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Plot summary
------------
By 1926, [Prohibition](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States "Prohibition in the United States") has given rise to an endless network of underground distilleries, speakeasies, gangsters and corrupt cops. Joe Coughlin, the youngest son of a prominent [Boston police](/wiki/Boston_Police_Department "Boston Police Department") captain, defies his proper upbringing by climbing a ladder of [organized crime](/wiki/Organized_crime "Organized crime") that takes him from Boston to [Ybor City, Florida](/wiki/Ybor_City%2C_Florida "Ybor City, Florida"), to [Havana, Cuba](/wiki/Havana%2C_Cuba "Havana, Cuba"), where he encounters a dangerous cast of characters who are all fighting for their piece of the American dream.
When the novel begins, Joe is in the employ of one of Boston's most powerful mobsters, Tim Hickey. Joe and two friends knock off a gambling room located behind a speakeasy. Unbeknownst to them, the speakeasy belongs to Albert White, Hickey's biggest rival. Emma Gould, a server in the room and White's mistress, catches Joe's attention. They begin an affair.
Coughlin is later sent to [Charlestown Penitentiary](/wiki/Charlestown_State_Prison "Charlestown State Prison") after a bank robbery goes awry. On the night of his arrest, the car Emma is traveling in crashes into a river and she is presumed dead. Joe comes under the protection of Italian mobster Maso Pescatore while in prison. While Joe and his father, Thomas, had a complicated relationship, Thomas agrees to do Pescatore's bidding to keep Joe safe in prison. The stress of these dealings gives Thomas a fatal heart attack.
Upon release, Pescatore sends Joe to [Tampa, Florida](/wiki/Tampa%2C_Florida "Tampa, Florida"), to solidify the family's rum\-running operation. Joe builds a highly successful business with his henchman, Dion. Still grieving for Emma, he encounters a fiery Cuban expatriate and revolutionary, Graciela Corrales, and they become an intensely devoted couple. Graciela convinces Joe to mastermind the robbery of a weapons cache from an American warship to aid [Fulgencio Batista](/wiki/Fulgencio_Batista "Fulgencio Batista")'s overthrow of Cuban strongman [Gerardo Machado](/wiki/Gerardo_Machado "Gerardo Machado").Woog, Adam (October 21, 2012\). ["Lehane's 'Live by Night': An Ex\-Con's Destiny in Mid\-20th\-Century Cuba"](http://seattletimes.com/html/books/2019453968_br21lehane.html). *[The Seattle Times](/wiki/The_Seattle_Times "The Seattle Times")*. Retrieved June 12, 2015\.
While building his empire, Joe fights against the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan"). The local leader of the Klan is related to Figgis, Tampa's police chief. Joe [blackmails](/wiki/Blackmail "Blackmail") Figgis with pornographic photographs of his daughter Loretta, whom Figgis had believed was working in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") as an actress. Figgis' daughter later returns to Tampa and becomes a famous preacher. Loretta later reveals to Joe that she does not believe in God and is merely performing. Loretta later commits [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide"), after which it is revealed that she was sexually abused by her father.
When Pescatore decides to replace Joe with his own dimwitted son, White uses this opportunity to seek revenge against Joe, whom he blames for Emma's death. Joe escapes and regains control of his empire. He, Graciela, and their small son return to Havana to live a quieter life. Dion becomes head of the family while Joe acts as an advisor. In Cuba, Joe meets Emma outside the brothel where she works. She reveals she was involved in Joe's arrest. When Joe and Graciela return to the U.S. for a visit, Graciela is shot and killed by Figgis. Joe turns his back on organized crime to live a more mundane life with his son.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"By 1926, [Prohibition](/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States \"Prohibition in the United States\") has given rise to an endless network of underground distilleries, speakeasies, gangsters and corrupt cops. Joe Coughlin, the youngest son of a prominent [Boston police](/wiki/Boston_Police_Department \"Boston Police Department\") captain, defies his proper upbringing by climbing a ladder of [organized crime](/wiki/Organized_crime \"Organized crime\") that takes him from Boston to [Ybor City, Florida](/wiki/Ybor_City%2C_Florida \"Ybor City, Florida\"), to [Havana, Cuba](/wiki/Havana%2C_Cuba \"Havana, Cuba\"), where he encounters a dangerous cast of characters who are all fighting for their piece of the American dream.",
"When the novel begins, Joe is in the employ of one of Boston's most powerful mobsters, Tim Hickey. Joe and two friends knock off a gambling room located behind a speakeasy. Unbeknownst to them, the speakeasy belongs to Albert White, Hickey's biggest rival. Emma Gould, a server in the room and White's mistress, catches Joe's attention. They begin an affair.",
"Coughlin is later sent to [Charlestown Penitentiary](/wiki/Charlestown_State_Prison \"Charlestown State Prison\") after a bank robbery goes awry. On the night of his arrest, the car Emma is traveling in crashes into a river and she is presumed dead. Joe comes under the protection of Italian mobster Maso Pescatore while in prison. While Joe and his father, Thomas, had a complicated relationship, Thomas agrees to do Pescatore's bidding to keep Joe safe in prison. The stress of these dealings gives Thomas a fatal heart attack.",
"Upon release, Pescatore sends Joe to [Tampa, Florida](/wiki/Tampa%2C_Florida \"Tampa, Florida\"), to solidify the family's rum\\-running operation. Joe builds a highly successful business with his henchman, Dion. Still grieving for Emma, he encounters a fiery Cuban expatriate and revolutionary, Graciela Corrales, and they become an intensely devoted couple. Graciela convinces Joe to mastermind the robbery of a weapons cache from an American warship to aid [Fulgencio Batista](/wiki/Fulgencio_Batista \"Fulgencio Batista\")'s overthrow of Cuban strongman [Gerardo Machado](/wiki/Gerardo_Machado \"Gerardo Machado\").Woog, Adam (October 21, 2012\\). [\"Lehane's 'Live by Night': An Ex\\-Con's Destiny in Mid\\-20th\\-Century Cuba\"](http://seattletimes.com/html/books/2019453968_br21lehane.html). *[The Seattle Times](/wiki/The_Seattle_Times \"The Seattle Times\")*. Retrieved June 12, 2015\\.",
"While building his empire, Joe fights against the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\"). The local leader of the Klan is related to Figgis, Tampa's police chief. Joe [blackmails](/wiki/Blackmail \"Blackmail\") Figgis with pornographic photographs of his daughter Loretta, whom Figgis had believed was working in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") as an actress. Figgis' daughter later returns to Tampa and becomes a famous preacher. Loretta later reveals to Joe that she does not believe in God and is merely performing. Loretta later commits [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\"), after which it is revealed that she was sexually abused by her father.",
"When Pescatore decides to replace Joe with his own dimwitted son, White uses this opportunity to seek revenge against Joe, whom he blames for Emma's death. Joe escapes and regains control of his empire. He, Graciela, and their small son return to Havana to live a quieter life. Dion becomes head of the family while Joe acts as an advisor. In Cuba, Joe meets Emma outside the brothel where she works. She reveals she was involved in Joe's arrest. When Joe and Graciela return to the U.S. for a visit, Graciela is shot and killed by Figgis. Joe turns his back on organized crime to live a more mundane life with his son.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|Junqueira as seen from República Square.](/wiki/Image:Rua_da_Junqueira.JPG "Rua da Junqueira.JPG")
### Early history
The axis of Rua da Junqueira street appeared in the written records, by the first time, in 1694 and was known as *Rua de São Roque da Junqueira*. But Junqueira is much older; several artifacts from the Roman Era were found in several street re\-arraignments. It is considered part of [Villa Euracini](/wiki/Villa_Euracini "Villa Euracini") and could be the site of a Roman fish factory.
Junqueira probably takes its name from [rushes](/wiki/Juncaceae "Juncaceae") (*junco* in Portuguese) that were found there before it was urbanized in the 18th century. Junqueira was wetland and old bridge ruins were found in the waterfront when the casino underground parking lot was being constructed in the late 1990s.
### Junqueira, the town's early fishermen district
Lieutenant Francisco da Veiga Leal in the news of the Town of Póvoa de Varzim on May 24, 1758 spoke about this street: "*At the end of the pavement that starts at the seashore there is a square where the Pillory is located, and from there the rua da Ponte street begins, and it keeps this name until the sands of the beach are reached, at the middle of its length the new street of Junqueira begins, it links with its street of Areosa and Senra, and the later with the suburb of old town*". In 1762, the street had 49 houses on the left side and 29 on the right one; in 1792 it was inhabited, mostly, by fishermen families.Projecto da Rua da Junqueira (1894\-1895\) \- Arquivo Municipal da Póvoa de Varzim
### 18th century: The development of the shopping street by fish sellers
[thumb\|Junqueira in 1919\.](/wiki/File:Rua_da_Junqueira_1919.jpg "Rua da Junqueira 1919.jpg")
In the 18th century, the area around [Póvoa Fortress](/wiki/Castelo_da_P%C3%B3voa "Castelo da Póvoa"), known as "Ribeira", became the center of trade and fish brine, where several warehouses were located. In the New Street of Junqueira, fishermen, sellers, fish traders and beach goers started to implement the characteristic way\-of\-living of this street, it became one of the main ones in the city.{{Cite book \| author \= Amorim, Sandra Araújo \| title \= Vencer o Mar, Ganhar a Terra \| publisher \= Na Linha do horizonte \- Biblioteca Poveira CMPV \| year \= 2004}}
### 19th century: A bourgeois Shopping street
In the 19th century, Junqueira became mostly used for commerce, where all kinds of goods could be found, by then it became dominated by the business bourgeoisie, and was seen as their living room to attend outsiders. Therefore, most of Póvoa's religious processions marched throw the street and balconies were decorated.As Procissões na Póvoa de Varzim (1900–1950\). Volume 1 \- Deolinda Carneiro, Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto. 2006
A narrow and twisted street, in the City Council meeting of October 30, 1839, it was stated: "*the necessity to rectify the part of Junqueira since the Sam Roque square to the beginning of Hortas Street as it is well\-known that being one of the busiest in town, it becomes impassable when it rains, due to a muddy area that forms in there with the street reduced to a narrow passage, and is common, that people, mules, oxen, and even litters passing over a pavement that is almost all ruined (...) the Street will have two sidewalks in each side made out of stonework with a line of stonework in the middle...*". In 1856, the street kept with similar problems.
The first widening project appeared in 1876 and in February 1882, the city council decided to proceed with the widening using a project by architect Manuel Fortunato d’Oliveira Motta. This has no success due to the opposition of the landowners. After friendly attempts, the city hall appealed to the courts against the landowners that still opposed. These reforms took place during the 1893–1895 administration.
[thumb\|Near Ouriveraria Gomes goldsmithery, suppliers of the Portuguese Royal family.](/wiki/image:Rua_Junqueira_Ourivesaria_Gomes.jpg "Rua Junqueira Ourivesaria Gomes.jpg")
A streetcar line through the Rua da Junqueira street existed at the end of the 19th century to the first decade of the 20th century; the tramline started in [Praça do Almada](/wiki/Pra%C3%A7a_do_Almada "Praça do Almada") and aimed to reach [Baths Beach](/wiki/Redonda_Beach "Redonda Beach"), later the tramline was transferred from Junqueira to the parallel Rua Tenente Valadim street.
### The 20th century and pedestrianization
In the city council meeting July 2, 1912, after the implementation of the Republic, the alteration of street naming was determined and changed to 5 de Outubro Street, the day of the republican revolution. In 1926, it was written in a newspaper: "Councilmen are undeceived, while Póvoa remains as Póvoa, the Passeio Alegre will be Passeio Alegre and Junqueira street, Junqueira street". The official naming remained until January 1966\.
Given its shopping nature, Junqueira street became pedestrian in 1955 by order of the mayor Major Mota, as such, it was one of the oldest in Portugal not allowing cars and "vehicles of any kind". The shopping and business importance of the street grew to such an extent, that today the street has not much people living in there.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|Junqueira as seen from República Square.](/wiki/Image:Rua_da_Junqueira.JPG \"Rua da Junqueira.JPG\")",
"### Early history",
"The axis of Rua da Junqueira street appeared in the written records, by the first time, in 1694 and was known as *Rua de São Roque da Junqueira*. But Junqueira is much older; several artifacts from the Roman Era were found in several street re\\-arraignments. It is considered part of [Villa Euracini](/wiki/Villa_Euracini \"Villa Euracini\") and could be the site of a Roman fish factory.",
"Junqueira probably takes its name from [rushes](/wiki/Juncaceae \"Juncaceae\") (*junco* in Portuguese) that were found there before it was urbanized in the 18th century. Junqueira was wetland and old bridge ruins were found in the waterfront when the casino underground parking lot was being constructed in the late 1990s.",
"### Junqueira, the town's early fishermen district",
"Lieutenant Francisco da Veiga Leal in the news of the Town of Póvoa de Varzim on May 24, 1758 spoke about this street: \"*At the end of the pavement that starts at the seashore there is a square where the Pillory is located, and from there the rua da Ponte street begins, and it keeps this name until the sands of the beach are reached, at the middle of its length the new street of Junqueira begins, it links with its street of Areosa and Senra, and the later with the suburb of old town*\". In 1762, the street had 49 houses on the left side and 29 on the right one; in 1792 it was inhabited, mostly, by fishermen families.Projecto da Rua da Junqueira (1894\\-1895\\) \\- Arquivo Municipal da Póvoa de Varzim",
"### 18th century: The development of the shopping street by fish sellers",
"[thumb\\|Junqueira in 1919\\.](/wiki/File:Rua_da_Junqueira_1919.jpg \"Rua da Junqueira 1919.jpg\")\nIn the 18th century, the area around [Póvoa Fortress](/wiki/Castelo_da_P%C3%B3voa \"Castelo da Póvoa\"), known as \"Ribeira\", became the center of trade and fish brine, where several warehouses were located. In the New Street of Junqueira, fishermen, sellers, fish traders and beach goers started to implement the characteristic way\\-of\\-living of this street, it became one of the main ones in the city.{{Cite book \\| author \\= Amorim, Sandra Araújo \\| title \\= Vencer o Mar, Ganhar a Terra \\| publisher \\= Na Linha do horizonte \\- Biblioteca Poveira CMPV \\| year \\= 2004}}",
"### 19th century: A bourgeois Shopping street",
"In the 19th century, Junqueira became mostly used for commerce, where all kinds of goods could be found, by then it became dominated by the business bourgeoisie, and was seen as their living room to attend outsiders. Therefore, most of Póvoa's religious processions marched throw the street and balconies were decorated.As Procissões na Póvoa de Varzim (1900–1950\\). Volume 1 \\- Deolinda Carneiro, Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto. 2006",
"A narrow and twisted street, in the City Council meeting of October 30, 1839, it was stated: \"*the necessity to rectify the part of Junqueira since the Sam Roque square to the beginning of Hortas Street as it is well\\-known that being one of the busiest in town, it becomes impassable when it rains, due to a muddy area that forms in there with the street reduced to a narrow passage, and is common, that people, mules, oxen, and even litters passing over a pavement that is almost all ruined (...) the Street will have two sidewalks in each side made out of stonework with a line of stonework in the middle...*\". In 1856, the street kept with similar problems.",
"The first widening project appeared in 1876 and in February 1882, the city council decided to proceed with the widening using a project by architect Manuel Fortunato d’Oliveira Motta. This has no success due to the opposition of the landowners. After friendly attempts, the city hall appealed to the courts against the landowners that still opposed. These reforms took place during the 1893–1895 administration.",
"[thumb\\|Near Ouriveraria Gomes goldsmithery, suppliers of the Portuguese Royal family.](/wiki/image:Rua_Junqueira_Ourivesaria_Gomes.jpg \"Rua Junqueira Ourivesaria Gomes.jpg\")\nA streetcar line through the Rua da Junqueira street existed at the end of the 19th century to the first decade of the 20th century; the tramline started in [Praça do Almada](/wiki/Pra%C3%A7a_do_Almada \"Praça do Almada\") and aimed to reach [Baths Beach](/wiki/Redonda_Beach \"Redonda Beach\"), later the tramline was transferred from Junqueira to the parallel Rua Tenente Valadim street.",
"### The 20th century and pedestrianization",
"In the city council meeting July 2, 1912, after the implementation of the Republic, the alteration of street naming was determined and changed to 5 de Outubro Street, the day of the republican revolution. In 1926, it was written in a newspaper: \"Councilmen are undeceived, while Póvoa remains as Póvoa, the Passeio Alegre will be Passeio Alegre and Junqueira street, Junqueira street\". The official naming remained until January 1966\\.",
"Given its shopping nature, Junqueira street became pedestrian in 1955 by order of the mayor Major Mota, as such, it was one of the oldest in Portugal not allowing cars and \"vehicles of any kind\". The shopping and business importance of the street grew to such an extent, that today the street has not much people living in there.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
He was the son of Friedrich Freiherr Roth von Schreckenstein (1753–1808\) and of Kunigunde von Riedheim (1767–1828\) and belonged to old Swabian *[Reichrsritter](/wiki/Imperial_Knight "Imperial Knight")* family Roth von Schreckenstein, which had its ancestral seat in [Immendingen](/wiki/Immendingen "Immendingen").
Already in 1806, Schreckenstein became a squire at the court of [Frederick Augustus I of Saxony](/wiki/Frederick_Augustus_I_of_Saxony "Frederick Augustus I of Saxony"). On 16 April 1809 he received his [commission](/wiki/Commission_%28document%29 "Commission (document)"), and joined the Saxonian cuirassier regiment of Zastrow as a [lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant "Lieutenant") and in 1812 participated in Napoleon's campaign in Russia with the Grande Armée. There he was on the [staff](/wiki/Staff_%28military%29 "Staff (military)") of General [Johann von Thielmann](/wiki/Johann_von_Thielmann "Johann von Thielmann"), and earned great credit in September 1812 at the victory of the [Battle of Borodino](/wiki/Battle_of_Borodino "Battle of Borodino").
On 15 May 1815, Schreckenstein joined the Prussian service as a *[Rittmeister](/wiki/Rittmeister "Rittmeister")* and adjutant to Thielmann. He fought with the III Prussian Army Corps in 1815 at the battles of [Ligny](/wiki/Battle_of_Ligny "Battle of Ligny") and [Wavre](/wiki/Battle_of_Wavre "Battle of Wavre") during the Belgian campaign. Promoted to [major](/wiki/Major_%28rank%29 "Major (rank)") in 1816, in 1824 he was appointed staff officer of the *8\. Husarenregiment* in [Düsseldorf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf "Düsseldorf").
Also in times of peace, he could always be sure of the favour of his superiors and preferment in promotions. There followed his appointment to [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel "Lieutenant colonel") in 1830 and to [colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") in 1834\. In 1837 he received the command over the *13\. Kavalleriebrigade* in [Münster](/wiki/M%C3%BCnster "Münster").
In 1841 Schreckenstein was promoted to [major general](/wiki/Major_general "Major general"). During the Revolutions of 1848 he was a division commander in [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne "Cologne"). To put an end to the revolutionary fighting in [Trier](/wiki/Trier "Trier"), he declared martial law over the city and disbanded its militia. On 10 May 1848 he was appointed a [lieutenant general](/wiki/Lieutenant_general "Lieutenant general") and a month later, on 25 June, was appointed the successor of [August von Kanitz](/wiki/August_von_Kanitz "August von Kanitz") as [Prussian Minister of War](/wiki/Prussian_Minister_of_War "Prussian Minister of War"). After a clash between citizens and the military on 31 July 1848 in [Schweidnitz](/wiki/%C5%9Awidnica "Świdnica"), Schreckenstein submitted his resignation in September, under pressure from the [Frankfurt Parliament](/wiki/Frankfurt_Parliament "Frankfurt Parliament"). The entire war ministry went with him.
On 19 April 1849, Schreckenstein once again joined the military, and took over as commander of the [Guard Corps](/wiki/Guards_Corps_%28German_Empire%29 "Guards Corps (German Empire)") during the [First Schleswig War](/wiki/First_Schleswig_War "First Schleswig War"). In September of that year, he was placed in command of the Prussian troops in [Baden](/wiki/Baden "Baden"), [Hohenzollern](/wiki/Province_of_Hohenzollern "Province of Hohenzollern") and [Frankfurt](/wiki/Frankfurt "Frankfurt"). On 2 June 1853, Schreckenstein was appointed General of the Cavalry and general officer commanding of the [*VII. Armeekorps*](/wiki/VII_Corps_%28German_Empire%29 "VII Corps (German Empire)"). In 1857, he was one of the first to receive the [House Order of Hohenzollern](/wiki/House_Order_of_Hohenzollern "House Order of Hohenzollern").
He died at the castle of [Münster](/wiki/M%C3%BCnster "Münster").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"He was the son of Friedrich Freiherr Roth von Schreckenstein (1753–1808\\) and of Kunigunde von Riedheim (1767–1828\\) and belonged to old Swabian *[Reichrsritter](/wiki/Imperial_Knight \"Imperial Knight\")* family Roth von Schreckenstein, which had its ancestral seat in [Immendingen](/wiki/Immendingen \"Immendingen\").",
"Already in 1806, Schreckenstein became a squire at the court of [Frederick Augustus I of Saxony](/wiki/Frederick_Augustus_I_of_Saxony \"Frederick Augustus I of Saxony\"). On 16 April 1809 he received his [commission](/wiki/Commission_%28document%29 \"Commission (document)\"), and joined the Saxonian cuirassier regiment of Zastrow as a [lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant \"Lieutenant\") and in 1812 participated in Napoleon's campaign in Russia with the Grande Armée. There he was on the [staff](/wiki/Staff_%28military%29 \"Staff (military)\") of General [Johann von Thielmann](/wiki/Johann_von_Thielmann \"Johann von Thielmann\"), and earned great credit in September 1812 at the victory of the [Battle of Borodino](/wiki/Battle_of_Borodino \"Battle of Borodino\").",
"On 15 May 1815, Schreckenstein joined the Prussian service as a *[Rittmeister](/wiki/Rittmeister \"Rittmeister\")* and adjutant to Thielmann. He fought with the III Prussian Army Corps in 1815 at the battles of [Ligny](/wiki/Battle_of_Ligny \"Battle of Ligny\") and [Wavre](/wiki/Battle_of_Wavre \"Battle of Wavre\") during the Belgian campaign. Promoted to [major](/wiki/Major_%28rank%29 \"Major (rank)\") in 1816, in 1824 he was appointed staff officer of the *8\\. Husarenregiment* in [Düsseldorf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf \"Düsseldorf\").",
"Also in times of peace, he could always be sure of the favour of his superiors and preferment in promotions. There followed his appointment to [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel \"Lieutenant colonel\") in 1830 and to [colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") in 1834\\. In 1837 he received the command over the *13\\. Kavalleriebrigade* in [Münster](/wiki/M%C3%BCnster \"Münster\").",
"In 1841 Schreckenstein was promoted to [major general](/wiki/Major_general \"Major general\"). During the Revolutions of 1848 he was a division commander in [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne \"Cologne\"). To put an end to the revolutionary fighting in [Trier](/wiki/Trier \"Trier\"), he declared martial law over the city and disbanded its militia. On 10 May 1848 he was appointed a [lieutenant general](/wiki/Lieutenant_general \"Lieutenant general\") and a month later, on 25 June, was appointed the successor of [August von Kanitz](/wiki/August_von_Kanitz \"August von Kanitz\") as [Prussian Minister of War](/wiki/Prussian_Minister_of_War \"Prussian Minister of War\"). After a clash between citizens and the military on 31 July 1848 in [Schweidnitz](/wiki/%C5%9Awidnica \"Świdnica\"), Schreckenstein submitted his resignation in September, under pressure from the [Frankfurt Parliament](/wiki/Frankfurt_Parliament \"Frankfurt Parliament\"). The entire war ministry went with him.",
"On 19 April 1849, Schreckenstein once again joined the military, and took over as commander of the [Guard Corps](/wiki/Guards_Corps_%28German_Empire%29 \"Guards Corps (German Empire)\") during the [First Schleswig War](/wiki/First_Schleswig_War \"First Schleswig War\"). In September of that year, he was placed in command of the Prussian troops in [Baden](/wiki/Baden \"Baden\"), [Hohenzollern](/wiki/Province_of_Hohenzollern \"Province of Hohenzollern\") and [Frankfurt](/wiki/Frankfurt \"Frankfurt\"). On 2 June 1853, Schreckenstein was appointed General of the Cavalry and general officer commanding of the [*VII. Armeekorps*](/wiki/VII_Corps_%28German_Empire%29 \"VII Corps (German Empire)\"). In 1857, he was one of the first to receive the [House Order of Hohenzollern](/wiki/House_Order_of_Hohenzollern \"House Order of Hohenzollern\").",
"He died at the castle of [Münster](/wiki/M%C3%BCnster \"Münster\").",
""
] |
Wildlife
--------
The lake and the surrounding forests are important for natural life. The area is a location of endangered and rare types of habitats, ecosystems and autochthonous wild species, both at national and international level. It allows for undisturbed nesting, spawning and care for the young.
There are 213 recorded plant species around the lake of which 20 are protected wild species. There are 41 species of mushrooms, including two protected, [green\-cracking russula](/wiki/Russula_virescens "Russula virescens") and [charcoal burner](/wiki/Russula_cyanoxantha "Russula cyanoxantha").
Three separate habitats of protected [beetles](/wiki/Beetles "Beetles") are located: [European stag beetle](/wiki/Lucanus_cervus "Lucanus cervus"), [beech longhorn beetle](/wiki/Morimus_funereus "Morimus funereus") and Nastas' ground beetle. The first two are internationally important as their habitats are dwindling in Europe. Habitat of stag beetle at Bela Reka is one of the largest in Serbia. Protected butterfly [large white](/wiki/Pieris_brassicae "Pieris brassicae"), also lives at the lake.
In the lake live 13 species of fish. They include [gudgeon](/wiki/Gobio_gobio "Gobio gobio"), [northern pike](/wiki/Northern_pike "Northern pike"), [common roach](/wiki/Common_roach "Common roach"), [common bleak](/wiki/Common_bleak "Common bleak"), [common carp](/wiki/Common_carp "Common carp"), [wels catfish](/wiki/Wels_catfish "Wels catfish"), [grass carp](/wiki/Grass_carp "Grass carp"), [zander](/wiki/Zander "Zander"), [European chub](/wiki/European_chub "European chub"), [Prussian carp](/wiki/Prussian_carp "Prussian carp"), [European perch](/wiki/European_perch "European perch"), [common bream](/wiki/Common_bream "Common bream") and [common rudd](/wiki/Common_rudd "Common rudd"). During the winter, if the ice crust forms on the surface, the holes are being drilled to help fish survive. The fish population is regularly restocked.
The area is favorable for the reproduction of amphibians and reptiles. They include [common wall lizard](/wiki/Podarcis_muralis "Podarcis muralis"), [dice snake](/wiki/Dice_snake "Dice snake") and [Caspian whipsnake](/wiki/Caspian_whipsnake "Caspian whipsnake"). There are also 38 species of birds. Forests are inhabited by 27 species of mammals, including [hazel dormouse](/wiki/Hazel_dormouse "Hazel dormouse"), [forest dormouse](/wiki/Forest_dormouse "Forest dormouse"), [otter](/wiki/Otter "Otter"), various [bats](/wiki/Bat "Bat"), [roe deer](/wiki/Roe_deer "Roe deer"), [hare](/wiki/Hare "Hare") and [wild boar](/wiki/Wild_boar "Wild boar").
|
[
"Wildlife\n--------",
"The lake and the surrounding forests are important for natural life. The area is a location of endangered and rare types of habitats, ecosystems and autochthonous wild species, both at national and international level. It allows for undisturbed nesting, spawning and care for the young.",
"There are 213 recorded plant species around the lake of which 20 are protected wild species. There are 41 species of mushrooms, including two protected, [green\\-cracking russula](/wiki/Russula_virescens \"Russula virescens\") and [charcoal burner](/wiki/Russula_cyanoxantha \"Russula cyanoxantha\").",
"Three separate habitats of protected [beetles](/wiki/Beetles \"Beetles\") are located: [European stag beetle](/wiki/Lucanus_cervus \"Lucanus cervus\"), [beech longhorn beetle](/wiki/Morimus_funereus \"Morimus funereus\") and Nastas' ground beetle. The first two are internationally important as their habitats are dwindling in Europe. Habitat of stag beetle at Bela Reka is one of the largest in Serbia. Protected butterfly [large white](/wiki/Pieris_brassicae \"Pieris brassicae\"), also lives at the lake.",
"In the lake live 13 species of fish. They include [gudgeon](/wiki/Gobio_gobio \"Gobio gobio\"), [northern pike](/wiki/Northern_pike \"Northern pike\"), [common roach](/wiki/Common_roach \"Common roach\"), [common bleak](/wiki/Common_bleak \"Common bleak\"), [common carp](/wiki/Common_carp \"Common carp\"), [wels catfish](/wiki/Wels_catfish \"Wels catfish\"), [grass carp](/wiki/Grass_carp \"Grass carp\"), [zander](/wiki/Zander \"Zander\"), [European chub](/wiki/European_chub \"European chub\"), [Prussian carp](/wiki/Prussian_carp \"Prussian carp\"), [European perch](/wiki/European_perch \"European perch\"), [common bream](/wiki/Common_bream \"Common bream\") and [common rudd](/wiki/Common_rudd \"Common rudd\"). During the winter, if the ice crust forms on the surface, the holes are being drilled to help fish survive. The fish population is regularly restocked.",
"The area is favorable for the reproduction of amphibians and reptiles. They include [common wall lizard](/wiki/Podarcis_muralis \"Podarcis muralis\"), [dice snake](/wiki/Dice_snake \"Dice snake\") and [Caspian whipsnake](/wiki/Caspian_whipsnake \"Caspian whipsnake\"). There are also 38 species of birds. Forests are inhabited by 27 species of mammals, including [hazel dormouse](/wiki/Hazel_dormouse \"Hazel dormouse\"), [forest dormouse](/wiki/Forest_dormouse \"Forest dormouse\"), [otter](/wiki/Otter \"Otter\"), various [bats](/wiki/Bat \"Bat\"), [roe deer](/wiki/Roe_deer \"Roe deer\"), [hare](/wiki/Hare \"Hare\") and [wild boar](/wiki/Wild_boar \"Wild boar\").",
""
] |
Fifth Fort Edmonton (1830–1915\)
--------------------------------
Coordinates: {{Coord\|53\|31\|55\|N\|113\|30\|24\|W\|type:landmark\_region:CA\-AB}}
Due to floods in the late 1820s, a new fort was built on the terrace above the riverflats in 1830\. This fifth and final fort stood for 85 years, though its use as a fur trading post was phased out starting in 1891\. During its final years, the Fort co\-existed with the [Alberta Legislature Building](/wiki/Alberta_Legislature_Building "Alberta Legislature Building"). The Legislative Building opened in 1913 on a terrace just north of the fort on the site of "Rowand's Folly", the large house built for Chief Factor [John Rowand](/wiki/John_Rowand "John Rowand")...[Canadian Parliamentary Review – Article](http://www.parl.gc.ca/Infoparl/english/issue.htm?param=122&art=735)
[thumb\|Fort Edmonton, 1870\.](/wiki/File:Fort_Edmonton_1870.jpg "Fort Edmonton 1870.jpg")
### Rowand's administration
At this time, a long\-serving member of the HBC, [John Edward Harriott](/wiki/John_Edward_Harriott "John Edward Harriott"), became the chief trader under Rowand. The two gained family ties when Harriott married one of Rowand's daughters. On a couple of occasions when Rowand joined HBC Inland Governor [George Simpson](/wiki/George_Simpson_%28administrator%29 "George Simpson (administrator)") for travel abroad, Harriott acted as chief factor.
Rowand's administration from the 1830s onward coincided with a great change in the Saskatchewan District. For the first time, missionaries, artists, and curious travellers came to Edmonton to visit, sometimes for extended periods. This frustrated Rowand to some degree. Prior to this time, the only Europeans to come that far into the west were men on some sort of company business.
With Rowand making Edmonton his home, the fort became an important centre in the west. It was a necessity for any traveller going any further west of Edmonton to go through there for provisions first. Rowand constructed a three\-storey house in the heart of the fort for the exclusive use of him and his family, denoting his station to his subordinates, visitors and trade partners alike. This was nicknamed "Rowand's Folly."
#### Influx of missionaries
Two [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church") missionaries, Francois\-Norbert Blanchet and Modeste Demers, were the first to visit Fort Edmonton (called *Fort\-des\-Prairies*) in 1838\.{{sfn\|Goyette\|Roemmich\|2004\|p\=30}} Starting in 1840, the Fort housed the [Wesleyan](/wiki/Methodist_Church_of_Great_Britain "Methodist Church of Great Britain") [missionary](/wiki/Missionary "Missionary") [Robert Rundle](/wiki/Robert_Rundle "Robert Rundle") as a company chaplain. Rundle's tenure lasted until 1848, and his ministry and missionary work was met with competition of a sort by [Jean\-Baptiste Thibault](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Thibault "Jean-Baptiste Thibault"), a Catholic priest who, like Rundle, was attempting to evangelize natives in the area. A chapel was erected inside the fort in 1843, which the Reverend Rundle boasted could host "(one) hundred Indians"; the structure also had two small rooms for Rundle's private use.{{sfn\|Rundle\|1977\|pp\=143\-144}} Meanwhile, Rowand complained that the presence of ministers in his fort was a distraction for the natives, and was ostensibly impeding the fur trade business.{{sfn\|Goyette\|Roemmich\|2004\|p\=56}} On a personal level, however, Rowand had taken a liking to Rundle, and entrusted the minister with teaching his children.{{sfn\|Rundle\|1977\|p\=xliii}}
Father [Pierre\-Jean De Smet](/wiki/Pierre-Jean_De_Smet "Pierre-Jean De Smet") spent the winter of 1845\-46 at Fort Edmonton having traveled and explored from [Oregon Country](/wiki/Oregon_Country "Oregon Country") to meet the natives of the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains "Rocky Mountains").
In 1852, the [Oblate](/wiki/Oblate "Oblate") missionary [Albert Lacombe](/wiki/Albert_Lacombe "Albert Lacombe") first visited Fort Edmonton. With Rundle having trouble controlling the department in 1848, Lacombe easily took up residence in the former Methodist chapel. Lacombe took pity on the fur trade labourers, opining that, "during the summer months, \[Hudson's Bay labourers' toil] was as hard as that of the African slave.".{{sfn\|Goyette\|Roemmich\|2004\|p\=59}} He found little sympathy for the workers from John Rowand or the HBC clerks. The following year, Lacombe moved to [Lac St. Anne](/wiki/Lac_Ste._Anne_County "Lac Ste. Anne County"), but had a new [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church") chapel constructed in the fort in 1857 (but did not dwell there); this chapel lasted nearly twenty years before being moved outside of the fort.
A Methodist follow\-up to Robert Rundle, Reverend [Thomas Woolsey](/wiki/Thomas_Woolsey "Thomas Woolsey"), was dispatched to Edmonton in 1852\. His arrival in the fort coincided with Lacombe's residency in the former Methodist chapel, a discovery which distressed Woolsey. Conflicts and private frustrations with Catholic missionaries, and failures to convert Catholics to Protestantism, marked Woolsey's twelve\-year residence at the fort.
In 1854, the mission St. Joachim was officially founded in turn at Fort\-des\-Praires (Fort Edmonton).
#### Oregon mission
[thumb\|This watercolor with a scale diagram of the Fort was drawn by Vavasour in 1846\.](/wiki/File:1846_watercolor_depicting_a_plan_view_of_Fort_Edmonton_on_the_banks_of_the_North_Saskatchewan.jpg "1846 watercolor depicting a plan view of Fort Edmonton on the banks of the North Saskatchewan.jpg")
Though somewhat distant from the territory in question, Fort Edmonton, an important stop on the [York Factory Express](/wiki/York_Factory_Express "York Factory Express") overland trade route, was peripherally involved in the [Oregon Boundary Dispute](/wiki/Oregon_Boundary_Dispute "Oregon Boundary Dispute"). A pair of British Army lieutenants, [Mervin Vavasour](/wiki/Mervin_Vavasour "Mervin Vavasour") and [Henry James Warre](/wiki/Henry_James_Warre "Henry James Warre"), were sent on a mission in the guise of eccentric gentlemen to reconnoitre the lower [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River "Columbia River") valley and [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound "Puget Sound"). Among other objectives, they were to determine which HBC posts could be used in a military conflict.[ABCBookWorld](http://www.abcbookworld.com/?state=view_author&author_id=8519) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526124217/http://www.abcbookworld.com/?state\=view\_author\&author\_id\=8519 \|date\=May 26, 2011 }}[Cover Story – Warre's War](http://www.inlander.com/topstory/276910500730952.php) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202111219/http://www.inlander.com/topstory/276910500730952\.php \|date\=February 2, 2014 }} The trip had been encouraged by Sir [George Simpson](/wiki/George_Simpson_%28administrator%29 "George Simpson (administrator)") Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. Warre and Vavasour reported that the mountain passes were unsuitable for troop transport. Their mission took them through Fort Edmonton in the fall of 1845, and again on their way back to [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal") in 1846\. They wrote: "Without attempting to describe the numerous Defiles through which we passed, or the difficulty of forcing a passage through the burnt Forests, and over the high land, we may venture to assert, that Sir George Simpson's idea of transporting troops. . . with their stores, etc. through such an extent of uncultivated Country and over such impracticable Mountains would appear to Us quite unfeasible." As with other forts he visited on this mission, Vavasour drew a plan of Edmonton.
#### Other notable visitors
[thumb\|right\|Artist [Paul Kane](/wiki/Paul_Kane "Paul Kane")'s romanticized painting of the fifth fort (1849, from 1846 sketch), displaying Rowand's house rising high above the palisade.](/wiki/File:Kane_Fort_Edmonton.jpg "Kane Fort Edmonton.jpg")
The artist [Paul Kane](/wiki/Paul_Kane "Paul Kane") first visited the fort in 1845\. He produced several works of art based upon his time there.
#### Rowand's end
In May 1854, John Rowand died while accompanying the annual [York Boat](/wiki/York_Boat "York Boat") trip eastward. Accounts suggest that he tried to break up (or join) a skirmish between some of the tripmen while at [Fort Pitt](/wiki/Fort_Pitt%2C_Saskatchewan "Fort Pitt, Saskatchewan"), and in his rage he fell suddenly dead. He was initially buried at Fort Pitt, but was later exhumed and buried in Montreal as per his last will and testament.{{sfn\|Goyette\|Roemmich\|2004\|pp\=68\-69}}
### Remaining years
#### Remaining administrators
[alt\=refer to caption\|thumb\|A charcoal sketch of Fort Edmonton circa. 1867\.](/wiki/File:Edmonton_in_1867.jpg "Edmonton in 1867.jpg")
Following a few short\-lived administrations in Rowand's wake, [William J. Christie](/wiki/William_J._Christie "William J. Christie") was a long\-lasting chief factor at Edmonton from 1858 to 1872\. Christie's protégé [Richard Charles Hardisty](/wiki/Richard_Hardisty "Richard Hardisty"), later a [Canadian Senator](/wiki/Senate_of_Canada "Senate of Canada"), served as chief factor in Edmonton for an interim period from 1862 through 1864\.
The Hudson's Bay Company relinquished Rupert's Land to the [Government of Canada](/wiki/Government_of_Canada "Government of Canada") in 1868, pursuant to the [Rupert's Land Act 1868](/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land_Act_1868 "Rupert's Land Act 1868"), thus ending the HBC's administration of the vast territory and beginning an era of settlement in the 1870s.
By the 1890s, the fort was in disrepair and largely abandoned. The Hudson's Bay Company transitioned to retail stores, and business in Edmonton ran from one of those instead.
#### Explorers
In 1841 [James Sinclair](/wiki/James_Sinclair_%28fur_trader%29 "James Sinclair (fur trader)") stopped at Fort Edmonton to receive instructions on where to cross the Rockies. With him were about 116{{sfn\|Galbraith\|1954\|p\=254}} to 121{{sfn\|Simpson\|1847\|p\=62}} mostly Métis settlers from the [Red River Colony](/wiki/Red_River_Colony "Red River Colony"), hired by the [Pugets Sound Agricultural Company](/wiki/Pugets_Sound_Agricultural_Company "Pugets Sound Agricultural Company") to settle on [Fort Nisqually](/wiki/Fort_Nisqually "Fort Nisqually") and [Cowlitz Farm](/wiki/Cowlitz_Farm "Cowlitz Farm") within modern [Washington state](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 "Washington (state)").
Captain [John Palliser](/wiki/John_Palliser "John Palliser") stayed in Fort Edmonton for a time in 1858 while on his famous [expedition](/wiki/Palliser_Expedition "Palliser Expedition"). With the help of the factor's wife, Palliser held a [ball](/wiki/Ball_%28dance%29 "Ball (dance)") there.[John Palliser and Henry Hind – The Arctic and More – 19th Century – Pathfinders and Passageways](http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/explorateurs/h24-1850-e.html){{Dead link\|date\=December 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
In 1859, [the 9th Earl of Southesk](/wiki/James_Carnegie%2C_9th_Earl_of_Southesk "James Carnegie, 9th Earl of Southesk") visited on his way to the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains "Rocky Mountains"), hoping that the fresh mountain air would improve his health.[Alberta museum lands bulk of rare aboriginal collection](http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=f6049f2c-57b1-4004-846e-0502cb08f6d4) He recorded his observations in the 1874 book Saskatchewan and Rocky Mountains and also published a book on Cree syllabics in 1875\.{{cite web \| url\=http://peel.library.ualberta.ca/bibliography/ \| title\=Advanced Search }}
Viscount William Milton and William Butler Cheadle came through Edmonton in 1862/3 and published accounts of their journey.
#### Under threat of warfare
The spring of 1870 saw Fort Edmonton come under the threat of violence due to a war between the [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot "Blackfoot") and Cree, resulting from the slaying of Cree Chief [Maskipiton](/wiki/Maskipiton "Maskipiton"). A group of the Blackfoot approaching the fort from the south caught some traders with wagons of goods on the south bank, in today's Walterdale neighbourhood of Edmonton. The traders escaped by ferry but had to leave their wagons behind. The ferry was not sent back to the Blackfoot and they were not able to give chase to the fleeing traders as they were unable to ford the North Saskatchewan due to high spring waters. Th Blackfoot encamped nearby, plundered the wagons and harassed the fort with their muskets. The men in the fort armed themselves and prepared to fight. But the fort was not attacked in force. Chief Factor [William J. Christie](/wiki/William_J._Christie "William J. Christie") ordered the Bay men not to go out to attack the Blackfoot, apprehensive that to do so would invite further violence against the Hudson's Bay Company.{{sfn\|Goyette\|Roemmich\|2004\|pp\=109\-112}}[thumb\|Fort Edmonton, near the new Legislature Building, 1914\.Fifteen](/wiki/File:LegislatureFortEd.jpg "LegislatureFortEd.jpg") years later, on March 19, 1885, during the [North West Rebellion](/wiki/North-West_Rebellion "North-West Rebellion"), the telegraph wire connecting Edmonton to the rest of the world was cut. Fearing imminent attack, many local settlers and their families took shelter within the fort's old wooden palisade walls. No attack happened. Within a few weeks, marching and mounted troops arrived from southern Alberta and from eastern Canada by way of the CPR station at Calgary, to ensure that no local outbreak would occur.{{sfn\|Goyette\|Roemmich\|2004\|p\=143}} Most of the soldiers went on out to chase down [Big Bear](/wiki/Big_Bear "Big Bear") and his band.
[alt\=View of the Fort Edmonton buildings. Fences are broken, paint is peeling off the old buildings. Circa 1912\.\|thumb\|View of the Old Hudson's Bay Company Fort Edmonton Buildings circa. 1912\.](/wiki/File:Old_Hudson_Bay_Post%2C_Edmonton%2C_Alta.jpg "Old Hudson Bay Post, Edmonton, Alta.jpg")
#### Dismantling
What remained of the fifth Fort Edmonton was dismantled in October, 1915\. It was seen as a crumbling eyesore next to the Alberta Legislature Building, which had been completed three years earlier.[Real Estate Weekly](http://www.rewedmonton.ca/content_view2?CONTENT_ID=2139) The Government of Alberta indicated at the time that it would use the old fort's timbers to create a heritage site elsewhere in the city, but it never did. A few were saved and still possibly exist in city museums or in Rowand House, but most were said to be accidentally burned in a [Boy Scout](/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America "Boy Scouts of America") jamboree in May 1937\.{{Cite book \|last\=Silversides \|first\=Brock \|title\=Fort De Prairies: The Story of Fort Edmonton \|date\=2005 \|publisher\=Heritage House \|isbn\=1\-894384\-98\-9}}
|
[
"Fifth Fort Edmonton (1830–1915\\)\n--------------------------------",
"Coordinates: {{Coord\\|53\\|31\\|55\\|N\\|113\\|30\\|24\\|W\\|type:landmark\\_region:CA\\-AB}}",
"Due to floods in the late 1820s, a new fort was built on the terrace above the riverflats in 1830\\. This fifth and final fort stood for 85 years, though its use as a fur trading post was phased out starting in 1891\\. During its final years, the Fort co\\-existed with the [Alberta Legislature Building](/wiki/Alberta_Legislature_Building \"Alberta Legislature Building\"). The Legislative Building opened in 1913 on a terrace just north of the fort on the site of \"Rowand's Folly\", the large house built for Chief Factor [John Rowand](/wiki/John_Rowand \"John Rowand\")...[Canadian Parliamentary Review – Article](http://www.parl.gc.ca/Infoparl/english/issue.htm?param=122&art=735)\n[thumb\\|Fort Edmonton, 1870\\.](/wiki/File:Fort_Edmonton_1870.jpg \"Fort Edmonton 1870.jpg\")",
"### Rowand's administration",
"At this time, a long\\-serving member of the HBC, [John Edward Harriott](/wiki/John_Edward_Harriott \"John Edward Harriott\"), became the chief trader under Rowand. The two gained family ties when Harriott married one of Rowand's daughters. On a couple of occasions when Rowand joined HBC Inland Governor [George Simpson](/wiki/George_Simpson_%28administrator%29 \"George Simpson (administrator)\") for travel abroad, Harriott acted as chief factor.",
"Rowand's administration from the 1830s onward coincided with a great change in the Saskatchewan District. For the first time, missionaries, artists, and curious travellers came to Edmonton to visit, sometimes for extended periods. This frustrated Rowand to some degree. Prior to this time, the only Europeans to come that far into the west were men on some sort of company business.",
"With Rowand making Edmonton his home, the fort became an important centre in the west. It was a necessity for any traveller going any further west of Edmonton to go through there for provisions first. Rowand constructed a three\\-storey house in the heart of the fort for the exclusive use of him and his family, denoting his station to his subordinates, visitors and trade partners alike. This was nicknamed \"Rowand's Folly.\"",
"#### Influx of missionaries",
"Two [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\") missionaries, Francois\\-Norbert Blanchet and Modeste Demers, were the first to visit Fort Edmonton (called *Fort\\-des\\-Prairies*) in 1838\\.{{sfn\\|Goyette\\|Roemmich\\|2004\\|p\\=30}} Starting in 1840, the Fort housed the [Wesleyan](/wiki/Methodist_Church_of_Great_Britain \"Methodist Church of Great Britain\") [missionary](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") [Robert Rundle](/wiki/Robert_Rundle \"Robert Rundle\") as a company chaplain. Rundle's tenure lasted until 1848, and his ministry and missionary work was met with competition of a sort by [Jean\\-Baptiste Thibault](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Thibault \"Jean-Baptiste Thibault\"), a Catholic priest who, like Rundle, was attempting to evangelize natives in the area. A chapel was erected inside the fort in 1843, which the Reverend Rundle boasted could host \"(one) hundred Indians\"; the structure also had two small rooms for Rundle's private use.{{sfn\\|Rundle\\|1977\\|pp\\=143\\-144}} Meanwhile, Rowand complained that the presence of ministers in his fort was a distraction for the natives, and was ostensibly impeding the fur trade business.{{sfn\\|Goyette\\|Roemmich\\|2004\\|p\\=56}} On a personal level, however, Rowand had taken a liking to Rundle, and entrusted the minister with teaching his children.{{sfn\\|Rundle\\|1977\\|p\\=xliii}}",
"Father [Pierre\\-Jean De Smet](/wiki/Pierre-Jean_De_Smet \"Pierre-Jean De Smet\") spent the winter of 1845\\-46 at Fort Edmonton having traveled and explored from [Oregon Country](/wiki/Oregon_Country \"Oregon Country\") to meet the natives of the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains \"Rocky Mountains\").",
"In 1852, the [Oblate](/wiki/Oblate \"Oblate\") missionary [Albert Lacombe](/wiki/Albert_Lacombe \"Albert Lacombe\") first visited Fort Edmonton. With Rundle having trouble controlling the department in 1848, Lacombe easily took up residence in the former Methodist chapel. Lacombe took pity on the fur trade labourers, opining that, \"during the summer months, \\[Hudson's Bay labourers' toil] was as hard as that of the African slave.\".{{sfn\\|Goyette\\|Roemmich\\|2004\\|p\\=59}} He found little sympathy for the workers from John Rowand or the HBC clerks. The following year, Lacombe moved to [Lac St. Anne](/wiki/Lac_Ste._Anne_County \"Lac Ste. Anne County\"), but had a new [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\") chapel constructed in the fort in 1857 (but did not dwell there); this chapel lasted nearly twenty years before being moved outside of the fort.",
"A Methodist follow\\-up to Robert Rundle, Reverend [Thomas Woolsey](/wiki/Thomas_Woolsey \"Thomas Woolsey\"), was dispatched to Edmonton in 1852\\. His arrival in the fort coincided with Lacombe's residency in the former Methodist chapel, a discovery which distressed Woolsey. Conflicts and private frustrations with Catholic missionaries, and failures to convert Catholics to Protestantism, marked Woolsey's twelve\\-year residence at the fort.",
"In 1854, the mission St. Joachim was officially founded in turn at Fort\\-des\\-Praires (Fort Edmonton).",
"#### Oregon mission",
"[thumb\\|This watercolor with a scale diagram of the Fort was drawn by Vavasour in 1846\\.](/wiki/File:1846_watercolor_depicting_a_plan_view_of_Fort_Edmonton_on_the_banks_of_the_North_Saskatchewan.jpg \"1846 watercolor depicting a plan view of Fort Edmonton on the banks of the North Saskatchewan.jpg\")\nThough somewhat distant from the territory in question, Fort Edmonton, an important stop on the [York Factory Express](/wiki/York_Factory_Express \"York Factory Express\") overland trade route, was peripherally involved in the [Oregon Boundary Dispute](/wiki/Oregon_Boundary_Dispute \"Oregon Boundary Dispute\"). A pair of British Army lieutenants, [Mervin Vavasour](/wiki/Mervin_Vavasour \"Mervin Vavasour\") and [Henry James Warre](/wiki/Henry_James_Warre \"Henry James Warre\"), were sent on a mission in the guise of eccentric gentlemen to reconnoitre the lower [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River \"Columbia River\") valley and [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound \"Puget Sound\"). Among other objectives, they were to determine which HBC posts could be used in a military conflict.[ABCBookWorld](http://www.abcbookworld.com/?state=view_author&author_id=8519) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526124217/http://www.abcbookworld.com/?state\\=view\\_author\\&author\\_id\\=8519 \\|date\\=May 26, 2011 }}[Cover Story – Warre's War](http://www.inlander.com/topstory/276910500730952.php) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202111219/http://www.inlander.com/topstory/276910500730952\\.php \\|date\\=February 2, 2014 }} The trip had been encouraged by Sir [George Simpson](/wiki/George_Simpson_%28administrator%29 \"George Simpson (administrator)\") Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. Warre and Vavasour reported that the mountain passes were unsuitable for troop transport. Their mission took them through Fort Edmonton in the fall of 1845, and again on their way back to [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\") in 1846\\. They wrote: \"Without attempting to describe the numerous Defiles through which we passed, or the difficulty of forcing a passage through the burnt Forests, and over the high land, we may venture to assert, that Sir George Simpson's idea of transporting troops. . . with their stores, etc. through such an extent of uncultivated Country and over such impracticable Mountains would appear to Us quite unfeasible.\" As with other forts he visited on this mission, Vavasour drew a plan of Edmonton.",
"#### Other notable visitors",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Artist [Paul Kane](/wiki/Paul_Kane \"Paul Kane\")'s romanticized painting of the fifth fort (1849, from 1846 sketch), displaying Rowand's house rising high above the palisade.](/wiki/File:Kane_Fort_Edmonton.jpg \"Kane Fort Edmonton.jpg\")\nThe artist [Paul Kane](/wiki/Paul_Kane \"Paul Kane\") first visited the fort in 1845\\. He produced several works of art based upon his time there.",
"#### Rowand's end",
"In May 1854, John Rowand died while accompanying the annual [York Boat](/wiki/York_Boat \"York Boat\") trip eastward. Accounts suggest that he tried to break up (or join) a skirmish between some of the tripmen while at [Fort Pitt](/wiki/Fort_Pitt%2C_Saskatchewan \"Fort Pitt, Saskatchewan\"), and in his rage he fell suddenly dead. He was initially buried at Fort Pitt, but was later exhumed and buried in Montreal as per his last will and testament.{{sfn\\|Goyette\\|Roemmich\\|2004\\|pp\\=68\\-69}}",
"### Remaining years",
"#### Remaining administrators",
"[alt\\=refer to caption\\|thumb\\|A charcoal sketch of Fort Edmonton circa. 1867\\.](/wiki/File:Edmonton_in_1867.jpg \"Edmonton in 1867.jpg\")\nFollowing a few short\\-lived administrations in Rowand's wake, [William J. Christie](/wiki/William_J._Christie \"William J. Christie\") was a long\\-lasting chief factor at Edmonton from 1858 to 1872\\. Christie's protégé [Richard Charles Hardisty](/wiki/Richard_Hardisty \"Richard Hardisty\"), later a [Canadian Senator](/wiki/Senate_of_Canada \"Senate of Canada\"), served as chief factor in Edmonton for an interim period from 1862 through 1864\\.",
"The Hudson's Bay Company relinquished Rupert's Land to the [Government of Canada](/wiki/Government_of_Canada \"Government of Canada\") in 1868, pursuant to the [Rupert's Land Act 1868](/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land_Act_1868 \"Rupert's Land Act 1868\"), thus ending the HBC's administration of the vast territory and beginning an era of settlement in the 1870s.",
"By the 1890s, the fort was in disrepair and largely abandoned. The Hudson's Bay Company transitioned to retail stores, and business in Edmonton ran from one of those instead.",
"#### Explorers",
"In 1841 [James Sinclair](/wiki/James_Sinclair_%28fur_trader%29 \"James Sinclair (fur trader)\") stopped at Fort Edmonton to receive instructions on where to cross the Rockies. With him were about 116{{sfn\\|Galbraith\\|1954\\|p\\=254}} to 121{{sfn\\|Simpson\\|1847\\|p\\=62}} mostly Métis settlers from the [Red River Colony](/wiki/Red_River_Colony \"Red River Colony\"), hired by the [Pugets Sound Agricultural Company](/wiki/Pugets_Sound_Agricultural_Company \"Pugets Sound Agricultural Company\") to settle on [Fort Nisqually](/wiki/Fort_Nisqually \"Fort Nisqually\") and [Cowlitz Farm](/wiki/Cowlitz_Farm \"Cowlitz Farm\") within modern [Washington state](/wiki/Washington_%28state%29 \"Washington (state)\").",
"Captain [John Palliser](/wiki/John_Palliser \"John Palliser\") stayed in Fort Edmonton for a time in 1858 while on his famous [expedition](/wiki/Palliser_Expedition \"Palliser Expedition\"). With the help of the factor's wife, Palliser held a [ball](/wiki/Ball_%28dance%29 \"Ball (dance)\") there.[John Palliser and Henry Hind – The Arctic and More – 19th Century – Pathfinders and Passageways](http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/explorateurs/h24-1850-e.html){{Dead link\\|date\\=December 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"In 1859, [the 9th Earl of Southesk](/wiki/James_Carnegie%2C_9th_Earl_of_Southesk \"James Carnegie, 9th Earl of Southesk\") visited on his way to the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains \"Rocky Mountains\"), hoping that the fresh mountain air would improve his health.[Alberta museum lands bulk of rare aboriginal collection](http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=f6049f2c-57b1-4004-846e-0502cb08f6d4) He recorded his observations in the 1874 book Saskatchewan and Rocky Mountains and also published a book on Cree syllabics in 1875\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://peel.library.ualberta.ca/bibliography/ \\| title\\=Advanced Search }}",
"Viscount William Milton and William Butler Cheadle came through Edmonton in 1862/3 and published accounts of their journey.",
"#### Under threat of warfare",
"The spring of 1870 saw Fort Edmonton come under the threat of violence due to a war between the [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot \"Blackfoot\") and Cree, resulting from the slaying of Cree Chief [Maskipiton](/wiki/Maskipiton \"Maskipiton\"). A group of the Blackfoot approaching the fort from the south caught some traders with wagons of goods on the south bank, in today's Walterdale neighbourhood of Edmonton. The traders escaped by ferry but had to leave their wagons behind. The ferry was not sent back to the Blackfoot and they were not able to give chase to the fleeing traders as they were unable to ford the North Saskatchewan due to high spring waters. Th Blackfoot encamped nearby, plundered the wagons and harassed the fort with their muskets. The men in the fort armed themselves and prepared to fight. But the fort was not attacked in force. Chief Factor [William J. Christie](/wiki/William_J._Christie \"William J. Christie\") ordered the Bay men not to go out to attack the Blackfoot, apprehensive that to do so would invite further violence against the Hudson's Bay Company.{{sfn\\|Goyette\\|Roemmich\\|2004\\|pp\\=109\\-112}}[thumb\\|Fort Edmonton, near the new Legislature Building, 1914\\.Fifteen](/wiki/File:LegislatureFortEd.jpg \"LegislatureFortEd.jpg\") years later, on March 19, 1885, during the [North West Rebellion](/wiki/North-West_Rebellion \"North-West Rebellion\"), the telegraph wire connecting Edmonton to the rest of the world was cut. Fearing imminent attack, many local settlers and their families took shelter within the fort's old wooden palisade walls. No attack happened. Within a few weeks, marching and mounted troops arrived from southern Alberta and from eastern Canada by way of the CPR station at Calgary, to ensure that no local outbreak would occur.{{sfn\\|Goyette\\|Roemmich\\|2004\\|p\\=143}} Most of the soldiers went on out to chase down [Big Bear](/wiki/Big_Bear \"Big Bear\") and his band.\n[alt\\=View of the Fort Edmonton buildings. Fences are broken, paint is peeling off the old buildings. Circa 1912\\.\\|thumb\\|View of the Old Hudson's Bay Company Fort Edmonton Buildings circa. 1912\\.](/wiki/File:Old_Hudson_Bay_Post%2C_Edmonton%2C_Alta.jpg \"Old Hudson Bay Post, Edmonton, Alta.jpg\")",
"#### Dismantling",
"What remained of the fifth Fort Edmonton was dismantled in October, 1915\\. It was seen as a crumbling eyesore next to the Alberta Legislature Building, which had been completed three years earlier.[Real Estate Weekly](http://www.rewedmonton.ca/content_view2?CONTENT_ID=2139) The Government of Alberta indicated at the time that it would use the old fort's timbers to create a heritage site elsewhere in the city, but it never did. A few were saved and still possibly exist in city museums or in Rowand House, but most were said to be accidentally burned in a [Boy Scout](/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America \"Boy Scouts of America\") jamboree in May 1937\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Silversides \\|first\\=Brock \\|title\\=Fort De Prairies: The Story of Fort Edmonton \\|date\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=Heritage House \\|isbn\\=1\\-894384\\-98\\-9}}",
""
] |
### Rowand's administration
At this time, a long\-serving member of the HBC, [John Edward Harriott](/wiki/John_Edward_Harriott "John Edward Harriott"), became the chief trader under Rowand. The two gained family ties when Harriott married one of Rowand's daughters. On a couple of occasions when Rowand joined HBC Inland Governor [George Simpson](/wiki/George_Simpson_%28administrator%29 "George Simpson (administrator)") for travel abroad, Harriott acted as chief factor.
Rowand's administration from the 1830s onward coincided with a great change in the Saskatchewan District. For the first time, missionaries, artists, and curious travellers came to Edmonton to visit, sometimes for extended periods. This frustrated Rowand to some degree. Prior to this time, the only Europeans to come that far into the west were men on some sort of company business.
With Rowand making Edmonton his home, the fort became an important centre in the west. It was a necessity for any traveller going any further west of Edmonton to go through there for provisions first. Rowand constructed a three\-storey house in the heart of the fort for the exclusive use of him and his family, denoting his station to his subordinates, visitors and trade partners alike. This was nicknamed "Rowand's Folly."
#### Influx of missionaries
Two [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church") missionaries, Francois\-Norbert Blanchet and Modeste Demers, were the first to visit Fort Edmonton (called *Fort\-des\-Prairies*) in 1838\.{{sfn\|Goyette\|Roemmich\|2004\|p\=30}} Starting in 1840, the Fort housed the [Wesleyan](/wiki/Methodist_Church_of_Great_Britain "Methodist Church of Great Britain") [missionary](/wiki/Missionary "Missionary") [Robert Rundle](/wiki/Robert_Rundle "Robert Rundle") as a company chaplain. Rundle's tenure lasted until 1848, and his ministry and missionary work was met with competition of a sort by [Jean\-Baptiste Thibault](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Thibault "Jean-Baptiste Thibault"), a Catholic priest who, like Rundle, was attempting to evangelize natives in the area. A chapel was erected inside the fort in 1843, which the Reverend Rundle boasted could host "(one) hundred Indians"; the structure also had two small rooms for Rundle's private use.{{sfn\|Rundle\|1977\|pp\=143\-144}} Meanwhile, Rowand complained that the presence of ministers in his fort was a distraction for the natives, and was ostensibly impeding the fur trade business.{{sfn\|Goyette\|Roemmich\|2004\|p\=56}} On a personal level, however, Rowand had taken a liking to Rundle, and entrusted the minister with teaching his children.{{sfn\|Rundle\|1977\|p\=xliii}}
Father [Pierre\-Jean De Smet](/wiki/Pierre-Jean_De_Smet "Pierre-Jean De Smet") spent the winter of 1845\-46 at Fort Edmonton having traveled and explored from [Oregon Country](/wiki/Oregon_Country "Oregon Country") to meet the natives of the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains "Rocky Mountains").
In 1852, the [Oblate](/wiki/Oblate "Oblate") missionary [Albert Lacombe](/wiki/Albert_Lacombe "Albert Lacombe") first visited Fort Edmonton. With Rundle having trouble controlling the department in 1848, Lacombe easily took up residence in the former Methodist chapel. Lacombe took pity on the fur trade labourers, opining that, "during the summer months, \[Hudson's Bay labourers' toil] was as hard as that of the African slave.".{{sfn\|Goyette\|Roemmich\|2004\|p\=59}} He found little sympathy for the workers from John Rowand or the HBC clerks. The following year, Lacombe moved to [Lac St. Anne](/wiki/Lac_Ste._Anne_County "Lac Ste. Anne County"), but had a new [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church "Roman Catholic Church") chapel constructed in the fort in 1857 (but did not dwell there); this chapel lasted nearly twenty years before being moved outside of the fort.
A Methodist follow\-up to Robert Rundle, Reverend [Thomas Woolsey](/wiki/Thomas_Woolsey "Thomas Woolsey"), was dispatched to Edmonton in 1852\. His arrival in the fort coincided with Lacombe's residency in the former Methodist chapel, a discovery which distressed Woolsey. Conflicts and private frustrations with Catholic missionaries, and failures to convert Catholics to Protestantism, marked Woolsey's twelve\-year residence at the fort.
In 1854, the mission St. Joachim was officially founded in turn at Fort\-des\-Praires (Fort Edmonton).
#### Oregon mission
[thumb\|This watercolor with a scale diagram of the Fort was drawn by Vavasour in 1846\.](/wiki/File:1846_watercolor_depicting_a_plan_view_of_Fort_Edmonton_on_the_banks_of_the_North_Saskatchewan.jpg "1846 watercolor depicting a plan view of Fort Edmonton on the banks of the North Saskatchewan.jpg")
Though somewhat distant from the territory in question, Fort Edmonton, an important stop on the [York Factory Express](/wiki/York_Factory_Express "York Factory Express") overland trade route, was peripherally involved in the [Oregon Boundary Dispute](/wiki/Oregon_Boundary_Dispute "Oregon Boundary Dispute"). A pair of British Army lieutenants, [Mervin Vavasour](/wiki/Mervin_Vavasour "Mervin Vavasour") and [Henry James Warre](/wiki/Henry_James_Warre "Henry James Warre"), were sent on a mission in the guise of eccentric gentlemen to reconnoitre the lower [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River "Columbia River") valley and [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound "Puget Sound"). Among other objectives, they were to determine which HBC posts could be used in a military conflict.[ABCBookWorld](http://www.abcbookworld.com/?state=view_author&author_id=8519) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526124217/http://www.abcbookworld.com/?state\=view\_author\&author\_id\=8519 \|date\=May 26, 2011 }}[Cover Story – Warre's War](http://www.inlander.com/topstory/276910500730952.php) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202111219/http://www.inlander.com/topstory/276910500730952\.php \|date\=February 2, 2014 }} The trip had been encouraged by Sir [George Simpson](/wiki/George_Simpson_%28administrator%29 "George Simpson (administrator)") Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. Warre and Vavasour reported that the mountain passes were unsuitable for troop transport. Their mission took them through Fort Edmonton in the fall of 1845, and again on their way back to [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal") in 1846\. They wrote: "Without attempting to describe the numerous Defiles through which we passed, or the difficulty of forcing a passage through the burnt Forests, and over the high land, we may venture to assert, that Sir George Simpson's idea of transporting troops. . . with their stores, etc. through such an extent of uncultivated Country and over such impracticable Mountains would appear to Us quite unfeasible." As with other forts he visited on this mission, Vavasour drew a plan of Edmonton.
#### Other notable visitors
[thumb\|right\|Artist [Paul Kane](/wiki/Paul_Kane "Paul Kane")'s romanticized painting of the fifth fort (1849, from 1846 sketch), displaying Rowand's house rising high above the palisade.](/wiki/File:Kane_Fort_Edmonton.jpg "Kane Fort Edmonton.jpg")
The artist [Paul Kane](/wiki/Paul_Kane "Paul Kane") first visited the fort in 1845\. He produced several works of art based upon his time there.
#### Rowand's end
In May 1854, John Rowand died while accompanying the annual [York Boat](/wiki/York_Boat "York Boat") trip eastward. Accounts suggest that he tried to break up (or join) a skirmish between some of the tripmen while at [Fort Pitt](/wiki/Fort_Pitt%2C_Saskatchewan "Fort Pitt, Saskatchewan"), and in his rage he fell suddenly dead. He was initially buried at Fort Pitt, but was later exhumed and buried in Montreal as per his last will and testament.{{sfn\|Goyette\|Roemmich\|2004\|pp\=68\-69}}
|
[
"### Rowand's administration",
"At this time, a long\\-serving member of the HBC, [John Edward Harriott](/wiki/John_Edward_Harriott \"John Edward Harriott\"), became the chief trader under Rowand. The two gained family ties when Harriott married one of Rowand's daughters. On a couple of occasions when Rowand joined HBC Inland Governor [George Simpson](/wiki/George_Simpson_%28administrator%29 \"George Simpson (administrator)\") for travel abroad, Harriott acted as chief factor.",
"Rowand's administration from the 1830s onward coincided with a great change in the Saskatchewan District. For the first time, missionaries, artists, and curious travellers came to Edmonton to visit, sometimes for extended periods. This frustrated Rowand to some degree. Prior to this time, the only Europeans to come that far into the west were men on some sort of company business.",
"With Rowand making Edmonton his home, the fort became an important centre in the west. It was a necessity for any traveller going any further west of Edmonton to go through there for provisions first. Rowand constructed a three\\-storey house in the heart of the fort for the exclusive use of him and his family, denoting his station to his subordinates, visitors and trade partners alike. This was nicknamed \"Rowand's Folly.\"",
"#### Influx of missionaries",
"Two [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\") missionaries, Francois\\-Norbert Blanchet and Modeste Demers, were the first to visit Fort Edmonton (called *Fort\\-des\\-Prairies*) in 1838\\.{{sfn\\|Goyette\\|Roemmich\\|2004\\|p\\=30}} Starting in 1840, the Fort housed the [Wesleyan](/wiki/Methodist_Church_of_Great_Britain \"Methodist Church of Great Britain\") [missionary](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") [Robert Rundle](/wiki/Robert_Rundle \"Robert Rundle\") as a company chaplain. Rundle's tenure lasted until 1848, and his ministry and missionary work was met with competition of a sort by [Jean\\-Baptiste Thibault](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Thibault \"Jean-Baptiste Thibault\"), a Catholic priest who, like Rundle, was attempting to evangelize natives in the area. A chapel was erected inside the fort in 1843, which the Reverend Rundle boasted could host \"(one) hundred Indians\"; the structure also had two small rooms for Rundle's private use.{{sfn\\|Rundle\\|1977\\|pp\\=143\\-144}} Meanwhile, Rowand complained that the presence of ministers in his fort was a distraction for the natives, and was ostensibly impeding the fur trade business.{{sfn\\|Goyette\\|Roemmich\\|2004\\|p\\=56}} On a personal level, however, Rowand had taken a liking to Rundle, and entrusted the minister with teaching his children.{{sfn\\|Rundle\\|1977\\|p\\=xliii}}",
"Father [Pierre\\-Jean De Smet](/wiki/Pierre-Jean_De_Smet \"Pierre-Jean De Smet\") spent the winter of 1845\\-46 at Fort Edmonton having traveled and explored from [Oregon Country](/wiki/Oregon_Country \"Oregon Country\") to meet the natives of the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains \"Rocky Mountains\").",
"In 1852, the [Oblate](/wiki/Oblate \"Oblate\") missionary [Albert Lacombe](/wiki/Albert_Lacombe \"Albert Lacombe\") first visited Fort Edmonton. With Rundle having trouble controlling the department in 1848, Lacombe easily took up residence in the former Methodist chapel. Lacombe took pity on the fur trade labourers, opining that, \"during the summer months, \\[Hudson's Bay labourers' toil] was as hard as that of the African slave.\".{{sfn\\|Goyette\\|Roemmich\\|2004\\|p\\=59}} He found little sympathy for the workers from John Rowand or the HBC clerks. The following year, Lacombe moved to [Lac St. Anne](/wiki/Lac_Ste._Anne_County \"Lac Ste. Anne County\"), but had a new [Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church \"Roman Catholic Church\") chapel constructed in the fort in 1857 (but did not dwell there); this chapel lasted nearly twenty years before being moved outside of the fort.",
"A Methodist follow\\-up to Robert Rundle, Reverend [Thomas Woolsey](/wiki/Thomas_Woolsey \"Thomas Woolsey\"), was dispatched to Edmonton in 1852\\. His arrival in the fort coincided with Lacombe's residency in the former Methodist chapel, a discovery which distressed Woolsey. Conflicts and private frustrations with Catholic missionaries, and failures to convert Catholics to Protestantism, marked Woolsey's twelve\\-year residence at the fort.",
"In 1854, the mission St. Joachim was officially founded in turn at Fort\\-des\\-Praires (Fort Edmonton).",
"#### Oregon mission",
"[thumb\\|This watercolor with a scale diagram of the Fort was drawn by Vavasour in 1846\\.](/wiki/File:1846_watercolor_depicting_a_plan_view_of_Fort_Edmonton_on_the_banks_of_the_North_Saskatchewan.jpg \"1846 watercolor depicting a plan view of Fort Edmonton on the banks of the North Saskatchewan.jpg\")\nThough somewhat distant from the territory in question, Fort Edmonton, an important stop on the [York Factory Express](/wiki/York_Factory_Express \"York Factory Express\") overland trade route, was peripherally involved in the [Oregon Boundary Dispute](/wiki/Oregon_Boundary_Dispute \"Oregon Boundary Dispute\"). A pair of British Army lieutenants, [Mervin Vavasour](/wiki/Mervin_Vavasour \"Mervin Vavasour\") and [Henry James Warre](/wiki/Henry_James_Warre \"Henry James Warre\"), were sent on a mission in the guise of eccentric gentlemen to reconnoitre the lower [Columbia River](/wiki/Columbia_River \"Columbia River\") valley and [Puget Sound](/wiki/Puget_Sound \"Puget Sound\"). Among other objectives, they were to determine which HBC posts could be used in a military conflict.[ABCBookWorld](http://www.abcbookworld.com/?state=view_author&author_id=8519) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526124217/http://www.abcbookworld.com/?state\\=view\\_author\\&author\\_id\\=8519 \\|date\\=May 26, 2011 }}[Cover Story – Warre's War](http://www.inlander.com/topstory/276910500730952.php) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202111219/http://www.inlander.com/topstory/276910500730952\\.php \\|date\\=February 2, 2014 }} The trip had been encouraged by Sir [George Simpson](/wiki/George_Simpson_%28administrator%29 \"George Simpson (administrator)\") Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. Warre and Vavasour reported that the mountain passes were unsuitable for troop transport. Their mission took them through Fort Edmonton in the fall of 1845, and again on their way back to [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\") in 1846\\. They wrote: \"Without attempting to describe the numerous Defiles through which we passed, or the difficulty of forcing a passage through the burnt Forests, and over the high land, we may venture to assert, that Sir George Simpson's idea of transporting troops. . . with their stores, etc. through such an extent of uncultivated Country and over such impracticable Mountains would appear to Us quite unfeasible.\" As with other forts he visited on this mission, Vavasour drew a plan of Edmonton.",
"#### Other notable visitors",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Artist [Paul Kane](/wiki/Paul_Kane \"Paul Kane\")'s romanticized painting of the fifth fort (1849, from 1846 sketch), displaying Rowand's house rising high above the palisade.](/wiki/File:Kane_Fort_Edmonton.jpg \"Kane Fort Edmonton.jpg\")\nThe artist [Paul Kane](/wiki/Paul_Kane \"Paul Kane\") first visited the fort in 1845\\. He produced several works of art based upon his time there.",
"#### Rowand's end",
"In May 1854, John Rowand died while accompanying the annual [York Boat](/wiki/York_Boat \"York Boat\") trip eastward. Accounts suggest that he tried to break up (or join) a skirmish between some of the tripmen while at [Fort Pitt](/wiki/Fort_Pitt%2C_Saskatchewan \"Fort Pitt, Saskatchewan\"), and in his rage he fell suddenly dead. He was initially buried at Fort Pitt, but was later exhumed and buried in Montreal as per his last will and testament.{{sfn\\|Goyette\\|Roemmich\\|2004\\|pp\\=68\\-69}}",
""
] |
History
-------
In 1967, a [Saint\-Tite](/wiki/Saint-Tite "Saint-Tite") company specializing in leather work organized a rodeo as a marketing operation on a local sports ground. The event hosts nearly 6,000 visitors{{cite web\|title\=Historique\|url\=http://www.festivalwestern.com/corporatif/historique/\|website\=festivalwestern.com\|language\=fr\|access\-date\=18 November 2015\|publication\-date\=}}. and is so successful that it quickly formed several committees to repeat the experience in subsequent years. The active and voluntary participation of citizens is the basis of the event and contributes to the concretization of the company. Efforts are being made to introduce a professional rodeo and equestrian competitions. In 1968, the parade with [animal traction](/wiki/Animal_traction "Animal traction") made its appearance. Over the years, several activities are added to the festival, always around a Western theme.
In 1972, large wooden stands are inaugurated for the spectators of the rodeo.
Over the years, the city of [Saint\-Tite](/wiki/Saint-Tite "Saint-Tite"), the festival organization, the city's businesses and citizens have gradually changed the look of the infrastructure to make the city look like a [Wild West](/wiki/Wild_West "Wild West") village.
[thumb\|[Jean Charest](/wiki/Jean_Charest "Jean Charest"), former premier of Quebec, and his wife, Michèle Dionne, on 7 September 2008\.](/wiki/File:Jean_Charest_a_Saint-Tite.jpg "Jean Charest a Saint-Tite.jpg")
This transformation is visible by the following aspects:
A fountain, near the church, is topped by a sculpture depicting a cowboy riding a wild horse.
A western\-style four\-sided clock is installed at the main intersection of the city.
Road signs indicating the street names have been modified to make them look western.
The shops often have a permanent exterior decoration to the western style. While some have completely changed the outside of their business, most are content to have stylized the name of their business.
Households can participate each year in a decoration contest from outside their home. While most citizens install fences, poles and colored lights, some create articulated decorations with electric motors or cover their entire terrain with western\-style objects.
In 1999, the wooden platforms were demolished to make way for new steel platforms with a capacity of 7,243 places.
The [Saint\-Tite](/wiki/Saint-Tite "Saint-Tite") Western Festival is a non\-profit organization whose mission is to produce professional rodeos and activities designed to recreate a country\-western atmosphere. While promoting an incomparable atmosphere, the event aims to maximize major socio\-economic and tourist benefits within the city of Saint\-Tite, the [MRC Mékinac](/wiki/M%C3%A9kinac_Regional_County_Municipality "Mékinac Regional County Municipality") and throughout the [Mauricie](/wiki/Mauricie "Mauricie") region. All this to obtain a radiation at the international level.
A must\-attend country\-western event and benchmark in terms of professional rodeo in Eastern North America, the Western Festival of Saint\-Tite has carved out a place for itself in its region and its community. Its growth is the result of the work of a large number of passionate men and women.
The Organization's vision is to set the standard for producing rodeos and country\-western activities in Eastern North America.
In 2008, the festival attracted 585,581 visitors, including 100,000 for the horse\-drawn parade.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 1967, a [Saint\\-Tite](/wiki/Saint-Tite \"Saint-Tite\") company specializing in leather work organized a rodeo as a marketing operation on a local sports ground. The event hosts nearly 6,000 visitors{{cite web\\|title\\=Historique\\|url\\=http://www.festivalwestern.com/corporatif/historique/\\|website\\=festivalwestern.com\\|language\\=fr\\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2015\\|publication\\-date\\=}}. and is so successful that it quickly formed several committees to repeat the experience in subsequent years. The active and voluntary participation of citizens is the basis of the event and contributes to the concretization of the company. Efforts are being made to introduce a professional rodeo and equestrian competitions. In 1968, the parade with [animal traction](/wiki/Animal_traction \"Animal traction\") made its appearance. Over the years, several activities are added to the festival, always around a Western theme.",
"In 1972, large wooden stands are inaugurated for the spectators of the rodeo.",
"Over the years, the city of [Saint\\-Tite](/wiki/Saint-Tite \"Saint-Tite\"), the festival organization, the city's businesses and citizens have gradually changed the look of the infrastructure to make the city look like a [Wild West](/wiki/Wild_West \"Wild West\") village.",
"[thumb\\|[Jean Charest](/wiki/Jean_Charest \"Jean Charest\"), former premier of Quebec, and his wife, Michèle Dionne, on 7 September 2008\\.](/wiki/File:Jean_Charest_a_Saint-Tite.jpg \"Jean Charest a Saint-Tite.jpg\")",
"This transformation is visible by the following aspects:",
"A fountain, near the church, is topped by a sculpture depicting a cowboy riding a wild horse.",
"A western\\-style four\\-sided clock is installed at the main intersection of the city.",
"Road signs indicating the street names have been modified to make them look western.",
"The shops often have a permanent exterior decoration to the western style. While some have completely changed the outside of their business, most are content to have stylized the name of their business.",
"Households can participate each year in a decoration contest from outside their home. While most citizens install fences, poles and colored lights, some create articulated decorations with electric motors or cover their entire terrain with western\\-style objects.",
"In 1999, the wooden platforms were demolished to make way for new steel platforms with a capacity of 7,243 places.",
"The [Saint\\-Tite](/wiki/Saint-Tite \"Saint-Tite\") Western Festival is a non\\-profit organization whose mission is to produce professional rodeos and activities designed to recreate a country\\-western atmosphere. While promoting an incomparable atmosphere, the event aims to maximize major socio\\-economic and tourist benefits within the city of Saint\\-Tite, the [MRC Mékinac](/wiki/M%C3%A9kinac_Regional_County_Municipality \"Mékinac Regional County Municipality\") and throughout the [Mauricie](/wiki/Mauricie \"Mauricie\") region. All this to obtain a radiation at the international level.",
"A must\\-attend country\\-western event and benchmark in terms of professional rodeo in Eastern North America, the Western Festival of Saint\\-Tite has carved out a place for itself in its region and its community. Its growth is the result of the work of a large number of passionate men and women.",
"The Organization's vision is to set the standard for producing rodeos and country\\-western activities in Eastern North America.",
"In 2008, the festival attracted 585,581 visitors, including 100,000 for the horse\\-drawn parade.",
""
] |
History
-------
It is one of the oldest settlement in the area, Czerwionka, [Leszczyny](/wiki/Leszczyny%2C_Czerwionka-Leszczyny "Leszczyny, Czerwionka-Leszczyny"), Ciosek and [Ornontowice](/wiki/Ornontowice "Ornontowice") were established within Dębieńsko's original borders.
