications? The United Nations reports that water use worldwide is growing twice as fast as population. This story has two parts. Around the world, as more people concentrate in cities and seek to improve their standard of living, domestic water use increases, and as agriculture becomes more mechanized and as there are more people to feed, agricultural water use increases - new technologies and education and needed to address both parts of this situation. Much progress has been made, but these issues are exciting research frontiers for the future, and the solutions are being sought by Michael Dukes and his colleagues at CLUE right here in sunny Florida! That's UF ABE: Big Questions, Global Reach!
o
## by McKenzie Wynn
Posted: August 19, 2022
Category: Agriculture, UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Research, Water
Tags: ABE, Agricultural And Biological Engineering, Extension,
Research, UF IFAS, Water
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Finding Solutions For Florida's Agriculture Impacted By COVID-19
- · Big Questions, Global Reach - Chris Martinez
- · ABE Graduate Students Receive UF International Center Certificate Of
Excellence
- · Using Artificial Intelligence For Strawberry Yield Prediction |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/bovine-johnes-disease/ | Bovine Johne’s Disease | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Soren P. Rodning"
] | 2018-09-19 | [
"Beef",
"Livestock",
"Animal Health"
] | AL | ## Bovine Johne's Disease
Johne's (pronounced "Yo-nees") disease is a chronic infection caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP). Johnne's disease usually refers to a clinical condition characterized by profuse, watery diarrhea and weight loss, while paratuberculosis refers to the condition of being infected with MAP but not showing clinical signs.
## Clinical Signs
Animals are typically infected with MAP as calves but do not show any clinical signs until after a prolonged incubation period (time from infection to clinical disease). The typical incubation period is between 2 and 10 years, although about 10 percent of infected animals develop disease within a year. Clinical signs include gradual weight loss despite a normal appetite, decreased milk production, and manure that gradually becomes more fluid until it progresses into a severe pipestream diarrhea. The diarrhea may be intermittent at first. Inrembandular edema ('bottle jaw') may be seen in the later stages of disease due to a loss of blood proteins.
## Stages of Infection and Disease
## Stage I: "Silent" Infection (cavies,yearlings, and adult cattle)
Most cattle with Johnne's disease are infected with MAP as young calves, typically less than one month of age. The organism grows slowly in the intestines and then spreads to regional lymph nodes. Animals in stage I show no clinical signs, and they are rarely detected with even the most sensitive tests. Stage I usually lasts at least 2 years and may last longer than 10 years.
## Stage II: Inapparent Carrier Adults
Due to the lack of treatment and a vaccine of limited use, the most effective control of Johne's disease is implementing appropriate testing and biosecurity protocols. Talk to your regional Animal Science and Forages Extension agent and your veterinarian about Johne's disease and the Alabama Voluntary Bovine Johne's Disease Control Program, which is a FederalState-Industry cooperative program that incorporates a
comprehensive approach to Johne's control into your herd health management plan. If you suspect Johne's disease in your herd, contact your veterinarian for a thorough investigation.
Download a PDF of Bovine Johne's Disease, ANR-1334,(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR1334.REV\_3.pdf) |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/bude-covid-19-sales-subject-sales-tax-analysis | Bude COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | " Publications " Publication s " Bude COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis
## Bude COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3480-117
View as PDF: P3480-117.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Franklin County
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
OCTOBER 3, 2024
Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition
FEBRUARY 1, 2024
Extension provides training for tourism professionals
Filed Under: Economic Development
NOVEMBER 10, 2023
MSU Extension specialist receives leadership award
OCTOBER 24, 2023
First tourism leadership class graduates recognized
OCTOBER 23, 2023
MSU Extension expertise helps boost Mississippi tourism
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/orangeco/2023/02/24/fuel-your-future-with-national-nutrition-month/ | Fuel For the Future with National Nutrition Month® | University of Florida | [
"Hillary MacMichael (formerly Ayers)"
] | 2023-02-24 | [
"Health & Nutrition",
"Relationships & Family",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"Work & Life",
"Family and Consumer Sciences",
"Food and Nutrition",
"health and wellness",
"healthy living",
"National Nutrition Month",
"ocextension",
"UF/IFAS Extension Orange County"
] | FL | ## Fuel For the Future with National Nutrition Month
March is National Nutrition Month® and this year's theme is "Fuel for the Future." So how can we fuel our bodies for optimal health? It can be really easy when you follow these simple tips from MyPlate:
## 1. Make half your plate fruits and vegetables
- · Focus on whole fruits and vary the types of veggies you're eating.
- · You can choose fresh, frozen, or canned fruits and vegetables; all will give you the same health benefits! Just watch out for sneaky added sugar or sodium.
## 2. Make half of your grains whole grains
- · Grains provide many important nutrients such as dietary fiber, B vitamins, and iron.
## 3. Vary your protein routine
- · Choose lean or low-fat proteins such as lean ground beef, pork loin, and skinless chicken breasts.
- · Vegan or vegetarian? No problem! You can still get protein from beans, nuts, seeds, and soy products.
- · Choose seafood options that are high in Omega 3 (healthy fatty acids!) like salmon or trout.
For additional information on MyPlate and to find quick, healthy recipes that you can make at home, I encourage you to explore the MyPlate.gov website by clicking here.
Want to learn more about National Nutrition Month? Find information and interactive activities by clicking here.
## 3
by Hillary MacMichael (formerly Ayers) Posted: February 24, 2023
Category: Health & Nutrition, Relationships & Family, UF/IFAS Extension, WORK& LIFE Tags: Family And Consumer Sciences, Food And Nutrition, Health And Wellness, Healthy Living, National Nutrition Month, Ocextension, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFAS Extension Orange County
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Hangry Plants!
- Hurricane Preparedness: Key Foods To Keep In Stock
- UF/IFAS Extension Orange County Announces New Director
- Keeping Bottle Calves |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry/tree-planting-contracts-for-landowners-faqs/ | Tree Planting Contracts for Landowners: FAQs | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Becky Barlow",
"T.R. Clark",
"Tom Starkey"
] | 2018-08-29 | [
"Forestry",
"Tree Planting",
"Contracts"
] | AL | <!-- This page is cached by the Hummingbird Performance plugin v3.6.0 - https://wordpress.org/plugins/hummingbird-performance/. --><!DOCTYPE html>
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}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-5748 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-41334418"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
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<article id="post-5748" class="post-5748 aces_content_piece type-aces_content_piece status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry category-forestry category-forestry-wildlife tag-anr1458 tag-forestry tag-tree-planting-contracts-for-landowners first last odd" role="article" aria-label="Tree Planting Contracts for Landowners: FAQs">
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Tree Planting Contracts for Landowners: FAQs </div>
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<li>August 29, 2018</li>
<li class="meta-author">Posted by: Becky Barlow, T.R. Clark, and Tom Starkey</li>
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry/tree-planting-contracts-for-landowners-faqs/"></div><div id="attachment_5749" style="width: 328px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5749" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" class=" wp-image-5749" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/planting-can-be-a-big-job-450x600.jpg" alt="While landowners may enjoy planting small forest patches themselves, hand planting can be a big job that most will not want to do on their own." width="318" height="444" /><p id="caption-attachment-5749" class="wp-caption-text">While landowners may enjoy planting small forest patches themselves, hand planting can be a big job that most will not want to do on their own.<br />(Photo credit: John Gilbert)</p></div>
<p>Before you begin replanting your land, a valid contract between you and the contractor or forest consultant is needed to protect all participants and outline objectives and requirements needed for a quality planting job. Although you should always consult an attorney before entering into any legal agreement, this information will help landowners draft successful reforestation contracts.</p>
<p>After you have harvested timber on your property, you may want to consider investing in your land by having it reforested, or replanted, with tree seedlings. In the South, most landowners replant their forestland with southern pine species such as loblolly, slash, longleaf, or shortleaf pine seedlings. However, depending on the stand location, there are times when hardwood species, such as red or white oaks, may be the best option. Seedlings can be bare-root or containerized and can be planted by hand or by using a specialized machine.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<p>Regardless of the tree species chosen, using quality seedlings and proper tree-planting techniques can greatly improve seedling survival and future growth of trees. To protect your investment, you must ensure that planting is done properly. This can be a big task; therefore, many landowners do not want to tackle it on their own. Instead, many opt to hire an experienced forest consultant or contractor who can complete the job correctly and in a safe, professional, and efficient manner.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<p>If you do choose to hire someone, you will need a contract between you and the contractor or forest consultant. A valid planting contract drafted before any replanting begins will protect all participants and outlines the objectives and requirements needed for a quality planting job. Although you should always consult an attorney prior to entering into any legal agreement, this publication will help landowners learn how to draft a successful reforestation contract.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<h1>What Is a Contract?<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></h1>
<p>By definition, a contract is a legally enforceable agreement between two or more parties with mutual obligations. Contracts can be written, verbal, or implied,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>but for many reasons, a written contract is the best option for forest landowners. A reforestation contract should outline the following:<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<ul>
<li>Who will do the work<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></li>
<li>Who will pay for the work done<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></li>
<li>What the planting specifications will be (stock type, method of planting, etc.)<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></li>
<li>Where the property is located and how many acres will be planted</li>
<li>When the work will be completed</li>
<li>How much will be paid for satisfactorily completed work</li>
<li>What will be done if the work is not completed to specifications</li>
</ul>
<p>Agreements based on a handshake can be misinterpreted or misunderstood; therefore, a written contract is necessary to provide proper documentation that can help protect you, the contractor, and your forestland.</p>
<h1>What Should Be Included in a Tree-Planting Contract?</h1>
<p>Many important aspects of the planting process need to be clearly understood by both the landowner and contractor. Tree-planting contracts should, at a minimum, include the intent of the landowner and contractor, the terms and conditions, rules, policy for possible dispute resolution, signatures, and any necessary supplemental information in an appendix.</p>
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<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry/tree-planting-contracts-for-landowners-faqs/planting-slash-pine-hauss-nursery/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Planting-slash-pine-Hauss-Nursery-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Contractors will provide labor, materials, equipment, and transportation needed to complete a planting job." decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-1-5754" loading="lazy" /></a>
</dt>
<dd class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-1-5754'>
Contractors will provide labor, materials, equipment, and transportation needed to complete a planting job. (Photo credit: Becky Barlow)
</dd></dl><dl class='gallery-item'>
<dt class='gallery-icon landscape'>
<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry/tree-planting-contracts-for-landowners-faqs/machine-v-blade-tractor/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Machine-V-Blade-Tractor-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Contractor using a machine tree planter should take care not to allow fuel or oil leaks. (Photo credit: T.R. Clark)" decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-1-5757" loading="lazy" /></a>
</dt>
<dd class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-1-5757'>
Contractor using a machine tree planter should take care not to allow fuel or oil leaks. (Photo credit: T.R. Clark)
</dd></dl><br style="clear: both" />
</div>
<h2>Intent</h2>
<p>This section of a planting contract primarily introduces all the responsible people who will be involved in the planting operation.</p>
<h2>Who are the parties involved?</h2>
<p>This section should include names, addresses, and contact information of landowner(s) and contractor(s). It should also include contact information for anyone you have authorized to act on your behalf. This person will<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>serve as your agent for the duration of the contract. This is very important if you do not live close to your property or will not be available during the time of planting.</p>
<h2>What does the owner need?</h2>
<p>This section outlines what the landowner would like the contractor to do. In other words, it states what will be planted. The location of the property is also sometimes designated, referencing Exhibit A (Table 1), which includes a map of the property. See the section of this document on exhibits for more information.</p>
<p> </p>
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<h3 class="table_title footable_title">Table 1. Contract Exhibits Provide Supplemental Information</h3>
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<th scope="col" class="ninja_column_0 ninja_clmn_nm_ninja_column_1 ">Contract Exhibits</th></tr>
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<td><b>Exhibit A – A map of the property<b></td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="6550" class="ninja_table_row_1 nt_row_id_6550">
<td>The area to be planted is highlighted, usually with cross hatching, or is outlined in color to illustrate where the work is to occur. This map should be to scale, have a north arrow, and contain as much detail as possible. Roads, streams, legal descriptions, and notes about the tract should also be included on the map. Number of acres to be planted should be designated and be as accurate as possible. Acres can best be determined using a handheld GPS unit.</td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="6549" class="ninja_table_row_2 nt_row_id_6549">
<td><b>Exhibit B – Payment rate and work specifications<b></td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="6548" class="ninja_table_row_3 nt_row_id_6548">
<td>This section may include but is not limited to information on the following:<br>• Payment rate, usually per acre<br>• Number of trees to be planted per acre and spacing<br>• Tree quality specifications (no damaged, culled, or frozen trees)<br>• How the seedlings will be planted (dibble bar, hoedad, or machine)<br>• Acceptable planting practices (such as no root pruning or stripping)<br>• Quality evaluations and allowable error</td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="6541" class="ninja_table_row_4 nt_row_id_6541">
<td><b>Exhibit C – Tree seedling specifications<b></td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="6540" class="ninja_table_row_5 nt_row_id_6540">
<td>Because quality seedlings can improve survival, the contractor should select only the best seedlings to plant. This exhibit details characteristics of seedlings that are acceptable to plant.</td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="6539" class="ninja_table_row_6 nt_row_id_6539">
<td><b>Exhibit D – Certificate of insurance<b></td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="6538" class="ninja_table_row_7 nt_row_id_6538">
<td>As mentioned earlier, a contractor must have insurance before beginning any planting job, and as a landowner, you have a right to obtain proof of insurance. The certificate of insurance is attached here along with any additional insured documentation that states that both the owner and agent are covered under the policy.</td> </tr>
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<p> </p>
<h2>What will the contractor provide?</h2>
<p>This section outlines what work the contractor will do. It also specifies the work he or she is qualified to do. For example, it may state that the contractor provides forestry-related services such as planting. This section also affirms that the contractor will complete the work outlined in the contract.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<h2>Terms and Conditions</h2>
<p>This portion of the contract could be considered as the heart of the contract describing when and how you expect the planting operation to be handled and what insurance and verification you require.</p>
<h2>How long is this contract effective?</h2>
<p>The term of the contract establishes specific dates when work will start and when it will be completed. You may also wish to outline criteria for extending the contract time frame in case there are unexpected work delays caused by inclement weather or seedling availability. A termination clause may also be included here.</p>
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<div id='gallery-2' class='gallery galleryid-5748 gallery-columns-2 gallery-size-thumbnail'><dl class='gallery-item'>
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<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry/tree-planting-contracts-for-landowners-faqs/planted-longleaf-pine/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/planted-longleaf-pine-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Planted longleaf pine." decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-2-5759" loading="lazy" /></a>
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Planted longleaf pine. (Photo credit: John Gilbert)
</dd></dl><dl class='gallery-item'>
<dt class='gallery-icon landscape'>
<a href='https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry/tree-planting-contracts-for-landowners-faqs/bare-root-longleaf-seedling/'><img width="300" height="300" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/bare-root-longleaf-seedling-300x300.jpg" class="attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail" alt="Seedlings may be container grown or bareroot" decoding="async" aria-describedby="gallery-2-5760" loading="lazy" /></a>
</dt>
<dd class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-2-5760'>
Seedlings may be container grown or bareroot like the longleaf pine seedling shown here. (Photo credit: Becky Barlow)
</dd></dl><br style="clear: both" />
</div>
<h2>What will the contractor supply?</h2>
<p>While the landowner usually supplies the seedlings and ensures that they are stored properly before planting, the contractor will supply all other labor, materials, equipment, and transportation needed to complete a planting job. This includes things such as planting tools and trailers to transport seedlings to the site. The contractor should also agree to comply with all state and federal employment laws, including laws that apply to immigration and migrant labor.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<h2>Is the contractor responsible for disposal of trash?</h2>
<p>Contractors should not leave litter of any kind on your property and are responsible for its proper disposal. This includes food wrappers and planting bags or boxes. Similarly, if using a machine tree planter, the contractor should take care not to allow fuel or oil from the machine to leak onto the ground. If spills do occur, the contractor is responsible for the proper containment, cleanup, and disposal of any contaminated soil or equipment.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<h2>How will the contractor be paid?</h2>
<p>It is important to be very specific regarding how and when payments are to be made. Invoices may be submitted to a landowner by the contractor weekly or when an individual tract is complete. A percentage of the payment is usually withheld by the landowner until successful compliance, based on work specifications, is verified either by a third party or the landowner. Payment specifications are further outlined in Exhibit B (Table 1).</p>
<h2>How do I outline work specifications?<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></h2>
<p>Details for how the work will be carried out are also outlined in Exhibit B of the contract (Table 1). However, within the body of the contract, this section should outline the contractor’s obligation to carry out the work to the specifications detailed in the contract and how nonconformance to the contract will be addressed.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<h2>What if the job is not completed to expectations?</h2>
<p>If planting is not completed to contract specifications, the landowner should be able to terminate the contract or hire an additional contractor(s) to complete the job. This clause also prevents the contractor from delaying completion of the job.</p>
<h2>How do I know what good and acceptable forestry practices are?</h2>
<p>Good and acceptable forestry practices clauses are found in most forestry-related contracts. There may also be a reference to following state best management practices. Most states have forestry best management practices that outline the voluntary practices that protect water quality in the state’s rivers, streams, and lakes.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<p>Further documentation is available in the “Alabama Best Management Practices for Forestry” manual online at <a href="https://forestry.alabama.gov/Pages/Management/Forms/2007_BMP_Manual.pdf">www.forestry.alabama.gov/Pages/Management/Forms/2007_BMP_Manual.pdf</a>.</p>
<div id="attachment_5877" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5877" decoding="async" class="size-medium wp-image-5877" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/hand-bedded-600x400.jpg" alt="Good and acceptable forestry practices should be followed at all times." width="600" height="400" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/hand-bedded-600x400.jpg 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/hand-bedded-768x512.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/hand-bedded.jpg 2048w" sizes="(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" /><p id="caption-attachment-5877" class="wp-caption-text">Good and acceptable forestry practices should be followed at all times. Seedlings should be kept in bags until planted.(Photo credit: T.R. Clark)</p></div>
<h2><b>What does indemnification mean?</b></h2>
<p>Indemnification means to hold harmless or protect from loss or damage. This section is important because it protects the landowner from being libel for the actions<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>or result of actions by the contractor or his or her employees. This section may outline specific types of damage such as the following:</p>
<ul>
<li>Personal injury</li>
<li>Property damage</li>
<li>Improper use, handling, or disposal of hazardous materials</li>
<li>Violation of laws</li>
<li>Violation of best management practices</li>
<li>Violation of immigration laws</li>
</ul>
<h2><b>What types of insurance are required?</b></h2>
<p>Contractors should carry insurance for the duration of the contract. Landowners have the right to ask to see and obtain copies of proof-of-insurance forms before allowing work to begin and at any time during the process. Below are some basic facts about different types of insurance a contractor should carry.</p>
<ul>
<li><b>General liability</b>. Protects the assets of a business when it is sued for something it did (or did not do) to cause injury or property damage. Typically, there is a $1,000,000 coverage requirement.</li>
<li><b>Auto liability</b>. Protects against damage caused by a vehicle. Typically, there is a $1,000,000 coverage requirement.</li>
<li><b>Workers compensation</b>. Provides wage replacement and/or medical benefits for employees who are injured in the course of employment in exchange for the right to sue the employer.</li>
<li><b>Additional insured</b>. Provides coverage for landowners and their agents. If the land-owner is sued due to accidents arising out of the work of the contractor, the contractor’s insurance will protect the landowner. Land-owners and their agents should specifically<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>request to be named as additional insured under the contractor’s policy and should obtain a copy of additional insured documentation.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Rules</h2>
<p>In the planting contract, this section provides information about who can have access to your property and how you expect it to be protected.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<h2>Is fire a concern?</h2>
<p>Because there is the potential for fire with any operation, contractor responsibilities for fire prevention and protection are usually listed in a separate section in forestry contracts.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<h2>Is my property protected by this contract?</h2>
<p>Any forestry-related activity has the potential for damage to property improvements, such as roads, fences, property markers, and drainage pipes. As such, a property damage section is often included in a planting contract. This section describes contractor responsibilities for repairing damaged items to their original state or compensating the owner for the damage.</p>
<h2>How do I allow for access to my property?</h2>
<p>Contractors and their employees need access to the property during the planting process to meet contract obligations. Terms of this access are usually outlined in the ingress or egress section of a contract. This section also protects the owner’s right to continue to access and use the property during all contracted activities.</p>
<h2>Does the contractor have to let me know when work begins?</h2>
<p>The contractor should always notify a landowner or the owner’s agent prior to starting a planting job. This will ensure that proper supervision can occur during all aspects of planting activity.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<h2>How is compliance with laws outlined?<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></h2>
<p>State and federal law compliance is mandatory, and contractors should be familiar with and adhere to any and all state and federal laws related to their work. This includes employment laws. Contractors should not knowingly hire or recruit unauthorized immigrants and must be able to verify an employee’s or subcontractor’s immigration status.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<h2>Is the contractor my employee?</h2>
<p>No, a contractor is not the employee of the landowner or landowner’s agent at any time. It is very important to note that the agreement is between the contractor and the landowner only. The landowner is not responsible for supervision or wage payment of contractor’s employees.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<div id="attachment_5878" style="width: 610px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-5878" decoding="async" class="size-medium wp-image-5878" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Machine-Planted2-600x450.jpg" alt="Machine planted forestland." width="600" height="450" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Machine-Planted2-600x450.jpg 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Machine-Planted2-768x576.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Machine-Planted2.jpg 2048w" sizes="(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px" /><p id="caption-attachment-5878" class="wp-caption-text">Machine planted forestland. (Photo credit: TR Clark)</p></div>
<h1>Policy for Dispute Resolution</h1>
<p>This section provides information on how potential legal problems could be handled.</p>
<h2>What if there is a dispute between the contractor and me?</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, disagreements do occur from time to time. If they cannot be resolved, the parties may go into arbitration—the process of settling a dispute without going to court. Rather than going before a judge or jury, arbitration uses a third-party panel comprised of registered foresters to help settle the dispute.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span></p>
<h1>Signatures</h1>
<p>All contacts are deemed official only if signed by all participating parties.</p>
<h2>Will I have to sign any contract paperwork?</h2>
<p>Yes, all contracts should be signed by both parties, and those signatures should be witnessed by a notary. If there is more than one owner, the signatures of all parties will be needed.</p>
<h1>Exhibits</h1>
<p>This very important section of the planting contract provides maps and descriptions of the area to be planted and specific seedling requirements.</p>
<h2>What are contract exhibits?</h2>
<p>Exhibits are located at the end of the contract and contain supplemental information on where planting will be conducted, how it will be conducted, and quality evaluations. The most common exhibits are discussed below.</p>
<h1>Summary</h1>
<p>Regenerating your forest is one of the most important long-term investments you can make as a forest landowner. For many landowners, planting is the most efficient regeneration method; however, improper planting can lead to poor survival and growth and, in some cases, the need to replant the following year. This is an expensive mistake that you do not want to make. A well-thought-out and executed contract can ensure that you and the planting contractor both understand what needs to be done and when, greatly improving chances for planting success.</p>
<h1>For more information</h1>
<p><a href="https://www.aces.edu/counties/">www.aces.edu/counties</a></p>
<p>Alabama Cooperative Extension System offices</p>
<p><a href="http://www.nurserycoop.auburn.edu/">www.nurserycoop.auburn.edu/</a></p>
<p>Southern Forest Nursery Management Cooperative</p>
<p><a href="https://forestry.alabama.gov/">www.forestry.state.al.us</a></p>
<p>Alabama Forestry Commission office in your area</p>
<p> </p>
<p> </p>
<p><a href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-1458.REV_.2.pdf">Download a PDF of Tree Planting Contracts for Landowners: FAQs, ANR-1458.</a></p>
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/carbon-accounting-description-and-methodology | Carbon Accounting: Description and Methodology | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Kevin Caffrey",
"Mari Chinn"
] | null | [
"Carbon Accounting",
"Agriculture",
"Environmental Policy",
"Sustainability"
] | NC | ## Carbon Accounting: Description and Methodology
Many consumers are interested in purchasing goods and services that demonstrate increased environmental stewardship or promote awareness of sustainable practices. While there are a variety of labels, endorsements, and methods for companies to publicly exhibit 'green' practices, one of the most powerful, but least understood, involves carbon accounting. Terms such as carbon footprint , carbon accounting, and life cycle assessment are commonly employed, but what do these terms mean and why are they used?
This publication focuses on some of the complexity related to global climate change and provides information on the process of carbon accounting. A related publication, AG-795 Life Cycle Assessment: Description and Methodology , describes a process for carbon accounting in greater detail with a simplified example.
Carbon is one of the most abundant elements on Earth, the building block of cellular organisms, and vast quantities are stored in vegetation. Carbon is often tracked, because of its persistence in our atmosphere, with concerns over the quantity of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other chemicals that are emitted from anthropogenic (i.e., human induced) sources. Scientific evidence suggests these emissions increase the insulative effect of the atmosphere, causing the planet to retain heat from the
sun (termed the greenhouse gas effect) (EPA, 2013a). This category of emissions is often referred to as greenhouse gases (GHGs). Products and activities that limit or store (sequester) GHGs from the atmosphere are considered to be environmentally beneficial by many.