The village was first mentioned in 1306\. It became a seat of a Catholic [parish](/wiki/Parish "Parish") in [Żory](/wiki/%C5%BBory "Żory") [deanery](/wiki/Deanery "Deanery") in [Diocese of Wrocław](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Wroc%C5%82aw "Archdiocese of Wrocław"), mentioned in 1335 as *Dambin* in an incomplete register of [Peter's Pence](/wiki/Peter%27s_Pence "Peter's Pence") payment, composed by [Galhard de Carceribus](/wiki/Galhard_de_Carceribus "Galhard de Carceribus").{{cite book \|first\=Jan \|last\=Ptaśnik \|author\-link\=Jan Ptaśnik \|title\=Monumenta Poloniae Vaticana T.1 Acta Camerae Apostolicae. Vol. 1, 1207\-1344\|publisher\= Sumpt. Academiae Litterarum Cracoviensis\|place\=Cracoviae \|year\=1913 \| pp \= 366\| url\= http://www.kpbc.ukw.edu.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id\=23551\&from\=\&dirids\=1\&ver\_id\=\&lp\=4\&QI\=51AD482DA2B36ED801EE899F17FA474F\-1}}
Politically the village belonged then to the [Duchy of Racibórz](/wiki/Duchy_of_Racib%C3%B3rz "Duchy of Racibórz"), within [feudally fragmented Poland](/wiki/History_of_Poland%23Fragmentation "History of Poland#Fragmentation"). In 1327 the duchy became a [fee](/wiki/Fee_%28feudal_tenure%29 "Fee (feudal tenure)") of the [Kingdom of Bohemia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia "Kingdom of Bohemia"), which after 1526 became part of the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy"). After [Silesian Wars](/wiki/Silesian_Wars "Silesian Wars") it became a part of the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia"), and in 1871 it became part of [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany").
After [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") in the [Upper Silesia plebiscite](/wiki/Upper_Silesia_plebiscite "Upper Silesia plebiscite") 461 out of 586 voters in Stare Dębieńsko (*Alt Dubensko*) voted in favour of rejoining Poland which just regained independence, against 125 for Germany, whereas in Dębieńsko Wielkie (*Gross Dubensko*, manor goods) it was 85 out of 116 against 31\.{{cite web\|url\=http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien\-ka/abstimmung/rybnik.htm\|title\=Results of the Upper Silesia plebiscite in Rybnik County\|language\=German\|access\-date\=2015\-05\-03\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050546/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien\-ka/abstimmung/rybnik.htm\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-04}} The village became a part of [autonomous Silesian Voivodeship](/wiki/Silesian_Voivodeship_%281920%E2%80%9339%29 "Silesian Voivodeship (1920–39)") in [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic").
Following the joint German\-Soviet [invasion of Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland "Invasion of Poland"), which started [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") in September 1939, it was [annexed](/wiki/Polish_areas_annexed_by_Nazi_Germany "Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany") by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany"). During the [occupation](/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%931945%29 "Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)"), the Germans operated the E324 [forced labour](/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II "Forced labour under German rule during World War II") subcamp of the [Stalag VIII\-B/344](/wiki/Stalag_VIII-B "Stalag VIII-B") [prisoner\-of\-war camp](/wiki/German_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_World_War_II "German prisoner-of-war camps in World War II") in the village.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lamsdorf.com/working\-parties.html\|title\=Working Parties\|website\=Lamsdorf.com\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029103834/https://www.lamsdorf.com/working\-parties.html\|access\-date\=27 November 2021\|archive\-date\=29 October 2020}} After the war it was restored to Poland.
In years 1945\-1954 Dębieńsko Stare together with Dębieńsko Wielkie formed a gmina. In 1973 the gmina was not re\-established, instead Dębieńsko became till 1977 a part of [gmina Ornontowice](/wiki/Gmina_Ornontowice "Gmina Ornontowice"), after which it was absorbed by Leszczyny (later renamed to Czerwionka\-Leszczyny).
|
[
"History\n-------",
"It is one of the oldest settlement in the area, Czerwionka, [Leszczyny](/wiki/Leszczyny%2C_Czerwionka-Leszczyny \"Leszczyny, Czerwionka-Leszczyny\"), Ciosek and [Ornontowice](/wiki/Ornontowice \"Ornontowice\") were established within Dębieńsko's original borders.",
"The village was first mentioned in 1306\\. It became a seat of a Catholic [parish](/wiki/Parish \"Parish\") in [Żory](/wiki/%C5%BBory \"Żory\") [deanery](/wiki/Deanery \"Deanery\") in [Diocese of Wrocław](/wiki/Archdiocese_of_Wroc%C5%82aw \"Archdiocese of Wrocław\"), mentioned in 1335 as *Dambin* in an incomplete register of [Peter's Pence](/wiki/Peter%27s_Pence \"Peter's Pence\") payment, composed by [Galhard de Carceribus](/wiki/Galhard_de_Carceribus \"Galhard de Carceribus\").{{cite book \\|first\\=Jan \\|last\\=Ptaśnik \\|author\\-link\\=Jan Ptaśnik \\|title\\=Monumenta Poloniae Vaticana T.1 Acta Camerae Apostolicae. Vol. 1, 1207\\-1344\\|publisher\\= Sumpt. Academiae Litterarum Cracoviensis\\|place\\=Cracoviae \\|year\\=1913 \\| pp \\= 366\\| url\\= http://www.kpbc.ukw.edu.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id\\=23551\\&from\\=\\&dirids\\=1\\&ver\\_id\\=\\&lp\\=4\\&QI\\=51AD482DA2B36ED801EE899F17FA474F\\-1}}",
"Politically the village belonged then to the [Duchy of Racibórz](/wiki/Duchy_of_Racib%C3%B3rz \"Duchy of Racibórz\"), within [feudally fragmented Poland](/wiki/History_of_Poland%23Fragmentation \"History of Poland#Fragmentation\"). In 1327 the duchy became a [fee](/wiki/Fee_%28feudal_tenure%29 \"Fee (feudal tenure)\") of the [Kingdom of Bohemia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia \"Kingdom of Bohemia\"), which after 1526 became part of the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\"). After [Silesian Wars](/wiki/Silesian_Wars \"Silesian Wars\") it became a part of the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\"), and in 1871 it became part of [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\").",
"After [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") in the [Upper Silesia plebiscite](/wiki/Upper_Silesia_plebiscite \"Upper Silesia plebiscite\") 461 out of 586 voters in Stare Dębieńsko (*Alt Dubensko*) voted in favour of rejoining Poland which just regained independence, against 125 for Germany, whereas in Dębieńsko Wielkie (*Gross Dubensko*, manor goods) it was 85 out of 116 against 31\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien\\-ka/abstimmung/rybnik.htm\\|title\\=Results of the Upper Silesia plebiscite in Rybnik County\\|language\\=German\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-05\\-03\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050546/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien\\-ka/abstimmung/rybnik.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-04}} The village became a part of [autonomous Silesian Voivodeship](/wiki/Silesian_Voivodeship_%281920%E2%80%9339%29 \"Silesian Voivodeship (1920–39)\") in [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\").",
"Following the joint German\\-Soviet [invasion of Poland](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland \"Invasion of Poland\"), which started [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") in September 1939, it was [annexed](/wiki/Polish_areas_annexed_by_Nazi_Germany \"Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany\") by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\"). During the [occupation](/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%931945%29 \"Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)\"), the Germans operated the E324 [forced labour](/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II \"Forced labour under German rule during World War II\") subcamp of the [Stalag VIII\\-B/344](/wiki/Stalag_VIII-B \"Stalag VIII-B\") [prisoner\\-of\\-war camp](/wiki/German_prisoner-of-war_camps_in_World_War_II \"German prisoner-of-war camps in World War II\") in the village.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lamsdorf.com/working\\-parties.html\\|title\\=Working Parties\\|website\\=Lamsdorf.com\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029103834/https://www.lamsdorf.com/working\\-parties.html\\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=29 October 2020}} After the war it was restored to Poland.",
"In years 1945\\-1954 Dębieńsko Stare together with Dębieńsko Wielkie formed a gmina. In 1973 the gmina was not re\\-established, instead Dębieńsko became till 1977 a part of [gmina Ornontowice](/wiki/Gmina_Ornontowice \"Gmina Ornontowice\"), after which it was absorbed by Leszczyny (later renamed to Czerwionka\\-Leszczyny).",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life
Mallory was born in [Berkeley, California](/wiki/Berkeley%2C_California "Berkeley, California") on January 10, 1945\. He received his first guitar at 15, and ran away from home to become a musician the following year.
### 1960s
Mallory began performing for live audiences in San Francisco's [North Beach](/wiki/North_Beach%2C_San_Francisco "North Beach, San Francisco") cafes, such as the Coffee Gallery and Coffee and Confusion. In 1963, he went to New York and played in [West Village](/wiki/West_Village "West Village") folk clubs, including the Cafe Bizarre, the [Night Owl](/wiki/Night_Owl_%28club%29 "Night Owl (club)"), [Cafe Wha?](/wiki/Cafe_Wha%3F "Cafe Wha?") and the Four Winds. He later became a regular at the [Troubadour](/wiki/Troubadour "Troubadour") in Los Angeles, where he was part of the group named The Men, some of whose members later formed [The Association](/wiki/The_Association "The Association"). As a performing musician in Los Angeles, he shared the bill with performers such as the [Nitty Gritty Dirt Band](/wiki/Nitty_Gritty_Dirt_Band "Nitty Gritty Dirt Band").
Mallory's first recording session was as a background vocalist on [Tommy Roe](/wiki/Tommy_Roe "Tommy Roe")'s "[Hooray for Hazel](/wiki/Hooray_for_Hazel "Hooray for Hazel")". He became a session guitar player on several singles by [The Association](/wiki/The_Association "The Association"), and co\-wrote two songs they recorded, "Better Times" and "Just About the Same".
Mallory's 1966 single on [Valiant Records](/wiki/Valiant_Records "Valiant Records"), a version of "That's the Way It's Gonna Be" by [Phil Ochs](/wiki/Phil_Ochs "Phil Ochs") and Bob Gibson, reached \#1 in Amsterdam and \#2 in Seattle. It was re\-released on the [Rhino Records](/wiki/Rhino_Records "Rhino Records") compilation *Hallucinations*. "Take My Hand," his second single, is included in Rhino's compilation *Come to the Sunshine*. He recorded first with Valiant, then [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records"). His early works have been re\-released on [Sonic Past Music](/wiki/Sonic_Past_Music "Sonic Past Music"). He published with [Opryland](/wiki/Opryland_%28publisher%29 "Opryland (publisher)"), [Acuff\-Rose](/wiki/Acuff-Rose "Acuff-Rose") and finally [Sony](/wiki/Sony "Sony")/ATV before becoming an independent artist/songwriter/guitarist. Mallory's newer works have been published by Redwood River Music.
The sunshine pop supergroup [The Millennium](/wiki/The_Millennium_%28band%29 "The Millennium (band)") formed from members of Mallory's backup band (Jerry Scheff, Ben Benay and Toxie French). According to Mallory, Scheff coined the name to signify "a thousand years of peace and prosperity". [Curt Boettcher](/wiki/Curt_Boettcher "Curt Boettcher") joined as the group's producer as well as a member.
Mallory performed as lead guitarist and a member of the Tribe for the first road company of the stage production of *Hair*. He is the only person known to have served both in the Tribe and in the band.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.michaelbutler.com/hair/holding/Hair.html\|title\=Hair The American Tribal Love\-Rock Musical Archives\|website\=Michaelbutler.com}}
In the early 1970s, Lee Mallory formed a supergroup named Hollywood with the songwriter [Bill Martin](/wiki/William_E._Martin "William E. Martin") and Russ Giguere, a former member of the Association.According to the liner notes of the CD *Many Are the Times*.
### Later life
During some lean years from 1984 to 1995, Mallory worked as a San Francisco bike messenger. As the oldest bike messenger, he was elected to serve as president of HANX.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ahalenia.com/memorial/lmallory.html\|title\=Lee Mallory "Prez"\|website\=Ahalenia.com}}
In the 1990s, Mallory developed a distinctive [12\-string guitar](/wiki/12-string_guitar "12-string guitar") style. In 2000, he toured Japan with Joey Stec of Sonic Past Music, a long\-time friend and co\-writer from The Millennium. In Japan, he was awarded a Master Musician sash.
Mallory was a regular performer at [The Cannery](/wiki/The_Cannery "The Cannery") for many years. During the last seven years of his life, he performed and recorded with friends in the San Francisco Bay Area, including Jeseppi Trade Wildfeather,{{Cite web\|url\=http://nudefined.blogspot.com/\|title\=News, reviews, politics, poems, essays, lyrics, criticism, commentary, food, satire, wit, humor of Jeseppi Trade Wildfeather in the Naked Underground\|website\=Nudefined.blogspot.com}} with whom he organized The Picnic, a one\-day musical festival at San Francisco's Crissy Field in August 2002\.
For 40 years, earnings from his publishing and recorded albums were debited against production and publishing advances. The original Millennium album consisting of 16\-track songs created on three tape recorders pieced together by union engineers, cost $100,000 to produce, and the Columbia label did not commit the resources to promote it. Combined with the fact that The Millennium was not a touring band, this limited their exposure at the time. The back catalogue of The Millennium received renewed interest in the late 1990s. San Francisco State University's Lee Mallory Scholarship supports Music and Recording Industry (MRI) learning the business side of music.
The [San Francisco Board of Supervisors](/wiki/San_Francisco_Board_of_Supervisors "San Francisco Board of Supervisors") proclaimed January 10, 2005 as the first Lee Mallory Day, honoring him and all singer\-songwriters.
On Friday, March 18, 2005, Mallory completed a small set of mixes for his final album, produced by Alex James Muscat at Last Stop Records. This was his first studio work in decades, and the first in which he had complete creative control after 40 years of recording and playing with first\-call studio musicians on approximately 35 albums.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.laststoprecords.com/\|title\=Last Stop Records\|website\=Laststoprecords.com}} The album's release is currently on hold.
*Many Are the Times,* a comprehensive review of Mallory's work over time, was re\-released by Sonic Past Music in 2006\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sonicpastmusic.com/artists/lee\-mallory/ \|title\=Sonic Past Music » Lee Mallory \|website\=www.sonicpastmusic.com \|access\-date\=14 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027135028/http://www.sonicpastmusic.com/artists/lee\-mallory/ \|archive\-date\=27 October 2007 \|url\-status\=dead}} This includes expanded liner notes and archival photographs.
Mallory became active raising awareness of [Hepatitis C](/wiki/Hepatitis_C "Hepatitis C").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hepccoalition.com/ \|title\=Archived copy \|website\=www.hepccoalition.com \|access\-date\=14 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040111132753/http://www.hepccoalition.com/ \|archive\-date\=11 January 2004 \|url\-status\=dead}} Lee Mallory died at the [University of California, San Francisco](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_San_Francisco "University of California, San Francisco") Emergency Department on March 21, 2005, from liver cancer.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life",
"Mallory was born in [Berkeley, California](/wiki/Berkeley%2C_California \"Berkeley, California\") on January 10, 1945\\. He received his first guitar at 15, and ran away from home to become a musician the following year.",
"### 1960s",
"Mallory began performing for live audiences in San Francisco's [North Beach](/wiki/North_Beach%2C_San_Francisco \"North Beach, San Francisco\") cafes, such as the Coffee Gallery and Coffee and Confusion. In 1963, he went to New York and played in [West Village](/wiki/West_Village \"West Village\") folk clubs, including the Cafe Bizarre, the [Night Owl](/wiki/Night_Owl_%28club%29 \"Night Owl (club)\"), [Cafe Wha?](/wiki/Cafe_Wha%3F \"Cafe Wha?\") and the Four Winds. He later became a regular at the [Troubadour](/wiki/Troubadour \"Troubadour\") in Los Angeles, where he was part of the group named The Men, some of whose members later formed [The Association](/wiki/The_Association \"The Association\"). As a performing musician in Los Angeles, he shared the bill with performers such as the [Nitty Gritty Dirt Band](/wiki/Nitty_Gritty_Dirt_Band \"Nitty Gritty Dirt Band\").",
"Mallory's first recording session was as a background vocalist on [Tommy Roe](/wiki/Tommy_Roe \"Tommy Roe\")'s \"[Hooray for Hazel](/wiki/Hooray_for_Hazel \"Hooray for Hazel\")\". He became a session guitar player on several singles by [The Association](/wiki/The_Association \"The Association\"), and co\\-wrote two songs they recorded, \"Better Times\" and \"Just About the Same\".",
"Mallory's 1966 single on [Valiant Records](/wiki/Valiant_Records \"Valiant Records\"), a version of \"That's the Way It's Gonna Be\" by [Phil Ochs](/wiki/Phil_Ochs \"Phil Ochs\") and Bob Gibson, reached \\#1 in Amsterdam and \\#2 in Seattle. It was re\\-released on the [Rhino Records](/wiki/Rhino_Records \"Rhino Records\") compilation *Hallucinations*. \"Take My Hand,\" his second single, is included in Rhino's compilation *Come to the Sunshine*. He recorded first with Valiant, then [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\"). His early works have been re\\-released on [Sonic Past Music](/wiki/Sonic_Past_Music \"Sonic Past Music\"). He published with [Opryland](/wiki/Opryland_%28publisher%29 \"Opryland (publisher)\"), [Acuff\\-Rose](/wiki/Acuff-Rose \"Acuff-Rose\") and finally [Sony](/wiki/Sony \"Sony\")/ATV before becoming an independent artist/songwriter/guitarist. Mallory's newer works have been published by Redwood River Music.",
"The sunshine pop supergroup [The Millennium](/wiki/The_Millennium_%28band%29 \"The Millennium (band)\") formed from members of Mallory's backup band (Jerry Scheff, Ben Benay and Toxie French). According to Mallory, Scheff coined the name to signify \"a thousand years of peace and prosperity\". [Curt Boettcher](/wiki/Curt_Boettcher \"Curt Boettcher\") joined as the group's producer as well as a member.",
"Mallory performed as lead guitarist and a member of the Tribe for the first road company of the stage production of *Hair*. He is the only person known to have served both in the Tribe and in the band.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.michaelbutler.com/hair/holding/Hair.html\\|title\\=Hair The American Tribal Love\\-Rock Musical Archives\\|website\\=Michaelbutler.com}}",
"In the early 1970s, Lee Mallory formed a supergroup named Hollywood with the songwriter [Bill Martin](/wiki/William_E._Martin \"William E. Martin\") and Russ Giguere, a former member of the Association.According to the liner notes of the CD *Many Are the Times*.",
"### Later life",
"During some lean years from 1984 to 1995, Mallory worked as a San Francisco bike messenger. As the oldest bike messenger, he was elected to serve as president of HANX.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ahalenia.com/memorial/lmallory.html\\|title\\=Lee Mallory \"Prez\"\\|website\\=Ahalenia.com}}",
"In the 1990s, Mallory developed a distinctive [12\\-string guitar](/wiki/12-string_guitar \"12-string guitar\") style. In 2000, he toured Japan with Joey Stec of Sonic Past Music, a long\\-time friend and co\\-writer from The Millennium. In Japan, he was awarded a Master Musician sash.",
"Mallory was a regular performer at [The Cannery](/wiki/The_Cannery \"The Cannery\") for many years. During the last seven years of his life, he performed and recorded with friends in the San Francisco Bay Area, including Jeseppi Trade Wildfeather,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://nudefined.blogspot.com/\\|title\\=News, reviews, politics, poems, essays, lyrics, criticism, commentary, food, satire, wit, humor of Jeseppi Trade Wildfeather in the Naked Underground\\|website\\=Nudefined.blogspot.com}} with whom he organized The Picnic, a one\\-day musical festival at San Francisco's Crissy Field in August 2002\\.",
"For 40 years, earnings from his publishing and recorded albums were debited against production and publishing advances. The original Millennium album consisting of 16\\-track songs created on three tape recorders pieced together by union engineers, cost $100,000 to produce, and the Columbia label did not commit the resources to promote it. Combined with the fact that The Millennium was not a touring band, this limited their exposure at the time. The back catalogue of The Millennium received renewed interest in the late 1990s. San Francisco State University's Lee Mallory Scholarship supports Music and Recording Industry (MRI) learning the business side of music.",
"The [San Francisco Board of Supervisors](/wiki/San_Francisco_Board_of_Supervisors \"San Francisco Board of Supervisors\") proclaimed January 10, 2005 as the first Lee Mallory Day, honoring him and all singer\\-songwriters.",
"On Friday, March 18, 2005, Mallory completed a small set of mixes for his final album, produced by Alex James Muscat at Last Stop Records. This was his first studio work in decades, and the first in which he had complete creative control after 40 years of recording and playing with first\\-call studio musicians on approximately 35 albums.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.laststoprecords.com/\\|title\\=Last Stop Records\\|website\\=Laststoprecords.com}} The album's release is currently on hold.",
"*Many Are the Times,* a comprehensive review of Mallory's work over time, was re\\-released by Sonic Past Music in 2006\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sonicpastmusic.com/artists/lee\\-mallory/ \\|title\\=Sonic Past Music » Lee Mallory \\|website\\=www.sonicpastmusic.com \\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027135028/http://www.sonicpastmusic.com/artists/lee\\-mallory/ \\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} This includes expanded liner notes and archival photographs.",
"Mallory became active raising awareness of [Hepatitis C](/wiki/Hepatitis_C \"Hepatitis C\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hepccoalition.com/ \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|website\\=www.hepccoalition.com \\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040111132753/http://www.hepccoalition.com/ \\|archive\\-date\\=11 January 2004 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Lee Mallory died at the [University of California, San Francisco](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_San_Francisco \"University of California, San Francisco\") Emergency Department on March 21, 2005, from liver cancer.",
""
] |
### 1960s
Mallory began performing for live audiences in San Francisco's [North Beach](/wiki/North_Beach%2C_San_Francisco "North Beach, San Francisco") cafes, such as the Coffee Gallery and Coffee and Confusion. In 1963, he went to New York and played in [West Village](/wiki/West_Village "West Village") folk clubs, including the Cafe Bizarre, the [Night Owl](/wiki/Night_Owl_%28club%29 "Night Owl (club)"), [Cafe Wha?](/wiki/Cafe_Wha%3F "Cafe Wha?") and the Four Winds. He later became a regular at the [Troubadour](/wiki/Troubadour "Troubadour") in Los Angeles, where he was part of the group named The Men, some of whose members later formed [The Association](/wiki/The_Association "The Association"). As a performing musician in Los Angeles, he shared the bill with performers such as the [Nitty Gritty Dirt Band](/wiki/Nitty_Gritty_Dirt_Band "Nitty Gritty Dirt Band").
Mallory's first recording session was as a background vocalist on [Tommy Roe](/wiki/Tommy_Roe "Tommy Roe")'s "[Hooray for Hazel](/wiki/Hooray_for_Hazel "Hooray for Hazel")". He became a session guitar player on several singles by [The Association](/wiki/The_Association "The Association"), and co\-wrote two songs they recorded, "Better Times" and "Just About the Same".
Mallory's 1966 single on [Valiant Records](/wiki/Valiant_Records "Valiant Records"), a version of "That's the Way It's Gonna Be" by [Phil Ochs](/wiki/Phil_Ochs "Phil Ochs") and Bob Gibson, reached \#1 in Amsterdam and \#2 in Seattle. It was re\-released on the [Rhino Records](/wiki/Rhino_Records "Rhino Records") compilation *Hallucinations*. "Take My Hand," his second single, is included in Rhino's compilation *Come to the Sunshine*. He recorded first with Valiant, then [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records"). His early works have been re\-released on [Sonic Past Music](/wiki/Sonic_Past_Music "Sonic Past Music"). He published with [Opryland](/wiki/Opryland_%28publisher%29 "Opryland (publisher)"), [Acuff\-Rose](/wiki/Acuff-Rose "Acuff-Rose") and finally [Sony](/wiki/Sony "Sony")/ATV before becoming an independent artist/songwriter/guitarist. Mallory's newer works have been published by Redwood River Music.
The sunshine pop supergroup [The Millennium](/wiki/The_Millennium_%28band%29 "The Millennium (band)") formed from members of Mallory's backup band (Jerry Scheff, Ben Benay and Toxie French). According to Mallory, Scheff coined the name to signify "a thousand years of peace and prosperity". [Curt Boettcher](/wiki/Curt_Boettcher "Curt Boettcher") joined as the group's producer as well as a member.
Mallory performed as lead guitarist and a member of the Tribe for the first road company of the stage production of *Hair*. He is the only person known to have served both in the Tribe and in the band.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.michaelbutler.com/hair/holding/Hair.html\|title\=Hair The American Tribal Love\-Rock Musical Archives\|website\=Michaelbutler.com}}
In the early 1970s, Lee Mallory formed a supergroup named Hollywood with the songwriter [Bill Martin](/wiki/William_E._Martin "William E. Martin") and Russ Giguere, a former member of the Association.According to the liner notes of the CD *Many Are the Times*.
|
[
"### 1960s",
"Mallory began performing for live audiences in San Francisco's [North Beach](/wiki/North_Beach%2C_San_Francisco \"North Beach, San Francisco\") cafes, such as the Coffee Gallery and Coffee and Confusion. In 1963, he went to New York and played in [West Village](/wiki/West_Village \"West Village\") folk clubs, including the Cafe Bizarre, the [Night Owl](/wiki/Night_Owl_%28club%29 \"Night Owl (club)\"), [Cafe Wha?](/wiki/Cafe_Wha%3F \"Cafe Wha?\") and the Four Winds. He later became a regular at the [Troubadour](/wiki/Troubadour \"Troubadour\") in Los Angeles, where he was part of the group named The Men, some of whose members later formed [The Association](/wiki/The_Association \"The Association\"). As a performing musician in Los Angeles, he shared the bill with performers such as the [Nitty Gritty Dirt Band](/wiki/Nitty_Gritty_Dirt_Band \"Nitty Gritty Dirt Band\").",
"Mallory's first recording session was as a background vocalist on [Tommy Roe](/wiki/Tommy_Roe \"Tommy Roe\")'s \"[Hooray for Hazel](/wiki/Hooray_for_Hazel \"Hooray for Hazel\")\". He became a session guitar player on several singles by [The Association](/wiki/The_Association \"The Association\"), and co\\-wrote two songs they recorded, \"Better Times\" and \"Just About the Same\".",
"Mallory's 1966 single on [Valiant Records](/wiki/Valiant_Records \"Valiant Records\"), a version of \"That's the Way It's Gonna Be\" by [Phil Ochs](/wiki/Phil_Ochs \"Phil Ochs\") and Bob Gibson, reached \\#1 in Amsterdam and \\#2 in Seattle. It was re\\-released on the [Rhino Records](/wiki/Rhino_Records \"Rhino Records\") compilation *Hallucinations*. \"Take My Hand,\" his second single, is included in Rhino's compilation *Come to the Sunshine*. He recorded first with Valiant, then [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\"). His early works have been re\\-released on [Sonic Past Music](/wiki/Sonic_Past_Music \"Sonic Past Music\"). He published with [Opryland](/wiki/Opryland_%28publisher%29 \"Opryland (publisher)\"), [Acuff\\-Rose](/wiki/Acuff-Rose \"Acuff-Rose\") and finally [Sony](/wiki/Sony \"Sony\")/ATV before becoming an independent artist/songwriter/guitarist. Mallory's newer works have been published by Redwood River Music.",
"The sunshine pop supergroup [The Millennium](/wiki/The_Millennium_%28band%29 \"The Millennium (band)\") formed from members of Mallory's backup band (Jerry Scheff, Ben Benay and Toxie French). According to Mallory, Scheff coined the name to signify \"a thousand years of peace and prosperity\". [Curt Boettcher](/wiki/Curt_Boettcher \"Curt Boettcher\") joined as the group's producer as well as a member.",
"Mallory performed as lead guitarist and a member of the Tribe for the first road company of the stage production of *Hair*. He is the only person known to have served both in the Tribe and in the band.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.michaelbutler.com/hair/holding/Hair.html\\|title\\=Hair The American Tribal Love\\-Rock Musical Archives\\|website\\=Michaelbutler.com}}",
"In the early 1970s, Lee Mallory formed a supergroup named Hollywood with the songwriter [Bill Martin](/wiki/William_E._Martin \"William E. Martin\") and Russ Giguere, a former member of the Association.According to the liner notes of the CD *Many Are the Times*.",
""
] |
### Later life
During some lean years from 1984 to 1995, Mallory worked as a San Francisco bike messenger. As the oldest bike messenger, he was elected to serve as president of HANX.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ahalenia.com/memorial/lmallory.html\|title\=Lee Mallory "Prez"\|website\=Ahalenia.com}}
In the 1990s, Mallory developed a distinctive [12\-string guitar](/wiki/12-string_guitar "12-string guitar") style. In 2000, he toured Japan with Joey Stec of Sonic Past Music, a long\-time friend and co\-writer from The Millennium. In Japan, he was awarded a Master Musician sash.
Mallory was a regular performer at [The Cannery](/wiki/The_Cannery "The Cannery") for many years. During the last seven years of his life, he performed and recorded with friends in the San Francisco Bay Area, including Jeseppi Trade Wildfeather,{{Cite web\|url\=http://nudefined.blogspot.com/\|title\=News, reviews, politics, poems, essays, lyrics, criticism, commentary, food, satire, wit, humor of Jeseppi Trade Wildfeather in the Naked Underground\|website\=Nudefined.blogspot.com}} with whom he organized The Picnic, a one\-day musical festival at San Francisco's Crissy Field in August 2002\.
For 40 years, earnings from his publishing and recorded albums were debited against production and publishing advances. The original Millennium album consisting of 16\-track songs created on three tape recorders pieced together by union engineers, cost $100,000 to produce, and the Columbia label did not commit the resources to promote it. Combined with the fact that The Millennium was not a touring band, this limited their exposure at the time. The back catalogue of The Millennium received renewed interest in the late 1990s. San Francisco State University's Lee Mallory Scholarship supports Music and Recording Industry (MRI) learning the business side of music.
The [San Francisco Board of Supervisors](/wiki/San_Francisco_Board_of_Supervisors "San Francisco Board of Supervisors") proclaimed January 10, 2005 as the first Lee Mallory Day, honoring him and all singer\-songwriters.
On Friday, March 18, 2005, Mallory completed a small set of mixes for his final album, produced by Alex James Muscat at Last Stop Records. This was his first studio work in decades, and the first in which he had complete creative control after 40 years of recording and playing with first\-call studio musicians on approximately 35 albums.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.laststoprecords.com/\|title\=Last Stop Records\|website\=Laststoprecords.com}} The album's release is currently on hold.
*Many Are the Times,* a comprehensive review of Mallory's work over time, was re\-released by Sonic Past Music in 2006\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sonicpastmusic.com/artists/lee\-mallory/ \|title\=Sonic Past Music » Lee Mallory \|website\=www.sonicpastmusic.com \|access\-date\=14 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027135028/http://www.sonicpastmusic.com/artists/lee\-mallory/ \|archive\-date\=27 October 2007 \|url\-status\=dead}} This includes expanded liner notes and archival photographs.
Mallory became active raising awareness of [Hepatitis C](/wiki/Hepatitis_C "Hepatitis C").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hepccoalition.com/ \|title\=Archived copy \|website\=www.hepccoalition.com \|access\-date\=14 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040111132753/http://www.hepccoalition.com/ \|archive\-date\=11 January 2004 \|url\-status\=dead}} Lee Mallory died at the [University of California, San Francisco](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_San_Francisco "University of California, San Francisco") Emergency Department on March 21, 2005, from liver cancer.
|
[
"### Later life",
"During some lean years from 1984 to 1995, Mallory worked as a San Francisco bike messenger. As the oldest bike messenger, he was elected to serve as president of HANX.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ahalenia.com/memorial/lmallory.html\\|title\\=Lee Mallory \"Prez\"\\|website\\=Ahalenia.com}}",
"In the 1990s, Mallory developed a distinctive [12\\-string guitar](/wiki/12-string_guitar \"12-string guitar\") style. In 2000, he toured Japan with Joey Stec of Sonic Past Music, a long\\-time friend and co\\-writer from The Millennium. In Japan, he was awarded a Master Musician sash.",
"Mallory was a regular performer at [The Cannery](/wiki/The_Cannery \"The Cannery\") for many years. During the last seven years of his life, he performed and recorded with friends in the San Francisco Bay Area, including Jeseppi Trade Wildfeather,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://nudefined.blogspot.com/\\|title\\=News, reviews, politics, poems, essays, lyrics, criticism, commentary, food, satire, wit, humor of Jeseppi Trade Wildfeather in the Naked Underground\\|website\\=Nudefined.blogspot.com}} with whom he organized The Picnic, a one\\-day musical festival at San Francisco's Crissy Field in August 2002\\.",
"For 40 years, earnings from his publishing and recorded albums were debited against production and publishing advances. The original Millennium album consisting of 16\\-track songs created on three tape recorders pieced together by union engineers, cost $100,000 to produce, and the Columbia label did not commit the resources to promote it. Combined with the fact that The Millennium was not a touring band, this limited their exposure at the time. The back catalogue of The Millennium received renewed interest in the late 1990s. San Francisco State University's Lee Mallory Scholarship supports Music and Recording Industry (MRI) learning the business side of music.",
"The [San Francisco Board of Supervisors](/wiki/San_Francisco_Board_of_Supervisors \"San Francisco Board of Supervisors\") proclaimed January 10, 2005 as the first Lee Mallory Day, honoring him and all singer\\-songwriters.",
"On Friday, March 18, 2005, Mallory completed a small set of mixes for his final album, produced by Alex James Muscat at Last Stop Records. This was his first studio work in decades, and the first in which he had complete creative control after 40 years of recording and playing with first\\-call studio musicians on approximately 35 albums.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.laststoprecords.com/\\|title\\=Last Stop Records\\|website\\=Laststoprecords.com}} The album's release is currently on hold.",
"*Many Are the Times,* a comprehensive review of Mallory's work over time, was re\\-released by Sonic Past Music in 2006\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sonicpastmusic.com/artists/lee\\-mallory/ \\|title\\=Sonic Past Music » Lee Mallory \\|website\\=www.sonicpastmusic.com \\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027135028/http://www.sonicpastmusic.com/artists/lee\\-mallory/ \\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} This includes expanded liner notes and archival photographs.",
"Mallory became active raising awareness of [Hepatitis C](/wiki/Hepatitis_C \"Hepatitis C\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hepccoalition.com/ \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|website\\=www.hepccoalition.com \\|access\\-date\\=14 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040111132753/http://www.hepccoalition.com/ \\|archive\\-date\\=11 January 2004 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Lee Mallory died at the [University of California, San Francisco](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_San_Francisco \"University of California, San Francisco\") Emergency Department on March 21, 2005, from liver cancer.",
""
] |
History
-------
The Major BBS was developed by [Tim Stryker](/wiki/Tim_Stryker "Tim Stryker") and launched in 1986 by Stryker's company, Galacticomm, Inc., as a demonstration of the abilities of the Galacticomm Software Breakthrough Library (or GSBL). The GSBL was a powerful set of [assembler](/wiki/Assembly_language "Assembly language") routines written for [IBM and compatible PCs](/wiki/PC_compatible "PC compatible") that allowed up to 32 simultaneous [serial port](/wiki/Serial_port "Serial port") or [dialup](/wiki/Dialup "Dialup") connections to a single software instance without the need for an external [multitasker](/wiki/Computer_multitasking "Computer multitasking"). The "breakthrough" was that the library polled the serial ports, rather than allowing them to interrupt the processor, which was against the accepted wisdom of the time, and through use of polling and making use of the FIFO buffers that were by this time standard on UART chips, an \- at the time \- unheard of number of serial ports could be attached to a PC. Because interrupts were not used, there were no issues relating to interrupt conflicts on PC hardware of the day.
The GSBL was licensed to developers for varied uses, such as communications systems, bank systems, and real estate systems. Eventually, The Major BBS was enhanced enough that it became a marketable product in its own right. By late 1987, Galacticomm was licensing more copies of The Major BBS than the GSBL by itself. The GSBL continued to be enhanced, expanding to 64 users by 1988, then 256 by 1992, with The Major BBS's line capacity expanding as a result.
Because it was one of the few multi\-line bulletin board systems, MBBS software was known for fostering online communities and an interactive online experience where users were able to interact with each other via Teleconference ([chat rooms](/wiki/Chat_room "Chat room")) and multiplayer games. This flexibility spawned a small industry of Independent Software Vendors (ISV) who began developing MBBS add\-ons, which ranged from shopping malls (what would now be called [shopping cart software](/wiki/Shopping_cart_software "Shopping cart software")) to [online role playing games](/wiki/Online_role_playing_game "Online role playing game").
The Major BBS allowed incoming connections via modems on telephone lines, [IPX](/wiki/Internetwork_Packet_Exchange "Internetwork Packet Exchange") networks, and [X.25](/wiki/X.25 "X.25") [packet\-switched networks](/wiki/Packet-switched_network "Packet-switched network"). In the mid\-1990s, the offering expanded to include [TCP/IP](/wiki/TCP/IP "TCP/IP") by the ISV [Vircom](/wiki/Vircom "Vircom"), a Canadian company that has since become well known for its anti\-spam/anti\-virus software, shortly followed by Galacticomm's own TCP/IP add\-on, the Internet Connection Option (ICO), which was derived from another ISV's offering.
In 1992, the Major BBS was selected by the [National Library of Medicine](/wiki/National_Library_of_Medicine "National Library of Medicine") as the access mechanism for the Grateful Med medical journal system, just prior to universal access via the World Wide Web.
### Worldgroup
Seeking to compete with [America Online](/wiki/America_Online "America Online"), Galacticomm extended The Major BBS software to communicate in a [client–server model](/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model "Client–server model") with a custom program. The MBBS software was renamed Worldgroup Server, and released in 1995 with the version number restarting at 1\.0; the included user\-side client software was named Worldgroup Manager (but sometimes known as Worldgroup Client) and ran in Microsoft Windows.
Version 3\.0 in 1997, the first 32\-bit version of Worldgroup Server, was released for [Windows NT](/wiki/Windows_NT "Windows NT"). Other versions, like the [DOS](/wiki/DOS "DOS") compatible version continued in development simultaneously. Version 3\.0 finally focused on an active HTML [web community](/wiki/Web_community "Web community"), after three years of concentrating on the original [client–server](/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server "Client–server") strategy. Version 3\.1 was the final version of the Worldgroup Server to support [DOS](/wiki/DOS "DOS").
### Demise
Although Worldgroup initially had some success, the initial proprietary client/server model was an unfortunate strategic choice, as the [World Wide Web](/wiki/World_Wide_Web "World Wide Web") was just emerging as a dominant phenomenon. The popularity of the text\-terminal\-based [BBSes](/wiki/Bulletin_Board_System "Bulletin Board System"), as well as America Online's proprietary client model, faded as online use became web\-oriented. Galacticomm's slow response in adapting to the web\-based online model probably was fatal.
Founder [Tim Stryker](/wiki/Tim_Stryker "Tim Stryker") committed suicide on August 6, 1996, in [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado "Colorado"), and the company was sold by his widow Christine to a group headed by [Yannick Tessier](/wiki/Yannick_Tessier "Yannick Tessier"), owner of Tessier Technologies, who developed software as an ISV. As Galacticomm Technologies, Inc., Tessier and Peter Berg led the company toward an [initial public offering](/wiki/Initial_public_offering "Initial public offering"), which failed in 1998\. The company discontinued operations in 1999 and was foreclosed upon by their primary lender; the lender acquired the company's assets through the [foreclosure](/wiki/Foreclosure "Foreclosure") in 2002\. The company's assets were purchased by an ISV from the bank in 2005\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The Major BBS was developed by [Tim Stryker](/wiki/Tim_Stryker \"Tim Stryker\") and launched in 1986 by Stryker's company, Galacticomm, Inc., as a demonstration of the abilities of the Galacticomm Software Breakthrough Library (or GSBL). The GSBL was a powerful set of [assembler](/wiki/Assembly_language \"Assembly language\") routines written for [IBM and compatible PCs](/wiki/PC_compatible \"PC compatible\") that allowed up to 32 simultaneous [serial port](/wiki/Serial_port \"Serial port\") or [dialup](/wiki/Dialup \"Dialup\") connections to a single software instance without the need for an external [multitasker](/wiki/Computer_multitasking \"Computer multitasking\"). The \"breakthrough\" was that the library polled the serial ports, rather than allowing them to interrupt the processor, which was against the accepted wisdom of the time, and through use of polling and making use of the FIFO buffers that were by this time standard on UART chips, an \\- at the time \\- unheard of number of serial ports could be attached to a PC. Because interrupts were not used, there were no issues relating to interrupt conflicts on PC hardware of the day.",
"The GSBL was licensed to developers for varied uses, such as communications systems, bank systems, and real estate systems. Eventually, The Major BBS was enhanced enough that it became a marketable product in its own right. By late 1987, Galacticomm was licensing more copies of The Major BBS than the GSBL by itself. The GSBL continued to be enhanced, expanding to 64 users by 1988, then 256 by 1992, with The Major BBS's line capacity expanding as a result.",
"Because it was one of the few multi\\-line bulletin board systems, MBBS software was known for fostering online communities and an interactive online experience where users were able to interact with each other via Teleconference ([chat rooms](/wiki/Chat_room \"Chat room\")) and multiplayer games. This flexibility spawned a small industry of Independent Software Vendors (ISV) who began developing MBBS add\\-ons, which ranged from shopping malls (what would now be called [shopping cart software](/wiki/Shopping_cart_software \"Shopping cart software\")) to [online role playing games](/wiki/Online_role_playing_game \"Online role playing game\").",
"The Major BBS allowed incoming connections via modems on telephone lines, [IPX](/wiki/Internetwork_Packet_Exchange \"Internetwork Packet Exchange\") networks, and [X.25](/wiki/X.25 \"X.25\") [packet\\-switched networks](/wiki/Packet-switched_network \"Packet-switched network\"). In the mid\\-1990s, the offering expanded to include [TCP/IP](/wiki/TCP/IP \"TCP/IP\") by the ISV [Vircom](/wiki/Vircom \"Vircom\"), a Canadian company that has since become well known for its anti\\-spam/anti\\-virus software, shortly followed by Galacticomm's own TCP/IP add\\-on, the Internet Connection Option (ICO), which was derived from another ISV's offering.",
"In 1992, the Major BBS was selected by the [National Library of Medicine](/wiki/National_Library_of_Medicine \"National Library of Medicine\") as the access mechanism for the Grateful Med medical journal system, just prior to universal access via the World Wide Web.",
"### Worldgroup",
"Seeking to compete with [America Online](/wiki/America_Online \"America Online\"), Galacticomm extended The Major BBS software to communicate in a [client–server model](/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model \"Client–server model\") with a custom program. The MBBS software was renamed Worldgroup Server, and released in 1995 with the version number restarting at 1\\.0; the included user\\-side client software was named Worldgroup Manager (but sometimes known as Worldgroup Client) and ran in Microsoft Windows.",
"Version 3\\.0 in 1997, the first 32\\-bit version of Worldgroup Server, was released for [Windows NT](/wiki/Windows_NT \"Windows NT\"). Other versions, like the [DOS](/wiki/DOS \"DOS\") compatible version continued in development simultaneously. Version 3\\.0 finally focused on an active HTML [web community](/wiki/Web_community \"Web community\"), after three years of concentrating on the original [client–server](/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server \"Client–server\") strategy. Version 3\\.1 was the final version of the Worldgroup Server to support [DOS](/wiki/DOS \"DOS\").",
"### Demise",
"Although Worldgroup initially had some success, the initial proprietary client/server model was an unfortunate strategic choice, as the [World Wide Web](/wiki/World_Wide_Web \"World Wide Web\") was just emerging as a dominant phenomenon. The popularity of the text\\-terminal\\-based [BBSes](/wiki/Bulletin_Board_System \"Bulletin Board System\"), as well as America Online's proprietary client model, faded as online use became web\\-oriented. Galacticomm's slow response in adapting to the web\\-based online model probably was fatal.",
"Founder [Tim Stryker](/wiki/Tim_Stryker \"Tim Stryker\") committed suicide on August 6, 1996, in [Colorado](/wiki/Colorado \"Colorado\"), and the company was sold by his widow Christine to a group headed by [Yannick Tessier](/wiki/Yannick_Tessier \"Yannick Tessier\"), owner of Tessier Technologies, who developed software as an ISV. As Galacticomm Technologies, Inc., Tessier and Peter Berg led the company toward an [initial public offering](/wiki/Initial_public_offering \"Initial public offering\"), which failed in 1998\\. The company discontinued operations in 1999 and was foreclosed upon by their primary lender; the lender acquired the company's assets through the [foreclosure](/wiki/Foreclosure \"Foreclosure\") in 2002\\. The company's assets were purchased by an ISV from the bank in 2005\\.",
""
] |
Junior varsity
--------------
{{Redirect\|Junior varsity\|other uses\|Junior Varsity (disambiguation)}}In the United States, **junior varsity** (often called "**JV**") players are the members of a team who are not the main players in a competition, usually at the [high school](/wiki/Secondary_school "Secondary school") level and formerly at the [collegiate](/wiki/College "College") level. The main players comprise the varsity team. Although the intensity of the JV team may vary from place to place, most junior varsity teams consist of players who are in their [freshman](/wiki/Freshman "Freshman") and [sophomore](/wiki/Tenth_grade%23United_States "Tenth grade#United States") years in school, though occasionally upperclassmen may play on JV teams. For this reason, junior varsity teams are also often called freshman/sophomore teams. Skilled freshmen and sophomores may compete at the varsity level.
### Junior varsity players
Members of a junior varsity team are underclassmen determined by the coaching staff to have less experience or ability than those on the varsity roster. As such, junior varsity teams are used to prepare these athletes to compete at the varsity level. In other schools, the line between JV and varsity is arbitrary, with all players at a certain grade level at the varsity and all others below that grade level at JV.
Some teams require participation on a junior varsity team before being eligible to try out for a varsity team. These players can provide the varsity team with extra depth, with their service as back\-up players. The [NCAA](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association "National Collegiate Athletic Association") previously prohibited true freshmen from playing varsity college football and basketball; as a result, numerous junior\-varsity "freshmen teams" appeared on many major college campuses. The NCAA repealed this limitation in 1972;{{Cite web \|date\=October 22, 2015 \|title\=A Brief History of Freshman Eligibility and Race in the NCAA \|url\=https://ussporthistory.com/2015/10/22/a\-brief\-history\-of\-freshman\-eligibility\-and\-race\-in\-the\-ncaa/}} to the extent that junior varsity teams exist at the college level, many are classified as [club squads](/wiki/Collegiate_club_sports "Collegiate club sports").
Many sports teams have assistant coaches responsible for developing the talent of junior varsity players.
### When they play
A coach may call on junior varsity players during a varsity game, such as when a varsity player is unable to play.
A team will have many talented players, but the coach is unable to come up with a rotation that allows everyone to play. The decision of when to play junior varsity players in a one\-sided game is often at the coach's discretion. This depends on the coach's strategy, the time remaining in the game, the point margin, and the game situation.
When the winning team is ahead by a substantial margin late in the game, the coaches of both the winning and losing teams may "[empty their benches](/wiki/Resting_the_starters "Resting the starters")"—that is, they remove the varsity players and play the junior varsity players for the remainder of the game. The junior varsity players can impress coaches during this "[garbage time](/wiki/Garbage_time "Garbage time")" in hopes of gaining more playing time in subsequent games, while at the same time reducing the risk of serious injury by varsity players by resting them in a game whose outcome has been effectively decided.
Some games have rules which allow unlimited use of junior varsity players, such as basketball. Other sports have different ways of determining junior varsity participants. For instance, in [high school wrestling](/wiki/Scholastic_wrestling "Scholastic wrestling"), there can only be one wrestler competing for a team at a particular [weight class](/wiki/Wrestling_weight_classes "Wrestling weight classes") in a given varsity match. The team's representative is often determined by a "challenge match," in which the top two wrestlers at that weight compete for the right to participate in the varsity match. The loser wrestles that night's junior varsity match.
A similar format is used for [golf](/wiki/Golf "Golf"), [tennis](/wiki/Tennis "Tennis"), and [badminton](/wiki/Badminton "Badminton"), with players who lose to varsity opponents participating in the junior varsity part of the meet.{{Cn\|date\=April 2023}}
### Junior varsity games
Junior varsity games are specially\-scheduled events in which junior varsity players play to gain skills and experience. These games may be played immediately before a varsity contest or another night. Records and statistics are kept for the junior varsity team, and some leagues offer a junior varsity championship. An assistant coach acts as the head coach for these games.
In states that use ratings systems to determine playoff participation, junior varsity games do not factor in and are played with considerably less hoopla than varsity games. Attendance is far less, and bands, cheerleaders, and media coverage are usually not present.
In some sports, such as tennis and golf, a junior varsity meet will take place simultaneously with the varsity event; however, the scores are separately tabulated. In [track and field](/wiki/Track_and_field "Track and field"), a junior varsity heat of a particular event may take place either before or after the varsity heat.
An underclassman who plays on a junior varsity team one year is expected to gain enough experience to be one of the varsity players the next season. A team's head coach will attend junior varsity games to evaluate skill and decide if a player is ready to play in the main part of a varsity game.
Junior varsity teams may or may not travel with or take the field/court with the varsity team, or in particularly well\-organized hierarchies (especially in sports such as football) may alternate home and away schedules with the varsity squad to ensure at least one of the two teams plays at home each week. This is often dependent on the size of the varsity team, availability of transportation and policies invoked by either the coach, school or league. A JV can sometimes completely replace a varsity team in a game with little to no importance; the [Missouri Turkey Day Game](/wiki/Missouri_Turkey_Day_Game "Missouri Turkey Day Game"), for example, has a provision that if either of the two regular opponents is still in the midst of their playoff tournament by the time the game is held, the JV teams will instead play the game.
|
[
"Junior varsity\n--------------",
"{{Redirect\\|Junior varsity\\|other uses\\|Junior Varsity (disambiguation)}}In the United States, **junior varsity** (often called \"**JV**\") players are the members of a team who are not the main players in a competition, usually at the [high school](/wiki/Secondary_school \"Secondary school\") level and formerly at the [collegiate](/wiki/College \"College\") level. The main players comprise the varsity team. Although the intensity of the JV team may vary from place to place, most junior varsity teams consist of players who are in their [freshman](/wiki/Freshman \"Freshman\") and [sophomore](/wiki/Tenth_grade%23United_States \"Tenth grade#United States\") years in school, though occasionally upperclassmen may play on JV teams. For this reason, junior varsity teams are also often called freshman/sophomore teams. Skilled freshmen and sophomores may compete at the varsity level.",
"### Junior varsity players",
"Members of a junior varsity team are underclassmen determined by the coaching staff to have less experience or ability than those on the varsity roster. As such, junior varsity teams are used to prepare these athletes to compete at the varsity level. In other schools, the line between JV and varsity is arbitrary, with all players at a certain grade level at the varsity and all others below that grade level at JV.",
"Some teams require participation on a junior varsity team before being eligible to try out for a varsity team. These players can provide the varsity team with extra depth, with their service as back\\-up players. The [NCAA](/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association \"National Collegiate Athletic Association\") previously prohibited true freshmen from playing varsity college football and basketball; as a result, numerous junior\\-varsity \"freshmen teams\" appeared on many major college campuses. The NCAA repealed this limitation in 1972;{{Cite web \\|date\\=October 22, 2015 \\|title\\=A Brief History of Freshman Eligibility and Race in the NCAA \\|url\\=https://ussporthistory.com/2015/10/22/a\\-brief\\-history\\-of\\-freshman\\-eligibility\\-and\\-race\\-in\\-the\\-ncaa/}} to the extent that junior varsity teams exist at the college level, many are classified as [club squads](/wiki/Collegiate_club_sports \"Collegiate club sports\").",
"Many sports teams have assistant coaches responsible for developing the talent of junior varsity players.",
"### When they play",
"A coach may call on junior varsity players during a varsity game, such as when a varsity player is unable to play.",
"A team will have many talented players, but the coach is unable to come up with a rotation that allows everyone to play. The decision of when to play junior varsity players in a one\\-sided game is often at the coach's discretion. This depends on the coach's strategy, the time remaining in the game, the point margin, and the game situation.",
"When the winning team is ahead by a substantial margin late in the game, the coaches of both the winning and losing teams may \"[empty their benches](/wiki/Resting_the_starters \"Resting the starters\")\"—that is, they remove the varsity players and play the junior varsity players for the remainder of the game. The junior varsity players can impress coaches during this \"[garbage time](/wiki/Garbage_time \"Garbage time\")\" in hopes of gaining more playing time in subsequent games, while at the same time reducing the risk of serious injury by varsity players by resting them in a game whose outcome has been effectively decided.",
"Some games have rules which allow unlimited use of junior varsity players, such as basketball. Other sports have different ways of determining junior varsity participants. For instance, in [high school wrestling](/wiki/Scholastic_wrestling \"Scholastic wrestling\"), there can only be one wrestler competing for a team at a particular [weight class](/wiki/Wrestling_weight_classes \"Wrestling weight classes\") in a given varsity match. The team's representative is often determined by a \"challenge match,\" in which the top two wrestlers at that weight compete for the right to participate in the varsity match. The loser wrestles that night's junior varsity match.",
"A similar format is used for [golf](/wiki/Golf \"Golf\"), [tennis](/wiki/Tennis \"Tennis\"), and [badminton](/wiki/Badminton \"Badminton\"), with players who lose to varsity opponents participating in the junior varsity part of the meet.{{Cn\\|date\\=April 2023}}",
"### Junior varsity games",
"Junior varsity games are specially\\-scheduled events in which junior varsity players play to gain skills and experience. These games may be played immediately before a varsity contest or another night. Records and statistics are kept for the junior varsity team, and some leagues offer a junior varsity championship. An assistant coach acts as the head coach for these games.",
"In states that use ratings systems to determine playoff participation, junior varsity games do not factor in and are played with considerably less hoopla than varsity games. Attendance is far less, and bands, cheerleaders, and media coverage are usually not present.",
"In some sports, such as tennis and golf, a junior varsity meet will take place simultaneously with the varsity event; however, the scores are separately tabulated. In [track and field](/wiki/Track_and_field \"Track and field\"), a junior varsity heat of a particular event may take place either before or after the varsity heat.",
"An underclassman who plays on a junior varsity team one year is expected to gain enough experience to be one of the varsity players the next season. A team's head coach will attend junior varsity games to evaluate skill and decide if a player is ready to play in the main part of a varsity game.",
"Junior varsity teams may or may not travel with or take the field/court with the varsity team, or in particularly well\\-organized hierarchies (especially in sports such as football) may alternate home and away schedules with the varsity squad to ensure at least one of the two teams plays at home each week. This is often dependent on the size of the varsity team, availability of transportation and policies invoked by either the coach, school or league. A JV can sometimes completely replace a varsity team in a game with little to no importance; the [Missouri Turkey Day Game](/wiki/Missouri_Turkey_Day_Game \"Missouri Turkey Day Game\"), for example, has a provision that if either of the two regular opponents is still in the midst of their playoff tournament by the time the game is held, the JV teams will instead play the game.",
""
] |
### Junior varsity games
Junior varsity games are specially\-scheduled events in which junior varsity players play to gain skills and experience. These games may be played immediately before a varsity contest or another night. Records and statistics are kept for the junior varsity team, and some leagues offer a junior varsity championship. An assistant coach acts as the head coach for these games.
In states that use ratings systems to determine playoff participation, junior varsity games do not factor in and are played with considerably less hoopla than varsity games. Attendance is far less, and bands, cheerleaders, and media coverage are usually not present.
In some sports, such as tennis and golf, a junior varsity meet will take place simultaneously with the varsity event; however, the scores are separately tabulated. In [track and field](/wiki/Track_and_field "Track and field"), a junior varsity heat of a particular event may take place either before or after the varsity heat.
An underclassman who plays on a junior varsity team one year is expected to gain enough experience to be one of the varsity players the next season. A team's head coach will attend junior varsity games to evaluate skill and decide if a player is ready to play in the main part of a varsity game.
Junior varsity teams may or may not travel with or take the field/court with the varsity team, or in particularly well\-organized hierarchies (especially in sports such as football) may alternate home and away schedules with the varsity squad to ensure at least one of the two teams plays at home each week. This is often dependent on the size of the varsity team, availability of transportation and policies invoked by either the coach, school or league. A JV can sometimes completely replace a varsity team in a game with little to no importance; the [Missouri Turkey Day Game](/wiki/Missouri_Turkey_Day_Game "Missouri Turkey Day Game"), for example, has a provision that if either of the two regular opponents is still in the midst of their playoff tournament by the time the game is held, the JV teams will instead play the game.
|
[
"### Junior varsity games",
"Junior varsity games are specially\\-scheduled events in which junior varsity players play to gain skills and experience. These games may be played immediately before a varsity contest or another night. Records and statistics are kept for the junior varsity team, and some leagues offer a junior varsity championship. An assistant coach acts as the head coach for these games.",
"In states that use ratings systems to determine playoff participation, junior varsity games do not factor in and are played with considerably less hoopla than varsity games. Attendance is far less, and bands, cheerleaders, and media coverage are usually not present.",
"In some sports, such as tennis and golf, a junior varsity meet will take place simultaneously with the varsity event; however, the scores are separately tabulated. In [track and field](/wiki/Track_and_field \"Track and field\"), a junior varsity heat of a particular event may take place either before or after the varsity heat.",
"An underclassman who plays on a junior varsity team one year is expected to gain enough experience to be one of the varsity players the next season. A team's head coach will attend junior varsity games to evaluate skill and decide if a player is ready to play in the main part of a varsity game.",
"Junior varsity teams may or may not travel with or take the field/court with the varsity team, or in particularly well\\-organized hierarchies (especially in sports such as football) may alternate home and away schedules with the varsity squad to ensure at least one of the two teams plays at home each week. This is often dependent on the size of the varsity team, availability of transportation and policies invoked by either the coach, school or league. A JV can sometimes completely replace a varsity team in a game with little to no importance; the [Missouri Turkey Day Game](/wiki/Missouri_Turkey_Day_Game \"Missouri Turkey Day Game\"), for example, has a provision that if either of the two regular opponents is still in the midst of their playoff tournament by the time the game is held, the JV teams will instead play the game.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
He was son of Pavle Anđelić, parish priest of the Cathedral of St. Nicholas in [Sremski Karlovci](/wiki/Sremski_Karlovci "Sremski Karlovci"), and his wife Ana. He graduated from the [Karlovci Gymnasium](/wiki/Karlovci_Gymnasium "Karlovci Gymnasium") and then the [Clerical High School of Saint Arsenije](/wiki/Clerical_High_School_of_Saint_Arsenije "Clerical High School of Saint Arsenije"). Then he went to [Pest](/wiki/Pest%2C_Hungary "Pest, Hungary") to study law and philosophy, which he graduated from [Sárospatak](/wiki/S%C3%A1rospatak "Sárospatak"). After obtaining the diploma of the law faculty, he passed the lawyer exam.
On 20 May 1848, he took [monastic vow](/wiki/Monastic_vow "Monastic vow") before the superior of the [Krušedol Monastery](/wiki/Kru%C5%A1edol_Monastery "Krušedol Monastery"), archimandrite [Prokopije Ivačković](/wiki/Prokopije_Iva%C4%8Dkovi%C4%87 "Prokopije Ivačković"). He joined the [Grgeteg Monastery](/wiki/Grgeteg_Monastery "Grgeteg Monastery").Episkop [Sava Vuković](/wiki/Sava_Vukovi%C4%87_%28bishop%29 "Sava Vuković (bishop)"), *Srpski jerarsi od devetog do dvadesetog veka*, Evro Beograd, Unireks Podgorica, Kalenić Kragujevac, 1996, p. 131–132\. In the same month, he was ordained deacon at the hands of the bishop of Upper Karlovac [Evgenije Ivačković](/wiki/Evgenije_Iva%C4%8Dkovi%C4%87 "Evgenije Ivačković"). Shortly thereafter, Patriarch of Karlovci [Josif Rajačić](/wiki/Josif_Raja%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Josif Rajačić") directed him to serve in the [Saint Spyridon Church](/wiki/Saint_Spyridon_Church%2C_Trieste "Saint Spyridon Church, Trieste") in [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste "Trieste"). In the letter justifying the choice of the young cleric, he pointed to his excellent knowledge of several languages ([Church Slavonic](/wiki/Church_Slavonic_language "Church Slavonic language"), [German](/wiki/German_language "German language"), [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_language "Hungarian language") and [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin")). In Trieste deacon German Anđelić was also a teacher in a Serbian church school.
In 1850 he returned to Sremski Karlovci and took up the post of professor at the [Clerical High School of Saint Arsenije](/wiki/Clerical_High_School_of_Saint_Arsenije "Clerical High School of Saint Arsenije") where he remained for sixteen years. In 1853 he received the dignity of archdeacon and, in the same year, he became part of the consistory of Patriarchate of Karlovci. In 1861 he received the dignity of protosingel, and in 1864 became archimandrite. In the same year, he was appointed superior of the Grgeteg Monastery.
### Bishop
In 1867, after the death of bishop [Platon Atanacković](/wiki/Platon_Atanackovi%C4%87 "Platon Atanacković"), he became the administrator of the [Eparchy of Bačka](/wiki/Eparchy_of_Ba%C4%8Dka "Eparchy of Bačka") and then he was nominated bishop of the same eparchy. His [chirotony](/wiki/Chirotony "Chirotony") to the episcopate, however, took place only seven years later, on 11 August 1874, performed by the Patriarch of Karlovci Prokopije Ivačković.
### Patriarch of Karlovci
In 1879, Patriarch Prokopije was forced to leave office, and Bishop German was appointed administrator of Patriarchate of Karlovci until the election of a successor. The choice of administrator, imposed by the [Emperor of Austria](/wiki/Emperor_of_Austria "Emperor of Austria") [Franz Joseph I](/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria "Franz Joseph I of Austria"), was badly received by the clergy and the faithful of the Patriarchate. The appointment of Bishop German as the new Patriarch of Karlovci two years later was met with even greater dissatisfaction. The Serbian Orthodox Church Council chose another candidate, the bishop of Upper Karlovac [Teofan Živković](/wiki/Teofan_%C5%BDivkovi%C4%87 "Teofan Živković"), but the Emperor refused to confirm his election and personally appointed Bishop German as the Patriarch, who in the vote on the Council obtained only 11 votes (against 53 votes cast for Bishop Teofan).Episkop Sava Vuković, *Srpski jerarsi od devetog do dvadesetog veka*, Evro Beograd, Unireks Podgorica, Kalenić Kragujevac, 1996, p. 492\.
The circumstances under which Patriarch German took office meant that he did not gain popularity among the Serbian faithful until the end of his life, although he transferred substantial funds to Serbian cultural institutions, funded scholarships for Serbian students or financially supported poor Serbian families. Together with his brother [Stevan](/wiki/Stevan_An%C4%91eli%C4%87 "Stevan Anđelić"), an Orthodox protopresbyter, he donated 162,500 [Ft](/wiki/Hungarian_forint "Hungarian forint") to expand the [Karlovci Gymnasium](/wiki/Karlovci_Gymnasium "Karlovci Gymnasium").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"He was son of Pavle Anđelić, parish priest of the Cathedral of St. Nicholas in [Sremski Karlovci](/wiki/Sremski_Karlovci \"Sremski Karlovci\"), and his wife Ana. He graduated from the [Karlovci Gymnasium](/wiki/Karlovci_Gymnasium \"Karlovci Gymnasium\") and then the [Clerical High School of Saint Arsenije](/wiki/Clerical_High_School_of_Saint_Arsenije \"Clerical High School of Saint Arsenije\"). Then he went to [Pest](/wiki/Pest%2C_Hungary \"Pest, Hungary\") to study law and philosophy, which he graduated from [Sárospatak](/wiki/S%C3%A1rospatak \"Sárospatak\"). After obtaining the diploma of the law faculty, he passed the lawyer exam.",
"On 20 May 1848, he took [monastic vow](/wiki/Monastic_vow \"Monastic vow\") before the superior of the [Krušedol Monastery](/wiki/Kru%C5%A1edol_Monastery \"Krušedol Monastery\"), archimandrite [Prokopije Ivačković](/wiki/Prokopije_Iva%C4%8Dkovi%C4%87 \"Prokopije Ivačković\"). He joined the [Grgeteg Monastery](/wiki/Grgeteg_Monastery \"Grgeteg Monastery\").Episkop [Sava Vuković](/wiki/Sava_Vukovi%C4%87_%28bishop%29 \"Sava Vuković (bishop)\"), *Srpski jerarsi od devetog do dvadesetog veka*, Evro Beograd, Unireks Podgorica, Kalenić Kragujevac, 1996, p. 131–132\\. In the same month, he was ordained deacon at the hands of the bishop of Upper Karlovac [Evgenije Ivačković](/wiki/Evgenije_Iva%C4%8Dkovi%C4%87 \"Evgenije Ivačković\"). Shortly thereafter, Patriarch of Karlovci [Josif Rajačić](/wiki/Josif_Raja%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Josif Rajačić\") directed him to serve in the [Saint Spyridon Church](/wiki/Saint_Spyridon_Church%2C_Trieste \"Saint Spyridon Church, Trieste\") in [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste \"Trieste\"). In the letter justifying the choice of the young cleric, he pointed to his excellent knowledge of several languages ([Church Slavonic](/wiki/Church_Slavonic_language \"Church Slavonic language\"), [German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\"), [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_language \"Hungarian language\") and [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\")). In Trieste deacon German Anđelić was also a teacher in a Serbian church school.",
"In 1850 he returned to Sremski Karlovci and took up the post of professor at the [Clerical High School of Saint Arsenije](/wiki/Clerical_High_School_of_Saint_Arsenije \"Clerical High School of Saint Arsenije\") where he remained for sixteen years. In 1853 he received the dignity of archdeacon and, in the same year, he became part of the consistory of Patriarchate of Karlovci. In 1861 he received the dignity of protosingel, and in 1864 became archimandrite. In the same year, he was appointed superior of the Grgeteg Monastery.",
"### Bishop",
"In 1867, after the death of bishop [Platon Atanacković](/wiki/Platon_Atanackovi%C4%87 \"Platon Atanacković\"), he became the administrator of the [Eparchy of Bačka](/wiki/Eparchy_of_Ba%C4%8Dka \"Eparchy of Bačka\") and then he was nominated bishop of the same eparchy. His [chirotony](/wiki/Chirotony \"Chirotony\") to the episcopate, however, took place only seven years later, on 11 August 1874, performed by the Patriarch of Karlovci Prokopije Ivačković.",
"### Patriarch of Karlovci",
"In 1879, Patriarch Prokopije was forced to leave office, and Bishop German was appointed administrator of Patriarchate of Karlovci until the election of a successor. The choice of administrator, imposed by the [Emperor of Austria](/wiki/Emperor_of_Austria \"Emperor of Austria\") [Franz Joseph I](/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria \"Franz Joseph I of Austria\"), was badly received by the clergy and the faithful of the Patriarchate. The appointment of Bishop German as the new Patriarch of Karlovci two years later was met with even greater dissatisfaction. The Serbian Orthodox Church Council chose another candidate, the bishop of Upper Karlovac [Teofan Živković](/wiki/Teofan_%C5%BDivkovi%C4%87 \"Teofan Živković\"), but the Emperor refused to confirm his election and personally appointed Bishop German as the Patriarch, who in the vote on the Council obtained only 11 votes (against 53 votes cast for Bishop Teofan).Episkop Sava Vuković, *Srpski jerarsi od devetog do dvadesetog veka*, Evro Beograd, Unireks Podgorica, Kalenić Kragujevac, 1996, p. 492\\.",
"The circumstances under which Patriarch German took office meant that he did not gain popularity among the Serbian faithful until the end of his life, although he transferred substantial funds to Serbian cultural institutions, funded scholarships for Serbian students or financially supported poor Serbian families. Together with his brother [Stevan](/wiki/Stevan_An%C4%91eli%C4%87 \"Stevan Anđelić\"), an Orthodox protopresbyter, he donated 162,500 [Ft](/wiki/Hungarian_forint \"Hungarian forint\") to expand the [Karlovci Gymnasium](/wiki/Karlovci_Gymnasium \"Karlovci Gymnasium\").",
""
] |
Plot
----
One stormy night, a servant dog named Yost (Joost) is reading a book saying that storms are caused by dragons. Starting to believe it to be true, he wakes up his employer, a bear named [Oliver B. Bear](/wiki/Oliver_B._Bumble "Oliver B. Bumble") (Oliver B. Bumble). When Ollie tries to convince Yost that dragons do not exist. Yost tries to convince Ollie otherwise by showing him a book he'd been reading during the storm. Ollie takes the book and reads a dragon\-calling spell from it and the wind blows the curtains in their faces, and Ollie does not notice a dragon walking by the window. After the storm dies down, they see dragon tracks on the ground, and Yost goes searching for more evidence, visiting Ollie's next door neighbor [Kit Cat](/wiki/Tom_Puss "Tom Puss") (Tom Puss). He tells Kit Cat about what had happened with her determining that if she were a dragon after having laid an egg, she'd leave on the back path behind the gardens. In the middle of the forest, Yost insisted they look around to find something to convince Ollie that dragons are real and find a spherical object. Not knowing what it is, they take it back to Ollie, who assumes that it is a beach ball.
Meanwhile, in a local bar, two gangsters are plotting a heist at a banquet to be held in Ollie's mansion. Both were hired as doormen.
The next morning, while Ollie is cleaning up for his party, the "beach ball" follows him, eventually carrying him outside to the fountain in front of his home. At this point, a dragon hatches out of the "beach ball" and he starts acting affectionate with Ollie, proving that Yost and Kit Cat were right, as Kit Cat points out that the little dragon believes Ollie to be his father, since Ollie was the first thing the little dragon saw. Ollie names the dragon Dexter (zwelgje), after his great grandfather. A rumor quickly spreads through town that Ollie laid an egg, after the local grocer brings an order to Marquis de Canteclaer explaining that he was late because he'd witnessed Ollie hatching an egg with a creature in it. The size and shape kept changing each time that the story gets retold from Mayor Dickerdack's office to the newspaper editor Mr. Tusker (Editor Phant) making its way to the entire town.
Later that day, Yost and a duck named Mr. Waddle (Wammes Waddle) he had hired to be waiter for Ollie's party attempt to give Dexter a bath, but as Kit Cat had read earlier, dragons hated baths; Dexter reacts by growing very large and becoming aggressive. When Yost tries to explain this to Ollie, he goes upstairs to investigate himself. By the time that he reaches the bathroom, Dexter has returned to normal size. Ollie interprets it to mean that Yost and Mr. Waddle overreacted, leading Ollie to still believe that Dexter is still a harmless child.
Before the banquet starts, Ollie puts Dexter to bed, but Dexter doesn't immediately go to sleep and starts gathering up toys and anything else he could fit in his pillow case presumably starting a hoard. During the banquet, the two gangsters are surreptitiously stealing the guests' belongings, while Dexter is slowly making his way towards the party attracted by the music and food. Meanwhile, Kit Cat is reading that dragons can be set off by sweet\-tasting foods and shiny objects, and she realizes that Dexter might try to get into the party. She goes to the party and tries to get Ollie's attention, but he ignores her and opens the curtain to the dining room, revealing the monstrous Dexter, who assaults the guests collections and shaking out what the gangsters couldn't steal. Kit Cat tells Ollie he needed to be firm with Dexter. Ollie initially does not believe that the monstrous dragon was Dexter, until he scolds him and Dexter returns to normal size. Ollie, in obvious denial of Dexter obviously being a dragon, tries convincing his guests that Dexter is still a child but very different and special in his own right and that he was only going through growing pains. One of Ollie's guests, the local physician, tells Ollie to bring Dexter in for a checkup to help deal with the "growing pains".
Before he leaves for the hospital, the Police chief makes sure Dexter and Ollie go, and Kit Cat insists that she go with them to make sure nothing happens, with Ollie scolding her and insisting it was still nothing to worry over. When Ollie brings Dexter into the hospital the next morning, the two gangsters kidnap Dexter and have him rob the bank for them. When Ollie arrives to stop Dexter, the giant Dexter grabs him and runs into the hills with him.
Ollie wakes up the next morning, alone in a cave, finding himself to be alone until Kit Cat comes to try to convince Ollie to send Dexter back to his own kind, over the Misty Mountains but Ollie continuing to be stubborn, motivated Dexter to chasing Kit Cat away. Dexter is scolded for it afterward by Ollie who suggests to have breakfast. Dexter opens his bag and dumps out some turnips he dug up, but since Ollie does not like the idea of eating them, Dexter leaves. After wandering through the hills for a few minutes trying to find Dexter, Ollie starts remembering how good he had him back home and eventually comes across the police, who arrest him for his presumed role in the bank robbery. Dexter returns apparently after having raided the grocer's store for food he knew Ollie liked, but finds Ollie gone and starts crying. After Mayor Dickerdack makes a deal with Ollie to capture Dexter and hand him over to the circus, under the premise that it's for Dexter's own good, Ollie cooperates. As Dexter breaks into the jail trying to save Ollie, Ollie tells Dexter he can't be the little dragon's father anymore which saddens Dexter causing him to shrink down to the size he was when he hatched, leaving the jail in tears. Ollie's name is cleared and he is released for helping to "capture the vicious dragon", and he later watches as a commercial for the circus with the gangsters hosting comes on TV.
Yost leaves for the opening premier of the circus leaving Kit Cat to watch it over the TV and her shouting at Ollie to be quiet, only to later see Ollie unpacking a blunderbuss that he brings with him going to the circus. At the start of the show Kit Cat can be seen sneaking to the back of the tent opening the cage Dexter was kept in trying to help him escape, only to find Dexter was too sad and depressed to want to escape. Later one of the two gangsters and Mr. Waddles show up to get Dexter into the show pushing, shoving and pulling him into the center ring with Bull, the lead gangster, making himself the ringmaster trying to provoke him by whipping the ground in front of him. Ollie arrives at the circus and stops the act, bringing up Dexter's spirits after seeing him. Ollie stirs up some trouble by firing his blunderbuss into the air scaring the crowd. This causes Dexter to grow and become aggressive again. The resulting chaos destroys the circus with the gangsters trying to get away with all the money, but Dexter stops them first by picking them up, only to have Ollie tell him to put the money box down. This causes some of the money they'd had to fly away on a breeze. Dexter sees it and burns it leaving the gangsters with nothing. He picks up Ollie and leaves for the hills again only unlike before Ollie gives a warmer farewell telling Dexter he is now a big boy and has to return to his Dragon kind over the mountains. Dexter hears a call from another dragon and climbs the hills returning it, waving goodbye to Ollie.