The primary source of anthropogenic carbon dioxide is combustion and use of fossil fuels (IPCC, 2007). Another significant source involves human development, encapsulated by unsustainable practices such as urban sprawl (Gonzalez, 2005) and deforestation (IPCC, 2007). Urban sprawl and deforestation release carbon stored in plant tissue and soil into the atmosphere while removing land from uses that support carbon storage.
This publication reviews GHGs and the concept of global climate change. Additionally, it discusses methods that may be used to determine carbon balances or evaluate emission reduction strategies. The contents are intended to provide the public with greater understanding of terminology and methodologies employed in the carbon accounting process.
## Motivation for Carbon Accounting: Global Climate Change
Use of the terms global warming on global climate change has become common in environmental conversations; however, distinctions in the terminology may not be clear. Global warming is theorized to be a result of greater GHG concentrations in the atmosphere, with carbon dioxide being the primary contributor (IPCC, 2007). Although global warming is commonly used, the more accurate term for the effects of escalated GHG concentrations is global climate change . Global warming implies an increase of Earth's mean temperature, which has been observed by global average surface temperature over the past 150 years (IPCC, 2007). Global climate change implies modifications to climatic activities, which may include increased surface temperatures. This phenomenon may present itself as prolonged droughts, increased storm severity, and harsher winter conditions in many areas. Some models show that specific areas may actually cool as a result of global climate change (Goldstein et al., 2009). The use of the word climate implies long term modifications over an extensive area, not annual (or seasonal) fluctuations at a discrete location as commonly associated with temperature.
Commentary that is often heard in relation to this phenomenon includes, "it's going to get hotter," and "that isn't good" (for humankind or the earth). At the forefront for many are memories of AI Gore's An Inconvenient Truth (Gore, 2006) or the controversy surrounding emails leaked from the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) at the University of East Anglia (termed "Climateatte" by some media sources). Emails leaked from the CRU were used by critics as evidence of a scientific conspiracy surrounding climate change. These emails primarily involved personal communications between researchers concerning a discrepancy in tree ring data and proxy temperatures. After extensive independent investigation, no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct was found (Oxburgh et al., 2010; Muir et al., 2010). Though numerous computer models have been developed to investigate long-term implications of this phenomenon, there are some basic scientific principles that govern global climate change, including heat retention and cosmic cycles. Figure 1 exhibits a straightforward relationship between CO$\_{2}$ concentration, as measured at Mauna Loa Hawaii, and average global surface air temperature, as determined by NASA using the method described by Hasen and Lebedeff (1987).
Carbon dioxide acts as an insulator in Earth's atmosphere, preventing solar radiation from dissipating into space (EPA 2013a). Other GHGs are also insulators and are assigned valuesknown as equivalence values-based on CO$\_{2}$ as a reference, which can persist in the atmosphere for nearly a century (EPA, 2013b). The equivalence value is used to demonstrate the relative strength of certain emissions at insulating the earth's atmosphere compared to CO$\_{2}$. GHGs such as
methane (CH$\_{4}$) and nitrous oxide (N$\_{2}$O) exhibit CO$\_{2}$ equivalents of 25 and 298 respectively (on a 100-year time horizon) (IPCC, 2007). In the above example, N$\_{2}$O is 298 times more powerful at retaining heat in the atmosphere than CO$\_{2}$. The 100-year horizon corresponds to the insulative power of the chemical in the given time frame; horizons are typically presented as 20, 100, and 500 years (Table 1). A shorter time horizon means that less persistent compounds are weighted more heavily but are commonly still compared to CO$\_{2}$ as a reference. These equivalents are used in carbon accounting to normalize emissions to CO$\_{2}$ equivalents, which can be summed for comparison.
Like other insulators, a direct linear correlation does not exist between increasing the quantity of insulation and the degree of heat retention (IPCC, 2007). This correlation is similar to home insulation where the initial layer has the greatest impact while successive layers have less effect on heat retention in the home. These insulating compounds are required to sustain life on Earth, but increased heat energy retention can have dire ramifications on various natural systems. It is important to note that water vapor is also a GHG, the most abundant in the atmosphere, but due to its relatively short atmospheric retention time it is commonly excluded from carbon balances. Excessive water vapor in the atmosphere can cause increased temperatures, which can lead to increased evaporation resulting in higher temperatures (NCDC, 2013).
| Common Name | Chemical Formula | Global Warming Potential 20 yr. | 100 yr. | 500 yr. |
|---------------------------|--------------------|-----------------------------------|---------------|---------------|
| Carbon Dioxide | CO$_{2}$ | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Methane | CH$_{4}$ | 72 | 25 | 7.6 |
| Nitrous Oxide | N$_{2}$O | 289 | 298 | 153 |
| Hydrofluorocarbons | CHF - | 437-12,000 | 124-14,800 | 38-12,200 |
| Perfluorinated Compounds | -Fx | 5,210- 16,300 | 7,390- 22,800 | 9,500- 32,600 |
| Fluorinated Ethers | 207-13,800 | 59-14,900 | 18-8,490 | 18-8,490 |
Cosmic cycles can contribute to global climate change independent of human development or activity. These cycles include variations in Earth's orbit around the sun and changes in the earth's tilt. Cyclic cosmic effects occur on extremely long time frames and include rotational axis wobble (21,000 years), rotational axis tilt (42,000 years), and orbital shape (100,000 years)(MO DNR, 2013). A realistic, observable short-term cosmic effect may be the impact of sunspots, which can increase solar intensity.
The general consensus of the scientific community is that global climate change is occurring, and it is human induced (IPCC, 2007). Regardless of causation, some variations in climates are being observed globally, resulting in increased severity of storms (Aumann et al., 2008), droughts (Rind et
al., 1990), floods (Andersen & Shepherd, 2013), and fluctuations in flora and fauna (IPCC, 2007). There has been a shift from mitigation to adaptation in some climatic research areas since, regardless of mitigation strategies, we may have to cope with modified climatic conditions to some degree. The insurance industry is making major attempts to manage the risks related to climate change by repackaging insurance products in response to increasing severe weather events (Mills, 2012). An ongoing study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory reveals how warming temperatures, increased wildfires, sea level rise, and storm surges can negatively affect the electricity infrastructure in California, requiring major adaptation strategies (Sathaye et al., 2012). A side effect of increased CO$\_{2}$ concentrations is ocean acidification, which reduces the availability of minerals (specifically argonite) required by corals, some plankton, and other sea creatures to form calcium carbonate exoskeletons (EPA, 2013c). This shift in marine ecosystems can have disastrous effects on already depleted commercial fisheries, further straining seafood markets.
Many implications of global climate change can have far reaching effects without unavoidable feedback loops, exemplified by the loss of permafrost in northern latitudes. As some of these soils thaw for the first time in centuries, gases are released-most notably CO$\_{2}$ and CH$\_{4}$-and dark soils are exposed, further increasing atmospheric concentrations of GHGs and intensifying solar absorption, in turn leading to further thawing (Koven et al., 2011). A similar trend is observed with melting sea ice, which increases solar absorption and sea temperature (Screen & Simmonds, 2010). Inclusion of fresh water from melting sea ice can decrease ocean salinity, potentially altering ocean currents, which can have global climatic implications (Williams et al., 2010). There are, however, some shortterm benefits associated with these consequences, such as increased area for oil and gas exploration and opening of northern shipping routes.
Individuals skeptical of the human impact of climate change have argued that increases in atmospheric CO$\_{2 }$will be negated by accelerated plant growth. Most notably, in 2009, Representative John Skimpus (R-IL) made comments during the House Subcommittee on Energy and Environment regarding this sentiment. These claims have stemmed from legitimate scientific research, such as Donohue et al. (2013), that focused on specific regions and current atmospheric levels of CO$\_{2}$. While Norby et al. (2010) concluded that there are initial increases in plant growth from enhanced atmospheric CO$\_{2}$ levels, soil nitrogen is ultimately the major limiting factor to plant growth in many terrestrial ecosystems. Skeptics have also proposed that increased urbanization is having the primary effect on increased solar absorption. In other words, pavement for roads and parking lots, buildings, sidewalks, and other infrastructure create urban heat sinks that allow more retention of the sun's energy, resulting in observed increases in global surface air temperatures.
While skeptics continue to debate human influence on climate change and the role of GHGs, many proposed reduction strategies, such as energy conservation and fossil fuel displacement, can be beneficial economically, socially, and environmentally regardless. Energy conservation is a major issue in residential, industrial, and commercial capacities and is one of the most meaningful strategies for GHG emission reductions. Regardless of the accuracy of fossil fuel reserve projections, such as those given in CRS (2009), fossil fuels are not sustainable, long-term energy solutions, so further incorporation and development of alternative energy sources is crucial. Shifting from a petroleum based economy to one that is biomass based has implications for energy production, rural development, and energy independence. Some fossil fuel reduction strategies may result in increased energy costs and reductions in some creature comforts (e.g., higher thermostat settings in the summer) in the short term. There is a considerable amount of research, development, and industrialization required to ensure safe and economic conditions when implementing novel technologies and reduction strategies. It's important for skeptics to ask two important questions: "Is disregarding the human influence of climate change worth the risk?" and "How problematic are the reduction strategies? '
The Newcastle geothermal resource is located at the southeastern margin of the Escalate Valley, in the transition zone between the Basin and Range and Colorado Plateau physiographic provinces.
Attribution: Robert Blackett, National Renewable Energy Laboratory 13995
Attribution: Photo by Roger Winstead
Attribution: Photo by Roger Winstead
## Carbon Credit Markets
Trading carbon credits is a market-based approach where groups claim reductions in carbon and GHG emissions by purchasing reduced emissions from another entity. The market for carbon credits can be split into two categories: compliance and voluntary (Westernet al., 2008). Compliance is a response to legislation, such as a cap and trade system or the international carbon trading capacity of the Kyoto Protocol (UN 1998). This category requires select groups to participate in measures to reduce total carbon output or purchase credits to meet set standards. A voluntary carbon trading market allows carbon credits to be freely traded to meet noncompulsory standards. Usually companies will participate in carbon markets to improve their "green" image or demonstrate a desire to improve environmental stewardship. The first major voluntary cap and trade system in the U.S. came to an end with the closing of the Chicago Climate Exchange in 2010. Carbon trading still exists on the New York Mercantile Exchange with products from the European Union and California (CME, 2013). Some smaller niche markets exist in which private companies or outside organizations offer carbon offsets to purchase for things like energy, transportation, and other activities. These carbon offsets are meant to fill in the gaps where process improvement and reduction strategies fall short, but they can be used in lieu of reduction strategies. Generally funds from these offsets are used for GHG reduction projects such as landfill gas capture, renewable energy generation, or ecosystem conservation.
Although there are numerous companies that provide this service for varying prices and projects, it is important to ensure offset credits coincide with specified reduction goals. Green-Climate (GC, 2014) is a group that certifies environmental commodities to ensure that offset credits are properly applied. Some states provide oversight of carbon credit markets, such as California's Air Resource Board (CARB, 2014); however, some voluntary markets contain minimal oversight, and participation in carbon exchanges should be approached with due diligence.
## Carbon Reduction Strategies
There are three primary categories of GHG emission reduction strategies: sequestration , displacement , and mitigation .
Sequestration refers to storing carbon in stable forms either below ground or in biomass material for extended periods.
Below-ground sequestration can be a costly endeavor in which emissions from a power plant, or other industrial operation, are pumped underground. Subsurface carbon accumulation is also accomplished through root system production by establishing perennial crops (Figure 2), resulting in negative emission values for some of these systems (Clarens et al., 2010). Programs aimed at reforestation and restoration of grasslands also fall into this category when they are left for use as an above-ground carbon sink. Wood and biomass production is considered a short-term
sequestration technique, though use of sustainable production practices makes continual storage possible (Profft et al., 2009).
Displacement is the use of alternative energy sources that displace high carbon production types, such as fossil fuel combustion. This is accomplished through the use of multiple renewable energy sources, including wind, solar, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass. To a lesser extent, this is accomplished through the use of lower-emitting fossil fuels, such as natural gas in place of coal.
Mitigation strategies assess various sources of emissions throughout a system and determine reduction measures (i.e., energy efficiency improvements). Unlike the other categories, which either store or displace GHG emissions, mitigation focuses on reducing direct and indirect emissions. This
may be represented in process improvements, energy efficiency, or emission reductions. Many strategies incorporate components of multiple categories, such as conservation tillage, which increases soil carbon stores (sequestration) and reduces direct emissions (mitigation), or use of landfill gas, which reduces methane emissions (mitigation) and can replace natural gas as a heating source (displacement).
U.S. federal agencies were tasked with reducing GHG emissions under Executive Order 13514 (inventories and reduction strategy)(E013514, 2009), Executive Order 13423 (energy efficiency initiatives) (EO 13423, 2007), and the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (low GHG emitting vehicles)(EISA, 2007). Some states implemented similar GHG emission reduction strategies by either legislative action or executive orders. Under section 111 of the Clean Air Act (CAA, 1970), EPA is also granted the authority to regulate GHG emissions, which has been exercised on new power plant construction projects. According to a Presidential memorandum, GHG emission standards will also be developed for existing power plants (White House, 2013).