At the end of the film, Ollie admits his faults, misjudgments and stubbornness by admitting that dragons were in fact real and he'd learned this from the book Yost had in the beginning, which Yost ironically burns up. With Mayor Dickerdack, Mr. Tusker, and other friends at the table, Ollie toasts to Dexter and the dragons, after which we hear a dragon call scaring Yost, thinking another one was coming, but Ollie believed it was Dexter saying another goodbye to them all from the mountain, Confident that he'd found his family. The film ends with Mr. Waddles waddling up to the mountain with a net and cage, apparently hoping to catch a dragon of his own.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"One stormy night, a servant dog named Yost (Joost) is reading a book saying that storms are caused by dragons. Starting to believe it to be true, he wakes up his employer, a bear named [Oliver B. Bear](/wiki/Oliver_B._Bumble \"Oliver B. Bumble\") (Oliver B. Bumble). When Ollie tries to convince Yost that dragons do not exist. Yost tries to convince Ollie otherwise by showing him a book he'd been reading during the storm. Ollie takes the book and reads a dragon\\-calling spell from it and the wind blows the curtains in their faces, and Ollie does not notice a dragon walking by the window. After the storm dies down, they see dragon tracks on the ground, and Yost goes searching for more evidence, visiting Ollie's next door neighbor [Kit Cat](/wiki/Tom_Puss \"Tom Puss\") (Tom Puss). He tells Kit Cat about what had happened with her determining that if she were a dragon after having laid an egg, she'd leave on the back path behind the gardens. In the middle of the forest, Yost insisted they look around to find something to convince Ollie that dragons are real and find a spherical object. Not knowing what it is, they take it back to Ollie, who assumes that it is a beach ball.",
"Meanwhile, in a local bar, two gangsters are plotting a heist at a banquet to be held in Ollie's mansion. Both were hired as doormen.",
"The next morning, while Ollie is cleaning up for his party, the \"beach ball\" follows him, eventually carrying him outside to the fountain in front of his home. At this point, a dragon hatches out of the \"beach ball\" and he starts acting affectionate with Ollie, proving that Yost and Kit Cat were right, as Kit Cat points out that the little dragon believes Ollie to be his father, since Ollie was the first thing the little dragon saw. Ollie names the dragon Dexter (zwelgje), after his great grandfather. A rumor quickly spreads through town that Ollie laid an egg, after the local grocer brings an order to Marquis de Canteclaer explaining that he was late because he'd witnessed Ollie hatching an egg with a creature in it. The size and shape kept changing each time that the story gets retold from Mayor Dickerdack's office to the newspaper editor Mr. Tusker (Editor Phant) making its way to the entire town.",
"Later that day, Yost and a duck named Mr. Waddle (Wammes Waddle) he had hired to be waiter for Ollie's party attempt to give Dexter a bath, but as Kit Cat had read earlier, dragons hated baths; Dexter reacts by growing very large and becoming aggressive. When Yost tries to explain this to Ollie, he goes upstairs to investigate himself. By the time that he reaches the bathroom, Dexter has returned to normal size. Ollie interprets it to mean that Yost and Mr. Waddle overreacted, leading Ollie to still believe that Dexter is still a harmless child.",
"Before the banquet starts, Ollie puts Dexter to bed, but Dexter doesn't immediately go to sleep and starts gathering up toys and anything else he could fit in his pillow case presumably starting a hoard. During the banquet, the two gangsters are surreptitiously stealing the guests' belongings, while Dexter is slowly making his way towards the party attracted by the music and food. Meanwhile, Kit Cat is reading that dragons can be set off by sweet\\-tasting foods and shiny objects, and she realizes that Dexter might try to get into the party. She goes to the party and tries to get Ollie's attention, but he ignores her and opens the curtain to the dining room, revealing the monstrous Dexter, who assaults the guests collections and shaking out what the gangsters couldn't steal. Kit Cat tells Ollie he needed to be firm with Dexter. Ollie initially does not believe that the monstrous dragon was Dexter, until he scolds him and Dexter returns to normal size. Ollie, in obvious denial of Dexter obviously being a dragon, tries convincing his guests that Dexter is still a child but very different and special in his own right and that he was only going through growing pains. One of Ollie's guests, the local physician, tells Ollie to bring Dexter in for a checkup to help deal with the \"growing pains\".",
"Before he leaves for the hospital, the Police chief makes sure Dexter and Ollie go, and Kit Cat insists that she go with them to make sure nothing happens, with Ollie scolding her and insisting it was still nothing to worry over. When Ollie brings Dexter into the hospital the next morning, the two gangsters kidnap Dexter and have him rob the bank for them. When Ollie arrives to stop Dexter, the giant Dexter grabs him and runs into the hills with him.",
"Ollie wakes up the next morning, alone in a cave, finding himself to be alone until Kit Cat comes to try to convince Ollie to send Dexter back to his own kind, over the Misty Mountains but Ollie continuing to be stubborn, motivated Dexter to chasing Kit Cat away. Dexter is scolded for it afterward by Ollie who suggests to have breakfast. Dexter opens his bag and dumps out some turnips he dug up, but since Ollie does not like the idea of eating them, Dexter leaves. After wandering through the hills for a few minutes trying to find Dexter, Ollie starts remembering how good he had him back home and eventually comes across the police, who arrest him for his presumed role in the bank robbery. Dexter returns apparently after having raided the grocer's store for food he knew Ollie liked, but finds Ollie gone and starts crying. After Mayor Dickerdack makes a deal with Ollie to capture Dexter and hand him over to the circus, under the premise that it's for Dexter's own good, Ollie cooperates. As Dexter breaks into the jail trying to save Ollie, Ollie tells Dexter he can't be the little dragon's father anymore which saddens Dexter causing him to shrink down to the size he was when he hatched, leaving the jail in tears. Ollie's name is cleared and he is released for helping to \"capture the vicious dragon\", and he later watches as a commercial for the circus with the gangsters hosting comes on TV.",
"Yost leaves for the opening premier of the circus leaving Kit Cat to watch it over the TV and her shouting at Ollie to be quiet, only to later see Ollie unpacking a blunderbuss that he brings with him going to the circus. At the start of the show Kit Cat can be seen sneaking to the back of the tent opening the cage Dexter was kept in trying to help him escape, only to find Dexter was too sad and depressed to want to escape. Later one of the two gangsters and Mr. Waddles show up to get Dexter into the show pushing, shoving and pulling him into the center ring with Bull, the lead gangster, making himself the ringmaster trying to provoke him by whipping the ground in front of him. Ollie arrives at the circus and stops the act, bringing up Dexter's spirits after seeing him. Ollie stirs up some trouble by firing his blunderbuss into the air scaring the crowd. This causes Dexter to grow and become aggressive again. The resulting chaos destroys the circus with the gangsters trying to get away with all the money, but Dexter stops them first by picking them up, only to have Ollie tell him to put the money box down. This causes some of the money they'd had to fly away on a breeze. Dexter sees it and burns it leaving the gangsters with nothing. He picks up Ollie and leaves for the hills again only unlike before Ollie gives a warmer farewell telling Dexter he is now a big boy and has to return to his Dragon kind over the mountains. Dexter hears a call from another dragon and climbs the hills returning it, waving goodbye to Ollie.",
"At the end of the film, Ollie admits his faults, misjudgments and stubbornness by admitting that dragons were in fact real and he'd learned this from the book Yost had in the beginning, which Yost ironically burns up. With Mayor Dickerdack, Mr. Tusker, and other friends at the table, Ollie toasts to Dexter and the dragons, after which we hear a dragon call scaring Yost, thinking another one was coming, but Ollie believed it was Dexter saying another goodbye to them all from the mountain, Confident that he'd found his family. The film ends with Mr. Waddles waddling up to the mountain with a net and cage, apparently hoping to catch a dragon of his own.",
""
] |
History
-------
In medieval times the McGovern barony of Tullyhaw was divided into economic taxation areas called ballibetoes, from the Irish *Baile Biataigh* (Anglicized as 'Ballybetagh'), meaning 'A Provisioner's Town or Settlement'. The original purpose was to enable the farmer, who controlled the baile, to provide hospitality for those who needed it, such as poor people and travellers. The ballybetagh was further divided into townlands farmed by individual families who paid a tribute or tax to the head of the ballybetagh, who in turn paid a similar tribute to the clan chief. The steward of the ballybetagh would have been the secular equivalent of the [erenagh](/wiki/Erenagh "Erenagh") in charge of church lands. There were seven ballibetoes in the parish of Templeport. Ballymagirril was located in the ballybetagh of Ballymagauran. The historical spellings of the ballybetagh are Ballymackgawran \& Ballimacgawran (Irish \= Baile Mhic Shamhráin \= McGovern's Town).
Until the 19th century the modern townland of [Greagh](/wiki/Greagh "Greagh") formed a sub\-division of Ballymagirril.
The 1609 Baronial Map depicts the townland as *B:McGirrill*.[National Archives Dublin](http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/mpf1-58.pdf)
The 1652 Commonwealth Survey lists the townland as *Ballemagirrell*.
The 1665 Down Survey map depicts it as *Ballymagurke*.Trinity College Dublin: [The Down Survey of Ireland.](http://downsurvey.tcd.ie/down-survey-maps.php#bm=Tullaghhagh&c=Cavan&indexOfObjectValue=-1&indexOfObjectValueSubstring=-1)
[William Petty](/wiki/William_Petty "William Petty")'s 1685 map depicts it as *Ballimagurt*.{{Cite web\|url\=http://downsurvey.tcd.ie/down\-survey\-maps.php\#c\=Cavan\|title \= Down Survey Maps \| the Down Survey Project}}
In the [Plantation of Ulster](/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster "Plantation of Ulster") by grant dated 29 April 1611, along with other lands, King [James VI and I](/wiki/James_VI_and_I "James VI and I") granted four polls of *Ballymagirrell* to the McGovern Chief, [Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin](/wiki/Feidhlimidh_M%C3%A1g_Samhradh%C3%A1in "Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin").{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XD5JAAAAcAAJ\&q\=Ballymagirrell\&pg\=PA211\|title \= Calendar of the Patent Rolls of the Chancery of Ireland\|last1 \= Chancery\|first1 \= Ireland\|year \= 1800}} The four polls comprised the modern day townlands of Ballymagirril, Greagh, Stranadarragh and Cornagunleog. These townlands had been part of the McGovern chief's personal demesne for several hundred years before this and it was just a [Surrender and regrant](/wiki/Surrender_and_regrant "Surrender and regrant") confirming the existing title to the then chief. This is confirmed in a visitation by [George Carew, 1st Earl of Totnes](/wiki/George_Carew%2C_1st_Earl_of_Totnes "George Carew, 1st Earl of Totnes") in autumn 1611 when he states that *Magauran had his own land given him on this division*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=I\_RZmjcJYV0C\&q\=magauran\&pg\=PA96\|title \= Calendar of the Carew Manuscripts: Miscellaneous papers: The book of Howth. The conquest of Ireland, by Thomas Bray, etc\|last1 \= Library\|first1 \= Lambeth Palace\|year \= 1873}}
An Inquisition of King [Charles I of England](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England "Charles I of England") held in Cavan town on 4 October 1626 stated that the aforesaid Phelim Magawrane died on 20 January 1622 and his lands, including *4 polls in Ballymagerrill*, went to his son, the McGovern Chief [Brian Magauran](/wiki/Brian_Magauran "Brian Magauran") who was aged 30 (born 1592\) and married.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=WUepqE\-K4PAC\&q\=dromcorck\&pg\=PR113\|title \= Inquisitionum in Officio Rotulorum Cancellariae Hiberniae Asservatarum Repertorium\|year \= 1829}}
The McGovern lands in Ballymagirril were confiscated in the Cromwellian [Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652](/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652 "Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652") and were distributed as follows\-
In the Hearth Money Rolls compiled on 29 September 1663*The Hearth Money Rolls for the Baronies of Tullyhunco and Tullyhaw, County Cavan*, edited by Rev. Francis J. McKiernan, in Breifne Journal. Vol. I, No. 3 (1960\), pp. 247\-263 there was one Hearth Tax payers in *Ballimagirrill\- William Mungomery*.
The 1652 Commonwealth Survey lists the townland as belonging to Lieutenant\-Colonel Tristam Beresford and a further confirming grant dated 3 November 1666 was made by King [Charles II of England](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England") to the aforementioned [Sir Tristram Beresford, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Tristram_Beresford%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir Tristram Beresford, 1st Baronet") which included, inter alia, 157 acres\-3 roods\-26 perches of land in *Ballinagurke or Ballinegerrill or Ballinegerry*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/op1244157\-1001\#page/n47/mode/2up/search/rospressell\|title \= Commissioners of Public Records in Ireland : Fourteenth and fifteenth reports with appendix, 1824\-25\|year \= 1825}} By grant dated 11 September 1670 from King Charles II of England to said Sir Tristram Beresford, the said lands of *Ballynagurke or Ballyregerrill* were included in the creation of a new *Manor of Beresford*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/cu31924091769590/page/n301\|title \= Calendar of the state papers relating to Ireland preserved in the Public Record Office. 1625\-\[1670]\|year \= 1900}}
On 10 April 1716, [Marcus Beresford, 1st Earl of Tyrone](/wiki/Marcus_Beresford%2C_1st_Earl_of_Tyrone "Marcus Beresford, 1st Earl of Tyrone") the son of the aforesaid Sir Tristram Beresford, granted a lease for lives of certain lands, including *Ballimaguerk*, to James Kirkwood of *Owen Gally* ([Owengallees](/wiki/Owengallees "Owengallees")).{{Cite web\|url\=https://irishdeedsindex.net/mem.php?memorial\=12324\|title \= Memorial extract — Registry of Deeds Index Project}} In a marriage settlement made 18 Oct 1718 with his wife Katherine (née Lowther), the said James Kirkwood settled the lands, including *Bullimaguerk*, on his children. Katherine Lowther's sister\-in\-law, Jane Lowther (née Beresford), was the daughter of the aforesaid Sir Tristram Beresford, which is probably how the lease came about. James Kirkwood was son of Reverend James Kirkwood, Chaplain to King [William III of England](/wiki/William_III_of_England "William III of England"), Prebendary of [Kilskeery](/wiki/Kilskeery "Kilskeery") and Rector of [Magheracross](/wiki/Magheracross "Magheracross") parishes in County Fermanagh from 1693\.
Three Ballymagirril deeds from the 1750s are\- 1\. A deed dated 24 February 1757 was made between William Rutledge, John Rutledge and Robert Rutledge, all of Ballymagirrell, Co. Cavan, farmers and John Johnston of Killimority, Co. Cavan, farmer regarding lands of Ballymagirrell and Greangh. Names mentioned in the Deed were George Kirkwood, Lowther Kirkwood and Andrew Hamilton of Ballymagirrell. Witnessed by Thomas Blashford of Ballymagirrell, William Johnston, the son of John Johnston and Frances Bowen of Belturbet. 2\. Articles of Agreement dated 8 Nov 1759 between William Rutledge and William Johnston, both of Ballymagirrell, Co. Cavan. 3\. Lease dated 9 Nov 1759 between John Johnston of Ballymagirrell, Co. Cavan, farmer, Robert Johnston of Ballymagirell, Co. Cavan, farmer, concerning the townlands of Ballymagirrell and Grengh. Witnessed by Thomas Blashford of Ballymagirrell, Andrew Hamilton of Ballymagirrell, William Johnston and Frances Bowen of Belturbet.{{Cite web\|url\=https://lists.rootsweb.com/hyperkitty/list/irl\-cavan.rootsweb.com/2000/4/?page\=2\|title \= RootsWeb Mailing List Archives}}
In the Templeport Poll Book of 1761 there were six people registered to vote in Ballymagirril in the [Irish general election, 1761](/wiki/Irish_general_election%2C_1761 "Irish general election, 1761"){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.bawnboy.com/local\-genealogy/templeport\-poll\-book\-1761\.html\|title \= Bawnboy and Templeport \- Poll Book 1761}} \- James Elliott, John Johnston, Robert Johnston, John Rutledge, Robert Rutledge and William Rutledge. They all lived in Ballymagirril apart from James Elliott who lived in [Drumlougher](/wiki/Drumlougher "Drumlougher") but had a freehold in Ballymagirril. They were entitled to two votes each. The four election candidates were [Charles Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont](/wiki/Charles_Coote%2C_1st_Earl_of_Bellomont "Charles Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont") and Lord Newtownbutler (later [Brinsley Butler, 2nd Earl of Lanesborough](/wiki/Brinsley_Butler%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Lanesborough "Brinsley Butler, 2nd Earl of Lanesborough")), both of whom were then elected [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") for [Cavan County](/wiki/Cavan_County "Cavan County"). The losing candidates were [George Montgomery (MP)](/wiki/George_Montgomery_%28MP%29 "George Montgomery (MP)") of [Ballyconnell](/wiki/Ballyconnell "Ballyconnell") and [Barry Maxwell, 1st Earl of Farnham](/wiki/Barry_Maxwell%2C_1st_Earl_of_Farnham "Barry Maxwell, 1st Earl of Farnham"). Elliott and William Rutledge both voted for Lord Newtownbutler and George Montgomery. John Johnston, Robert Johnston and John Rutledge all voted for Newtownbutler and Coote. Robert Rutledge voted for Coote and Maxwell. Absence from the poll book either meant a resident did not vote or more likely was not a freeholder entitled to vote, which would mean most of the inhabitants of Ballymagirril.
The 1790 Cavan Carvaghs list spells the name as *Ballymagirrill*.[A list of several baronies and parishes in the county of Cavan](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Library-Scanned-Docs/The-Carvaghs-A-List-Of-The-Several-Baronies-And-Parishes-in-the-County-Of-Cavan.pdf) Cavan Library {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406193619/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\-Studies/Library\-Scanned\-Docs/The\-Carvaghs\-A\-List\-Of\-The\-Several\-Baronies\-And\-Parishes\-in\-the\-County\-Of\-Cavan.pdf \|date\=6 April 2016 }}
In 1804 Lowther Kirkwood of Mullinagrave, parish of Templeport, Co. Cavan, gentleman made the following will\-
*2 July 1804\. To his grandnephew Lowther Brien, city of Dublin, attorney, and his heirs his lands of Awengallis, Ballylenan, **Ballymagirill**, Stranadarragh, Carnagimlie, Cullagh, Drumleden, Leitry \[Leitra], Corlagh, Lananleragh \[Lannanerriagh], Gowlanlea and Drumlogher, Co. Cavan, held under lease from the Beresford family. He had begun a suit in Chancery, Ireland, against John Brien, late of Salvon, Co. Fermanagh, deceased, for setting aside a fraudulent deed obtained by said John Brien, which suit against the representatives is to be continued by said Lowther Brien, his sole exor. Witnesses: John Johnston and Andrew Rutledge, both of Ballymagiril, and Thos. Stephenson, Drumleaden, Co. Cavan, gent. Memorial witnessed by: said Andrew Rutledge, and John Balfour, city of Dublin, attorney.*{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=z\_MIAQAAIAAJ\&q\=%22Lowther\+Brien,\+city\+of\+Dublin%22\|title \= Abstracts of Wills: 1785\-1832\|last1 \= (Ireland)\|first1 \= Registry of Deeds\|year \= 1984}}
A deed of land dated 10 April 1830 now in the Cavan Archives Service (ref P017/0036\) is described as\-
*Assignment and conveyance made between Edward Rutledge, Ballimagirl, County Cavan, farmer, and Thomas Rutledge, his son, of the first part, and Thomas Johnston, Ballimagirl, County Cavan, farmer, of the other part. Recites that Edward Rutledge is seized of part of the lands of Ballymagirril (Ballimagirl), parish of Templeport, County Cavan, by virtue of assignment. Formerly held by his father, Robert Rutledge, deceased, and includes house, garden and outbuildings. Bounded on the east by James Rutledge's kitchen garden, on the west by a house and garden occupied by Mary Rutledge, on the north by John Rutledge's holding and on the south by the field known as Spring Well Park. In consideration of sum of £4\.10\.0 sterling, paid to Edward Rutledge and Thomas Rutledge by Thomas Johnston, they release to him the property including dwelling house, garden and other buildings formerly occupied by Robert Rutledge. Noted that a memorial of the deed was entered in the Register Office, city of Dublin, on 19 May 1830, in book 859, page 258, number 573258*.[Small private collections](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Archives/small%20private%20collections.pdf) Cavan Library {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115175537/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\-Studies/Archives/small%20private%20collections.pdf \|date\=15 November 2017 }} The original deed can be viewed online.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.rutledgeancestry.com/ft/1712502\|title \= 1830 Land Deed}}
Ambrose Leet's 1814 Directory spells the name as *Ballymagirl*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YV0\_AQAAMAAJ\&q\=\+cavan\&pg\=PA131\|title\=A Directory to the Market Towns: Villages, Gentlemen's Seats, and Other Noted Places in Ireland ... To which is Added a General Index of Persons Names ... Together with Lists of the Post Towns and Present Rates of Postage Throughout the Empire\|last1\=Leet\|first1\=Ambrose\|year\=1814}}
In the 1825 Registry of Freeholders for County Cavan there was one freeholder registered in Ballymagirril\- James Rutledge. He had no landlord as he owned the fee simple himself. His holding was valued between £20 and £49\.[http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\-Studies/Library\-Scanned\-Docs/Registry\-of\-Freeholders\-in\-the\-County\-of\-Cavan.pdf](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Library-Scanned-Docs/Registry-of-Freeholders-in-the-County-of-Cavan.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115190841/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\-Studies/Library\-Scanned\-Docs/Registry\-of\-Freeholders\-in\-the\-County\-of\-Cavan.pdf \|date\=15 November 2017 }}
The Tithe Applotment Books for 1827 list ten tithepayers in the townland.[http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county\=Cavan\&parish\=Templeport\&townland\=Balimagiel\&search\=Search](http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county=Cavan&parish=Templeport&townland=Balimagiel&search=Search) and [http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county\=Cavan\&parish\=Templeport\&townland\=Balimagul\&search\=Search](http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county=Cavan&parish=Templeport&townland=Balimagul&search=Search)
In 1833 two people in Ballymagirril were registered as a keeper of weapons\- Edward Rutledge and James Rutledge.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.bawnboy.com/local\-genealogy/arms\-keepers\-templeport\-1833\.html\|title \= Templeport Registered to keep Arms}} In 1836 Arthur Slack of Springford House, Ballymagirril, was registered for one pistol.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/op1245352\-1001\#page/n13/mode/2up/search/Clintigrigney\|title \= Return of Persons to whom Licenses have been granted to keep Arms by Magistrates at Quarter Session in Ireland, 1832\|year \= 1836}}
The Ballymagirril Valuation Office Field books are available for 1839\-1840\.[Ireland Census](http://census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/vob/IRE_CENSUS_1821-51_007246947_00308.pdf) National Archives{{Cite web\|url\=http://census.nationalarchives.ie/search/vob/results.jsp?surname\=\&firstname\=\&year\_from\=\&year\_to\=ⅆ\_dd\=ⅆ\_mm\=ⅆ\_yyyy\=\&book\=\&county\=cavan\&barony\=\&parish\=\&townland\=ballymagirril\&last\_name\_other\_or\_lessor\=\&first\_name\_other\_or\_lessor\=\&search\=Search\|title \= Valuation Office Books}}
[Griffith's Valuation](/wiki/Griffith%27s_Valuation "Griffith's Valuation") of 1857 lists nine landholders in the townland.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.askaboutireland.ie/griffith\-valuation/index.xml?action\=doNameSearch\&PlaceID\=190021\&county\=Cavan\&barony\=Tullyhaw\&parish\=Templeport\&townland\=%3Cb%3EBallymagirril%3C/b%3E\|title\=Griffith's Valuation}}
On 6 July 1857 the Incumbered Estates Commission published the following notice\-
*In the Matter of the Estate of James Brien, Geo. Brien, Edward Brien and Francis Brien, Owners. Exparte by Isabella Crummer, Petitioner. The commissioners having ordered a Sale of the Lands of Shanadaragh and Curnagunlogh, Cullegh, Drumlohgher, Drumledin, Sananaragh, and Drumledin, and Corlough, situate in the Barony of Tullyhaw, and County of Cavan, held under lease dated the 10th April, 1718, from the Bishop Raphoe, for lives renewable for ever, and which Lands are included in the denominations of **Ballymagord**, Owngally, Gortneglough, Drumedin or Ballylennin, in said lease mentioned:*
A distinguished native of the townland was [William Rutledge](/wiki/William_Rutledge "William Rutledge") who later became a politician in [Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29 "Victoria (Australia)"), Australia.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In medieval times the McGovern barony of Tullyhaw was divided into economic taxation areas called ballibetoes, from the Irish *Baile Biataigh* (Anglicized as 'Ballybetagh'), meaning 'A Provisioner's Town or Settlement'. The original purpose was to enable the farmer, who controlled the baile, to provide hospitality for those who needed it, such as poor people and travellers. The ballybetagh was further divided into townlands farmed by individual families who paid a tribute or tax to the head of the ballybetagh, who in turn paid a similar tribute to the clan chief. The steward of the ballybetagh would have been the secular equivalent of the [erenagh](/wiki/Erenagh \"Erenagh\") in charge of church lands. There were seven ballibetoes in the parish of Templeport. Ballymagirril was located in the ballybetagh of Ballymagauran. The historical spellings of the ballybetagh are Ballymackgawran \\& Ballimacgawran (Irish \\= Baile Mhic Shamhráin \\= McGovern's Town).",
"Until the 19th century the modern townland of [Greagh](/wiki/Greagh \"Greagh\") formed a sub\\-division of Ballymagirril.",
"The 1609 Baronial Map depicts the townland as *B:McGirrill*.[National Archives Dublin](http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/mpf1-58.pdf)",
"The 1652 Commonwealth Survey lists the townland as *Ballemagirrell*.",
"The 1665 Down Survey map depicts it as *Ballymagurke*.Trinity College Dublin: [The Down Survey of Ireland.](http://downsurvey.tcd.ie/down-survey-maps.php#bm=Tullaghhagh&c=Cavan&indexOfObjectValue=-1&indexOfObjectValueSubstring=-1)",
"[William Petty](/wiki/William_Petty \"William Petty\")'s 1685 map depicts it as *Ballimagurt*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://downsurvey.tcd.ie/down\\-survey\\-maps.php\\#c\\=Cavan\\|title \\= Down Survey Maps \\| the Down Survey Project}}",
"In the [Plantation of Ulster](/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster \"Plantation of Ulster\") by grant dated 29 April 1611, along with other lands, King [James VI and I](/wiki/James_VI_and_I \"James VI and I\") granted four polls of *Ballymagirrell* to the McGovern Chief, [Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin](/wiki/Feidhlimidh_M%C3%A1g_Samhradh%C3%A1in \"Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XD5JAAAAcAAJ\\&q\\=Ballymagirrell\\&pg\\=PA211\\|title \\= Calendar of the Patent Rolls of the Chancery of Ireland\\|last1 \\= Chancery\\|first1 \\= Ireland\\|year \\= 1800}} The four polls comprised the modern day townlands of Ballymagirril, Greagh, Stranadarragh and Cornagunleog. These townlands had been part of the McGovern chief's personal demesne for several hundred years before this and it was just a [Surrender and regrant](/wiki/Surrender_and_regrant \"Surrender and regrant\") confirming the existing title to the then chief. This is confirmed in a visitation by [George Carew, 1st Earl of Totnes](/wiki/George_Carew%2C_1st_Earl_of_Totnes \"George Carew, 1st Earl of Totnes\") in autumn 1611 when he states that *Magauran had his own land given him on this division*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=I\\_RZmjcJYV0C\\&q\\=magauran\\&pg\\=PA96\\|title \\= Calendar of the Carew Manuscripts: Miscellaneous papers: The book of Howth. The conquest of Ireland, by Thomas Bray, etc\\|last1 \\= Library\\|first1 \\= Lambeth Palace\\|year \\= 1873}}",
"An Inquisition of King [Charles I of England](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England \"Charles I of England\") held in Cavan town on 4 October 1626 stated that the aforesaid Phelim Magawrane died on 20 January 1622 and his lands, including *4 polls in Ballymagerrill*, went to his son, the McGovern Chief [Brian Magauran](/wiki/Brian_Magauran \"Brian Magauran\") who was aged 30 (born 1592\\) and married.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WUepqE\\-K4PAC\\&q\\=dromcorck\\&pg\\=PR113\\|title \\= Inquisitionum in Officio Rotulorum Cancellariae Hiberniae Asservatarum Repertorium\\|year \\= 1829}}",
"The McGovern lands in Ballymagirril were confiscated in the Cromwellian [Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652](/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652 \"Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652\") and were distributed as follows\\-",
"In the Hearth Money Rolls compiled on 29 September 1663*The Hearth Money Rolls for the Baronies of Tullyhunco and Tullyhaw, County Cavan*, edited by Rev. Francis J. McKiernan, in Breifne Journal. Vol. I, No. 3 (1960\\), pp. 247\\-263 there was one Hearth Tax payers in *Ballimagirrill\\- William Mungomery*.",
"The 1652 Commonwealth Survey lists the townland as belonging to Lieutenant\\-Colonel Tristam Beresford and a further confirming grant dated 3 November 1666 was made by King [Charles II of England](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\") to the aforementioned [Sir Tristram Beresford, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Tristram_Beresford%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Tristram Beresford, 1st Baronet\") which included, inter alia, 157 acres\\-3 roods\\-26 perches of land in *Ballinagurke or Ballinegerrill or Ballinegerry*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/op1244157\\-1001\\#page/n47/mode/2up/search/rospressell\\|title \\= Commissioners of Public Records in Ireland : Fourteenth and fifteenth reports with appendix, 1824\\-25\\|year \\= 1825}} By grant dated 11 September 1670 from King Charles II of England to said Sir Tristram Beresford, the said lands of *Ballynagurke or Ballyregerrill* were included in the creation of a new *Manor of Beresford*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/cu31924091769590/page/n301\\|title \\= Calendar of the state papers relating to Ireland preserved in the Public Record Office. 1625\\-\\[1670]\\|year \\= 1900}}",
"On 10 April 1716, [Marcus Beresford, 1st Earl of Tyrone](/wiki/Marcus_Beresford%2C_1st_Earl_of_Tyrone \"Marcus Beresford, 1st Earl of Tyrone\") the son of the aforesaid Sir Tristram Beresford, granted a lease for lives of certain lands, including *Ballimaguerk*, to James Kirkwood of *Owen Gally* ([Owengallees](/wiki/Owengallees \"Owengallees\")).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://irishdeedsindex.net/mem.php?memorial\\=12324\\|title \\= Memorial extract — Registry of Deeds Index Project}} In a marriage settlement made 18 Oct 1718 with his wife Katherine (née Lowther), the said James Kirkwood settled the lands, including *Bullimaguerk*, on his children. Katherine Lowther's sister\\-in\\-law, Jane Lowther (née Beresford), was the daughter of the aforesaid Sir Tristram Beresford, which is probably how the lease came about. James Kirkwood was son of Reverend James Kirkwood, Chaplain to King [William III of England](/wiki/William_III_of_England \"William III of England\"), Prebendary of [Kilskeery](/wiki/Kilskeery \"Kilskeery\") and Rector of [Magheracross](/wiki/Magheracross \"Magheracross\") parishes in County Fermanagh from 1693\\.",
"Three Ballymagirril deeds from the 1750s are\\- 1\\. A deed dated 24 February 1757 was made between William Rutledge, John Rutledge and Robert Rutledge, all of Ballymagirrell, Co. Cavan, farmers and John Johnston of Killimority, Co. Cavan, farmer regarding lands of Ballymagirrell and Greangh. Names mentioned in the Deed were George Kirkwood, Lowther Kirkwood and Andrew Hamilton of Ballymagirrell. Witnessed by Thomas Blashford of Ballymagirrell, William Johnston, the son of John Johnston and Frances Bowen of Belturbet. 2\\. Articles of Agreement dated 8 Nov 1759 between William Rutledge and William Johnston, both of Ballymagirrell, Co. Cavan. 3\\. Lease dated 9 Nov 1759 between John Johnston of Ballymagirrell, Co. Cavan, farmer, Robert Johnston of Ballymagirell, Co. Cavan, farmer, concerning the townlands of Ballymagirrell and Grengh. Witnessed by Thomas Blashford of Ballymagirrell, Andrew Hamilton of Ballymagirrell, William Johnston and Frances Bowen of Belturbet.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://lists.rootsweb.com/hyperkitty/list/irl\\-cavan.rootsweb.com/2000/4/?page\\=2\\|title \\= RootsWeb Mailing List Archives}}",
"In the Templeport Poll Book of 1761 there were six people registered to vote in Ballymagirril in the [Irish general election, 1761](/wiki/Irish_general_election%2C_1761 \"Irish general election, 1761\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bawnboy.com/local\\-genealogy/templeport\\-poll\\-book\\-1761\\.html\\|title \\= Bawnboy and Templeport \\- Poll Book 1761}} \\- James Elliott, John Johnston, Robert Johnston, John Rutledge, Robert Rutledge and William Rutledge. They all lived in Ballymagirril apart from James Elliott who lived in [Drumlougher](/wiki/Drumlougher \"Drumlougher\") but had a freehold in Ballymagirril. They were entitled to two votes each. The four election candidates were [Charles Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont](/wiki/Charles_Coote%2C_1st_Earl_of_Bellomont \"Charles Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont\") and Lord Newtownbutler (later [Brinsley Butler, 2nd Earl of Lanesborough](/wiki/Brinsley_Butler%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Lanesborough \"Brinsley Butler, 2nd Earl of Lanesborough\")), both of whom were then elected [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") for [Cavan County](/wiki/Cavan_County \"Cavan County\"). The losing candidates were [George Montgomery (MP)](/wiki/George_Montgomery_%28MP%29 \"George Montgomery (MP)\") of [Ballyconnell](/wiki/Ballyconnell \"Ballyconnell\") and [Barry Maxwell, 1st Earl of Farnham](/wiki/Barry_Maxwell%2C_1st_Earl_of_Farnham \"Barry Maxwell, 1st Earl of Farnham\"). Elliott and William Rutledge both voted for Lord Newtownbutler and George Montgomery. John Johnston, Robert Johnston and John Rutledge all voted for Newtownbutler and Coote. Robert Rutledge voted for Coote and Maxwell. Absence from the poll book either meant a resident did not vote or more likely was not a freeholder entitled to vote, which would mean most of the inhabitants of Ballymagirril.",
"The 1790 Cavan Carvaghs list spells the name as *Ballymagirrill*.[A list of several baronies and parishes in the county of Cavan](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Library-Scanned-Docs/The-Carvaghs-A-List-Of-The-Several-Baronies-And-Parishes-in-the-County-Of-Cavan.pdf) Cavan Library {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406193619/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\\-Studies/Library\\-Scanned\\-Docs/The\\-Carvaghs\\-A\\-List\\-Of\\-The\\-Several\\-Baronies\\-And\\-Parishes\\-in\\-the\\-County\\-Of\\-Cavan.pdf \\|date\\=6 April 2016 }}",
"In 1804 Lowther Kirkwood of Mullinagrave, parish of Templeport, Co. Cavan, gentleman made the following will\\-",
"*2 July 1804\\. To his grandnephew Lowther Brien, city of Dublin, attorney, and his heirs his lands of Awengallis, Ballylenan, **Ballymagirill**, Stranadarragh, Carnagimlie, Cullagh, Drumleden, Leitry \\[Leitra], Corlagh, Lananleragh \\[Lannanerriagh], Gowlanlea and Drumlogher, Co. Cavan, held under lease from the Beresford family. He had begun a suit in Chancery, Ireland, against John Brien, late of Salvon, Co. Fermanagh, deceased, for setting aside a fraudulent deed obtained by said John Brien, which suit against the representatives is to be continued by said Lowther Brien, his sole exor. Witnesses: John Johnston and Andrew Rutledge, both of Ballymagiril, and Thos. Stephenson, Drumleaden, Co. Cavan, gent. Memorial witnessed by: said Andrew Rutledge, and John Balfour, city of Dublin, attorney.*{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=z\\_MIAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=%22Lowther\\+Brien,\\+city\\+of\\+Dublin%22\\|title \\= Abstracts of Wills: 1785\\-1832\\|last1 \\= (Ireland)\\|first1 \\= Registry of Deeds\\|year \\= 1984}}",
"A deed of land dated 10 April 1830 now in the Cavan Archives Service (ref P017/0036\\) is described as\\-",
"*Assignment and conveyance made between Edward Rutledge, Ballimagirl, County Cavan, farmer, and Thomas Rutledge, his son, of the first part, and Thomas Johnston, Ballimagirl, County Cavan, farmer, of the other part. Recites that Edward Rutledge is seized of part of the lands of Ballymagirril (Ballimagirl), parish of Templeport, County Cavan, by virtue of assignment. Formerly held by his father, Robert Rutledge, deceased, and includes house, garden and outbuildings. Bounded on the east by James Rutledge's kitchen garden, on the west by a house and garden occupied by Mary Rutledge, on the north by John Rutledge's holding and on the south by the field known as Spring Well Park. In consideration of sum of £4\\.10\\.0 sterling, paid to Edward Rutledge and Thomas Rutledge by Thomas Johnston, they release to him the property including dwelling house, garden and other buildings formerly occupied by Robert Rutledge. Noted that a memorial of the deed was entered in the Register Office, city of Dublin, on 19 May 1830, in book 859, page 258, number 573258*.[Small private collections](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Archives/small%20private%20collections.pdf) Cavan Library {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115175537/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\\-Studies/Archives/small%20private%20collections.pdf \\|date\\=15 November 2017 }} The original deed can be viewed online.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rutledgeancestry.com/ft/1712502\\|title \\= 1830 Land Deed}}",
"Ambrose Leet's 1814 Directory spells the name as *Ballymagirl*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YV0\\_AQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=\\+cavan\\&pg\\=PA131\\|title\\=A Directory to the Market Towns: Villages, Gentlemen's Seats, and Other Noted Places in Ireland ... To which is Added a General Index of Persons Names ... Together with Lists of the Post Towns and Present Rates of Postage Throughout the Empire\\|last1\\=Leet\\|first1\\=Ambrose\\|year\\=1814}}",
"In the 1825 Registry of Freeholders for County Cavan there was one freeholder registered in Ballymagirril\\- James Rutledge. He had no landlord as he owned the fee simple himself. His holding was valued between £20 and £49\\.[http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\\-Studies/Library\\-Scanned\\-Docs/Registry\\-of\\-Freeholders\\-in\\-the\\-County\\-of\\-Cavan.pdf](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Library-Scanned-Docs/Registry-of-Freeholders-in-the-County-of-Cavan.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115190841/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\\-Studies/Library\\-Scanned\\-Docs/Registry\\-of\\-Freeholders\\-in\\-the\\-County\\-of\\-Cavan.pdf \\|date\\=15 November 2017 }}",
"The Tithe Applotment Books for 1827 list ten tithepayers in the townland.[http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county\\=Cavan\\&parish\\=Templeport\\&townland\\=Balimagiel\\&search\\=Search](http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county=Cavan&parish=Templeport&townland=Balimagiel&search=Search) and [http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county\\=Cavan\\&parish\\=Templeport\\&townland\\=Balimagul\\&search\\=Search](http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county=Cavan&parish=Templeport&townland=Balimagul&search=Search)",
"In 1833 two people in Ballymagirril were registered as a keeper of weapons\\- Edward Rutledge and James Rutledge.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bawnboy.com/local\\-genealogy/arms\\-keepers\\-templeport\\-1833\\.html\\|title \\= Templeport Registered to keep Arms}} In 1836 Arthur Slack of Springford House, Ballymagirril, was registered for one pistol.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/op1245352\\-1001\\#page/n13/mode/2up/search/Clintigrigney\\|title \\= Return of Persons to whom Licenses have been granted to keep Arms by Magistrates at Quarter Session in Ireland, 1832\\|year \\= 1836}}",
"The Ballymagirril Valuation Office Field books are available for 1839\\-1840\\.[Ireland Census](http://census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/vob/IRE_CENSUS_1821-51_007246947_00308.pdf) National Archives{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://census.nationalarchives.ie/search/vob/results.jsp?surname\\=\\&firstname\\=\\&year\\_from\\=\\&year\\_to\\=ⅆ\\_dd\\=ⅆ\\_mm\\=ⅆ\\_yyyy\\=\\&book\\=\\&county\\=cavan\\&barony\\=\\&parish\\=\\&townland\\=ballymagirril\\&last\\_name\\_other\\_or\\_lessor\\=\\&first\\_name\\_other\\_or\\_lessor\\=\\&search\\=Search\\|title \\= Valuation Office Books}}",
"[Griffith's Valuation](/wiki/Griffith%27s_Valuation \"Griffith's Valuation\") of 1857 lists nine landholders in the townland.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.askaboutireland.ie/griffith\\-valuation/index.xml?action\\=doNameSearch\\&PlaceID\\=190021\\&county\\=Cavan\\&barony\\=Tullyhaw\\&parish\\=Templeport\\&townland\\=%3Cb%3EBallymagirril%3C/b%3E\\|title\\=Griffith's Valuation}}",
"On 6 July 1857 the Incumbered Estates Commission published the following notice\\-",
"*In the Matter of the Estate of James Brien, Geo. Brien, Edward Brien and Francis Brien, Owners. Exparte by Isabella Crummer, Petitioner. The commissioners having ordered a Sale of the Lands of Shanadaragh and Curnagunlogh, Cullegh, Drumlohgher, Drumledin, Sananaragh, and Drumledin, and Corlough, situate in the Barony of Tullyhaw, and County of Cavan, held under lease dated the 10th April, 1718, from the Bishop Raphoe, for lives renewable for ever, and which Lands are included in the denominations of **Ballymagord**, Owngally, Gortneglough, Drumedin or Ballylennin, in said lease mentioned:*",
"A distinguished native of the townland was [William Rutledge](/wiki/William_Rutledge \"William Rutledge\") who later became a politician in [Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29 \"Victoria (Australia)\"), Australia.",
""
] |
Species diversity
-----------------
### Flora
It is proposed that treefall gaps maintain plant species diversity in tropical forests in three main ways. First, they create habitats that have a lot of light. Being in an area that contains a high amount of light allows species that cannot grow in total or partial shade to develop rapidly. The increased levels of light creates competition between the shade intolerant species, and the species that prefer low levels of light are eliminated. This release from competition would allow the number of shade intolerant species to increase.
Second, species may be able to survive on resources that spread from the middle of the gap all the way to the surrounding denser forest. Tree or plant diversity may be maintained by the distribution and sharing of resources over a gradient if species are uniquely adapted to the resources available in a specific treefall gap.
Lastly, the rate of regeneration of different species may differ based on the size of the gap. While species diversity may vary when the treefall gaps differ greatly in size, it has been argued that it is highly unlikely, since the relationship between gap size and the microclimate is irregular because of the large spatial and temporal deviation in microclimate.
Support for these three hypotheses is mixed, but there is evidence that supports the fact that some species of plants benefit from being in gaps more than others. In tropical forests, gaps maintain the diversity of some plant groups, which could possibly contain much of the vascular plant community in these areas.
### Insects
Treefall gaps, like the rest of tropical forests, contain an abundant number of animal species. As with all tropical habitats, insects make up the majority of the animal biomass.
It has been thought that the development of treefall gaps would cause harm to the development of leaf litter ant assemblages, but that is not the case according to one study. Species of ants that are found in treefall gaps are the same species that are found in the densely wooded forests that surround them.Patrick, M., Fowler, D., Dunn, R., \& Sanders, N. (n.d.). Effects of Treefall Gap Disturbances on Ant Assemblages in a Tropical Montane Cloud Forest. Biotropica, N/a\-N/a. The formations of these gaps seem to have little to no effect on the ant species living there.
There have been studies that show a noticeable difference in the species diversity of butterflies in treefall gaps and those in the surrounding understory. The types of vegetation present in the gaps play a key role in determining which species of butterfly live there.Pardonnet, S., Beck, H., Milberg, P., \& Bergman, K. (2013\). Effect of Tree\-Fall Gaps on Fruit\-Feeding Nymphalid Butterfly Assemblages in a Peruvian Rain Forest. Biotropica, 612\-619\. This supports the hypothesis that in a natural forest, treefall gaps will promote species diversity.
|
[
"Species diversity\n-----------------",
"### Flora",
"It is proposed that treefall gaps maintain plant species diversity in tropical forests in three main ways. First, they create habitats that have a lot of light. Being in an area that contains a high amount of light allows species that cannot grow in total or partial shade to develop rapidly. The increased levels of light creates competition between the shade intolerant species, and the species that prefer low levels of light are eliminated. This release from competition would allow the number of shade intolerant species to increase.",
"Second, species may be able to survive on resources that spread from the middle of the gap all the way to the surrounding denser forest. Tree or plant diversity may be maintained by the distribution and sharing of resources over a gradient if species are uniquely adapted to the resources available in a specific treefall gap.",
"Lastly, the rate of regeneration of different species may differ based on the size of the gap. While species diversity may vary when the treefall gaps differ greatly in size, it has been argued that it is highly unlikely, since the relationship between gap size and the microclimate is irregular because of the large spatial and temporal deviation in microclimate.",
"Support for these three hypotheses is mixed, but there is evidence that supports the fact that some species of plants benefit from being in gaps more than others. In tropical forests, gaps maintain the diversity of some plant groups, which could possibly contain much of the vascular plant community in these areas.",
"### Insects",
"Treefall gaps, like the rest of tropical forests, contain an abundant number of animal species. As with all tropical habitats, insects make up the majority of the animal biomass.",
"It has been thought that the development of treefall gaps would cause harm to the development of leaf litter ant assemblages, but that is not the case according to one study. Species of ants that are found in treefall gaps are the same species that are found in the densely wooded forests that surround them.Patrick, M., Fowler, D., Dunn, R., \\& Sanders, N. (n.d.). Effects of Treefall Gap Disturbances on Ant Assemblages in a Tropical Montane Cloud Forest. Biotropica, N/a\\-N/a. The formations of these gaps seem to have little to no effect on the ant species living there.",
"There have been studies that show a noticeable difference in the species diversity of butterflies in treefall gaps and those in the surrounding understory. The types of vegetation present in the gaps play a key role in determining which species of butterfly live there.Pardonnet, S., Beck, H., Milberg, P., \\& Bergman, K. (2013\\). Effect of Tree\\-Fall Gaps on Fruit\\-Feeding Nymphalid Butterfly Assemblages in a Peruvian Rain Forest. Biotropica, 612\\-619\\. This supports the hypothesis that in a natural forest, treefall gaps will promote species diversity.",
""
] |
History
-------
The concept of carbon\-arc lighting was first demonstrated by [Humphry Davy](/wiki/Humphry_Davy "Humphry Davy") in the early 19th century, but sources disagree about the year he first demonstrated it; 1802, 1805, 1807 and 1809 are all mentioned. Davy used charcoal sticks and a two\-thousand\-[cell](/wiki/Electrochemical_cell "Electrochemical cell") [battery](/wiki/Battery_%28electricity%29 "Battery (electricity)") to create an arc across a {{convert\|4\|in\|mm\|adj\=on}} gap. He mounted his electrodes horizontally and noted that, because of the strong convection flow of air, the arc formed the shape of an arch. He coined the term "arch lamp", which was contracted to "arc lamp" when the devices came into common usage.{{cite book \|last1\=Slingo \|first1\=William \|last2\=Brooker \|first2\=Arthur \|title\=Electrical Engineering for Electric Light Artisans \|pages\=607 \|publisher\=Longmans, Green and Co \|location\=London \|year\=1900\|oclc\=264936769}}
In the late nineteenth century, electric arc lighting was in wide use for public lighting. The tendency of electric arcs to flicker and hiss was a major problem. In 1895, [Hertha Ayrton](/wiki/Hertha_Ayrton "Hertha Ayrton") wrote a series of articles for *[The Electrician](/wiki/The_Electrician "The Electrician")*, explaining that these phenomena were the result of oxygen coming into contact with the carbon rods used to create the arc.{{cite book \|last1\=Oakes \|first1\=Elizabeth A \|title\=Encyclopedia of world scientists \|year\=2007 \|publisher\=Facts on File \|location\=New York \|isbn\=9781438118826 \|page\=35 \|edition\=2}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Bruton \|first1\=Elizabeth \|title\=The life and material culture of Hertha Ayrton \|url\=http://journal.sciencemuseum.ac.uk/browse/issue\-10/the\-life\-and\-material\-culture\-of\-hertha\-ayrton/ \|website\=Science Museum Group Journal \|publisher\=\[\[Science Museum, London]] \|access\-date\=23 May 2019 \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.15180/181002 \|date\=2018\|s2cid\=240796451 \|doi\-access\=free }} In 1899, she was the first woman ever to read her own paper before the [Institution of Electrical Engineers](/wiki/Institution_of_Electrical_Engineers "Institution of Electrical Engineers") (IEE). Her paper was "The Hissing of the Electric Arc".{{cite journal \|first\=Hertha \|last\=Ayrton \|author\-link\=Hertha Ayrton \|title\=The Hissing of the Electric Arc \|journal\=Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers \|pages\=400–436 \|volume\=28 \|issue\=140 \|date\=June 1899 \|doi\=10\.1049/jiee\-1\.1899\.0020}}
The arc lamp provided one of the first commercial uses for electricity, a phenomenon previously confined to experiment, the telegraph, and entertainment.Gilbert, Gerard. *Critic's Choice* The Independent, 6 October 2011
### Carbon\-arc lighting in the U.S.
[thumb\|right](/wiki/File:Arc_Lamp_Examples.jpg "Arc Lamp Examples.jpg")
In the United States, there were attempts to produce arc lamps commercially after 1850, but the lack of a constant electricity supply thwarted efforts. Thus electrical engineers began focusing on the problem of improving [Faraday's](/wiki/Michael_Faraday "Michael Faraday") [dynamo](/wiki/Dynamo "Dynamo"). The concept was improved upon by a number of people including {{Interlanguage link\|William Edwards Staite\|de\|William Edwards Staite}} and [Charles F. Brush](/wiki/Charles_F._Brush "Charles F. Brush"). It was not until the 1870s that lamps such as the [Yablochkov candle](/wiki/Yablochkov_candle "Yablochkov candle") were more commonly seen. In 1877, the [Franklin Institute](/wiki/Franklin_Institute "Franklin Institute") conducted a comparative test of dynamo systems. The one developed by Brush performed best, and Brush immediately applied his improved dynamo to arc\-lighting, an early application being [Public Square](/wiki/Public_Square%2C_Cleveland "Public Square, Cleveland") in [Cleveland, Ohio](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio "Cleveland, Ohio"), on April 29, 1879\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\_f.pdf \|title\=Cleveland\+ Public Art \|access\-date\=2009\-05\-18 \|year\=2008 \|format\=brochure \|publisher\=\[\[Positively Cleveland]] \|page\=3 \|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517020529/http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\_f.pdf \|archive\-date\=2008\-05\-17 }} Despite this, Wabash, Indiana claims to be the first city ever to be lit with "Brush Lights". Four of these lights became active there on March 31, 1880\.[Roadside America](https://www.roadsideamerica.com/tip/10495) Wabash was a small enough city to be lit entirely by 4 lights, whereas the installation at Cleveland's Public Square only lit a portion of that larger city.[Brush Lights, Cleveland](http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08_f.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517020529/http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\_f.pdf \|date\=2008\-05\-17 }} In 1880, Brush established the [Brush Electric Company](/wiki/Brush_Electrical_Machines "Brush Electrical Machines").
The harsh and brilliant light was found most suitable for public areas, such as Cleveland's Public Square, being around 200 times more powerful than contemporary [filament lamps](/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb "Incandescent light bulb").
The usage of Brush electric arc lights spread quickly. *[Scientific American](/wiki/Scientific_American "Scientific American")* reported in 1881 that the system was being used in:{{Cite journal \|title\=The Brush Electric Light \|date\=April 2, 1881 \|url\=http://www.machine\-history.com/Brush%20Electric%20Company \|journal\=\[\[Scientific American]] \|volume\=44 \|issue\=14 \|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111040515/http://www.machine\-history.com/Brush%20Electric%20Company \|archive\-date\=January 11, 2011 }}; also Ohio Memory Collection [cover reproduction](http://www.ohiomemory.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p267401coll36/id/19824/rec/2) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313001257/http://ohiomemory.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p267401coll36/id/19824/rec/2 \|date\=2016\-03\-13 }}
800 lights in rolling mills, steel works, shops, 1,240 lights in woolen, cotton, linen, silk, and other factories, 425 lights in large stores, hotels, churches, 250 lights in parks, docks, and summer resorts, 275 lights in railroad depots and shops, 130 lights in mines, smelting works, 380 lights in factories and establishments of various kinds, 1,500 lights in lighting stations, for city lighting, 1,200 lights in England and other foreign countries.
A total of over 6,000 lights which are actually sold.
There were three major advances in the 1880s: [František Křižík](/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_K%C5%99i%C5%BE%C3%ADk "František Křižík") invented in 1880 a mechanism to allow the automatic adjustment of the electrodes. The arcs were enclosed in a small tube to slow the carbon consumption (increasing the life span to around 100 hours). *Flame arc lamps* were introduced where the carbon rods had metal salts (usually magnesium, strontium, barium, or calcium fluorides) added to increase light output and produce different colours.
In the U.S., patent protection of arc\-lighting systems and improved dynamos proved difficult and as a result the arc\-lighting industry became highly competitive. Brush's principal competition was from the team of [Elihu Thomson](/wiki/Elihu_Thomson "Elihu Thomson") and [Edwin J. Houston](/wiki/Edwin_J._Houston "Edwin J. Houston"). These two had formed the American Electric Corporation in 1880, but it was soon bought up by [Charles A. Coffin](/wiki/Charles_A._Coffin "Charles A. Coffin"), moved to [Lynn, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lynn%2C_Massachusetts "Lynn, Massachusetts"), and renamed the [Thomson\-Houston Electric Company](/wiki/Thomson-Houston_Electric_Company "Thomson-Houston Electric Company"). Thomson remained, though, the principal inventive genius behind the company patenting improvements to the lighting system. Under the leadership of Thomson\-Houston's patent attorney, [Frederick P. Fish](/wiki/Frederick_P._Fish "Frederick P. Fish"), the company protected its new patent rights. Coffin's management also led the company towards an aggressive policy of buy\-outs and mergers with competitors. Both strategies reduced competition in the electrical lighting manufacturing industry. By 1890, the Thomson\-Houston company was the dominant electrical manufacturing company in the U.S.[David F. Noble](/wiki/David_F._Noble "David F. Noble"), *America By Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism* (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977\), 6\-10\.
Around the turn of the century arc\-lighting systems were in decline, but Thomson\-Houston controlled key patents to urban lighting systems. This control slowed the expansion of incandescent lighting systems being developed by [Thomas Edison](/wiki/Thomas_Edison "Thomas Edison")'s [Edison General Electric Company](/wiki/Edison_General_Electric_Company "Edison General Electric Company"). Conversely, Edison's control of direct current distribution and generating machinery patents blocked further expansion of Thomson\-Houston. The roadblock to expansion was removed when the two companies merged in 1892 to form the [General Electric Company](/wiki/General_Electric "General Electric").
Arc lamps were used in some early motion\-picture studios to illuminate interior shots. One problem was that they produce such a high level of [ultra\-violet](/wiki/Ultra-violet "Ultra-violet") light that many actors needed to wear [sunglasses](/wiki/Sunglasses "Sunglasses") when off camera to relieve sore eyes resulting from the ultra\-violet light. The problem was solved by adding a sheet of ordinary window glass in front of the lamp, blocking the ultra\-violet. By the dawn of the "talkies", arc lamps had been replaced in film studios with other types of lights.H. Mario Raimondo\-Souto*Motion Picture Photography: A History 1891\-1960*, McFarland and Company, 2007 {{text\|ISBN}} 0\-7864\-2784\-0, pg. 84 In 1915, [Elmer Ambrose Sperry](/wiki/Elmer_Ambrose_Sperry "Elmer Ambrose Sperry") began manufacturing his invention of a high\-intensity carbon arc [searchlight](/wiki/Searchlight "Searchlight"). These were used aboard warships of all navies during the 20th century for signaling and illuminating enemies.I. C. B. Dear and Peter Kemp, eds., "Sperry, Elmer Ambrose," *The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea*, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006\). {{ISBN\|0\-19\-920568\-X}} In the 1920s, carbon arc lamps were sold as family health products, a substitute for natural sunlight.{{cite web\|url\=http://einhornpress.com/rays.aspx\|title\=Eveready Carbon Arc Sunshine Lamp Advertisements\|publisher\=The Einhorn Press\|access\-date\=11 November 2008\|url\-status \= live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601175558/http://einhornpress.com/rays.aspx\|archive\-date\=1 June 2009}}
Arc lamps were superseded by filament lamps in most roles, remaining in only certain niche applications such as [cinema](/wiki/Movie_theater "Movie theater") [projection](/wiki/Movie_projector "Movie projector"), [spotlights](/wiki/Spotlight_%28theatre_lighting%29 "Spotlight (theatre lighting)"), and searchlights. In the 1950s and 1960s the high\-power D.C. for the carbon\-arc lamp of an outdoor drive\-in projector would typically be supplied by a [motor\-generator](/wiki/Motor-generator "Motor-generator") combo (AC motor powering a DC generator). Even in these applications conventional carbon\-arc lamps were mostly pushed into obsolescence by [xenon arc lamps](/wiki/Xenon_arc_lamp "Xenon arc lamp"), but were still being manufactured as spotlights at least as late as 1982{{cite web \|url\=http://www.film\-tech.com/manuals/STRSTRONGHIST.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|website\=www.film\-tech.com \|access\-date\=13 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010613202309/http://www.film\-tech.com/manuals/STRSTRONGHIST.pdf \|archive\-date\=13 June 2001 \|url\-status\=dead}} and are still manufactured for at least one purpose – simulating sunlight in "accelerated aging" machines intended to estimate how fast a material is likely to be degraded by environmental exposure.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html\|title\=Arc Lamps \- How They Work \& History\|last\=Center\|first\=Copyright 2015 Edison Tech\|website\=www.edisontechcenter.org\|access\-date\=2018\-01\-13\|url\-status \= live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617231552/http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html\|archive\-date\=2017\-06\-17}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sca\-shinyei.com/suga \|title\=Index of /suga \|access\-date\=2015\-04\-16 \|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427143242/http://www.sca\-shinyei.com/suga \|archive\-date\=2015\-04\-27 }}
Carbon arc lighting left its imprint on other film projection practices. The practice of shipping and projecting motion pictures on 2,000\-foot reels, and employing "changeovers" between two projectors, was due to the carbon rods used in projector lamphouses having a lifespan of roughly 22 minutes (which corresponds to the amount of film in said reels when projected at 24 frames/second). The projectionist would watch the rod burn down by eye (though a peephole like a welder's glass) and replace the carbon rod when changing film reels. The two\-projector changeover setup largely disappeared in the 1970s with the advent of xenon projector lamps, being replaced with [single\-projector platter systems](/wiki/Movie_projector%23Single-reel_system "Movie projector#Single-reel system"), though films would continue to be shipped to cinemas on 2,000\-foot reels.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The concept of carbon\\-arc lighting was first demonstrated by [Humphry Davy](/wiki/Humphry_Davy \"Humphry Davy\") in the early 19th century, but sources disagree about the year he first demonstrated it; 1802, 1805, 1807 and 1809 are all mentioned. Davy used charcoal sticks and a two\\-thousand\\-[cell](/wiki/Electrochemical_cell \"Electrochemical cell\") [battery](/wiki/Battery_%28electricity%29 \"Battery (electricity)\") to create an arc across a {{convert\\|4\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\\=on}} gap. He mounted his electrodes horizontally and noted that, because of the strong convection flow of air, the arc formed the shape of an arch. He coined the term \"arch lamp\", which was contracted to \"arc lamp\" when the devices came into common usage.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Slingo \\|first1\\=William \\|last2\\=Brooker \\|first2\\=Arthur \\|title\\=Electrical Engineering for Electric Light Artisans \\|pages\\=607 \\|publisher\\=Longmans, Green and Co \\|location\\=London \\|year\\=1900\\|oclc\\=264936769}}",
"In the late nineteenth century, electric arc lighting was in wide use for public lighting. The tendency of electric arcs to flicker and hiss was a major problem. In 1895, [Hertha Ayrton](/wiki/Hertha_Ayrton \"Hertha Ayrton\") wrote a series of articles for *[The Electrician](/wiki/The_Electrician \"The Electrician\")*, explaining that these phenomena were the result of oxygen coming into contact with the carbon rods used to create the arc.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Oakes \\|first1\\=Elizabeth A \\|title\\=Encyclopedia of world scientists \\|year\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=Facts on File \\|location\\=New York \\|isbn\\=9781438118826 \\|page\\=35 \\|edition\\=2}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Bruton \\|first1\\=Elizabeth \\|title\\=The life and material culture of Hertha Ayrton \\|url\\=http://journal.sciencemuseum.ac.uk/browse/issue\\-10/the\\-life\\-and\\-material\\-culture\\-of\\-hertha\\-ayrton/ \\|website\\=Science Museum Group Journal \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Science Museum, London]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2019 \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.15180/181002 \\|date\\=2018\\|s2cid\\=240796451 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} In 1899, she was the first woman ever to read her own paper before the [Institution of Electrical Engineers](/wiki/Institution_of_Electrical_Engineers \"Institution of Electrical Engineers\") (IEE). Her paper was \"The Hissing of the Electric Arc\".{{cite journal \\|first\\=Hertha \\|last\\=Ayrton \\|author\\-link\\=Hertha Ayrton \\|title\\=The Hissing of the Electric Arc \\|journal\\=Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers \\|pages\\=400–436 \\|volume\\=28 \\|issue\\=140 \\|date\\=June 1899 \\|doi\\=10\\.1049/jiee\\-1\\.1899\\.0020}}",
"The arc lamp provided one of the first commercial uses for electricity, a phenomenon previously confined to experiment, the telegraph, and entertainment.Gilbert, Gerard. *Critic's Choice* The Independent, 6 October 2011",
"### Carbon\\-arc lighting in the U.S.",
"[thumb\\|right](/wiki/File:Arc_Lamp_Examples.jpg \"Arc Lamp Examples.jpg\")\nIn the United States, there were attempts to produce arc lamps commercially after 1850, but the lack of a constant electricity supply thwarted efforts. Thus electrical engineers began focusing on the problem of improving [Faraday's](/wiki/Michael_Faraday \"Michael Faraday\") [dynamo](/wiki/Dynamo \"Dynamo\"). The concept was improved upon by a number of people including {{Interlanguage link\\|William Edwards Staite\\|de\\|William Edwards Staite}} and [Charles F. Brush](/wiki/Charles_F._Brush \"Charles F. Brush\"). It was not until the 1870s that lamps such as the [Yablochkov candle](/wiki/Yablochkov_candle \"Yablochkov candle\") were more commonly seen. In 1877, the [Franklin Institute](/wiki/Franklin_Institute \"Franklin Institute\") conducted a comparative test of dynamo systems. The one developed by Brush performed best, and Brush immediately applied his improved dynamo to arc\\-lighting, an early application being [Public Square](/wiki/Public_Square%2C_Cleveland \"Public Square, Cleveland\") in [Cleveland, Ohio](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio \"Cleveland, Ohio\"), on April 29, 1879\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\\_f.pdf \\|title\\=Cleveland\\+ Public Art \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-05\\-18 \\|year\\=2008 \\|format\\=brochure \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Positively Cleveland]] \\|page\\=3 \\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517020529/http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\\_f.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-17 }} Despite this, Wabash, Indiana claims to be the first city ever to be lit with \"Brush Lights\". Four of these lights became active there on March 31, 1880\\.[Roadside America](https://www.roadsideamerica.com/tip/10495) Wabash was a small enough city to be lit entirely by 4 lights, whereas the installation at Cleveland's Public Square only lit a portion of that larger city.[Brush Lights, Cleveland](http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08_f.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517020529/http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\\_f.pdf \\|date\\=2008\\-05\\-17 }} In 1880, Brush established the [Brush Electric Company](/wiki/Brush_Electrical_Machines \"Brush Electrical Machines\").",
"The harsh and brilliant light was found most suitable for public areas, such as Cleveland's Public Square, being around 200 times more powerful than contemporary [filament lamps](/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb \"Incandescent light bulb\").",
"The usage of Brush electric arc lights spread quickly. *[Scientific American](/wiki/Scientific_American \"Scientific American\")* reported in 1881 that the system was being used in:{{Cite journal \\|title\\=The Brush Electric Light \\|date\\=April 2, 1881 \\|url\\=http://www.machine\\-history.com/Brush%20Electric%20Company \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Scientific American]] \\|volume\\=44 \\|issue\\=14 \\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111040515/http://www.machine\\-history.com/Brush%20Electric%20Company \\|archive\\-date\\=January 11, 2011 }}; also Ohio Memory Collection [cover reproduction](http://www.ohiomemory.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p267401coll36/id/19824/rec/2) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313001257/http://ohiomemory.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p267401coll36/id/19824/rec/2 \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-13 }}\n800 lights in rolling mills, steel works, shops, 1,240 lights in woolen, cotton, linen, silk, and other factories, 425 lights in large stores, hotels, churches, 250 lights in parks, docks, and summer resorts, 275 lights in railroad depots and shops, 130 lights in mines, smelting works, 380 lights in factories and establishments of various kinds, 1,500 lights in lighting stations, for city lighting, 1,200 lights in England and other foreign countries.\nA total of over 6,000 lights which are actually sold.",
"There were three major advances in the 1880s: [František Křižík](/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_K%C5%99i%C5%BE%C3%ADk \"František Křižík\") invented in 1880 a mechanism to allow the automatic adjustment of the electrodes. The arcs were enclosed in a small tube to slow the carbon consumption (increasing the life span to around 100 hours). *Flame arc lamps* were introduced where the carbon rods had metal salts (usually magnesium, strontium, barium, or calcium fluorides) added to increase light output and produce different colours.",
"In the U.S., patent protection of arc\\-lighting systems and improved dynamos proved difficult and as a result the arc\\-lighting industry became highly competitive. Brush's principal competition was from the team of [Elihu Thomson](/wiki/Elihu_Thomson \"Elihu Thomson\") and [Edwin J. Houston](/wiki/Edwin_J._Houston \"Edwin J. Houston\"). These two had formed the American Electric Corporation in 1880, but it was soon bought up by [Charles A. Coffin](/wiki/Charles_A._Coffin \"Charles A. Coffin\"), moved to [Lynn, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lynn%2C_Massachusetts \"Lynn, Massachusetts\"), and renamed the [Thomson\\-Houston Electric Company](/wiki/Thomson-Houston_Electric_Company \"Thomson-Houston Electric Company\"). Thomson remained, though, the principal inventive genius behind the company patenting improvements to the lighting system. Under the leadership of Thomson\\-Houston's patent attorney, [Frederick P. Fish](/wiki/Frederick_P._Fish \"Frederick P. Fish\"), the company protected its new patent rights. Coffin's management also led the company towards an aggressive policy of buy\\-outs and mergers with competitors. Both strategies reduced competition in the electrical lighting manufacturing industry. By 1890, the Thomson\\-Houston company was the dominant electrical manufacturing company in the U.S.[David F. Noble](/wiki/David_F._Noble \"David F. Noble\"), *America By Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism* (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977\\), 6\\-10\\.",
"Around the turn of the century arc\\-lighting systems were in decline, but Thomson\\-Houston controlled key patents to urban lighting systems. This control slowed the expansion of incandescent lighting systems being developed by [Thomas Edison](/wiki/Thomas_Edison \"Thomas Edison\")'s [Edison General Electric Company](/wiki/Edison_General_Electric_Company \"Edison General Electric Company\"). Conversely, Edison's control of direct current distribution and generating machinery patents blocked further expansion of Thomson\\-Houston. The roadblock to expansion was removed when the two companies merged in 1892 to form the [General Electric Company](/wiki/General_Electric \"General Electric\").",
"Arc lamps were used in some early motion\\-picture studios to illuminate interior shots. One problem was that they produce such a high level of [ultra\\-violet](/wiki/Ultra-violet \"Ultra-violet\") light that many actors needed to wear [sunglasses](/wiki/Sunglasses \"Sunglasses\") when off camera to relieve sore eyes resulting from the ultra\\-violet light. The problem was solved by adding a sheet of ordinary window glass in front of the lamp, blocking the ultra\\-violet. By the dawn of the \"talkies\", arc lamps had been replaced in film studios with other types of lights.H. Mario Raimondo\\-Souto*Motion Picture Photography: A History 1891\\-1960*, McFarland and Company, 2007 {{text\\|ISBN}} 0\\-7864\\-2784\\-0, pg. 84 In 1915, [Elmer Ambrose Sperry](/wiki/Elmer_Ambrose_Sperry \"Elmer Ambrose Sperry\") began manufacturing his invention of a high\\-intensity carbon arc [searchlight](/wiki/Searchlight \"Searchlight\"). These were used aboard warships of all navies during the 20th century for signaling and illuminating enemies.I. C. B. Dear and Peter Kemp, eds., \"Sperry, Elmer Ambrose,\" *The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea*, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006\\). {{ISBN\\|0\\-19\\-920568\\-X}} In the 1920s, carbon arc lamps were sold as family health products, a substitute for natural sunlight.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://einhornpress.com/rays.aspx\\|title\\=Eveready Carbon Arc Sunshine Lamp Advertisements\\|publisher\\=The Einhorn Press\\|access\\-date\\=11 November 2008\\|url\\-status \\= live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601175558/http://einhornpress.com/rays.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=1 June 2009}}",
"Arc lamps were superseded by filament lamps in most roles, remaining in only certain niche applications such as [cinema](/wiki/Movie_theater \"Movie theater\") [projection](/wiki/Movie_projector \"Movie projector\"), [spotlights](/wiki/Spotlight_%28theatre_lighting%29 \"Spotlight (theatre lighting)\"), and searchlights. In the 1950s and 1960s the high\\-power D.C. for the carbon\\-arc lamp of an outdoor drive\\-in projector would typically be supplied by a [motor\\-generator](/wiki/Motor-generator \"Motor-generator\") combo (AC motor powering a DC generator). Even in these applications conventional carbon\\-arc lamps were mostly pushed into obsolescence by [xenon arc lamps](/wiki/Xenon_arc_lamp \"Xenon arc lamp\"), but were still being manufactured as spotlights at least as late as 1982{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.film\\-tech.com/manuals/STRSTRONGHIST.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|website\\=www.film\\-tech.com \\|access\\-date\\=13 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010613202309/http://www.film\\-tech.com/manuals/STRSTRONGHIST.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=13 June 2001 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and are still manufactured for at least one purpose – simulating sunlight in \"accelerated aging\" machines intended to estimate how fast a material is likely to be degraded by environmental exposure.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html\\|title\\=Arc Lamps \\- How They Work \\& History\\|last\\=Center\\|first\\=Copyright 2015 Edison Tech\\|website\\=www.edisontechcenter.org\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-13\\|url\\-status \\= live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617231552/http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-17}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sca\\-shinyei.com/suga \\|title\\=Index of /suga \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-16 \\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427143242/http://www.sca\\-shinyei.com/suga \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-27 }}",
"Carbon arc lighting left its imprint on other film projection practices. The practice of shipping and projecting motion pictures on 2,000\\-foot reels, and employing \"changeovers\" between two projectors, was due to the carbon rods used in projector lamphouses having a lifespan of roughly 22 minutes (which corresponds to the amount of film in said reels when projected at 24 frames/second). The projectionist would watch the rod burn down by eye (though a peephole like a welder's glass) and replace the carbon rod when changing film reels. The two\\-projector changeover setup largely disappeared in the 1970s with the advent of xenon projector lamps, being replaced with [single\\-projector platter systems](/wiki/Movie_projector%23Single-reel_system \"Movie projector#Single-reel system\"), though films would continue to be shipped to cinemas on 2,000\\-foot reels.",
""
] |
### Carbon\-arc lighting in the U.S.
[thumb\|right](/wiki/File:Arc_Lamp_Examples.jpg "Arc Lamp Examples.jpg")
In the United States, there were attempts to produce arc lamps commercially after 1850, but the lack of a constant electricity supply thwarted efforts. Thus electrical engineers began focusing on the problem of improving [Faraday's](/wiki/Michael_Faraday "Michael Faraday") [dynamo](/wiki/Dynamo "Dynamo"). The concept was improved upon by a number of people including {{Interlanguage link\|William Edwards Staite\|de\|William Edwards Staite}} and [Charles F. Brush](/wiki/Charles_F._Brush "Charles F. Brush"). It was not until the 1870s that lamps such as the [Yablochkov candle](/wiki/Yablochkov_candle "Yablochkov candle") were more commonly seen. In 1877, the [Franklin Institute](/wiki/Franklin_Institute "Franklin Institute") conducted a comparative test of dynamo systems. The one developed by Brush performed best, and Brush immediately applied his improved dynamo to arc\-lighting, an early application being [Public Square](/wiki/Public_Square%2C_Cleveland "Public Square, Cleveland") in [Cleveland, Ohio](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio "Cleveland, Ohio"), on April 29, 1879\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\_f.pdf \|title\=Cleveland\+ Public Art \|access\-date\=2009\-05\-18 \|year\=2008 \|format\=brochure \|publisher\=\[\[Positively Cleveland]] \|page\=3 \|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517020529/http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\_f.pdf \|archive\-date\=2008\-05\-17 }} Despite this, Wabash, Indiana claims to be the first city ever to be lit with "Brush Lights". Four of these lights became active there on March 31, 1880\.[Roadside America](https://www.roadsideamerica.com/tip/10495) Wabash was a small enough city to be lit entirely by 4 lights, whereas the installation at Cleveland's Public Square only lit a portion of that larger city.[Brush Lights, Cleveland](http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08_f.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517020529/http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\_f.pdf \|date\=2008\-05\-17 }} In 1880, Brush established the [Brush Electric Company](/wiki/Brush_Electrical_Machines "Brush Electrical Machines").
The harsh and brilliant light was found most suitable for public areas, such as Cleveland's Public Square, being around 200 times more powerful than contemporary [filament lamps](/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb "Incandescent light bulb").
The usage of Brush electric arc lights spread quickly. *[Scientific American](/wiki/Scientific_American "Scientific American")* reported in 1881 that the system was being used in:{{Cite journal \|title\=The Brush Electric Light \|date\=April 2, 1881 \|url\=http://www.machine\-history.com/Brush%20Electric%20Company \|journal\=\[\[Scientific American]] \|volume\=44 \|issue\=14 \|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111040515/http://www.machine\-history.com/Brush%20Electric%20Company \|archive\-date\=January 11, 2011 }}; also Ohio Memory Collection [cover reproduction](http://www.ohiomemory.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p267401coll36/id/19824/rec/2) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313001257/http://ohiomemory.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p267401coll36/id/19824/rec/2 \|date\=2016\-03\-13 }}
800 lights in rolling mills, steel works, shops, 1,240 lights in woolen, cotton, linen, silk, and other factories, 425 lights in large stores, hotels, churches, 250 lights in parks, docks, and summer resorts, 275 lights in railroad depots and shops, 130 lights in mines, smelting works, 380 lights in factories and establishments of various kinds, 1,500 lights in lighting stations, for city lighting, 1,200 lights in England and other foreign countries.
A total of over 6,000 lights which are actually sold.
There were three major advances in the 1880s: [František Křižík](/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_K%C5%99i%C5%BE%C3%ADk "František Křižík") invented in 1880 a mechanism to allow the automatic adjustment of the electrodes. The arcs were enclosed in a small tube to slow the carbon consumption (increasing the life span to around 100 hours). *Flame arc lamps* were introduced where the carbon rods had metal salts (usually magnesium, strontium, barium, or calcium fluorides) added to increase light output and produce different colours.
In the U.S., patent protection of arc\-lighting systems and improved dynamos proved difficult and as a result the arc\-lighting industry became highly competitive. Brush's principal competition was from the team of [Elihu Thomson](/wiki/Elihu_Thomson "Elihu Thomson") and [Edwin J. Houston](/wiki/Edwin_J._Houston "Edwin J. Houston"). These two had formed the American Electric Corporation in 1880, but it was soon bought up by [Charles A. Coffin](/wiki/Charles_A._Coffin "Charles A. Coffin"), moved to [Lynn, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lynn%2C_Massachusetts "Lynn, Massachusetts"), and renamed the [Thomson\-Houston Electric Company](/wiki/Thomson-Houston_Electric_Company "Thomson-Houston Electric Company"). Thomson remained, though, the principal inventive genius behind the company patenting improvements to the lighting system. Under the leadership of Thomson\-Houston's patent attorney, [Frederick P. Fish](/wiki/Frederick_P._Fish "Frederick P. Fish"), the company protected its new patent rights. Coffin's management also led the company towards an aggressive policy of buy\-outs and mergers with competitors. Both strategies reduced competition in the electrical lighting manufacturing industry. By 1890, the Thomson\-Houston company was the dominant electrical manufacturing company in the U.S.[David F. Noble](/wiki/David_F._Noble "David F. Noble"), *America By Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism* (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977\), 6\-10\.
Around the turn of the century arc\-lighting systems were in decline, but Thomson\-Houston controlled key patents to urban lighting systems. This control slowed the expansion of incandescent lighting systems being developed by [Thomas Edison](/wiki/Thomas_Edison "Thomas Edison")'s [Edison General Electric Company](/wiki/Edison_General_Electric_Company "Edison General Electric Company"). Conversely, Edison's control of direct current distribution and generating machinery patents blocked further expansion of Thomson\-Houston. The roadblock to expansion was removed when the two companies merged in 1892 to form the [General Electric Company](/wiki/General_Electric "General Electric").