It is common to refer to direct CO$\_{2}$ emissions from biomass energy sources as biogenic, assigning a value of zero to these emissions. This does not, however, mean that there are no CO$\_{2}$ emissions from the combustion of energy sources derived from biomass. Biogenic assumes the growth of the next crop of biomass material will sequester approximately the same amount of CO$\_{2}$ from the current crop's combustion. Biogenic also only accounts for direct CO$\_{2 }$emissions and not those related to indirect sources, including chemical application, harvest, transport, machinery, and storage (Figure 3). There is also a degree of carbon sequestration from the below ground root structures (generally left behind during harvest) that is not always accounted for. Biogenic emissions require either sustainable management practices, where the quantity of biomass grown annually is equivalent to the amount harvested, or a multi-year harvest plan common to the forestry industry.
Marland (2010) argues that without a properly defined system boundary (an example of a system boundary is shown in Figure 4), bioenergy sources may not be carbon neutral. Spatial and temporal variations exist in emission production and sequestration, and they depend on crop production, storage, and system boundary. In other words, carbon emissions and storage never occur at the same time, in the same place. A controversial study by Manomet (2010) argues that there is a considerable time lag before carbon stocks for woody material reach the GHG emission levels of fossil fuel combustion, and such stocks are therefore not effective as an adequate carbon reduction strategy over the next one hundred years. Various studies have been published discrediting the Manomet study methodology (Lucier, 2010; O'Laughlin, 2010), arguing that use of a short-term plot level view of carbon emissions is not a proper method for long-term carbon management.
## Carbon Accounting Methodology
Depending on carbon market or reduction strategy, the carbon accounting methodology may differ slightly in scope. A critical aspect of this type of analysis is setting the boundary for processes that will be considered in calculations and those that are far enough removed from the activity to be disregarded (Figure 4). A boundary can be as simple as inputs and outputs for direct emissions of major GHGs (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorinated compounds, and fluorinated ethers), include upstream emission sources (e.g., mining operations or coal or harvesting of timber), or could assess material usage (e.g., packaging and equipment choices). The boundary needs to be set in accordance with the specific system goals in mind. For example, the maize system boundary shown in Figure 4 includes farm operations, nutrient volatilization, and manufacture of inputs but excludes land use change and equipment manufacturing, both of which are assumed to be outside the scope of the analysis.
After a boundary is set, an emission inventory is produced to determine sources of carbon emissions from the system. Following compilation of the emission inventory, standardization values are utilized to set all GHG emissions to CO$\_{2}$ equivalents; commonly, the IPCC values are used (IPCC 2007). There are also time horizons to consider (e.g., 20, 100, and 500 years)-which affect the insulative strength of the emissions-compared to CO$\_{2}$, taking into account their relative
residence time in the atmosphere. A lower time horizon means that chemicals with a short residence time will be weighted more heavily. Choosing a proper time horizon may depend on the specific system being evaluated and the goals of the analysis.
In some cases this is the end of the analysis, yet these values can also be used to compare different reduction strategies and overall carbon impact. For example, one may consider which of the following is a better reduction strategy: construction of a woody biomass boiler or efficiency improvements of an existing natural gas unit? Carbon accounting is commonly accompanied by an economic comparison to decide if the additional costs are worth the overall reductions. Some modifications under consideration may show positive economic returns after an appropriate payback period, though this needs to be compared with the goals and scope of the reduction strategy. If emission reductions are required by legislative authority, the economic analysis may present the need for adjustments in consumer prices to recover emission reduction strategy costs.
Executive order 13514 (EO 13514), which tasks U.S. federal agencies to decrease GHG emissions, divides sources into three scopes for reduction strategies by expanding system boundary. The first scope represents direct emissions from owned or controlled property (e.g., vehicles and fugitive emissions) (EPA, 2013c). Scope two focuses on indirect emissions from utility sources purchased off-site (e.g., electricity, steam, and heating) (EPA, 2013c). The final scope, scope three, relates to indirect emissions from sources not owned or controlled, which currently includes transmission and distribution losses of electricity, travel, waste disposal, and wastewater treatment, but can be further expanded on a voluntary basis (EPA, 2013c). These scopes represent increased system complexity that may not be required for some analyses. For example, if modifications don't affect electricity use, inclusion may not be required in the analysis. A more detailed approach for carbon accounting is available from IPCC (2006) with a series of reports outlining how to calculate emissions from different sectors.
Specific rules for carbon accounting may be set by the particular regulation, certification process, or carbon market being targeted. The U.S. rule for federal agencies is relatively simple with increasing complexity with expanding scope (1 to 3). It is important to review carbon reduction goals and set a system boundary to accurately account for GHG emissions. When comparing different reduction strategies, ensure that the specific characteristics of interest within the system fit the boundary. For example, if you are looking at packaging options, production and disposal methods are important to include in the system evaluation.
There are a number of methodologies for carbon accounting, including the life cycle assessment methodology (ISO, 2006a; ISO, 2006b), the greenhouse protocol from the World Resources Institute (WRI, 2013), and the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC, 2006). A detailed description of life cycle assessment is outlined in AG-795 Life Cycle Assessment: Description and Methodology .
## Conclusion
Use of carbon accounting has become a common method for government, private industry, and commercial enterprises to showcase their environmental stewardship. Accounting for GHG emissions can be a daunting task, but this process can be focused by ensuring the system boundary properly aligns with project goals and scope. A basic understanding of carbon accounting can assist the public with making informed decisions related to "green" products.
## Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge former North Carolina Extension Specialist Dr. Matthew W. Veal, Ph.D. for his innovation and leadership in development of this publication.
## References and Resources
Other sources are available with more detailed explanations, including Carbon Credits: for Methane Collection and Combustion (Westerman et al. 2008) for carbon market information and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency website (EPA 2013d) for process methodology.
The following resources were used in the publication of this article. They will provide more information on these topics and would be useful if a carbon accounting methodology needs to be developed.
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## Authors
Kevin Caffrey Graduate Research Assistant Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Mari Chinn
Associate Professor Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Publication date: Feb. 10, 2015
AG-793
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## Forestry Impacts
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https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/HS388 | Drip-Irrigation Systems for Small Conventional Vegetable Farms and Organic Vegetable Farms | University of Florida | [
"Eric Simonne",
"Robert Hochmuth",
"Jacque Breman",
"William Lamont",
"Danielle Treadwell",
"Aparna Gazula"
] | 2018-07-18 | [] | FL | ## Drip-Irrigation Systems for Small Conventional Vegetable Farms and Organic Vegetable Farms
Eric Simonne, Robert Hochmuth, Jacque Breman, William Lamont, Danielle Treadwell, and Aparma Gazula
A drip-irrigation system -when properly designed, maintained and operated-can be a production asset for a small farm. Using drip irrigation for profitable vegetable production requires an understanding of several basic engineering and horticultural concepts and their application. The goals of this publication are to present the principles behind drip irrigation and some practical guidelines for successful and profitable use of drip irrigation.
## 1. Overview of Drip Irrigation
## 1.1 What is drip irrigation?
Drip irrigation (also known as trickle irrigation or micro-irrigation) is an irrigation method that allows precisely controlled application of water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly near the plant roots through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. Plasticculture is the combined use of drip irrigation, polyethylene mulch and raised beds. Greatest productivity and earliness may be achieved in vegetable production by combining plasticulture with the use of transplants.
## 1.2 Is drip irrigation adapted to all operations?
Drip irrigation is not a silver bullet; it may not be applicable to all farms. Yet, when properly managed, it is a valuable production technique that may reduce labor and production costs while improving productivity. Small farmers considering the use of drip irrigation should evaluate both the advantages and disadvantages of this system to determine the benefits of drip irrigation for their operation.
## 1.3 What are the main advantages of drip irrigation?
Reduced water use: Because drip irrigation brings the water to the plant root zone and does not wet the entire field, drip irrigation typically requires half to a quarter of the volume of water required by comparable overhead-irrigation systems.
Joint management of irrigation and fertilization : Drip irrigation can improve the efficiency of both water and fertilizer. Poise application of nutrients is possible using drip irrigation. Hence, fertilizer costs and soluble nutrient losses may be reduced with drip irrigation. Nutrient applications may also be better timed to meet plant needs.
Reduced pest problems: Weed and disease problems may be reduced because drip irrigation does not wet the row middles or the foliage of the crops as does overhead irrigation. Simplicity : Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene particles are widely available in several diameters and are easy to assemble. Many customized, easy-to-install connectors, endcaps, and couplers are available in different diameters. Cutting and gluing allows for timely repairs.
Low pumping needs: Drip systems require low operating pressure (25-20 psi at field entrance, 10-12 psi at the drip tape) compared to overhead systems (50-80 psi). Many existing small pumps and wells may be used to adequately irrigate small acreage using drip systems.
Automation: Drip irrigation application may be simply managed and programmed with an AC-or battery-powered controller, thereby reducing labor cost.
Adaptation: Drip systems are adaptable to oddly shaped fields or those with uneven topography or soil texture, thereby eliminating the underutilized or non-capped corners and maximizing the use of available land.
Production advantages: Combined with raised beds, polyethylene mulch, and transplants, drip irrigation enhances earnestry and crop uniformity. Using polyethylene mulch also increases the cleanliness of harvested products and reduces the risk of contamination with soil-born pathogens. Reflective mulches further help reduce the incidence of viral diseases by infecting insect vectors, such as thrips, whiteflies, or aphids.
## 1.4 What are the disadvantages of drip irrigation?
Drip irrigation requires an economic investment: Drip irrigation systems typically cost $50-$1,200 or more per acre (Table 1). Part of the cost is a capital investment useful for several years, and another part is due to the annual cost of cold spots. Grower ponds need to dry irrigation systems. New drip irrigation systems should start with a relatively simple system on a small acreage before moving to a larger system.
Drip irrigation requires maintenance and high-quality water: Once eminters are clogged or the tape is damaged, the tape must be replaced. Water dripping from an emitter and the subsequent wetting pattern are hard to see, which makes it difficult to know if the system is working properly. Proper management of drip irrigation requires a learning period.
Water-application pattern must match planting patterns: If emitter spacing (too far apart) does not match the planting pattern, root development may be restricted and/or plants may die.
Safety: Drip tubing may be litted by wind or may be displaced by animals unless the drip tape is covered with mulch, fastened with wire anchor pins, or lightly covered with soil.
Leak repair: Drip lines can be easily cut or damaged by other farming operations, such as till transplanting, or manual weedering with a hoe. Damage to drip tape caused by insects, rodents, or birds may create large leaks that also require repair.
Drip-tape disposal causes extra cleanup costs after harvest: Planning is needed for drip-tape disposal, recycling, or reuse.
## 1.5 How does my drip-irrigation system affect organic certification?
Growers considering certified organic production should first become familiar with the National Organic Program (NP) hotline://www.am s.usda.gov/NOPindex[en].htm ) and the principles of organic production (Ferguson, 2004a,tb; Ferrell, 2006). All production inputs used in certified organic production must follow the National List of Allowed and Probhibited Substances (Code of Federal Register [CTR] 205.060 of the National Organic Program). Drip irrigation itself stands (standard drip tape) is allowed. Products typically used with drip irrigation in conventional production systems that may or may not be allowed in certified organic production may be classified in four groups: water, products for drip irrigation maintenance (algacidies, disinfectants and acids), fertilizers, and pesticides (Table 2).
The maintenance and addition of a drip-irrigation system should clearly outlined in the Organic System Plan (farm plan required for certification), including any inputs that will be delivered through the drip-irrigation system. In all cases, contact your certifying agency before using a product to confirm that use of that product will not jeopardize organic certification.
Drip-irrigation water. In most cases, groundwater, surface water, rainwater, and potable water may be used in certified organic production. In some instances, the certifying agency may request a water analysis.
Drip-irrigation for drip-irrigation maintenance. Within stated restrictions (see Table 2, CFR 205.601 of the NOP lists the following substances as allowable as synthetic algaeide, disinfectant, sorrallites: 1) alcohols, including (a) ethanol and (b) isopropanol.; (2) chlorine materials (except that residual chlorine levels in the water shall not exceed the maximum residual disinfectant limit under the Safe Drinking Water Act, including (a) sodium hypochlorite; (b) chloride dioxide; (d) sodium hypophosphite; (3) hydrogen peroxide; and (4) soapbased algadece/degradements. Additionally, under NOP Rule CFR 205.105, citric acid is allowed when milling water needs to be acidified. (See Section 4.2 of this paper for why and how much)? However, other compounds commonly found in ready-to-use drip-iron compliant products being distributed through a hydroponic treatment and typically used in conventional systems (see Section 4.2, below) are prohibited in certified organic production.
Ferillant pesticides and pesticides. No specific ruling prohibits NOT-compliant products from being distributed through a drip irrigation system. Plans to use drip irrigation to distribute fertilizers and/or pesticides should be clearly outlined for approval in the Organic System Plan. When in doubt, consult first with your certifying agency. All growers are obligated to follow state and federal guidelines for injecting inputs through irrigation systems (see Section 2).
## 1.6 Is drip irrigation considered a Best Management Practice?
Yes. Best Management Practices (BMP)$\_{ }$ are cultural practices that help reduce the environmental impact of production while maintaining or increasing productivity. The BMP program for vegetables grown in Florida is described in "Water quality/quantity best management practices for Florida vegetable and agroeconomic crops" (Florida Department of Agriculture and
Consumer Services, 2005). The BMP manual describes all the BMPs that apply to water type and application process, as well as a decision-tree to identify each BMPs that apply to each operation and guidelines for completing and submitting the Notice of Patent to Implement (Gazula et al., 2007).
Participation in the Florida BMP program and the organic certification program are two separate processes. Vegetable generation who are enrolled in the statewide BMP program receive three statutory benefits: (1) a waiver of liability from reimbursement of cost and damages associated with the evaluation, assessment, or remediation of nitrate contamination of groundwater (Florida Statutes [F.S. 376.307); (2) a premium compliance with quality water standards (F.S. 403.067(7)); and (3) eligibility for cost-share programs (F.S. 570.085 (1)).
Specific vegetable BMPs that address drip irrigation include BMP 33 "Optimum fertilization application management", BMP 34 "Chemistry / fertigation", BMP 39 "Irrigation system maintenance and evaluation", and BMP 47 "Plasticité Forming". Additional BMPs involving drip irrigation include BWP 26 "Soil testing/soil pit", BWP 36 "Water supply" and BMP 40 "Irrigation scheduling". BMP implementation requires recording keep using (see Table 3). When properly implemented, all BMPs that apply to drip irrigation help to increase efficiency in the use of water and nutrients.
## 1. What is the best way (or best unit) to express irrigation rates when drip irrigation is used?
For irrigation systems that entirely wet the field (overhead or flood systems), irrigation rates are typically expressed in inches. This unit of measurement represents a vertical amount of water (or a height). The actual 'volume' of water is calculated by multiplying the height of water by the field surface. For example, 1 acre inch is the volume of water present on a 1acre field with a 1-inch depth: 1 acre inch - 27,154 gallons.
Because drip irrigation does not meet the entire width of the watering process, drip irrigation volumes may be poorly represented. Instead, drip irrigation volumes should be increased in gallons per-100-linear-foot-of-drip-tape. In some cases, drip-irrigation volumes can be converted to and from water heights by considering the relative surface of the field under plastic mulch. For example, the relative surface under plastic mulch is a 1-acre field with 30-inch wide-bed sides of 4 centers at 62.5% (2.5 x V/A 100). Hence, if 0.5 acres need inches to be applied to that field through a drip-irrigation system, the total volume of pesticides needed is 8,848 gallons (17.25 x 10,025). Because in a lacquer field with beds of 4-feet centers there are 18,000 linear-beam feet of plastic, the drip-irrigation rate should be reported as 78 gallons (100 r.s.i. 1080). If a drip tape with a 24-gal/100-floor-hr flow rate is used, it will take 3 hours and 15 minutes to apply this amount of water (78.3 - 3.25 hrs).
In heavy soil, so it is reasonable to assume that a drip tape installed in the middle of the bed we will be sufficient to wet the entire bed width. However, research has shown that, on Florida's sandy soils, the wetted width seldom exceeds 18 inches (1.5 ft) when a single drip tape was used. Hence, the assumption made in the calculation abovethatthe entire bed width is wetted (and therefore, irrigated)-is not correct for most drip-irrigation systems in Florida. The actual wetted width should be placed in place of the bed with the.
## 2. Components of a Drip-Irrigation System
The type and sequence of components in a drip-irrigation system are typically the same for all field sizes. Yet, based on field size (and water need), component sizes (diameter) may vary. Larger components tend to be more expensive. The backflow prevention devices--comprised of two check valves and the lowpressure drain, also known as "anti-spishing device"--are the only components required by Florida law (F vs. 487.021 and 487.055 and Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Rule 5E-2.030) when fertilizer or chemicals are injected into the system (See Section 2.6). The actual selection of a specific component (with the exception of the backflow-prevention device) generally needs to be made on a case-by-case basis. (See Table 11 for additional readings on this topic.) The following is a brief description of the main components of a typical drip-irrigation system.
## 2.1 Water Source
Common water sources for drip irrigation are surface water (pond, river, and creek), groundwater, and potable water (from municipality, county, or utility company) (Figure 1). Use the water source that will provide the largest amount of water of greatest quality and lowest cost. Potable water is of high, constant quality, but is by far the most expensive.
## 2.2 Pumping System
The role of the pumping system is to move water from the water source to the field through the distribution system. Pumping systems may be classified as electric powered systems, gas/diesel powered systems, and gravity systems. Gas/diesel pumps offer the greatest versatility in isolated fields (Figure 2).
The role of the distribution system is to convey the water from the source to the field. Distribution systems may be above ground (easily movable) or underground (less likely to be damaged). Pipes are most commonly made of PVC or polyethylene plastics. Aluminum pipes are also available, but are more difficult to customize, cut, and repair. The size and shape of the distribution system may vary widely from field to field and from farm to farm.
## 2.4 Drip Tape (or Drip Tueb)
The drip-irrigation system delivers water to each plant through a thin polyethylene tape (or tube) with regularly spaced small holes, called emitters. Selection of drip tape should be based on emitter spacing and flow rate. The typical emitter spacing for vegetables is 12 inches, but 8 inches or 4 inches may be acceptable. Dry sections of soil may develop between consecutive emitters when a wider emitter spacing (18 inches) is used on sandy soils. Flow rates are classified into low flow (c=20 gal/100 ft hr), medium flow (c=20 to 30 gal/100 ft hr) and high flow (>30 gal/100 ft hr). The risk of emitter clogging is generally higher with the lower-flow drip tapes.
The following equivalent units are commonly used to report flow rates: gal(100 ft hr/gallon/emitter/hr.) For example, with a 12-inch emitter spacing, 24 gal/100 ft hr = 24/100 = 0.24 gal/mitter/hr. In the field, drip-irrigation tape should be installed with emitters upward (looking up) to prevent clogging from sediment deposits settling in the emitters between irrigation events. Drip tapes are widely available from several manufacturers
## 2.5 Injectors
Injectors allow the introduction of fertilizer, chemicals, and maintenance products into the irrigation system. Florida law requires the use of an anti-siphoning device (also called backflow-prevention device) when fertilizer, chemicals, or any other products are injected into a drip-irrigation system (Figure 4). Backflow-prevention devices ensure the water always moves from the water source to the field. The devices prevent chemicals in the water from polluting the water source.
The most common injectors used with small drip-irrigation systems are the Venturi (or Mazzei) injector (Figure 4) and the Dosatron (Figure 5). Because Ventur injectors involve no moving parts and are less expensive, they are commonly used on small farms (Table 2). The injector is typically located as close as possible to the irrigation zone, but before the filter.
Credit: Eric Simonne.
## 2.6 Filtration System
Because drip-irrigation water must pass through the emitters, the size of the particles in the water must be smaller than the size of the emitter to prevent clogging. Nearly all manufacturers of drip-irrigation equipment recommend that filters be used. The manufacturer generally will not honor warranties unless filters are used.
The filtration system removes "large" solid particles in suspension in the water. Different types of filters are used based on the type of particles in the water. Media filters (often containing angular sand) are used with surface water when large amounts of organic matter (live or dead) need to be filtered out. Screen filters or disk filters may be used with groundwater (Figure 6). A 200-mesh screen or equivalent is considered adequate for drip irrigation. When the water contains sand, a sand separator should be used.
Figure 6. Disk filters are made of stacked disks with small openings. They are usually color coded to indicate the filtration mesh. Credit: Eric Simon.
Rapid clogging may occur when no filter or the incorrect type of filter is used. A filter needs to be cleaned when the difference in pressure across the filter (measured before and after filter) is greater than 5-8 psi. A drip irrigation system should never be operated without a filter even if the filter requires frequent cleaning. Failure to use a filter will result in clogged drip-tape emitters, often resulting in poor uniformity and sometimes in crop loss. The filter should be cleaned as often has needed. Efforts should be made to understand the cause of the rapid clogging, and remediation for the problem should be developed.
The presence of the filter after the point of fertilizer injection means totally soluble fertilizers must be used. Otherwise fertilizer particles may contribute to filter clogging. Conventional growers may use two types of fertilizer materials: ready-to-use true solutions or dissolved granular fertilizer. Ready-to-use solutions are easily injected. However, granular fertilizers are sometimes coquited with a thin layer of oil on top of the dusting. Upon dissolution of the fertilizer granules, an oily film may attract the surface of the solution. Injecting the oily film together with the fertilizer may contribute to filter and emitter clogging. Certified organic fertilizers are seldom true solutions (they may be suspensions or dilute colloidal solutions), and may also contribute to filter clogging. Consequently, the actual fertilizer rate applied may be reduced by the amount of fertilizer particles trapped by the filter. In both cases, smallscale trials may need to be assessed the clogging risk of each fertilizer material used.
## 2.7 System Controls
System controls are devices that allow the user to monitor how the drip-irrigation system performs. These controls help ensure the desired amount of water is applied to the crop throughout the growing season.
Pressure regulators, installed in-line with the system, regulate water pressure at a given water flow (Figure 7), thereby helping to protect system components against damaging surges in water pressure. Pressure surges may occur when the water in the pipe has a velocity >5 feet /second ("water hammer") or when water flowing in the pipe has no avenue for release due to a closed valve or a clog in the pipe.
Credit: Eric Simone.
Credit: Eric Simonne.
Soil-moisture-measuring devices (such as tensionometers, capacitance probes, or Time Domain Reflectometry probes) are used to measure soil moisture in the root zone of the crop (Muñoz-Carpena 2004). The Florida Extension Service recommends maintaining soil-water tension between 8 and 12 centibars 6 inches away from the drip tape and at the 12-inch depth.
Electrical timers connected to solenoid valves (Figure 11) may be used to automatically operate a drip-irrigation system at pre-set starting and ending operating times of day.
## 3. Tips for Design and Layout
Irrigation engineers are trained and certified to properly design drip-irrigation systems. Relying on their expertise will pay off in the long run. Many small-scale growers abandon drip irrigation because of poor performance of flawed designs or inadequately modified designs. Do not hesitate to ask for professional help when designing your drip-irrigation system or when planning major modifications to an existing system. The following section presents the basics of system design, but is not a substitute for the professional services of a qualified engineer.
## 3.1 Planning a Drip Irrigation System: Horticultural Considerations
The goal of drip irrigation is to bring water to the crop. The main parameters that determine crop water use are the type of crop planted and row spacing. A drip irrigation system should be able to supply 110%-120% of crop water needs. In other words, the system should be slightly oversized. In designing a drip-irrigation system, it is common to consider that vegetable crops ordinarily need approximately 1.5-acre-inches of water for each week of growth or approximately 20-acre-inches of water per crop. Actual crop water use will be more or less than this amount, depending on weather and irrigation efficiency.
## 3.2 Planning a Drip Irrigation System: Design Considerations
Start with what is already available-the water source or the field. If a water source is already available (pond or well), the amount of water available may be used to calculate the maximum size of each irrigation zone (Table 4).
If no water source is available, the amount of water needed by the crop-based on the size of the planted area-may be used to calculate the type of well or pond size needed (Table 5). Lay out of beds and rows. Because differences in altitudes affect water pressure, it is preferable to lay out beds perpendicular to the slope. This arrangement of rows is called 'contour farming' (Figure 12).
Figure 12. In contour farming, rows are laid perpendicular to the natural field slope, which allows each drip tape to be parallel to each other and contour (The drip tape is laid horizontally).
Credit: Eric Simonne.
## Pipe sizing. Larger-diameter pipes are more expensive than smaller-diameter pipes, but larger-diameter pipes carry more water
to avoid excessive pressure losses and velocities should be able to withstand a pressure of $80 psi.
Excessive pressure losses result in a large difference in pressure from the pressure level at the beginning of the line compared to the pressure level at the end of the line. Since the flow rate of the emitters is usually a function of water pressure, the water application at the beginning of the line may be very different from the water application at the end of the line. This difference will result in irregular water application on the crop.
Excessive water velocities (-5 ft/sec) in the lines -the result of a too-small diameter -are likely to create a water hammer (pressure wave), which can damage the delivery lines. Growers should be aware of the maximum acreage that can be irrigated with different pipe sizes at a water velocity of 5 feet/second (Table 6).