Arc lamps were used in some early motion\-picture studios to illuminate interior shots. One problem was that they produce such a high level of [ultra\-violet](/wiki/Ultra-violet "Ultra-violet") light that many actors needed to wear [sunglasses](/wiki/Sunglasses "Sunglasses") when off camera to relieve sore eyes resulting from the ultra\-violet light. The problem was solved by adding a sheet of ordinary window glass in front of the lamp, blocking the ultra\-violet. By the dawn of the "talkies", arc lamps had been replaced in film studios with other types of lights.H. Mario Raimondo\-Souto*Motion Picture Photography: A History 1891\-1960*, McFarland and Company, 2007 {{text\|ISBN}} 0\-7864\-2784\-0, pg. 84 In 1915, [Elmer Ambrose Sperry](/wiki/Elmer_Ambrose_Sperry "Elmer Ambrose Sperry") began manufacturing his invention of a high\-intensity carbon arc [searchlight](/wiki/Searchlight "Searchlight"). These were used aboard warships of all navies during the 20th century for signaling and illuminating enemies.I. C. B. Dear and Peter Kemp, eds., "Sperry, Elmer Ambrose," *The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea*, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006\). {{ISBN\|0\-19\-920568\-X}} In the 1920s, carbon arc lamps were sold as family health products, a substitute for natural sunlight.{{cite web\|url\=http://einhornpress.com/rays.aspx\|title\=Eveready Carbon Arc Sunshine Lamp Advertisements\|publisher\=The Einhorn Press\|access\-date\=11 November 2008\|url\-status \= live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601175558/http://einhornpress.com/rays.aspx\|archive\-date\=1 June 2009}}
Arc lamps were superseded by filament lamps in most roles, remaining in only certain niche applications such as [cinema](/wiki/Movie_theater "Movie theater") [projection](/wiki/Movie_projector "Movie projector"), [spotlights](/wiki/Spotlight_%28theatre_lighting%29 "Spotlight (theatre lighting)"), and searchlights. In the 1950s and 1960s the high\-power D.C. for the carbon\-arc lamp of an outdoor drive\-in projector would typically be supplied by a [motor\-generator](/wiki/Motor-generator "Motor-generator") combo (AC motor powering a DC generator). Even in these applications conventional carbon\-arc lamps were mostly pushed into obsolescence by [xenon arc lamps](/wiki/Xenon_arc_lamp "Xenon arc lamp"), but were still being manufactured as spotlights at least as late as 1982{{cite web \|url\=http://www.film\-tech.com/manuals/STRSTRONGHIST.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|website\=www.film\-tech.com \|access\-date\=13 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010613202309/http://www.film\-tech.com/manuals/STRSTRONGHIST.pdf \|archive\-date\=13 June 2001 \|url\-status\=dead}} and are still manufactured for at least one purpose – simulating sunlight in "accelerated aging" machines intended to estimate how fast a material is likely to be degraded by environmental exposure.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html\|title\=Arc Lamps \- How They Work \& History\|last\=Center\|first\=Copyright 2015 Edison Tech\|website\=www.edisontechcenter.org\|access\-date\=2018\-01\-13\|url\-status \= live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617231552/http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html\|archive\-date\=2017\-06\-17}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sca\-shinyei.com/suga \|title\=Index of /suga \|access\-date\=2015\-04\-16 \|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427143242/http://www.sca\-shinyei.com/suga \|archive\-date\=2015\-04\-27 }}
Carbon arc lighting left its imprint on other film projection practices. The practice of shipping and projecting motion pictures on 2,000\-foot reels, and employing "changeovers" between two projectors, was due to the carbon rods used in projector lamphouses having a lifespan of roughly 22 minutes (which corresponds to the amount of film in said reels when projected at 24 frames/second). The projectionist would watch the rod burn down by eye (though a peephole like a welder's glass) and replace the carbon rod when changing film reels. The two\-projector changeover setup largely disappeared in the 1970s with the advent of xenon projector lamps, being replaced with [single\-projector platter systems](/wiki/Movie_projector%23Single-reel_system "Movie projector#Single-reel system"), though films would continue to be shipped to cinemas on 2,000\-foot reels.
|
[
"### Carbon\\-arc lighting in the U.S.",
"[thumb\\|right](/wiki/File:Arc_Lamp_Examples.jpg \"Arc Lamp Examples.jpg\")\nIn the United States, there were attempts to produce arc lamps commercially after 1850, but the lack of a constant electricity supply thwarted efforts. Thus electrical engineers began focusing on the problem of improving [Faraday's](/wiki/Michael_Faraday \"Michael Faraday\") [dynamo](/wiki/Dynamo \"Dynamo\"). The concept was improved upon by a number of people including {{Interlanguage link\\|William Edwards Staite\\|de\\|William Edwards Staite}} and [Charles F. Brush](/wiki/Charles_F._Brush \"Charles F. Brush\"). It was not until the 1870s that lamps such as the [Yablochkov candle](/wiki/Yablochkov_candle \"Yablochkov candle\") were more commonly seen. In 1877, the [Franklin Institute](/wiki/Franklin_Institute \"Franklin Institute\") conducted a comparative test of dynamo systems. The one developed by Brush performed best, and Brush immediately applied his improved dynamo to arc\\-lighting, an early application being [Public Square](/wiki/Public_Square%2C_Cleveland \"Public Square, Cleveland\") in [Cleveland, Ohio](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio \"Cleveland, Ohio\"), on April 29, 1879\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\\_f.pdf \\|title\\=Cleveland\\+ Public Art \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-05\\-18 \\|year\\=2008 \\|format\\=brochure \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Positively Cleveland]] \\|page\\=3 \\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517020529/http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\\_f.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-05\\-17 }} Despite this, Wabash, Indiana claims to be the first city ever to be lit with \"Brush Lights\". Four of these lights became active there on March 31, 1880\\.[Roadside America](https://www.roadsideamerica.com/tip/10495) Wabash was a small enough city to be lit entirely by 4 lights, whereas the installation at Cleveland's Public Square only lit a portion of that larger city.[Brush Lights, Cleveland](http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08_f.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517020529/http://www.positivelycleveland.com/pdf/ClevPubArt08\\_f.pdf \\|date\\=2008\\-05\\-17 }} In 1880, Brush established the [Brush Electric Company](/wiki/Brush_Electrical_Machines \"Brush Electrical Machines\").",
"The harsh and brilliant light was found most suitable for public areas, such as Cleveland's Public Square, being around 200 times more powerful than contemporary [filament lamps](/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb \"Incandescent light bulb\").",
"The usage of Brush electric arc lights spread quickly. *[Scientific American](/wiki/Scientific_American \"Scientific American\")* reported in 1881 that the system was being used in:{{Cite journal \\|title\\=The Brush Electric Light \\|date\\=April 2, 1881 \\|url\\=http://www.machine\\-history.com/Brush%20Electric%20Company \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Scientific American]] \\|volume\\=44 \\|issue\\=14 \\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111040515/http://www.machine\\-history.com/Brush%20Electric%20Company \\|archive\\-date\\=January 11, 2011 }}; also Ohio Memory Collection [cover reproduction](http://www.ohiomemory.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p267401coll36/id/19824/rec/2) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313001257/http://ohiomemory.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p267401coll36/id/19824/rec/2 \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-13 }}\n800 lights in rolling mills, steel works, shops, 1,240 lights in woolen, cotton, linen, silk, and other factories, 425 lights in large stores, hotels, churches, 250 lights in parks, docks, and summer resorts, 275 lights in railroad depots and shops, 130 lights in mines, smelting works, 380 lights in factories and establishments of various kinds, 1,500 lights in lighting stations, for city lighting, 1,200 lights in England and other foreign countries.\nA total of over 6,000 lights which are actually sold.",
"There were three major advances in the 1880s: [František Křižík](/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_K%C5%99i%C5%BE%C3%ADk \"František Křižík\") invented in 1880 a mechanism to allow the automatic adjustment of the electrodes. The arcs were enclosed in a small tube to slow the carbon consumption (increasing the life span to around 100 hours). *Flame arc lamps* were introduced where the carbon rods had metal salts (usually magnesium, strontium, barium, or calcium fluorides) added to increase light output and produce different colours.",
"In the U.S., patent protection of arc\\-lighting systems and improved dynamos proved difficult and as a result the arc\\-lighting industry became highly competitive. Brush's principal competition was from the team of [Elihu Thomson](/wiki/Elihu_Thomson \"Elihu Thomson\") and [Edwin J. Houston](/wiki/Edwin_J._Houston \"Edwin J. Houston\"). These two had formed the American Electric Corporation in 1880, but it was soon bought up by [Charles A. Coffin](/wiki/Charles_A._Coffin \"Charles A. Coffin\"), moved to [Lynn, Massachusetts](/wiki/Lynn%2C_Massachusetts \"Lynn, Massachusetts\"), and renamed the [Thomson\\-Houston Electric Company](/wiki/Thomson-Houston_Electric_Company \"Thomson-Houston Electric Company\"). Thomson remained, though, the principal inventive genius behind the company patenting improvements to the lighting system. Under the leadership of Thomson\\-Houston's patent attorney, [Frederick P. Fish](/wiki/Frederick_P._Fish \"Frederick P. Fish\"), the company protected its new patent rights. Coffin's management also led the company towards an aggressive policy of buy\\-outs and mergers with competitors. Both strategies reduced competition in the electrical lighting manufacturing industry. By 1890, the Thomson\\-Houston company was the dominant electrical manufacturing company in the U.S.[David F. Noble](/wiki/David_F._Noble \"David F. Noble\"), *America By Design: Science, Technology, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism* (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977\\), 6\\-10\\.",
"Around the turn of the century arc\\-lighting systems were in decline, but Thomson\\-Houston controlled key patents to urban lighting systems. This control slowed the expansion of incandescent lighting systems being developed by [Thomas Edison](/wiki/Thomas_Edison \"Thomas Edison\")'s [Edison General Electric Company](/wiki/Edison_General_Electric_Company \"Edison General Electric Company\"). Conversely, Edison's control of direct current distribution and generating machinery patents blocked further expansion of Thomson\\-Houston. The roadblock to expansion was removed when the two companies merged in 1892 to form the [General Electric Company](/wiki/General_Electric \"General Electric\").",
"Arc lamps were used in some early motion\\-picture studios to illuminate interior shots. One problem was that they produce such a high level of [ultra\\-violet](/wiki/Ultra-violet \"Ultra-violet\") light that many actors needed to wear [sunglasses](/wiki/Sunglasses \"Sunglasses\") when off camera to relieve sore eyes resulting from the ultra\\-violet light. The problem was solved by adding a sheet of ordinary window glass in front of the lamp, blocking the ultra\\-violet. By the dawn of the \"talkies\", arc lamps had been replaced in film studios with other types of lights.H. Mario Raimondo\\-Souto*Motion Picture Photography: A History 1891\\-1960*, McFarland and Company, 2007 {{text\\|ISBN}} 0\\-7864\\-2784\\-0, pg. 84 In 1915, [Elmer Ambrose Sperry](/wiki/Elmer_Ambrose_Sperry \"Elmer Ambrose Sperry\") began manufacturing his invention of a high\\-intensity carbon arc [searchlight](/wiki/Searchlight \"Searchlight\"). These were used aboard warships of all navies during the 20th century for signaling and illuminating enemies.I. C. B. Dear and Peter Kemp, eds., \"Sperry, Elmer Ambrose,\" *The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea*, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006\\). {{ISBN\\|0\\-19\\-920568\\-X}} In the 1920s, carbon arc lamps were sold as family health products, a substitute for natural sunlight.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://einhornpress.com/rays.aspx\\|title\\=Eveready Carbon Arc Sunshine Lamp Advertisements\\|publisher\\=The Einhorn Press\\|access\\-date\\=11 November 2008\\|url\\-status \\= live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601175558/http://einhornpress.com/rays.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=1 June 2009}}",
"Arc lamps were superseded by filament lamps in most roles, remaining in only certain niche applications such as [cinema](/wiki/Movie_theater \"Movie theater\") [projection](/wiki/Movie_projector \"Movie projector\"), [spotlights](/wiki/Spotlight_%28theatre_lighting%29 \"Spotlight (theatre lighting)\"), and searchlights. In the 1950s and 1960s the high\\-power D.C. for the carbon\\-arc lamp of an outdoor drive\\-in projector would typically be supplied by a [motor\\-generator](/wiki/Motor-generator \"Motor-generator\") combo (AC motor powering a DC generator). Even in these applications conventional carbon\\-arc lamps were mostly pushed into obsolescence by [xenon arc lamps](/wiki/Xenon_arc_lamp \"Xenon arc lamp\"), but were still being manufactured as spotlights at least as late as 1982{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.film\\-tech.com/manuals/STRSTRONGHIST.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|website\\=www.film\\-tech.com \\|access\\-date\\=13 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010613202309/http://www.film\\-tech.com/manuals/STRSTRONGHIST.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=13 June 2001 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and are still manufactured for at least one purpose – simulating sunlight in \"accelerated aging\" machines intended to estimate how fast a material is likely to be degraded by environmental exposure.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html\\|title\\=Arc Lamps \\- How They Work \\& History\\|last\\=Center\\|first\\=Copyright 2015 Edison Tech\\|website\\=www.edisontechcenter.org\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-13\\|url\\-status \\= live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617231552/http://www.edisontechcenter.org/ArcLamps.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-17}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sca\\-shinyei.com/suga \\|title\\=Index of /suga \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-16 \\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427143242/http://www.sca\\-shinyei.com/suga \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-27 }}",
"Carbon arc lighting left its imprint on other film projection practices. The practice of shipping and projecting motion pictures on 2,000\\-foot reels, and employing \"changeovers\" between two projectors, was due to the carbon rods used in projector lamphouses having a lifespan of roughly 22 minutes (which corresponds to the amount of film in said reels when projected at 24 frames/second). The projectionist would watch the rod burn down by eye (though a peephole like a welder's glass) and replace the carbon rod when changing film reels. The two\\-projector changeover setup largely disappeared in the 1970s with the advent of xenon projector lamps, being replaced with [single\\-projector platter systems](/wiki/Movie_projector%23Single-reel_system \"Movie projector#Single-reel system\"), though films would continue to be shipped to cinemas on 2,000\\-foot reels.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
Irfan Qadir began his legal career in 1982 and enrolled as a High Court Advocate in 1985\. Since then, he has built up a substantial body of experience in all key areas of law by handling numerous significant cases in both the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") and the [High Court](/wiki/Lahore_High_Court "Lahore High Court") and providing numerous reported judgments.
In addition, he has experience representing Pakistan internationally, having participated in numerous seminars and workshops at significant conferences in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa"), and [America](/wiki/America "America"). From 2006 through 2012, he continued to be a part of the International Corruption Hunters Network. Additionally, he is a fellow of the Eva Joly Institute for Justice and Democracy in Iceland. He is one of the original members of the 2006 Beijing\-founded International Association of Anti\-Corruption Authorities.{{Cite web \|title\=Annual Report 2011 \- Law and Justice Commission of Pakistan \|url\=http://ljcp.gov.pk/nljcp/assets/dist/Publication/ae6a3\-ar\_14\.pdf \|access\-date\=13 November 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 April 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425152245/http://ljcp.gov.pk/nljcp/assets/dist/Publication/ae6a3\-ar\_14\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}
In addition to serving as a member of the [Pakistani Judicial Commission](/wiki/Judicial_Commission_of_Pakistan "Judicial Commission of Pakistan") and the Pakistan Law Commission, he also served as chairman of the [Pakistan Bar Council](/wiki/Pakistan_Bar_Council "Pakistan Bar Council") as Attorney\-General for Pakistan. He gained knowledge in every area of the legal field, including that of a successful lawyer, superior court judge, high\-ranking law officer, and top [bureaucrat](/wiki/Bureaucrat "Bureaucrat"). He has handled a significant number of important cases in the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") and the [High Court](/wiki/High_courts_of_Pakistan "High courts of Pakistan") over the last three decades, giving him extensive experience in nearly all key areas of law.
### Special Assistant to the Prime Minister for Law (April 2024\- present)
In [Second Shehbaz Sharif's ministry](/wiki/Second_Shehbaz_Sharif_ministry "Second Shehbaz Sharif ministry") Irfan, is appointed to the position of Special Assistant to [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan "Prime Minister of Pakistan") [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif "Shehbaz Sharif") for law with the status of [Federal Minister](/wiki/Federal_Minister_of_Pakistan "Federal Minister of Pakistan") on 30 April 2024\.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-09\-28 \|title\=Senior lawyer Irfan Qadir appointed SAPM \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2379076/senior\-lawyer\-irfan\-qadir\-appointed\-sapm \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-13 \|website\=The Express Tribune \|language\=en}} According to a notification, Irfan's status will be equivalent to that of a federal minister.
### Special Assistant to the Prime Minister (October 2022\- March 2023\)
In [Shehbaz Sharif's ministry](/wiki/First_Shehbaz_Sharif_ministry "First Shehbaz Sharif ministry") Irfan, was appointed to the position of Special Assistant to [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan "Prime Minister of Pakistan") [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif "Shehbaz Sharif") for accountability \& interior with the status of [Federal Minister](/wiki/Federal_Minister_of_Pakistan "Federal Minister of Pakistan") on 30 September 2022\.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-09\-28 \|title\=Senior lawyer Irfan Qadir appointed SAPM \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2379076/senior\-lawyer\-irfan\-qadir\-appointed\-sapm \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-13 \|website\=The Express Tribune \|language\=en}} According to a notification, Irfan's status will be equivalent to that of a federal minister.
The News reported that because Qadir has an exceptional legal background, his inclusion in the federal government would strengthen the legal and prosecution side of the administration of law.{{Cite web \|title\=Irfan Qadir appointed as special assistant to PM Shehbaz \|url\=https://www.geo.tv/latest/443226\-irfan\-qadir\-appointed\-as\-special\-assistant\-to\-pm\-shehbaz \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-15 \|website\=www.geo.tv \|language\=en}}
### Attorney General for Pakistan (2012\-2013\)
Irfan was chosen as AGP by [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan "Prime Minister of Pakistan") [Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani](/wiki/Yusuf_Raza_Gilani_%28politician%29 "Yusuf Raza Gilani (politician)") following consultation with Federal Law Minister [Farooq H. Naek](/wiki/Farooq_Naek "Farooq Naek").{{Cite web \|author\=Web Desk \|date\=2012\-04\-12 \|title\=PM Gilani appoints Irfan Qadir as new Attorney General \|url\=http://www.samaaenglish.tv/news/411491 \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-15 \|website\=Samaa \|language\=en}}
The reorganization took place as the government anticipates hostile rulings from the proactive judiciary in the case against [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan "Prime Minister of Pakistan") [Yusuf Raza Gilani](/wiki/Yusuf_Raza_Gilani_%28politician%29 "Yusuf Raza Gilani (politician)") for contempt of court and for failing to enforce the court's ruling against the defunct National Reconciliation Order (NRO).{{Cite web \|date\=2012\-04\-12 \|title\=High\-profile reshuffle: Irfan Qadir appointed new attorney general \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/364024/high\-profile\-reshuffle\-irfan\-qadir\-appointed\-new\-attorney\-general \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-15 \|website\=The Express Tribune \|language\=en}}
### Secretary, Ministry of Law (2012\)
Prior to taking office as his nation's [Attorney General](/wiki/Attorney-General_for_Pakistan "Attorney-General for Pakistan"), he served as federal secretary for the [Ministry of Law, Justice, and Parliamentary Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28Pakistan%29 "Ministry of Law and Justice (Pakistan)").{{Cite web \|title\=Govt appoints new AG, Secretary Law \|url\=https://www.geo.tv/latest/42595\-govt\-appoints\-new\-ag\-secretary\-law \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-19 \|website\=www.geo.tv \|language\=en}}
### Prosecutor General NAB (2010\)
Irfan Qadir was appointed [Prosecutor General](/wiki/Prosecutor "Prosecutor") of [National Accountability Bureau](/wiki/National_Accountability_Bureau "National Accountability Bureau") by [President](/wiki/President_of_Pakistan "President of Pakistan") [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari "Asif Ali Zardari") in 2010{{Cite web \|date\=2010\-09\-06 \|title\=Government, judiciary standoff \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/47063/govt\-ignores\-sc\-decree\-on\-prosecutor\-general \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-13 \|website\=The Express Tribune \|language\=en}} but [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") ruled that [NAB](/wiki/National_Accountability_Bureau "National Accountability Bureau"), Irfan Qadir's appointments as prosecutor general were unlawful.
#### Supreme Court decision against appointment
This decision was made by the three\-member panel led by [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") [Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry](/wiki/Iftikhar_Muhammad_Chaudhry "Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry") after they heard a petition asking for Irfan Qadir to be reappointed as NAB's prosecutor general.{{Cite web \|date\=2010\-09\-02 \|title\=SC terms NAB big guns' appointments illegal \|url\=https://nation.com.pk/02\-Sep\-2010/SC\-terms\-NAB\-big\-guns\-appointments\-illegal \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-13 \|website\=The Nation \|language\=en}} Justices [Khalil\-ur\-Rehman Ramday](/wiki/Khalil-ur-Rehman_Ramday "Khalil-ur-Rehman Ramday") and Ghulam Rabbani made up the rest of the SC bench. A day after the NAB prosecutor general's outburst in the Supreme Court, the prime minister [Yusuf Raza Gilani](/wiki/Yusuf_Raza_Gilani_%28politician%29 "Yusuf Raza Gilani (politician)") issued an order to withdraw his privileges. The prime minister had stated that orders from the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") will be carried out in letter and spirit and that he had given the law secretary instructions for doing so.
#### Argument and challenged SC ruling
Because the president was the one who appointed the NAB prosecutor general, Qadir once argued that he was only subject to orders made by the [president](/wiki/President_of_Pakistan "President of Pakistan") and not the [prime minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan "Prime Minister of Pakistan"). He added that the PM, who is in charge of the NAB, makes the decisions{{Cite web \|date\=2010\-09\-06 \|title\=Violation of SC orders: NAB Prosecutor General refuses to relinquish charge \|url\=https://nation.com.pk/06\-Sep\-2010/Violation\-of\-SC\-orders\-NAB\-Prosecutor\-General\-refuses\-to\-relinquish\-charge \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-19 \|website\=The Nation \|language\=en}} and challenged the Supreme Court's ruling regarding his removal.{{Cite web \|last\=Newspaper \|first\=the \|date\=2010\-12\-08 \|title\=NAB prosecutor general Irfan Qadir resigns \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/2010/12/08/nab\-prosecutor\-general\-irfan\-qadir\-resigns\-2/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-19 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}}
#### Resignation
Prosecutor General of the [National Accountability Bureau](/wiki/National_Accountability_Bureau "National Accountability Bureau"), Qadir submitted his resignation to President [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari "Asif Ali Zardari") on September 8, 2010, after contesting the Supreme Court's directives for his dismissal but he did not withdraw his appeal filed before the apex court challenging its order which had declared his appointment as illegal, on instructions of the president.{{Cite web \|last\=Newspaper \|first\=the \|date\=2010\-12\-08 \|title\=NAB prosecutor general Irfan Qadir resigns \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/2010/12/08/nab\-prosecutor\-general\-irfan\-qadir\-resigns\-2/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-19 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}}
### Judge Lahore High Court (2009\)
President [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari "Asif Ali Zardari") nominated 16 additional judges to the [Lahore High Court](/wiki/Lahore_High_Court "Lahore High Court") (LHC) in February 2009, bringing the total number of justices on the high court up to 52 and Irfan Qadir was one of them.{{Cite web \|date\=2009\-02\-28 \|title\=Zardari appoints 16 more judges to LHC \|url\=http://beta.dawn.com/news/936047/zardari\-appoints\-16\-more\-judges\-to\-lhc \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-13 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}}
#### Court ruling against PCO judges
Irfan didn't qualify to be appointed as judge of the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan"), after he had left as high court judge for being a [Provisional Constitutional Order](/wiki/Provisional_Constitutional_Order "Provisional Constitutional Order") (PCO) justice due to the apex court ruling of 31 July 2009\.{{Cite web \|author\=Web Desk \|date\=2012\-04\-12 \|title\=PM Gilani appoints Irfan Qadir as new Attorney General \|url\=http://www.samaaenglish.tv/news/411491 \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-15 \|website\=Samaa \|language\=en}} Before his retirement, President [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari "Asif Ali Zardari") had nominated 26 judges of the Lahore High Court in consultation with Chief Justice [Abdul Hameed Dogar](/wiki/Abdul_Hameed_Dogar "Abdul Hameed Dogar").{{Cite web \|date\=2009\-08\-01 \|title\=Judgment likely to affect 46 LHC judges \|url\=http://beta.dawn.com/news/944315/judgment\-likely\-to\-affect\-46\-lhc\-judges \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-15 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}}
### Prosecutor General NAB (2003\-2006\)
He had also worked for the NAB's Prosecutor General Accountability between 2003 and 2006\.{{Cite web \|last\=Newspaper \|first\=the \|date\=2010\-12\-08 \|title\=NAB prosecutor general Irfan Qadir resigns \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/2010/12/08/nab\-prosecutor\-general\-irfan\-qadir\-resigns\-2/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-13 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}} The only Prosecutor General in the Pakistan to have served the full three years in this position is he.
### Law Practice (1997\-2003\)
He did an active law practice from 1997 to 2003 in different High Courts of Pakistan and Supreme Court of Pakistan.
### Acting Advocate General Punjab (1996\-1997\)
He also served as Acting Advocate General Punjab from 1996 to 1997\. {{Cite web \|author\=Web Desk \|date\=2012\-04\-12 \|title\=PM Gilani appoints Irfan Qadir as new Attorney General \|url\=http://www.samaaenglish.tv/news/411491 \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-15 \|website\=Samaa \|language\=en}}
### Additional Advocate General Punjab (1990\-1995\)
From 1990 to 1995,{{Cite report \|title\=2012\-14 Annual Report \|publisher\=Law and Justice Commission of Pakistan \|pages\=31\-32 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104134813/http://ljcp.gov.pk/nljcp/assets/dist/Publication/ae6a3\-ar\_14\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2018\-11\-04 \|url\=http://ljcp.gov.pk/nljcp/assets/dist/Publication/ae6a3\-ar\_14\.pdf}} he was promoted to more senior position of Additional Advocate General Punjab.
### Assistant Advocate General Punjab (1988\-1990\)
In 1988, he was appointed as an Assistant Advocate General Punjab. He served on this post until 1990\.
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"Irfan Qadir began his legal career in 1982 and enrolled as a High Court Advocate in 1985\\. Since then, he has built up a substantial body of experience in all key areas of law by handling numerous significant cases in both the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") and the [High Court](/wiki/Lahore_High_Court \"Lahore High Court\") and providing numerous reported judgments.",
"In addition, he has experience representing Pakistan internationally, having participated in numerous seminars and workshops at significant conferences in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\"), [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\"), and [America](/wiki/America \"America\"). From 2006 through 2012, he continued to be a part of the International Corruption Hunters Network. Additionally, he is a fellow of the Eva Joly Institute for Justice and Democracy in Iceland. He is one of the original members of the 2006 Beijing\\-founded International Association of Anti\\-Corruption Authorities.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Annual Report 2011 \\- Law and Justice Commission of Pakistan \\|url\\=http://ljcp.gov.pk/nljcp/assets/dist/Publication/ae6a3\\-ar\\_14\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425152245/http://ljcp.gov.pk/nljcp/assets/dist/Publication/ae6a3\\-ar\\_14\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"In addition to serving as a member of the [Pakistani Judicial Commission](/wiki/Judicial_Commission_of_Pakistan \"Judicial Commission of Pakistan\") and the Pakistan Law Commission, he also served as chairman of the [Pakistan Bar Council](/wiki/Pakistan_Bar_Council \"Pakistan Bar Council\") as Attorney\\-General for Pakistan. He gained knowledge in every area of the legal field, including that of a successful lawyer, superior court judge, high\\-ranking law officer, and top [bureaucrat](/wiki/Bureaucrat \"Bureaucrat\"). He has handled a significant number of important cases in the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") and the [High Court](/wiki/High_courts_of_Pakistan \"High courts of Pakistan\") over the last three decades, giving him extensive experience in nearly all key areas of law.",
"### Special Assistant to the Prime Minister for Law (April 2024\\- present)",
"In [Second Shehbaz Sharif's ministry](/wiki/Second_Shehbaz_Sharif_ministry \"Second Shehbaz Sharif ministry\") Irfan, is appointed to the position of Special Assistant to [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan \"Prime Minister of Pakistan\") [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif \"Shehbaz Sharif\") for law with the status of [Federal Minister](/wiki/Federal_Minister_of_Pakistan \"Federal Minister of Pakistan\") on 30 April 2024\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-28 \\|title\\=Senior lawyer Irfan Qadir appointed SAPM \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2379076/senior\\-lawyer\\-irfan\\-qadir\\-appointed\\-sapm \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-13 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune \\|language\\=en}} According to a notification, Irfan's status will be equivalent to that of a federal minister.\n### Special Assistant to the Prime Minister (October 2022\\- March 2023\\)",
"In [Shehbaz Sharif's ministry](/wiki/First_Shehbaz_Sharif_ministry \"First Shehbaz Sharif ministry\") Irfan, was appointed to the position of Special Assistant to [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan \"Prime Minister of Pakistan\") [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif \"Shehbaz Sharif\") for accountability \\& interior with the status of [Federal Minister](/wiki/Federal_Minister_of_Pakistan \"Federal Minister of Pakistan\") on 30 September 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-28 \\|title\\=Senior lawyer Irfan Qadir appointed SAPM \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2379076/senior\\-lawyer\\-irfan\\-qadir\\-appointed\\-sapm \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-13 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune \\|language\\=en}} According to a notification, Irfan's status will be equivalent to that of a federal minister.",
"The News reported that because Qadir has an exceptional legal background, his inclusion in the federal government would strengthen the legal and prosecution side of the administration of law.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Irfan Qadir appointed as special assistant to PM Shehbaz \\|url\\=https://www.geo.tv/latest/443226\\-irfan\\-qadir\\-appointed\\-as\\-special\\-assistant\\-to\\-pm\\-shehbaz \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=www.geo.tv \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Attorney General for Pakistan (2012\\-2013\\)",
"Irfan was chosen as AGP by [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan \"Prime Minister of Pakistan\") [Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani](/wiki/Yusuf_Raza_Gilani_%28politician%29 \"Yusuf Raza Gilani (politician)\") following consultation with Federal Law Minister [Farooq H. Naek](/wiki/Farooq_Naek \"Farooq Naek\").{{Cite web \\|author\\=Web Desk \\|date\\=2012\\-04\\-12 \\|title\\=PM Gilani appoints Irfan Qadir as new Attorney General \\|url\\=http://www.samaaenglish.tv/news/411491 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=Samaa \\|language\\=en}}",
"The reorganization took place as the government anticipates hostile rulings from the proactive judiciary in the case against [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan \"Prime Minister of Pakistan\") [Yusuf Raza Gilani](/wiki/Yusuf_Raza_Gilani_%28politician%29 \"Yusuf Raza Gilani (politician)\") for contempt of court and for failing to enforce the court's ruling against the defunct National Reconciliation Order (NRO).{{Cite web \\|date\\=2012\\-04\\-12 \\|title\\=High\\-profile reshuffle: Irfan Qadir appointed new attorney general \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/364024/high\\-profile\\-reshuffle\\-irfan\\-qadir\\-appointed\\-new\\-attorney\\-general \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Secretary, Ministry of Law (2012\\)",
"Prior to taking office as his nation's [Attorney General](/wiki/Attorney-General_for_Pakistan \"Attorney-General for Pakistan\"), he served as federal secretary for the [Ministry of Law, Justice, and Parliamentary Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Law_and_Justice_%28Pakistan%29 \"Ministry of Law and Justice (Pakistan)\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Govt appoints new AG, Secretary Law \\|url\\=https://www.geo.tv/latest/42595\\-govt\\-appoints\\-new\\-ag\\-secretary\\-law \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-19 \\|website\\=www.geo.tv \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Prosecutor General NAB (2010\\)",
"Irfan Qadir was appointed [Prosecutor General](/wiki/Prosecutor \"Prosecutor\") of [National Accountability Bureau](/wiki/National_Accountability_Bureau \"National Accountability Bureau\") by [President](/wiki/President_of_Pakistan \"President of Pakistan\") [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari \"Asif Ali Zardari\") in 2010{{Cite web \\|date\\=2010\\-09\\-06 \\|title\\=Government, judiciary standoff \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/47063/govt\\-ignores\\-sc\\-decree\\-on\\-prosecutor\\-general \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-13 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune \\|language\\=en}} but [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") ruled that [NAB](/wiki/National_Accountability_Bureau \"National Accountability Bureau\"), Irfan Qadir's appointments as prosecutor general were unlawful.",
"#### Supreme Court decision against appointment",
"This decision was made by the three\\-member panel led by [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") [Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry](/wiki/Iftikhar_Muhammad_Chaudhry \"Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry\") after they heard a petition asking for Irfan Qadir to be reappointed as NAB's prosecutor general.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2010\\-09\\-02 \\|title\\=SC terms NAB big guns' appointments illegal \\|url\\=https://nation.com.pk/02\\-Sep\\-2010/SC\\-terms\\-NAB\\-big\\-guns\\-appointments\\-illegal \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-13 \\|website\\=The Nation \\|language\\=en}} Justices [Khalil\\-ur\\-Rehman Ramday](/wiki/Khalil-ur-Rehman_Ramday \"Khalil-ur-Rehman Ramday\") and Ghulam Rabbani made up the rest of the SC bench. A day after the NAB prosecutor general's outburst in the Supreme Court, the prime minister [Yusuf Raza Gilani](/wiki/Yusuf_Raza_Gilani_%28politician%29 \"Yusuf Raza Gilani (politician)\") issued an order to withdraw his privileges. The prime minister had stated that orders from the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") will be carried out in letter and spirit and that he had given the law secretary instructions for doing so.",
"#### Argument and challenged SC ruling",
"Because the president was the one who appointed the NAB prosecutor general, Qadir once argued that he was only subject to orders made by the [president](/wiki/President_of_Pakistan \"President of Pakistan\") and not the [prime minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan \"Prime Minister of Pakistan\"). He added that the PM, who is in charge of the NAB, makes the decisions{{Cite web \\|date\\=2010\\-09\\-06 \\|title\\=Violation of SC orders: NAB Prosecutor General refuses to relinquish charge \\|url\\=https://nation.com.pk/06\\-Sep\\-2010/Violation\\-of\\-SC\\-orders\\-NAB\\-Prosecutor\\-General\\-refuses\\-to\\-relinquish\\-charge \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-19 \\|website\\=The Nation \\|language\\=en}} and challenged the Supreme Court's ruling regarding his removal.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Newspaper \\|first\\=the \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-08 \\|title\\=NAB prosecutor general Irfan Qadir resigns \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/2010/12/08/nab\\-prosecutor\\-general\\-irfan\\-qadir\\-resigns\\-2/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-19 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Resignation",
"Prosecutor General of the [National Accountability Bureau](/wiki/National_Accountability_Bureau \"National Accountability Bureau\"), Qadir submitted his resignation to President [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari \"Asif Ali Zardari\") on September 8, 2010, after contesting the Supreme Court's directives for his dismissal but he did not withdraw his appeal filed before the apex court challenging its order which had declared his appointment as illegal, on instructions of the president.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Newspaper \\|first\\=the \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-08 \\|title\\=NAB prosecutor general Irfan Qadir resigns \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/2010/12/08/nab\\-prosecutor\\-general\\-irfan\\-qadir\\-resigns\\-2/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-19 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Judge Lahore High Court (2009\\)",
"President [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari \"Asif Ali Zardari\") nominated 16 additional judges to the [Lahore High Court](/wiki/Lahore_High_Court \"Lahore High Court\") (LHC) in February 2009, bringing the total number of justices on the high court up to 52 and Irfan Qadir was one of them.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2009\\-02\\-28 \\|title\\=Zardari appoints 16 more judges to LHC \\|url\\=http://beta.dawn.com/news/936047/zardari\\-appoints\\-16\\-more\\-judges\\-to\\-lhc \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-13 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Court ruling against PCO judges",
"Irfan didn't qualify to be appointed as judge of the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\"), after he had left as high court judge for being a [Provisional Constitutional Order](/wiki/Provisional_Constitutional_Order \"Provisional Constitutional Order\") (PCO) justice due to the apex court ruling of 31 July 2009\\.{{Cite web \\|author\\=Web Desk \\|date\\=2012\\-04\\-12 \\|title\\=PM Gilani appoints Irfan Qadir as new Attorney General \\|url\\=http://www.samaaenglish.tv/news/411491 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=Samaa \\|language\\=en}} Before his retirement, President [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari \"Asif Ali Zardari\") had nominated 26 judges of the Lahore High Court in consultation with Chief Justice [Abdul Hameed Dogar](/wiki/Abdul_Hameed_Dogar \"Abdul Hameed Dogar\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2009\\-08\\-01 \\|title\\=Judgment likely to affect 46 LHC judges \\|url\\=http://beta.dawn.com/news/944315/judgment\\-likely\\-to\\-affect\\-46\\-lhc\\-judges \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Prosecutor General NAB (2003\\-2006\\)",
"He had also worked for the NAB's Prosecutor General Accountability between 2003 and 2006\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Newspaper \\|first\\=the \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-08 \\|title\\=NAB prosecutor general Irfan Qadir resigns \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/2010/12/08/nab\\-prosecutor\\-general\\-irfan\\-qadir\\-resigns\\-2/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-13 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}} The only Prosecutor General in the Pakistan to have served the full three years in this position is he.",
"### Law Practice (1997\\-2003\\)",
"He did an active law practice from 1997 to 2003 in different High Courts of Pakistan and Supreme Court of Pakistan.",
"### Acting Advocate General Punjab (1996\\-1997\\)",
"He also served as Acting Advocate General Punjab from 1996 to 1997\\. {{Cite web \\|author\\=Web Desk \\|date\\=2012\\-04\\-12 \\|title\\=PM Gilani appoints Irfan Qadir as new Attorney General \\|url\\=http://www.samaaenglish.tv/news/411491 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=Samaa \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Additional Advocate General Punjab (1990\\-1995\\)",
"From 1990 to 1995,{{Cite report \\|title\\=2012\\-14 Annual Report \\|publisher\\=Law and Justice Commission of Pakistan \\|pages\\=31\\-32 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104134813/http://ljcp.gov.pk/nljcp/assets/dist/Publication/ae6a3\\-ar\\_14\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-04 \\|url\\=http://ljcp.gov.pk/nljcp/assets/dist/Publication/ae6a3\\-ar\\_14\\.pdf}} he was promoted to more senior position of Additional Advocate General Punjab.",
"### Assistant Advocate General Punjab (1988\\-1990\\)",
"In 1988, he was appointed as an Assistant Advocate General Punjab. He served on this post until 1990\\.",
""
] |
Legal career
------------
He has been consistently participating in significant matters at the Supreme Court for the past more than 30 years. He has a number of recorded cases in Pakistan's higher courts to his credit in terms of his career as a lawyer. Both as a lawyer and a law enforcement official, he has had a very successful career.
### CM Punjab election vs Supreme court (July 2022\)
On 26 July 2022, the [Punjab Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 "Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)")'s election case was decided by the [Supreme Court of Pakistan](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan"), which deemed [Dost Mazari](/wiki/Dost_Muhammad_Mazari "Dost Muhammad Mazari")'s decision as the [deputy speaker](/wiki/Deputy_speaker "Deputy speaker") of the [provincial assembly](/wiki/Provincial_Assembly_of_the_Punjab "Provincial Assembly of the Punjab") to be illegal.{{Cite web \|title\=Supreme Court rejects PA deputy speaker's ruling, declares Elahi CM Punjab \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/976972\-punjab\-cm\-poll\-sc\-resumes\-hearing\-against\-punjab\-deputy\-speakers\-ruling \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} [Pervez Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi "Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi"), the [PML\-Q](/wiki/Pakistan_Muslim_League_%28Q%29 "Pakistan Muslim League (Q)"), leader's was also named the new [chief minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 "Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)") of the province by the court. The three\-judge panel, which was led by [Chief Justice of Pakistan](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") [Umar Ata Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial "Umar Ata Bandial") and also included Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan "Ijazul Ahsan") and Muneeb Akhtar, issued the ruling after a three\-hour delay and instructed [Governor Punjab](/wiki/Governor_of_Punjab%2C_Pakistan "Governor of Punjab, Pakistan") to swear in Elahi at 11:30 p.m. tonight.
The Mazari's decision, which allowed [Hamza Shahbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz "Hamza Shahbaz") to continue serving as the province's chief minister, was challenged by the PML\-Q in a petition that was submitted on Saturday 23 July 2022{{Cite web \|title\=Supreme Court rejects PA deputy speaker's ruling, declares Elahi CM Punjab \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/976972\-punjab\-cm\-poll\-sc\-resumes\-hearing\-against\-punjab\-deputy\-speakers\-ruling \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} through the PML\-Q attorney Amir Saeed Rawn and the Irfan Qadir was the attorney from the deputy speaker Dost Mazari.
#### Petition
On, Saturday 23 July 2022 [Pervaiz Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi "Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi") submitted a plea to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") Lahore registry contesting the re\-election of [Hamza Shehbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz "Hamza Shahbaz") as the province's chief minister. He urged the court to reverse the deputy speaker's ruling about the CM election vote count in his appeal. He asserted that because of his illegal and unconstitutional order, the deputy speaker did not count the votes cast by the PML\-Q. He maintained that the decision went against the Supreme Court's directive.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \|url\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\-court\-to\-hear\-punjab\-cm\-case\-today/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=Daily Times \|language\=en\-US}}
Pervaiz Elahi asserted that the deputy speaker's choice also broke Article 63\-A. At midnight on Friday, Lahore Registry Deputy Registrar Ejaz Gorayra and other personnel raced to their offices in response to the plea being filed by PML\-Q attorney Amir Saeed Rawn.
#### Coalition govt petition
[Pakistan Peoples Party](/wiki/Pakistan_People%27s_Party "Pakistan People's Party") and [Jamiat Ulema\-e\-Islam](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Islam_%28F%29 "Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (F)") petitioned the Supreme Court to become a party in the case however, the Supreme Court dismissed the [JUI(F)](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Islam_%28F%29 "Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (F)") petition impartially and accepted the [PPP](/wiki/Pakistan_People%27s_Party "Pakistan People's Party")'s petition.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \|url\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\-court\-to\-hear\-punjab\-cm\-case\-today/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=Daily Times \|language\=en\-US}}
#### Full court plea and objection on bench
A three\-judge Supreme Court bench, presided over by [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") [Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial "Umar Ata Bandial") and including Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan "Ijazul Ahsan") and Munib Akhtar, heard the case in the court's Lahore registry. The Supreme Court decided to name [Hamza Shehbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz "Hamza Shahbaz") as Punjab's interim chief minister until Monday 25 July 2022,{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \|url\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\-court\-to\-hear\-punjab\-cm\-case\-today/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=Daily Times \|language\=en\-US}} when the court will reassemble to consider the case. Hamza was forbidden by the Supreme Court from using his CM authority for political gain. According to the CJP, the deputy speaker's decision was clearly in violation of the Article 63\-A ruling.
The coalition government objected to the three\-judge bench after the earlier [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") decision and asked for the creation of a full court bench, citing the significance of the case. Speaking with [PDM](/wiki/Pakistan_Democratic_Movement "Pakistan Democratic Movement") Chief [Maulana Fazlur Rehman](/wiki/Fazal-ur-Rehman_%28politician%29 "Fazal-ur-Rehman (politician)") about submitting a petition for a full court bench was [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan "Prime Minister of Pakistan") [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif "Shehbaz Sharif"). [PML\-Q](/wiki/Pakistan_Muslim_League_%28Q%29 "Pakistan Muslim League (Q)") president [Chaudhry Shujaat](/wiki/Shujaat_Hussain "Shujaat Hussain") and Maulana Fazal also spoke about the case over the phone.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \|url\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\-court\-to\-hear\-punjab\-cm\-case\-today/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=Daily Times \|language\=en\-US}}
#### Full court plea rejected
The Supreme Court had denied the coalition government's request to create a full court bench on issues relating to the Punjab chief minister election held on 22 July 2022 after receiving a full court appeal from PDM. A full court bench is constituted in serious matters, the CJP stated.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=Blow to PDM: SC rejects govt's plea for formation of full court \|url\=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2022/07/25/punjab\-cm\-election\-sc\-reserves\-verdict\-on\-demand\-for\-formation\-of\-full\-court/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=Pakistan Today \|language\=en\-US}} According to [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") [Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial "Umar Ata Bandial"), the main issue before the bench was whether or not a party leader could give orders to his parliamentary party members.
This affects the entire province. I don't want to imply that the bench's impartiality is in doubt. The respect and confidence in the court would rise if a full court is constituted, according to Mazari's attorney, Irfan Qadir.{{Cite web \|author\=News Desk \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=Supreme Court Rejects Govt's Plea For Full Court Bench In Punjab CM Election Case \|url\=https://www.thefridaytimes.com/2022/07/25/supreme\-court\-rejects\-govts\-plea\-for\-full\-court\-bench\-in\-punjab\-cm\-election\-case/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=The Friday Times \- Naya Daur \|language\=en\-US}}
#### Boycott SC proceedings
The Pakistani coalition government declared it would boycott the court proceedings after criticising the Supreme Court's choice to not convene a full bench to hear a crucial case involving the contentious election of the Punjab Chief Minister.{{Cite news \|last\=PTI \|date\=2022\-07\-26 \|title\=Pakistan govt. coalition to boycott Supreme Court proceedings in Punjab CM election case \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/pakistan\-govt\-coalition\-to\-boycott\-supreme\-court\-proceedings\-in\-punjab\-cm\-election\-case/article65685495\.ece \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|issn\=0971\-751X}} At a press conference in [Islamabad](/wiki/Islamabad "Islamabad"), [PDM](/wiki/Pakistan_Democratic_Movement "Pakistan Democratic Movement") leader [Maulana Fazlur Rehman](/wiki/Fazal-ur-Rehman_%28politician%29 "Fazal-ur-Rehman (politician)") claimed that the government's attorneys had recommended a full bench, but the court had rejected their recommendation without giving it any thought.
#### Verdict
Following a series of incidents, The [Supreme Court of Pakistan](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") ruled on the election of the [Punjab Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 "Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)") on July 26, 2022, and in its ruling, the court found [Dost Mazari](/wiki/Dost_Muhammad_Mazari "Dost Muhammad Mazari")'s choice to serve as deputy speaker of the provincial legislature to be unlawful. The court also appointed PML\-Q leader [Pervez Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi "Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi") as the new chief minister of the province. After a three\-hour delay, the three\-judge panel, which was presided over by [Chief Justice of Pakistan](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") [Umar Ata Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial "Umar Ata Bandial") and composed of Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan "Ijazul Ahsan") and Muneeb Akhtar, handed down its decision and ordered [Governor Punjab](/wiki/Governor_of_Punjab%2C_Pakistan "Governor of Punjab, Pakistan") to appoint Elahi at 11:30 p.m. tonight.
### Consultant to the President of Pakistan (2012\)
He was appointed legal affairs consultant to Pakistan's President [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari "Asif Ali Zardari") in March 2012\.
### Appellate Authority of PCB (2010\)
He was also appointed as the [Pakistan Cricket Board](/wiki/Pakistan_Cricket_Board "Pakistan Cricket Board")'s Appellate Authority in 2010\.
|
[
"Legal career\n------------",
"He has been consistently participating in significant matters at the Supreme Court for the past more than 30 years. He has a number of recorded cases in Pakistan's higher courts to his credit in terms of his career as a lawyer. Both as a lawyer and a law enforcement official, he has had a very successful career.",
"### CM Punjab election vs Supreme court (July 2022\\)",
"On 26 July 2022, the [Punjab Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 \"Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)\")'s election case was decided by the [Supreme Court of Pakistan](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\"), which deemed [Dost Mazari](/wiki/Dost_Muhammad_Mazari \"Dost Muhammad Mazari\")'s decision as the [deputy speaker](/wiki/Deputy_speaker \"Deputy speaker\") of the [provincial assembly](/wiki/Provincial_Assembly_of_the_Punjab \"Provincial Assembly of the Punjab\") to be illegal.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Supreme Court rejects PA deputy speaker's ruling, declares Elahi CM Punjab \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/976972\\-punjab\\-cm\\-poll\\-sc\\-resumes\\-hearing\\-against\\-punjab\\-deputy\\-speakers\\-ruling \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}} [Pervez Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi \"Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi\"), the [PML\\-Q](/wiki/Pakistan_Muslim_League_%28Q%29 \"Pakistan Muslim League (Q)\"), leader's was also named the new [chief minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 \"Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)\") of the province by the court. The three\\-judge panel, which was led by [Chief Justice of Pakistan](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") [Umar Ata Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial \"Umar Ata Bandial\") and also included Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan \"Ijazul Ahsan\") and Muneeb Akhtar, issued the ruling after a three\\-hour delay and instructed [Governor Punjab](/wiki/Governor_of_Punjab%2C_Pakistan \"Governor of Punjab, Pakistan\") to swear in Elahi at 11:30 p.m. tonight.",
"The Mazari's decision, which allowed [Hamza Shahbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz \"Hamza Shahbaz\") to continue serving as the province's chief minister, was challenged by the PML\\-Q in a petition that was submitted on Saturday 23 July 2022{{Cite web \\|title\\=Supreme Court rejects PA deputy speaker's ruling, declares Elahi CM Punjab \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/976972\\-punjab\\-cm\\-poll\\-sc\\-resumes\\-hearing\\-against\\-punjab\\-deputy\\-speakers\\-ruling \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}} through the PML\\-Q attorney Amir Saeed Rawn and the Irfan Qadir was the attorney from the deputy speaker Dost Mazari.",
"#### Petition",
"On, Saturday 23 July 2022 [Pervaiz Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi \"Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi\") submitted a plea to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") Lahore registry contesting the re\\-election of [Hamza Shehbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz \"Hamza Shahbaz\") as the province's chief minister. He urged the court to reverse the deputy speaker's ruling about the CM election vote count in his appeal. He asserted that because of his illegal and unconstitutional order, the deputy speaker did not count the votes cast by the PML\\-Q. He maintained that the decision went against the Supreme Court's directive.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \\|url\\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\\-court\\-to\\-hear\\-punjab\\-cm\\-case\\-today/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=Daily Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Pervaiz Elahi asserted that the deputy speaker's choice also broke Article 63\\-A. At midnight on Friday, Lahore Registry Deputy Registrar Ejaz Gorayra and other personnel raced to their offices in response to the plea being filed by PML\\-Q attorney Amir Saeed Rawn.",
"#### Coalition govt petition",
"[Pakistan Peoples Party](/wiki/Pakistan_People%27s_Party \"Pakistan People's Party\") and [Jamiat Ulema\\-e\\-Islam](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Islam_%28F%29 \"Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (F)\") petitioned the Supreme Court to become a party in the case however, the Supreme Court dismissed the [JUI(F)](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Islam_%28F%29 \"Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (F)\") petition impartially and accepted the [PPP](/wiki/Pakistan_People%27s_Party \"Pakistan People's Party\")'s petition.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \\|url\\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\\-court\\-to\\-hear\\-punjab\\-cm\\-case\\-today/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=Daily Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"#### Full court plea and objection on bench",
"A three\\-judge Supreme Court bench, presided over by [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") [Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial \"Umar Ata Bandial\") and including Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan \"Ijazul Ahsan\") and Munib Akhtar, heard the case in the court's Lahore registry. The Supreme Court decided to name [Hamza Shehbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz \"Hamza Shahbaz\") as Punjab's interim chief minister until Monday 25 July 2022,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \\|url\\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\\-court\\-to\\-hear\\-punjab\\-cm\\-case\\-today/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=Daily Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}} when the court will reassemble to consider the case. Hamza was forbidden by the Supreme Court from using his CM authority for political gain. According to the CJP, the deputy speaker's decision was clearly in violation of the Article 63\\-A ruling.",
"The coalition government objected to the three\\-judge bench after the earlier [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") decision and asked for the creation of a full court bench, citing the significance of the case. Speaking with [PDM](/wiki/Pakistan_Democratic_Movement \"Pakistan Democratic Movement\") Chief [Maulana Fazlur Rehman](/wiki/Fazal-ur-Rehman_%28politician%29 \"Fazal-ur-Rehman (politician)\") about submitting a petition for a full court bench was [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan \"Prime Minister of Pakistan\") [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif \"Shehbaz Sharif\"). [PML\\-Q](/wiki/Pakistan_Muslim_League_%28Q%29 \"Pakistan Muslim League (Q)\") president [Chaudhry Shujaat](/wiki/Shujaat_Hussain \"Shujaat Hussain\") and Maulana Fazal also spoke about the case over the phone.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \\|url\\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\\-court\\-to\\-hear\\-punjab\\-cm\\-case\\-today/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=Daily Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"#### Full court plea rejected",
"The Supreme Court had denied the coalition government's request to create a full court bench on issues relating to the Punjab chief minister election held on 22 July 2022 after receiving a full court appeal from PDM. A full court bench is constituted in serious matters, the CJP stated.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=Blow to PDM: SC rejects govt's plea for formation of full court \\|url\\=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2022/07/25/punjab\\-cm\\-election\\-sc\\-reserves\\-verdict\\-on\\-demand\\-for\\-formation\\-of\\-full\\-court/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=Pakistan Today \\|language\\=en\\-US}} According to [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") [Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial \"Umar Ata Bandial\"), the main issue before the bench was whether or not a party leader could give orders to his parliamentary party members.",
"This affects the entire province. I don't want to imply that the bench's impartiality is in doubt. The respect and confidence in the court would rise if a full court is constituted, according to Mazari's attorney, Irfan Qadir.{{Cite web \\|author\\=News Desk \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=Supreme Court Rejects Govt's Plea For Full Court Bench In Punjab CM Election Case \\|url\\=https://www.thefridaytimes.com/2022/07/25/supreme\\-court\\-rejects\\-govts\\-plea\\-for\\-full\\-court\\-bench\\-in\\-punjab\\-cm\\-election\\-case/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=The Friday Times \\- Naya Daur \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"#### Boycott SC proceedings",
"The Pakistani coalition government declared it would boycott the court proceedings after criticising the Supreme Court's choice to not convene a full bench to hear a crucial case involving the contentious election of the Punjab Chief Minister.{{Cite news \\|last\\=PTI \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-26 \\|title\\=Pakistan govt. coalition to boycott Supreme Court proceedings in Punjab CM election case \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/pakistan\\-govt\\-coalition\\-to\\-boycott\\-supreme\\-court\\-proceedings\\-in\\-punjab\\-cm\\-election\\-case/article65685495\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X}} At a press conference in [Islamabad](/wiki/Islamabad \"Islamabad\"), [PDM](/wiki/Pakistan_Democratic_Movement \"Pakistan Democratic Movement\") leader [Maulana Fazlur Rehman](/wiki/Fazal-ur-Rehman_%28politician%29 \"Fazal-ur-Rehman (politician)\") claimed that the government's attorneys had recommended a full bench, but the court had rejected their recommendation without giving it any thought.",
"#### Verdict",
"Following a series of incidents, The [Supreme Court of Pakistan](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") ruled on the election of the [Punjab Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 \"Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)\") on July 26, 2022, and in its ruling, the court found [Dost Mazari](/wiki/Dost_Muhammad_Mazari \"Dost Muhammad Mazari\")'s choice to serve as deputy speaker of the provincial legislature to be unlawful. The court also appointed PML\\-Q leader [Pervez Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi \"Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi\") as the new chief minister of the province. After a three\\-hour delay, the three\\-judge panel, which was presided over by [Chief Justice of Pakistan](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") [Umar Ata Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial \"Umar Ata Bandial\") and composed of Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan \"Ijazul Ahsan\") and Muneeb Akhtar, handed down its decision and ordered [Governor Punjab](/wiki/Governor_of_Punjab%2C_Pakistan \"Governor of Punjab, Pakistan\") to appoint Elahi at 11:30 p.m. tonight.",
"### Consultant to the President of Pakistan (2012\\)",
"He was appointed legal affairs consultant to Pakistan's President [Asif Ali Zardari](/wiki/Asif_Ali_Zardari \"Asif Ali Zardari\") in March 2012\\.",
"### Appellate Authority of PCB (2010\\)",
"He was also appointed as the [Pakistan Cricket Board](/wiki/Pakistan_Cricket_Board \"Pakistan Cricket Board\")'s Appellate Authority in 2010\\.",
""
] |
### CM Punjab election vs Supreme court (July 2022\)
On 26 July 2022, the [Punjab Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 "Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)")'s election case was decided by the [Supreme Court of Pakistan](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan"), which deemed [Dost Mazari](/wiki/Dost_Muhammad_Mazari "Dost Muhammad Mazari")'s decision as the [deputy speaker](/wiki/Deputy_speaker "Deputy speaker") of the [provincial assembly](/wiki/Provincial_Assembly_of_the_Punjab "Provincial Assembly of the Punjab") to be illegal.{{Cite web \|title\=Supreme Court rejects PA deputy speaker's ruling, declares Elahi CM Punjab \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/976972\-punjab\-cm\-poll\-sc\-resumes\-hearing\-against\-punjab\-deputy\-speakers\-ruling \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} [Pervez Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi "Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi"), the [PML\-Q](/wiki/Pakistan_Muslim_League_%28Q%29 "Pakistan Muslim League (Q)"), leader's was also named the new [chief minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 "Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)") of the province by the court. The three\-judge panel, which was led by [Chief Justice of Pakistan](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") [Umar Ata Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial "Umar Ata Bandial") and also included Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan "Ijazul Ahsan") and Muneeb Akhtar, issued the ruling after a three\-hour delay and instructed [Governor Punjab](/wiki/Governor_of_Punjab%2C_Pakistan "Governor of Punjab, Pakistan") to swear in Elahi at 11:30 p.m. tonight.
The Mazari's decision, which allowed [Hamza Shahbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz "Hamza Shahbaz") to continue serving as the province's chief minister, was challenged by the PML\-Q in a petition that was submitted on Saturday 23 July 2022{{Cite web \|title\=Supreme Court rejects PA deputy speaker's ruling, declares Elahi CM Punjab \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/976972\-punjab\-cm\-poll\-sc\-resumes\-hearing\-against\-punjab\-deputy\-speakers\-ruling \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} through the PML\-Q attorney Amir Saeed Rawn and the Irfan Qadir was the attorney from the deputy speaker Dost Mazari.
#### Petition
On, Saturday 23 July 2022 [Pervaiz Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi "Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi") submitted a plea to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") Lahore registry contesting the re\-election of [Hamza Shehbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz "Hamza Shahbaz") as the province's chief minister. He urged the court to reverse the deputy speaker's ruling about the CM election vote count in his appeal. He asserted that because of his illegal and unconstitutional order, the deputy speaker did not count the votes cast by the PML\-Q. He maintained that the decision went against the Supreme Court's directive.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \|url\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\-court\-to\-hear\-punjab\-cm\-case\-today/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=Daily Times \|language\=en\-US}}
Pervaiz Elahi asserted that the deputy speaker's choice also broke Article 63\-A. At midnight on Friday, Lahore Registry Deputy Registrar Ejaz Gorayra and other personnel raced to their offices in response to the plea being filed by PML\-Q attorney Amir Saeed Rawn.
#### Coalition govt petition
[Pakistan Peoples Party](/wiki/Pakistan_People%27s_Party "Pakistan People's Party") and [Jamiat Ulema\-e\-Islam](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Islam_%28F%29 "Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (F)") petitioned the Supreme Court to become a party in the case however, the Supreme Court dismissed the [JUI(F)](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Islam_%28F%29 "Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (F)") petition impartially and accepted the [PPP](/wiki/Pakistan_People%27s_Party "Pakistan People's Party")'s petition.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \|url\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\-court\-to\-hear\-punjab\-cm\-case\-today/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=Daily Times \|language\=en\-US}}
#### Full court plea and objection on bench
A three\-judge Supreme Court bench, presided over by [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") [Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial "Umar Ata Bandial") and including Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan "Ijazul Ahsan") and Munib Akhtar, heard the case in the court's Lahore registry. The Supreme Court decided to name [Hamza Shehbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz "Hamza Shahbaz") as Punjab's interim chief minister until Monday 25 July 2022,{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \|url\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\-court\-to\-hear\-punjab\-cm\-case\-today/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=Daily Times \|language\=en\-US}} when the court will reassemble to consider the case. Hamza was forbidden by the Supreme Court from using his CM authority for political gain. According to the CJP, the deputy speaker's decision was clearly in violation of the Article 63\-A ruling.
The coalition government objected to the three\-judge bench after the earlier [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") decision and asked for the creation of a full court bench, citing the significance of the case. Speaking with [PDM](/wiki/Pakistan_Democratic_Movement "Pakistan Democratic Movement") Chief [Maulana Fazlur Rehman](/wiki/Fazal-ur-Rehman_%28politician%29 "Fazal-ur-Rehman (politician)") about submitting a petition for a full court bench was [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan "Prime Minister of Pakistan") [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif "Shehbaz Sharif"). [PML\-Q](/wiki/Pakistan_Muslim_League_%28Q%29 "Pakistan Muslim League (Q)") president [Chaudhry Shujaat](/wiki/Shujaat_Hussain "Shujaat Hussain") and Maulana Fazal also spoke about the case over the phone.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \|url\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\-court\-to\-hear\-punjab\-cm\-case\-today/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=Daily Times \|language\=en\-US}}
#### Full court plea rejected
The Supreme Court had denied the coalition government's request to create a full court bench on issues relating to the Punjab chief minister election held on 22 July 2022 after receiving a full court appeal from PDM. A full court bench is constituted in serious matters, the CJP stated.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=Blow to PDM: SC rejects govt's plea for formation of full court \|url\=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2022/07/25/punjab\-cm\-election\-sc\-reserves\-verdict\-on\-demand\-for\-formation\-of\-full\-court/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=Pakistan Today \|language\=en\-US}} According to [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") [Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial "Umar Ata Bandial"), the main issue before the bench was whether or not a party leader could give orders to his parliamentary party members.
This affects the entire province. I don't want to imply that the bench's impartiality is in doubt. The respect and confidence in the court would rise if a full court is constituted, according to Mazari's attorney, Irfan Qadir.{{Cite web \|author\=News Desk \|date\=2022\-07\-25 \|title\=Supreme Court Rejects Govt's Plea For Full Court Bench In Punjab CM Election Case \|url\=https://www.thefridaytimes.com/2022/07/25/supreme\-court\-rejects\-govts\-plea\-for\-full\-court\-bench\-in\-punjab\-cm\-election\-case/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|website\=The Friday Times \- Naya Daur \|language\=en\-US}}
#### Boycott SC proceedings
The Pakistani coalition government declared it would boycott the court proceedings after criticising the Supreme Court's choice to not convene a full bench to hear a crucial case involving the contentious election of the Punjab Chief Minister.{{Cite news \|last\=PTI \|date\=2022\-07\-26 \|title\=Pakistan govt. coalition to boycott Supreme Court proceedings in Punjab CM election case \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/pakistan\-govt\-coalition\-to\-boycott\-supreme\-court\-proceedings\-in\-punjab\-cm\-election\-case/article65685495\.ece \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-16 \|issn\=0971\-751X}} At a press conference in [Islamabad](/wiki/Islamabad "Islamabad"), [PDM](/wiki/Pakistan_Democratic_Movement "Pakistan Democratic Movement") leader [Maulana Fazlur Rehman](/wiki/Fazal-ur-Rehman_%28politician%29 "Fazal-ur-Rehman (politician)") claimed that the government's attorneys had recommended a full bench, but the court had rejected their recommendation without giving it any thought.
#### Verdict
Following a series of incidents, The [Supreme Court of Pakistan](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") ruled on the election of the [Punjab Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 "Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)") on July 26, 2022, and in its ruling, the court found [Dost Mazari](/wiki/Dost_Muhammad_Mazari "Dost Muhammad Mazari")'s choice to serve as deputy speaker of the provincial legislature to be unlawful. The court also appointed PML\-Q leader [Pervez Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi "Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi") as the new chief minister of the province. After a three\-hour delay, the three\-judge panel, which was presided over by [Chief Justice of Pakistan](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") [Umar Ata Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial "Umar Ata Bandial") and composed of Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan "Ijazul Ahsan") and Muneeb Akhtar, handed down its decision and ordered [Governor Punjab](/wiki/Governor_of_Punjab%2C_Pakistan "Governor of Punjab, Pakistan") to appoint Elahi at 11:30 p.m. tonight.
|
[
"### CM Punjab election vs Supreme court (July 2022\\)",
"On 26 July 2022, the [Punjab Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 \"Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)\")'s election case was decided by the [Supreme Court of Pakistan](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\"), which deemed [Dost Mazari](/wiki/Dost_Muhammad_Mazari \"Dost Muhammad Mazari\")'s decision as the [deputy speaker](/wiki/Deputy_speaker \"Deputy speaker\") of the [provincial assembly](/wiki/Provincial_Assembly_of_the_Punjab \"Provincial Assembly of the Punjab\") to be illegal.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Supreme Court rejects PA deputy speaker's ruling, declares Elahi CM Punjab \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/976972\\-punjab\\-cm\\-poll\\-sc\\-resumes\\-hearing\\-against\\-punjab\\-deputy\\-speakers\\-ruling \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}} [Pervez Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi \"Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi\"), the [PML\\-Q](/wiki/Pakistan_Muslim_League_%28Q%29 \"Pakistan Muslim League (Q)\"), leader's was also named the new [chief minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 \"Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)\") of the province by the court. The three\\-judge panel, which was led by [Chief Justice of Pakistan](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") [Umar Ata Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial \"Umar Ata Bandial\") and also included Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan \"Ijazul Ahsan\") and Muneeb Akhtar, issued the ruling after a three\\-hour delay and instructed [Governor Punjab](/wiki/Governor_of_Punjab%2C_Pakistan \"Governor of Punjab, Pakistan\") to swear in Elahi at 11:30 p.m. tonight.",
"The Mazari's decision, which allowed [Hamza Shahbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz \"Hamza Shahbaz\") to continue serving as the province's chief minister, was challenged by the PML\\-Q in a petition that was submitted on Saturday 23 July 2022{{Cite web \\|title\\=Supreme Court rejects PA deputy speaker's ruling, declares Elahi CM Punjab \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/976972\\-punjab\\-cm\\-poll\\-sc\\-resumes\\-hearing\\-against\\-punjab\\-deputy\\-speakers\\-ruling \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}} through the PML\\-Q attorney Amir Saeed Rawn and the Irfan Qadir was the attorney from the deputy speaker Dost Mazari.",
"#### Petition",
"On, Saturday 23 July 2022 [Pervaiz Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi \"Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi\") submitted a plea to the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") Lahore registry contesting the re\\-election of [Hamza Shehbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz \"Hamza Shahbaz\") as the province's chief minister. He urged the court to reverse the deputy speaker's ruling about the CM election vote count in his appeal. He asserted that because of his illegal and unconstitutional order, the deputy speaker did not count the votes cast by the PML\\-Q. He maintained that the decision went against the Supreme Court's directive.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \\|url\\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\\-court\\-to\\-hear\\-punjab\\-cm\\-case\\-today/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=Daily Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Pervaiz Elahi asserted that the deputy speaker's choice also broke Article 63\\-A. At midnight on Friday, Lahore Registry Deputy Registrar Ejaz Gorayra and other personnel raced to their offices in response to the plea being filed by PML\\-Q attorney Amir Saeed Rawn.",
"#### Coalition govt petition",
"[Pakistan Peoples Party](/wiki/Pakistan_People%27s_Party \"Pakistan People's Party\") and [Jamiat Ulema\\-e\\-Islam](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Islam_%28F%29 \"Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (F)\") petitioned the Supreme Court to become a party in the case however, the Supreme Court dismissed the [JUI(F)](/wiki/Jamiat_Ulema-e-Islam_%28F%29 \"Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (F)\") petition impartially and accepted the [PPP](/wiki/Pakistan_People%27s_Party \"Pakistan People's Party\")'s petition.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \\|url\\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\\-court\\-to\\-hear\\-punjab\\-cm\\-case\\-today/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=Daily Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"#### Full court plea and objection on bench",
"A three\\-judge Supreme Court bench, presided over by [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") [Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial \"Umar Ata Bandial\") and including Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan \"Ijazul Ahsan\") and Munib Akhtar, heard the case in the court's Lahore registry. The Supreme Court decided to name [Hamza Shehbaz](/wiki/Hamza_Shahbaz \"Hamza Shahbaz\") as Punjab's interim chief minister until Monday 25 July 2022,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \\|url\\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\\-court\\-to\\-hear\\-punjab\\-cm\\-case\\-today/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=Daily Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}} when the court will reassemble to consider the case. Hamza was forbidden by the Supreme Court from using his CM authority for political gain. According to the CJP, the deputy speaker's decision was clearly in violation of the Article 63\\-A ruling.",
"The coalition government objected to the three\\-judge bench after the earlier [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") decision and asked for the creation of a full court bench, citing the significance of the case. Speaking with [PDM](/wiki/Pakistan_Democratic_Movement \"Pakistan Democratic Movement\") Chief [Maulana Fazlur Rehman](/wiki/Fazal-ur-Rehman_%28politician%29 \"Fazal-ur-Rehman (politician)\") about submitting a petition for a full court bench was [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Pakistan \"Prime Minister of Pakistan\") [Shehbaz Sharif](/wiki/Shehbaz_Sharif \"Shehbaz Sharif\"). [PML\\-Q](/wiki/Pakistan_Muslim_League_%28Q%29 \"Pakistan Muslim League (Q)\") president [Chaudhry Shujaat](/wiki/Shujaat_Hussain \"Shujaat Hussain\") and Maulana Fazal also spoke about the case over the phone.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=All eyes on SC as it resume hearing Elahi's petition on Punjab CM election \\|url\\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/971906/supreme\\-court\\-to\\-hear\\-punjab\\-cm\\-case\\-today/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=Daily Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"#### Full court plea rejected",
"The Supreme Court had denied the coalition government's request to create a full court bench on issues relating to the Punjab chief minister election held on 22 July 2022 after receiving a full court appeal from PDM. A full court bench is constituted in serious matters, the CJP stated.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=Blow to PDM: SC rejects govt's plea for formation of full court \\|url\\=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2022/07/25/punjab\\-cm\\-election\\-sc\\-reserves\\-verdict\\-on\\-demand\\-for\\-formation\\-of\\-full\\-court/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=Pakistan Today \\|language\\=en\\-US}} According to [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") [Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial \"Umar Ata Bandial\"), the main issue before the bench was whether or not a party leader could give orders to his parliamentary party members.",
"This affects the entire province. I don't want to imply that the bench's impartiality is in doubt. The respect and confidence in the court would rise if a full court is constituted, according to Mazari's attorney, Irfan Qadir.{{Cite web \\|author\\=News Desk \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=Supreme Court Rejects Govt's Plea For Full Court Bench In Punjab CM Election Case \\|url\\=https://www.thefridaytimes.com/2022/07/25/supreme\\-court\\-rejects\\-govts\\-plea\\-for\\-full\\-court\\-bench\\-in\\-punjab\\-cm\\-election\\-case/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|website\\=The Friday Times \\- Naya Daur \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"#### Boycott SC proceedings",
"The Pakistani coalition government declared it would boycott the court proceedings after criticising the Supreme Court's choice to not convene a full bench to hear a crucial case involving the contentious election of the Punjab Chief Minister.{{Cite news \\|last\\=PTI \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-26 \\|title\\=Pakistan govt. coalition to boycott Supreme Court proceedings in Punjab CM election case \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/pakistan\\-govt\\-coalition\\-to\\-boycott\\-supreme\\-court\\-proceedings\\-in\\-punjab\\-cm\\-election\\-case/article65685495\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-16 \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X}} At a press conference in [Islamabad](/wiki/Islamabad \"Islamabad\"), [PDM](/wiki/Pakistan_Democratic_Movement \"Pakistan Democratic Movement\") leader [Maulana Fazlur Rehman](/wiki/Fazal-ur-Rehman_%28politician%29 \"Fazal-ur-Rehman (politician)\") claimed that the government's attorneys had recommended a full bench, but the court had rejected their recommendation without giving it any thought.",
"#### Verdict",
"Following a series of incidents, The [Supreme Court of Pakistan](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") ruled on the election of the [Punjab Chief Minister](/wiki/Chief_Minister_of_Punjab_%28Pakistan%29 \"Chief Minister of Punjab (Pakistan)\") on July 26, 2022, and in its ruling, the court found [Dost Mazari](/wiki/Dost_Muhammad_Mazari \"Dost Muhammad Mazari\")'s choice to serve as deputy speaker of the provincial legislature to be unlawful. The court also appointed PML\\-Q leader [Pervez Elahi](/wiki/Chaudhry_Pervaiz_Elahi \"Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi\") as the new chief minister of the province. After a three\\-hour delay, the three\\-judge panel, which was presided over by [Chief Justice of Pakistan](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") [Umar Ata Bandial](/wiki/Umar_Ata_Bandial \"Umar Ata Bandial\") and composed of Justices [Ijazul Ahsan](/wiki/Ijazul_Ahsan \"Ijazul Ahsan\") and Muneeb Akhtar, handed down its decision and ordered [Governor Punjab](/wiki/Governor_of_Punjab%2C_Pakistan \"Governor of Punjab, Pakistan\") to appoint Elahi at 11:30 p.m. tonight.",
""
] |
License cancellation
--------------------
In March 2015 a three\-judge panel of the [supreme court of Pakistan](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") suspended{{Cite web \|date\=2015\-03\-27 \|title\=Sale of APCs: SC suspends licence of ex\-AG Irfan Qadir \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/859748/sale\-of\-apcs\-sc\-suspends\-licence\-of\-ex\-ag\-irfan\-qadir \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-13 \|website\=The Express Tribune \|language\=en}} his license to practice law due to his conduct and appearance as counsel for the [Sindh Government](/wiki/Government_of_Sindh "Government of Sindh") in a case involving the purchase of armored personnel carriers worth Rs1\.23 billion by the [Sindh Police](/wiki/Sindh_Police "Sindh Police") from a [Serbian](/wiki/Serbia "Serbia") company.
The court also requested information from [Inspector\-general of police](/wiki/Inspector-general_of_police "Inspector-general of police"), [Sindh](/wiki/Sindh_Police "Sindh Police") regarding the payment of Irfan's fees, with further instructions to identify the payer. Earlier, the IG Sindh informed the court that of the Rs3 million in agreed\-upon fees, Rs2 million had already been given to Qadir.{{Cite web \|title\=SC suspends Irfan Qadir's practising licence \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/31555\-sc\-suspends\-irfan\-qadirs\-practising\-licence \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-15 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} The court had further noted that there was no Wakalat Nama filed authorizing Irfan Qadir to appear in this case. The court had instructed its office to contact the Karachi Registry to determine whether any of the attorneys on file had submitted a Wakalat Nama allowing Irfan Qadir to appear in court in the current case.
The court ruled that after asking, it was told that no such direction had been given. Irfan has appeared in this matter for the last 11 hearings, and the court has expressed concerns about how and on what grounds he has done so. The court had requested additional advocate general Sindh to investigate the source of Qadir's fees. However, the additional [advocate general](/wiki/Advocate_general "Advocate general") wanted more time to obtain such information. Irfan Qadir was ordered by the court to appear before it on next hearing to give an explanation for remarks{{Cite web \|title\=SC suspends Irfan Qadir's practising licence \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/31555\-sc\-suspends\-irfan\-qadirs\-practising\-licence \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-15 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} he made earlier before the bench, and the court also ordered its office to send a copy of the order to him.
### Restoration
In February 2019 Irfan's practicing license was reinstated by the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") after a nearly four\-year absence.{{Cite web \|last\=Aslam \|first\=Jahangir \|date\=2019\-02\-07 \|title\=Supreme Court restores practice licence of Irfan Qadir \|url\=https://arynews.tv/supreme\-court\-restores\-practice\-licence\-of\-irfan\-qadir/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-13 \|website\=ARY NEWS \|language\=en\-US}} While hearing the case, a three\-judge Supreme Court panel led by [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") [Asif Saeed Khosa](/wiki/Asif_Saeed_Khosa "Asif Saeed Khosa") ordered that the former [attorney general](/wiki/Attorney-General_for_Pakistan "Attorney-General for Pakistan")'s practicing license should be reinstated. Mehmood Akhtar Naqvi's petition for the [Chief Justice of Pakistan](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan "Chief Justice of Pakistan") to hear the former AG's contempt of court case was granted.
The chief judge noted that the contempt charge was only one aspect of the case involving the license reinstatement. He claimed that since the petitioner was not in court and no request for an adjournment had been made by him, the case could no longer be continued. The bench then announced that Irfan's licence to practise law had been reinstated and concluded the contempt of court proceedings against him.
Then, [Justice Khosa](/wiki/Asif_Saeed_Khosa "Asif Saeed Khosa") welcomed Qadir back into the legal community and wished him well in his future interactions with the bench. In response, Irfan Qadir also thanked the chief justice for giving him his due after four years.{{Cite web \|date\=2019\-02\-07 \|title\=SC restores Irfan Qadir's license after 4\-year hiatus \|url\=https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/sc\-restores\-irfan\-qadirs\-license\-after\-4\-year\-hiatus/ \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-15 \|website\=Daily Pakistan Global \|language\=en}}
|
[
"License cancellation\n--------------------",
"In March 2015 a three\\-judge panel of the [supreme court of Pakistan](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") suspended{{Cite web \\|date\\=2015\\-03\\-27 \\|title\\=Sale of APCs: SC suspends licence of ex\\-AG Irfan Qadir \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/859748/sale\\-of\\-apcs\\-sc\\-suspends\\-licence\\-of\\-ex\\-ag\\-irfan\\-qadir \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-13 \\|website\\=The Express Tribune \\|language\\=en}} his license to practice law due to his conduct and appearance as counsel for the [Sindh Government](/wiki/Government_of_Sindh \"Government of Sindh\") in a case involving the purchase of armored personnel carriers worth Rs1\\.23 billion by the [Sindh Police](/wiki/Sindh_Police \"Sindh Police\") from a [Serbian](/wiki/Serbia \"Serbia\") company.",
"The court also requested information from [Inspector\\-general of police](/wiki/Inspector-general_of_police \"Inspector-general of police\"), [Sindh](/wiki/Sindh_Police \"Sindh Police\") regarding the payment of Irfan's fees, with further instructions to identify the payer. Earlier, the IG Sindh informed the court that of the Rs3 million in agreed\\-upon fees, Rs2 million had already been given to Qadir.{{Cite web \\|title\\=SC suspends Irfan Qadir's practising licence \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/31555\\-sc\\-suspends\\-irfan\\-qadirs\\-practising\\-licence \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}} The court had further noted that there was no Wakalat Nama filed authorizing Irfan Qadir to appear in this case. The court had instructed its office to contact the Karachi Registry to determine whether any of the attorneys on file had submitted a Wakalat Nama allowing Irfan Qadir to appear in court in the current case.",
"The court ruled that after asking, it was told that no such direction had been given. Irfan has appeared in this matter for the last 11 hearings, and the court has expressed concerns about how and on what grounds he has done so. The court had requested additional advocate general Sindh to investigate the source of Qadir's fees. However, the additional [advocate general](/wiki/Advocate_general \"Advocate general\") wanted more time to obtain such information. Irfan Qadir was ordered by the court to appear before it on next hearing to give an explanation for remarks{{Cite web \\|title\\=SC suspends Irfan Qadir's practising licence \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/31555\\-sc\\-suspends\\-irfan\\-qadirs\\-practising\\-licence \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}} he made earlier before the bench, and the court also ordered its office to send a copy of the order to him.",
"### Restoration",
"In February 2019 Irfan's practicing license was reinstated by the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") after a nearly four\\-year absence.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Aslam \\|first\\=Jahangir \\|date\\=2019\\-02\\-07 \\|title\\=Supreme Court restores practice licence of Irfan Qadir \\|url\\=https://arynews.tv/supreme\\-court\\-restores\\-practice\\-licence\\-of\\-irfan\\-qadir/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-13 \\|website\\=ARY NEWS \\|language\\=en\\-US}} While hearing the case, a three\\-judge Supreme Court panel led by [Chief Justice](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") [Asif Saeed Khosa](/wiki/Asif_Saeed_Khosa \"Asif Saeed Khosa\") ordered that the former [attorney general](/wiki/Attorney-General_for_Pakistan \"Attorney-General for Pakistan\")'s practicing license should be reinstated. Mehmood Akhtar Naqvi's petition for the [Chief Justice of Pakistan](/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Pakistan \"Chief Justice of Pakistan\") to hear the former AG's contempt of court case was granted.",
"The chief judge noted that the contempt charge was only one aspect of the case involving the license reinstatement. He claimed that since the petitioner was not in court and no request for an adjournment had been made by him, the case could no longer be continued. The bench then announced that Irfan's licence to practise law had been reinstated and concluded the contempt of court proceedings against him.",
"Then, [Justice Khosa](/wiki/Asif_Saeed_Khosa \"Asif Saeed Khosa\") welcomed Qadir back into the legal community and wished him well in his future interactions with the bench. In response, Irfan Qadir also thanked the chief justice for giving him his due after four years.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2019\\-02\\-07 \\|title\\=SC restores Irfan Qadir's license after 4\\-year hiatus \\|url\\=https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/sc\\-restores\\-irfan\\-qadirs\\-license\\-after\\-4\\-year\\-hiatus/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-15 \\|website\\=Daily Pakistan Global \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Rankin was born at [Mearns](/wiki/Mearns%2C_Renfrewshire "Mearns, Renfrewshire"), [Renfrewshire](/wiki/Renfrewshire "Renfrewshire"), Scotland. Having obtained a good general education in Scotland, he joined [Pollok, Gilmour and Company](/wiki/Pollok%2C_Gilmour_and_Company "Pollok, Gilmour and Company") in 1815, and in 1818 was transferred to [Miramichi, New Brunswick](/wiki/Miramichi%2C_New_Brunswick "Miramichi, New Brunswick"). In 1822 he set up a branch firm, Robert Rankin and Company, in [Saint John, New Brunswick](/wiki/Saint_John%2C_New_Brunswick "Saint John, New Brunswick"). This branch became the most prosperous and successful of the Pollok, Gilmour, and Company enterprises.
On 17 March 1829 he married Ann, daughter of [John Strang](/wiki/John_Strang "John Strang"), a prominent Scottish merchant of [St. Andrews, New Brunswick](/wiki/St._Andrews%2C_New_Brunswick "St. Andrews, New Brunswick").
By 1830 Rankin was Saint John's leading shipowner and timber merchant. Rankin had added there to his lumbering concerns the building of ships and the importing of textiles, foodstuffs, and building supplies on a large scale – reputedly for more than half of the numerous merchants in the town.
In 1838 he returned to Scotland in order to lead the reorganisation of Pollok, Gilmour, and Company, whose founders had fallen out. He renamed it **Rankin, Gilmour, and Company**, and moved the headquarters to [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool "Liverpool"). By 1838 his firm operated 130 vessels in the timber trade – making it the largest British shipowning firm – and employed no fewer than 15,000 men in its sawmills, on its wharves, and in the forests; it owned as well 2,000 horses and oxen for draught purposes. In the early 1830s the firm shipped out annually over 300 cargoes of timber. In order to employ its large fleet fully in the winter months, branch houses were opened in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), and [Mobile, Alabama](/wiki/Mobile%2C_Alabama "Mobile, Alabama"), where the company entered the rapidly expanding and very profitable cotton trade. Rankin's prestige in Liverpool can be judged by his election in January 1862 as chairman of the [Mersey Docks and Harbour Board](/wiki/Mersey_Docks_and_Harbour_Board "Mersey Docks and Harbour Board"), described as “the highest honour Liverpool has to bestow.” He maintained control of this business empire until his death at the age of 69\.
In his later years Rankin’s public benefactions were numerous. He funded mechanics’ institutes, [temperance societies](/wiki/Temperance_societies "Temperance societies"), and [orphans’ homes](/wiki/Orphans%E2%80%99_homes "Orphans’ homes"), and he contributed several large sums for the laying of the first [Transatlantic telegraph cable](/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable "Transatlantic telegraph cable") in the 1850s and 1860s.
Early in 1869 his health began to fail. The death of his daughter, drowned in [Menai Strait](/wiki/Menai_Strait "Menai Strait"), [Wales](/wiki/Wales "Wales"), in August 1869, was a crushing blow to Rankin, who had already lost four of his seven children through childhood illnesses. In 1865 he had established his son James as a country gentleman, buying for him two large estates in [Herefordshire](/wiki/Herefordshire "Herefordshire").
Rankin died in June 1870 at [Bromborough Hall](/wiki/Bromborough "Bromborough"), [Cheshire](/wiki/Cheshire "Cheshire"), England.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Rankin was born at [Mearns](/wiki/Mearns%2C_Renfrewshire \"Mearns, Renfrewshire\"), [Renfrewshire](/wiki/Renfrewshire \"Renfrewshire\"), Scotland. Having obtained a good general education in Scotland, he joined [Pollok, Gilmour and Company](/wiki/Pollok%2C_Gilmour_and_Company \"Pollok, Gilmour and Company\") in 1815, and in 1818 was transferred to [Miramichi, New Brunswick](/wiki/Miramichi%2C_New_Brunswick \"Miramichi, New Brunswick\"). In 1822 he set up a branch firm, Robert Rankin and Company, in [Saint John, New Brunswick](/wiki/Saint_John%2C_New_Brunswick \"Saint John, New Brunswick\"). This branch became the most prosperous and successful of the Pollok, Gilmour, and Company enterprises.",
"On 17 March 1829 he married Ann, daughter of [John Strang](/wiki/John_Strang \"John Strang\"), a prominent Scottish merchant of [St. Andrews, New Brunswick](/wiki/St._Andrews%2C_New_Brunswick \"St. Andrews, New Brunswick\").",
"By 1830 Rankin was Saint John's leading shipowner and timber merchant. Rankin had added there to his lumbering concerns the building of ships and the importing of textiles, foodstuffs, and building supplies on a large scale – reputedly for more than half of the numerous merchants in the town.",
"In 1838 he returned to Scotland in order to lead the reorganisation of Pollok, Gilmour, and Company, whose founders had fallen out. He renamed it **Rankin, Gilmour, and Company**, and moved the headquarters to [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool \"Liverpool\"). By 1838 his firm operated 130 vessels in the timber trade – making it the largest British shipowning firm – and employed no fewer than 15,000 men in its sawmills, on its wharves, and in the forests; it owned as well 2,000 horses and oxen for draught purposes. In the early 1830s the firm shipped out annually over 300 cargoes of timber. In order to employ its large fleet fully in the winter months, branch houses were opened in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"), and [Mobile, Alabama](/wiki/Mobile%2C_Alabama \"Mobile, Alabama\"), where the company entered the rapidly expanding and very profitable cotton trade. Rankin's prestige in Liverpool can be judged by his election in January 1862 as chairman of the [Mersey Docks and Harbour Board](/wiki/Mersey_Docks_and_Harbour_Board \"Mersey Docks and Harbour Board\"), described as “the highest honour Liverpool has to bestow.” He maintained control of this business empire until his death at the age of 69\\.",
"In his later years Rankin’s public benefactions were numerous. He funded mechanics’ institutes, [temperance societies](/wiki/Temperance_societies \"Temperance societies\"), and [orphans’ homes](/wiki/Orphans%E2%80%99_homes \"Orphans’ homes\"), and he contributed several large sums for the laying of the first [Transatlantic telegraph cable](/wiki/Transatlantic_telegraph_cable \"Transatlantic telegraph cable\") in the 1850s and 1860s.",
"Early in 1869 his health began to fail. The death of his daughter, drowned in [Menai Strait](/wiki/Menai_Strait \"Menai Strait\"), [Wales](/wiki/Wales \"Wales\"), in August 1869, was a crushing blow to Rankin, who had already lost four of his seven children through childhood illnesses. In 1865 he had established his son James as a country gentleman, buying for him two large estates in [Herefordshire](/wiki/Herefordshire \"Herefordshire\").",
"Rankin died in June 1870 at [Bromborough Hall](/wiki/Bromborough \"Bromborough\"), [Cheshire](/wiki/Cheshire \"Cheshire\"), England.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Bharathi has come to Bengaluru after nine years with her husband, Sharath. She had promised her father that she would repay his dues to Mr Govinda Shetty. Only then did her father die in peace. Mr Govinda Shetty inherited the small grocery shop, "Bharath Stores" and was carrying on the family business with pride and such elan that the bus stop in front was named after it as "Bharath stores stop" After alighting near that stop, she was surprised to find no trace of it anywhere there. The queries to that effect went in vain.
Now the frantic search begins. By the fruition of a dedicated search, she meets Chandru and Manjunath, who had worked in that shop. Chandru tells her how he learnt along with the tricks of the trade, to be humane from him. Manjunath tells her, he stayed in the shop till the end until Shetty was hospitalized. He brings her to the old age home. Bharathi finds Shetty there gazing at nothing, having stopped speaking for months and unable to react to her.
Guess the reason behind Shetty's present status?
Certainly not the events in his life, like Balaji, his son showing contempt to the family business, his love marriage nor his leaving the house for ever. Shetty showed his strong willpower at such situations.
Globalisation, liberalisation and industrialisation brought the countries nearer. It is a couple of decades India also accepted these, resulting in the gradual change in the lifestyle. Malls and marts popped up. New ethics and style of business were adapted. Curious clientele gradually were being attracted to the mall culture. Repercussion was the deteriorating retail, small and box shops. Govinda Shetty too was a victim of the tsunami of this dangerous evolution. It is the status of lakhs and lakhs of those like him.
Bharathi's search unfolds the cruel reality of the invasion of mall culture. Many a gigantic question, appear and disturb us.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Bharathi has come to Bengaluru after nine years with her husband, Sharath. She had promised her father that she would repay his dues to Mr Govinda Shetty. Only then did her father die in peace. Mr Govinda Shetty inherited the small grocery shop, \"Bharath Stores\" and was carrying on the family business with pride and such elan that the bus stop in front was named after it as \"Bharath stores stop\" After alighting near that stop, she was surprised to find no trace of it anywhere there. The queries to that effect went in vain.",
"Now the frantic search begins. By the fruition of a dedicated search, she meets Chandru and Manjunath, who had worked in that shop. Chandru tells her how he learnt along with the tricks of the trade, to be humane from him. Manjunath tells her, he stayed in the shop till the end until Shetty was hospitalized. He brings her to the old age home. Bharathi finds Shetty there gazing at nothing, having stopped speaking for months and unable to react to her.",
"Guess the reason behind Shetty's present status?",
"Certainly not the events in his life, like Balaji, his son showing contempt to the family business, his love marriage nor his leaving the house for ever. Shetty showed his strong willpower at such situations.",
"Globalisation, liberalisation and industrialisation brought the countries nearer. It is a couple of decades India also accepted these, resulting in the gradual change in the lifestyle. Malls and marts popped up. New ethics and style of business were adapted. Curious clientele gradually were being attracted to the mall culture. Repercussion was the deteriorating retail, small and box shops. Govinda Shetty too was a victim of the tsunami of this dangerous evolution. It is the status of lakhs and lakhs of those like him.",
"Bharathi's search unfolds the cruel reality of the invasion of mall culture. Many a gigantic question, appear and disturb us.",
""
] |
Football in Soviet\-occupied Poland (1939 \- 1941\)
---------------------------------------------------
In 1939, only one of Ekstraklasa's ten teams was from the region which was later annexed by the Soviets. It was [Pogoń Lwów](/wiki/Pogo%C5%84_Lw%C3%B3w "Pogoń Lwów"), but in the city of Lwów itself (which is the birthplace of Polish football), there was a number of other teams, such as [Czarni Lwów](/wiki/Czarni_Lw%C3%B3w "Czarni Lwów"), [Lechia Lwów](/wiki/Lechia_Lw%C3%B3w "Lechia Lwów"), [Hasmonea Lwów](/wiki/Hasmonea_Lw%C3%B3w "Hasmonea Lwów"), and [Ukraina Lwów](/wiki/Ukraina_Lw%C3%B3w "Ukraina Lwów"). Other well\-known teams from Soviet\-occupied [Eastern Poland](/wiki/Kresy "Kresy") were [Junak Drohobycz](/wiki/Junak_Drohobycz "Junak Drohobycz"), [Rewera Stanisławów](/wiki/Rewera_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w "Rewera Stanisławów"), [Kresy Tarnopol](/wiki/Kresy_Tarnopol "Kresy Tarnopol"), [Ognisko Pińsk](/wiki/Ognisko_Pi%C5%84sk "Ognisko Pińsk"), [Strzelec Janowa Dolina](/wiki/Strzelec_Janowa_Dolina "Strzelec Janowa Dolina") and [WKS Grodno](/wiki/WKS_Grodno "WKS Grodno"). Little is known about the fate of teams and players from other locations of Soviet occupied Poland, except from the city of Lwów itself.
Unlike German occupiers in Western Poland, the Soviets allowed selected Poles to play football. At the same time, however, all Polish teams were closed, and replaced with Soviet ones, which used the facilities of former Polish teams. Legendary coach [Kazimierz Górski](/wiki/Kazimierz_G%C3%B3rski "Kazimierz Górski"), who spent his youth in Lwów and before 1939 had played for RKS Lwów, in the years 1940 \- 1941 and 1944, put on the jersey of Soviet teams Spartak Lvov and Dynamo Lvov, before moving to [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw") in 1945\. Other famous players from Lwów, who were allowed to compete in Soviet\-sponsored teams, were popular goalkeeper [Spirydion Albański](/wiki/Spirydion_Alba%C5%84ski "Spirydion Albański") and [Wacław Kuchar](/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Kuchar "Wacław Kuchar"), who was coach of Dynamo Lvov (1939–1941, 1944–1945\). Furthermore, [Michał Matyas](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Matyas "Michał Matyas") (top scorer of [1935 Ekstraklasa](/wiki/1935_Ekstraklasa "1935 Ekstraklasa")), played for [Dynamo Kyiv](/wiki/Dynamo_Kyiv "Dynamo Kyiv"), and [Adam Wolanin](/wiki/Adam_Wolanin "Adam Wolanin"), after one year at Dynamo Lvov, moved to play shortly for [Spartak Moscow](/wiki/FC_Spartak_Moscow "FC Spartak Moscow"), together with [Bolesław Habowski](/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Habowski "Bolesław Habowski"), who played both for [Dynamo Moscow](/wiki/FC_Dynamo_Moscow "FC Dynamo Moscow") and Spartak Moscow. [Jan Wasiewicz](/wiki/Jan_Wasiewicz "Jan Wasiewicz") ended up in [Polish Armed Forces in the West](/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_West "Polish Armed Forces in the West"), and [Adolf Zimmer](/wiki/Adolf_Zimmer "Adolf Zimmer") Pogoń Lwów was murdered in the [Katyń Massacre](/wiki/Katy%C5%84_Massacre "Katyń Massacre"). [Wacław Jerzewski](/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Jerzewski "Wacław Jerzewski"), who was Pogoń's player and coach in 1938 \- 1939, was after September 1939 interned in [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania"), then fought in general [Władysław Anders](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Anders "Władysław Anders") Corps, and returned to Poland after the war.
Little is known about wartime matches of Polish teams from Eastern Poland. [Bohdan Tuszyński](/wiki/Bohdan_Tuszy%C5%84ski "Bohdan Tuszyński") in his book *Za cenę życia* (*For the price of life*) wrote that on July 2, 1944, in German\-occupied Lwów, a game between Polish team of the city and German team KONA took place. The Poles won 4–2\.
Currently, the memory of the teams from Lwów (now: Lviv, [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine")) is still vivid in Poland. Among teams which are regarded as successors of Pogoń, there are [Polonia Bytom](/wiki/Polonia_Bytom "Polonia Bytom"), [Odra Opole](/wiki/Odra_Opole "Odra Opole"), and [Pogoń Szczecin](/wiki/Pogo%C5%84_Szczecin "Pogoń Szczecin"), while [Lechia Gdańsk](/wiki/Lechia_Gda%C5%84sk "Lechia Gdańsk"), with its white\-green hues, is a successor to [Lechia Lwów](/wiki/Lechia_Lw%C3%B3w "Lechia Lwów"). Also, in autumn of 1946 in [Lwówek Śląski](/wiki/Lw%C3%B3wek_%C5%9Al%C4%85ski "Lwówek Śląski"), sports club Czarni Lwówek was founded, which owes its name to Czarni Lwów. There were several other teams named Czarni in former German province [Lower Silesia](/wiki/Lower_Silesia "Lower Silesia"), where inhabitants of former southeastern Poland moved after the war \- Czarni [Jelcz\-Laskowice](/wiki/Jelcz-Laskowice "Jelcz-Laskowice"), Czarni [Żagań](/wiki/%C5%BBaga%C5%84 "Żagań") and Czarni [Otmuchów](/wiki/Otmuch%C3%B3w "Otmuchów").
Very interesting is the story of players and officials of Junak Drohobycz, who became actively involved in [Polish resistance movement](/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II "Polish resistance movement in World War II"). Before the war, Junak was a team sponsored by the [Polish Army](/wiki/Polish_Army "Polish Army"), and in late 1939, members of the club created the [White Couriers](/wiki/White_Couriers "White Couriers") \- a boyscouting organization, which smuggled hundreds of persons from the area of Lwow to [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary"), across the newly created Soviet\-Hungarian border in the [Carpathians](/wiki/Carpathians "Carpathians"). One of the couriers was Stanisław Gerula, goalkeeper of Junak. Most of players of Junak, who at the same time were soldiers, left Drohobycz in the night of September 11/12, 1939\. A few days later they reached Hungary, where Colonel Mieczysław Mlotek, manager of Junak, decided to recreate the team. Junak played several games both in [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary"), and [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia"), among top players there were Antoni Komendo\-Borowski (previously of [Jagiellonia Białystok](/wiki/Jagiellonia_Bia%C5%82ystok "Jagiellonia Białystok") and Pogoń Lwów) and Henryk Kidacki. In the second half of 1940, all players together with management moved to [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv"), where several games were organized. In 1942, Junak, known as *The Team of Polish Army in the East*, was in [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq"). Among others, it beat Iraq 6\-1 (January 29, 1943\), and [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") 3\-1 (March 12, 1942, with General [Władysław Anders](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Anders "Władysław Anders") watching the game). The Poles also faced the team of the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") (with [Harry Goslin](/wiki/Harry_Goslin "Harry Goslin"), [Stan Hanson](/wiki/Stan_Hanson "Stan Hanson"), [Don Howe](/wiki/Don_Howe_%28footballer_born_1917%29 "Don Howe (footballer born 1917)") and [Ernie Forrest](/wiki/Ernie_Forrest "Ernie Forrest")). The game took place in [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad").
In late stages of the war, Junak, together with the army, moved to [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"). In 1944 in Naples, the Polish team, under the new name *The Carpathians* faced the team of Naples, with 35000 in attendance. Besides players from former clubs from Eastern Poland, the Carpathians also capped stars of Polish football from [Upper Silesia](/wiki/Upper_Silesia "Upper Silesia"), who had been drafted into the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht"), and were caught by the Allies or deserted in Western Europe \- [Edmund Giemsa](/wiki/Edmund_Giemsa "Edmund Giemsa"), [Ewald Cebula](/wiki/Ewald_Cebula "Ewald Cebula"), Henryk Janduda of [AKS Chorzów](/wiki/AKS_Chorz%C3%B3w "AKS Chorzów"), Zygmunt Kulawik of [Śląsk Świętochłowice](/wiki/%C5%9Al%C4%85sk_%C5%9Awi%C4%99toch%C5%82owice "Śląsk Świętochłowice").,
In mid\-October 1939, a little\-known game took place in [Starosielce](/wiki/Osiedle_Starosielce%2C_Bia%C5%82ystok "Osiedle Starosielce, Białystok") in the suburbs of [Białystok](/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok "Białystok"). Soviet troops, which had entered the area a few weeks before, decided that there would be a football match between Polish team of Starosielce and a [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") team from a unit stationed in nearby [Choroszcz](/wiki/Choroszcz "Choroszcz"). After first half, despite several brutal fauls of Soviet players and partisan refereeing, the Poles were winning 2–0\. During the break, an [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD "NKVD") officer approached the manager of the Poles, telling him that Poles had to lose. Thus, the match ended in a 3–2 Soviet win.[Musicie przegraç ten mecz](http://www.poranny.pl/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20100522/ALBUMB/398408914)
|
[
"Football in Soviet\\-occupied Poland (1939 \\- 1941\\)\n---------------------------------------------------",
"In 1939, only one of Ekstraklasa's ten teams was from the region which was later annexed by the Soviets. It was [Pogoń Lwów](/wiki/Pogo%C5%84_Lw%C3%B3w \"Pogoń Lwów\"), but in the city of Lwów itself (which is the birthplace of Polish football), there was a number of other teams, such as [Czarni Lwów](/wiki/Czarni_Lw%C3%B3w \"Czarni Lwów\"), [Lechia Lwów](/wiki/Lechia_Lw%C3%B3w \"Lechia Lwów\"), [Hasmonea Lwów](/wiki/Hasmonea_Lw%C3%B3w \"Hasmonea Lwów\"), and [Ukraina Lwów](/wiki/Ukraina_Lw%C3%B3w \"Ukraina Lwów\"). Other well\\-known teams from Soviet\\-occupied [Eastern Poland](/wiki/Kresy \"Kresy\") were [Junak Drohobycz](/wiki/Junak_Drohobycz \"Junak Drohobycz\"), [Rewera Stanisławów](/wiki/Rewera_Stanis%C5%82aw%C3%B3w \"Rewera Stanisławów\"), [Kresy Tarnopol](/wiki/Kresy_Tarnopol \"Kresy Tarnopol\"), [Ognisko Pińsk](/wiki/Ognisko_Pi%C5%84sk \"Ognisko Pińsk\"), [Strzelec Janowa Dolina](/wiki/Strzelec_Janowa_Dolina \"Strzelec Janowa Dolina\") and [WKS Grodno](/wiki/WKS_Grodno \"WKS Grodno\"). Little is known about the fate of teams and players from other locations of Soviet occupied Poland, except from the city of Lwów itself.",
"Unlike German occupiers in Western Poland, the Soviets allowed selected Poles to play football. At the same time, however, all Polish teams were closed, and replaced with Soviet ones, which used the facilities of former Polish teams. Legendary coach [Kazimierz Górski](/wiki/Kazimierz_G%C3%B3rski \"Kazimierz Górski\"), who spent his youth in Lwów and before 1939 had played for RKS Lwów, in the years 1940 \\- 1941 and 1944, put on the jersey of Soviet teams Spartak Lvov and Dynamo Lvov, before moving to [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\") in 1945\\. Other famous players from Lwów, who were allowed to compete in Soviet\\-sponsored teams, were popular goalkeeper [Spirydion Albański](/wiki/Spirydion_Alba%C5%84ski \"Spirydion Albański\") and [Wacław Kuchar](/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Kuchar \"Wacław Kuchar\"), who was coach of Dynamo Lvov (1939–1941, 1944–1945\\). Furthermore, [Michał Matyas](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Matyas \"Michał Matyas\") (top scorer of [1935 Ekstraklasa](/wiki/1935_Ekstraklasa \"1935 Ekstraklasa\")), played for [Dynamo Kyiv](/wiki/Dynamo_Kyiv \"Dynamo Kyiv\"), and [Adam Wolanin](/wiki/Adam_Wolanin \"Adam Wolanin\"), after one year at Dynamo Lvov, moved to play shortly for [Spartak Moscow](/wiki/FC_Spartak_Moscow \"FC Spartak Moscow\"), together with [Bolesław Habowski](/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Habowski \"Bolesław Habowski\"), who played both for [Dynamo Moscow](/wiki/FC_Dynamo_Moscow \"FC Dynamo Moscow\") and Spartak Moscow. [Jan Wasiewicz](/wiki/Jan_Wasiewicz \"Jan Wasiewicz\") ended up in [Polish Armed Forces in the West](/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_in_the_West \"Polish Armed Forces in the West\"), and [Adolf Zimmer](/wiki/Adolf_Zimmer \"Adolf Zimmer\") Pogoń Lwów was murdered in the [Katyń Massacre](/wiki/Katy%C5%84_Massacre \"Katyń Massacre\"). [Wacław Jerzewski](/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Jerzewski \"Wacław Jerzewski\"), who was Pogoń's player and coach in 1938 \\- 1939, was after September 1939 interned in [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\"), then fought in general [Władysław Anders](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Anders \"Władysław Anders\") Corps, and returned to Poland after the war.",
"Little is known about wartime matches of Polish teams from Eastern Poland. [Bohdan Tuszyński](/wiki/Bohdan_Tuszy%C5%84ski \"Bohdan Tuszyński\") in his book *Za cenę życia* (*For the price of life*) wrote that on July 2, 1944, in German\\-occupied Lwów, a game between Polish team of the city and German team KONA took place. The Poles won 4–2\\.",
"Currently, the memory of the teams from Lwów (now: Lviv, [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\")) is still vivid in Poland. Among teams which are regarded as successors of Pogoń, there are [Polonia Bytom](/wiki/Polonia_Bytom \"Polonia Bytom\"), [Odra Opole](/wiki/Odra_Opole \"Odra Opole\"), and [Pogoń Szczecin](/wiki/Pogo%C5%84_Szczecin \"Pogoń Szczecin\"), while [Lechia Gdańsk](/wiki/Lechia_Gda%C5%84sk \"Lechia Gdańsk\"), with its white\\-green hues, is a successor to [Lechia Lwów](/wiki/Lechia_Lw%C3%B3w \"Lechia Lwów\"). Also, in autumn of 1946 in [Lwówek Śląski](/wiki/Lw%C3%B3wek_%C5%9Al%C4%85ski \"Lwówek Śląski\"), sports club Czarni Lwówek was founded, which owes its name to Czarni Lwów. There were several other teams named Czarni in former German province [Lower Silesia](/wiki/Lower_Silesia \"Lower Silesia\"), where inhabitants of former southeastern Poland moved after the war \\- Czarni [Jelcz\\-Laskowice](/wiki/Jelcz-Laskowice \"Jelcz-Laskowice\"), Czarni [Żagań](/wiki/%C5%BBaga%C5%84 \"Żagań\") and Czarni [Otmuchów](/wiki/Otmuch%C3%B3w \"Otmuchów\").",
"Very interesting is the story of players and officials of Junak Drohobycz, who became actively involved in [Polish resistance movement](/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II \"Polish resistance movement in World War II\"). Before the war, Junak was a team sponsored by the [Polish Army](/wiki/Polish_Army \"Polish Army\"), and in late 1939, members of the club created the [White Couriers](/wiki/White_Couriers \"White Couriers\") \\- a boyscouting organization, which smuggled hundreds of persons from the area of Lwow to [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\"), across the newly created Soviet\\-Hungarian border in the [Carpathians](/wiki/Carpathians \"Carpathians\"). One of the couriers was Stanisław Gerula, goalkeeper of Junak. Most of players of Junak, who at the same time were soldiers, left Drohobycz in the night of September 11/12, 1939\\. A few days later they reached Hungary, where Colonel Mieczysław Mlotek, manager of Junak, decided to recreate the team. Junak played several games both in [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\"), and [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia \"Yugoslavia\"), among top players there were Antoni Komendo\\-Borowski (previously of [Jagiellonia Białystok](/wiki/Jagiellonia_Bia%C5%82ystok \"Jagiellonia Białystok\") and Pogoń Lwów) and Henryk Kidacki. In the second half of 1940, all players together with management moved to [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv \"Tel Aviv\"), where several games were organized. In 1942, Junak, known as *The Team of Polish Army in the East*, was in [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\"). Among others, it beat Iraq 6\\-1 (January 29, 1943\\), and [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") 3\\-1 (March 12, 1942, with General [Władysław Anders](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Anders \"Władysław Anders\") watching the game). The Poles also faced the team of the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") (with [Harry Goslin](/wiki/Harry_Goslin \"Harry Goslin\"), [Stan Hanson](/wiki/Stan_Hanson \"Stan Hanson\"), [Don Howe](/wiki/Don_Howe_%28footballer_born_1917%29 \"Don Howe (footballer born 1917)\") and [Ernie Forrest](/wiki/Ernie_Forrest \"Ernie Forrest\")). The game took place in [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\").",
"In late stages of the war, Junak, together with the army, moved to [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"). In 1944 in Naples, the Polish team, under the new name *The Carpathians* faced the team of Naples, with 35000 in attendance. Besides players from former clubs from Eastern Poland, the Carpathians also capped stars of Polish football from [Upper Silesia](/wiki/Upper_Silesia \"Upper Silesia\"), who had been drafted into the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\"), and were caught by the Allies or deserted in Western Europe \\- [Edmund Giemsa](/wiki/Edmund_Giemsa \"Edmund Giemsa\"), [Ewald Cebula](/wiki/Ewald_Cebula \"Ewald Cebula\"), Henryk Janduda of [AKS Chorzów](/wiki/AKS_Chorz%C3%B3w \"AKS Chorzów\"), Zygmunt Kulawik of [Śląsk Świętochłowice](/wiki/%C5%9Al%C4%85sk_%C5%9Awi%C4%99toch%C5%82owice \"Śląsk Świętochłowice\").,",
"In mid\\-October 1939, a little\\-known game took place in [Starosielce](/wiki/Osiedle_Starosielce%2C_Bia%C5%82ystok \"Osiedle Starosielce, Białystok\") in the suburbs of [Białystok](/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok \"Białystok\"). Soviet troops, which had entered the area a few weeks before, decided that there would be a football match between Polish team of Starosielce and a [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") team from a unit stationed in nearby [Choroszcz](/wiki/Choroszcz \"Choroszcz\"). After first half, despite several brutal fauls of Soviet players and partisan refereeing, the Poles were winning 2–0\\. During the break, an [NKVD](/wiki/NKVD \"NKVD\") officer approached the manager of the Poles, telling him that Poles had to lose. Thus, the match ended in a 3–2 Soviet win.[Musicie przegraç ten mecz](http://www.poranny.pl/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20100522/ALBUMB/398408914)",
""
] |
Football in German\-occupied Poland (1939 \- 1945\)
---------------------------------------------------
Following Polish September Campaign, the Germans occupied western and central Poland, the area where football was much better developed. Out of ten teams of the 1939 Ekstraklasa, only one came from Eastern Poland ([Pogoń Lwów](/wiki/Pogo%C5%84_Lw%C3%B3w "Pogoń Lwów")), and main centers of interbellum Polish football were located in [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw"), [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków"), [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 "Poznań"), [Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA "Łódź"), and Polish part of [Upper Silesia](/wiki/Upper_Silesia "Upper Silesia"). German occupiers immediately banned all ethnic Poles from playing football, allowing only those who signed the [Volksliste](/wiki/Volksliste "Volksliste"). As a result, all Polish clubs were closed, except for those from Upper Silesia, which were allowed to operate under new, German\-sounding names.
### Football in German\-occupied Warsaw
In 1939, Warsaw had two teams in Ekstraklasa \- [Polonia Warszawa](/wiki/Polonia_Warszawa "Polonia Warszawa"), and [Warszawianka Warszawa](/wiki/Warszawianka_Warszawa "Warszawianka Warszawa"). Immediately after capture of the city, the Germans closed all Polish clubs, and players were forced to go underground. In spring of 1940, first games were organized in [Mokotów Field](/wiki/Mokot%C3%B3w_Field "Mokotów Field") by [Józef Ciszewski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ciszewski "Józef Ciszewski"), former player of [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 "KS Cracovia (football)") and [Legia Warsaw](/wiki/Legia_Warsaw "Legia Warsaw"). Soon afterwards, in summer of 1940, regular games started, with prewar teams participating under changed names \- e.g., players of [Polonia Warszawa](/wiki/Polonia_Warszawa "Polonia Warszawa") created teams of Pochodnia, Czarni, and Bimber. Before German authorities seized Polonia's stadium on Konwiktorska Street, in September 1940, a tournament with thirteen teams took place there. In the final game (September 13, 1940\), Czarni beat Bimber 3\-1\.
On December 24, 1941, Alfred Nowakowski created underground *Warsaw District of Association Football*, and in 1942 games of Warsaw Championship began, with teams not only from Warsaw, but from suburbs, such as [Wołomin](/wiki/Wo%C5%82omin "Wołomin"), [Góra Kalwaria](/wiki/G%C3%B3ra_Kalwaria "Góra Kalwaria"), [Brwinów](/wiki/Brwin%C3%B3w "Brwinów"), and [Piaseczno](/wiki/Piaseczno "Piaseczno"). Both in 1942 and 1943 champions were re\-created [Polonia Warszawa](/wiki/Polonia_Warszawa "Polonia Warszawa"). Since matches attracted thousands of fans, and Warsaw was too dangerous because of presence of numerous German soldiers, most of them took place in the suburbs, in such towns, as [Piaseczno](/wiki/Piaseczno "Piaseczno"), [Konstancin\-Jeziorna](/wiki/Konstancin-Jeziorna "Konstancin-Jeziorna"), [Błonie](/wiki/B%C5%82onie "Błonie"), and [Mirków](/wiki/Mirk%C3%B3w_%28disambiguation%29 "Mirków (disambiguation)"). In Piaseczno, on Easter Boxing Day 1943, a game between the teams of Warsaw and Kraków took place, ending in a 1–1 draw, with hundreds of spectators watching. Also, in mid\-1942, an unusual game took place in [Legionowo](/wiki/Legionowo "Legionowo"). [Huragan Wołomin](/wiki/Huragan_Wo%C5%82omin "Huragan Wołomin") faced a team made of German and Bulgarian soldiers, stationed in the town. Poles won 3–2, after a very heated match. Among most active football teams of occupied Warsaw was [Okęcie Warszawa](/wiki/Ok%C4%99cie_Warszawa "Okęcie Warszawa"), which played over 100 matches. During the war, Okęcie kept four teams, including two of junior players. In 1942, Okęcie was second in Championship of Warsaw, after [Polonia](/wiki/Polonia_Warsaw "Polonia Warsaw").
Last wartime championship took place in 1944, but due to [Warsaw Uprising](/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising "Warsaw Uprising"), it was not finished. With some fifty teams, Warsaw was one of main centers of Polish football in those years, which was confirmed in the first postwar Polish Championship (1946\), won by [Polonia](/wiki/Polonia_Warsaw "Polonia Warsaw").
### Football in German\-occupied Kraków
Kraków was another center of Polish football \- in [1939 Ekstraklasa](/wiki/1939_Ekstraklasa "1939 Ekstraklasa"), out of ten teams, as many as three ([Wisła Kraków](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w "Wisła Kraków"), [Cracovia Kraków](/wiki/Cracovia_Krak%C3%B3w "Cracovia Kraków"), and [Garbarnia Kraków](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w "Garbarnia Kraków")) were from that city. It took only a few weeks of occupation for local football officials and players to organize first underground wartime game. On October 22, 1939, in [Bronowice](/wiki/Bronowice%2C_Krak%C3%B3w "Bronowice, Kraków"), Wisła beat Krowodrza 3\-1\.
On August 7, 1940, first wartime Championship of Kraków began in *Sports Park Juvenia*. A few days earlier, on July 23, [Hans Frank](/wiki/Hans_Frank "Hans Frank") had issued a decree, which officially dissolved Polish associations, including sports clubs on the territory of [General Government](/wiki/General_Government "General Government"). However, Juvenia official Aleksander Wódka was allowed to use the grounds of the Sports Park in any way he liked, so football pitch there for two years was the arena of a number of matches, with German authorities giving unofficial permission. Eight teams participated in the 1940 Championship: Bloki, [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 "KS Cracovia (football)"), [Garbarnia](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w "Garbarnia Kraków"), Groble, Juvenia, Sparta, [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w "Wisła Kraków") and Zwierzyniecki, and the champion was [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w "Wisła Kraków"), winning all games, with goal difference 52\-8\. Second was [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 "KS Cracovia (football)"), third [Garbarnia](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w "Garbarnia Kraków"). The tournament was popular among local fans, attracting up to 3000 people for top games.
Second Championship took place in summer and early fall of 1941 (between June 14, and October 19, with 79 games played). Poles were banned from practising organized sports, but at the same time, they were allowed to use Juvenia Parks’ facilities, which gave them a chance to keep playing. There were no qualifiers for the Championship, and thirteen teams took place in it: AKS, Bloki, [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 "KS Cracovia (football)"), Dębnicki, Garbarnia, Groble, Juvenia, Kazimierz, Prądniczanka, Sparta, [Wawel](/wiki/Wawel_Krak%C3%B3w "Wawel Kraków"), [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w "Wisła Kraków") and Zwierzyniecki. After all rounds, it turned out that both Wisła and Cracovia had equal number of points, so additional game was necessary, which was won by Wisła 3\-2\. As organizers of the tournament later wrote, German soldiers and officers were frequent guests at games, but they did not disturb them.
In 1942, after closing of Juvenia Sports Park, no championship took place, due to increased terror. The Championships of Kraków returned in 1943, but this time they took place on several fields both in the city, and in the suburbs. Several new teams were created, and German authorities did not seem to be interested in these activities. After a July 6, 1943, meeting of officials, 22 teams applied for participation, and three groups were created. Games took place in suburban districts of Borek, Łagiewniki, [Rakowice](/wiki/Rakowice%2C_Krak%C3%B3w "Rakowice, Kraków") and Wieczysta. The 1943 Championship of Kraków was remembered for years because of events which took place during and after most games. Players, officials and supporters of teams would fight each other \- on August 1, 1943, during a game between Łagiewianka and Wisła, a group of Łagiewianka officials and fans entered the pitch to beat up the referee and Wisła players. The game was ended eight minutes before time. A week later, there were disturbances during games Groble \- Nadwiślan (in Borek Fałęcki), and Dąbski \- Czarni (in Rakowice), and [Blue Police](/wiki/Blue_Police "Blue Police") had to intervene. Due to those disturbances, on August 10, 1943, all games were cancelled. The decision was changed after the August 15 meeting, but it did not help, as soon afterwards, during the game Rakowiczanka \- Cracovia, further riots took place.
On Sunday, October 17, 1943, at 3 p.m., final game of the 1943 Kraków Championship took place at Garbarnia Stadium, with some 10,000 spectators. The game between Wisła and Cracovia ended with a gigantic fight between supporters of both teams, after referee Tadeusz Milusiński awarded a penalty kick to Cracovia, after Wisła's player touched the ball with a hand in the box. In response, Wisła's [Mieczysław Gracz](/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_Gracz "Mieczysław Gracz") kicked the referee, and Wisła's players left the pitch, urged by their officials. Fights between angry fans moved on to the streets of Kraków's district of [Podgórze](/wiki/Podg%C3%B3rze "Podgórze"). German authorities did not intervene, as the military commandant of the district, Hans Mitschke, stated that "football fans were the same everywhere". As a result, the game was settled as 3\-0 for Cracovia.
The matches of the 1944 Championship of Kraków were not fully completed, due to increasing terror of the occupation.
### Football in German\-occupied Upper Silesia
Unlike in other parts of Poland, German authorities in Upper Silesia allowed all teams to continue their activities, but they were ordered to change their names. Thus [AKS Chorzów](/wiki/AKS_Chorz%C3%B3w "AKS Chorzów") became *Fussball Verein Germania Königshütte*, [Ruch Chorzów](/wiki/Ruch_Chorz%C3%B3w "Ruch Chorzów") \- *Bismarckhütter SV 99*, [Naprzód Lipiny](/wiki/Naprz%C3%B3d_Lipiny "Naprzód Lipiny") \- *TuS Lipine*, and [Śląsk Świętochłowice](/wiki/%C5%9Al%C4%85sk_%C5%9Awi%C4%99toch%C5%82owice "Śląsk Świętochłowice") \- *TuS Schwientochlowitz* (for more information see [Gauliga Schlesien](/wiki/Gauliga_Schlesien "Gauliga Schlesien")).
In the late 1930s, bulk of players of National Team of Poland were from Upper Silesia; in some games there were eight Silesians in the starting lineup. Most popular football star of interwar Poland, [Ernest Wilimowski](/wiki/Ernest_Wilimowski "Ernest Wilimowski"), capped several times for Germany in the early 1940s, and other top players, from the region such as [Gerard Wodarz](/wiki/Gerard_Wodarz "Gerard Wodarz"), [Jerzy Wostal](/wiki/Jerzy_Wostal "Jerzy Wostal"), [Teodor Peterek](/wiki/Teodor_Peterek "Teodor Peterek"), [Wilhelm Góra](/wiki/Wilhelm_G%C3%B3ra "Wilhelm Góra"), [Leonard Piątek](/wiki/Leonard_Pi%C4%85tek "Leonard Piątek"), [Ewald Dytko](/wiki/Ewald_Dytko "Ewald Dytko"), [Erwin Nyc](/wiki/Erwin_Nyc "Erwin Nyc"), after signing the [Volksliste](/wiki/Volksliste "Volksliste"), were allowed to continue playing. Eventually, most of them were drafted to the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht"). Some time in early stages of the war, Leonard Piątek went to Kraków, to ask [Józef Kałuża](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ka%C5%82u%C5%BCa "Józef Kałuża") if he would let him and his colleagues play for German teams. Kałuża answered in the affirmative.
### Football in other locations
Underground football games also took place in other locations of occupied Poland.
* during the occupation of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz") youth focused in particular districts unfolded enjoying great interest in football meetings. One of the initiators of these meetings was Stanisław Dąbrowski (before the war striker in the juniors of Brda Bydgoszcz). Football teams existed in some neighborhoods of the city from which borrowed its name. In the "Wilczak" team played three Buhl brothers, player and at the same time the head of the team "Prądy" was Jan Dolata (before the war goalkeeper at OPN Sokól V Bydgoszcz and KS Kabel Polski Bydgoszcz), in the eleven "Plac Kościuszki" played Jan Świtała, and in the team, "Okole" outstanding player was Stanisław Dąbrowski.
* during the war, there were games of Championship of [Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA "Łódź"). First underground Polish teams there were created in late 1939 and early 1940, among youth of districts of Widzew, Karolew, Ruda Pabianicka and [Retkinia](/wiki/Retkinia "Retkinia"), also in towns of [Zgierz](/wiki/Zgierz "Zgierz") and [Pabianice](/wiki/Pabianice "Pabianice"). It has been established that in 1942, the final match between Cytadela and Wólka, was ended 10 minutes before time. Several Polish teams were active in the city during the occupation. According to the webpage of Łódź Office of Polish Football Association, these were: Wólka, Wola, Wicher (which was made of players of [ŁKS Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81KS_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA "ŁKS Łódź")), Cytadela, Widzew, Zdrowie, Ruda, Chojny, Retkinia, Harcerze, Klapitka, Pabianice and Zgierz. Most active football team of wartime Łódź was [Widzew](/wiki/Widzew_Lodz "Widzew Lodz"), which played several games in that period, but the best team of wartime Łódź was Wólka. On October 24, 1943, the game between Wólka and Wicher was interrupted by German police. Many players and fans were arrested, and taken to a police station, but all were released after paying the ticket in the amount of 10 reichsmarks.
* in [Piotrków Trybunalski](/wiki/Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski "Piotrków Trybunalski"), there were five teams: Huta (now [Concordia](/wiki/Concordia_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski "Concordia Piotrków Trybunalski")), Bugaj \- Zryw, Pekin \- Ruch, Arba (former Zakład Skórzany). Since 1940, they played regular games, with lookouts scanning the area, as Germans tried to catch players.
* in [Rzeszów](/wiki/Rzesz%C3%B3w "Rzeszów"), games of [Resovia Rzeszów](/wiki/CWKS_Resovia_%28football%29 "CWKS Resovia (football)") were organized since 1942 in neighboring town of [Strzyzów](/wiki/Strzyz%C3%B3w "Strzyzów"), regarded as a safer location. Like in other places of the occupied country, players risked arrest, but their love of the game was more important. Among those who took part in those games were [Edmund Białas](/wiki/Edmund_Bia%C5%82as "Edmund Białas") of [Lech Poznań](/wiki/Lech_Pozna%C5%84 "Lech Poznań"), who lived in Rzeszów during the war, and [Tadeusz Hogendorf](/wiki/Tadeusz_Hogendorf "Tadeusz Hogendorf"), legendary player of Resovia and [Warszawianka Warszawa](/wiki/Warszawianka_Warszawa "Warszawianka Warszawa"). Hogendorf recalled later that Germans asked Poles to play against them. Matches took place somewhere near [Dębica](/wiki/D%C4%99bica "Dębica"), and Germans provided transportation for Polish players.
* in [Proszowice](/wiki/Proszowice "Proszowice"), on August 15, 1942, a game between local team Proszowianka and a team of players from Kraków took place. Also, there was a game between Proszowianka and a team of German soldiers, stationed in the town. The match took place some time in fall of 1943, the Germans won 4–1\.
* in [Słomniki](/wiki/S%C5%82omniki "Słomniki") near Kraków, local team Słomniczanka continued its activity, with German commandant of the town unofficially allowing matches. During the war, there were several games vs. teams from Kraków, also vs. a team of Wehrmacht soldiers. Furthermore, Słomniczanka hosted teams from local towns \- [Wolbrom](/wiki/Wolbrom "Wolbrom"), [Kazimierza Wielka](/wiki/Kazimierza_Wielka "Kazimierza Wielka"), [Skała](/wiki/Ska%C5%82a "Skała"), Proszowice, [Miechów](/wiki/Miech%C3%B3w "Miechów"), [Nowe Brzesko](/wiki/Nowe_Brzesko "Nowe Brzesko"), [Pilica](/wiki/Pilica%2C_Silesian_Voivodeship "Pilica, Silesian Voivodeship").
* football games also took place in the region of [Zagłębie Dąbrowskie](/wiki/Zag%C5%82%C4%99bie_D%C4%85browskie "Zagłębie Dąbrowskie"). Several teams were active there \- from [Sosnowiec](/wiki/Sosnowiec "Sosnowiec") ([Unia Sosnowiec](/wiki/Zaglebie_Sosnowiec "Zaglebie Sosnowiec")), [Czeladź](/wiki/Czelad%C5%BA "Czeladź"), [Dąbrowa Górnicza](/wiki/D%C4%85browa_G%C3%B3rnicza "Dąbrowa Górnicza"), [Będzin](/wiki/B%C4%99dzin "Będzin"), districts of Niwka, Zagórze, and Piaski. Some time in the early 1940s, underground championship of the region took place, won by AKS Niwka.
* in [Siedlce](/wiki/Siedlce "Siedlce"), where several unofficial teams were active during the war (Mydlarze, Goryle, Kolejarze, Czarni), a game between Polish side of the city and a team of Wehrmacht took place in 1940\. The game was won by the Poles, and several Polish players had to hide for some time, fearing arrest by angry Germans.
* in [Jędrzejów](/wiki/J%C4%99drzej%C3%B3w "Jędrzejów"), in the years 1941 \- 1942, there were games between local team and teams of [Kielce](/wiki/Kielce "Kielce") and [Wolbrom](/wiki/Wolbrom "Wolbrom"). For fear of Germans, these matches took place on a meadow in the neighboring village of Piaski.
* games also took place in [Sandomierz](/wiki/Sandomierz "Sandomierz"). According to the webpage of *Town Center of Sports and Recreation*, during a break in a secret game, partisans of [Jędrusie](/wiki/J%C4%99drusie "Jędrusie") executed a local Nazi official.[Miejski Stadion Sportowy \- historia i plany po modernizacji obiektu](http://www.mosir.sandomierz.pl/obiekty/stadion/historia.html)"W czasie okupacji hitlerowskiej w przerwie meczu piłki nożnej \- partyzanci z grupy "Jędrusie" wykonali wyrok na przedstawicielu hitlerowskich władz miasta Sandomierza"
* even though German authorities expelled thousands of Polish inhabitants of [Gdynia](/wiki/Gdynia "Gdynia"), and named the city *Gotenhafen* (see [Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany](/wiki/Expulsion_of_Poles_by_Nazi_Germany "Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany")), remaining officials and players of [Bałtyk Gdynia](/wiki/Ba%C5%82tyk_Gdynia "Bałtyk Gdynia") organized games, which took place in [Rumia](/wiki/Rumia "Rumia") \- Zagórze, with a number of people watching.{{Cite web \|url\=http://sksbaltyk.com/baltyk/historia.html \|title\=History of Sports Club Bałtyk Gdynia \|access\-date\=2011\-09\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111224214034/http://sksbaltyk.com/baltyk/historia.html \|archive\-date\=2011\-12\-24 \|url\-status\=dead }}
* in [Grójec](/wiki/Gr%C3%B3jec "Grójec"), two games were organized in 1941\. During the second match, the Germans organized a [roundup](/wiki/Roundup_%28history%29 "Roundup (history)"), arresting nine people. After that incident, no more games took place in the town.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.okolica.wgr.pl/modules.php?name\=News\&file\=print\&sid\=3118 \|title\=Sports in Grójec in the interbellum period. Interview with Tadeusz Pękacki \|access\-date\=2011\-09\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402192905/http://www.okolica.wgr.pl/modules.php?name\=News\&file\=print\&sid\=3118 \|archive\-date\=2012\-04\-02 \|url\-status\=dead }}
* games for the championship of the city were organized in [Lublin](/wiki/Lublin "Lublin"), with such teams, as Promień, Kolejarz, Bronowiczanka, Unia, Garbarnia, Rurowianka, Wrotkowia, [KS Lublinianka](/wiki/Lublinianka "Lublinianka") and Starówka. Lublin players twice went on bicycles to [Dęblin](/wiki/D%C4%99blin "Dęblin"), to play a local team. Last wartime championship of the city was won by Unia. In August 1944, when the Wehrmacht had already been pushed behind the [Vistula](/wiki/Vistula "Vistula"), a game between team of Lublin and team of Italian POW's, released from camps, took place. With thousands of fans and [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") officers watching, the Poles won 2–1\.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.akwiek.pl/artykuly/121\-pierwszy\-mecz\-w\-wyzwolonym\-lublinie.html \|title\=First game in freed Lublin, by Henryk Szymczyk \|access\-date\=2011\-09\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402193106/http://www.akwiek.pl/artykuly/121\-pierwszy\-mecz\-w\-wyzwolonym\-lublinie.html \|archive\-date\=2012\-04\-02 \|url\-status\=dead }}
* since [Tarnów](/wiki/Tarn%C3%B3w "Tarnów") was too dangerous, players of [Tarnovia Tarnów](/wiki/Tarnovia_Tarn%C3%B3w "Tarnovia Tarnów") and other local teams organized matches in such towns, as [Ciężkowice](/wiki/Ci%C4%99%C5%BCkowice "Ciężkowice"), [Bobowa](/wiki/Bobowa "Bobowa"), [Limanowa](/wiki/Limanowa "Limanowa"), and Krzyż.{{Cite web \|url\=http://seniorzytarnovii.futbolowo.pl/menu,24,30,historia\-klubu.html \|title\=History of Football Department of MKS Tarnovia \|access\-date\=2011\-09\-22 \|archive\-date\=2011\-10\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011011055/http://seniorzytarnovii.futbolowo.pl/menu,24,30,historia\-klubu.html \|url\-status\=dead }}
* in [Jasło](/wiki/Jas%C5%82o "Jasło"), the Germans seized stadium of [Czarni](/wiki/Czarni_Jas%C5%82o "Czarni Jasło"), so local players were forced to play in neighboring villages, such as Męcinka. Also, a game between Jasło and [Strzyżów](/wiki/Strzy%C5%BC%C3%B3w "Strzyżów") took place in Strzyżów, with the guests winning 5–3\. Underground matches also were organized in the towns of [Krosno](/wiki/Krosno "Krosno"), [Lesko](/wiki/Lesko "Lesko"), and [Sanok](/wiki/Sanok "Sanok"), mostly on meadows.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.ozpn.krosno.net.pl/historia\-ozpn/XXXlat.htm \|title\=30 Years of Krosno Office of Polish Football Federation \|access\-date\=2011\-09\-22 \|archive\-date\=2016\-06\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609220305/http://www.ozpn.krosno.net.pl/historia\-ozpn/XXXlat.htm \|url\-status\=dead }}
* German occupiers forced a number of inhabitants of [Czechowice\-Dziedzice](/wiki/Czechowice-Dziedzice "Czechowice-Dziedzice") to move to [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria"), especially to the town of [Kirchenlamitz](/wiki/Kirchenlamitz "Kirchenlamitz"), where they worked in local factories. Several illegal games took place in Kirchenlamitz, between players of prewar local rivals *RKS Czechowice* and *SKS Grażyna Dziedzice*. In the same town, an unusual game between Polish and French workers was organized, won by Poles 4\-2\. Among French players there allegedly was Henri Doudin of [FC Rennes](/wiki/FC_Rennes "FC Rennes"), and the match referee was a Dutchman named Simon van Aperen from Vlaardingen.[History of MRKS Czechowice\-Dziedzice](http://www.mrks.czechowice.pl/news.php?readmore=669)
* in [Chełm](/wiki/Che%C5%82m "Chełm"), due to efforts of prewar sports official Zygmunt Berezecki, three games took place between Polish players of pre\-1939 team *Kolejowe Przysposobienie Wojskowe*, and Germans from units stationed in the town.[Zygmunt Berezecki (1918\-2001\) sportowiec, trener, działacz sportowy, społecznik](http://www.chelm24.pl/zasluzeni-chelmianie-cz1/964-zygmunt-berezecki-1918-2001){{Dead link\|date\=December 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
|
[
"Football in German\\-occupied Poland (1939 \\- 1945\\)\n---------------------------------------------------",
"Following Polish September Campaign, the Germans occupied western and central Poland, the area where football was much better developed. Out of ten teams of the 1939 Ekstraklasa, only one came from Eastern Poland ([Pogoń Lwów](/wiki/Pogo%C5%84_Lw%C3%B3w \"Pogoń Lwów\")), and main centers of interbellum Polish football were located in [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\"), [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\"), [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 \"Poznań\"), [Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA \"Łódź\"), and Polish part of [Upper Silesia](/wiki/Upper_Silesia \"Upper Silesia\"). German occupiers immediately banned all ethnic Poles from playing football, allowing only those who signed the [Volksliste](/wiki/Volksliste \"Volksliste\"). As a result, all Polish clubs were closed, except for those from Upper Silesia, which were allowed to operate under new, German\\-sounding names.",
"### Football in German\\-occupied Warsaw",
"In 1939, Warsaw had two teams in Ekstraklasa \\- [Polonia Warszawa](/wiki/Polonia_Warszawa \"Polonia Warszawa\"), and [Warszawianka Warszawa](/wiki/Warszawianka_Warszawa \"Warszawianka Warszawa\"). Immediately after capture of the city, the Germans closed all Polish clubs, and players were forced to go underground. In spring of 1940, first games were organized in [Mokotów Field](/wiki/Mokot%C3%B3w_Field \"Mokotów Field\") by [Józef Ciszewski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ciszewski \"Józef Ciszewski\"), former player of [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 \"KS Cracovia (football)\") and [Legia Warsaw](/wiki/Legia_Warsaw \"Legia Warsaw\"). Soon afterwards, in summer of 1940, regular games started, with prewar teams participating under changed names \\- e.g., players of [Polonia Warszawa](/wiki/Polonia_Warszawa \"Polonia Warszawa\") created teams of Pochodnia, Czarni, and Bimber. Before German authorities seized Polonia's stadium on Konwiktorska Street, in September 1940, a tournament with thirteen teams took place there. In the final game (September 13, 1940\\), Czarni beat Bimber 3\\-1\\.",
"On December 24, 1941, Alfred Nowakowski created underground *Warsaw District of Association Football*, and in 1942 games of Warsaw Championship began, with teams not only from Warsaw, but from suburbs, such as [Wołomin](/wiki/Wo%C5%82omin \"Wołomin\"), [Góra Kalwaria](/wiki/G%C3%B3ra_Kalwaria \"Góra Kalwaria\"), [Brwinów](/wiki/Brwin%C3%B3w \"Brwinów\"), and [Piaseczno](/wiki/Piaseczno \"Piaseczno\"). Both in 1942 and 1943 champions were re\\-created [Polonia Warszawa](/wiki/Polonia_Warszawa \"Polonia Warszawa\"). Since matches attracted thousands of fans, and Warsaw was too dangerous because of presence of numerous German soldiers, most of them took place in the suburbs, in such towns, as [Piaseczno](/wiki/Piaseczno \"Piaseczno\"), [Konstancin\\-Jeziorna](/wiki/Konstancin-Jeziorna \"Konstancin-Jeziorna\"), [Błonie](/wiki/B%C5%82onie \"Błonie\"), and [Mirków](/wiki/Mirk%C3%B3w_%28disambiguation%29 \"Mirków (disambiguation)\"). In Piaseczno, on Easter Boxing Day 1943, a game between the teams of Warsaw and Kraków took place, ending in a 1–1 draw, with hundreds of spectators watching. Also, in mid\\-1942, an unusual game took place in [Legionowo](/wiki/Legionowo \"Legionowo\"). [Huragan Wołomin](/wiki/Huragan_Wo%C5%82omin \"Huragan Wołomin\") faced a team made of German and Bulgarian soldiers, stationed in the town. Poles won 3–2, after a very heated match. Among most active football teams of occupied Warsaw was [Okęcie Warszawa](/wiki/Ok%C4%99cie_Warszawa \"Okęcie Warszawa\"), which played over 100 matches. During the war, Okęcie kept four teams, including two of junior players. In 1942, Okęcie was second in Championship of Warsaw, after [Polonia](/wiki/Polonia_Warsaw \"Polonia Warsaw\").",
"Last wartime championship took place in 1944, but due to [Warsaw Uprising](/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising \"Warsaw Uprising\"), it was not finished. With some fifty teams, Warsaw was one of main centers of Polish football in those years, which was confirmed in the first postwar Polish Championship (1946\\), won by [Polonia](/wiki/Polonia_Warsaw \"Polonia Warsaw\").",
"### Football in German\\-occupied Kraków",
"Kraków was another center of Polish football \\- in [1939 Ekstraklasa](/wiki/1939_Ekstraklasa \"1939 Ekstraklasa\"), out of ten teams, as many as three ([Wisła Kraków](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w \"Wisła Kraków\"), [Cracovia Kraków](/wiki/Cracovia_Krak%C3%B3w \"Cracovia Kraków\"), and [Garbarnia Kraków](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w \"Garbarnia Kraków\")) were from that city. It took only a few weeks of occupation for local football officials and players to organize first underground wartime game. On October 22, 1939, in [Bronowice](/wiki/Bronowice%2C_Krak%C3%B3w \"Bronowice, Kraków\"), Wisła beat Krowodrza 3\\-1\\.",
"On August 7, 1940, first wartime Championship of Kraków began in *Sports Park Juvenia*. A few days earlier, on July 23, [Hans Frank](/wiki/Hans_Frank \"Hans Frank\") had issued a decree, which officially dissolved Polish associations, including sports clubs on the territory of [General Government](/wiki/General_Government \"General Government\"). However, Juvenia official Aleksander Wódka was allowed to use the grounds of the Sports Park in any way he liked, so football pitch there for two years was the arena of a number of matches, with German authorities giving unofficial permission. Eight teams participated in the 1940 Championship: Bloki, [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 \"KS Cracovia (football)\"), [Garbarnia](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w \"Garbarnia Kraków\"), Groble, Juvenia, Sparta, [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w \"Wisła Kraków\") and Zwierzyniecki, and the champion was [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w \"Wisła Kraków\"), winning all games, with goal difference 52\\-8\\. Second was [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 \"KS Cracovia (football)\"), third [Garbarnia](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w \"Garbarnia Kraków\"). The tournament was popular among local fans, attracting up to 3000 people for top games.",
"Second Championship took place in summer and early fall of 1941 (between June 14, and October 19, with 79 games played). Poles were banned from practising organized sports, but at the same time, they were allowed to use Juvenia Parks’ facilities, which gave them a chance to keep playing. There were no qualifiers for the Championship, and thirteen teams took place in it: AKS, Bloki, [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 \"KS Cracovia (football)\"), Dębnicki, Garbarnia, Groble, Juvenia, Kazimierz, Prądniczanka, Sparta, [Wawel](/wiki/Wawel_Krak%C3%B3w \"Wawel Kraków\"), [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w \"Wisła Kraków\") and Zwierzyniecki. After all rounds, it turned out that both Wisła and Cracovia had equal number of points, so additional game was necessary, which was won by Wisła 3\\-2\\. As organizers of the tournament later wrote, German soldiers and officers were frequent guests at games, but they did not disturb them.",
"In 1942, after closing of Juvenia Sports Park, no championship took place, due to increased terror. The Championships of Kraków returned in 1943, but this time they took place on several fields both in the city, and in the suburbs. Several new teams were created, and German authorities did not seem to be interested in these activities. After a July 6, 1943, meeting of officials, 22 teams applied for participation, and three groups were created. Games took place in suburban districts of Borek, Łagiewniki, [Rakowice](/wiki/Rakowice%2C_Krak%C3%B3w \"Rakowice, Kraków\") and Wieczysta. The 1943 Championship of Kraków was remembered for years because of events which took place during and after most games. Players, officials and supporters of teams would fight each other \\- on August 1, 1943, during a game between Łagiewianka and Wisła, a group of Łagiewianka officials and fans entered the pitch to beat up the referee and Wisła players. The game was ended eight minutes before time. A week later, there were disturbances during games Groble \\- Nadwiślan (in Borek Fałęcki), and Dąbski \\- Czarni (in Rakowice), and [Blue Police](/wiki/Blue_Police \"Blue Police\") had to intervene. Due to those disturbances, on August 10, 1943, all games were cancelled. The decision was changed after the August 15 meeting, but it did not help, as soon afterwards, during the game Rakowiczanka \\- Cracovia, further riots took place.",
"On Sunday, October 17, 1943, at 3 p.m., final game of the 1943 Kraków Championship took place at Garbarnia Stadium, with some 10,000 spectators. The game between Wisła and Cracovia ended with a gigantic fight between supporters of both teams, after referee Tadeusz Milusiński awarded a penalty kick to Cracovia, after Wisła's player touched the ball with a hand in the box. In response, Wisła's [Mieczysław Gracz](/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_Gracz \"Mieczysław Gracz\") kicked the referee, and Wisła's players left the pitch, urged by their officials. Fights between angry fans moved on to the streets of Kraków's district of [Podgórze](/wiki/Podg%C3%B3rze \"Podgórze\"). German authorities did not intervene, as the military commandant of the district, Hans Mitschke, stated that \"football fans were the same everywhere\". As a result, the game was settled as 3\\-0 for Cracovia.",
"The matches of the 1944 Championship of Kraków were not fully completed, due to increasing terror of the occupation.",
"### Football in German\\-occupied Upper Silesia",
"Unlike in other parts of Poland, German authorities in Upper Silesia allowed all teams to continue their activities, but they were ordered to change their names. Thus [AKS Chorzów](/wiki/AKS_Chorz%C3%B3w \"AKS Chorzów\") became *Fussball Verein Germania Königshütte*, [Ruch Chorzów](/wiki/Ruch_Chorz%C3%B3w \"Ruch Chorzów\") \\- *Bismarckhütter SV 99*, [Naprzód Lipiny](/wiki/Naprz%C3%B3d_Lipiny \"Naprzód Lipiny\") \\- *TuS Lipine*, and [Śląsk Świętochłowice](/wiki/%C5%9Al%C4%85sk_%C5%9Awi%C4%99toch%C5%82owice \"Śląsk Świętochłowice\") \\- *TuS Schwientochlowitz* (for more information see [Gauliga Schlesien](/wiki/Gauliga_Schlesien \"Gauliga Schlesien\")).",
"In the late 1930s, bulk of players of National Team of Poland were from Upper Silesia; in some games there were eight Silesians in the starting lineup. Most popular football star of interwar Poland, [Ernest Wilimowski](/wiki/Ernest_Wilimowski \"Ernest Wilimowski\"), capped several times for Germany in the early 1940s, and other top players, from the region such as [Gerard Wodarz](/wiki/Gerard_Wodarz \"Gerard Wodarz\"), [Jerzy Wostal](/wiki/Jerzy_Wostal \"Jerzy Wostal\"), [Teodor Peterek](/wiki/Teodor_Peterek \"Teodor Peterek\"), [Wilhelm Góra](/wiki/Wilhelm_G%C3%B3ra \"Wilhelm Góra\"), [Leonard Piątek](/wiki/Leonard_Pi%C4%85tek \"Leonard Piątek\"), [Ewald Dytko](/wiki/Ewald_Dytko \"Ewald Dytko\"), [Erwin Nyc](/wiki/Erwin_Nyc \"Erwin Nyc\"), after signing the [Volksliste](/wiki/Volksliste \"Volksliste\"), were allowed to continue playing. Eventually, most of them were drafted to the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\"). Some time in early stages of the war, Leonard Piątek went to Kraków, to ask [Józef Kałuża](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ka%C5%82u%C5%BCa \"Józef Kałuża\") if he would let him and his colleagues play for German teams. Kałuża answered in the affirmative.",
"### Football in other locations",
"Underground football games also took place in other locations of occupied Poland.\n* during the occupation of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\") youth focused in particular districts unfolded enjoying great interest in football meetings. One of the initiators of these meetings was Stanisław Dąbrowski (before the war striker in the juniors of Brda Bydgoszcz). Football teams existed in some neighborhoods of the city from which borrowed its name. In the \"Wilczak\" team played three Buhl brothers, player and at the same time the head of the team \"Prądy\" was Jan Dolata (before the war goalkeeper at OPN Sokól V Bydgoszcz and KS Kabel Polski Bydgoszcz), in the eleven \"Plac Kościuszki\" played Jan Świtała, and in the team, \"Okole\" outstanding player was Stanisław Dąbrowski.\n* during the war, there were games of Championship of [Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA \"Łódź\"). First underground Polish teams there were created in late 1939 and early 1940, among youth of districts of Widzew, Karolew, Ruda Pabianicka and [Retkinia](/wiki/Retkinia \"Retkinia\"), also in towns of [Zgierz](/wiki/Zgierz \"Zgierz\") and [Pabianice](/wiki/Pabianice \"Pabianice\"). It has been established that in 1942, the final match between Cytadela and Wólka, was ended 10 minutes before time. Several Polish teams were active in the city during the occupation. According to the webpage of Łódź Office of Polish Football Association, these were: Wólka, Wola, Wicher (which was made of players of [ŁKS Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81KS_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA \"ŁKS Łódź\")), Cytadela, Widzew, Zdrowie, Ruda, Chojny, Retkinia, Harcerze, Klapitka, Pabianice and Zgierz. Most active football team of wartime Łódź was [Widzew](/wiki/Widzew_Lodz \"Widzew Lodz\"), which played several games in that period, but the best team of wartime Łódź was Wólka. On October 24, 1943, the game between Wólka and Wicher was interrupted by German police. Many players and fans were arrested, and taken to a police station, but all were released after paying the ticket in the amount of 10 reichsmarks.\n* in [Piotrków Trybunalski](/wiki/Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski \"Piotrków Trybunalski\"), there were five teams: Huta (now [Concordia](/wiki/Concordia_Piotrk%C3%B3w_Trybunalski \"Concordia Piotrków Trybunalski\")), Bugaj \\- Zryw, Pekin \\- Ruch, Arba (former Zakład Skórzany). Since 1940, they played regular games, with lookouts scanning the area, as Germans tried to catch players.\n* in [Rzeszów](/wiki/Rzesz%C3%B3w \"Rzeszów\"), games of [Resovia Rzeszów](/wiki/CWKS_Resovia_%28football%29 \"CWKS Resovia (football)\") were organized since 1942 in neighboring town of [Strzyzów](/wiki/Strzyz%C3%B3w \"Strzyzów\"), regarded as a safer location. Like in other places of the occupied country, players risked arrest, but their love of the game was more important. Among those who took part in those games were [Edmund Białas](/wiki/Edmund_Bia%C5%82as \"Edmund Białas\") of [Lech Poznań](/wiki/Lech_Pozna%C5%84 \"Lech Poznań\"), who lived in Rzeszów during the war, and [Tadeusz Hogendorf](/wiki/Tadeusz_Hogendorf \"Tadeusz Hogendorf\"), legendary player of Resovia and [Warszawianka Warszawa](/wiki/Warszawianka_Warszawa \"Warszawianka Warszawa\"). Hogendorf recalled later that Germans asked Poles to play against them. Matches took place somewhere near [Dębica](/wiki/D%C4%99bica \"Dębica\"), and Germans provided transportation for Polish players.\n* in [Proszowice](/wiki/Proszowice \"Proszowice\"), on August 15, 1942, a game between local team Proszowianka and a team of players from Kraków took place. Also, there was a game between Proszowianka and a team of German soldiers, stationed in the town. The match took place some time in fall of 1943, the Germans won 4–1\\.\n* in [Słomniki](/wiki/S%C5%82omniki \"Słomniki\") near Kraków, local team Słomniczanka continued its activity, with German commandant of the town unofficially allowing matches. During the war, there were several games vs. teams from Kraków, also vs. a team of Wehrmacht soldiers. Furthermore, Słomniczanka hosted teams from local towns \\- [Wolbrom](/wiki/Wolbrom \"Wolbrom\"), [Kazimierza Wielka](/wiki/Kazimierza_Wielka \"Kazimierza Wielka\"), [Skała](/wiki/Ska%C5%82a \"Skała\"), Proszowice, [Miechów](/wiki/Miech%C3%B3w \"Miechów\"), [Nowe Brzesko](/wiki/Nowe_Brzesko \"Nowe Brzesko\"), [Pilica](/wiki/Pilica%2C_Silesian_Voivodeship \"Pilica, Silesian Voivodeship\").\n* football games also took place in the region of [Zagłębie Dąbrowskie](/wiki/Zag%C5%82%C4%99bie_D%C4%85browskie \"Zagłębie Dąbrowskie\"). Several teams were active there \\- from [Sosnowiec](/wiki/Sosnowiec \"Sosnowiec\") ([Unia Sosnowiec](/wiki/Zaglebie_Sosnowiec \"Zaglebie Sosnowiec\")), [Czeladź](/wiki/Czelad%C5%BA \"Czeladź\"), [Dąbrowa Górnicza](/wiki/D%C4%85browa_G%C3%B3rnicza \"Dąbrowa Górnicza\"), [Będzin](/wiki/B%C4%99dzin \"Będzin\"), districts of Niwka, Zagórze, and Piaski. Some time in the early 1940s, underground championship of the region took place, won by AKS Niwka.\n* in [Siedlce](/wiki/Siedlce \"Siedlce\"), where several unofficial teams were active during the war (Mydlarze, Goryle, Kolejarze, Czarni), a game between Polish side of the city and a team of Wehrmacht took place in 1940\\. The game was won by the Poles, and several Polish players had to hide for some time, fearing arrest by angry Germans.\n* in [Jędrzejów](/wiki/J%C4%99drzej%C3%B3w \"Jędrzejów\"), in the years 1941 \\- 1942, there were games between local team and teams of [Kielce](/wiki/Kielce \"Kielce\") and [Wolbrom](/wiki/Wolbrom \"Wolbrom\"). For fear of Germans, these matches took place on a meadow in the neighboring village of Piaski.\n* games also took place in [Sandomierz](/wiki/Sandomierz \"Sandomierz\"). According to the webpage of *Town Center of Sports and Recreation*, during a break in a secret game, partisans of [Jędrusie](/wiki/J%C4%99drusie \"Jędrusie\") executed a local Nazi official.[Miejski Stadion Sportowy \\- historia i plany po modernizacji obiektu](http://www.mosir.sandomierz.pl/obiekty/stadion/historia.html)\"W czasie okupacji hitlerowskiej w przerwie meczu piłki nożnej \\- partyzanci z grupy \"Jędrusie\" wykonali wyrok na przedstawicielu hitlerowskich władz miasta Sandomierza\"\n* even though German authorities expelled thousands of Polish inhabitants of [Gdynia](/wiki/Gdynia \"Gdynia\"), and named the city *Gotenhafen* (see [Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany](/wiki/Expulsion_of_Poles_by_Nazi_Germany \"Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany\")), remaining officials and players of [Bałtyk Gdynia](/wiki/Ba%C5%82tyk_Gdynia \"Bałtyk Gdynia\") organized games, which took place in [Rumia](/wiki/Rumia \"Rumia\") \\- Zagórze, with a number of people watching.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://sksbaltyk.com/baltyk/historia.html \\|title\\=History of Sports Club Bałtyk Gdynia \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111224214034/http://sksbaltyk.com/baltyk/historia.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-12\\-24 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* in [Grójec](/wiki/Gr%C3%B3jec \"Grójec\"), two games were organized in 1941\\. During the second match, the Germans organized a [roundup](/wiki/Roundup_%28history%29 \"Roundup (history)\"), arresting nine people. After that incident, no more games took place in the town.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.okolica.wgr.pl/modules.php?name\\=News\\&file\\=print\\&sid\\=3118 \\|title\\=Sports in Grójec in the interbellum period. Interview with Tadeusz Pękacki \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402192905/http://www.okolica.wgr.pl/modules.php?name\\=News\\&file\\=print\\&sid\\=3118 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-02 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* games for the championship of the city were organized in [Lublin](/wiki/Lublin \"Lublin\"), with such teams, as Promień, Kolejarz, Bronowiczanka, Unia, Garbarnia, Rurowianka, Wrotkowia, [KS Lublinianka](/wiki/Lublinianka \"Lublinianka\") and Starówka. Lublin players twice went on bicycles to [Dęblin](/wiki/D%C4%99blin \"Dęblin\"), to play a local team. Last wartime championship of the city was won by Unia. In August 1944, when the Wehrmacht had already been pushed behind the [Vistula](/wiki/Vistula \"Vistula\"), a game between team of Lublin and team of Italian POW's, released from camps, took place. With thousands of fans and [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") officers watching, the Poles won 2–1\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.akwiek.pl/artykuly/121\\-pierwszy\\-mecz\\-w\\-wyzwolonym\\-lublinie.html \\|title\\=First game in freed Lublin, by Henryk Szymczyk \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402193106/http://www.akwiek.pl/artykuly/121\\-pierwszy\\-mecz\\-w\\-wyzwolonym\\-lublinie.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-02 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* since [Tarnów](/wiki/Tarn%C3%B3w \"Tarnów\") was too dangerous, players of [Tarnovia Tarnów](/wiki/Tarnovia_Tarn%C3%B3w \"Tarnovia Tarnów\") and other local teams organized matches in such towns, as [Ciężkowice](/wiki/Ci%C4%99%C5%BCkowice \"Ciężkowice\"), [Bobowa](/wiki/Bobowa \"Bobowa\"), [Limanowa](/wiki/Limanowa \"Limanowa\"), and Krzyż.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://seniorzytarnovii.futbolowo.pl/menu,24,30,historia\\-klubu.html \\|title\\=History of Football Department of MKS Tarnovia \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-22 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011011055/http://seniorzytarnovii.futbolowo.pl/menu,24,30,historia\\-klubu.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* in [Jasło](/wiki/Jas%C5%82o \"Jasło\"), the Germans seized stadium of [Czarni](/wiki/Czarni_Jas%C5%82o \"Czarni Jasło\"), so local players were forced to play in neighboring villages, such as Męcinka. Also, a game between Jasło and [Strzyżów](/wiki/Strzy%C5%BC%C3%B3w \"Strzyżów\") took place in Strzyżów, with the guests winning 5–3\\. Underground matches also were organized in the towns of [Krosno](/wiki/Krosno \"Krosno\"), [Lesko](/wiki/Lesko \"Lesko\"), and [Sanok](/wiki/Sanok \"Sanok\"), mostly on meadows.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ozpn.krosno.net.pl/historia\\-ozpn/XXXlat.htm \\|title\\=30 Years of Krosno Office of Polish Football Federation \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-22 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609220305/http://www.ozpn.krosno.net.pl/historia\\-ozpn/XXXlat.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* German occupiers forced a number of inhabitants of [Czechowice\\-Dziedzice](/wiki/Czechowice-Dziedzice \"Czechowice-Dziedzice\") to move to [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\"), especially to the town of [Kirchenlamitz](/wiki/Kirchenlamitz \"Kirchenlamitz\"), where they worked in local factories. Several illegal games took place in Kirchenlamitz, between players of prewar local rivals *RKS Czechowice* and *SKS Grażyna Dziedzice*. In the same town, an unusual game between Polish and French workers was organized, won by Poles 4\\-2\\. Among French players there allegedly was Henri Doudin of [FC Rennes](/wiki/FC_Rennes \"FC Rennes\"), and the match referee was a Dutchman named Simon van Aperen from Vlaardingen.[History of MRKS Czechowice\\-Dziedzice](http://www.mrks.czechowice.pl/news.php?readmore=669)\n* in [Chełm](/wiki/Che%C5%82m \"Chełm\"), due to efforts of prewar sports official Zygmunt Berezecki, three games took place between Polish players of pre\\-1939 team *Kolejowe Przysposobienie Wojskowe*, and Germans from units stationed in the town.[Zygmunt Berezecki (1918\\-2001\\) sportowiec, trener, działacz sportowy, społecznik](http://www.chelm24.pl/zasluzeni-chelmianie-cz1/964-zygmunt-berezecki-1918-2001){{Dead link\\|date\\=December 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
""
] |
### Football in German\-occupied Kraków
Kraków was another center of Polish football \- in [1939 Ekstraklasa](/wiki/1939_Ekstraklasa "1939 Ekstraklasa"), out of ten teams, as many as three ([Wisła Kraków](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w "Wisła Kraków"), [Cracovia Kraków](/wiki/Cracovia_Krak%C3%B3w "Cracovia Kraków"), and [Garbarnia Kraków](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w "Garbarnia Kraków")) were from that city. It took only a few weeks of occupation for local football officials and players to organize first underground wartime game. On October 22, 1939, in [Bronowice](/wiki/Bronowice%2C_Krak%C3%B3w "Bronowice, Kraków"), Wisła beat Krowodrza 3\-1\.
On August 7, 1940, first wartime Championship of Kraków began in *Sports Park Juvenia*. A few days earlier, on July 23, [Hans Frank](/wiki/Hans_Frank "Hans Frank") had issued a decree, which officially dissolved Polish associations, including sports clubs on the territory of [General Government](/wiki/General_Government "General Government"). However, Juvenia official Aleksander Wódka was allowed to use the grounds of the Sports Park in any way he liked, so football pitch there for two years was the arena of a number of matches, with German authorities giving unofficial permission. Eight teams participated in the 1940 Championship: Bloki, [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 "KS Cracovia (football)"), [Garbarnia](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w "Garbarnia Kraków"), Groble, Juvenia, Sparta, [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w "Wisła Kraków") and Zwierzyniecki, and the champion was [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w "Wisła Kraków"), winning all games, with goal difference 52\-8\. Second was [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 "KS Cracovia (football)"), third [Garbarnia](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w "Garbarnia Kraków"). The tournament was popular among local fans, attracting up to 3000 people for top games.
Second Championship took place in summer and early fall of 1941 (between June 14, and October 19, with 79 games played). Poles were banned from practising organized sports, but at the same time, they were allowed to use Juvenia Parks’ facilities, which gave them a chance to keep playing. There were no qualifiers for the Championship, and thirteen teams took place in it: AKS, Bloki, [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 "KS Cracovia (football)"), Dębnicki, Garbarnia, Groble, Juvenia, Kazimierz, Prądniczanka, Sparta, [Wawel](/wiki/Wawel_Krak%C3%B3w "Wawel Kraków"), [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w "Wisła Kraków") and Zwierzyniecki. After all rounds, it turned out that both Wisła and Cracovia had equal number of points, so additional game was necessary, which was won by Wisła 3\-2\. As organizers of the tournament later wrote, German soldiers and officers were frequent guests at games, but they did not disturb them.
In 1942, after closing of Juvenia Sports Park, no championship took place, due to increased terror. The Championships of Kraków returned in 1943, but this time they took place on several fields both in the city, and in the suburbs. Several new teams were created, and German authorities did not seem to be interested in these activities. After a July 6, 1943, meeting of officials, 22 teams applied for participation, and three groups were created. Games took place in suburban districts of Borek, Łagiewniki, [Rakowice](/wiki/Rakowice%2C_Krak%C3%B3w "Rakowice, Kraków") and Wieczysta. The 1943 Championship of Kraków was remembered for years because of events which took place during and after most games. Players, officials and supporters of teams would fight each other \- on August 1, 1943, during a game between Łagiewianka and Wisła, a group of Łagiewianka officials and fans entered the pitch to beat up the referee and Wisła players. The game was ended eight minutes before time. A week later, there were disturbances during games Groble \- Nadwiślan (in Borek Fałęcki), and Dąbski \- Czarni (in Rakowice), and [Blue Police](/wiki/Blue_Police "Blue Police") had to intervene. Due to those disturbances, on August 10, 1943, all games were cancelled. The decision was changed after the August 15 meeting, but it did not help, as soon afterwards, during the game Rakowiczanka \- Cracovia, further riots took place.
On Sunday, October 17, 1943, at 3 p.m., final game of the 1943 Kraków Championship took place at Garbarnia Stadium, with some 10,000 spectators. The game between Wisła and Cracovia ended with a gigantic fight between supporters of both teams, after referee Tadeusz Milusiński awarded a penalty kick to Cracovia, after Wisła's player touched the ball with a hand in the box. In response, Wisła's [Mieczysław Gracz](/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_Gracz "Mieczysław Gracz") kicked the referee, and Wisła's players left the pitch, urged by their officials. Fights between angry fans moved on to the streets of Kraków's district of [Podgórze](/wiki/Podg%C3%B3rze "Podgórze"). German authorities did not intervene, as the military commandant of the district, Hans Mitschke, stated that "football fans were the same everywhere". As a result, the game was settled as 3\-0 for Cracovia.