Excessive length of drip tape should be based on the manufacturer's recommendation and the actual terrain slope. Typically 400-600 feet are maximum values for drip-tape length. Excessive length of laterbs will result in poor uniformity and uneven water application. When the field is longer than 400-600 feet, consider placing the secondary (submain) line in the middle of the field -rather than at the end -and connect drip tape on both sides.
## 3.3 Layout Tips
A Y connector is convenient on a drip system connected to a hoose bibble because a garden hose can be connected to the other side.
To evaluate source flow rate, run water full force from an outside faucet and note the number of seconds required to fill a bucket of known volume. Calculate the gallons of flow per hour (ghb) by dividing the bucket size in gallons by the number of seconds required to fill it, then multiply by 3600 seconds for gallons-per-hour:
System Flow rate (in ghb) -Bucket volume (in gallons) is needed to fill (in seconds) x 3,600 seconds per hour
The maximum flow is considered to be 75% of the flow rate measure above. Maximum flow is the largest number of gallons available for use at one time while operating a drip irrigation zone.
Use good plugs to plug holes in the mainline that are no lower needed due to system modification.
Common setup mistakes include not installing a filter or air pressure reducer, using excessively high lengths of mainline, and/or adding too many drip emitters.
Zones should be approximately the same size throughout your drip irrigation system. Variation in zones will reduce the efficiency of pump operation. When all zones are of the same size, pipe sizes and system cost will normally be minimal. The length of the mainline should not exceed 200 feet in a single zone.
Pressure regulators may be required if the pressure produced by the pump is too large or if valves vary greatly in size. If the pump was sized for a previously existing sprinkler system, it likely operates under that area except for the components of the drip system. If a different size of components must be used, the pump must deliver the amount of water required in the largest zone at the pressure required by tape used for lateral lines. If some zones are significantly smaller, the pump will produce higher pressure at the smaller discharges by these nozzles. This pressure must be reduced by pressure regulators to the pressure-level required by the drip tape in the lateral lines.
## 4. Drip System Maintenance and Operation
The goal of drip-irrigation maintenance is to preserve the high uniformity of water application allowed by drip irrigation. A successful program of maintenance for a drip-irrigation system is based on the prevention-is-best-medicine approach. It is easier to prevent a drip tape from clogging than to "unlock" it or see it replace readings on additional topics.
## 4.1 Water Sampling for Drip Irrigation
An essential part of drip-irrigation management is determining water quality through water testing. Water testing will help determine water chemical composition, pH, and hardness (Table 7). These parameters have direct implications on elimination, acidification, and filtration needs for irrigation water. Analyses performed by the UF/IFAS Extension Soil Testing Laboratory (UF/IFAS ESTL) determine plant electrical conductivity, CaMg, Fe Mn, Mn, CI, NH3, and chlorides, stations, and suspended solids. (A sample water test information sheet is available at https://edis.ifas.edu/pdfs/SSS\_SSS18400.pdf.) These tests are designed to test water suitability for irrigation; they do not indicate whether water is suitable for human consumption.
## 4.2 The Prevention-Is-the-Best-Medicine Maintenance Program for Drip Irrigation
This maintenance program is based on filtration, chlorination/acidification, flushing, and observation (see Table 8). Filters were described in section 2.5, above. Chlorination and acidification go together.
Chlorination consists of the introduction of a chlorinating compound (most often chlorine gas or sodium hydrochlorite) that produces hypochlorous acid (HOCl). In its non-dissociated form, hypochlorous acid oxidizes normal matter and precipitates iron and manganese.
The chlorination point should be placed before the main filters so the precipitates form by the chlorination can be removed from the water. In Florida, most groundwater is alkaline (pil up to 8.4). The proportion of hypochlorous acid in the non-dissociated form (HOCI) is significantly greater at lower pH. Hence, acidification makes chlorination more efficient. In conventional production, hydrochloric acid (HCI and also called muriatic acid), sulfuric acid, or phosphoric acid may be used.
The amount of acid and chlorine needed to achieve a 1- or 2-ppm free chlorine concentration at the end of the line may be calculated by following the direction provided in EDIS Publication CIRI039 Irrigation System with Clarinine . When applied correctly, the small amount of chlorine needed for drip-tape maintenance will be harmless to the crop grown in the soil.
Water acidification may be a challenge in certified organic production because NOP standards allow only acetic acid, citric acid, peracetic acid, and other natural acids for use as a cleaner for drip-rip irrigation systems. It may take large, uncarpetical, and expensive amounts of these acids to significantly reduce water pH.
Certified organic growers have three alternative options for drip-tape maintenance. First, chlorinationmay be done without acidification although this is less efficient and will require more product. Second, economical and feasible, certified organic growers can choose to use potable water for drip-tape maintenance. Potable water may have a lower pH than well, but chemicals, and analyses, on third-non-chlorine-based products--such as natural chelating agents, hydrogen peroxide, or ozone--maybe used to oxidize oral organic matter in the water. In doubt, however, consult with your certifying agency for an acceptable plan for maintenance of your drip irrigation system.
Flushing may be accomplished automatically at each irrigation cycle when self-flushing ends ca use are added. Additional labor is required for flushing when the drip tape is tied or capped. Flushing may also be achieved by increasing pressure so that the temporarily increase water velocity in the drip tape to 4-6 fl/sec. Flushing takes all the precipitates and slime that may develop outside of the drip tape.
Observation and record keeping are needed throughout the season to ensure that the performance of the drip-rig irrigation systems does not change. Measure pressure and flow, including how these change throughout the season (Table 9).
## 4.3 Scheduling Drip Irrigation
An adequate method of irrigation scheduling is needed to decrease water needs, maximize crop yield and uniformity, and reduce nutrient movement below the root zone.
Scheduling irrigation consists of knowing when to start irrigation and how much to apply. A complete irrigation scheduling problem should be programmed for drip-rijigated vegetables includes a target rate of water application adjusted to weather demand and plant age (Table 10), as well as a measurement of soil moisture, an assessment of rainfall contribution, a rule for splitting irrigation, and detailed record keeping (Tables 3 and 11). The actual size of the wetted zone may be visualized by injecting a soluble dye into the water and digging the soil profile (Simone et al., 2005).
Because drip irrigation does not wet the entire field, the test unit for expressing crop water needs and irrigation amounts is water-per-length-of-row, such as gallons-per-100 -feet (gal/floor), which is the most commonly used unit. Vertical amounts of water (expressed in inches; | acre inch = 27.154 gallons) are commonly used with overhead and seepage irrigation, but should not be used for drip irrigation. (See Table 11 for additional readings on this topic.)
## 4.4 Fertigation and Chemington
Fertigation (the injection of soluble fertilizer through the drip-irrigation system) should be considered an integral part of the fertility program based on soil testing. Detailed fertigation schedules for all major vegetable crops grown in Florida are available in the Vegetable Production Handbook for Florida (https://edis.ifls.ut.edu/cfv229). This series of EDIS publications is available online at https://ifsis.afs.ifis.org/topic\_VPILE\_PROPERNutrient management for vegetables grown with drip irrigation includes (1) soil testing, (2) understanding the recommendation (3), correctly calculating fertilizer rates (see Table 12), (4) monitoring plant nutrient content, and (5) trapping residual nutrients by planting a second cash crop or a cover crop. In addition, fertilizer applications should be properly calibrated.
Conventional growers have a wide array of soluble fertilizer sources to choose from. Important characteristics of liquid fertilizers are the fertilizer content (bits of N, P$\_{o}$)$\_{5}$ and K$\_{O}$(gall) of liquid fertilizer) and the ratio among elements. When the P$\_{o}$$\_{5}$ is capped, plant-prepared, no vegetative plants require a 1:1 type of liquid fertilizer (as much (K$\_{SO}$) as N and No p$\_{NO}$). However, certified grower recognizes fewer choices for liquid fertilizers. The NOP rule limits the use of sodium nitrate (NON$\_{3}$) to 20% of the total N. For example, if the seasonal N rate is 150 lbs/A-as for watermelon or cantoule (mumps), 20% of the seasonal N represents 30 lbs N/A-season. If the seasonal N rate is 200 lbs/A-as for tomato and bell pepper, 20% represents 40 lbs N/A-season. Formulations of seaweed or fish emulsions may be allowed by the NOP, but the use of these fertilizers in a drip-irrigation system may increase the risk of emitter clogging.
## 5. Glossary of Terms
Acid : A compound that releases H + ions when dissolved into solution. Compounds such as hydrochloric acid (HCl) or acetic acid (CH$\_{3}$-COOH) are acids.
Acidification : The introduction of an acid-such as phosphoric, sulfuric, or hydrochloric (muriatic) acid-into an irrigation system. This practice is mostly done in maintenance to improve the effectiveness of chlorination.
Algiicide : A substance toxic to algae.
Antispi hone (service see backflow-prevention device): A safety device used to prevent back flow of irrigation water into the water source by back-siphonage.
Application efficiency : The percentage of water applied by an irrigation system and stored in the root zone available for water use.
Application rate : The average rate at which water is applied by an irrigation system. For drip irrigation, rate is expressed as gallons·hour/100 ft or gallons·minute/emitter.
Backflow-prevention device (see anti-spi hone device): A device required by Florida law and preventing contaminated water from being sucked back into the water source should a reverse-flow situation occur.
Bactericide : A substance that kills bacteria.
Base : A compound that produces OH$\_{1}$ ions when dissolved into solution. Compounds such as potassium hydroxide (KOH!) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH!). are bases.
Best Management Practices (BMP): A set of cultural practices known to increase the efficiency of the irrigation and fertilization program while minimizing the environmental impact of production.
Certifying agency: An independent, accredited third party that verifies that a certified-organic operation is compliant with the regulations described in the National Organic Standards as appropriate for their farming system.
Chelate : A compound that binds polyvalent metals at two or more cation-exchange sites. Chelate is often a component of ready-to-use formulations for drip-irrigation cleaning. The use of synthetic chaltes is not allowed in certified-organic production for cleaning drip-irrigation systems, but synthetic chaltees may be used in certified-organic production to correct a documented micronutrient deficiency.
Chemigation : A general term referring to the application of water-soluble chemicals into the drip-irrigation system. Chemigation includes (when allowable) the application of fertilizers, acides, chlorine and pesticides.
Chlorination : The introduction of chlorine-at a calculated rate-into an irrigation system. Chlorination can use liquid sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) or chlorine gas. Some chlorinating agents are allowed in certified organic production.
Cleaning agent : A substance used to remove dirt, filth, and contaminants.
Control valve : A device used to control the flow of water. Control valves turn on and off water to the individual zones.
Detergent : A synthetic substance that is not a soap and that is used to change the surface tension to remove oil and grease and other substances relatively insoluble in water. Detergents are not allowed in certified organic production.
Disk filter : A stack of round, grooved disks used to filter water in a drip-irrigation system. As the size of the groves decreases, the more the water is filtered. Each disk has groves on both sides. Sediments and organic matter accumulate on the disks as water passes through the grooves. Disks are reusable. Once taken apart, they can be easily cleaned with pressured water and/or a detergent solution.
Drip irrigation : A method of irrigation using the slow application of water under low pressure through tube openings or attached devices just above, at or below the soil surface.
Electronic Database Information System (EDIS): The online database where the science-based, peer-reviewed, and up-to-date recommendations of UF/IFAS Extension are accessible (https://edis.fsa.uf.edu).
Emitter: A dispensing device or opening in a micro-irrigation tube that regulates water application. An emitter creates a controlled flow expressed in gallons/minute/emitter or gallons/100 l/hr.
Emitter spacing: Distance between two consecutive emitters. Typical emitter spacings for vegetable crops are 4, 8, and 12 inches.
Evapotranspiration (ET): The combined losses of water by evaporation from the soil and transpiration from the plant.
Fertigation: The application of soluble fertilizer (plant nutrients) through a drip irrigation system. Fertigation is allowed in certified-organic systems provided the fertilizer sources used are allowed by NOP standards.
Field capacity: The water content of the soil after all free water has been allowed to drain by gravity.
Filter: A canister device containing a screen or a series of disks of a specified mesh or filled with a coarse solid medium and designed to catch solid particles large enough to clog emitters.
Fittings: The array of coupling and closure devices used to construct a drip system and including connectors, tees, elbows, good plugs, and end caps. Fittings may be of several types, including compression, barbed, or locking (spin ring or ring).
Flow: The amount of water that moves through pipes in a given period of time. For micro-irrigation (dirip irrigation), flow is expressed in gallons-per-hour (gph) or gallons-per-minute (gpm).
Flow meter: A device used to measure changes in flow in a drip irrigation system over the course of a crop cycle.
Goof plug: An inert capused to plug holes in mainline and microbes where drop drivers have been removed or are no longer needed or when an accidental hole needs to be plugged.
Houple: A punch device that makes round holes in the pipe so to connect drip tape with latwaters (available in different diameters).
Hydrochloric acid (HCl): An acid often used to lower the pH of water to increase the efficiency of chlorination. Use of HCl is prohibited in certified organic production.
Hypochloride (IHOCI): The weak acid generated by chlorinating products. Hypochlorous acid destroys organic matter. Use of IHOCI is restricted in organic production.
Irrigation schedule: The watering plan and procedures that determine the proper amount of water to apply, the operating time, and the frequency of an irrigation event.
Mainline: The tubing used in the drip system. Mainline is sometimes called lateral line. It may be made of hard PVC or soft polyethylene material and comes in diameters ranging from 0.5 to 4 inches.
Mazzie injector (see venturii injector): Patented Tshaped, venturii-type injector that does not involve moving parts.
Media filter: A pressurized tank filled with fine gravel and sand. The sand is placed on top of the gravel. Sharp-edged sand or crush rock are more efficient in catching soft algal tissue than round particles. Media filters should be used for filtering water that contains high levels of organic matter.
Micro-irrigation: Synonym for drip irrigation.
Muriatic Acid: Another name for hydrochloric acid (HCl).
National Organic Program (NOP): Federal program created as a result of the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 (title IX if the 1990 Farm Bill) and operated under the USDA Agriculture Research Service (http://www.ams.usda.gov/index.html ).
Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI): A national nonprofit organization that determines which input products are compliant with the National Organic Program Standards (http://www.omri.org). The use of OMRI-listed products requires the approval of a certifying agency. Listing of a product on ORMI lists is not a guarantee of efficacy.
Overfertigating: Applying more fertilizer than the recommended rate. Overfertigating may result in nutrient leaching below the root zone.
Overwating: Applying more water than necessary to meet the need crop the crops and/or applying in water excess of soil water-holding capacity. Overwatering potentially results in nutrient leaching below the root zone.
Part-per-million (ppm): The ratio of one in one million: ppm 1 = 1/1,000,000. The "ppm" measurement may also represent concentrations: 1 ppm = 1 mg/L.; 1%; 1% = 10,000 ppm.
Percatetic (acid also known as peroxyacetic): A mixture of acetic acid (CH$\_{4}$-COOH) and hydrogen peroxide (H$\_{2}$O)$\_{3}$ in an aqueous solution that can be used in certified organic production as a substitute for prohibited chlorination products.
Permanent wilting point: The water content of the soil in the plant root zone when the plant can no longer extract water from the soil.
PL: a number between 0 and 14 that represents the amount of acidity (1) H$^{+}$ ion concentration) in solution and calculated as: pH=log[1] pH can be simply measured with a pH-meter. A solution is acidic when pH=1,7 neutral when pH=1,7, and basic when pH=1,7 pH reflects the solubility and ionic forms in solution. pHil is the single most important chemical parameter for water or soil.
Phosphoric acid (HI$\_{2}$PO$\_{4}$): An acid often used to lower the pH of water to so increase the efficiency of chlorination. Use of phosphoric acid is prohibited in certified organic production.
Pressure: The "force" propelling water through pipes. Common static (nonflowing) pressure in irrigation systems is 20-70 pounds(pers-square-inch). Irrigation systems operate under dynamic (flowing) water pressure, which is reduced with elevation gain and friction loss caused by the water rubbing on the sides of pipes.
Pressure due to gravity (in pounds-per-square-inches pgsi): This measurement may be calculated as gain (downhill) or loss (uphill) by multiplying the height of the water column in feet by 0.433. For example, if a 200-foot drip tape is laid on a field with downhill slope of 3 ft /100 ft (3%), the gain in pressure due to gravity will be 200 x 0.03 x 0.433 - 2.59 psi.
Pressure loss: The loss of water pressure under flow conditions caused by debris in a filter, filtration in pipes and parts, and election changes.
Pressure rating: The maximum pressure pipe or drip-system component is able to handle without failing. For example, Clas 160 PVC pipe refers to plastic irrigation pipe with a pressure rating of 160 pounds per square inch (psi). Aluminum irrigation pipe has a pressure rating of 145-150 psi. These pressure ratings will normally be adequate for mainsin drip-irrigation systems.
Pressure-relief valve: A valve that opens and discharges to the atmosphere to relieve the high pressure condition when pressure in a pipeline exceeds a pre-set point.
Pressure-compensating emitter: An emitter designated to maintain a constant output (flow) over a wide range of operating pressures and elevations.
Pressure-sensitive emitter: An emitter releases more water at the higher pressures and less at lower pressures, which are common with longmainlines or terrain changes.
Pressure regulator: A device that reduces incoming pressure for lowpressure drip systems. Typical household water pressure is up to 50-60 psi while drip systems are designed to operate so not exceed 8-12 psi in the drip tape. Due to friction losses, pressure in the delivery pipes may be 20-30 psi, thenby requiring a pressure regulator. The important ratings of a pressure regulator are the diameter, the downstream pressure and the maximum flow allowed by the pressure regulator.
Root zone: The depth and width of soil profile occupied by the roots of the plants being irrigated.
Sand separator: A device also called hydrocyclone that utilizes centrifugal force to separate sand and other heavy particles out of water. It is not a true filter, but could be considered a
pre-filter.
Screen filter: A type of filter using a rigid screen to separate sand and other particulates out of irrigation water.
Self-flushing end cap: A spring-loaded device that lets water go out at the end of the drip tape when the water pressure is less than the threshold of the cap.
Sulfuric acid (IH$\_{SO}$$\_{4}$): An acid often used to lower the pH of water so to increase the efficiency of chlorination. Use of sulfuric acid is prohibited in certified organic production.
Sulfur, powdered: Elemental sulfur (S) in the yellow powder form is allowed in certified organic production. It is commonly used to decrease soil pH, but this requires chemical conversion by soil microorganisms. Powdered sulfur should not be used for chlorination purposes.
Soap: Alkaline salts of fatty acids used to remove hydrophilic particles.
Strong acid: An acid that is totally dissociated in water. Common strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulfuric acid (I$\_{2}$SO$\_{4}$).
Tape-to-tiale connector: A device sometimes called a rubbed adapter and that is placed at the end of the drip tape (screw end) to connect it with the lateral (snap end).
Tape-to-tiape connector: A device used to repair or replace a leaking section of drip tape. The tape-to-tiape connector allows two pieces of drip tape to be connected together.
Triclek irrigation: Synonym for drip irrigation.
Turbulent-flow emitter: Emmitters with a series of chemicals that force water to flow faster, thereby preventing particles from settling out and plugging the emitter.
Uniformity of water application: A measure of the spatial variability of water applied or stored in an irrigated field down a row and across several rows. Uniformity of water application is usually expressed as a percentage, 100% representing perfect uniformity.
Venutir injector: A tapered constriction which operates on the principle that a pressure drop accompanies the change in velocity of the water as it passes through the construction. The pressure drop through a venturi must be sufficient to create a negative pressure (vacuum), relative to atmospheric pressure. Under these conditions, fluid from the tank will flow into the injector.
Water applied: The amount of water actually applied during an irrigation cycle. For drip irrigation, it is expressed in gallons/l 00 feet of drip tape.
Water hardness: The sum of multi-valent ions -such as calcium, magnesium, aluminum, iron or-in-solution. Hardness is expressed in mg/L of calcium carbonate equivalent, and its value is used to classify the water as soft (0-20 mg/L), moderately soft (20-40 mg/L), slightly hard (40-60 mg/L), moderately hard (60-80 mg/L), hard (80-120 mg/L), or very hard (-120 mg/L).
Water alkalinity: Ability of water to neutralize acids. Water alkalinity is based on the content of hydroxide (OH$^{+}$), carbonate (CO$\_{3}$)$^{+}$and bicarbonate (HCO$\_{3}$)$^{-}$ions.
Water velocity: The speed at which water travels inside a pipe, usually expressed in feet/second.
Water hammer: Pressure surge that occurs because of sudden stoppage or reduction in flow or because of a change in direction of flow. Water hammer may be reduced by slowly turning water on and also by an irrigation system design in which water velocity is less than 5 feet/second.
Weak acid: An acid that is only partially dissociated in water. Common weak acids are phosphoric acid (IH$\_{PO}$$\_{4}$), boronic acid (IB$\_{BO}$$\_{4}$), acetic acid (CH$\_{3}$O$\_{4}$)(COOH), and citric acid (CQH$\_{[]}$(CO$\_{II}$·CH$\_{(COI}$$\_{III}$·COH$\_{(CI}$$\_{II}$·CHO$\_{(I}$$\_{II}$))}$·COH$\_{(I}$$\_{II}$)).
Zone: A section of an irrigation system that can be operated at one time by means of a single control valve.
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Kidger, G. E. A. Hanlon, 2003. Neutralizing excess carbonates from irrigation water. SLI42. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
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Agricultural Sciences. https://efils.utfi.edu/cv292
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Zavetsa, F.S.A.G. Smnistraja and G.A. Clark. 2002. Irrigation System Controlers. SSAGE22/AE077. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
Zotarelli, L., P. J. Dittmar, M. Ozores-Hampton, N.S. Dufault, B. Wells, J.W. Noling, E.J. McAvoy, Q. Wang, and C.F. Miller. 2017. "Chapter 6. Cole Crop Production." Vegetable Production Handbook . HST724. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. https://diseas.ifu.edu/cxtl22
Zotarelli, L., P. J. Dittmar, P.D. Roberts, J.W. Noling, and A.B. Wells. 2017. "Chapter 14. Potato Production." Vegetable Production Handbook . HIST733. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. https://diseas.ifu.edu/cxl31
Zotarelli, L., M. Dukes, G. Liu, E.H. Simonone, and S. Aghara. 2017. "Chapter 3. Principles and Practices of Irrigation Management for Vegetables." Vegetable Production Handbook . AE260. Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. https://diseas.ifu.edu/cx107
| Tables | Tables |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------|
| Table 1. | |
| Estimated itemized startup fixed costs and annual operating costs for a 2-inch-diameter drip irrigation system for 10 acres" View Table | |
| |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Fertilization and irrigation record keeping requirements for the Florida vegetable BMP program (all apply to drip irrigation) |
View Table
Determining how much water can be stored in a pond
View Table
Determining water needed from a well based on estimated crop water use and irrigated acreage
View Table
Components of the "prevention-is-best-medicine" maintenance plan for drip-irrigation systems z
View Table
A checklist for maintenance of a drip-irrigation system during the growing season?
View Table
Summary of irrigation-scheduling recommendations for vegetables grown with drip irrigation
Additional reliable resources related to drip irrigation
Table 12.
Release Date: July 19, 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-h388-2008
Contacts: Bob HochmuthanDiele TreadwellWanda Lauglin
## View PDF
## Disclaimers
The use of trade names in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information. UF/IFAS does not guarantee or warranty the products named, and references to them in this publication do not signify our approval to the exclusion of other products of suitable composition.
All chemicals should be used in accordance with directions on the manufacturer's label.
Use pesticides safely. Read and follow directions on the manufacturer's label.
This document is HIS1144, one of a series of the Horticultural Sciences Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date June 2008. Revised July 2018. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.edu/.
## About the Authors
Eric Simonne, professor, Horticultural Sciences Department, and Northeast district Extension director; Robert Hochmuth, regional specialized Extension agent IV - vegetables and assistant center director UF/IFAS North Florida Research and Education Center; Jacque Breman, emeritus Extension Agent IV; UF/IFAS Extension Columbia County; William Lamont, professor, Penn State University; Danielle Treadwell, associate professor, Horticultural Sciences Department; Aparna Gazula, small farm advisor, University of California Cooperative Extension Santa Clara County; and Charles Barrett, regional specialized agent - water resources; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Horticultural Sciences
Organic Production |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/AE607 | Variable Rate Technology and Its Application in Precision Agriculture | University of Florida | [
"Vivek Sharma",
"Uday Bhanu Prakash Vaddevolu",
"Shiva Bhambota",
"Yiannis Ampatzidis",
"Haimanote Bayabil",
"Aditya Singh"
] | 2025-01-22 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Variable Rate Technology and Its Application in Precision Agriculture
Vivek Sharma, Uday Bhanau Prakash Vädevolu, Shiva Bhambota, Yiannis Ampatzidis, Haimanote Bayabil, and Aditya Singh
## Introduction
The aim of this publication is to discuss the concept of variable rate technology (VRT), and its components associated with variable rate application of water, fertilizer, and other agricultural inputs. This publication also provides an example of the control system for variable rate application of agricultural inputs in row and tree crops. The document provides useful information on VRT to students, research scientists, Extension agents, growers, agricultural consultants, and state agency personnel.
## Variable Rate Technology
In traditional agriculture, the same amount of agricultural input is applied across the field regardless of within-field variability, such as topography, variation in soil type, texture, or organic matter content, etc. This 'one size fits all' approach to applying inputs may lead to either under- or over-applications of inputs, and consequently, variations in yield across the field, but it further impacts environmental sustainability and farm economics (Lark and Stafford 1997).