The matches of the 1944 Championship of Kraków were not fully completed, due to increasing terror of the occupation.
|
[
"### Football in German\\-occupied Kraków",
"Kraków was another center of Polish football \\- in [1939 Ekstraklasa](/wiki/1939_Ekstraklasa \"1939 Ekstraklasa\"), out of ten teams, as many as three ([Wisła Kraków](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w \"Wisła Kraków\"), [Cracovia Kraków](/wiki/Cracovia_Krak%C3%B3w \"Cracovia Kraków\"), and [Garbarnia Kraków](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w \"Garbarnia Kraków\")) were from that city. It took only a few weeks of occupation for local football officials and players to organize first underground wartime game. On October 22, 1939, in [Bronowice](/wiki/Bronowice%2C_Krak%C3%B3w \"Bronowice, Kraków\"), Wisła beat Krowodrza 3\\-1\\.",
"On August 7, 1940, first wartime Championship of Kraków began in *Sports Park Juvenia*. A few days earlier, on July 23, [Hans Frank](/wiki/Hans_Frank \"Hans Frank\") had issued a decree, which officially dissolved Polish associations, including sports clubs on the territory of [General Government](/wiki/General_Government \"General Government\"). However, Juvenia official Aleksander Wódka was allowed to use the grounds of the Sports Park in any way he liked, so football pitch there for two years was the arena of a number of matches, with German authorities giving unofficial permission. Eight teams participated in the 1940 Championship: Bloki, [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 \"KS Cracovia (football)\"), [Garbarnia](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w \"Garbarnia Kraków\"), Groble, Juvenia, Sparta, [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w \"Wisła Kraków\") and Zwierzyniecki, and the champion was [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w \"Wisła Kraków\"), winning all games, with goal difference 52\\-8\\. Second was [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 \"KS Cracovia (football)\"), third [Garbarnia](/wiki/Garbarnia_Krak%C3%B3w \"Garbarnia Kraków\"). The tournament was popular among local fans, attracting up to 3000 people for top games.",
"Second Championship took place in summer and early fall of 1941 (between June 14, and October 19, with 79 games played). Poles were banned from practising organized sports, but at the same time, they were allowed to use Juvenia Parks’ facilities, which gave them a chance to keep playing. There were no qualifiers for the Championship, and thirteen teams took place in it: AKS, Bloki, [Cracovia](/wiki/KS_Cracovia_%28football%29 \"KS Cracovia (football)\"), Dębnicki, Garbarnia, Groble, Juvenia, Kazimierz, Prądniczanka, Sparta, [Wawel](/wiki/Wawel_Krak%C3%B3w \"Wawel Kraków\"), [Wisła](/wiki/Wis%C5%82a_Krak%C3%B3w \"Wisła Kraków\") and Zwierzyniecki. After all rounds, it turned out that both Wisła and Cracovia had equal number of points, so additional game was necessary, which was won by Wisła 3\\-2\\. As organizers of the tournament later wrote, German soldiers and officers were frequent guests at games, but they did not disturb them.",
"In 1942, after closing of Juvenia Sports Park, no championship took place, due to increased terror. The Championships of Kraków returned in 1943, but this time they took place on several fields both in the city, and in the suburbs. Several new teams were created, and German authorities did not seem to be interested in these activities. After a July 6, 1943, meeting of officials, 22 teams applied for participation, and three groups were created. Games took place in suburban districts of Borek, Łagiewniki, [Rakowice](/wiki/Rakowice%2C_Krak%C3%B3w \"Rakowice, Kraków\") and Wieczysta. The 1943 Championship of Kraków was remembered for years because of events which took place during and after most games. Players, officials and supporters of teams would fight each other \\- on August 1, 1943, during a game between Łagiewianka and Wisła, a group of Łagiewianka officials and fans entered the pitch to beat up the referee and Wisła players. The game was ended eight minutes before time. A week later, there were disturbances during games Groble \\- Nadwiślan (in Borek Fałęcki), and Dąbski \\- Czarni (in Rakowice), and [Blue Police](/wiki/Blue_Police \"Blue Police\") had to intervene. Due to those disturbances, on August 10, 1943, all games were cancelled. The decision was changed after the August 15 meeting, but it did not help, as soon afterwards, during the game Rakowiczanka \\- Cracovia, further riots took place.",
"On Sunday, October 17, 1943, at 3 p.m., final game of the 1943 Kraków Championship took place at Garbarnia Stadium, with some 10,000 spectators. The game between Wisła and Cracovia ended with a gigantic fight between supporters of both teams, after referee Tadeusz Milusiński awarded a penalty kick to Cracovia, after Wisła's player touched the ball with a hand in the box. In response, Wisła's [Mieczysław Gracz](/wiki/Mieczys%C5%82aw_Gracz \"Mieczysław Gracz\") kicked the referee, and Wisła's players left the pitch, urged by their officials. Fights between angry fans moved on to the streets of Kraków's district of [Podgórze](/wiki/Podg%C3%B3rze \"Podgórze\"). German authorities did not intervene, as the military commandant of the district, Hans Mitschke, stated that \"football fans were the same everywhere\". As a result, the game was settled as 3\\-0 for Cracovia.",
"The matches of the 1944 Championship of Kraków were not fully completed, due to increasing terror of the occupation.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Pre\-colonial rule
As part of [Srivijaya](/wiki/Srivijaya "Srivijaya"), Pangkalpinang was inhabited by Hindus. In addition to being a territory of Sriwijaya, it was also a territory of [Majapahit](/wiki/Majapahit "Majapahit") and the [Mataram Kingdom](/wiki/Medang_Kingdom "Medang Kingdom"). In all three kingdoms, Pangkalpinang received little attention despite its proximity to international shipping routes and became a hideout for pirates preying on ships in the [South China Sea](/wiki/South_China_Sea "South China Sea")
To secure the shipping routes around the [Strait of Malacca](/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca "Strait of Malacca"), the [Johor Sultanate](/wiki/Johor_Sultanate "Johor Sultanate") sent troops to Pangkalpinang and began spreading [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") in the region. However, the pirates soon returned.
Years later, in another attempt to rid the area of piracy, the [Sultan of Banten](/wiki/Banten_Sultanate "Banten Sultanate") sent a [regent](/wiki/Regent "Regent") of the Indonesian archipelago to eradicate the pirates. The regent established control and ruled Bangka until his death, when his authority passed to his only daughter.
### Colonial rule
{{See also\|Invasion of Java (1811\)}}
Around 1709, [tin](/wiki/Tin "Tin") was found on the banks of the Olin River in Toboali District. With the discovery of tin, merchants from China and elsewhere flocked to the region; the Sultan of Palembang sent representatives to China in search of tin experts. In 1717, the [Palembang Sultanate](/wiki/Palembang_Sultanate "Palembang Sultanate") began developing trade relationships with the [Dutch East India Company](/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company "Dutch East India Company") (VOC). With the company's help, the sultan attempted to eradicate piracy and tin smuggling.
The Netherlands was occupied by France at the height of the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars"), and the British seized all areas in [Nusantara](/wiki/Nusantara_%28archipelago%29 "Nusantara (archipelago)") under Dutch governance. In accordance with the Tuntang Agreement, on 18 September 1811 the Dutch handed over the island of Java, Timor, Makassar, and Palembang to the British; Pangkalpinang become a British colony. [Stamford Raffles](/wiki/Stamford_Raffles "Stamford Raffles") sent emissaries to Palembang to take over the Dutch fort in Sungai Aur, but they were rejected by Sultan [Mahmud Badaruddin II](/wiki/Mahmud_Badaruddin_II "Mahmud Badaruddin II"). Raffles also demanded the tin mines in Pangkalpinang from Badaruddin.
Raffles sent an expedition to Palembang, led by [Rollo Gillespie](/wiki/Rollo_Gillespie "Rollo Gillespie"), on 20 March 1812\. Gillespie replaced Mahmud Badaruddin II with Prince Adipati, giving him the title of Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin II, and the new sultan handed over the islands of [Belitung](/wiki/Belitung "Belitung") and [Bangka Islands](/wiki/Bangka_Island "Bangka Island") to the British.
In accordance with the [Anglo\-Dutch Treaty of 1824](/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824 "Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824"), the Netherlands regained areas occupied in 1803 by the British (including Pangkalpinang). The native people were subjected to fraud, extortion, and forced labor by the Dutch and the British. The Dutch exploited the tin reserves; guerrilla warfare was fought in [Musi Rawas](/wiki/Musi_Rawas_Regency "Musi Rawas Regency"), and Pangkalpinang fought to expel the Dutch.
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Bangka Island was [occupied](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies "Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies") by [Japanese](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan "Empire of Japan") troops. Although the occupation of Pangkalpinang was brief, shortages of food and clothing were severe.
### Independent Indonesia
After Japan surrendered to the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") and the [Indonesia proclaimed its independence](/wiki/Proclamation_of_Indonesian_Independence "Proclamation of Indonesian Independence"), Pangkalpinang became part of Indonesia. (initially as part of the province of [South Sumatra](/wiki/South_Sumatra "South Sumatra")). After the country's political landscape changed, Bangka Belitung Islands were separated from South Sumatra and [combined as a province](/wiki/Bangka_Belitung_Islands "Bangka Belitung Islands") with Pangkalpinang its capital.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Pre\\-colonial rule",
"As part of [Srivijaya](/wiki/Srivijaya \"Srivijaya\"), Pangkalpinang was inhabited by Hindus. In addition to being a territory of Sriwijaya, it was also a territory of [Majapahit](/wiki/Majapahit \"Majapahit\") and the [Mataram Kingdom](/wiki/Medang_Kingdom \"Medang Kingdom\"). In all three kingdoms, Pangkalpinang received little attention despite its proximity to international shipping routes and became a hideout for pirates preying on ships in the [South China Sea](/wiki/South_China_Sea \"South China Sea\")",
"To secure the shipping routes around the [Strait of Malacca](/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca \"Strait of Malacca\"), the [Johor Sultanate](/wiki/Johor_Sultanate \"Johor Sultanate\") sent troops to Pangkalpinang and began spreading [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") in the region. However, the pirates soon returned.",
"Years later, in another attempt to rid the area of piracy, the [Sultan of Banten](/wiki/Banten_Sultanate \"Banten Sultanate\") sent a [regent](/wiki/Regent \"Regent\") of the Indonesian archipelago to eradicate the pirates. The regent established control and ruled Bangka until his death, when his authority passed to his only daughter.",
"### Colonial rule",
"{{See also\\|Invasion of Java (1811\\)}}\nAround 1709, [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\") was found on the banks of the Olin River in Toboali District. With the discovery of tin, merchants from China and elsewhere flocked to the region; the Sultan of Palembang sent representatives to China in search of tin experts. In 1717, the [Palembang Sultanate](/wiki/Palembang_Sultanate \"Palembang Sultanate\") began developing trade relationships with the [Dutch East India Company](/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company \"Dutch East India Company\") (VOC). With the company's help, the sultan attempted to eradicate piracy and tin smuggling.",
"The Netherlands was occupied by France at the height of the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\"), and the British seized all areas in [Nusantara](/wiki/Nusantara_%28archipelago%29 \"Nusantara (archipelago)\") under Dutch governance. In accordance with the Tuntang Agreement, on 18 September 1811 the Dutch handed over the island of Java, Timor, Makassar, and Palembang to the British; Pangkalpinang become a British colony. [Stamford Raffles](/wiki/Stamford_Raffles \"Stamford Raffles\") sent emissaries to Palembang to take over the Dutch fort in Sungai Aur, but they were rejected by Sultan [Mahmud Badaruddin II](/wiki/Mahmud_Badaruddin_II \"Mahmud Badaruddin II\"). Raffles also demanded the tin mines in Pangkalpinang from Badaruddin.",
"Raffles sent an expedition to Palembang, led by [Rollo Gillespie](/wiki/Rollo_Gillespie \"Rollo Gillespie\"), on 20 March 1812\\. Gillespie replaced Mahmud Badaruddin II with Prince Adipati, giving him the title of Sultan Ahmad Najamuddin II, and the new sultan handed over the islands of [Belitung](/wiki/Belitung \"Belitung\") and [Bangka Islands](/wiki/Bangka_Island \"Bangka Island\") to the British.",
"In accordance with the [Anglo\\-Dutch Treaty of 1824](/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824 \"Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824\"), the Netherlands regained areas occupied in 1803 by the British (including Pangkalpinang). The native people were subjected to fraud, extortion, and forced labor by the Dutch and the British. The Dutch exploited the tin reserves; guerrilla warfare was fought in [Musi Rawas](/wiki/Musi_Rawas_Regency \"Musi Rawas Regency\"), and Pangkalpinang fought to expel the Dutch.",
"During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Bangka Island was [occupied](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Dutch_East_Indies \"Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies\") by [Japanese](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") troops. Although the occupation of Pangkalpinang was brief, shortages of food and clothing were severe.",
"### Independent Indonesia",
"After Japan surrendered to the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") and the [Indonesia proclaimed its independence](/wiki/Proclamation_of_Indonesian_Independence \"Proclamation of Indonesian Independence\"), Pangkalpinang became part of Indonesia. (initially as part of the province of [South Sumatra](/wiki/South_Sumatra \"South Sumatra\")). After the country's political landscape changed, Bangka Belitung Islands were separated from South Sumatra and [combined as a province](/wiki/Bangka_Belitung_Islands \"Bangka Belitung Islands\") with Pangkalpinang its capital.",
""
] |
History
-------
Seven old theaters were active in Venice at the end of the eighteenth century, two for the production of plays and the others for music. The grandest of these was the Teatro San Benedetto, which stood on the site currently occupied by the Rossini cinema. Built by the Grimani family in 1755, it was subsequently assigned to the Nobile Società di Palchettisti (Noble Association of Box\-holders). However, following a judicial ruling in 1787, this association was expelled and forced to give up the opera house to the noble Venier family, the owners of the land on which it was built.
The association immediately proposed building a larger and more sumptuous opera house than the one it had lost, which would become the symbol of their changing fortunes and their capacity for ′rebirth′. It was therefore to be called *La Fenice*, like the mythical, immortal bird able to rise out of its own ashes, to symbolise the association's splendid rebirth after its misfortunes.
[thumb\|left\|Interior of first theatre, 1829](/wiki/File:La_Fenice-1st_theatre-1829.jpg "La Fenice-1st theatre-1829.jpg")
The piece of land between Contrada Santa Maria Zobenigo and Contrada Sant'Angelo was bought for the purpose in 1790 and the private houses on it were demolished. A competition was then announced for the design of the opera house, and the committee of experts selected the work of the architect [Giannantonio Selva](/wiki/Giannantonio_Selva "Giannantonio Selva") from the 29 plans submitted.
Work began in 1791 and was completed just 18 months later, in April 1792\.
*La Fenice* immediately made its mark as one of the leading opera houses, noted in Italy and Europe both for the high artistic quality of its work and the splendour of its building. But, almost as if the name were the bearer of bad omens, on the night of 13 December 1836 the opera house was devastated by a first fire caused by a recently installed Austrian heater. The newspapers said it took three days and three nights to put out the fire and that various hotspots were still smouldering among the debris 18 days later. The flames entirely destroyed the house, and only the foyer and the Sale Apollinee were saved.
The association decided to proceed with its immediate reconstruction. It appointed the architect [Giambattista Meduna](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Meduna "Giovanni Battista Meduna") and his engineer brother [Tommaso](/wiki/Tommaso_Meduna "Tommaso Meduna") to carry out the work, while [Tranquillo Orsi](/wiki/Tranquillo_Orsi "Tranquillo Orsi") was responsible for the decorations. The work began in February 1837 and performances were temporarily staged in the Teatro Apollo (previously the San Luca, now Goldoni).
Everything was completed in record time. By the evening of 26 December of the same year, the new opera house, reborn in the new artistic style of the age, was opened to the public. The speed of the work, however, led to urgent restoration works to the framework being required as early as 1854 and, again under the direction of Giambattista Meduna, the house was redecorated in a style that remained unchanged until 1996\.
On 23 July 1935 the box\-holder owners ceded their share in the opera house to the [Comune di Venezia](/wiki/Comune_di_Venezia "Comune di Venezia"), so it went from private to public ownership, and in 1937\-8 part of building was subject to further major restorations and alterations by engineer Eugenio Miozzi.
On the night of 29 January 1996, during a period of closure for restoration works, a second fire – as the Myth said – this time arson, completely destroyed the house and most of the Sale Apollinee. Once again La Fenice rose again, faithfully reconstructed to a plan by the architect [Aldo Rossi](/wiki/Aldo_Rossi "Aldo Rossi"), and was reopened on 14 December 2003\.
### First theatre
In 1774, the [Teatro San Benedetto](/wiki/Teatro_San_Benedetto "Teatro San Benedetto"), which had been Venice's leading opera house for more than forty years, burned to the ground. By 1789, with interest from a number of wealthy opera lovers who wanted a spectacular new house, "a carefully defined competition" was organised to find a suitable architect. It was won by Gianantonio Selva who proposed a [neoclassical style](/wiki/Neoclassicism "Neoclassicism") building with 170 identical boxes in tiers in a traditional horseshoe shaped auditorium, which had been the favoured style since it was introduced as early as 1642 in Venice. The house would face on one side a *campo*, or small plaza, and on the other a canal, with an entrance which gave direct access backstage and into the theatre.Beauvert 1995, p. 34
However, the process was not without controversy especially in regard to the aesthetics of the building. Some thirty responses were received and, as Romanelli accounts, Selva's was designated as the design to be constructed, the actual award for best design went to his chief rival, Pietro Bianchi.Romanelli 1997, p. 151 However, Selva's design and finished opera house appears to have been of high quality and the one best suited to the limitations of the physical space it was obliged to inhabit.
Construction began in June 1790, and by May 1792 the theatre was completed. It was named "La Fenice", in reference to the company's survival, first of the fire, then of the loss of its former quarters. La Fenice was inaugurated on 16 May 1792, with an opera by [Giovanni Paisiello](/wiki/Giovanni_Paisiello "Giovanni Paisiello") entitled *[I giuochi d'Agrigento](/wiki/I_giuochi_d%27Agrigento "I giuochi d'Agrigento")* set to a libretto by [Alessandro Pepoli](/wiki/Alessandro_Pepoli "Alessandro Pepoli").
But no sooner had the opera house been rebuilt than a legal dispute broke out between the company managing it and the owners, the Venier family. The issue was decided in favor of the Veniers.
At the beginning of the 19th century, La Fenice acquired a European reputation. Rossini mounted two major productions there: *[Tancredi](/wiki/Tancredi "Tancredi")* in 1813 and *[Semiramide](/wiki/Semiramide "Semiramide")* in 1823\. Two of Bellini's operas were given their premieres there: *[I Capuleti e i Montecchi](/wiki/I_Capuleti_e_i_Montecchi "I Capuleti e i Montecchi")* in March 1830 and *[Beatrice di Tenda](/wiki/Beatrice_di_Tenda "Beatrice di Tenda")* in March 1833\. Donizetti, fresh from his triumphs at [La Scala](/wiki/La_Scala "La Scala") in Milan and at the [Teatro di San Carlo](/wiki/Teatro_di_San_Carlo "Teatro di San Carlo") in Naples, returned to Venice in 1836 with his *[Belisario](/wiki/Belisario "Belisario")*, after an absence of seventeen years.
### Second theatre
[thumb\|Interior of La Fenice in 1837](/wiki/File:Interior_of_La_Fenice_in_1837._Original_at_Museo_Correr.jpg "Interior of La Fenice in 1837. Original at Museo Correr.jpg")
In December 1836, disaster struck again when the theatre was destroyed by fire. However, it was quickly rebuilt with a design provided by the architect\-engineer team of the brothers [Tommaso](/wiki/Tommaso_Meduna "Tommaso Meduna") and [Giovanni Battista Meduna](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Meduna "Giovanni Battista Meduna").[La Fenice's website account of the Meduna brothers' design](http://www.teatrolafenice.it/static/storia_teatro_1837_I.php) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010235604/http://www.teatrolafenice.it/static/storia\_teatro\_1837\_I.php \|date\=2006\-10\-10 }}, teatrolafenice.it The interior displays a late\-Empire luxury of gilt decorations, plushy extravagance and stucco. La Fenice once again rose from its ashes to open its doors on the evening of 26 December 1837\.
[Giuseppe Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi "Giuseppe Verdi")'s association with La Fenice began in 1844, with the premiere performance of *[Ernani](/wiki/Ernani "Ernani")* during the [carnival](/wiki/Carnival "Carnival") season. Over the next 13 years, the premieres of *[Attila](/wiki/Attila_%28opera%29 "Attila (opera)")*, *[Rigoletto](/wiki/Rigoletto "Rigoletto")*, *[La traviata](/wiki/La_traviata "La traviata")*, and *[Simon Boccanegra](/wiki/Simon_Boccanegra "Simon Boccanegra")* took place there.
During the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), La Fenice was closed, but it reopened to become the scene of much activity, attracting many of the world's greatest singers and conductors. In 1930, the [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale "Venice Biennale") initiated the First International Festival of Contemporary Music, which brought such composers as [Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky") and [Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten "Benjamin Britten"), and more recently [Berio](/wiki/Luciano_Berio "Luciano Berio"), [Nono](/wiki/Luigi_Nono "Luigi Nono"), and [Bussotti](/wiki/Sylvano_Bussotti "Sylvano Bussotti"), to write for La Fenice.
On 29 January 1996, La Fenice was completely destroyed by fire. Only its acoustics were preserved, since [Lamberto Tronchin](/wiki/Lamberto_Tronchin "Lamberto Tronchin"), an Italian acoustician, had measured the acoustics two months earlier.[Acoustics of the Former Teatro La Fenice in Venice](http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=7834), *Journal of the Audio Engineering Society*, Volume 45 Issue 12 pp. 1051–1062; December 1997\.
Arson was immediately suspected. In March 2001, a court in Venice found two electricians, Enrico Carella and his cousin Massimiliano Marchetti, guilty of setting the fire.{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1250826\.stm\|title\=Two jailed for Venice opera arson\|date\=2001\-03\-30\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-13\|language\=en\-GB}} They appeared to have set the building ablaze because their company was facing heavy fines over delays in repair work in which they were engaged. Carella, the company's owner, disappeared after a final appeal was turned down. He had been sentenced to seven years in prison. Marchetti surrendered and served a six\-year sentence. Ultimately, Carella was arrested in February 2007 at the Mexico\-Belize border, was extradited to Italy, and was released on day parole after serving 16 months.{{Cite web\|url\=http://operachic.typepad.com/opera\_chic/2008/06/la\-fenices\-pyromaniac\-is\-free\-to\-set\-big\-stuff\-on\-fire\-again.html\|title\=Opera Chic: La Fenice's Pyromaniac Is Free To Set Big Stuff on Fire Again\|website\=operachic.typepad.com\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-13}}
### Present theatre
[thumb\|left\|Interior of La Fenice in 2015](/wiki/File:Teatro_La_Fenice%2C_Venice.jpg "Teatro La Fenice, Venice.jpg")
After various delays, reconstruction began in earnest in 2001\. In 650 days, a team of 200 plasterers, artists, woodworkers, and other craftsmen succeeded in recreating the ambiance of the old theatre, at a cost of some €90 million. As Gillian Price notes, "This time round, thanks to an enlightened project by late Italian architect [Aldo Rossi](/wiki/Aldo_Rossi "Aldo Rossi") and the motto 'how it was, where it was', it has been fitted out with extra rehearsal areas and state\-of\-the\-art stage equipment, while the seating capacity has been increased from 840 to 1000\."{{cite news\|author\=Price, Gillian \|url\=http://www.operatoday.com/content/2004/11/la\_fenice\_reope.php \|title\=La Fenice Reopens on 12 November\|work\=Opera Today\|date\= November 12, 2004}}
[thumb\|Detail of the decoration](/wiki/File:La_Fenice_auditorium_decoration.jpg "La Fenice auditorium decoration.jpg")
La Fenice was rebuilt in 19th\-century style on the basis of a design by architect [Aldo Rossi](/wiki/Aldo_Rossi "Aldo Rossi") who, in order to obtain details of its design, used still photographs from the opening scenes of [Luchino Visconti](/wiki/Luchino_Visconti "Luchino Visconti")'s film *[Senso](/wiki/Senso_%28film%29 "Senso (film)")* (1954\), which had been filmed in the house. La Fenice reopened on 14 December 2003 with an inaugural concert of [Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven "Ludwig van Beethoven"), [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner"), and [Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky"). The first staged opera was a production of *[La traviata](/wiki/La_traviata "La traviata")*, in November 2004\.
Critical response to the rebuilt La Fenice was mixed. The music critic of the paper *[Il Tempo](/wiki/Il_Tempo "Il Tempo")*, Enrico Cavalotti, was satisfied. He found the colours a bit bright but the sound good and compact. However, for his colleague Dino Villatico of the *[La Repubblica](/wiki/La_Repubblica "La Repubblica")*, the acoustics of the new hall lacked resonance, and the colours were painfully bright. He found it "[kitsch](/wiki/Kitsch "Kitsch"), a fake imitation of the past". He said that "the city should have had the nerve to build a completely new theater; Venice betrayed its innovative past by ignoring it".{{citation needed\|date\=August 2014}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Seven old theaters were active in Venice at the end of the eighteenth century, two for the production of plays and the others for music. The grandest of these was the Teatro San Benedetto, which stood on the site currently occupied by the Rossini cinema. Built by the Grimani family in 1755, it was subsequently assigned to the Nobile Società di Palchettisti (Noble Association of Box\\-holders). However, following a judicial ruling in 1787, this association was expelled and forced to give up the opera house to the noble Venier family, the owners of the land on which it was built.\nThe association immediately proposed building a larger and more sumptuous opera house than the one it had lost, which would become the symbol of their changing fortunes and their capacity for ′rebirth′. It was therefore to be called *La Fenice*, like the mythical, immortal bird able to rise out of its own ashes, to symbolise the association's splendid rebirth after its misfortunes.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Interior of first theatre, 1829](/wiki/File:La_Fenice-1st_theatre-1829.jpg \"La Fenice-1st theatre-1829.jpg\")\nThe piece of land between Contrada Santa Maria Zobenigo and Contrada Sant'Angelo was bought for the purpose in 1790 and the private houses on it were demolished. A competition was then announced for the design of the opera house, and the committee of experts selected the work of the architect [Giannantonio Selva](/wiki/Giannantonio_Selva \"Giannantonio Selva\") from the 29 plans submitted.\nWork began in 1791 and was completed just 18 months later, in April 1792\\.\n*La Fenice* immediately made its mark as one of the leading opera houses, noted in Italy and Europe both for the high artistic quality of its work and the splendour of its building. But, almost as if the name were the bearer of bad omens, on the night of 13 December 1836 the opera house was devastated by a first fire caused by a recently installed Austrian heater. The newspapers said it took three days and three nights to put out the fire and that various hotspots were still smouldering among the debris 18 days later. The flames entirely destroyed the house, and only the foyer and the Sale Apollinee were saved.\nThe association decided to proceed with its immediate reconstruction. It appointed the architect [Giambattista Meduna](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Meduna \"Giovanni Battista Meduna\") and his engineer brother [Tommaso](/wiki/Tommaso_Meduna \"Tommaso Meduna\") to carry out the work, while [Tranquillo Orsi](/wiki/Tranquillo_Orsi \"Tranquillo Orsi\") was responsible for the decorations. The work began in February 1837 and performances were temporarily staged in the Teatro Apollo (previously the San Luca, now Goldoni).",
"Everything was completed in record time. By the evening of 26 December of the same year, the new opera house, reborn in the new artistic style of the age, was opened to the public. The speed of the work, however, led to urgent restoration works to the framework being required as early as 1854 and, again under the direction of Giambattista Meduna, the house was redecorated in a style that remained unchanged until 1996\\. \nOn 23 July 1935 the box\\-holder owners ceded their share in the opera house to the [Comune di Venezia](/wiki/Comune_di_Venezia \"Comune di Venezia\"), so it went from private to public ownership, and in 1937\\-8 part of building was subject to further major restorations and alterations by engineer Eugenio Miozzi.\nOn the night of 29 January 1996, during a period of closure for restoration works, a second fire – as the Myth said – this time arson, completely destroyed the house and most of the Sale Apollinee. Once again La Fenice rose again, faithfully reconstructed to a plan by the architect [Aldo Rossi](/wiki/Aldo_Rossi \"Aldo Rossi\"), and was reopened on 14 December 2003\\.",
"### First theatre",
"In 1774, the [Teatro San Benedetto](/wiki/Teatro_San_Benedetto \"Teatro San Benedetto\"), which had been Venice's leading opera house for more than forty years, burned to the ground. By 1789, with interest from a number of wealthy opera lovers who wanted a spectacular new house, \"a carefully defined competition\" was organised to find a suitable architect. It was won by Gianantonio Selva who proposed a [neoclassical style](/wiki/Neoclassicism \"Neoclassicism\") building with 170 identical boxes in tiers in a traditional horseshoe shaped auditorium, which had been the favoured style since it was introduced as early as 1642 in Venice. The house would face on one side a *campo*, or small plaza, and on the other a canal, with an entrance which gave direct access backstage and into the theatre.Beauvert 1995, p. 34",
"However, the process was not without controversy especially in regard to the aesthetics of the building. Some thirty responses were received and, as Romanelli accounts, Selva's was designated as the design to be constructed, the actual award for best design went to his chief rival, Pietro Bianchi.Romanelli 1997, p. 151 However, Selva's design and finished opera house appears to have been of high quality and the one best suited to the limitations of the physical space it was obliged to inhabit.",
"Construction began in June 1790, and by May 1792 the theatre was completed. It was named \"La Fenice\", in reference to the company's survival, first of the fire, then of the loss of its former quarters. La Fenice was inaugurated on 16 May 1792, with an opera by [Giovanni Paisiello](/wiki/Giovanni_Paisiello \"Giovanni Paisiello\") entitled *[I giuochi d'Agrigento](/wiki/I_giuochi_d%27Agrigento \"I giuochi d'Agrigento\")* set to a libretto by [Alessandro Pepoli](/wiki/Alessandro_Pepoli \"Alessandro Pepoli\").",
"But no sooner had the opera house been rebuilt than a legal dispute broke out between the company managing it and the owners, the Venier family. The issue was decided in favor of the Veniers.",
"At the beginning of the 19th century, La Fenice acquired a European reputation. Rossini mounted two major productions there: *[Tancredi](/wiki/Tancredi \"Tancredi\")* in 1813 and *[Semiramide](/wiki/Semiramide \"Semiramide\")* in 1823\\. Two of Bellini's operas were given their premieres there: *[I Capuleti e i Montecchi](/wiki/I_Capuleti_e_i_Montecchi \"I Capuleti e i Montecchi\")* in March 1830 and *[Beatrice di Tenda](/wiki/Beatrice_di_Tenda \"Beatrice di Tenda\")* in March 1833\\. Donizetti, fresh from his triumphs at [La Scala](/wiki/La_Scala \"La Scala\") in Milan and at the [Teatro di San Carlo](/wiki/Teatro_di_San_Carlo \"Teatro di San Carlo\") in Naples, returned to Venice in 1836 with his *[Belisario](/wiki/Belisario \"Belisario\")*, after an absence of seventeen years.",
"### Second theatre",
"[thumb\\|Interior of La Fenice in 1837](/wiki/File:Interior_of_La_Fenice_in_1837._Original_at_Museo_Correr.jpg \"Interior of La Fenice in 1837. Original at Museo Correr.jpg\")",
"In December 1836, disaster struck again when the theatre was destroyed by fire. However, it was quickly rebuilt with a design provided by the architect\\-engineer team of the brothers [Tommaso](/wiki/Tommaso_Meduna \"Tommaso Meduna\") and [Giovanni Battista Meduna](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Meduna \"Giovanni Battista Meduna\").[La Fenice's website account of the Meduna brothers' design](http://www.teatrolafenice.it/static/storia_teatro_1837_I.php) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010235604/http://www.teatrolafenice.it/static/storia\\_teatro\\_1837\\_I.php \\|date\\=2006\\-10\\-10 }}, teatrolafenice.it The interior displays a late\\-Empire luxury of gilt decorations, plushy extravagance and stucco. La Fenice once again rose from its ashes to open its doors on the evening of 26 December 1837\\.",
"[Giuseppe Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi \"Giuseppe Verdi\")'s association with La Fenice began in 1844, with the premiere performance of *[Ernani](/wiki/Ernani \"Ernani\")* during the [carnival](/wiki/Carnival \"Carnival\") season. Over the next 13 years, the premieres of *[Attila](/wiki/Attila_%28opera%29 \"Attila (opera)\")*, *[Rigoletto](/wiki/Rigoletto \"Rigoletto\")*, *[La traviata](/wiki/La_traviata \"La traviata\")*, and *[Simon Boccanegra](/wiki/Simon_Boccanegra \"Simon Boccanegra\")* took place there.",
"During the [First World War](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), La Fenice was closed, but it reopened to become the scene of much activity, attracting many of the world's greatest singers and conductors. In 1930, the [Venice Biennale](/wiki/Venice_Biennale \"Venice Biennale\") initiated the First International Festival of Contemporary Music, which brought such composers as [Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\") and [Britten](/wiki/Benjamin_Britten \"Benjamin Britten\"), and more recently [Berio](/wiki/Luciano_Berio \"Luciano Berio\"), [Nono](/wiki/Luigi_Nono \"Luigi Nono\"), and [Bussotti](/wiki/Sylvano_Bussotti \"Sylvano Bussotti\"), to write for La Fenice.",
"On 29 January 1996, La Fenice was completely destroyed by fire. Only its acoustics were preserved, since [Lamberto Tronchin](/wiki/Lamberto_Tronchin \"Lamberto Tronchin\"), an Italian acoustician, had measured the acoustics two months earlier.[Acoustics of the Former Teatro La Fenice in Venice](http://www.aes.org/e-lib/browse.cfm?elib=7834), *Journal of the Audio Engineering Society*, Volume 45 Issue 12 pp. 1051–1062; December 1997\\.",
"Arson was immediately suspected. In March 2001, a court in Venice found two electricians, Enrico Carella and his cousin Massimiliano Marchetti, guilty of setting the fire.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1250826\\.stm\\|title\\=Two jailed for Venice opera arson\\|date\\=2001\\-03\\-30\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-13\\|language\\=en\\-GB}} They appeared to have set the building ablaze because their company was facing heavy fines over delays in repair work in which they were engaged. Carella, the company's owner, disappeared after a final appeal was turned down. He had been sentenced to seven years in prison. Marchetti surrendered and served a six\\-year sentence. Ultimately, Carella was arrested in February 2007 at the Mexico\\-Belize border, was extradited to Italy, and was released on day parole after serving 16 months.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://operachic.typepad.com/opera\\_chic/2008/06/la\\-fenices\\-pyromaniac\\-is\\-free\\-to\\-set\\-big\\-stuff\\-on\\-fire\\-again.html\\|title\\=Opera Chic: La Fenice's Pyromaniac Is Free To Set Big Stuff on Fire Again\\|website\\=operachic.typepad.com\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-13}}",
"### Present theatre",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Interior of La Fenice in 2015](/wiki/File:Teatro_La_Fenice%2C_Venice.jpg \"Teatro La Fenice, Venice.jpg\")\nAfter various delays, reconstruction began in earnest in 2001\\. In 650 days, a team of 200 plasterers, artists, woodworkers, and other craftsmen succeeded in recreating the ambiance of the old theatre, at a cost of some €90 million. As Gillian Price notes, \"This time round, thanks to an enlightened project by late Italian architect [Aldo Rossi](/wiki/Aldo_Rossi \"Aldo Rossi\") and the motto 'how it was, where it was', it has been fitted out with extra rehearsal areas and state\\-of\\-the\\-art stage equipment, while the seating capacity has been increased from 840 to 1000\\.\"{{cite news\\|author\\=Price, Gillian \\|url\\=http://www.operatoday.com/content/2004/11/la\\_fenice\\_reope.php \\|title\\=La Fenice Reopens on 12 November\\|work\\=Opera Today\\|date\\= November 12, 2004}}",
"[thumb\\|Detail of the decoration](/wiki/File:La_Fenice_auditorium_decoration.jpg \"La Fenice auditorium decoration.jpg\")\nLa Fenice was rebuilt in 19th\\-century style on the basis of a design by architect [Aldo Rossi](/wiki/Aldo_Rossi \"Aldo Rossi\") who, in order to obtain details of its design, used still photographs from the opening scenes of [Luchino Visconti](/wiki/Luchino_Visconti \"Luchino Visconti\")'s film *[Senso](/wiki/Senso_%28film%29 \"Senso (film)\")* (1954\\), which had been filmed in the house. La Fenice reopened on 14 December 2003 with an inaugural concert of [Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\"), [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"), and [Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\"). The first staged opera was a production of *[La traviata](/wiki/La_traviata \"La traviata\")*, in November 2004\\.",
"Critical response to the rebuilt La Fenice was mixed. The music critic of the paper *[Il Tempo](/wiki/Il_Tempo \"Il Tempo\")*, Enrico Cavalotti, was satisfied. He found the colours a bit bright but the sound good and compact. However, for his colleague Dino Villatico of the *[La Repubblica](/wiki/La_Repubblica \"La Repubblica\")*, the acoustics of the new hall lacked resonance, and the colours were painfully bright. He found it \"[kitsch](/wiki/Kitsch \"Kitsch\"), a fake imitation of the past\". He said that \"the city should have had the nerve to build a completely new theater; Venice betrayed its innovative past by ignoring it\".{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2014}}",
""
] |
Artistic notes
--------------
### Façade
Built in 1792 to a plan by the architect Giannantonio Selva, the façade of the building is the only element to have completely survived the two fires that almost entirely destroyed the opera house in 1836 and 1996\.
Unlike the other theaters in the city, whose entrances are in secluded places like alleys and small squares, La Fenice is the only historic Venetian theatre facing onto an open space, Campo San Fantin. It is also the only one to feature a colonnade in neo\-classical style in its façade. This bears the theatre's insignia in the centre portraying the phoenix that rises from the flames, carved in 1837 to design by Giambattista Meduna. The façade features two statues in niches representing the muses of tragedy and dance: [Melpomene](/wiki/Melpomene "Melpomene") and [Terpsichore](/wiki/Terpsichore "Terpsichore"). Above them are the masks of [Comedy](/wiki/Comedy "Comedy") and [Tragedy](/wiki/Tragedy "Tragedy"), thought to be by Domenico Fadiga.
The first sculptures that adorned the entrance to the opera house, in terracotta and carved in Baroque style, were attributed to either Giuseppe Bernardi or his nephew Giovanni Ferrari, both of whom taught [Canova](/wiki/Canova "Canova").
They were replaced in 1875 as they were in an advanced state of decay and were in any case thought incompatible, if restored, with the classical style of the façade. The two new statues were made in Custoza stone by Augusto Benvenuti in a new style that better suited the building. All trace of the original sculptures was lost after the theatre management sold them to Benvenuti in 1876\.
Two commemorative stelae were placed in the entrance vestibule after the 1837 reconstruction. The one on the right, sculpted in that year by Antonio Giaccarelli to an original design by Giambattista Meduna, is attributed to the architect Giannantonio Selva. The one on the left, in honour of the playwright [Carlo Goldoni](/wiki/Carlo_Goldoni "Carlo Goldoni"), is by Luigi Zandomeneghi and was moved from the atrium where it had been dedicated on 26 December 1830\. The new sign of the opera house, in gold and blue, again to a design By Meduna, was also placed above the entrance in 1837\.
### Foyer
[thumb\|upright\|Part of the Foyer of La Fenice](/wiki/File:The_Foyer_%28part_of%29.png "The Foyer (part of).png")
Escaping entirely unharmed from the first fire that destroyed the original La Fenice Opera House on the night of December 1836, the entrance, by Selva, was enlarged in 1937 as part of the upgrading works directed by the engineer Eugenio Miozzi.
On that same occasion some walls that divided the right side of the foyer into several spaces were demolished to make this side the mirror image, in shape and decoration, of the left.
A commemorative plaque recording the box\-holder owner's transfer of shares to the Comune di Venezia in 1935 was then placed in the right wing.
It was precisely thanks to this work, which also included restoration, that the foyer and the Sale Apollinee on the upper floor managed to partly withstand the collapse of the floor and the wall against the stairs to the boxes following the fire of 29 January 1996\. The opera house entrance is therefore the area in which the largest number of original elements of the building survive: part of the decoration and most of the columns, the floor and the access stairs to the boxes.
### House
[thumb\|La Fenice Opera House from the stage](/wiki/File:La_Fenice_Opera_House_from_the_stage.jpg "La Fenice Opera House from the stage.jpg")
The fire of 1996 completely destroyed the five tiers of boxes, the stage and the ceiling, leaving only the perimeter walls on the original house.
Reconstruction was based on the architect Aldo Rossi's design, keeping to the motto "As it was, where it was," which had been applied to the rebuilding of [St Mark's bell Campanile](/wiki/St_Mark%27s_Campanile "St Mark's Campanile"), exactly the same as the original and taking ten years, after it collapsed in 1902\. The faithful reconstruction of the house was facilitated by the comprehensive treatise on the reconstruction that had been drawn up by the Meduna brothers after the work carried out following the first fire of 1836\. Reconstruction of the decorations in the house, in a [Rococo](/wiki/Rococo "Rococo") style, was based mainly on consultation of the considerable photographic archive on the opera house held in the theatre's historic archive.
In order to speed up the work, two procedures were adopted.
Reconstruction of the masonry and wooden framing of the building was carried out in the opera house itself by hundreds of workers employed 24 hours a day, seven days a week, while the decorative components were constructed at the same time in various external workshops so that these would be ready for application once the structural work was complete.
The same nineteenth\-century materials were used: papier\-mache, wood, and plaster for all ornamentation of the royal box and the entrance, the 22 [Nereids](/wiki/Nereid "Nereid") that are part of the cornice of the so\-called soffittone (ceiling), and the four putti in the royal box.
The guiding principle was that of recreating the original house, particularly its specific technical solution based mainly on the use of wood, carefully chosen and treated to obtain the best acoustic response. The big soundbox of the wooden house was enclosed in a protective envelope of masonry and reinforced concrete floors.
The only decorative element built at least partly on site was the ceiling, which reproduces the original design, giving the optical illusion of a vaulted ceiling. It features paintings of several female figures, some of whom are carrying musical instruments, and young maidens representing the Graces, Music, Dance and Aurora.
The chandelier is a reproduction of the English original in gilt bronze, commissioned by the Meduna brothers from craftsmen in Liverpool in 1854\. The arms of the sconces in the boxes were also made following the model of a single surviving example.
The main theme of the house decorations, dating from 1854, is a reproduction of a forest with acanthus leaves depicted in the papier\-mache decorations, subsequently enriched with 23\-carat gold leaf worked using the quartz technique and polished with agate.
The paintings outside the boxes have cherubs with musical instruments or in playful mood. The first tier also includes the profiles of classical poets, while the second features six allegories representing History, Poetry, Philosophy, Comedy, Tragedy, and Music.
On the third tier are *putti* holding tablets engraved with the titles and authors of 14 of the most important operas staged in the house.
A significant innovation in the appearance of the house was made by a radical change of color inside the individual boxes. The original shade of beige has now been replaced by a blue\-green pastel color.
The current access to the stalls was designed by the engineer Miozzi in 1937 and decorated at the sides with two plaster caryatids. The house originally had two small entrances in the section now occupied by the first on the right of the current access, which until the second half of the 1930s was taken up by three boxes in the first tier.
The orchestra pit now has a moveable platform. When the pit is not required, the platform can be raised to the level of the stalls, allowing some rows of additional seats to be added to the front, increasing capacity by 104 to 1,126\. The moveable platform, which consists of two elements, can also be completely or partially raised to the level of the stage in order to enlarge it.
The curtain was reproduced on the basis of an examination of historic documentation, in dark\-green, deep nap, fire\-resistant synthetic velvet decorated with 1,100 flowers in gilt leather.
The new stage is accompanied by a second lateral stage onto which the stage equipment now moves sideways for construction and handling of the scenery.
### Royal box
[thumb\|La Fenice Opera House, The Royal Box](/wiki/File:The_Royal_Box.jpg "The Royal Box.jpg")
The place of honor in the house has a tormented existence, relating not only to the history of the opera house but also to the political and historic events of the city of Venice.
The royal box was not part of Giannantonio Selva's original plan for La Fenice; at the time of its construction the house contained only boxes of the same size.
Venice had lost its independence in May 1797 to the [First French Empire](/wiki/First_French_Empire "First French Empire"), which then handed the city over to the [Austro\-Hungarian empire](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_empire "Austro-Hungarian empire") for eight years following the [Treaty of Campoformio](/wiki/Treaty_of_Campoformio "Treaty of Campoformio") in 1797, and in 1805 Venice once again came under French rule. The first imperial loggia was built only provisionally in 1807 to accommodate the emperor, [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon"), who was expected in the opera house on Tuesday 1 December 1807 for a performance of the cantata *Il Giudizio di Giove* by [Lauro Corniani Algarotti](/wiki/Lauro_Corniani_Algarotti "Lauro Corniani Algarotti"). Its construction required the demolition of three central boxes in both the second and third tiers.
In 1808 the architect Giannantonio Selva built the definitive model with the assistance of [Giuseppe Borsato](/wiki/Giuseppe_Borsato "Giuseppe Borsato") on the decorations. This was destroyed by the fire that struck La Fenice in December 1836, and was rebuilt along with the rest of the house by the Meduna brothers in 1837, with the assistance of Giuseppe Borsato, who increased the splendor of the decorations.
Following the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna "Congress of Vienna") in 1815, Venice once again found itself under Habsburg rule. At the end of March 1848, following insurrectionary uprising and the Republic of Venice's consequent declaration of independence from [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria"), the loggia was taken down so that the original tiers of boxes could be reinstated in the so\-called "Republican" house. The six boxes that had been in the center of the house until the beginning of the nineteenth century were therefore rebuilt. However, the Imperial Austrian Royal Government then returned, and on 22 August 1849 ordered reconstruction of the loggia in its original form. The decorations were entrusted once again to Giuseppe Borsato who, now over 70, remade them to a richer design than before. This was his last work; his box was presented in January 1850 in the presence of his widow Maria Bonadei Borsato.
The imperial loggia finally became the royal box in 1866 with the [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto "Veneto") entrance into the [Kingdom of Italy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy "Kingdom of Italy").
The symbol of the Italian royal family can still be seen inside the box, reproduced on the side walls. There was a third Savoy shield on the crown of the external cornice, but this was removed after the republican victory in the referendum of 2 June 1946 and replaced with the [lion of St Mark](/wiki/Lion_of_St_Mark "Lion of St Mark"), the symbol of Venice.
There are some ivory\-painted wooden putti in the corners of the walls on four gilt, wooden candelabra. On the papier mache\-decorated wooden ceiling there is a reproduction of the painting *Apotheosis of the Sciences and the Arts*, originally by the painter Leonardo Gavagnin.
The royal box also offers its guests the use of a private room, which has its own private entrance.
### Sale Apollinee
[thumb\|upright\|The Sala Ammannati is a part of the Sale Apollinee at La Fenice Opera House in Venice](/wiki/File:La_Fenice_%28Sala_Ammannati%2C_one_of_the_Sale_Apollinee%29.jpg "La Fenice (Sala Ammannati, one of the Sale Apollinee).jpg")
The Sale Apollinee, so named because dedicated to the Greek god [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo "Apollo"), father of the Muses and patron of the Arts, including music, consists of five rooms whose current layout dates from 1937\.
These rooms are now used during the intervals by the audience occupying the first three tiers of boxes and the stalls. The five rooms of the Sale Apollinee were originally used even when there was no show in the opera house; its bar would be open during the day and there was a billiard table in one of the rooms.
On the top of the main door is a symbol of the sun, a tribute to the King of France [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV "Louis XIV"). The Apollon room was thought of as a ballet room; ballet came to prominence in part because of Louis XIV's interest in it. He performed a series of dances in [Ballet Royal de la Nuit](/wiki/Ballet_Royal_de_la_Nuit "Ballet Royal de la Nuit"), in the final piece as Apollo in a costume with a kilt of golden rays—and thus became known as the Sun King. La Fenice was built in tribute to the god Apollo.
Unlike the house, which was completely destroyed by the enormous fire of 1996, about a fifth of these rooms survived. The surviving fragments can be easily recognized, as the precise intention of the reconstruction work was that it highlight the difference between the historic sections and the recent additions. The original parts of the ceiling cornices and remaining ornamental stuccoes on the walls are darker in color, in testimony of the last fire. The same difference can be seen in the marble frames of some of the doors, repaired with new marble of a different color, and in the new flooring, which merges with the typical Venetian terrazzo that remained in the room dedicated to the famous singer [Maria Malibran](/wiki/Maria_Malibran "Maria Malibran").
Thanks to these completions, the Sale Apollinee has been rebuilt on the basis of the originals, though a wider range of choice was conceded than in the house, shown by the new upholstery and furnishings in these rooms.
#### Sala Dante
The main bar is in the Sala Dante, named after the frescoes that once decorated its walls.
This room was inaugurated in 1865 on the occasion of the sixth centenary of the birth of [Dante Alighieri](/wiki/Dante_Alighieri "Dante Alighieri"). To celebrate the event, the painter Giacomo Casa created a large composition within the decorative ceiling frame, showing Italy in the act of crowning the great poet and six tempera fresco paintings on the walls, with the same number of scenes from the [Divine Comedy](/wiki/Divine_Comedy "Divine Comedy"). Two of these were then replaced in 1867 with others in tempera by Antonio Ermolao Paoletti.
In September 1976 the walls and ceiling of this room, renamed the Sala Guidi, were decorated with works by the Venetian painter Virgilio Guidi, which covered the scenes from Dante. The fire of 1996, however, destroyed these canvases, bringing back to light some fragments of the original decoration by Casa, which have now been completed with a sinopia to assist their reading.
#### Sala Grande
[thumb\|upright\|The Sala Grande or ballroom is the main room of the five Sale Apollinee, lit by three windows in the middle of the entrance façade](/wiki/File:The_Sale_Apollinee_%28Sala_Grande_or_ballroom%29.jpg "The Sale Apollinee (Sala Grande or ballroom).jpg")
The Sala Grande or ballroom is he main room of the five Sale Apollinee, lit by the three windows in the middle of the entrance façade.
Used over the years for different purposes, the Sala Grande was an elegant venue for balls, chamber music concerts, conferences or book launches, and (before La Fenice was provided with special rooms for them) rehearsals. It was also used by the governing board in 1935\.
Almost completely destroyed on the night of 29 January 1996, the Sala Grande has been faithfully reconstructed to the original model.
The floor, which is above the foyer, collapsed after the fire and only the corners were saved. The current floor has been faithfully rebuilt to the original model and its characteristic floral patterns reproduced, requiring the use of various types of wood: maple, olive, and cherry. The color of the walls is also the same as the original. A gallery runs around the circumference of the upper part of the room, with access from the three doors on the top floor.
|
[
"Artistic notes\n--------------",
"### Façade",
"Built in 1792 to a plan by the architect Giannantonio Selva, the façade of the building is the only element to have completely survived the two fires that almost entirely destroyed the opera house in 1836 and 1996\\.\nUnlike the other theaters in the city, whose entrances are in secluded places like alleys and small squares, La Fenice is the only historic Venetian theatre facing onto an open space, Campo San Fantin. It is also the only one to feature a colonnade in neo\\-classical style in its façade. This bears the theatre's insignia in the centre portraying the phoenix that rises from the flames, carved in 1837 to design by Giambattista Meduna. The façade features two statues in niches representing the muses of tragedy and dance: [Melpomene](/wiki/Melpomene \"Melpomene\") and [Terpsichore](/wiki/Terpsichore \"Terpsichore\"). Above them are the masks of [Comedy](/wiki/Comedy \"Comedy\") and [Tragedy](/wiki/Tragedy \"Tragedy\"), thought to be by Domenico Fadiga. \nThe first sculptures that adorned the entrance to the opera house, in terracotta and carved in Baroque style, were attributed to either Giuseppe Bernardi or his nephew Giovanni Ferrari, both of whom taught [Canova](/wiki/Canova \"Canova\").\nThey were replaced in 1875 as they were in an advanced state of decay and were in any case thought incompatible, if restored, with the classical style of the façade. The two new statues were made in Custoza stone by Augusto Benvenuti in a new style that better suited the building. All trace of the original sculptures was lost after the theatre management sold them to Benvenuti in 1876\\.\nTwo commemorative stelae were placed in the entrance vestibule after the 1837 reconstruction. The one on the right, sculpted in that year by Antonio Giaccarelli to an original design by Giambattista Meduna, is attributed to the architect Giannantonio Selva. The one on the left, in honour of the playwright [Carlo Goldoni](/wiki/Carlo_Goldoni \"Carlo Goldoni\"), is by Luigi Zandomeneghi and was moved from the atrium where it had been dedicated on 26 December 1830\\. The new sign of the opera house, in gold and blue, again to a design By Meduna, was also placed above the entrance in 1837\\.",
"### Foyer",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Part of the Foyer of La Fenice](/wiki/File:The_Foyer_%28part_of%29.png \"The Foyer (part of).png\")\nEscaping entirely unharmed from the first fire that destroyed the original La Fenice Opera House on the night of December 1836, the entrance, by Selva, was enlarged in 1937 as part of the upgrading works directed by the engineer Eugenio Miozzi.\nOn that same occasion some walls that divided the right side of the foyer into several spaces were demolished to make this side the mirror image, in shape and decoration, of the left.\nA commemorative plaque recording the box\\-holder owner's transfer of shares to the Comune di Venezia in 1935 was then placed in the right wing.\nIt was precisely thanks to this work, which also included restoration, that the foyer and the Sale Apollinee on the upper floor managed to partly withstand the collapse of the floor and the wall against the stairs to the boxes following the fire of 29 January 1996\\. The opera house entrance is therefore the area in which the largest number of original elements of the building survive: part of the decoration and most of the columns, the floor and the access stairs to the boxes.",
"### House",
"[thumb\\|La Fenice Opera House from the stage](/wiki/File:La_Fenice_Opera_House_from_the_stage.jpg \"La Fenice Opera House from the stage.jpg\")\nThe fire of 1996 completely destroyed the five tiers of boxes, the stage and the ceiling, leaving only the perimeter walls on the original house.",
"Reconstruction was based on the architect Aldo Rossi's design, keeping to the motto \"As it was, where it was,\" which had been applied to the rebuilding of [St Mark's bell Campanile](/wiki/St_Mark%27s_Campanile \"St Mark's Campanile\"), exactly the same as the original and taking ten years, after it collapsed in 1902\\. The faithful reconstruction of the house was facilitated by the comprehensive treatise on the reconstruction that had been drawn up by the Meduna brothers after the work carried out following the first fire of 1836\\. Reconstruction of the decorations in the house, in a [Rococo](/wiki/Rococo \"Rococo\") style, was based mainly on consultation of the considerable photographic archive on the opera house held in the theatre's historic archive.\nIn order to speed up the work, two procedures were adopted.",
"Reconstruction of the masonry and wooden framing of the building was carried out in the opera house itself by hundreds of workers employed 24 hours a day, seven days a week, while the decorative components were constructed at the same time in various external workshops so that these would be ready for application once the structural work was complete.\nThe same nineteenth\\-century materials were used: papier\\-mache, wood, and plaster for all ornamentation of the royal box and the entrance, the 22 [Nereids](/wiki/Nereid \"Nereid\") that are part of the cornice of the so\\-called soffittone (ceiling), and the four putti in the royal box.\nThe guiding principle was that of recreating the original house, particularly its specific technical solution based mainly on the use of wood, carefully chosen and treated to obtain the best acoustic response. The big soundbox of the wooden house was enclosed in a protective envelope of masonry and reinforced concrete floors.",
"The only decorative element built at least partly on site was the ceiling, which reproduces the original design, giving the optical illusion of a vaulted ceiling. It features paintings of several female figures, some of whom are carrying musical instruments, and young maidens representing the Graces, Music, Dance and Aurora. \nThe chandelier is a reproduction of the English original in gilt bronze, commissioned by the Meduna brothers from craftsmen in Liverpool in 1854\\. The arms of the sconces in the boxes were also made following the model of a single surviving example.",
"The main theme of the house decorations, dating from 1854, is a reproduction of a forest with acanthus leaves depicted in the papier\\-mache decorations, subsequently enriched with 23\\-carat gold leaf worked using the quartz technique and polished with agate.\nThe paintings outside the boxes have cherubs with musical instruments or in playful mood. The first tier also includes the profiles of classical poets, while the second features six allegories representing History, Poetry, Philosophy, Comedy, Tragedy, and Music.",
"On the third tier are *putti* holding tablets engraved with the titles and authors of 14 of the most important operas staged in the house.",
"A significant innovation in the appearance of the house was made by a radical change of color inside the individual boxes. The original shade of beige has now been replaced by a blue\\-green pastel color.",
"The current access to the stalls was designed by the engineer Miozzi in 1937 and decorated at the sides with two plaster caryatids. The house originally had two small entrances in the section now occupied by the first on the right of the current access, which until the second half of the 1930s was taken up by three boxes in the first tier.",
"The orchestra pit now has a moveable platform. When the pit is not required, the platform can be raised to the level of the stalls, allowing some rows of additional seats to be added to the front, increasing capacity by 104 to 1,126\\. The moveable platform, which consists of two elements, can also be completely or partially raised to the level of the stage in order to enlarge it.",
"The curtain was reproduced on the basis of an examination of historic documentation, in dark\\-green, deep nap, fire\\-resistant synthetic velvet decorated with 1,100 flowers in gilt leather.",
"The new stage is accompanied by a second lateral stage onto which the stage equipment now moves sideways for construction and handling of the scenery.",
"### Royal box",
"[thumb\\|La Fenice Opera House, The Royal Box](/wiki/File:The_Royal_Box.jpg \"The Royal Box.jpg\")\nThe place of honor in the house has a tormented existence, relating not only to the history of the opera house but also to the political and historic events of the city of Venice.",
"The royal box was not part of Giannantonio Selva's original plan for La Fenice; at the time of its construction the house contained only boxes of the same size.\nVenice had lost its independence in May 1797 to the [First French Empire](/wiki/First_French_Empire \"First French Empire\"), which then handed the city over to the [Austro\\-Hungarian empire](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_empire \"Austro-Hungarian empire\") for eight years following the [Treaty of Campoformio](/wiki/Treaty_of_Campoformio \"Treaty of Campoformio\") in 1797, and in 1805 Venice once again came under French rule. The first imperial loggia was built only provisionally in 1807 to accommodate the emperor, [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\"), who was expected in the opera house on Tuesday 1 December 1807 for a performance of the cantata *Il Giudizio di Giove* by [Lauro Corniani Algarotti](/wiki/Lauro_Corniani_Algarotti \"Lauro Corniani Algarotti\"). Its construction required the demolition of three central boxes in both the second and third tiers.",
"In 1808 the architect Giannantonio Selva built the definitive model with the assistance of [Giuseppe Borsato](/wiki/Giuseppe_Borsato \"Giuseppe Borsato\") on the decorations. This was destroyed by the fire that struck La Fenice in December 1836, and was rebuilt along with the rest of the house by the Meduna brothers in 1837, with the assistance of Giuseppe Borsato, who increased the splendor of the decorations.\nFollowing the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna \"Congress of Vienna\") in 1815, Venice once again found itself under Habsburg rule. At the end of March 1848, following insurrectionary uprising and the Republic of Venice's consequent declaration of independence from [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\"), the loggia was taken down so that the original tiers of boxes could be reinstated in the so\\-called \"Republican\" house. The six boxes that had been in the center of the house until the beginning of the nineteenth century were therefore rebuilt. However, the Imperial Austrian Royal Government then returned, and on 22 August 1849 ordered reconstruction of the loggia in its original form. The decorations were entrusted once again to Giuseppe Borsato who, now over 70, remade them to a richer design than before. This was his last work; his box was presented in January 1850 in the presence of his widow Maria Bonadei Borsato.\nThe imperial loggia finally became the royal box in 1866 with the [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto \"Veneto\") entrance into the [Kingdom of Italy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy \"Kingdom of Italy\").",
"The symbol of the Italian royal family can still be seen inside the box, reproduced on the side walls. There was a third Savoy shield on the crown of the external cornice, but this was removed after the republican victory in the referendum of 2 June 1946 and replaced with the [lion of St Mark](/wiki/Lion_of_St_Mark \"Lion of St Mark\"), the symbol of Venice.\nThere are some ivory\\-painted wooden putti in the corners of the walls on four gilt, wooden candelabra. On the papier mache\\-decorated wooden ceiling there is a reproduction of the painting *Apotheosis of the Sciences and the Arts*, originally by the painter Leonardo Gavagnin.\nThe royal box also offers its guests the use of a private room, which has its own private entrance.",
"### Sale Apollinee",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The Sala Ammannati is a part of the Sale Apollinee at La Fenice Opera House in Venice](/wiki/File:La_Fenice_%28Sala_Ammannati%2C_one_of_the_Sale_Apollinee%29.jpg \"La Fenice (Sala Ammannati, one of the Sale Apollinee).jpg\")\nThe Sale Apollinee, so named because dedicated to the Greek god [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo \"Apollo\"), father of the Muses and patron of the Arts, including music, consists of five rooms whose current layout dates from 1937\\.\nThese rooms are now used during the intervals by the audience occupying the first three tiers of boxes and the stalls. The five rooms of the Sale Apollinee were originally used even when there was no show in the opera house; its bar would be open during the day and there was a billiard table in one of the rooms.",
"On the top of the main door is a symbol of the sun, a tribute to the King of France [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV \"Louis XIV\"). The Apollon room was thought of as a ballet room; ballet came to prominence in part because of Louis XIV's interest in it. He performed a series of dances in [Ballet Royal de la Nuit](/wiki/Ballet_Royal_de_la_Nuit \"Ballet Royal de la Nuit\"), in the final piece as Apollo in a costume with a kilt of golden rays—and thus became known as the Sun King. La Fenice was built in tribute to the god Apollo.",
"Unlike the house, which was completely destroyed by the enormous fire of 1996, about a fifth of these rooms survived. The surviving fragments can be easily recognized, as the precise intention of the reconstruction work was that it highlight the difference between the historic sections and the recent additions. The original parts of the ceiling cornices and remaining ornamental stuccoes on the walls are darker in color, in testimony of the last fire. The same difference can be seen in the marble frames of some of the doors, repaired with new marble of a different color, and in the new flooring, which merges with the typical Venetian terrazzo that remained in the room dedicated to the famous singer [Maria Malibran](/wiki/Maria_Malibran \"Maria Malibran\").",
"Thanks to these completions, the Sale Apollinee has been rebuilt on the basis of the originals, though a wider range of choice was conceded than in the house, shown by the new upholstery and furnishings in these rooms.",
"#### Sala Dante",
"The main bar is in the Sala Dante, named after the frescoes that once decorated its walls.",
"This room was inaugurated in 1865 on the occasion of the sixth centenary of the birth of [Dante Alighieri](/wiki/Dante_Alighieri \"Dante Alighieri\"). To celebrate the event, the painter Giacomo Casa created a large composition within the decorative ceiling frame, showing Italy in the act of crowning the great poet and six tempera fresco paintings on the walls, with the same number of scenes from the [Divine Comedy](/wiki/Divine_Comedy \"Divine Comedy\"). Two of these were then replaced in 1867 with others in tempera by Antonio Ermolao Paoletti.",
"In September 1976 the walls and ceiling of this room, renamed the Sala Guidi, were decorated with works by the Venetian painter Virgilio Guidi, which covered the scenes from Dante. The fire of 1996, however, destroyed these canvases, bringing back to light some fragments of the original decoration by Casa, which have now been completed with a sinopia to assist their reading.",
"#### Sala Grande",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The Sala Grande or ballroom is the main room of the five Sale Apollinee, lit by three windows in the middle of the entrance façade](/wiki/File:The_Sale_Apollinee_%28Sala_Grande_or_ballroom%29.jpg \"The Sale Apollinee (Sala Grande or ballroom).jpg\")\nThe Sala Grande or ballroom is he main room of the five Sale Apollinee, lit by the three windows in the middle of the entrance façade.",
"Used over the years for different purposes, the Sala Grande was an elegant venue for balls, chamber music concerts, conferences or book launches, and (before La Fenice was provided with special rooms for them) rehearsals. It was also used by the governing board in 1935\\.\nAlmost completely destroyed on the night of 29 January 1996, the Sala Grande has been faithfully reconstructed to the original model.",
"The floor, which is above the foyer, collapsed after the fire and only the corners were saved. The current floor has been faithfully rebuilt to the original model and its characteristic floral patterns reproduced, requiring the use of various types of wood: maple, olive, and cherry. The color of the walls is also the same as the original. A gallery runs around the circumference of the upper part of the room, with access from the three doors on the top floor.",
""
] |
### House
[thumb\|La Fenice Opera House from the stage](/wiki/File:La_Fenice_Opera_House_from_the_stage.jpg "La Fenice Opera House from the stage.jpg")
The fire of 1996 completely destroyed the five tiers of boxes, the stage and the ceiling, leaving only the perimeter walls on the original house.
Reconstruction was based on the architect Aldo Rossi's design, keeping to the motto "As it was, where it was," which had been applied to the rebuilding of [St Mark's bell Campanile](/wiki/St_Mark%27s_Campanile "St Mark's Campanile"), exactly the same as the original and taking ten years, after it collapsed in 1902\. The faithful reconstruction of the house was facilitated by the comprehensive treatise on the reconstruction that had been drawn up by the Meduna brothers after the work carried out following the first fire of 1836\. Reconstruction of the decorations in the house, in a [Rococo](/wiki/Rococo "Rococo") style, was based mainly on consultation of the considerable photographic archive on the opera house held in the theatre's historic archive.
In order to speed up the work, two procedures were adopted.
Reconstruction of the masonry and wooden framing of the building was carried out in the opera house itself by hundreds of workers employed 24 hours a day, seven days a week, while the decorative components were constructed at the same time in various external workshops so that these would be ready for application once the structural work was complete.
The same nineteenth\-century materials were used: papier\-mache, wood, and plaster for all ornamentation of the royal box and the entrance, the 22 [Nereids](/wiki/Nereid "Nereid") that are part of the cornice of the so\-called soffittone (ceiling), and the four putti in the royal box.
The guiding principle was that of recreating the original house, particularly its specific technical solution based mainly on the use of wood, carefully chosen and treated to obtain the best acoustic response. The big soundbox of the wooden house was enclosed in a protective envelope of masonry and reinforced concrete floors.
The only decorative element built at least partly on site was the ceiling, which reproduces the original design, giving the optical illusion of a vaulted ceiling. It features paintings of several female figures, some of whom are carrying musical instruments, and young maidens representing the Graces, Music, Dance and Aurora.
The chandelier is a reproduction of the English original in gilt bronze, commissioned by the Meduna brothers from craftsmen in Liverpool in 1854\. The arms of the sconces in the boxes were also made following the model of a single surviving example.
The main theme of the house decorations, dating from 1854, is a reproduction of a forest with acanthus leaves depicted in the papier\-mache decorations, subsequently enriched with 23\-carat gold leaf worked using the quartz technique and polished with agate.
The paintings outside the boxes have cherubs with musical instruments or in playful mood. The first tier also includes the profiles of classical poets, while the second features six allegories representing History, Poetry, Philosophy, Comedy, Tragedy, and Music.
On the third tier are *putti* holding tablets engraved with the titles and authors of 14 of the most important operas staged in the house.
A significant innovation in the appearance of the house was made by a radical change of color inside the individual boxes. The original shade of beige has now been replaced by a blue\-green pastel color.
The current access to the stalls was designed by the engineer Miozzi in 1937 and decorated at the sides with two plaster caryatids. The house originally had two small entrances in the section now occupied by the first on the right of the current access, which until the second half of the 1930s was taken up by three boxes in the first tier.
The orchestra pit now has a moveable platform. When the pit is not required, the platform can be raised to the level of the stalls, allowing some rows of additional seats to be added to the front, increasing capacity by 104 to 1,126\. The moveable platform, which consists of two elements, can also be completely or partially raised to the level of the stage in order to enlarge it.
The curtain was reproduced on the basis of an examination of historic documentation, in dark\-green, deep nap, fire\-resistant synthetic velvet decorated with 1,100 flowers in gilt leather.
The new stage is accompanied by a second lateral stage onto which the stage equipment now moves sideways for construction and handling of the scenery.
|
[
"### House",
"[thumb\\|La Fenice Opera House from the stage](/wiki/File:La_Fenice_Opera_House_from_the_stage.jpg \"La Fenice Opera House from the stage.jpg\")\nThe fire of 1996 completely destroyed the five tiers of boxes, the stage and the ceiling, leaving only the perimeter walls on the original house.",
"Reconstruction was based on the architect Aldo Rossi's design, keeping to the motto \"As it was, where it was,\" which had been applied to the rebuilding of [St Mark's bell Campanile](/wiki/St_Mark%27s_Campanile \"St Mark's Campanile\"), exactly the same as the original and taking ten years, after it collapsed in 1902\\. The faithful reconstruction of the house was facilitated by the comprehensive treatise on the reconstruction that had been drawn up by the Meduna brothers after the work carried out following the first fire of 1836\\. Reconstruction of the decorations in the house, in a [Rococo](/wiki/Rococo \"Rococo\") style, was based mainly on consultation of the considerable photographic archive on the opera house held in the theatre's historic archive.\nIn order to speed up the work, two procedures were adopted.",
"Reconstruction of the masonry and wooden framing of the building was carried out in the opera house itself by hundreds of workers employed 24 hours a day, seven days a week, while the decorative components were constructed at the same time in various external workshops so that these would be ready for application once the structural work was complete.\nThe same nineteenth\\-century materials were used: papier\\-mache, wood, and plaster for all ornamentation of the royal box and the entrance, the 22 [Nereids](/wiki/Nereid \"Nereid\") that are part of the cornice of the so\\-called soffittone (ceiling), and the four putti in the royal box.\nThe guiding principle was that of recreating the original house, particularly its specific technical solution based mainly on the use of wood, carefully chosen and treated to obtain the best acoustic response. The big soundbox of the wooden house was enclosed in a protective envelope of masonry and reinforced concrete floors.",
"The only decorative element built at least partly on site was the ceiling, which reproduces the original design, giving the optical illusion of a vaulted ceiling. It features paintings of several female figures, some of whom are carrying musical instruments, and young maidens representing the Graces, Music, Dance and Aurora. \nThe chandelier is a reproduction of the English original in gilt bronze, commissioned by the Meduna brothers from craftsmen in Liverpool in 1854\\. The arms of the sconces in the boxes were also made following the model of a single surviving example.",
"The main theme of the house decorations, dating from 1854, is a reproduction of a forest with acanthus leaves depicted in the papier\\-mache decorations, subsequently enriched with 23\\-carat gold leaf worked using the quartz technique and polished with agate.\nThe paintings outside the boxes have cherubs with musical instruments or in playful mood. The first tier also includes the profiles of classical poets, while the second features six allegories representing History, Poetry, Philosophy, Comedy, Tragedy, and Music.",
"On the third tier are *putti* holding tablets engraved with the titles and authors of 14 of the most important operas staged in the house.",
"A significant innovation in the appearance of the house was made by a radical change of color inside the individual boxes. The original shade of beige has now been replaced by a blue\\-green pastel color.",
"The current access to the stalls was designed by the engineer Miozzi in 1937 and decorated at the sides with two plaster caryatids. The house originally had two small entrances in the section now occupied by the first on the right of the current access, which until the second half of the 1930s was taken up by three boxes in the first tier.",
"The orchestra pit now has a moveable platform. When the pit is not required, the platform can be raised to the level of the stalls, allowing some rows of additional seats to be added to the front, increasing capacity by 104 to 1,126\\. The moveable platform, which consists of two elements, can also be completely or partially raised to the level of the stage in order to enlarge it.",
"The curtain was reproduced on the basis of an examination of historic documentation, in dark\\-green, deep nap, fire\\-resistant synthetic velvet decorated with 1,100 flowers in gilt leather.",
"The new stage is accompanied by a second lateral stage onto which the stage equipment now moves sideways for construction and handling of the scenery.",
""
] |
### Sale Apollinee
[thumb\|upright\|The Sala Ammannati is a part of the Sale Apollinee at La Fenice Opera House in Venice](/wiki/File:La_Fenice_%28Sala_Ammannati%2C_one_of_the_Sale_Apollinee%29.jpg "La Fenice (Sala Ammannati, one of the Sale Apollinee).jpg")
The Sale Apollinee, so named because dedicated to the Greek god [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo "Apollo"), father of the Muses and patron of the Arts, including music, consists of five rooms whose current layout dates from 1937\.
These rooms are now used during the intervals by the audience occupying the first three tiers of boxes and the stalls. The five rooms of the Sale Apollinee were originally used even when there was no show in the opera house; its bar would be open during the day and there was a billiard table in one of the rooms.
On the top of the main door is a symbol of the sun, a tribute to the King of France [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV "Louis XIV"). The Apollon room was thought of as a ballet room; ballet came to prominence in part because of Louis XIV's interest in it. He performed a series of dances in [Ballet Royal de la Nuit](/wiki/Ballet_Royal_de_la_Nuit "Ballet Royal de la Nuit"), in the final piece as Apollo in a costume with a kilt of golden rays—and thus became known as the Sun King. La Fenice was built in tribute to the god Apollo.
Unlike the house, which was completely destroyed by the enormous fire of 1996, about a fifth of these rooms survived. The surviving fragments can be easily recognized, as the precise intention of the reconstruction work was that it highlight the difference between the historic sections and the recent additions. The original parts of the ceiling cornices and remaining ornamental stuccoes on the walls are darker in color, in testimony of the last fire. The same difference can be seen in the marble frames of some of the doors, repaired with new marble of a different color, and in the new flooring, which merges with the typical Venetian terrazzo that remained in the room dedicated to the famous singer [Maria Malibran](/wiki/Maria_Malibran "Maria Malibran").
Thanks to these completions, the Sale Apollinee has been rebuilt on the basis of the originals, though a wider range of choice was conceded than in the house, shown by the new upholstery and furnishings in these rooms.
#### Sala Dante
The main bar is in the Sala Dante, named after the frescoes that once decorated its walls.
This room was inaugurated in 1865 on the occasion of the sixth centenary of the birth of [Dante Alighieri](/wiki/Dante_Alighieri "Dante Alighieri"). To celebrate the event, the painter Giacomo Casa created a large composition within the decorative ceiling frame, showing Italy in the act of crowning the great poet and six tempera fresco paintings on the walls, with the same number of scenes from the [Divine Comedy](/wiki/Divine_Comedy "Divine Comedy"). Two of these were then replaced in 1867 with others in tempera by Antonio Ermolao Paoletti.
In September 1976 the walls and ceiling of this room, renamed the Sala Guidi, were decorated with works by the Venetian painter Virgilio Guidi, which covered the scenes from Dante. The fire of 1996, however, destroyed these canvases, bringing back to light some fragments of the original decoration by Casa, which have now been completed with a sinopia to assist their reading.
#### Sala Grande
[thumb\|upright\|The Sala Grande or ballroom is the main room of the five Sale Apollinee, lit by three windows in the middle of the entrance façade](/wiki/File:The_Sale_Apollinee_%28Sala_Grande_or_ballroom%29.jpg "The Sale Apollinee (Sala Grande or ballroom).jpg")
The Sala Grande or ballroom is he main room of the five Sale Apollinee, lit by the three windows in the middle of the entrance façade.
Used over the years for different purposes, the Sala Grande was an elegant venue for balls, chamber music concerts, conferences or book launches, and (before La Fenice was provided with special rooms for them) rehearsals. It was also used by the governing board in 1935\.
Almost completely destroyed on the night of 29 January 1996, the Sala Grande has been faithfully reconstructed to the original model.
The floor, which is above the foyer, collapsed after the fire and only the corners were saved. The current floor has been faithfully rebuilt to the original model and its characteristic floral patterns reproduced, requiring the use of various types of wood: maple, olive, and cherry. The color of the walls is also the same as the original. A gallery runs around the circumference of the upper part of the room, with access from the three doors on the top floor.
|
[
"### Sale Apollinee",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The Sala Ammannati is a part of the Sale Apollinee at La Fenice Opera House in Venice](/wiki/File:La_Fenice_%28Sala_Ammannati%2C_one_of_the_Sale_Apollinee%29.jpg \"La Fenice (Sala Ammannati, one of the Sale Apollinee).jpg\")\nThe Sale Apollinee, so named because dedicated to the Greek god [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo \"Apollo\"), father of the Muses and patron of the Arts, including music, consists of five rooms whose current layout dates from 1937\\.\nThese rooms are now used during the intervals by the audience occupying the first three tiers of boxes and the stalls. The five rooms of the Sale Apollinee were originally used even when there was no show in the opera house; its bar would be open during the day and there was a billiard table in one of the rooms.",
"On the top of the main door is a symbol of the sun, a tribute to the King of France [Louis XIV](/wiki/Louis_XIV \"Louis XIV\"). The Apollon room was thought of as a ballet room; ballet came to prominence in part because of Louis XIV's interest in it. He performed a series of dances in [Ballet Royal de la Nuit](/wiki/Ballet_Royal_de_la_Nuit \"Ballet Royal de la Nuit\"), in the final piece as Apollo in a costume with a kilt of golden rays—and thus became known as the Sun King. La Fenice was built in tribute to the god Apollo.",
"Unlike the house, which was completely destroyed by the enormous fire of 1996, about a fifth of these rooms survived. The surviving fragments can be easily recognized, as the precise intention of the reconstruction work was that it highlight the difference between the historic sections and the recent additions. The original parts of the ceiling cornices and remaining ornamental stuccoes on the walls are darker in color, in testimony of the last fire. The same difference can be seen in the marble frames of some of the doors, repaired with new marble of a different color, and in the new flooring, which merges with the typical Venetian terrazzo that remained in the room dedicated to the famous singer [Maria Malibran](/wiki/Maria_Malibran \"Maria Malibran\").",
"Thanks to these completions, the Sale Apollinee has been rebuilt on the basis of the originals, though a wider range of choice was conceded than in the house, shown by the new upholstery and furnishings in these rooms.",
"#### Sala Dante",
"The main bar is in the Sala Dante, named after the frescoes that once decorated its walls.",
"This room was inaugurated in 1865 on the occasion of the sixth centenary of the birth of [Dante Alighieri](/wiki/Dante_Alighieri \"Dante Alighieri\"). To celebrate the event, the painter Giacomo Casa created a large composition within the decorative ceiling frame, showing Italy in the act of crowning the great poet and six tempera fresco paintings on the walls, with the same number of scenes from the [Divine Comedy](/wiki/Divine_Comedy \"Divine Comedy\"). Two of these were then replaced in 1867 with others in tempera by Antonio Ermolao Paoletti.",
"In September 1976 the walls and ceiling of this room, renamed the Sala Guidi, were decorated with works by the Venetian painter Virgilio Guidi, which covered the scenes from Dante. The fire of 1996, however, destroyed these canvases, bringing back to light some fragments of the original decoration by Casa, which have now been completed with a sinopia to assist their reading.",
"#### Sala Grande",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The Sala Grande or ballroom is the main room of the five Sale Apollinee, lit by three windows in the middle of the entrance façade](/wiki/File:The_Sale_Apollinee_%28Sala_Grande_or_ballroom%29.jpg \"The Sale Apollinee (Sala Grande or ballroom).jpg\")\nThe Sala Grande or ballroom is he main room of the five Sale Apollinee, lit by the three windows in the middle of the entrance façade.",
"Used over the years for different purposes, the Sala Grande was an elegant venue for balls, chamber music concerts, conferences or book launches, and (before La Fenice was provided with special rooms for them) rehearsals. It was also used by the governing board in 1935\\.\nAlmost completely destroyed on the night of 29 January 1996, the Sala Grande has been faithfully reconstructed to the original model.",
"The floor, which is above the foyer, collapsed after the fire and only the corners were saved. The current floor has been faithfully rebuilt to the original model and its characteristic floral patterns reproduced, requiring the use of various types of wood: maple, olive, and cherry. The color of the walls is also the same as the original. A gallery runs around the circumference of the upper part of the room, with access from the three doors on the top floor.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### First stint with Packers
After going undrafted in the [2002 NFL draft](/wiki/2002_NFL_draft "2002 NFL draft"), Unertl was signed by the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers") as an [undrafted free agent](/wiki/Undrafted_free_agent "Undrafted free agent").
### Baltimore Ravens
Unertl was signed by the [Baltimore Ravens](/wiki/Baltimore_Ravens "Baltimore Ravens") on August 12, but released at the end of [training camp](/wiki/National_Football_League_Training_Camp "National Football League Training Camp").
### Second stint with Packers
Unertl was re\-signed by the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers") in the 2003 offseason and was allocated to [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europa "NFL Europa"), where he played for the [Frankfurt Galaxy](/wiki/Frankfurt_Galaxy_%28NFL_Europe%29 "Frankfurt Galaxy (NFL Europe)"). While with the Galaxy Unertl led NFL Europe in interceptions and won [World Bowl XI](/wiki/World_Bowl_XI "World Bowl XI") as a starting cornerback.{{Cite web \|title\=Galaxy's Unertl Thinking Green \|url\=https://www.packers.com/news/galaxy\-s\-unertl\-thinking\-green\-2475131 \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-27 \|website\=www.packers.com \|language\=en\-US}} He was released by the Packers on August 29\.
### Las Vegas Gladiators
Unertl then signed with the [Las Vegas Gladiators](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Gladiators "Las Vegas Gladiators") in 2004, but was released during the 2005 season.
### Columbus Destroyers
Unertl was claimed off waivers by the [Columbus Destroyers](/wiki/Columbus_Destroyers "Columbus Destroyers") in 2005\. In 2006, he was traded to the [Chicago Rush](/wiki/Chicago_Rush "Chicago Rush") after week 2 for [Henry Douglas](/wiki/Henry_Douglas_%28American_football%29 "Henry Douglas (American football)").
### Chicago Rush
Unertl immediately became the Rush's [starting](/wiki/Starting_lineup "Starting lineup") [Defensive Specialist](/wiki/Defensive_Specialist "Defensive Specialist") and had a breakout season. He helped Chicago to a three\-game winning streak and was named defensive player of the game in all three games. He finished the season as the team's [MVP](/wiki/Most_valuable_player "Most valuable player"), finishing the year as the Rush's leader in tackles, interceptions, and pass breakups.