In the last two decades, successful advancements in precision agriculture technologies such as VRT have enabled the site-specific (i.e., individual plant or management unit) application of water, fertilizer, and other inputs such as herbicides or pesticides to manage spatial and temporal variables in yields within a agricultural fields. According to the USDA Agricultural Resource Management Survey, the current adoption rate of VRT from the United States has increased with 68% across major commodity crops (comn: 71%, soybean: 76%, cotton: 74%, winter wheat: 68%, and sorghum: 57%) (USDA 2023). Survey results from 2016-2019 also indicated the increase in the use of VRT from 3.9% to 8.6% of crop planted acres in pesticide application, 9% to 25.3% of crop planted acres in seeding rate, and 8% to 28.2%. Of planted acres in fertilizers/lime application. Recent developments in artificial intelligence (AI) and sensor technologies have boosted adoption of VRT in the US, worldwide.
The VRT enables growers and their crop advisors to precisely apply the agricultural inputs (such as water, nutrients, chemicals, etc.) at variable rates in response to the spatial variability within the field. This can be achieved by integrating into different farming practices like seeding, irrigation, fertilization, and pesticide/fungicide application. VRT can be adopted into farming practices in two methods: (1) map-based (Figure 1, 2, and 3), and (2)) and sensor-based (Figure 4). When used appropriately, both techniques assist growers and other agricultural players to optimize crop yields, reduce input and labor costs, increase farm net revenue, and minimize environmental degradation (Griˇsso et al., 2011; Campos et al., 2020).
## Map-Based VRT
Map-based VRT requires spatial data collection, and processing aimed at generating prescription maps using data from sensors (such as soil moisture sensors, soil electrical conductivity [EC] sensors, or drone satellite analysis) as proxies of spatial variability of the parameter of interest. The prescription maps are then converted into a set of instructions that control the actual variable rate application system. The basic steps involved in the map-based VRT include:
- 1. A process of investigating the field conditions - soil topography, soil types, soil properties, soil moisture variation, existing crop data, yield, biomass variation using soil sampling, remotely sensed images, or historical yield biomass data
- 2. Generating the site-specific maps for the property of interest
- 3. Using a computer algorithm to develop the site-specific application map also known as a prescription map.
- 4. Updating the prescription map to the relative variance of the contactor to the variable rate application of inputs.
Growers and their crop advisors can adopt different techniques, such as simple use of soil maps from Web Soil Survey (https://websearchresults.ncsu.udg.gov/api/), grid soil sampling, EC mapping (Veris Technologies), or remote sensing to assess the field variability. Each of these methods has advantages and disadvantages and varies in cost. In soil grid sampling, the field is divided into different grids, and soil samples are collected from each grid and analyzed for desired soil property. For the information on grid soil sampling, refer to Ask IFAS Publication S190, "UEJANITES NutrientManagement: Series Sampling: Strategies for Precision Agriculture." The EVIC's mapping can be used to understand a field's soil texture and organization material variability. However, these datasets are often collected at the point scale. For simplicity, constant values of the measured property (such as soil EC) are assigned to each sampling area or grid for variable rate applications of input (figure 1).
Precise application of agricultural inputs requires a continuous, varying map at high resolution. Geographic Information System (GIS) interpolation techniques (Sharma et al. 2013) can be used to develop the continuous variability map (Figure 2). However, proper training is necessary to develop these maps through such techniques. Alternatively, multispectral images collected using drones or satellites can be used as proxies of parameters of interest (e.g., normalized difference vegetation index [NDVI]) and other vegetation indices [VII]) to capture the within-field spatial variability (Figure 3). For more information on drone images, refer to Ask IFAS publication AE565, "Yps of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), Sensing Technologies, and Software for Agricultural Applications."
(a) Grid Soil Sampling (b) Interpolated
Figure 3. Spatiotemporal variation of corn normalized difference vegetation index (NUVF) captured using an unmanned aerial system (UFA) at the UF/IFAS North Florida Research and Education Center, Swaminer, Valley UF/IFAS NFREPS-SVC; Live, Gulf, Alabama, FL 05679.
(c) Management Zones for Prescription Map
(d) Interpolated (e) Management Zones for Prescription Map
(f) Management Zones for Prescription Map
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## Sensor-Based Variable Rate Application
- · The adoption rate is increasing. More accurate in situ sensing mechanisms are required to differentiate soil-plant-weed within the field.
- · Pre-data analysis is not required. Field information generally collected in real time for variable application of agricultural inputs.
- Multispectrum remote sensing images are not required.
- DJGPS is not required.
- · Analysis of soil plant/spark samples is not required.
- Initial investment is high.
- The sampling size is the individual plant.
## Application of Sensor-Driven Decision Support System
Over the years, many technological solutions and sensing mechanisms have been developed to synchronize the sensor's measurement with the desired application rate on-the-go. In general, the system consists of a sensing mechanism, a control interface, a display and control module, a GPS unit, and a variable rate applicator unit. The sensing mechanism is typically mounted in front of the optical equipment unit to provide the variable rate applicator unit enough to adjust the rate before the applicator units pass the sensed location. A sensing mechanism must be installed directly over the target (crop, soil, weeds, etc.) facing downward. For effective data collection, it is advisable to mount the sensing mechanism 2.5 ft to 3.5 ft above the target.
Currently, most commercially available on-the-go sensing mechanisms are based on active light sensors. The sensors emit their own light on the target and measure the light reflected by the target. In most cases, these in-house light sources are unaffected by clouds, shadows, sunlight, and other interfering light sources. They enable use of these sensors in varying solar conditions, even in the night. This reflected signal is used to calculate certain properties of the target, which is further used in conjunction with an algorithm and variable rate unit to apply agriculturally variables.
## Sensor-Based Fertilizer Applicator for Row Crops
Sensor-based variable rate fertilizer applicators have also been developed for row crops. One example of an active sensor that emits red and infrared light is the GreenSeeker sensor. It calculates the NDVI values based on the light plant effects. The sensor continues to sample the scanned area and provided an average NDVI reading (ranging from 0.00 to 0.99). The NDVI is based on the reflectance from plants near-infrared (NIR) and red regions as follows:
## Equation 1.
The NDVI generated by the sensor provides an input data source for the electronic circuit, which consists of a microcontroller system and transfers the data based on the sensor algorithm to a proportional solenoid valve. A proportional solenoid valve changes the liquid flow rate by varying the voltage provided for the valve by the microcontroller. A nozzle is attached to one end of the solenoid valve to dispense foliar spray. The complete system is mounted and operated by a tractor (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Conceptual schematic of a sensor-based variable rate fertilizer applicator. Credit: Vivk Sharma, UF/IFAS
In general, the algorithm is a set of equations that will convert sensor readings into an application rate. Although some custom functions are available for different crops, it is advisable to develop a site-specific algorithm for the relevant crop region. To develop an algorithm, the first step is to develop a relationship between the sensor measurements (e.g., NDVI) and the crop properties of concern (e.g., yield, leaf nitrogen content, chlorophyll content, etc.). Once the relationship (equation) is developed, the next step is to determine the application rate as a function of sensor reading. Figure 4 represents the schematic of the sensor-based variable rate fertilizer application system.
Often, developing this relationship and determining the variable application rate require research-based data and vary considerably based on management practices, etc. An alternative approach is the use of nitrogen-rich strips or ramped calibration strips. The idea is to compare the spatial variability of the crop growth within the field to crop growth from the nitrogenstrip, where nitrogen is not a yield-limiting factor. Consequently, as the variable rate applicator covers the field, it compares the sensors measured NDVI values with the NDVI values of the nitrogen-rich strip and adjusts the nitrogen application rate accordingly. For example, if the NDVI value of the nitrogen-rich strip was 0.6, and the NDVI value at the particular location in the field was 0.7, no nitrogen would be applied because sufficient nutrient was added. However, if the NDVI value sensed by the sensor was below 0.6 (e.g., 0.4 at another location, then nitrogen would be applied at that location. Compared to a nitrogen-rich strip, the ramped calibration strip is used to create a continuous gradient (e.g., low to high nitrogen levels) so that sensors or measuring devices can be calibrated to detect and measure variations in the environment across a range of conditions (Raum et al. 2008).
## Sensor-Based Sprayers for Tree Crops
Sensor-based variable rate rate utilizes sensing systems to detect the presence of an object ( e.g., a tree) and its height. Based on that information, they control individual spraying nozzles or zones of nozzles. In one example, Chemical Concentants (Lakes FLAKE, developed the CC-EY 800010 Tree Sense Control System), which utilizes GPS, six infrared "eye" sensors, and a system able to control 6 or 8 spraying zones. When a tree (object) is detected by the eye sensor in a particular zone, the Tree Sensing System (software) sends a signal to the root on the respective "spraying" zone(s) at the correct time to ensure accurate delivery of the application to the target. If a tree (or any other object) is not detected, then the software shuts off all nozzles to reduce waste of chemicals, environmental pollution, cell technology. This context system can also be used for fertilizer spreaders. Another sensor-based smart tree crop wasp was developed at UF/IFAS. It utilizes sensor fusion (i.e., two RGB cameras, a 1,ldar, and a GPS) and to detect trees, estimate tree height and canopy leaf density, and apply the right amount of chemicals at a tree level, minimizes waste of chemicals and spray (dfr Plant et al. 2011). AI-enabled sensing system can distinguish a tree from other objects (e.g., poles, pumps, etc.), only and spray on dust levels based on their canopy height and leaf density. At the same time, it can detect and count fruits (video demo: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qdg8dqb4lkb2 ) for yield prediction purposes (Vijakumar et al. 2023), and develop spray and fruit heat maps (Costa and Ampatzidis 2022).
Traditional sprayers apply herbicides uniformly, even though the distribution of weeds is typically patchy. Uniform applications of herbicides could increase costs, risk of crop damage, environmental pollution, and contamination of edible products. To address this issue, several AI-enabled, target-based technologies have been developed for the precision management of weeds in row and specialty crops (Vijayakumar et al., 2012). These technologies utilize machine vision and AI to distinguish weeds from crops and only target individual weeds. Examples of these technologies include the "see and spray" technology developed by Blue River Technology and John Deere, which utilizes herbicides to target individual weeds, and the Carbon Robotics Laser Weeder, which uses lasers to kill weeds. UF/IFAS developed another AI-enhanced technology for precision weed management, which can detect and classify weeds (i.e., grass, broadleaf, and other), and if needed, specify any one type of species (Wartel et al., 2019; Ampadizars 2014).
## Summary
The VRT is one of the most powerful tools in precision agriculture that can be adopted in various farming practices to achieve high resource efficiency and maximum yields. VRT can create uniform conditions across the field by applying variable rates of inputs depending on the field variability. This technology can be adopted in both map-based and sensor-based methods. Map-based VRT requires lots of data to develop a prescription map. On the other hand, sensor-based technology uses sensors to determine the application rate. The cost associated with map and sensor-based VRT is largely dependent on the field variability. For a uniform field, the value of VRT would be minimal; however, farms with significant variety may greatly benefit from VRT.
## References
Ampatzidis, Y. 2018. "Applications of Artificial Intelligence for Precision Agriculture: AES20, 12/2018." EDIS 2016 (6): https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-ae529-2018
Campos, J. M.; Gallart, J. Lop, Ortega, R. Salecedo, and E. Gil, 2020. "On-Farm Evaluation of Prescription Map-Based Variable Rate Application of Pesticides in Vineyards." Agronomy 10 (1): 102. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy-1001021
Costa, L. S.; Kunwar, Y. Ampatzidis, and U. Albrecht. 2022. "Determining Leaf Nutrient Concentrations in Citrus Trees Using UAV Imagery and Machine Learning." Precision Agriculture: 22 - 12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1119\_0201\_119d
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Publication #AEG067
PEER REVIEW
Release Date:
January 23, 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-AE607-2025
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprise
Contacts: Vivek Sharma
The use of trade names in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information. UF/IFAS does not guarantee or warranty the products named, and references to them in this publication do not signify our approval to the exclusion of other products of suitable composition.
All chemicals should be used in accordance with directions on the manufacturer's label.
Use pesticides safely. Read and follow directions on the manufacturer's label.
## About this Publication
This document is AE607, one of a series of the Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date January 2025. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifs.uaf.edu for the currently supported version of this publication. © 2025 UF/IFAS. This publication is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.
## About the Authors
Vivek Sharma , assistant professor, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering; Uday Bhama Praskav Vaddevou, postdoctoral associate, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering; Shiva Bhamba, postdoctoral associate, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering; Yinanis Ampatzidis, associate professor, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering; Haamay Babil, assistant professor, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering; FL-2611.
## Related Pages
Agricultural and Biological Engineering |
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