### California Redwoods
Unertl was drafted by the [California Redwoods](/wiki/Sacramento_Mountain_Lions "Sacramento Mountain Lions") of the [United Football League](/wiki/United_Football_League_%282009%29 "United Football League (2009)") in the [UFL Premiere Season Draft](/wiki/UFL_Premiere_Season_Draft "UFL Premiere Season Draft") in 2009\. He signed with the team on August 18\.{{cite news
\|title\=United Football League Signs 31 Players to California Redwoods' Roster
\|url\=http://www.ufl\-football.com/press/2009/08/18/united\_football\_league\_signs\_31\_players\_to\_california\_redwoods\_roster
\|date\=2009\-08\-20
\|url\-status\=dead
\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821183532/http://www.ufl\-football.com/press/2009/08/18/united\_football\_league\_signs\_31\_players\_to\_california\_redwoods\_roster
\|archivedate\=2009\-08\-21
}}
### Toronto Argonauts
On April 6, 2010, Unertl signed with the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League.
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### First stint with Packers",
"After going undrafted in the [2002 NFL draft](/wiki/2002_NFL_draft \"2002 NFL draft\"), Unertl was signed by the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\") as an [undrafted free agent](/wiki/Undrafted_free_agent \"Undrafted free agent\").",
"### Baltimore Ravens",
"Unertl was signed by the [Baltimore Ravens](/wiki/Baltimore_Ravens \"Baltimore Ravens\") on August 12, but released at the end of [training camp](/wiki/National_Football_League_Training_Camp \"National Football League Training Camp\").",
"### Second stint with Packers",
"Unertl was re\\-signed by the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\") in the 2003 offseason and was allocated to [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europa \"NFL Europa\"), where he played for the [Frankfurt Galaxy](/wiki/Frankfurt_Galaxy_%28NFL_Europe%29 \"Frankfurt Galaxy (NFL Europe)\"). While with the Galaxy Unertl led NFL Europe in interceptions and won [World Bowl XI](/wiki/World_Bowl_XI \"World Bowl XI\") as a starting cornerback.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Galaxy's Unertl Thinking Green \\|url\\=https://www.packers.com/news/galaxy\\-s\\-unertl\\-thinking\\-green\\-2475131 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-27 \\|website\\=www.packers.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}} He was released by the Packers on August 29\\.",
"### Las Vegas Gladiators",
"Unertl then signed with the [Las Vegas Gladiators](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Gladiators \"Las Vegas Gladiators\") in 2004, but was released during the 2005 season.",
"### Columbus Destroyers",
"Unertl was claimed off waivers by the [Columbus Destroyers](/wiki/Columbus_Destroyers \"Columbus Destroyers\") in 2005\\. In 2006, he was traded to the [Chicago Rush](/wiki/Chicago_Rush \"Chicago Rush\") after week 2 for [Henry Douglas](/wiki/Henry_Douglas_%28American_football%29 \"Henry Douglas (American football)\").",
"### Chicago Rush",
"Unertl immediately became the Rush's [starting](/wiki/Starting_lineup \"Starting lineup\") [Defensive Specialist](/wiki/Defensive_Specialist \"Defensive Specialist\") and had a breakout season. He helped Chicago to a three\\-game winning streak and was named defensive player of the game in all three games. He finished the season as the team's [MVP](/wiki/Most_valuable_player \"Most valuable player\"), finishing the year as the Rush's leader in tackles, interceptions, and pass breakups.",
"### California Redwoods",
"Unertl was drafted by the [California Redwoods](/wiki/Sacramento_Mountain_Lions \"Sacramento Mountain Lions\") of the [United Football League](/wiki/United_Football_League_%282009%29 \"United Football League (2009)\") in the [UFL Premiere Season Draft](/wiki/UFL_Premiere_Season_Draft \"UFL Premiere Season Draft\") in 2009\\. He signed with the team on August 18\\.{{cite news\n \\|title\\=United Football League Signs 31 Players to California Redwoods' Roster \n \\|url\\=http://www.ufl\\-football.com/press/2009/08/18/united\\_football\\_league\\_signs\\_31\\_players\\_to\\_california\\_redwoods\\_roster \n \\|date\\=2009\\-08\\-20 \n \\|url\\-status\\=dead \n \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090821183532/http://www.ufl\\-football.com/press/2009/08/18/united\\_football\\_league\\_signs\\_31\\_players\\_to\\_california\\_redwoods\\_roster \n \\|archivedate\\=2009\\-08\\-21 \n}}",
"### Toronto Argonauts",
"On April 6, 2010, Unertl signed with the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 2006
SmsCoin project was launched in July 2006 with only 4 countries ([Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine"), [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan"), [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel")) offering 3 of the following services: <sms:chat>, <sms:key> and <sms:bank>. During the month of November additional service called <sms:transit> was developed, and closer to the end of the year 13 countries became available.
### 2007
The beginning of 2007 was marked by adding a few more countries as well as developing innovative extensions for [browsers](/wiki/File_manager "File manager") and a [MIDlet](/wiki/MIDlet "MIDlet") that made it easier for SmsCoin' partners to access the statistics of their websites using mobile phones. English version of the website was presented in February. Its anniversary SmsCoin celebrated with 5 different <sms:services> across 18 countries worldwide working with over 5 thousand partners and processing more than a million SMS messages.
### 2008
Year 2008 began with presenting a new program for developing ready\-to\-use modules for popular [CMS](/wiki/Content_management_system "Content management system"), 10 of which were published on the website as well as brand new service <sms:content> was launched. In April SmsCoin announced the connection of 30 countries worldwide. During this harsh period caused by a fierce competition on mobile payments market the project prospered due to higher payouts as well as enabling partners to choose their own short codes. Additionally, across [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia") the payouts were made in rubles, and partners could request their revenue share payout once every 5 days which than was quite extraordinary. Throughout October till November additional achievements were presented \- first of all a global support was launched unifying all means of contact using [Instant messaging](/wiki/Instant_messaging "Instant messaging"). Secondly, SmsCoin now offered its services across so much as 40 countries.
### 2009
In March 2009 SmsCoin announced a series of events starting with even greater coverage \- 50 countries, connecting several Latin American countries at once, next 6 Middle Eastern countries followed in May. 3rd anniversary celebration opened with a brand new and refreshing website design and structure improvement which made it much more convenient to work with.{{Cite web\|url\=http://world.procontent.ru/node/366/\|title\=Celebrating the 3rd anniversary of SmsCoin project Agregator Ltd. reviews and concludes its activities for the past year\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306004405/http://world.procontent.ru/node/366/\|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-06}} Immediately a new service called <sms:donate> was launched. Towards the end of the year SmsCoin project covered as much as 65 countries including its latest "acquisitions": [China](/wiki/China "China"), [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"), [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"). Throughout 2009 ready\-to\-use scripts library was considerably expanded as part of an improvement plan that began in 2008 and continues to this day forward.
### 2010
Good karma came in the beginning of 2010 when SmsCoin project connected the following countries [India](/wiki/India "India") and [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus") which considered to be unique on the mobile payments market.{{Cite web\|url\=http://world.procontent.ru/node/431/\|title\=Catch good Karma – SmsCoin connected India\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100517043452/http://world.procontent.ru/node/431\|archive\-date\=2010\-05\-17}} Moreover, during the summer of 2010 SmsCoin has connected 9 additional countries: [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), [Guatemala](/wiki/Guatemala "Guatemala"), [Honduras](/wiki/Honduras "Honduras"), [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic "Dominican Republic"), [El Salvador](/wiki/El_Salvador "El Salvador"), [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua "Nicaragua"), [Panama](/wiki/Panama "Panama"), [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay "Paraguay"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand"), and by achieving that finally establishing itself a unique key leader within the mobile payments market. By November 2010 SmsCoin connected 87 countries.{{Cite web\|url\=http://world.procontent.ru/node/464/\|title\=SmsCoin reaches new heights – 87 countries connected}}
### 2011
Connection of new countries ([Costa\-Rica](/wiki/Costa-Rica "Costa-Rica"), [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay "Uruguay"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya") and [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana")) was established, together with the increase of available rates range. The library of ready\-made scripts for various CMS is significantly extended; in October a new product \- inn\-app payments library for [Android OS](/wiki/Android_%28operating_system%29 "Android (operating system)") \- is presented.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 2006",
"SmsCoin project was launched in July 2006 with only 4 countries ([Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\"), [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\"), [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\")) offering 3 of the following services: <sms:chat>, <sms:key> and <sms:bank>. During the month of November additional service called <sms:transit> was developed, and closer to the end of the year 13 countries became available.",
"### 2007",
"The beginning of 2007 was marked by adding a few more countries as well as developing innovative extensions for [browsers](/wiki/File_manager \"File manager\") and a [MIDlet](/wiki/MIDlet \"MIDlet\") that made it easier for SmsCoin' partners to access the statistics of their websites using mobile phones. English version of the website was presented in February. Its anniversary SmsCoin celebrated with 5 different <sms:services> across 18 countries worldwide working with over 5 thousand partners and processing more than a million SMS messages.",
"### 2008",
"Year 2008 began with presenting a new program for developing ready\\-to\\-use modules for popular [CMS](/wiki/Content_management_system \"Content management system\"), 10 of which were published on the website as well as brand new service <sms:content> was launched. In April SmsCoin announced the connection of 30 countries worldwide. During this harsh period caused by a fierce competition on mobile payments market the project prospered due to higher payouts as well as enabling partners to choose their own short codes. Additionally, across [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") the payouts were made in rubles, and partners could request their revenue share payout once every 5 days which than was quite extraordinary. Throughout October till November additional achievements were presented \\- first of all a global support was launched unifying all means of contact using [Instant messaging](/wiki/Instant_messaging \"Instant messaging\"). Secondly, SmsCoin now offered its services across so much as 40 countries.",
"### 2009",
"In March 2009 SmsCoin announced a series of events starting with even greater coverage \\- 50 countries, connecting several Latin American countries at once, next 6 Middle Eastern countries followed in May. 3rd anniversary celebration opened with a brand new and refreshing website design and structure improvement which made it much more convenient to work with.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://world.procontent.ru/node/366/\\|title\\=Celebrating the 3rd anniversary of SmsCoin project Agregator Ltd. reviews and concludes its activities for the past year\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306004405/http://world.procontent.ru/node/366/\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-06}} Immediately a new service called <sms:donate> was launched. Towards the end of the year SmsCoin project covered as much as 65 countries including its latest \"acquisitions\": [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"), [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"). Throughout 2009 ready\\-to\\-use scripts library was considerably expanded as part of an improvement plan that began in 2008 and continues to this day forward.",
"### 2010",
"Good karma came in the beginning of 2010 when SmsCoin project connected the following countries [India](/wiki/India \"India\") and [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus \"Cyprus\") which considered to be unique on the mobile payments market.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://world.procontent.ru/node/431/\\|title\\=Catch good Karma – SmsCoin connected India\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100517043452/http://world.procontent.ru/node/431\\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-17}} Moreover, during the summer of 2010 SmsCoin has connected 9 additional countries: [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), [Guatemala](/wiki/Guatemala \"Guatemala\"), [Honduras](/wiki/Honduras \"Honduras\"), [Dominican Republic](/wiki/Dominican_Republic \"Dominican Republic\"), [El Salvador](/wiki/El_Salvador \"El Salvador\"), [Nicaragua](/wiki/Nicaragua \"Nicaragua\"), [Panama](/wiki/Panama \"Panama\"), [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay \"Paraguay\"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\"), and by achieving that finally establishing itself a unique key leader within the mobile payments market. By November 2010 SmsCoin connected 87 countries.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://world.procontent.ru/node/464/\\|title\\=SmsCoin reaches new heights – 87 countries connected}}",
"### 2011",
"Connection of new countries ([Costa\\-Rica](/wiki/Costa-Rica \"Costa-Rica\"), [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay \"Uruguay\"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\") and [Ghana](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\")) was established, together with the increase of available rates range. The library of ready\\-made scripts for various CMS is significantly extended; in October a new product \\- inn\\-app payments library for [Android OS](/wiki/Android_%28operating_system%29 \"Android (operating system)\") \\- is presented.",
""
] |
Other notable performances and records
--------------------------------------
### 2001: Alan Webb's high school mile record
At the 2001 Prefontaine Classic, [Alan Webb](/wiki/Alan_Webb_%28runner%29 "Alan Webb (runner)") competed against elite international runners, in a field that included world record holder [Hicham El Guerrouj](/wiki/Hicham_El_Guerrouj "Hicham El Guerrouj"), and the [2000 Sydney Olympics](/wiki/2000_Summer_Olympics "2000 Summer Olympics") [1500m](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_2000_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_1500_metres "Athletics at the 2000 Summer Olympics – Men's 1500 metres") bronze medalist [Bernard Lagat](/wiki/Bernard_Lagat "Bernard Lagat").{{Citation \|title\=Alan Webb Mile High School Record – 2001 Prefontaine Classic \| date\=July 31, 2023 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=ktQ2YeFmQZI \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-08 \|language\=en}}
Webb ran 3:53\.43 in the [Bowerman Mile](/wiki/Bowerman_Mile "Bowerman Mile") and broke [Jim Ryun](/wiki/Jim_Ryun "Jim Ryun")'s national [high school](/wiki/High_school "High school") record that had stood for 36 years. This was also the fastest mile by an American in three years.
### 1993–2008: Maria Mutola in the 800 m
[Maria de Lurdes Mutola](/wiki/Maria_de_Lurdes_Mutola "Maria de Lurdes Mutola") won 16 consecutive (1993–2008\) women's [800 m](/wiki/800_m "800 m") races at the Pre Classic.
### 2023: Jakob Ingebrigtsen's mile \& 3000m double
In the 2023 Prefontaine Classic \& Diamond League Final, on September 16, [Norwegian](/wiki/Norwegians "Norwegians") athlete [Jakob Ingebrigtsen](/wiki/Jakob_Ingebrigtsen "Jakob Ingebrigtsen") won the Bowerman Mile, in a time of 3:43\.73, with the aid of pacing lights and pacemakers [Erik Sowinski](/wiki/Erik_Sowinski "Erik Sowinski") \& [Cameron Myers](/wiki/Cameron_Myers "Cameron Myers").
Ingebrigtsen missed [Hicham El Guerrouj's](/wiki/Hicham_El_Guerrouj "Hicham El Guerrouj") mile world record by .60 seconds, still having run the fastest mile in 24 years and the third fastest mile in history at the time.
Ingebrigtsen was closely followed by [Yared Nuguse](/wiki/Yared_Nuguse "Yared Nuguse"), who finished in an [American record](/wiki/List_of_United_States_records_in_track_and_field "List of United States records in track and field") time of 3:43\.97, breaking Alan Webb's former American mile record of 3:46\.91 by almost three full seconds and running the fourth fastest mile in history at the time.
The race was reminiscent of El Guerrouj's 1999 world record run in [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome"), where El Guerrouj won in 3:43\.13, but was being closely tracked by [Kenyan](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya") athlete [Noah Ngeny](/wiki/Noah_Ngeny "Noah Ngeny"), who came in second place at 3:43\.40\. El Guerrouj and Ngeny still hold the first and second fastest mile times respectively as of 2023\.
These four men (El Guerrouj, Ngeny, Ingebrigtsen, Nuguse) remain the only ones in history to have run a mile under 3:44\.00 as of 2024, with the \#5 fastest miler of all time being [Noureddine Morceli](/wiki/Noureddine_Morceli "Noureddine Morceli"), with his 1993 time of 3:44\.39\.{{Cite web \|last\=Wright \|first\=Andy \|date\=2023\-09\-17 \|title\=Bowerman Mile 2023 – Eugene Mile Madness \|url\=https://meta\-endurance.com/bowerman\-mile\-2023/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-01 \|website\=Meta Endurance \|language\=en\-GB}}{{Cite web \|last\=LetsRun.com \|date\=2023\-09\-16 \|title\=Jakob Ingebrigtsen (3:43\.73\) Tops Yared Nuguse (3:43\.97\) in Epic 2023 Bowerman Mile \|url\=https://www.letsrun.com/news/2023/09/jakob\-ingebrigtsen\-343\-73\-tops\-yared\-nuguse\-343\-97\-in\-epic\-2023\-bowerman\-mile\-2/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-01 \|website\=LetsRun.com \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=One Mile – men – senior – outdoor \|url\=https://worldathletics.org/records/all\-time\-toplists/middle\-long/one\-mile/outdoor/men/senior?regionType\=world\&page\=1\&bestResultsOnly\=false\&firstDay\=1899\-12\-30\&lastDay\=2023\-09\-26 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-01 \|website\=worldathletics.org}}
The next day, Ingebrigtsen would go on to win the 3000 m, in a time of 7:23\.63, beating [Yomif Kejelcha](/wiki/Yomif_Kejelcha "Yomif Kejelcha") by only one hundredth of a second. At the time, this ranked Kejelcha at \#4 all time and Ingebrigtsen at \#3 all time, behind Hicham El Guerrouj's 7:23\.09 and [Daniel Komen's](/wiki/Daniel_Komen "Daniel Komen") world record of 7:20\.67\.{{Cite web \|title\=3000 Metres – men – senior – outdoor \|url\=https://worldathletics.org/records/all\-time\-toplists/middle\-long/3000\-metres/outdoor/men/senior?regionType\=world\&page\=1\&bestResultsOnly\=true\&firstDay\=1899\-12\-30\&lastDay\=2023\-09\-26 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-01 \|website\=worldathletics.org}}
|
[
"Other notable performances and records\n--------------------------------------",
"### 2001: Alan Webb's high school mile record",
"At the 2001 Prefontaine Classic, [Alan Webb](/wiki/Alan_Webb_%28runner%29 \"Alan Webb (runner)\") competed against elite international runners, in a field that included world record holder [Hicham El Guerrouj](/wiki/Hicham_El_Guerrouj \"Hicham El Guerrouj\"), and the [2000 Sydney Olympics](/wiki/2000_Summer_Olympics \"2000 Summer Olympics\") [1500m](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_2000_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_1500_metres \"Athletics at the 2000 Summer Olympics – Men's 1500 metres\") bronze medalist [Bernard Lagat](/wiki/Bernard_Lagat \"Bernard Lagat\").{{Citation \\|title\\=Alan Webb Mile High School Record – 2001 Prefontaine Classic \\| date\\=July 31, 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=ktQ2YeFmQZI \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-08 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Webb ran 3:53\\.43 in the [Bowerman Mile](/wiki/Bowerman_Mile \"Bowerman Mile\") and broke [Jim Ryun](/wiki/Jim_Ryun \"Jim Ryun\")'s national [high school](/wiki/High_school \"High school\") record that had stood for 36 years. This was also the fastest mile by an American in three years.",
"### 1993–2008: Maria Mutola in the 800 m",
"[Maria de Lurdes Mutola](/wiki/Maria_de_Lurdes_Mutola \"Maria de Lurdes Mutola\") won 16 consecutive (1993–2008\\) women's [800 m](/wiki/800_m \"800 m\") races at the Pre Classic.",
"### 2023: Jakob Ingebrigtsen's mile \\& 3000m double",
"In the 2023 Prefontaine Classic \\& Diamond League Final, on September 16, [Norwegian](/wiki/Norwegians \"Norwegians\") athlete [Jakob Ingebrigtsen](/wiki/Jakob_Ingebrigtsen \"Jakob Ingebrigtsen\") won the Bowerman Mile, in a time of 3:43\\.73, with the aid of pacing lights and pacemakers [Erik Sowinski](/wiki/Erik_Sowinski \"Erik Sowinski\") \\& [Cameron Myers](/wiki/Cameron_Myers \"Cameron Myers\").",
"Ingebrigtsen missed [Hicham El Guerrouj's](/wiki/Hicham_El_Guerrouj \"Hicham El Guerrouj\") mile world record by .60 seconds, still having run the fastest mile in 24 years and the third fastest mile in history at the time.",
"Ingebrigtsen was closely followed by [Yared Nuguse](/wiki/Yared_Nuguse \"Yared Nuguse\"), who finished in an [American record](/wiki/List_of_United_States_records_in_track_and_field \"List of United States records in track and field\") time of 3:43\\.97, breaking Alan Webb's former American mile record of 3:46\\.91 by almost three full seconds and running the fourth fastest mile in history at the time.",
"The race was reminiscent of El Guerrouj's 1999 world record run in [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"), where El Guerrouj won in 3:43\\.13, but was being closely tracked by [Kenyan](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\") athlete [Noah Ngeny](/wiki/Noah_Ngeny \"Noah Ngeny\"), who came in second place at 3:43\\.40\\. El Guerrouj and Ngeny still hold the first and second fastest mile times respectively as of 2023\\.",
"These four men (El Guerrouj, Ngeny, Ingebrigtsen, Nuguse) remain the only ones in history to have run a mile under 3:44\\.00 as of 2024, with the \\#5 fastest miler of all time being [Noureddine Morceli](/wiki/Noureddine_Morceli \"Noureddine Morceli\"), with his 1993 time of 3:44\\.39\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Wright \\|first\\=Andy \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-17 \\|title\\=Bowerman Mile 2023 – Eugene Mile Madness \\|url\\=https://meta\\-endurance.com/bowerman\\-mile\\-2023/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-01 \\|website\\=Meta Endurance \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=LetsRun.com \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-16 \\|title\\=Jakob Ingebrigtsen (3:43\\.73\\) Tops Yared Nuguse (3:43\\.97\\) in Epic 2023 Bowerman Mile \\|url\\=https://www.letsrun.com/news/2023/09/jakob\\-ingebrigtsen\\-343\\-73\\-tops\\-yared\\-nuguse\\-343\\-97\\-in\\-epic\\-2023\\-bowerman\\-mile\\-2/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-01 \\|website\\=LetsRun.com \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=One Mile – men – senior – outdoor \\|url\\=https://worldathletics.org/records/all\\-time\\-toplists/middle\\-long/one\\-mile/outdoor/men/senior?regionType\\=world\\&page\\=1\\&bestResultsOnly\\=false\\&firstDay\\=1899\\-12\\-30\\&lastDay\\=2023\\-09\\-26 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-01 \\|website\\=worldathletics.org}}",
"The next day, Ingebrigtsen would go on to win the 3000 m, in a time of 7:23\\.63, beating [Yomif Kejelcha](/wiki/Yomif_Kejelcha \"Yomif Kejelcha\") by only one hundredth of a second. At the time, this ranked Kejelcha at \\#4 all time and Ingebrigtsen at \\#3 all time, behind Hicham El Guerrouj's 7:23\\.09 and [Daniel Komen's](/wiki/Daniel_Komen \"Daniel Komen\") world record of 7:20\\.67\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=3000 Metres – men – senior – outdoor \\|url\\=https://worldathletics.org/records/all\\-time\\-toplists/middle\\-long/3000\\-metres/outdoor/men/senior?regionType\\=world\\&page\\=1\\&bestResultsOnly\\=true\\&firstDay\\=1899\\-12\\-30\\&lastDay\\=2023\\-09\\-26 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-01 \\|website\\=worldathletics.org}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
{{Long plot\|section\|date\=August 2020}}
Back in [1967](/wiki/1967 "1967"), Lakshmi arrives home to witness her niece, Nithya, playing with a piece of thread, having been completely dissociated from reality, while surrounded by the dead bodies of her family members. Her mental state and reaction upon glancing at her aunt leads her to believe that she is the killer.
The story then shifts to an eerie [mental asylum](/wiki/Lunatic_asylum "Lunatic asylum") set in the wilderness 5 years later where Dr. Kannan Nair, a psychiatrist, has come to inspect the place. We are introduced to the 5 resident patients, Renuka the caretaker, and Dr. Benjamin, who is the main doctor and also the owner.
Upon meeting Dr. Benjamin, Dr. Nair is upset about the whole setup of the asylum and continues to question Benjamin's integrity as a doctor. Dr Benjamin says he will make Dr. Nair see how good of a psychiatrist he is by hypnotizing him. Dr. Nair notices that although there are only five patients on the records, there seems to be a sixth patient, Nithya (who happened to be chained in a cell hidden away from the public's eye). Dr. Nair demands to see her, accusing Dr. Benjamin of using primitive, illogical, and illegal treatment methods. Dr. Benjamin states that Nithya is his daughter and that he has her locked away because she is too dangerous.
Dr. Nair proceeds to visit Nithya in her cell, entering despite the guard's warning to not do so, Nithya appears as a scary and sinister person, almost ghoulish. Nithya, upon spotting an intruder in her space, hits Nair and he falls unconscious on the cell floor. He wakes up in his room hours later.
Nair records his day's findings on his voice recorder and decides to explore the place a bit. Renuka had previously mentioned that the asylum is so big and with so many corridors and rooms that even she hasn't explored all of it yet. He comes upon a door that opens to a tunnel, at the end of which he discovers Lakshmi locked in a cell. She tells the Nair to somehow rescue Nithya from this place. After coming out of the strange tunnel, he goes into Dr. Benjamin's room to escape from a security guard who was patrolling the corridors. There, he comes upon a diary that was hidden under the doctor's study.
The next day, Dr. Nair leads Nithya out of her room, settling her in with the other patients, to live among them. When Dr Benjamin questions this act, Dr. Nair mocks him and says [autism](/wiki/Autism "Autism") (Nithya's diagnosis) is not a mental illness requiring confinement.
Dr Nair reads the diary he found from Dr. Benjamin's desk and it reveals Nithya's history to the viewer. We see her father is not Benjamin, but Jaya Narayana Varma, a royal from Nadakkal Kovilakam. We see that Varma loved his daughter and refused to believe she was mentally disabled, treating her just like a normal child. When he discovers her perfect reflexes, he teaches her [kalari](/wiki/Kalari "Kalari"), a martial art form native to Kerala. Nithya was brought to Benjamin by Lakshmi after the murders in their family. She asks him to treat Nithya and look her after as his own daughter. While Nair was reading the diary, standing in front of a dock, he slips into the water and the hospital guard ends up saving him. Dr. Nair believes he was pushed by someone. Nair tries to escape from the place at night with some medical documents, but is chased by the guard dogs and watchman suspecting him to be an intruder. These acts of assault lead him to believe that Benjamin is trying to kill him. This suspicion is strengthened by a dialogue they share afterwards where Benjamin states that "sheep don't hunt, they are to be hunted."
After this appalling turn of events, Dr. Nair grows close to Nithya and takes her out on the hospital grounds and an obvious romance is bubbling between them. This disturbs Jeevan, another young patient who also likes Nithya. A conversation between the nurse and Dr. Benjamin (who appear to be lovers) reveals that he had erased Nithya's memories completely. Dr. Nair finds this out and tries to spark her memories by talking about her father and asking her what happened to him. Nithya starts to remember her father, her aunt Lakshmi, and her cousin Vinayan (son of Lakshmi). Dr. Nair later goes to Dr. Benjamin and tells him that he is going to take Nithya away and save her from his evil methods. Dr. Benjamin mocks him and warns him to not make promises that he can't keep.
Dr. Benjamin, suspecting Nithya's memories are returning, plans to continue his primordial methods on her. Nair searches for her, but is misled by Benjamin and chases a car that turns out to be carrying a catatonic Jeevan. Upon running back to the facility, he is helped by the patients who are all fond of Nithya and they lead him to the place where Benjamin conducts his experiments. There ensues a fight between Nithya, Nair, and Benjamin. Nithya and Nair manage to escape by severely injuring Benjamin.
The story then proceeds to a few days later when a man claiming to be Dr. Kannan Nair visits the hospital. In a rather mind\-boggling twist of events, it is revealed that he is the original Dr. Nair and the imposter was actually Vinayan, Nithya's cousin. It turns out Vinayan was a patient of Dr. Nair and has [schizophrenia](/wiki/Schizophrenia "Schizophrenia") with delusions and all of its psychotic elements.
Here we are shown various scenes from the movie that prove this. There was no real Lakshmi imprisoned in the hospital, it was all a figment of Vinayan's hallucinations: Lakshmi died a few years after admitting Nithya to the asylum. Vinayan plunged himself into the water while reading the diary, his paranoia making him believe someone pushed him. We see his growing anger and lack of professionalism, his attempts to get close to Nithya, and his over\-protectiveness towards Nithya as a visiting psychiatrist, and more.
The real Dr. Nair censures Dr. Benjamin for his lack of insight into interpersonal relationships despite being a psychiatrist. He mocks the staff's inability to spot someone as mentally unstable as Vinayan in those three days, and is stunned by the fact that they didn't even ask Vinayan for any proof of identity. He explains to them that Vinayan was a sociopathic child who was also trained by Nithya's father. During treatment, Vinayan was able to maintain his veneer of sanity under medication and later admitted thereafter the 4 murders he committed.
It is revealed to the audience that it was not Nithya who murdered her family, but Vinayan. Nithya's father was actually murdered by his brothers, and the boy killed them in revenge and to stop them from harming Nithya. The cousins were actually promised to each other by Varma before his tragic death, and the voice\-over states that they are both very close to each other and will do anything to keep the other safe.
The film ends with the real Dr. Nair swearing that he will catch Vinayan wherever he is hiding. We then see that Vinayan and Nithya are happily living together in a beautiful house on the hills at peace, finally free from the external world.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"{{Long plot\\|section\\|date\\=August 2020}}\nBack in [1967](/wiki/1967 \"1967\"), Lakshmi arrives home to witness her niece, Nithya, playing with a piece of thread, having been completely dissociated from reality, while surrounded by the dead bodies of her family members. Her mental state and reaction upon glancing at her aunt leads her to believe that she is the killer.",
"The story then shifts to an eerie [mental asylum](/wiki/Lunatic_asylum \"Lunatic asylum\") set in the wilderness 5 years later where Dr. Kannan Nair, a psychiatrist, has come to inspect the place. We are introduced to the 5 resident patients, Renuka the caretaker, and Dr. Benjamin, who is the main doctor and also the owner.",
"Upon meeting Dr. Benjamin, Dr. Nair is upset about the whole setup of the asylum and continues to question Benjamin's integrity as a doctor. Dr Benjamin says he will make Dr. Nair see how good of a psychiatrist he is by hypnotizing him. Dr. Nair notices that although there are only five patients on the records, there seems to be a sixth patient, Nithya (who happened to be chained in a cell hidden away from the public's eye). Dr. Nair demands to see her, accusing Dr. Benjamin of using primitive, illogical, and illegal treatment methods. Dr. Benjamin states that Nithya is his daughter and that he has her locked away because she is too dangerous.",
"Dr. Nair proceeds to visit Nithya in her cell, entering despite the guard's warning to not do so, Nithya appears as a scary and sinister person, almost ghoulish. Nithya, upon spotting an intruder in her space, hits Nair and he falls unconscious on the cell floor. He wakes up in his room hours later.",
"Nair records his day's findings on his voice recorder and decides to explore the place a bit. Renuka had previously mentioned that the asylum is so big and with so many corridors and rooms that even she hasn't explored all of it yet. He comes upon a door that opens to a tunnel, at the end of which he discovers Lakshmi locked in a cell. She tells the Nair to somehow rescue Nithya from this place. After coming out of the strange tunnel, he goes into Dr. Benjamin's room to escape from a security guard who was patrolling the corridors. There, he comes upon a diary that was hidden under the doctor's study.",
"The next day, Dr. Nair leads Nithya out of her room, settling her in with the other patients, to live among them. When Dr Benjamin questions this act, Dr. Nair mocks him and says [autism](/wiki/Autism \"Autism\") (Nithya's diagnosis) is not a mental illness requiring confinement.",
"Dr Nair reads the diary he found from Dr. Benjamin's desk and it reveals Nithya's history to the viewer. We see her father is not Benjamin, but Jaya Narayana Varma, a royal from Nadakkal Kovilakam. We see that Varma loved his daughter and refused to believe she was mentally disabled, treating her just like a normal child. When he discovers her perfect reflexes, he teaches her [kalari](/wiki/Kalari \"Kalari\"), a martial art form native to Kerala. Nithya was brought to Benjamin by Lakshmi after the murders in their family. She asks him to treat Nithya and look her after as his own daughter. While Nair was reading the diary, standing in front of a dock, he slips into the water and the hospital guard ends up saving him. Dr. Nair believes he was pushed by someone. Nair tries to escape from the place at night with some medical documents, but is chased by the guard dogs and watchman suspecting him to be an intruder. These acts of assault lead him to believe that Benjamin is trying to kill him. This suspicion is strengthened by a dialogue they share afterwards where Benjamin states that \"sheep don't hunt, they are to be hunted.\"",
"After this appalling turn of events, Dr. Nair grows close to Nithya and takes her out on the hospital grounds and an obvious romance is bubbling between them. This disturbs Jeevan, another young patient who also likes Nithya. A conversation between the nurse and Dr. Benjamin (who appear to be lovers) reveals that he had erased Nithya's memories completely. Dr. Nair finds this out and tries to spark her memories by talking about her father and asking her what happened to him. Nithya starts to remember her father, her aunt Lakshmi, and her cousin Vinayan (son of Lakshmi). Dr. Nair later goes to Dr. Benjamin and tells him that he is going to take Nithya away and save her from his evil methods. Dr. Benjamin mocks him and warns him to not make promises that he can't keep.",
"Dr. Benjamin, suspecting Nithya's memories are returning, plans to continue his primordial methods on her. Nair searches for her, but is misled by Benjamin and chases a car that turns out to be carrying a catatonic Jeevan. Upon running back to the facility, he is helped by the patients who are all fond of Nithya and they lead him to the place where Benjamin conducts his experiments. There ensues a fight between Nithya, Nair, and Benjamin. Nithya and Nair manage to escape by severely injuring Benjamin.",
"The story then proceeds to a few days later when a man claiming to be Dr. Kannan Nair visits the hospital. In a rather mind\\-boggling twist of events, it is revealed that he is the original Dr. Nair and the imposter was actually Vinayan, Nithya's cousin. It turns out Vinayan was a patient of Dr. Nair and has [schizophrenia](/wiki/Schizophrenia \"Schizophrenia\") with delusions and all of its psychotic elements.",
"Here we are shown various scenes from the movie that prove this. There was no real Lakshmi imprisoned in the hospital, it was all a figment of Vinayan's hallucinations: Lakshmi died a few years after admitting Nithya to the asylum. Vinayan plunged himself into the water while reading the diary, his paranoia making him believe someone pushed him. We see his growing anger and lack of professionalism, his attempts to get close to Nithya, and his over\\-protectiveness towards Nithya as a visiting psychiatrist, and more.",
"The real Dr. Nair censures Dr. Benjamin for his lack of insight into interpersonal relationships despite being a psychiatrist. He mocks the staff's inability to spot someone as mentally unstable as Vinayan in those three days, and is stunned by the fact that they didn't even ask Vinayan for any proof of identity. He explains to them that Vinayan was a sociopathic child who was also trained by Nithya's father. During treatment, Vinayan was able to maintain his veneer of sanity under medication and later admitted thereafter the 4 murders he committed.",
"It is revealed to the audience that it was not Nithya who murdered her family, but Vinayan. Nithya's father was actually murdered by his brothers, and the boy killed them in revenge and to stop them from harming Nithya. The cousins were actually promised to each other by Varma before his tragic death, and the voice\\-over states that they are both very close to each other and will do anything to keep the other safe.",
"The film ends with the real Dr. Nair swearing that he will catch Vinayan wherever he is hiding. We then see that Vinayan and Nithya are happily living together in a beautiful house on the hills at peace, finally free from the external world.",
""
] |
Music career
------------
Her career started in 2002 with her first single, "Je serai la pour toi", in a duet with Canadian singer [Gino Quilico](/wiki/Gino_Quilico "Gino Quilico"). The song was the French version of "[There For Me](/wiki/There_for_Me_%28La_Bionda_song%29 "There for Me (La Bionda song)")", covered by [Sarah Brightman](/wiki/Sarah_Brightman "Sarah Brightman") in a [duet](/wiki/Duet "Duet") with [José Cura](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cura "José Cura"). The song went to number one, the album went gold, and Marilou became a star at 12 years old. She then signed with [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music "Sony Music") Canada and Sony Music France – the first joint venture between the two countries.
In 2003, Marilou sang "Everyday" for the soundtrack of *[Caillou's Holiday Movie](/wiki/Caillou%27s_Holiday_Movie "Caillou's Holiday Movie")* For the French version of the movie, "Everyday" was replaced by "Chaque Jour" sung by herself.
In 2004 Marilou was signed by Feeling Mgmt, the company owned by Céline Dion and [René Angelil](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Ang%C3%A9lil "René Angélil") and together with Mario Lefebvre, they began to chart her path to success.
In 2005, at age 15, she released her debut *La Fille qui Chante*. One of its singles included a duet with [Garou](/wiki/Garou_%28singer%29 "Garou (singer)"). The album was released in multiple countries and included four Top 10 singles, two of which, "Chante" and "Tu es comme ca", went to \#1\.
[René Angélil](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Ang%C3%A9lil "René Angélil"), who also managed [Celine Dion](/wiki/Celine_Dion "Celine Dion"), became her manager.{{Cite web\|url\=http://musique.ados.fr/Marilou\-Bourdon.html\|title\=Marilou Bourdon \- Ados.fr\|website\=musique.ados.fr\|access\-date\=May 19, 2016}}
After several concerts and promotions, Marilou played in [Luc Plamondon](/wiki/Luc_Plamondon "Luc Plamondon")'s musical comedy *[Notre\-Dame de Paris](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris_%28musical%29 "Notre-Dame de Paris (musical)")*.
Marilou's self\-titled sophomore album was released in 2006 and this time, the songs "Danser sur la lune", "Emmene\-moi" and "Un monde en amour" went to the top of the chart. The latter was written for her by [Luc Plamondon](/wiki/Luc_Plamondon "Luc Plamondon"). A final song from those sessions, "Tactile", was released in late 2007 and once again topped the radio charts. She headlined her first tour in 2006 while continuing with high school studies. Later in the year, she made her "Tout simplement Marilou" province\-wide tour.
As she neared her 18th birthday, she decided to try songwriting. Inspired by artists such as [Alanis Morissette](/wiki/Alanis_Morissette "Alanis Morissette"), [John Mayer](/wiki/John_Mayer "John Mayer") and [Muse](/wiki/Muse_%28band%29 "Muse (band)"), she collaborated with multiple writers and quickly produced 30 songs. She was introduced to Sam and JB, two young Montreal hotshot producers and musicians. The three of them locked themselves in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal")'s Piccolo Studio and recorded *60 Thoughts A Minute*. Featuring 13 songs co\-written by Marilou, the album was mixed by [Tom Lord\-Alge](/wiki/Tom_Lord-Alge "Tom Lord-Alge") and mastered by [Ted Jensen](/wiki/Ted_Jensen "Ted Jensen").
|
[
"Music career\n------------",
"Her career started in 2002 with her first single, \"Je serai la pour toi\", in a duet with Canadian singer [Gino Quilico](/wiki/Gino_Quilico \"Gino Quilico\"). The song was the French version of \"[There For Me](/wiki/There_for_Me_%28La_Bionda_song%29 \"There for Me (La Bionda song)\")\", covered by [Sarah Brightman](/wiki/Sarah_Brightman \"Sarah Brightman\") in a [duet](/wiki/Duet \"Duet\") with [José Cura](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Cura \"José Cura\"). The song went to number one, the album went gold, and Marilou became a star at 12 years old. She then signed with [Sony Music](/wiki/Sony_Music \"Sony Music\") Canada and Sony Music France – the first joint venture between the two countries.",
"In 2003, Marilou sang \"Everyday\" for the soundtrack of *[Caillou's Holiday Movie](/wiki/Caillou%27s_Holiday_Movie \"Caillou's Holiday Movie\")* For the French version of the movie, \"Everyday\" was replaced by \"Chaque Jour\" sung by herself.",
"In 2004 Marilou was signed by Feeling Mgmt, the company owned by Céline Dion and [René Angelil](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Ang%C3%A9lil \"René Angélil\") and together with Mario Lefebvre, they began to chart her path to success.",
"In 2005, at age 15, she released her debut *La Fille qui Chante*. One of its singles included a duet with [Garou](/wiki/Garou_%28singer%29 \"Garou (singer)\"). The album was released in multiple countries and included four Top 10 singles, two of which, \"Chante\" and \"Tu es comme ca\", went to \\#1\\.",
"[René Angélil](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Ang%C3%A9lil \"René Angélil\"), who also managed [Celine Dion](/wiki/Celine_Dion \"Celine Dion\"), became her manager.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://musique.ados.fr/Marilou\\-Bourdon.html\\|title\\=Marilou Bourdon \\- Ados.fr\\|website\\=musique.ados.fr\\|access\\-date\\=May 19, 2016}}",
"After several concerts and promotions, Marilou played in [Luc Plamondon](/wiki/Luc_Plamondon \"Luc Plamondon\")'s musical comedy *[Notre\\-Dame de Paris](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris_%28musical%29 \"Notre-Dame de Paris (musical)\")*.",
"Marilou's self\\-titled sophomore album was released in 2006 and this time, the songs \"Danser sur la lune\", \"Emmene\\-moi\" and \"Un monde en amour\" went to the top of the chart. The latter was written for her by [Luc Plamondon](/wiki/Luc_Plamondon \"Luc Plamondon\"). A final song from those sessions, \"Tactile\", was released in late 2007 and once again topped the radio charts. She headlined her first tour in 2006 while continuing with high school studies. Later in the year, she made her \"Tout simplement Marilou\" province\\-wide tour.",
"As she neared her 18th birthday, she decided to try songwriting. Inspired by artists such as [Alanis Morissette](/wiki/Alanis_Morissette \"Alanis Morissette\"), [John Mayer](/wiki/John_Mayer \"John Mayer\") and [Muse](/wiki/Muse_%28band%29 \"Muse (band)\"), she collaborated with multiple writers and quickly produced 30 songs. She was introduced to Sam and JB, two young Montreal hotshot producers and musicians. The three of them locked themselves in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\")'s Piccolo Studio and recorded *60 Thoughts A Minute*. Featuring 13 songs co\\-written by Marilou, the album was mixed by [Tom Lord\\-Alge](/wiki/Tom_Lord-Alge \"Tom Lord-Alge\") and mastered by [Ted Jensen](/wiki/Ted_Jensen \"Ted Jensen\").",
""
] |
Locations in America
--------------------
### California
An [intercity bus service](/wiki/Intercity_bus_service "Intercity bus service") named [Xe Đò Hoàng](/wiki/Xe_%C4%90%C3%B2_Ho%C3%A0ng "Xe Đò Hoàng") connects the [Little Saigon in Orange county](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_Orange_County "Little Saigon, Orange County") to [the one in San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose "Little Saigon, San Jose") and various other cities in California and Arizona with high concentration of Vietnamese Americans.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=77RVEAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA107\|title\=A People's Guide to Orange County\|last\=Lewinnek\|first\=Elaine\|last2\=Arellano\|first2\=Gustavo\|last3\=Vo Dang\|first3\=Thuy\|publisher\=University of California Press\|year\=2022\|pages\=106–107}}
#### Orange County
{{main\|Little Saigon, Orange County}}
[thumb\|Phước Lộc Thọ, known in English as [Asian Garden Mall](/wiki/Asian_Garden_Mall "Asian Garden Mall"), the first Vietnamese\-American business center in Little Saigon, Orange County](/wiki/Image:Phuoc_Loc_Tho.jpg "Phuoc Loc Tho.jpg")
The oldest, largest, and most prominent Little Saigon is centered in [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California "Orange County, California"), where over 189,000 [Vietnamese Americans](/wiki/Vietnamese_American "Vietnamese American") reside. With other [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") counties, this region constitutes the largest Vietnamese American (VA) population outside of Vietnam. The community originally started emerging in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster%2C_California "Westminster, California"), and quickly spread to the adjacent city of [Garden Grove](/wiki/Garden_Grove%2C_California "Garden Grove, California"). Today, these two cities rank as the highest concentration of Vietnamese\-Americans of any cities in the United States at 37\.1% and 31\.1%, respectively (according to the 2011 American Community Survey).
About {{convert\|45\|mi}} south of Los Angeles, [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster%2C_California "Westminster, California") was once a predominantly [white](/wiki/White_people "White people") [middle\-class](/wiki/Middle-class "Middle-class") suburban city of Orange County with ample farmland, but the city later experienced a decline by the 1970s. Since 1978, the nucleus of Little Saigon has long been Bolsa Avenue, where early pioneers [Danh Quach](/wiki/Danh_Quach "Danh Quach") and [Frank Jao](/wiki/Frank_Jao "Frank Jao") established businesses. During that year, the well\-known *[Nguoi Viet Daily News](/wiki/Nguoi_Viet_Daily_News "Nguoi Viet Daily News")* also began publishing from a home in Garden Grove. Other new Vietnamese\-American arrivals soon revitalized the area by opening their own businesses in old, formerly white\-owned storefronts, and investors constructed large shopping centers containing a mix of businesses. The Vietnamese community and businesses later spread into adjacent Garden Grove, [Midway City](/wiki/Midway_City "Midway City"), [Fountain Valley](/wiki/Fountain_Valley%2C_California "Fountain Valley, California"), [Stanton](/wiki/Stanton%2C_California "Stanton, California"), [Anaheim](/wiki/Anaheim%2C_California "Anaheim, California"), and [Santa Ana](/wiki/Santa_Ana%2C_California "Santa Ana, California").
In Orange County, Little Saigon is now a wide, spread\-out community dotted with myriad suburban\-style strip malls containing a mixture of Vietnamese and Chinese\-Vietnamese businesses. It is located southwest of [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland "Disneyland") between the State Route 22 and [Interstate 405](/wiki/Interstate_405_%28California%29 "Interstate 405 (California)"). However, the main focus of Little Saigon is Bolsa Avenue (where [Asian Garden Mall](/wiki/Asian_Garden_Mall "Asian Garden Mall") and Little Saigon Plaza are considered the heart), which runs through Westminster; the street was officially designated Little Saigon by the [city council](/wiki/City_council "City council") of Westminster in the late 1980s. The borders of Little Saigon can be considered to be Trask Avenue and W McFadden Avenue on the north and south and Euclid Street and Magnolia Street on the east and west, respectively. About three\-quarters of the population in this area are Vietnamese.{{cite news\|author\=Merrill Balassone \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/news/local/orange/la\-re\-guide23oct23,1,1114291\.story?page\=1\&cset\=true\&ctrack\=1 \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|date\=October 23, 2005 \|title\=The heart of Little Saigon beats strong \|access\-date\=January 13, 2007}}
[thumb\|Tết Festival in Little Saigon, [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California "Orange County, California")](/wiki/Image:Tet_Festival_Little_Saigon.jpg "Tet Festival Little Saigon.jpg")
Westminster is generally considered the main cultural center of the Vietnamese American community with several Vietnamese\-language television stations, radio stations, and newspapers originating from Little Saigon and adjacent areas. At least one radio station broadcast 24 hours a day in Vietnamese and 4 television substations broadcasting in Vietnamese 24 hours a day as of 2009, and several newspapers serve the Vietnamese\-American community. Little Saigon has also emerged as the prominent center of the Vietnamese [pop music](/wiki/Pop_music "Pop music") industry with several recording studios, and with a recording industry many times larger than in Vietnam itself.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2008\-may\-10\-et\-vietmusic10\-story.html\|author\=Quyen Do\|title\=A big Little Saigon Star\|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|date\=May 10, 2008\|access\-date\=July 28, 2008}} Vietnamese music recorded in Westminster are distributed and sold in Vietnamese communities throughout the United States and in [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), [France](/wiki/France "France"), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") as well as illegally in Vietnam.{{cite news
\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/news/local/orange/la\-tm\-nuvpop8feb19,1,5473095\.story
\|title\=Hanoi Heart Throbs
\|author\=Andrew Vontz
\|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]
\|date\=February 19, 2006
\|access\-date\=March 11, 2007}}
Garden Grove Park is the location of an annual [Vietnamese Lunar New Year](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt "Tết") festival held in late January \- early February known as [Tết](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt "Tết"). Small amusement park rides, dances, and contests are held in [Garden Grove Park](/wiki/Garden_Grove_Park "Garden Grove Park") which is across the street from [Bolsa Grande High School](/wiki/Bolsa_Grande_High_School "Bolsa Grande High School") grounds and is hosted by the Union of Vietnamese Student Association (UVSA). Since 2013, the annual festival has been relocated to the OC Fair Grounds in Costa Mesa.
The Vietnamese American population has now begun to diffuse from Little Saigon to traditionally working\-class [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") cities, such as Santa Ana, and southward to professional middle\-class predominantly white cities such as [Costa Mesa](/wiki/Costa_Mesa%2C_California "Costa Mesa, California"), [Huntington Beach](/wiki/Huntington_Beach%2C_California "Huntington Beach, California"), [Irvine](/wiki/Irvine%2C_California "Irvine, California"), and [Orange](/wiki/Orange%2C_California "Orange, California"). Over the years, the vibrant community of Little Saigon has experienced frequent openings and closures of small mom\-and\-pop Vietnamese businesses, resulting in sights of some abandoned strip plazas. The changing landscape of the Vietnamese American population would bring a more multicultural flavor to [Orange County](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California "Orange County, California"), but as with [Chinatowns](/wiki/Chinatown "Chinatown"), could potentially eliminate its identity as a "Little Saigon" as the population of foreign\-born Vietnamese old\-timers declines and more younger generations of Vietnamese American families attune to mainstream American culture (especially with a preference for fashionable malls over the Vietnamese ethnic malls in Little Saigon) and move on to affluent communities further away from the Little Saigon area.
#### San Diego
[thumb\|upright\|[Vietnamese Heritage flag](/wiki/Flag_of_South_Vietnam "Flag of South Vietnam") displayed along El Cajon Boulevard in San Diego (April 2010\), commemorating the fall of Saigon and the arrival of Vietnamese refugees to the US.](/wiki/File:Vietnamese-American_Heritage_flag.JPG "Vietnamese-American Heritage flag.JPG")
When the "first wave" of Vietnamese immigrants started to arrive in 1981, many settled in the communities adjacent to San Diego State University, such as City Heights and Talmadge, better known as East San Diego. As families and individuals became more affluent however, many relocated to other communities in the city: Linda Vista, Clairemont, Serra Mesa, etc. (Central San Diego) and what was then brand\-new tract communities such as Mira Mesa, [Rancho Penasquitos](/wiki/Rancho_Penasquitos%2C_San_Diego%2C_California "Rancho Penasquitos, San Diego, California"), Rancho Bernardo, etc.
With a population of about 50,000, the San Diego metropolitan area ranks as one of the largest Vietnamese communities in the United States. Because of the Vietnamese population's unique migration patterns in the city, it does not have a huge concentration of Vietnamese businesses in a particular area like other metropolitan areas (e.g., Westminster, San Jose, Houston, etc.) Still, there are three notable Vietnamese business districts in the San Diego region: Mira Mesa Boulevard (North San Diego), El Cajon Boulevard (East San Diego), and Convoy Street/Linda Vista Road (Central San Diego).
The area on El Cajon Boulevard in East San Diego will be getting official City of San Diego status as "Little Saigon San Diego", as referenced on the web page littlesaigonsandiego.org.
On June 4, 2013, City Council approved Little Saigon Cultural and Commercial District in City Heights, San Diego, which is a six\-block section of El Cajon Boulevard from Euclid to Highland avenues.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/politics/sdut\-little\-saigon\-district\-created\-city\-heights\-2013jun04\-story.html\|title\='Little Saigon' official in City Heights\|date\=June 4, 2013}} On February 1, 2019, Little Saigon signs were revealed to be installed on Interstate 15\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.kpbs.org/news/2018/aug/27/little\-saigon\-get\-cultural\-landmark\-sign\-i\-15\-free/\|title \= Little Saigon to Get Cultural Landmark Sign on I\-15 Freeway}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/Little\-Saigon\-Street\-Signs\-City\-Heights\-I\-15\-El\-Cajon\-Boulevard\-505093261\.html\|title\=Signs Point to Little Saigon District: Freeway Signs Recognize Vietnamese Cultural District}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.kpbs.org/news/2019/feb/01/vietnamese\-community\-gets\-little\-saigon\-sign\-inter/\|title \= Vietnamese Community in City Heights Gets Little Saigon Sign off Interstate 15}}
#### San Gabriel Valley
{{see also\|Chinese enclaves in the San Gabriel Valley}}
Due to the large influx and presence of relatively poor ethnic Chinese refugees from Vietnam in the 1980s (which also coincided with the arrival of immigrant elites from [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong")), the San Gabriel Valley region of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") has another important concentration of Vietnamese in Southern California. While not generally referred to as "Little Saigon", the stretch of Garvey Avenue in the working\-class [barrios](/wiki/Barrio "Barrio") of [Rosemead](/wiki/Rosemead%2C_California "Rosemead, California"), [South El Monte](/wiki/South_El_Monte%2C_California "South El Monte, California"), and [El Monte](/wiki/El_Monte%2C_California "El Monte, California") have a relatively heavy but scattered collection of businesses owned mainly by majority ethnic Chinese Vietnamese with a growing number of ethnic Vietnamese residents and business owners as well. Many of these businesses are housed in tiny strip malls while others occupy freestanding, aging buildings. These Vietnamese businesses are very gradually replacing businesses owned by Hispanics.
Rosemead is the Vietnamese center of the San Gabriel Valley. One particular shopping center in Rosemead, called Diamond Square, is anchored by the [Taiwanese American](/wiki/Taiwanese_American "Taiwanese American") chain 99 Ranch Market (now closed) and contains various Chinese Vietnamese small businesses and a food court catering to local Asians. The Diamond Square is now closed, replaced by The Square anchored by [Korean American](/wiki/Korean_American "Korean American") stores. The 99 Ranch Market is replaced by the Square Supermarket.
It remains a major hub for working\-class Vietnamese and [Mainland Chinese](/wiki/Mainland_Chinese "Mainland Chinese") expatriates residing in the area. Many Vietnamese of ethnic Chinese origin also tend to own various businesses \- especially supermarkets, restaurants, beauty parlors, and auto repair shops \- in the main general mixed\-Chinese commercial thoroughfares of Garvey Avenue in [Monterey Park, California](/wiki/Monterey_Park%2C_California "Monterey Park, California") and Valley Boulevard in [Alhambra, California](/wiki/Alhambra%2C_California "Alhambra, California"), [San Gabriel, California](/wiki/San_Gabriel%2C_California "San Gabriel, California"), and Rosemead. There are already several phở and bánh mì eateries represented along Valley Boulevard.
The [Sriracha](/wiki/Sriracha_sauce "Sriracha sauce") hot sauce manufacturer [Huy Fong Foods](/wiki/Huy_Fong_Foods "Huy Fong Foods") (known for its rooster logo and found in countless Vietnamese restaurants) is owned by a Chinese Vietnamese refugee named David Tran and was originally located in [Chinatown, Los Angeles](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Los_Angeles "Chinatown, Los Angeles") but it relocated to its larger facility in Rosemead.
In 2005, John Tran became the first Vietnamese American to be elected to a seat on the city council of Rosemead. Since 2006, he has been the mayor of the city, a position that is held by rotation among the council members.
#### San Jose
[thumb\|right\|Chùa Di Lặc Buddhist Temple in [Little Saigon, San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose "Little Saigon, San Jose").](/wiki/File:Buddhist_Cultural_Center_-_Maitreya_Pagoda%2C_765_Story_Road%2C_San_Jose%2C_California_%2843557496510%29.jpg "Buddhist Cultural Center - Maitreya Pagoda, 765 Story Road, San Jose, California (43557496510).jpg")
{{main\|Little Saigon, San Jose}}
Comprising over 180,000 residents, about 10\.6% of the population, (as of the 2010 U.S. Census) [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California")'s Vietnamese community is comparable to the one in Orange County. San Jose has more Vietnamese residents than any single city outside of Vietnam. Vietnamese\-language radio programs from Orange County are rebroadcast in the region, though San Jose does contain locally produced Vietnamese\-language radio and TV stations such as Que Huong Media, Vien Thao, and Vietoday TV. Although *[Viet Mercury](/wiki/Viet_Mercury "Viet Mercury")*, the Vietnamese\-language edition of the *[San Jose Mercury News](/wiki/San_Jose_Mercury_News "San Jose Mercury News")*, is now discontinued, many other publications offer Vietnamese literature enjoyed by the community, such as Thang Mo and Trieu Thanh magazines as well as newspapers from Calitoday, [Viet Bao](/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_B%C3%A1o_Daily_News "Việt Báo Daily News"), Thoi Bao Daily News (now defunct), and Viet Nam Nhat Bao (Vietnam Daily News). Several strip malls on Tully Road (stretching from Senter Road to Quimby Road) and Senter Road (from Capitol Expressway to Burke Street by [Costco](/wiki/Costco "Costco")), cater to Vietnamese tastes, such as Lion Plaza on the intersection of Tully and King (anchored by Lion Supermarket) and Carribbees Center on Senter and Lewis (anchored by Cho Senter Market, now Lee's Supermarket).
[thumb\|left\|[Little Saigon, San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose "Little Saigon, San Jose").](/wiki/File:Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jos%C3%A9%2C_California_1256_%28cropped%29.jpg "Little Saigon, San José, California 1256 (cropped).jpg")
The epicenter of the Vietnamese\-American community of San Jose, however, is on Story Road (stretching from Senter Road to McLaughlin Avenue), home to the popular Grand Century Mall and Vietnam Town (both shopping malls are owned by Chinese\-Vietnamese real estate developer Lap Tang) and is officially designated by the San Jose City Council as "Little Saigon". Like its counterpart in Orange County, a freeway offramp sign was placed in 2013 on Highway 101 and Freeway 280, designating the Story Road (from Highway 101\) and McLaughlin Avenue (from Freeway 280\) exits to Little Saigon. [Lee's Sandwiches](/wiki/Lee%27s_Sandwiches "Lee's Sandwiches"), (a Vietnamese [bánh mì](/wiki/B%C3%A1nh_m%C3%AC "Bánh mì") [sandwich](/wiki/Sandwich "Sandwich") chain eatery) as well as the [phở](/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%9F "Phở") chain, [Pho Hoa Restaurant](/wiki/Pho_Hoa "Pho Hoa"), had their first locations here in San Jose. Due to the ethnic diversity of the city, where Vietnamese\-Americans here live side by side with other ethnic minorities such as [Mexican\-Americans](/wiki/Mexican-Americans "Mexican-Americans"), [Filipino\-Americans](/wiki/Filipino-Americans "Filipino-Americans"), and [Indian\-Americans](/wiki/Indian-Americans "Indian-Americans"), the Vietnamese community in San Jose is more fully integrated into the local community.
The Vietnamese community of San Jose has been politically divided over the naming of the business district, with various groups favoring "Little Saigon", "New Saigon", and "Vietnamese Business District". Non\-Vietnamese businesses and residents, as well as the San Jose Hispanic Chamber of Commerce have also opposed the name "Little Saigon". In November 2007, the San Jose City Council voted 8–3 to choose the compromise name "Saigon Business District", resulting in ongoing protest, debate, and an effort to recall city council member [Madison Nguyen](/wiki/Madison_Nguyen "Madison Nguyen"), who proposed the name "Saigon Business District". On March 4, 2008, after a public meeting in which more than 1000 "Little Saigon" supporters participated, the city council voted 11–1 to rescind the name "Saigon Business District", but stopped short of renaming it. The recall of Nguyen failed in March 2009\.
San Jose also granted the building of the [Viet Museum](/wiki/Viet_Museum "Viet Museum") in Kelley Park next to the City Historic Museum.[Calitoday.com](http://calitoday.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=411a3441a656f7ec850352ec00b2ddeb) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928000217/http://calitoday.com/news/view\_article.html?article\_id\=411a3441a656f7ec850352ec00b2ddeb \|date\=September 28, 2007 }} The Viet Museum had its grand opening August 25, 2007\.
#### Sacramento
With a large and growing Vietnamese American population, in February 2010, a stretch of Stockton Boulevard in [Sacramento](/wiki/Sacramento%2C_California "Sacramento, California") from Florin Road to Fruitridge Road has been officially named "Little Saigon".[Stockton Boulevard Named 'Little Saigon'](http://www.kcra.com/news/22417299/detail.html){{dead link\|date\=December 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}[Supes OK 'Little Saigon' For Sacramento](http://www.kcra.com/news/22515893/detail.html){{dead link\|date\=December 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Although settlement of Vietnamese refugees began during the 1980s, large numbers of Vietnamese have moved from the [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California") area to the Sacramento area since the late 1990s and 2000s (decade) (especially after the [dot\-com bust](/wiki/Dot-com_bubble "Dot-com bubble") in Silicon Valley). People were drawn to the area by lower housing prices, lower cost of living, and Vietnamese and Chinese enclaves. The large Asian supermarket [Shun Fat Supermarket](/wiki/Shun_Fat_Supermarket "Shun Fat Supermarket") (a small Southern California\-based chain owned by a Chinese Vietnamese American) opened in 2000 to cater to the local community and anchors Pacific Plaza. One of the First Vietnamese\-Chinese owned supermarkets was Vinh Phat Supermarket. [SF Supermarket](/wiki/SF_Supermarket "SF Supermarket") is a prominent fixture at the intersections of 65th and Stockton Boulevard. This center also houses Huong Lan, which is famous for Vietnamese [banh mi](/wiki/Banh_mi "Banh mi") sandwiches. In 2010, a new [99 Ranch Market](/wiki/99_Ranch_Market "99 Ranch Market") opened on Florin Road. The strip of Stockton Boulevard has a great number of Vietnamese and Chinese restaurants and many places for ethnic foods, such as *phở* and boba. There are nearby Vietnamese Chinese shopping centers planned for development, including Little Saigon Plaza (to be anchored by a supermarket) that is to be developed by prominent San Jose\-based Vietnamese American developers. Other current shopping centers sport names such as Little Vietnam and Pacific Rim Plaza.[Commercial Real Estate Forum – CRE News](http://www.creforum.net/modules/news/article.php?storyid=87) As a testament to the area's burgeoning Vietnamese community, the Southgate branch (66th Avenue, near Stockton Boulevard) of Sacramento Public library carries a large collection of Vietnamese materials.
#### San Francisco
In early 2004, [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California") officially designated Larkin Street between Eddy and O'Farrell streets as "Little Saigon" (*Sài Gòn Nhỏ*). Located in the [Tenderloin district](/wiki/Tenderloin%2C_San_Francisco "Tenderloin, San Francisco") where 2,000 of the city's 13,000 Vietnamese\-American residents live, the two\-block stretch is more than 80% Vietnamese\-owned. Unlike San Jose, with its larger ethnic Vietnamese population, the ethnic Chinese from Vietnam are well represented in San Francisco due to self\-segregation. Banners and directional signs have already been posted. A formal symbolic entrance was erected in July 2008, akin to those for San Francisco's Japantown and Chinatown (albeit smaller).{{cite news
\|url\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\-bin/article.cgi?f\=/c/a/2004/02/16/BAG2751OP81\.DTL
\|title\=S.F.'s Little Saigon: Stretch of Larkin Street named for Vietnamese Americans
\|author\=Cicero A. Estrella
\|publisher\=San Francisco Chronicle
\|date\=February 16, 2004
\|access\-date\=June 23, 2007}}
#### Oakland
The region stretching from 1st Avenue to 23rd Avenue in [Oakland, California](/wiki/Oakland%2C_California "Oakland, California")'s [San Antonio district](/wiki/San_Antonio%2C_Oakland%2C_California "San Antonio, Oakland, California") Eastlake neighborhoodis known as Little Saigon of Oakland. The local Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce{{cite web \|title\=Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce \|url\=https://www.oaklandvnchamber.com/ \|access\-date\=27 July 2022}} estimates that there are approximately 8,000 people of Vietnamese origin or descent living in Oakland, largely concentrated in Eastlake.{{cite news \|last1\=Rusch \|first1\=Katey \|title\=Vietnamese refugees dream of a "Little Saigon" in East Oakland \|url\=https://oaklandnorth.net/2019/04/12/the\-vietnamese\-community\-in\-east\-oakland\-dreams\-of\-a\-little\-saigon/ \|access\-date\=27 July 2022 \|work\=\[\[Oakland North]] \|publisher\=\[\[UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism]] \|date\=April 12, 2019}} Vietnamese businesses are concentrated along International Boulevard and East 12th Street in the district, and include Oakland's Sun Hop Fat market, a fruit and grocery store that was one of the first. Currently there are dozens of Vietnamese\-owned businesses in the area that serve the Vietnamese immigrant community, including restaurants, [print shops](/wiki/Print_shops "Print shops"), jewelry stores, and a [karaoke machine](/wiki/Karaoke_machine "Karaoke machine") store. Shop signs are typically bilingually English and Vietnamese. Yellow Vietnamese Freedom flags and the signs of *Welcome to Little Saigon Oakland* are visible everywhere, as are yellow and red Vietnamese [silk flowers](/wiki/Silk_flower "Silk flower") in the shape of [cherry blossoms](/wiki/Cherry_blossoms "Cherry blossoms") called *Mai*.
[thumb\|South Vietnamese yellow flags are visible everywhere in Oakland's Little Saigon.](/wiki/File:Vietnamese_Yellow_Flag_are_visible_everywhere_in_Oakland_Little_Saigon.jpg "Vietnamese Yellow Flag are visible everywhere in Oakland Little Saigon.jpg")
In 2019, local business owners lobbied for the formal city recognition of the area as “Little Saigon” and began working on a proposal for the creation of a [Business Improvement District](/wiki/Business_Improvement_District "Business Improvement District") (BID)—a region in which local businesses and sometimes additional property owners pay a tax surcharge or mandatory fee to fund neighborhood events, clean\-up efforts, local beautification efforts, and marketing campaigns to promote the district as such rather than individual businesses within it. The 2019\-2021 city council budget allocated $125,000 for BID feasibility studies in both Eastlake and [Oakland's Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Oakland "Chinatown, Oakland").{{cite news \|last1\=Lyndon \|first1\=Isabel \|title\=Vietnamese Mid\-Autumn Festival breathes life into Eastlake park \|url\=https://oaklandnorth.net/2019/09/18/vietnamese\-mid\-autumn\-festival\-breathes\-life\-into\-eastlake\-park/ \|work\=\[\[Oakland North]] \|publisher\=\[\[UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism]] \|access\-date\=27 July 2022 \|date\=September 18, 2019}}
The Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce organizes the annual [Vietnamese Mid\-Autumn Festival](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt_Trung_Thu "Tết Trung Thu"),{{cite web \|title\=About Us \|url\=https://www.oaklandvnchamber.com/about\-ovcc \|publisher\=Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce \|access\-date\=27 July 2022}} in Clinton Square Park{{cite web \|title\=Clinton Square Park \|url\=https://oaklandwiki.org/Clinton\_Square\_Park \|website\=\[\[Oakland Wiki]] \|publisher\=\[\[LocalWiki]] \|access\-date\=27 July 2022}} at the intersection of East 12th Street and 7th Avenue. The Oakland Vietnamese Mid\-Autumn Festival occurs alongside many [Mid\-Autumn Festivals](/wiki/Mid-Autumn_Festival "Mid-Autumn Festival") ("Asian New Year") celebrations for different East Asian communities across the [San Francisco Bay Area](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area "San Francisco Bay Area").
In the summer of 2021, the Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce, along with [Good Good Eatz](/wiki/Good_Good_Eatz "Good Good Eatz") (a program funded by the East Bay Asian Local Development Corporation to promote ethnic food districts{{cite web \|title\=GOOD GOOD EATZ \|url\=https://www.goodgoodeatz.com/ \|publisher\=East Bay Asian Local Development Corporation \|access\-date\=27 July 2022}}) and [Pokémon Go](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Go "Pokémon Go") developer [Niantic](/wiki/Niantic%2C_Inc. "Niantic, Inc.") organized a "Summer Fest" centered on Pokémon Go events and local food, along with [retro video games](/wiki/Retrogaming "Retrogaming") made available by the [Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment](/wiki/Museum_of_Art_and_Digital_Entertainment "Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment") and [COVID\-19 testing](/wiki/COVID-19_testing "COVID-19 testing") and [vaccinations](/wiki/COVID-19_vaccines "COVID-19 vaccines").{{cite news \|last1\=Thapliyal \|first1\=Adesh \|title\=Back With Good Food and Pokémon Go \|url\=https://www.kqed.org/arts/13900641/pokemon\-go\-little\-saigon\-oakland\-vietnamese\-food \|access\-date\=27 July 2022 \|work\=\[\[KQED\-FM\|KQED]] \|date\=August 5, 2021}}
#### Elsewhere
Large concentrations of Vietnamese live in Central districts of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles%2C_California "Los Angeles, California"), although are outnumbered by other Asians and even more numerous Latinos. {{citation needed\|date\=April 2019}} Unofficially, [Riverside County](/wiki/Riverside_County%2C_California "Riverside County, California"), [Fresno](/wiki/Fresno%2C_California "Fresno, California") and [Oxnard](/wiki/Oxnard%2C_California "Oxnard, California") has some Vietnamese. {{citation needed\|date\=April 2019}}
### Colorado
A growing Vietnamese commercial district has emerged on Federal Boulevard between the Far East Center shopping complex between West Alameda and West Mississippi Avenues in [Denver, Colorado](/wiki/Denver%2C_Colorado "Denver, Colorado"), with Vietnamese cuisine eateries and various businesses. With the leadership of business owners, the Vietnamese American Community of Colorado, Denver Asian Pacific Commission and Denver City Councilman Paul Lopez, the Little Saigon Business District was formed honoring its rich Vietnamese culture in 2014\.{{Cite web \|date\=2014\-02\-18 \|title\=Little Saigon Business District designated as Vietnamese cultural area in west Denver \|url\=https://www.denverpost.com/2014/02/18/little\-saigon\-business\-district\-designated\-as\-vietnamese\-cultural\-area\-in\-west\-denver/ \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-15 \|website\=The Denver Post \|language\=en\-US}}{{cite web \|title\=Housing Saigon \|url\=https://housingsgn.com/ \|access\-date\=15 June 2023}} There is also a growing Vietnamese population in [Aurora, Colorado](/wiki/Aurora%2C_Colorado "Aurora, Colorado"), specifically in an area bordered to the north by Alameda Avenue, to the south by E. Hampden Avenue, to the east by Chambers Road, and to the west by Havana Street. There are currently about 21,000 Vietnamese people living in the Denver\-Aurora\-Boulder Metro Area.
### Florida
A thriving Vietnamese quarter called "Little Saigon" exists in the [Colonialtown](/wiki/Colonialtown%2C_Orlando "Colonialtown, Orlando") district of [Orlando, Florida](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida "Orlando, Florida"). The neighborhood has become a landmark in the city of Orlando and consists of a growing number of restaurants, groceries, and Vietnamese professional offices that serve the local Vietnamese community with everything from taxes to medical and dental care. Stores supply Asian pop culture to the community in the form of [karaoke](/wiki/Karaoke "Karaoke") bars, bubble tea shops, Vietnamese video and music shops, and stores featuring candies and collectibles from across Asia. The heart of the district is the intersection of East Colonial Drive / [Highway 50](/wiki/Florida_State_Road_50 "Florida State Road 50") and Mills Avenue, also known as the "Vi\-Mi" district.
The Orlando Vietnamese community has its roots in war refugees seeking a new life in America after the fall of Saigon. Notable pro\-democracy activists, such as Thuong Nguyen Foshee, who was just recently released from prison in Vietnam, call Orlando their home.
The Vietnamese Community in Orlando, along with institutions like Chua Bao An, St. Philip Phan Van Minh Church, Vietnamese Baptist Church, and groups such as The Vietnamese Association of Central Florida, strive to maintain their heritage as well as share their culture with the rest of Orlando. Annual events, such as the numerous Tet New Year Celebrations at the Central Florida Fairgrounds and across the city, help spread Vietnamese culture and promote diversity throughout Orlando.
### Georgia
There are many Vietnamese businesses located in the mixed\-Asian – that is, co\-existing with ethnic [Korean](/wiki/Koreans "Koreans") and [Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese "Han Chinese") businesses – commercial and cultural strip of [Buford Highway](/wiki/Buford_Highway "Buford Highway") in [Doraville](/wiki/Doraville%2C_Georgia "Doraville, Georgia") and [Chamblee](/wiki/Chamblee%2C_Georgia "Chamblee, Georgia"), which are working\-class suburbs in [DeKalb County](/wiki/DeKalb_County%2C_Georgia "DeKalb County, Georgia") north of [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta "Atlanta"). Although a fair number of post\-war Vietnamese refugees settled in Atlanta earlier, many Vietnamese Americans from California and other parts of the United States have been relocating into the Atlanta area to establish a fairly large presence since the 1990s. Metropolitan Atlanta is home to one of the fastest\-growing Vietnamese populations in the world.
### Gulf Coast
It is estimated that there are 40,000 Vietnamese\-Americans in the [Gulf Coast](/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States "Gulf Coast of the United States"), and 1 in every 4 fishermen from the area is Vietnamese\-American.{{citation needed \|date\=January 2016}}
#### Alabama
Vietnamese\-Americans make up one\-third of the population in the fishing hamlet of [Bayou La Batre](/wiki/Bayou_La_Batre%2C_AL "Bayou La Batre, AL"). A majority of the community work in the seafood industry, while a smaller percentage work in the shipbuilding industry. The eastern side of the city is nicknamed "Little Vietnam" due to the high number of Vietnamese\-American residents. Vietnamese businesses have been sustained by the social integration of the Vietnamese and mainstream cultures. The city also sees, within the Vietnamese American community, a large sub\-community of [Amerasians](/wiki/Amerasians "Amerasians"). Many were brought to the US through the [Amerasian Homecoming Act](/wiki/Amerasian_Homecoming_Act "Amerasian Homecoming Act") and relocated to the area due to similarities in environment and industry to what they were accustomed to.
#### Louisiana
[thumb\|Gate of "Little Vietnam" section of New Orleans](/wiki/File:NO_East_Little_Vietnam_Oct_2009_Gate_Arch_Tu_Bi.JPG "NO East Little Vietnam Oct 2009 Gate Arch Tu Bi.JPG")
Louisiana is home to many Vietnamese, many of whom especially engaged in traditional fishing. Both Louisiana and Vietnam had been [French colonies](/wiki/French_colonial_empire "French colonial empire"). [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana "New Orleans, Louisiana") has several areas with a concentration of Vietnamese\-American businesses. The largest among these communities is located around [Village de L'Est](/wiki/Village_de_L%27Est%2C_New_Orleans "Village de L'Est, New Orleans"), which includes significant community and commercial institutions such as Mary Queen of Vietnam Church and [Dong Phuong Oriental Bakery](/wiki/Dong_Phuong_Oriental_Bakery "Dong Phuong Oriental Bakery").
There is a Vietnamese business section in [Baton Rouge](/wiki/Baton_Rouge "Baton Rouge"), located near the 12000 block of [Florida Boulevard](/wiki/Florida_Boulevard "Florida Boulevard") (part of [U.S. Route 190](/wiki/U.S._Route_190 "U.S. Route 190")), which consists of restaurants, grocery stores, and other various businesses, even found throughout some other sections of the city.
In 2008, [Anh "Joseph" Cao](/wiki/Anh_%22Joseph%22_Cao "Anh ") made history after being elected to [Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") as a [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") from Louisiana's heavily [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") [2nd congressional district](/wiki/Louisiana%27s_2nd_congressional_district "Louisiana's 2nd congressional district"), which includes most of New Orleans. Cao served one term, and was the first person of Vietnamese ancestry ever elected to the U.S. Congress.
#### Mississippi
A small "Little Saigon" can be found on Oak Street in [Biloxi](/wiki/Biloxi%2C_Mississippi "Biloxi, Mississippi"). Many Vietnamese\-Americans relocated to southern Mississippi due to the similar environment and industry they were accustomed to back in Vietnam. The Vietnamese\-American labor force in this area is usually spread between the fishing, gambling, and shipbuilding industries.
### Illinois
[thumb\|The "New Chinatown" in Chicago](/wiki/Image:Little_Saigon_Chicago.jpg "Little Saigon Chicago.jpg")
[Argyle Street](/wiki/West_Argyle_Street_Historic_District "West Argyle Street Historic District") in the city of [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") contains a Little Saigon district, and it has become the hub of vibrant Vietnamese culture in the city. It is referred to by Chicagoans as the "New Chinatown", little Saigon, or most commonly Argyle. Argyle is easily accessible from the [CTA Red Line](/wiki/CTA_Red_Line "CTA Red Line")'s [Argyle station](/wiki/Argyle_station_%28CTA%29 "Argyle station (CTA)").
### Kentucky
[Louisville](/wiki/Louisville "Louisville") has an unofficial Vietnamese district, dubbed "Little Saigon" by [TARC](/wiki/Transit_Authority_of_River_City "Transit Authority of River City") drivers back in the 1990s, centered on areas near South 3rd Street and Southside Drive, primarily in the [Southside](/wiki/Southside%2C_Louisville "Southside, Louisville") neighborhood.{{Cite web \|title\=Saint John Vianney \|url\=https://www.archlou.org/parishes/saint\-john\-vianney\-parish/ \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-14 \|website\=Archdiocese of Louisville \|language\=en\-US}} Although Vietnamese\-American businesses, institutions and population etc. have spread to other parts of the county, they are still primarily concentrated near [Iroquois Park](/wiki/Iroquois_Park "Iroquois Park"), to its east, in the [40214 zip code](/wiki/40214_zip_code "40214 zip code").{{Cite web \|date\=May 24, 2022 \|title\='It's home now': Vietnamese community grows more vibrant in Louisville \|url\=https://www.whas11\.com/article/news/community/moments\-that\-matter/louisville\-vietnamese\-community\-van\-tran\-river\-lotus\-lion\-dance/417\-f58b272e\-c08f\-4398\-9db2\-7e92f2a09d63 \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-14 \|website\=whas11\.com \|language\=en\-US}}
### Massachusetts
[Dorchester](/wiki/Dorchester%2C_Massachusetts "Dorchester, Massachusetts"), Massachusetts, a neighborhood of Boston, is home to a major Vietnamese business center in the Northeast. It serves some 75,000 Vietnam\-born Americans in the Boston\-Worcester area as well as those in surroundings states such as Connecticut and Rhode Island. Communities there are served by a number of Viet\-organized social service agencies (such as [The Southeast Asian Coalition](http://www.seacma.org) in Worcester [Viet\-AID, the Vietnamese American Initiative for Development](http://www.VietAid.org)) and some religious and publicly funded organizations. Native Vietnamese who speak fluent Vietnamese, whether or not they live in Boston, are recruited for work here.
The "X" in [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts "Springfield, Massachusetts") is a magnet for Vietnamese businesses and the locus of Vietnamese settlement in western Massachusetts, including restaurants, businesses and a Vietnamese community center.
### Missouri
[Kansas City](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri "Kansas City, Missouri") is home to more than 10,000 Vietnamese immigrants. A sizable Vietnamese population along Independence Avenue \& Garrison Square sprung up various businesses including *phở* restaurants, nail salons, hair salons, video gift stores, cell phone stores, pool halls and jewelry stores. One of the new "Little Saigons" can now be found on North Oak Trafficway in Kansas City Gladstone neighborhood.
[St. Louis](/wiki/St.Louis%2C_Missouri "St.Louis, Missouri") also has a large Vietnamese immigrant population. The majority of restaurants and stores are in "South City" on or near Grand Avenue.
### Michigan
[thumb\|Taken in front of Dan Thien Duong in Madison Heights during Vietnamese (Tet) New Year in February 2000](/wiki/Image:DTD2000.jpg "DTD2000.jpg")
While not titled a "Little Saigon", the suburban community of [Madison Heights](/wiki/Madison_Heights%2C_Michigan "Madison Heights, Michigan") in the [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit "Detroit") area has become a center of Vietnamese commerce. Located on John R Road and on Dequindre Road, several Vietnamese markets, [Phở](/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%9F "Phở") noodle soup restaurants, movie/music stores, several nail supply stores, herbal stores, and beauty salons have cropped up along two streets.
Besides Madison Heights, the [Grand Rapids](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan "Grand Rapids, Michigan") and [Holland](/wiki/Holland%2C_Michigan "Holland, Michigan") areas have a small Vietnamese enclave.
[Inkster](/wiki/Inkster%2C_Michigan "Inkster, Michigan") has a neighborhood known as "Little Saigon," though this is in reference to the Vietnam war and not Vietnamese people or culture. "Little Saigon" is a collection of housing projects along Inkster Road and Annapolis where bullet holes and boarded windows are common.
### New Mexico
[Albuquerque](/wiki/Albuquerque "Albuquerque"), [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico "New Mexico") has a small "Little Saigon" community with various Vietnamese restaurants and businesses on and around [Central Avenue](/wiki/Central_Avenue_%28Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico%29 "Central Avenue (Albuquerque, New Mexico)") in the city's [International District](/wiki/International_District%2C_Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico "International District, Albuquerque, New Mexico").{{cite web \| title\=Culture \& Heritage: Asian American \| url\=https://www.visitalbuquerque.org/about\-abq/culture\-heritage/asian\-american/ \| publisher\=Visit Albuquerque \| access\-date\=April 25, 2018}}
### New York
[New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City")'s unofficial "Little Saigon" Vietnamese community exists near the intersection of the [Bowery](/wiki/Bowery "Bowery") and [Grand Street](/wiki/Grand_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "Grand Street (Manhattan)"). Although small compared with nearby [Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Manhattan "Chinatown, Manhattan"), the area is differentiated by the large presence of Vietnamese stores as compared with Chinese stores.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vietworldkitchen.com/blog/2009/11/tiny\-little\-saigon\-in\-new\-york.html\|title\=Tiny Little Saigon in New York\|date\=November 5, 2009}}
### North Carolina
In [Charlotte](/wiki/Charlotte%2C_North_Carolina "Charlotte, North Carolina"), Central Avenue (near Briar Creek Road) is the original "Chinatown" consisting of "Saigon Square" and a pair of other Chinese/Vietnamese shopping plazas that include "Dim Sum Restaurant" (which serves New York\-style dim sum), the "Eang Hong Supermarket", "Van Loi" (which serves cha shao), and a dozen or so other stores.
Saigon Square has various Vietnamese (albeit not Chinese) stores including [Phở Hòa](/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%9F_H%C3%B2a "Phở Hòa") (Vietnamese noodles).
Asian Corner Mall on North Tryon Street and Sugar Creek Road, developed from the defunct Tryon Mall in 1999, with "Dragon Court Restaurant", "Hong Kong BBQ", "International Supermarket", and "New Century Market" and several other Chinese/Vietnamese stores.
There are also areas in [Greensboro](/wiki/Greensboro%2C_North_Carolina "Greensboro, North Carolina") where Vietnamese\-run businesses (including stores and restaurants) are prevalent.
### Oklahoma
[Oklahoma City](/wiki/Oklahoma_City "Oklahoma City") has a significant Vietnamese American business district and ethnic neighborhood located in the center part of the city. While it is officially known as [Asian District](/wiki/Asian_District%2C_Oklahoma_City "Asian District, Oklahoma City") by the city, due to the abundant Asian diversity of the neighborhood (similar in many respects to [International District](/wiki/%23Seattle "#Seattle") in Seattle), much of the original Little Saigon portion centers along Military Drive and NW 23rd Street between North Classen Boulevard and North Shartel Avenue.
Tens of thousands of Vietnamese refugees were relocated to Oklahoma City during the 1980s. Over time, they have established businesses in a gentrified area to the west of the [Uptown NW 23rd](/wiki/Uptown_Oklahoma_City "Uptown Oklahoma City") and Classen Boulevard business districts and the area begun to be known as a *Little Saigon*.
The original Little Saigon area features numerous *[phở](/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%9F "Phở")* [cafés](/wiki/Caf%C3%A9 "Café"), Vietnamese bakeries and restaurants, and [Asian supermarkets](/wiki/Asian_supermarket "Asian supermarket"). There are also numerous hopping nightclubs, karaoke, and video bars joining the growing list of [Chinese](/wiki/China "China"), [Thai](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand"), [Filipino](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), and [Korean](/wiki/Korea "Korea") residents and establishments that make up the remainder of surrounding Asian District.
The district is very popular with local residents and students from nearby [Oklahoma City University](/wiki/Oklahoma_City_University "Oklahoma City University"), providing a colorful and authentic taste of the Far East in the heartland of [America](/wiki/United_States "United States"). Oklahoma City's original Little Saigon neighborhood was featured in the New York Times as well as [National Geographic](/wiki/National_Geographic_%28magazine%29 "National Geographic (magazine)")'s March 2003 issue's ZipUSA series titled "73106: Lemongrass on the Prairie".{{cite web \|url\=http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0303/feature6/?fs\=www7\.nationalgeographic.com\&fs\=plasma.nationalgeographic.com \|title\=ZipUSA: 73106 @ National Geographic Magazine \|publisher\=Magma.nationalgeographic.com \|access\-date\=2014\-02\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203071019/http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0303/feature6/?fs\=www7\.nationalgeographic.com\&fs\=plasma.nationalgeographic.com \|archive\-date\=December 3, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=mdy\-all }}
### Oregon
10,641 Vietnamese Americans live in the [Portland](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon") area. Many Vietnamese restaurants, markets, and other businesses in Portland can be found on NE Sandy Boulevard, SE Powell Boulevard, and [NE and SE 82nd Avenue](/wiki/Oregon_Route_213 "Oregon Route 213"). There are also some Vietnamese business around the Portland area such as [Beaverton](/wiki/Beaverton%2C_Oregon "Beaverton, Oregon"), [Hillsboro](/wiki/Hillsboro%2C_Oregon "Hillsboro, Oregon"), [Aloha](/wiki/Aloha%2C_Oregon "Aloha, Oregon"), and [Tigard](/wiki/Tigard%2C_Oregon "Tigard, Oregon").
### Pennsylvania
[thumb\|Little Saigon, Philadelphia](/wiki/File:LittleSaigonPhilly.jpg "LittleSaigonPhilly.jpg")
{{main\|Little Saigon, Philadelphia}}
[South Philadelphia](/wiki/South_Philadelphia "South Philadelphia") near the [Italian Market](/wiki/Italian_Market%2C_Philadelphia "Italian Market, Philadelphia") has a large Vietnamese American population. Many Vietnamese businesses tucked in strip malls have emerged on Washington Avenue to service the local immigrant population. The Vietnamese sandwich [bánh mì](/wiki/B%C3%A1nh_m%C3%AC "Bánh mì") is gaining much attention in Philadelphia and is now competing with the Philly [Cheesesteak](/wiki/Cheesesteak "Cheesesteak").{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2013}}
As of 2005, Vietnamese are projected to become the largest ethnicity in South Philadelphia. Philadelphia is in the top ten U.S. cities for Vietnamese populations and Vietnamese immigration destinations. Philadelphia even has a higher percentage and numerical population of Vietnamese than [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), one of the few Asian backgrounds that are actually less represented in New York.
### Tennessee
[Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_TN "Memphis, TN") has a significant Vietnamese community, affectionately known as "Little Hanoi" located along Cleveland Avenue in [Midtown](/wiki/Midtown_Memphis "Midtown Memphis"). The community includes many Vietnamese restaurants and shops, as well as a Vietnamese Buddhist temple and areas of predominantly Vietnamese housing. Little Hanoi is one of the last and largest non\-Hispanic immigrant enclaves in the Memphis metropolitan area.
### Texas
#### Austin
Austin has a Chinatown Center composed mainly of Vietnamese business on North Lamar.
#### Houston
{{main\|History of Vietnamese Americans in Houston}}
[thumb\|Saigon Plaza in Little Saigon, Houston](/wiki/File:SaigonPlazaChinatown.JPG "SaigonPlazaChinatown.JPG")
The Houston area is home to over 150,000 Vietnamese people. A section of [Midtown Houston](/wiki/Midtown_Houston "Midtown Houston") known as "Little Saigon" or "Vietnamtown" was the original commercial district home for the Vietnamese community in Houston.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.post\-gazette.com/pg/10129/1056918\-37\.stm\|title\=36 Hours in Houston\|last\=Denny Lee\|work\=\[\[New York Times]]\|access\-date\=October 19, 2010\|date\=May 9, 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/editorial/5946805\.html\|title\=Exit Vietnam: Photo shows Vietnamese transformation\|work\=\[\[Houston Chronicle]]\|date\=August 16, 2008\|access\-date\=October 19, 2010}} The boundaries are IH 69/US 59, Preston Street, St. Joseph Parkway and Emancipation Avenue. Vietnamese street signs denote the area since 1998\.{{cite book\|last\=Kearney\|first\=Syd\|title\=A Marmac Guide to Houston and Galveston\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=xcFR\-BgMomcC\&pg\=PA164\|access\-date\=October 19, 2010\|date\=September 2008\|publisher\=Pelican Publishing\|isbn\=978\-1\-58980\-548\-4\|pages\=164–}} In 2004, this area was officially named "Little Saigon" by the city of Houston.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.bizjournals.com/houston/stories/2004/05/10/tidbits1\.html\|title\=City adopts 'Little Saigon'\|date\=May 10, 2004\|work\=\[\[Houston Business Journal]]\|access\-date\=October 19, 2010}} The redevelopment of [Midtown Houston](/wiki/Midtown_Houston "Midtown Houston") from run\-down to upscale increased property values and [property taxes](/wiki/Property_tax "Property tax"), forcing many Vietnamese\-American businesses out of the neighborhood into other areas.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id\=2004\_3822071\|title\=Little Saigon tries to carry on / City pushing for ways to give area new life\|last\=Nancy Sarnoff\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617210928/https://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id\=2004\_3822071\|archive\-date\=2009\-06\-17\|date\=November 28, 2004\|work\=\[\[Houston Chronicle]]\|access\-date\=October 19, 2010}}
The largest Vietnamese commercial district is now found in [Houston](/wiki/Houston%2C_Texas "Houston, Texas") ([Alief](/wiki/Alief "Alief")), a strip along Bellaire Boulevard west of [Chinatown, Houston](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Houston "Chinatown, Houston"), with most Vietnamese\-owned businesses and restaurants centered at the Hong Kong City Mall on Bellaire and Boone (anchored by [Hong Kong Food Market](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Food_Market "Hong Kong Food Market") and Ocean Palace Restaurant).
Since the Vietnamese District is adjacent to Houston's [Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Houston "Chinatown, Houston"), it is often confused to be part of the same neighborhood. The Vietnamese and the Chinese district are each their own individual neighborhood, however. Even though the area is primarily Vietnamese and Chinese, there is also a large number of [Filipino Americans](/wiki/Filipino_American "Filipino American"), [Arab](/wiki/Arab "Arab") [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim "Muslim"), [Indonesian Americans](/wiki/Indonesian_American "Indonesian American"), and [Pakistani Americans](/wiki/Pakistani_American "Pakistani American") in the area, as well as a sizable number of [African Americans](/wiki/African_American "African American"), whom were once the majority in the Little Saigon area prior to the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War").
#### Dallas–Fort Worth (DFW)
In addition to the ones listed here, several unofficial Little Saigons are located in the [Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex](/wiki/Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth_metroplex "Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex"). Dallas is also considered another one of the largest Vietnamese communities in the United States, along with its sister city, Fort Worth.
* One Little Saigon is located in [Garland](/wiki/Garland%2C_Texas "Garland, Texas"), along Walnut Street between Audelia Road and Jupiter Road. This one is the largest, consisting of four large supermarkets (Hiep Thai, New Truong Nguyen, Hong Kong, and [Thuan Phat](/wiki/Shun_Fat_Supermarket "Shun Fat Supermarket") at Cali Saigon Mall in [Garland](/wiki/Garland%2C_Texas "Garland, Texas")). Each supermarket listed below is located in a different shopping complex and has a number of restaurants.
+ Hiep Thai: northeast corner of Jupiter and Walnut.
+ New Truong Nguyen: northwest corner of Jupiter and Walnut.
+ Hong Kong: southwest corner of Audelia and Walnut.
+ [Thuan Phat Supermarket](/wiki/Shun_Fat_Supermarket "Shun Fat Supermarket")/Cali Saigon Mall: northeast corner of Jupiter Road and Beltline Road (in Garland borders with city of Richardson)
* The restaurants in the area are Bistro B, La Me, Doan, Pho 95, Pho Bang, SaiGon Kitchen, Nam Hua, Saigon Block, Pho Tay Do, Pho Que Huong, Pho Bac, Pho Pasteur, Huong Ly (in Richardson), and many more.
* Another one is located in [Arlington](/wiki/Arlington%2C_Texas "Arlington, Texas"), on Pioneer Parkway. This Little Saigon includes a couple supermarkets (Saigon\-Taipei, Hong Kong), restaurants, and Vietnamese karaoke/café bars.
* The third one is in [Irving](/wiki/Irving%2C_Texas "Irving, Texas") on Beltline Road, with [Little Saigon Mall](/wiki/Little_Saigon_Mall "Little Saigon Mall"). A small concentration of Vietnamese restaurants are being built on MacArthur and Beltline through [Las Colinas](/wiki/Las_Colinas "Las Colinas") and [Valley Ranch](/wiki/Valley_Ranch%2C_Texas "Valley Ranch, Texas"). These restaurants are unique, infusing Korean, Japanese, Thai, Indian, and Chinese influences.
* There are also a number Vietnamese strip malls along Beltline in [Carrollton](/wiki/Carrollton%2C_Texas "Carrollton, Texas"). Though the area is predominantly Vietnamese, Chinese and Korean shops and churches can be found there, as well.
* Haltom City (on E Belknap Street) with many grocery stores, restaurants, and other stores.
Vietnamese businesses are also found in Richardson and [Haltom City](/wiki/Haltom_City%2C_Texas "Haltom City, Texas").[Vietnamese Yellow Pages in DFW](http://vndfw.com)
### Virginia
[thumb\|[Eden Center](/wiki/Eden_Center "Eden Center")](/wiki/File:Eden_Center_flags_on_festival_day.jpg "Eden Center flags on festival day.jpg")
[thumb\|Eden Center at night](/wiki/File:Eden_Center.jpg "Eden Center.jpg")
[Little Saigon, Arlington](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_Arlington%2C_Virginia "Little Saigon, Arlington, Virginia"), in [Clarendon](/wiki/Clarendon%2C_Arlington%2C_Virginia "Clarendon, Arlington, Virginia"), served as the Little Saigon of the Washington, D.C. region, reaching its heyday following the Fall of Saigon during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Many Vietnamese refugees immigrated to the area due to the proximity to the nation's capital, and existing social, family, and business connections. This neighborhood was home to Vietnamese grocery stores, restaurants, department stores, cafes, and entertainment to serve the large Vietnamese population. Business was attractive to Vietnamese immigrants in this neighborhood due to the depressed rents during the time of construction of the WMATA Clarendon metro station. This neighborhood was a destination for Vietnamese immigrants both in the Washington D.C. area, as well as throughout the mid\-Atlantic region. [Echoes of Little Saigon: Protecting and Preserving the Cultural History of the Vietnamese Community in Arlington, Virginia](http://littlesaigonclarendon.com/)
The [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), suburb of [Seven Corners](/wiki/Seven_Corners%2C_Virginia "Seven Corners, Virginia") in [Fairfax County, Virginia](/wiki/Fairfax_County%2C_Virginia "Fairfax County, Virginia"), is now home to the largest Vietnamese American population and cultural center on the eastern seaboard. While there is no full\-fledged "Little Saigon" to speak of, the most prominent hub for local\-area Vietnamese is the shopping mall called the [Eden Center](/wiki/Eden_Center "Eden Center"), complete with a garden and an arch signifying its entrance.
In Greater [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia "Richmond, Virginia"), the concentration of Vietnamese restaurants and shops near the intersection of Horsepen Road and West Broad Street is sometimes referred to as Little Saigon. This area of Western [Henrico](/wiki/Henrico_County%2C_Virginia "Henrico County, Virginia") has developed as a center for the Vietnamese population since the late 1980s.{{Cite web\|url\=https://richmondmagazine.com/restaurants\-in\-richmond/little\-saigon\-horsepen\-road\-vietnamese\-food\-haven/\|title \= Welcome to Little Saigon\|date \= March 29, 2017}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://richmond.com/food\-drink/plus/restaurant\-review\-mariscos\-el\-barco\-a\-mexican\-restaurant\-in\-little\-saigon\-in\-western\-henrico\-is/article\_8cf3b0c7\-233a\-548b\-aa69\-e565b43c59ec.html\|title \= Restaurant review: Mariscos el Barco, a Mexican restaurant in 'Little Saigon' in western Henrico, is a seafood feast fit for royalty}}
### Washington
#### Seattle
[thumb\|Thanh Vi Vietnamese Restaurant, Little Saigon, Seattle](/wiki/Image:Seattle_Thanh_Vi_04.jpg "Seattle Thanh Vi 04.jpg")
[Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle") has a significant, prosperous Vietnamese American business district centered at 12th Avenue and Jackson Street, immediately east of the city's considerably older [Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown "Chinatown") district. This Vietnamese area has not been officially designated a "Little Saigon", although a few street signs with this name have been erected. Rather, the area – along with the Chinatown district – has retained the longstanding name [International District](/wiki/International_District%2C_Seattle%2C_Washington "International District, Seattle, Washington") (now officially Chinatown/International District, but often just "The I.D."), dating back to the late 1940s. The predominantly Chinese and predominantly Vietnamese areas are separated from one another by an [Interstate 5](/wiki/Interstate_5_in_Washington "Interstate 5 in Washington") viaduct, but there is easy pedestrian and car access between the two.
#### Tacoma
[Tacoma](/wiki/Tacoma%2C_Washington "Tacoma, Washington"), as well, has an area commonly known as the "[Lincoln International District](/wiki/Lincoln_International_District%2C_Tacoma%2C_Washington "Lincoln International District, Tacoma, Washington")", which is almost entirely filled with Vietnamese restaurants, grocers, and shops. Though officially not known as "Little Saigon", the area is normally referred to as such by the local resident population.
### Canada
#### Toronto
[Jane and Finch](/wiki/Jane_and_Finch "Jane and Finch") has a large Vietnamese population.
#### Vancouver
[Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver "Vancouver") and [Richmond, British Columbia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_British_Columbia "Richmond, British Columbia") both have large Vietnamese populations, including in [Vancouver's Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Vancouver "Chinatown, Vancouver"). The section of [Kingsway](/wiki/Kingsway_%28Vancouver%29 "Kingsway (Vancouver)") between Fraser and Knight streets has been designated Vancouver's Little Saigon since 2013\.{{cite news \|title\=Kensington\-Cedar Cottage: Rebranding of Kingsway area to 'Little Saigon' attracting tourists \|first\=Jennifer \|last\=Thuncher \|url\=http://www.vancourier.com/kensington\-cedar\-cottage\-rebranding\-of\-kingsway\-area\-to\-little\-saigon\-attracting\-tourists\-1\.590132 \|newspaper\=\[\[Vancouver Courier]] \|date\=2013\-08\-15 \|access\-date\=2014\-01\-26}}
|
[
"Locations in America\n--------------------",
"### California",
"An [intercity bus service](/wiki/Intercity_bus_service \"Intercity bus service\") named [Xe Đò Hoàng](/wiki/Xe_%C4%90%C3%B2_Ho%C3%A0ng \"Xe Đò Hoàng\") connects the [Little Saigon in Orange county](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_Orange_County \"Little Saigon, Orange County\") to [the one in San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose \"Little Saigon, San Jose\") and various other cities in California and Arizona with high concentration of Vietnamese Americans.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=77RVEAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA107\\|title\\=A People's Guide to Orange County\\|last\\=Lewinnek\\|first\\=Elaine\\|last2\\=Arellano\\|first2\\=Gustavo\\|last3\\=Vo Dang\\|first3\\=Thuy\\|publisher\\=University of California Press\\|year\\=2022\\|pages\\=106–107}}",
"#### Orange County",
"{{main\\|Little Saigon, Orange County}}\n[thumb\\|Phước Lộc Thọ, known in English as [Asian Garden Mall](/wiki/Asian_Garden_Mall \"Asian Garden Mall\"), the first Vietnamese\\-American business center in Little Saigon, Orange County](/wiki/Image:Phuoc_Loc_Tho.jpg \"Phuoc Loc Tho.jpg\")\nThe oldest, largest, and most prominent Little Saigon is centered in [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California \"Orange County, California\"), where over 189,000 [Vietnamese Americans](/wiki/Vietnamese_American \"Vietnamese American\") reside. With other [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") counties, this region constitutes the largest Vietnamese American (VA) population outside of Vietnam. The community originally started emerging in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster%2C_California \"Westminster, California\"), and quickly spread to the adjacent city of [Garden Grove](/wiki/Garden_Grove%2C_California \"Garden Grove, California\"). Today, these two cities rank as the highest concentration of Vietnamese\\-Americans of any cities in the United States at 37\\.1% and 31\\.1%, respectively (according to the 2011 American Community Survey).",
"About {{convert\\|45\\|mi}} south of Los Angeles, [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster%2C_California \"Westminster, California\") was once a predominantly [white](/wiki/White_people \"White people\") [middle\\-class](/wiki/Middle-class \"Middle-class\") suburban city of Orange County with ample farmland, but the city later experienced a decline by the 1970s. Since 1978, the nucleus of Little Saigon has long been Bolsa Avenue, where early pioneers [Danh Quach](/wiki/Danh_Quach \"Danh Quach\") and [Frank Jao](/wiki/Frank_Jao \"Frank Jao\") established businesses. During that year, the well\\-known *[Nguoi Viet Daily News](/wiki/Nguoi_Viet_Daily_News \"Nguoi Viet Daily News\")* also began publishing from a home in Garden Grove. Other new Vietnamese\\-American arrivals soon revitalized the area by opening their own businesses in old, formerly white\\-owned storefronts, and investors constructed large shopping centers containing a mix of businesses. The Vietnamese community and businesses later spread into adjacent Garden Grove, [Midway City](/wiki/Midway_City \"Midway City\"), [Fountain Valley](/wiki/Fountain_Valley%2C_California \"Fountain Valley, California\"), [Stanton](/wiki/Stanton%2C_California \"Stanton, California\"), [Anaheim](/wiki/Anaheim%2C_California \"Anaheim, California\"), and [Santa Ana](/wiki/Santa_Ana%2C_California \"Santa Ana, California\").",
"In Orange County, Little Saigon is now a wide, spread\\-out community dotted with myriad suburban\\-style strip malls containing a mixture of Vietnamese and Chinese\\-Vietnamese businesses. It is located southwest of [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland \"Disneyland\") between the State Route 22 and [Interstate 405](/wiki/Interstate_405_%28California%29 \"Interstate 405 (California)\"). However, the main focus of Little Saigon is Bolsa Avenue (where [Asian Garden Mall](/wiki/Asian_Garden_Mall \"Asian Garden Mall\") and Little Saigon Plaza are considered the heart), which runs through Westminster; the street was officially designated Little Saigon by the [city council](/wiki/City_council \"City council\") of Westminster in the late 1980s. The borders of Little Saigon can be considered to be Trask Avenue and W McFadden Avenue on the north and south and Euclid Street and Magnolia Street on the east and west, respectively. About three\\-quarters of the population in this area are Vietnamese.{{cite news\\|author\\=Merrill Balassone \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/news/local/orange/la\\-re\\-guide23oct23,1,1114291\\.story?page\\=1\\&cset\\=true\\&ctrack\\=1 \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|date\\=October 23, 2005 \\|title\\=The heart of Little Saigon beats strong \\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2007}}",
"[thumb\\|Tết Festival in Little Saigon, [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California \"Orange County, California\")](/wiki/Image:Tet_Festival_Little_Saigon.jpg \"Tet Festival Little Saigon.jpg\")\nWestminster is generally considered the main cultural center of the Vietnamese American community with several Vietnamese\\-language television stations, radio stations, and newspapers originating from Little Saigon and adjacent areas. At least one radio station broadcast 24 hours a day in Vietnamese and 4 television substations broadcasting in Vietnamese 24 hours a day as of 2009, and several newspapers serve the Vietnamese\\-American community. Little Saigon has also emerged as the prominent center of the Vietnamese [pop music](/wiki/Pop_music \"Pop music\") industry with several recording studios, and with a recording industry many times larger than in Vietnam itself.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2008\\-may\\-10\\-et\\-vietmusic10\\-story.html\\|author\\=Quyen Do\\|title\\=A big Little Saigon Star\\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|date\\=May 10, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=July 28, 2008}} Vietnamese music recorded in Westminster are distributed and sold in Vietnamese communities throughout the United States and in [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") as well as illegally in Vietnam.{{cite news\n\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/news/local/orange/la\\-tm\\-nuvpop8feb19,1,5473095\\.story\n\\|title\\=Hanoi Heart Throbs\n\\|author\\=Andrew Vontz\n\\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\n\\|date\\=February 19, 2006\n\\|access\\-date\\=March 11, 2007}}",
"Garden Grove Park is the location of an annual [Vietnamese Lunar New Year](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt \"Tết\") festival held in late January \\- early February known as [Tết](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt \"Tết\"). Small amusement park rides, dances, and contests are held in [Garden Grove Park](/wiki/Garden_Grove_Park \"Garden Grove Park\") which is across the street from [Bolsa Grande High School](/wiki/Bolsa_Grande_High_School \"Bolsa Grande High School\") grounds and is hosted by the Union of Vietnamese Student Association (UVSA). Since 2013, the annual festival has been relocated to the OC Fair Grounds in Costa Mesa.",
"The Vietnamese American population has now begun to diffuse from Little Saigon to traditionally working\\-class [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") cities, such as Santa Ana, and southward to professional middle\\-class predominantly white cities such as [Costa Mesa](/wiki/Costa_Mesa%2C_California \"Costa Mesa, California\"), [Huntington Beach](/wiki/Huntington_Beach%2C_California \"Huntington Beach, California\"), [Irvine](/wiki/Irvine%2C_California \"Irvine, California\"), and [Orange](/wiki/Orange%2C_California \"Orange, California\"). Over the years, the vibrant community of Little Saigon has experienced frequent openings and closures of small mom\\-and\\-pop Vietnamese businesses, resulting in sights of some abandoned strip plazas. The changing landscape of the Vietnamese American population would bring a more multicultural flavor to [Orange County](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California \"Orange County, California\"), but as with [Chinatowns](/wiki/Chinatown \"Chinatown\"), could potentially eliminate its identity as a \"Little Saigon\" as the population of foreign\\-born Vietnamese old\\-timers declines and more younger generations of Vietnamese American families attune to mainstream American culture (especially with a preference for fashionable malls over the Vietnamese ethnic malls in Little Saigon) and move on to affluent communities further away from the Little Saigon area.",
"#### San Diego",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Vietnamese Heritage flag](/wiki/Flag_of_South_Vietnam \"Flag of South Vietnam\") displayed along El Cajon Boulevard in San Diego (April 2010\\), commemorating the fall of Saigon and the arrival of Vietnamese refugees to the US.](/wiki/File:Vietnamese-American_Heritage_flag.JPG \"Vietnamese-American Heritage flag.JPG\")\nWhen the \"first wave\" of Vietnamese immigrants started to arrive in 1981, many settled in the communities adjacent to San Diego State University, such as City Heights and Talmadge, better known as East San Diego. As families and individuals became more affluent however, many relocated to other communities in the city: Linda Vista, Clairemont, Serra Mesa, etc. (Central San Diego) and what was then brand\\-new tract communities such as Mira Mesa, [Rancho Penasquitos](/wiki/Rancho_Penasquitos%2C_San_Diego%2C_California \"Rancho Penasquitos, San Diego, California\"), Rancho Bernardo, etc.",
"With a population of about 50,000, the San Diego metropolitan area ranks as one of the largest Vietnamese communities in the United States. Because of the Vietnamese population's unique migration patterns in the city, it does not have a huge concentration of Vietnamese businesses in a particular area like other metropolitan areas (e.g., Westminster, San Jose, Houston, etc.) Still, there are three notable Vietnamese business districts in the San Diego region: Mira Mesa Boulevard (North San Diego), El Cajon Boulevard (East San Diego), and Convoy Street/Linda Vista Road (Central San Diego).",
"The area on El Cajon Boulevard in East San Diego will be getting official City of San Diego status as \"Little Saigon San Diego\", as referenced on the web page littlesaigonsandiego.org.",
"On June 4, 2013, City Council approved Little Saigon Cultural and Commercial District in City Heights, San Diego, which is a six\\-block section of El Cajon Boulevard from Euclid to Highland avenues.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/politics/sdut\\-little\\-saigon\\-district\\-created\\-city\\-heights\\-2013jun04\\-story.html\\|title\\='Little Saigon' official in City Heights\\|date\\=June 4, 2013}} On February 1, 2019, Little Saigon signs were revealed to be installed on Interstate 15\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.kpbs.org/news/2018/aug/27/little\\-saigon\\-get\\-cultural\\-landmark\\-sign\\-i\\-15\\-free/\\|title \\= Little Saigon to Get Cultural Landmark Sign on I\\-15 Freeway}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/Little\\-Saigon\\-Street\\-Signs\\-City\\-Heights\\-I\\-15\\-El\\-Cajon\\-Boulevard\\-505093261\\.html\\|title\\=Signs Point to Little Saigon District: Freeway Signs Recognize Vietnamese Cultural District}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.kpbs.org/news/2019/feb/01/vietnamese\\-community\\-gets\\-little\\-saigon\\-sign\\-inter/\\|title \\= Vietnamese Community in City Heights Gets Little Saigon Sign off Interstate 15}}",
"#### San Gabriel Valley",
"{{see also\\|Chinese enclaves in the San Gabriel Valley}}\nDue to the large influx and presence of relatively poor ethnic Chinese refugees from Vietnam in the 1980s (which also coincided with the arrival of immigrant elites from [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\")), the San Gabriel Valley region of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") has another important concentration of Vietnamese in Southern California. While not generally referred to as \"Little Saigon\", the stretch of Garvey Avenue in the working\\-class [barrios](/wiki/Barrio \"Barrio\") of [Rosemead](/wiki/Rosemead%2C_California \"Rosemead, California\"), [South El Monte](/wiki/South_El_Monte%2C_California \"South El Monte, California\"), and [El Monte](/wiki/El_Monte%2C_California \"El Monte, California\") have a relatively heavy but scattered collection of businesses owned mainly by majority ethnic Chinese Vietnamese with a growing number of ethnic Vietnamese residents and business owners as well. Many of these businesses are housed in tiny strip malls while others occupy freestanding, aging buildings. These Vietnamese businesses are very gradually replacing businesses owned by Hispanics.",
"Rosemead is the Vietnamese center of the San Gabriel Valley. One particular shopping center in Rosemead, called Diamond Square, is anchored by the [Taiwanese American](/wiki/Taiwanese_American \"Taiwanese American\") chain 99 Ranch Market (now closed) and contains various Chinese Vietnamese small businesses and a food court catering to local Asians. The Diamond Square is now closed, replaced by The Square anchored by [Korean American](/wiki/Korean_American \"Korean American\") stores. The 99 Ranch Market is replaced by the Square Supermarket.",
"It remains a major hub for working\\-class Vietnamese and [Mainland Chinese](/wiki/Mainland_Chinese \"Mainland Chinese\") expatriates residing in the area. Many Vietnamese of ethnic Chinese origin also tend to own various businesses \\- especially supermarkets, restaurants, beauty parlors, and auto repair shops \\- in the main general mixed\\-Chinese commercial thoroughfares of Garvey Avenue in [Monterey Park, California](/wiki/Monterey_Park%2C_California \"Monterey Park, California\") and Valley Boulevard in [Alhambra, California](/wiki/Alhambra%2C_California \"Alhambra, California\"), [San Gabriel, California](/wiki/San_Gabriel%2C_California \"San Gabriel, California\"), and Rosemead. There are already several phở and bánh mì eateries represented along Valley Boulevard.",
"The [Sriracha](/wiki/Sriracha_sauce \"Sriracha sauce\") hot sauce manufacturer [Huy Fong Foods](/wiki/Huy_Fong_Foods \"Huy Fong Foods\") (known for its rooster logo and found in countless Vietnamese restaurants) is owned by a Chinese Vietnamese refugee named David Tran and was originally located in [Chinatown, Los Angeles](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Los_Angeles \"Chinatown, Los Angeles\") but it relocated to its larger facility in Rosemead.",
"In 2005, John Tran became the first Vietnamese American to be elected to a seat on the city council of Rosemead. Since 2006, he has been the mayor of the city, a position that is held by rotation among the council members.",
"#### San Jose",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Chùa Di Lặc Buddhist Temple in [Little Saigon, San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose \"Little Saigon, San Jose\").](/wiki/File:Buddhist_Cultural_Center_-_Maitreya_Pagoda%2C_765_Story_Road%2C_San_Jose%2C_California_%2843557496510%29.jpg \"Buddhist Cultural Center - Maitreya Pagoda, 765 Story Road, San Jose, California (43557496510).jpg\")\n{{main\\|Little Saigon, San Jose}}\nComprising over 180,000 residents, about 10\\.6% of the population, (as of the 2010 U.S. Census) [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\")'s Vietnamese community is comparable to the one in Orange County. San Jose has more Vietnamese residents than any single city outside of Vietnam. Vietnamese\\-language radio programs from Orange County are rebroadcast in the region, though San Jose does contain locally produced Vietnamese\\-language radio and TV stations such as Que Huong Media, Vien Thao, and Vietoday TV. Although *[Viet Mercury](/wiki/Viet_Mercury \"Viet Mercury\")*, the Vietnamese\\-language edition of the *[San Jose Mercury News](/wiki/San_Jose_Mercury_News \"San Jose Mercury News\")*, is now discontinued, many other publications offer Vietnamese literature enjoyed by the community, such as Thang Mo and Trieu Thanh magazines as well as newspapers from Calitoday, [Viet Bao](/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_B%C3%A1o_Daily_News \"Việt Báo Daily News\"), Thoi Bao Daily News (now defunct), and Viet Nam Nhat Bao (Vietnam Daily News). Several strip malls on Tully Road (stretching from Senter Road to Quimby Road) and Senter Road (from Capitol Expressway to Burke Street by [Costco](/wiki/Costco \"Costco\")), cater to Vietnamese tastes, such as Lion Plaza on the intersection of Tully and King (anchored by Lion Supermarket) and Carribbees Center on Senter and Lewis (anchored by Cho Senter Market, now Lee's Supermarket). \n[thumb\\|left\\|[Little Saigon, San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose \"Little Saigon, San Jose\").](/wiki/File:Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jos%C3%A9%2C_California_1256_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Little Saigon, San José, California 1256 (cropped).jpg\")\nThe epicenter of the Vietnamese\\-American community of San Jose, however, is on Story Road (stretching from Senter Road to McLaughlin Avenue), home to the popular Grand Century Mall and Vietnam Town (both shopping malls are owned by Chinese\\-Vietnamese real estate developer Lap Tang) and is officially designated by the San Jose City Council as \"Little Saigon\". Like its counterpart in Orange County, a freeway offramp sign was placed in 2013 on Highway 101 and Freeway 280, designating the Story Road (from Highway 101\\) and McLaughlin Avenue (from Freeway 280\\) exits to Little Saigon. [Lee's Sandwiches](/wiki/Lee%27s_Sandwiches \"Lee's Sandwiches\"), (a Vietnamese [bánh mì](/wiki/B%C3%A1nh_m%C3%AC \"Bánh mì\") [sandwich](/wiki/Sandwich \"Sandwich\") chain eatery) as well as the [phở](/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%9F \"Phở\") chain, [Pho Hoa Restaurant](/wiki/Pho_Hoa \"Pho Hoa\"), had their first locations here in San Jose. Due to the ethnic diversity of the city, where Vietnamese\\-Americans here live side by side with other ethnic minorities such as [Mexican\\-Americans](/wiki/Mexican-Americans \"Mexican-Americans\"), [Filipino\\-Americans](/wiki/Filipino-Americans \"Filipino-Americans\"), and [Indian\\-Americans](/wiki/Indian-Americans \"Indian-Americans\"), the Vietnamese community in San Jose is more fully integrated into the local community.",
"The Vietnamese community of San Jose has been politically divided over the naming of the business district, with various groups favoring \"Little Saigon\", \"New Saigon\", and \"Vietnamese Business District\". Non\\-Vietnamese businesses and residents, as well as the San Jose Hispanic Chamber of Commerce have also opposed the name \"Little Saigon\". In November 2007, the San Jose City Council voted 8–3 to choose the compromise name \"Saigon Business District\", resulting in ongoing protest, debate, and an effort to recall city council member [Madison Nguyen](/wiki/Madison_Nguyen \"Madison Nguyen\"), who proposed the name \"Saigon Business District\". On March 4, 2008, after a public meeting in which more than 1000 \"Little Saigon\" supporters participated, the city council voted 11–1 to rescind the name \"Saigon Business District\", but stopped short of renaming it. The recall of Nguyen failed in March 2009\\.",
"San Jose also granted the building of the [Viet Museum](/wiki/Viet_Museum \"Viet Museum\") in Kelley Park next to the City Historic Museum.[Calitoday.com](http://calitoday.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=411a3441a656f7ec850352ec00b2ddeb) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928000217/http://calitoday.com/news/view\\_article.html?article\\_id\\=411a3441a656f7ec850352ec00b2ddeb \\|date\\=September 28, 2007 }} The Viet Museum had its grand opening August 25, 2007\\.",
"#### Sacramento",
"With a large and growing Vietnamese American population, in February 2010, a stretch of Stockton Boulevard in [Sacramento](/wiki/Sacramento%2C_California \"Sacramento, California\") from Florin Road to Fruitridge Road has been officially named \"Little Saigon\".[Stockton Boulevard Named 'Little Saigon'](http://www.kcra.com/news/22417299/detail.html){{dead link\\|date\\=December 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}[Supes OK 'Little Saigon' For Sacramento](http://www.kcra.com/news/22515893/detail.html){{dead link\\|date\\=December 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Although settlement of Vietnamese refugees began during the 1980s, large numbers of Vietnamese have moved from the [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\") area to the Sacramento area since the late 1990s and 2000s (decade) (especially after the [dot\\-com bust](/wiki/Dot-com_bubble \"Dot-com bubble\") in Silicon Valley). People were drawn to the area by lower housing prices, lower cost of living, and Vietnamese and Chinese enclaves. The large Asian supermarket [Shun Fat Supermarket](/wiki/Shun_Fat_Supermarket \"Shun Fat Supermarket\") (a small Southern California\\-based chain owned by a Chinese Vietnamese American) opened in 2000 to cater to the local community and anchors Pacific Plaza. One of the First Vietnamese\\-Chinese owned supermarkets was Vinh Phat Supermarket. [SF Supermarket](/wiki/SF_Supermarket \"SF Supermarket\") is a prominent fixture at the intersections of 65th and Stockton Boulevard. This center also houses Huong Lan, which is famous for Vietnamese [banh mi](/wiki/Banh_mi \"Banh mi\") sandwiches. In 2010, a new [99 Ranch Market](/wiki/99_Ranch_Market \"99 Ranch Market\") opened on Florin Road. The strip of Stockton Boulevard has a great number of Vietnamese and Chinese restaurants and many places for ethnic foods, such as *phở* and boba. There are nearby Vietnamese Chinese shopping centers planned for development, including Little Saigon Plaza (to be anchored by a supermarket) that is to be developed by prominent San Jose\\-based Vietnamese American developers. Other current shopping centers sport names such as Little Vietnam and Pacific Rim Plaza.[Commercial Real Estate Forum – CRE News](http://www.creforum.net/modules/news/article.php?storyid=87) As a testament to the area's burgeoning Vietnamese community, the Southgate branch (66th Avenue, near Stockton Boulevard) of Sacramento Public library carries a large collection of Vietnamese materials.",
"#### San Francisco",
"In early 2004, [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\") officially designated Larkin Street between Eddy and O'Farrell streets as \"Little Saigon\" (*Sài Gòn Nhỏ*). Located in the [Tenderloin district](/wiki/Tenderloin%2C_San_Francisco \"Tenderloin, San Francisco\") where 2,000 of the city's 13,000 Vietnamese\\-American residents live, the two\\-block stretch is more than 80% Vietnamese\\-owned. Unlike San Jose, with its larger ethnic Vietnamese population, the ethnic Chinese from Vietnam are well represented in San Francisco due to self\\-segregation. Banners and directional signs have already been posted. A formal symbolic entrance was erected in July 2008, akin to those for San Francisco's Japantown and Chinatown (albeit smaller).{{cite news\n\\|url\\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\\-bin/article.cgi?f\\=/c/a/2004/02/16/BAG2751OP81\\.DTL\n\\|title\\=S.F.'s Little Saigon: Stretch of Larkin Street named for Vietnamese Americans\n\\|author\\=Cicero A. Estrella\n\\|publisher\\=San Francisco Chronicle\n\\|date\\=February 16, 2004\n\\|access\\-date\\=June 23, 2007}}",
"#### Oakland",
"The region stretching from 1st Avenue to 23rd Avenue in [Oakland, California](/wiki/Oakland%2C_California \"Oakland, California\")'s [San Antonio district](/wiki/San_Antonio%2C_Oakland%2C_California \"San Antonio, Oakland, California\") Eastlake neighborhoodis known as Little Saigon of Oakland. The local Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce{{cite web \\|title\\=Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce \\|url\\=https://www.oaklandvnchamber.com/ \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022}} estimates that there are approximately 8,000 people of Vietnamese origin or descent living in Oakland, largely concentrated in Eastlake.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Rusch \\|first1\\=Katey \\|title\\=Vietnamese refugees dream of a \"Little Saigon\" in East Oakland \\|url\\=https://oaklandnorth.net/2019/04/12/the\\-vietnamese\\-community\\-in\\-east\\-oakland\\-dreams\\-of\\-a\\-little\\-saigon/ \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Oakland North]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism]] \\|date\\=April 12, 2019}} Vietnamese businesses are concentrated along International Boulevard and East 12th Street in the district, and include Oakland's Sun Hop Fat market, a fruit and grocery store that was one of the first. Currently there are dozens of Vietnamese\\-owned businesses in the area that serve the Vietnamese immigrant community, including restaurants, [print shops](/wiki/Print_shops \"Print shops\"), jewelry stores, and a [karaoke machine](/wiki/Karaoke_machine \"Karaoke machine\") store. Shop signs are typically bilingually English and Vietnamese. Yellow Vietnamese Freedom flags and the signs of *Welcome to Little Saigon Oakland* are visible everywhere, as are yellow and red Vietnamese [silk flowers](/wiki/Silk_flower \"Silk flower\") in the shape of [cherry blossoms](/wiki/Cherry_blossoms \"Cherry blossoms\") called *Mai*.",
"[thumb\\|South Vietnamese yellow flags are visible everywhere in Oakland's Little Saigon.](/wiki/File:Vietnamese_Yellow_Flag_are_visible_everywhere_in_Oakland_Little_Saigon.jpg \"Vietnamese Yellow Flag are visible everywhere in Oakland Little Saigon.jpg\")",
"In 2019, local business owners lobbied for the formal city recognition of the area as “Little Saigon” and began working on a proposal for the creation of a [Business Improvement District](/wiki/Business_Improvement_District \"Business Improvement District\") (BID)—a region in which local businesses and sometimes additional property owners pay a tax surcharge or mandatory fee to fund neighborhood events, clean\\-up efforts, local beautification efforts, and marketing campaigns to promote the district as such rather than individual businesses within it. The 2019\\-2021 city council budget allocated $125,000 for BID feasibility studies in both Eastlake and [Oakland's Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Oakland \"Chinatown, Oakland\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Lyndon \\|first1\\=Isabel \\|title\\=Vietnamese Mid\\-Autumn Festival breathes life into Eastlake park \\|url\\=https://oaklandnorth.net/2019/09/18/vietnamese\\-mid\\-autumn\\-festival\\-breathes\\-life\\-into\\-eastlake\\-park/ \\|work\\=\\[\\[Oakland North]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022 \\|date\\=September 18, 2019}}",
"The Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce organizes the annual [Vietnamese Mid\\-Autumn Festival](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt_Trung_Thu \"Tết Trung Thu\"),{{cite web \\|title\\=About Us \\|url\\=https://www.oaklandvnchamber.com/about\\-ovcc \\|publisher\\=Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022}} in Clinton Square Park{{cite web \\|title\\=Clinton Square Park \\|url\\=https://oaklandwiki.org/Clinton\\_Square\\_Park \\|website\\=\\[\\[Oakland Wiki]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[LocalWiki]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022}} at the intersection of East 12th Street and 7th Avenue. The Oakland Vietnamese Mid\\-Autumn Festival occurs alongside many [Mid\\-Autumn Festivals](/wiki/Mid-Autumn_Festival \"Mid-Autumn Festival\") (\"Asian New Year\") celebrations for different East Asian communities across the [San Francisco Bay Area](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area \"San Francisco Bay Area\").",
"In the summer of 2021, the Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce, along with [Good Good Eatz](/wiki/Good_Good_Eatz \"Good Good Eatz\") (a program funded by the East Bay Asian Local Development Corporation to promote ethnic food districts{{cite web \\|title\\=GOOD GOOD EATZ \\|url\\=https://www.goodgoodeatz.com/ \\|publisher\\=East Bay Asian Local Development Corporation \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022}}) and [Pokémon Go](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Go \"Pokémon Go\") developer [Niantic](/wiki/Niantic%2C_Inc. \"Niantic, Inc.\") organized a \"Summer Fest\" centered on Pokémon Go events and local food, along with [retro video games](/wiki/Retrogaming \"Retrogaming\") made available by the [Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment](/wiki/Museum_of_Art_and_Digital_Entertainment \"Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment\") and [COVID\\-19 testing](/wiki/COVID-19_testing \"COVID-19 testing\") and [vaccinations](/wiki/COVID-19_vaccines \"COVID-19 vaccines\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Thapliyal \\|first1\\=Adesh \\|title\\=Back With Good Food and Pokémon Go \\|url\\=https://www.kqed.org/arts/13900641/pokemon\\-go\\-little\\-saigon\\-oakland\\-vietnamese\\-food \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[KQED\\-FM\\|KQED]] \\|date\\=August 5, 2021}}",
"#### Elsewhere",
"Large concentrations of Vietnamese live in Central districts of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles%2C_California \"Los Angeles, California\"), although are outnumbered by other Asians and even more numerous Latinos. {{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2019}} Unofficially, [Riverside County](/wiki/Riverside_County%2C_California \"Riverside County, California\"), [Fresno](/wiki/Fresno%2C_California \"Fresno, California\") and [Oxnard](/wiki/Oxnard%2C_California \"Oxnard, California\") has some Vietnamese. {{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2019}}",
"### Colorado",
"A growing Vietnamese commercial district has emerged on Federal Boulevard between the Far East Center shopping complex between West Alameda and West Mississippi Avenues in [Denver, Colorado](/wiki/Denver%2C_Colorado \"Denver, Colorado\"), with Vietnamese cuisine eateries and various businesses. With the leadership of business owners, the Vietnamese American Community of Colorado, Denver Asian Pacific Commission and Denver City Councilman Paul Lopez, the Little Saigon Business District was formed honoring its rich Vietnamese culture in 2014\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014\\-02\\-18 \\|title\\=Little Saigon Business District designated as Vietnamese cultural area in west Denver \\|url\\=https://www.denverpost.com/2014/02/18/little\\-saigon\\-business\\-district\\-designated\\-as\\-vietnamese\\-cultural\\-area\\-in\\-west\\-denver/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-15 \\|website\\=The Denver Post \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Housing Saigon \\|url\\=https://housingsgn.com/ \\|access\\-date\\=15 June 2023}} There is also a growing Vietnamese population in [Aurora, Colorado](/wiki/Aurora%2C_Colorado \"Aurora, Colorado\"), specifically in an area bordered to the north by Alameda Avenue, to the south by E. Hampden Avenue, to the east by Chambers Road, and to the west by Havana Street. There are currently about 21,000 Vietnamese people living in the Denver\\-Aurora\\-Boulder Metro Area.",
"### Florida",
"A thriving Vietnamese quarter called \"Little Saigon\" exists in the [Colonialtown](/wiki/Colonialtown%2C_Orlando \"Colonialtown, Orlando\") district of [Orlando, Florida](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida \"Orlando, Florida\"). The neighborhood has become a landmark in the city of Orlando and consists of a growing number of restaurants, groceries, and Vietnamese professional offices that serve the local Vietnamese community with everything from taxes to medical and dental care. Stores supply Asian pop culture to the community in the form of [karaoke](/wiki/Karaoke \"Karaoke\") bars, bubble tea shops, Vietnamese video and music shops, and stores featuring candies and collectibles from across Asia. The heart of the district is the intersection of East Colonial Drive / [Highway 50](/wiki/Florida_State_Road_50 \"Florida State Road 50\") and Mills Avenue, also known as the \"Vi\\-Mi\" district.",
"The Orlando Vietnamese community has its roots in war refugees seeking a new life in America after the fall of Saigon. Notable pro\\-democracy activists, such as Thuong Nguyen Foshee, who was just recently released from prison in Vietnam, call Orlando their home.",
"The Vietnamese Community in Orlando, along with institutions like Chua Bao An, St. Philip Phan Van Minh Church, Vietnamese Baptist Church, and groups such as The Vietnamese Association of Central Florida, strive to maintain their heritage as well as share their culture with the rest of Orlando. Annual events, such as the numerous Tet New Year Celebrations at the Central Florida Fairgrounds and across the city, help spread Vietnamese culture and promote diversity throughout Orlando.",
"### Georgia",
"There are many Vietnamese businesses located in the mixed\\-Asian – that is, co\\-existing with ethnic [Korean](/wiki/Koreans \"Koreans\") and [Chinese](/wiki/Han_Chinese \"Han Chinese\") businesses – commercial and cultural strip of [Buford Highway](/wiki/Buford_Highway \"Buford Highway\") in [Doraville](/wiki/Doraville%2C_Georgia \"Doraville, Georgia\") and [Chamblee](/wiki/Chamblee%2C_Georgia \"Chamblee, Georgia\"), which are working\\-class suburbs in [DeKalb County](/wiki/DeKalb_County%2C_Georgia \"DeKalb County, Georgia\") north of [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\"). Although a fair number of post\\-war Vietnamese refugees settled in Atlanta earlier, many Vietnamese Americans from California and other parts of the United States have been relocating into the Atlanta area to establish a fairly large presence since the 1990s. Metropolitan Atlanta is home to one of the fastest\\-growing Vietnamese populations in the world.",
"### Gulf Coast",
"It is estimated that there are 40,000 Vietnamese\\-Americans in the [Gulf Coast](/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States \"Gulf Coast of the United States\"), and 1 in every 4 fishermen from the area is Vietnamese\\-American.{{citation needed \\|date\\=January 2016}}",
"#### Alabama",
"Vietnamese\\-Americans make up one\\-third of the population in the fishing hamlet of [Bayou La Batre](/wiki/Bayou_La_Batre%2C_AL \"Bayou La Batre, AL\"). A majority of the community work in the seafood industry, while a smaller percentage work in the shipbuilding industry. The eastern side of the city is nicknamed \"Little Vietnam\" due to the high number of Vietnamese\\-American residents. Vietnamese businesses have been sustained by the social integration of the Vietnamese and mainstream cultures. The city also sees, within the Vietnamese American community, a large sub\\-community of [Amerasians](/wiki/Amerasians \"Amerasians\"). Many were brought to the US through the [Amerasian Homecoming Act](/wiki/Amerasian_Homecoming_Act \"Amerasian Homecoming Act\") and relocated to the area due to similarities in environment and industry to what they were accustomed to.",
"#### Louisiana",
"[thumb\\|Gate of \"Little Vietnam\" section of New Orleans](/wiki/File:NO_East_Little_Vietnam_Oct_2009_Gate_Arch_Tu_Bi.JPG \"NO East Little Vietnam Oct 2009 Gate Arch Tu Bi.JPG\")\nLouisiana is home to many Vietnamese, many of whom especially engaged in traditional fishing. Both Louisiana and Vietnam had been [French colonies](/wiki/French_colonial_empire \"French colonial empire\"). [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana \"New Orleans, Louisiana\") has several areas with a concentration of Vietnamese\\-American businesses. The largest among these communities is located around [Village de L'Est](/wiki/Village_de_L%27Est%2C_New_Orleans \"Village de L'Est, New Orleans\"), which includes significant community and commercial institutions such as Mary Queen of Vietnam Church and [Dong Phuong Oriental Bakery](/wiki/Dong_Phuong_Oriental_Bakery \"Dong Phuong Oriental Bakery\").",
"There is a Vietnamese business section in [Baton Rouge](/wiki/Baton_Rouge \"Baton Rouge\"), located near the 12000 block of [Florida Boulevard](/wiki/Florida_Boulevard \"Florida Boulevard\") (part of [U.S. Route 190](/wiki/U.S._Route_190 \"U.S. Route 190\")), which consists of restaurants, grocery stores, and other various businesses, even found throughout some other sections of the city.",
"In 2008, [Anh \"Joseph\" Cao](/wiki/Anh_%22Joseph%22_Cao \"Anh \") made history after being elected to [Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") as a [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") from Louisiana's heavily [Democratic](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") [2nd congressional district](/wiki/Louisiana%27s_2nd_congressional_district \"Louisiana's 2nd congressional district\"), which includes most of New Orleans. Cao served one term, and was the first person of Vietnamese ancestry ever elected to the U.S. Congress.",
"#### Mississippi",
"A small \"Little Saigon\" can be found on Oak Street in [Biloxi](/wiki/Biloxi%2C_Mississippi \"Biloxi, Mississippi\"). Many Vietnamese\\-Americans relocated to southern Mississippi due to the similar environment and industry they were accustomed to back in Vietnam. The Vietnamese\\-American labor force in this area is usually spread between the fishing, gambling, and shipbuilding industries.",
"### Illinois",
"[thumb\\|The \"New Chinatown\" in Chicago](/wiki/Image:Little_Saigon_Chicago.jpg \"Little Saigon Chicago.jpg\")\n[Argyle Street](/wiki/West_Argyle_Street_Historic_District \"West Argyle Street Historic District\") in the city of [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") contains a Little Saigon district, and it has become the hub of vibrant Vietnamese culture in the city. It is referred to by Chicagoans as the \"New Chinatown\", little Saigon, or most commonly Argyle. Argyle is easily accessible from the [CTA Red Line](/wiki/CTA_Red_Line \"CTA Red Line\")'s [Argyle station](/wiki/Argyle_station_%28CTA%29 \"Argyle station (CTA)\").",
"### Kentucky",
"[Louisville](/wiki/Louisville \"Louisville\") has an unofficial Vietnamese district, dubbed \"Little Saigon\" by [TARC](/wiki/Transit_Authority_of_River_City \"Transit Authority of River City\") drivers back in the 1990s, centered on areas near South 3rd Street and Southside Drive, primarily in the [Southside](/wiki/Southside%2C_Louisville \"Southside, Louisville\") neighborhood.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Saint John Vianney \\|url\\=https://www.archlou.org/parishes/saint\\-john\\-vianney\\-parish/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-14 \\|website\\=Archdiocese of Louisville \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Although Vietnamese\\-American businesses, institutions and population etc. have spread to other parts of the county, they are still primarily concentrated near [Iroquois Park](/wiki/Iroquois_Park \"Iroquois Park\"), to its east, in the [40214 zip code](/wiki/40214_zip_code \"40214 zip code\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=May 24, 2022 \\|title\\='It's home now': Vietnamese community grows more vibrant in Louisville \\|url\\=https://www.whas11\\.com/article/news/community/moments\\-that\\-matter/louisville\\-vietnamese\\-community\\-van\\-tran\\-river\\-lotus\\-lion\\-dance/417\\-f58b272e\\-c08f\\-4398\\-9db2\\-7e92f2a09d63 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-14 \\|website\\=whas11\\.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Massachusetts",
"[Dorchester](/wiki/Dorchester%2C_Massachusetts \"Dorchester, Massachusetts\"), Massachusetts, a neighborhood of Boston, is home to a major Vietnamese business center in the Northeast. It serves some 75,000 Vietnam\\-born Americans in the Boston\\-Worcester area as well as those in surroundings states such as Connecticut and Rhode Island. Communities there are served by a number of Viet\\-organized social service agencies (such as [The Southeast Asian Coalition](http://www.seacma.org) in Worcester [Viet\\-AID, the Vietnamese American Initiative for Development](http://www.VietAid.org)) and some religious and publicly funded organizations. Native Vietnamese who speak fluent Vietnamese, whether or not they live in Boston, are recruited for work here.",
"The \"X\" in [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Springfield, Massachusetts\") is a magnet for Vietnamese businesses and the locus of Vietnamese settlement in western Massachusetts, including restaurants, businesses and a Vietnamese community center.",
"### Missouri",
"[Kansas City](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\") is home to more than 10,000 Vietnamese immigrants. A sizable Vietnamese population along Independence Avenue \\& Garrison Square sprung up various businesses including *phở* restaurants, nail salons, hair salons, video gift stores, cell phone stores, pool halls and jewelry stores. One of the new \"Little Saigons\" can now be found on North Oak Trafficway in Kansas City Gladstone neighborhood.",
"[St. Louis](/wiki/St.Louis%2C_Missouri \"St.Louis, Missouri\") also has a large Vietnamese immigrant population. The majority of restaurants and stores are in \"South City\" on or near Grand Avenue.",
"### Michigan",
"[thumb\\|Taken in front of Dan Thien Duong in Madison Heights during Vietnamese (Tet) New Year in February 2000](/wiki/Image:DTD2000.jpg \"DTD2000.jpg\")\nWhile not titled a \"Little Saigon\", the suburban community of [Madison Heights](/wiki/Madison_Heights%2C_Michigan \"Madison Heights, Michigan\") in the [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit \"Detroit\") area has become a center of Vietnamese commerce. Located on John R Road and on Dequindre Road, several Vietnamese markets, [Phở](/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%9F \"Phở\") noodle soup restaurants, movie/music stores, several nail supply stores, herbal stores, and beauty salons have cropped up along two streets.",
"Besides Madison Heights, the [Grand Rapids](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan \"Grand Rapids, Michigan\") and [Holland](/wiki/Holland%2C_Michigan \"Holland, Michigan\") areas have a small Vietnamese enclave.",
"[Inkster](/wiki/Inkster%2C_Michigan \"Inkster, Michigan\") has a neighborhood known as \"Little Saigon,\" though this is in reference to the Vietnam war and not Vietnamese people or culture. \"Little Saigon\" is a collection of housing projects along Inkster Road and Annapolis where bullet holes and boarded windows are common.",
"### New Mexico",
"[Albuquerque](/wiki/Albuquerque \"Albuquerque\"), [New Mexico](/wiki/New_Mexico \"New Mexico\") has a small \"Little Saigon\" community with various Vietnamese restaurants and businesses on and around [Central Avenue](/wiki/Central_Avenue_%28Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico%29 \"Central Avenue (Albuquerque, New Mexico)\") in the city's [International District](/wiki/International_District%2C_Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico \"International District, Albuquerque, New Mexico\").{{cite web \\| title\\=Culture \\& Heritage: Asian American \\| url\\=https://www.visitalbuquerque.org/about\\-abq/culture\\-heritage/asian\\-american/ \\| publisher\\=Visit Albuquerque \\| access\\-date\\=April 25, 2018}}",
"### New York",
"[New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\")'s unofficial \"Little Saigon\" Vietnamese community exists near the intersection of the [Bowery](/wiki/Bowery \"Bowery\") and [Grand Street](/wiki/Grand_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"Grand Street (Manhattan)\"). Although small compared with nearby [Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Manhattan \"Chinatown, Manhattan\"), the area is differentiated by the large presence of Vietnamese stores as compared with Chinese stores.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vietworldkitchen.com/blog/2009/11/tiny\\-little\\-saigon\\-in\\-new\\-york.html\\|title\\=Tiny Little Saigon in New York\\|date\\=November 5, 2009}}",
"### North Carolina",
"In [Charlotte](/wiki/Charlotte%2C_North_Carolina \"Charlotte, North Carolina\"), Central Avenue (near Briar Creek Road) is the original \"Chinatown\" consisting of \"Saigon Square\" and a pair of other Chinese/Vietnamese shopping plazas that include \"Dim Sum Restaurant\" (which serves New York\\-style dim sum), the \"Eang Hong Supermarket\", \"Van Loi\" (which serves cha shao), and a dozen or so other stores.",
"Saigon Square has various Vietnamese (albeit not Chinese) stores including [Phở Hòa](/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%9F_H%C3%B2a \"Phở Hòa\") (Vietnamese noodles).\nAsian Corner Mall on North Tryon Street and Sugar Creek Road, developed from the defunct Tryon Mall in 1999, with \"Dragon Court Restaurant\", \"Hong Kong BBQ\", \"International Supermarket\", and \"New Century Market\" and several other Chinese/Vietnamese stores.",
"There are also areas in [Greensboro](/wiki/Greensboro%2C_North_Carolina \"Greensboro, North Carolina\") where Vietnamese\\-run businesses (including stores and restaurants) are prevalent.",
"### Oklahoma",
"[Oklahoma City](/wiki/Oklahoma_City \"Oklahoma City\") has a significant Vietnamese American business district and ethnic neighborhood located in the center part of the city. While it is officially known as [Asian District](/wiki/Asian_District%2C_Oklahoma_City \"Asian District, Oklahoma City\") by the city, due to the abundant Asian diversity of the neighborhood (similar in many respects to [International District](/wiki/%23Seattle \"#Seattle\") in Seattle), much of the original Little Saigon portion centers along Military Drive and NW 23rd Street between North Classen Boulevard and North Shartel Avenue.",
"Tens of thousands of Vietnamese refugees were relocated to Oklahoma City during the 1980s. Over time, they have established businesses in a gentrified area to the west of the [Uptown NW 23rd](/wiki/Uptown_Oklahoma_City \"Uptown Oklahoma City\") and Classen Boulevard business districts and the area begun to be known as a *Little Saigon*.",
"The original Little Saigon area features numerous *[phở](/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%9F \"Phở\")* [cafés](/wiki/Caf%C3%A9 \"Café\"), Vietnamese bakeries and restaurants, and [Asian supermarkets](/wiki/Asian_supermarket \"Asian supermarket\"). There are also numerous hopping nightclubs, karaoke, and video bars joining the growing list of [Chinese](/wiki/China \"China\"), [Thai](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\"), [Filipino](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), and [Korean](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\") residents and establishments that make up the remainder of surrounding Asian District.",
"The district is very popular with local residents and students from nearby [Oklahoma City University](/wiki/Oklahoma_City_University \"Oklahoma City University\"), providing a colorful and authentic taste of the Far East in the heartland of [America](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). Oklahoma City's original Little Saigon neighborhood was featured in the New York Times as well as [National Geographic](/wiki/National_Geographic_%28magazine%29 \"National Geographic (magazine)\")'s March 2003 issue's ZipUSA series titled \"73106: Lemongrass on the Prairie\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0303/feature6/?fs\\=www7\\.nationalgeographic.com\\&fs\\=plasma.nationalgeographic.com \\|title\\=ZipUSA: 73106 @ National Geographic Magazine \\|publisher\\=Magma.nationalgeographic.com \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203071019/http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0303/feature6/?fs\\=www7\\.nationalgeographic.com\\&fs\\=plasma.nationalgeographic.com \\|archive\\-date\\=December 3, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=mdy\\-all }}",
"### Oregon",
"10,641 Vietnamese Americans live in the [Portland](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\") area. Many Vietnamese restaurants, markets, and other businesses in Portland can be found on NE Sandy Boulevard, SE Powell Boulevard, and [NE and SE 82nd Avenue](/wiki/Oregon_Route_213 \"Oregon Route 213\"). There are also some Vietnamese business around the Portland area such as [Beaverton](/wiki/Beaverton%2C_Oregon \"Beaverton, Oregon\"), [Hillsboro](/wiki/Hillsboro%2C_Oregon \"Hillsboro, Oregon\"), [Aloha](/wiki/Aloha%2C_Oregon \"Aloha, Oregon\"), and [Tigard](/wiki/Tigard%2C_Oregon \"Tigard, Oregon\").",
"### Pennsylvania",
"[thumb\\|Little Saigon, Philadelphia](/wiki/File:LittleSaigonPhilly.jpg \"LittleSaigonPhilly.jpg\")\n{{main\\|Little Saigon, Philadelphia}}\n[South Philadelphia](/wiki/South_Philadelphia \"South Philadelphia\") near the [Italian Market](/wiki/Italian_Market%2C_Philadelphia \"Italian Market, Philadelphia\") has a large Vietnamese American population. Many Vietnamese businesses tucked in strip malls have emerged on Washington Avenue to service the local immigrant population. The Vietnamese sandwich [bánh mì](/wiki/B%C3%A1nh_m%C3%AC \"Bánh mì\") is gaining much attention in Philadelphia and is now competing with the Philly [Cheesesteak](/wiki/Cheesesteak \"Cheesesteak\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2013}}",
"As of 2005, Vietnamese are projected to become the largest ethnicity in South Philadelphia. Philadelphia is in the top ten U.S. cities for Vietnamese populations and Vietnamese immigration destinations. Philadelphia even has a higher percentage and numerical population of Vietnamese than [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), one of the few Asian backgrounds that are actually less represented in New York.",
"### Tennessee",
"[Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_TN \"Memphis, TN\") has a significant Vietnamese community, affectionately known as \"Little Hanoi\" located along Cleveland Avenue in [Midtown](/wiki/Midtown_Memphis \"Midtown Memphis\"). The community includes many Vietnamese restaurants and shops, as well as a Vietnamese Buddhist temple and areas of predominantly Vietnamese housing. Little Hanoi is one of the last and largest non\\-Hispanic immigrant enclaves in the Memphis metropolitan area.",
"### Texas",
"#### Austin",
"Austin has a Chinatown Center composed mainly of Vietnamese business on North Lamar.",
"#### Houston",
"{{main\\|History of Vietnamese Americans in Houston}}\n[thumb\\|Saigon Plaza in Little Saigon, Houston](/wiki/File:SaigonPlazaChinatown.JPG \"SaigonPlazaChinatown.JPG\")\nThe Houston area is home to over 150,000 Vietnamese people. A section of [Midtown Houston](/wiki/Midtown_Houston \"Midtown Houston\") known as \"Little Saigon\" or \"Vietnamtown\" was the original commercial district home for the Vietnamese community in Houston.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.post\\-gazette.com/pg/10129/1056918\\-37\\.stm\\|title\\=36 Hours in Houston\\|last\\=Denny Lee\\|work\\=\\[\\[New York Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2010\\|date\\=May 9, 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/editorial/5946805\\.html\\|title\\=Exit Vietnam: Photo shows Vietnamese transformation\\|work\\=\\[\\[Houston Chronicle]]\\|date\\=August 16, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2010}} The boundaries are IH 69/US 59, Preston Street, St. Joseph Parkway and Emancipation Avenue. Vietnamese street signs denote the area since 1998\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Kearney\\|first\\=Syd\\|title\\=A Marmac Guide to Houston and Galveston\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=xcFR\\-BgMomcC\\&pg\\=PA164\\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2010\\|date\\=September 2008\\|publisher\\=Pelican Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58980\\-548\\-4\\|pages\\=164–}} In 2004, this area was officially named \"Little Saigon\" by the city of Houston.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.bizjournals.com/houston/stories/2004/05/10/tidbits1\\.html\\|title\\=City adopts 'Little Saigon'\\|date\\=May 10, 2004\\|work\\=\\[\\[Houston Business Journal]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2010}} The redevelopment of [Midtown Houston](/wiki/Midtown_Houston \"Midtown Houston\") from run\\-down to upscale increased property values and [property taxes](/wiki/Property_tax \"Property tax\"), forcing many Vietnamese\\-American businesses out of the neighborhood into other areas.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id\\=2004\\_3822071\\|title\\=Little Saigon tries to carry on / City pushing for ways to give area new life\\|last\\=Nancy Sarnoff\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617210928/https://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id\\=2004\\_3822071\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-06\\-17\\|date\\=November 28, 2004\\|work\\=\\[\\[Houston Chronicle]]\\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2010}}",
"The largest Vietnamese commercial district is now found in [Houston](/wiki/Houston%2C_Texas \"Houston, Texas\") ([Alief](/wiki/Alief \"Alief\")), a strip along Bellaire Boulevard west of [Chinatown, Houston](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Houston \"Chinatown, Houston\"), with most Vietnamese\\-owned businesses and restaurants centered at the Hong Kong City Mall on Bellaire and Boone (anchored by [Hong Kong Food Market](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Food_Market \"Hong Kong Food Market\") and Ocean Palace Restaurant).",
"Since the Vietnamese District is adjacent to Houston's [Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Houston \"Chinatown, Houston\"), it is often confused to be part of the same neighborhood. The Vietnamese and the Chinese district are each their own individual neighborhood, however. Even though the area is primarily Vietnamese and Chinese, there is also a large number of [Filipino Americans](/wiki/Filipino_American \"Filipino American\"), [Arab](/wiki/Arab \"Arab\") [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim \"Muslim\"), [Indonesian Americans](/wiki/Indonesian_American \"Indonesian American\"), and [Pakistani Americans](/wiki/Pakistani_American \"Pakistani American\") in the area, as well as a sizable number of [African Americans](/wiki/African_American \"African American\"), whom were once the majority in the Little Saigon area prior to the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\").",
"#### Dallas–Fort Worth (DFW)",
"In addition to the ones listed here, several unofficial Little Saigons are located in the [Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex](/wiki/Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth_metroplex \"Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex\"). Dallas is also considered another one of the largest Vietnamese communities in the United States, along with its sister city, Fort Worth.\n* One Little Saigon is located in [Garland](/wiki/Garland%2C_Texas \"Garland, Texas\"), along Walnut Street between Audelia Road and Jupiter Road. This one is the largest, consisting of four large supermarkets (Hiep Thai, New Truong Nguyen, Hong Kong, and [Thuan Phat](/wiki/Shun_Fat_Supermarket \"Shun Fat Supermarket\") at Cali Saigon Mall in [Garland](/wiki/Garland%2C_Texas \"Garland, Texas\")). Each supermarket listed below is located in a different shopping complex and has a number of restaurants.\n\t+ Hiep Thai: northeast corner of Jupiter and Walnut.\n\t+ New Truong Nguyen: northwest corner of Jupiter and Walnut.\n\t+ Hong Kong: southwest corner of Audelia and Walnut.\n\t+ [Thuan Phat Supermarket](/wiki/Shun_Fat_Supermarket \"Shun Fat Supermarket\")/Cali Saigon Mall: northeast corner of Jupiter Road and Beltline Road (in Garland borders with city of Richardson)\n* The restaurants in the area are Bistro B, La Me, Doan, Pho 95, Pho Bang, SaiGon Kitchen, Nam Hua, Saigon Block, Pho Tay Do, Pho Que Huong, Pho Bac, Pho Pasteur, Huong Ly (in Richardson), and many more.\n* Another one is located in [Arlington](/wiki/Arlington%2C_Texas \"Arlington, Texas\"), on Pioneer Parkway. This Little Saigon includes a couple supermarkets (Saigon\\-Taipei, Hong Kong), restaurants, and Vietnamese karaoke/café bars.\n* The third one is in [Irving](/wiki/Irving%2C_Texas \"Irving, Texas\") on Beltline Road, with [Little Saigon Mall](/wiki/Little_Saigon_Mall \"Little Saigon Mall\"). A small concentration of Vietnamese restaurants are being built on MacArthur and Beltline through [Las Colinas](/wiki/Las_Colinas \"Las Colinas\") and [Valley Ranch](/wiki/Valley_Ranch%2C_Texas \"Valley Ranch, Texas\"). These restaurants are unique, infusing Korean, Japanese, Thai, Indian, and Chinese influences.\n* There are also a number Vietnamese strip malls along Beltline in [Carrollton](/wiki/Carrollton%2C_Texas \"Carrollton, Texas\"). Though the area is predominantly Vietnamese, Chinese and Korean shops and churches can be found there, as well.\n* Haltom City (on E Belknap Street) with many grocery stores, restaurants, and other stores.\nVietnamese businesses are also found in Richardson and [Haltom City](/wiki/Haltom_City%2C_Texas \"Haltom City, Texas\").[Vietnamese Yellow Pages in DFW](http://vndfw.com)",
"### Virginia",
"[thumb\\|[Eden Center](/wiki/Eden_Center \"Eden Center\")](/wiki/File:Eden_Center_flags_on_festival_day.jpg \"Eden Center flags on festival day.jpg\") \n[thumb\\|Eden Center at night](/wiki/File:Eden_Center.jpg \"Eden Center.jpg\")\n[Little Saigon, Arlington](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_Arlington%2C_Virginia \"Little Saigon, Arlington, Virginia\"), in [Clarendon](/wiki/Clarendon%2C_Arlington%2C_Virginia \"Clarendon, Arlington, Virginia\"), served as the Little Saigon of the Washington, D.C. region, reaching its heyday following the Fall of Saigon during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Many Vietnamese refugees immigrated to the area due to the proximity to the nation's capital, and existing social, family, and business connections. This neighborhood was home to Vietnamese grocery stores, restaurants, department stores, cafes, and entertainment to serve the large Vietnamese population. Business was attractive to Vietnamese immigrants in this neighborhood due to the depressed rents during the time of construction of the WMATA Clarendon metro station. This neighborhood was a destination for Vietnamese immigrants both in the Washington D.C. area, as well as throughout the mid\\-Atlantic region. [Echoes of Little Saigon: Protecting and Preserving the Cultural History of the Vietnamese Community in Arlington, Virginia](http://littlesaigonclarendon.com/)",
"The [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), suburb of [Seven Corners](/wiki/Seven_Corners%2C_Virginia \"Seven Corners, Virginia\") in [Fairfax County, Virginia](/wiki/Fairfax_County%2C_Virginia \"Fairfax County, Virginia\"), is now home to the largest Vietnamese American population and cultural center on the eastern seaboard. While there is no full\\-fledged \"Little Saigon\" to speak of, the most prominent hub for local\\-area Vietnamese is the shopping mall called the [Eden Center](/wiki/Eden_Center \"Eden Center\"), complete with a garden and an arch signifying its entrance.",
"In Greater [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia \"Richmond, Virginia\"), the concentration of Vietnamese restaurants and shops near the intersection of Horsepen Road and West Broad Street is sometimes referred to as Little Saigon. This area of Western [Henrico](/wiki/Henrico_County%2C_Virginia \"Henrico County, Virginia\") has developed as a center for the Vietnamese population since the late 1980s.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://richmondmagazine.com/restaurants\\-in\\-richmond/little\\-saigon\\-horsepen\\-road\\-vietnamese\\-food\\-haven/\\|title \\= Welcome to Little Saigon\\|date \\= March 29, 2017}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://richmond.com/food\\-drink/plus/restaurant\\-review\\-mariscos\\-el\\-barco\\-a\\-mexican\\-restaurant\\-in\\-little\\-saigon\\-in\\-western\\-henrico\\-is/article\\_8cf3b0c7\\-233a\\-548b\\-aa69\\-e565b43c59ec.html\\|title \\= Restaurant review: Mariscos el Barco, a Mexican restaurant in 'Little Saigon' in western Henrico, is a seafood feast fit for royalty}}",
"### Washington",
"#### Seattle",
"[thumb\\|Thanh Vi Vietnamese Restaurant, Little Saigon, Seattle](/wiki/Image:Seattle_Thanh_Vi_04.jpg \"Seattle Thanh Vi 04.jpg\")\n[Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\") has a significant, prosperous Vietnamese American business district centered at 12th Avenue and Jackson Street, immediately east of the city's considerably older [Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown \"Chinatown\") district. This Vietnamese area has not been officially designated a \"Little Saigon\", although a few street signs with this name have been erected. Rather, the area – along with the Chinatown district – has retained the longstanding name [International District](/wiki/International_District%2C_Seattle%2C_Washington \"International District, Seattle, Washington\") (now officially Chinatown/International District, but often just \"The I.D.\"), dating back to the late 1940s. The predominantly Chinese and predominantly Vietnamese areas are separated from one another by an [Interstate 5](/wiki/Interstate_5_in_Washington \"Interstate 5 in Washington\") viaduct, but there is easy pedestrian and car access between the two.",
"#### Tacoma",
"[Tacoma](/wiki/Tacoma%2C_Washington \"Tacoma, Washington\"), as well, has an area commonly known as the \"[Lincoln International District](/wiki/Lincoln_International_District%2C_Tacoma%2C_Washington \"Lincoln International District, Tacoma, Washington\")\", which is almost entirely filled with Vietnamese restaurants, grocers, and shops. Though officially not known as \"Little Saigon\", the area is normally referred to as such by the local resident population.",
"### Canada",
"#### Toronto",
"[Jane and Finch](/wiki/Jane_and_Finch \"Jane and Finch\") has a large Vietnamese population.",
"#### Vancouver",
"[Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver \"Vancouver\") and [Richmond, British Columbia](/wiki/Richmond%2C_British_Columbia \"Richmond, British Columbia\") both have large Vietnamese populations, including in [Vancouver's Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Vancouver \"Chinatown, Vancouver\"). The section of [Kingsway](/wiki/Kingsway_%28Vancouver%29 \"Kingsway (Vancouver)\") between Fraser and Knight streets has been designated Vancouver's Little Saigon since 2013\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Kensington\\-Cedar Cottage: Rebranding of Kingsway area to 'Little Saigon' attracting tourists \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|last\\=Thuncher \\|url\\=http://www.vancourier.com/kensington\\-cedar\\-cottage\\-rebranding\\-of\\-kingsway\\-area\\-to\\-little\\-saigon\\-attracting\\-tourists\\-1\\.590132 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Vancouver Courier]] \\|date\\=2013\\-08\\-15 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-26}}",
""
] |
### California
An [intercity bus service](/wiki/Intercity_bus_service "Intercity bus service") named [Xe Đò Hoàng](/wiki/Xe_%C4%90%C3%B2_Ho%C3%A0ng "Xe Đò Hoàng") connects the [Little Saigon in Orange county](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_Orange_County "Little Saigon, Orange County") to [the one in San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose "Little Saigon, San Jose") and various other cities in California and Arizona with high concentration of Vietnamese Americans.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=77RVEAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA107\|title\=A People's Guide to Orange County\|last\=Lewinnek\|first\=Elaine\|last2\=Arellano\|first2\=Gustavo\|last3\=Vo Dang\|first3\=Thuy\|publisher\=University of California Press\|year\=2022\|pages\=106–107}}
#### Orange County
{{main\|Little Saigon, Orange County}}
[thumb\|Phước Lộc Thọ, known in English as [Asian Garden Mall](/wiki/Asian_Garden_Mall "Asian Garden Mall"), the first Vietnamese\-American business center in Little Saigon, Orange County](/wiki/Image:Phuoc_Loc_Tho.jpg "Phuoc Loc Tho.jpg")
The oldest, largest, and most prominent Little Saigon is centered in [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California "Orange County, California"), where over 189,000 [Vietnamese Americans](/wiki/Vietnamese_American "Vietnamese American") reside. With other [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") counties, this region constitutes the largest Vietnamese American (VA) population outside of Vietnam. The community originally started emerging in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster%2C_California "Westminster, California"), and quickly spread to the adjacent city of [Garden Grove](/wiki/Garden_Grove%2C_California "Garden Grove, California"). Today, these two cities rank as the highest concentration of Vietnamese\-Americans of any cities in the United States at 37\.1% and 31\.1%, respectively (according to the 2011 American Community Survey).
About {{convert\|45\|mi}} south of Los Angeles, [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster%2C_California "Westminster, California") was once a predominantly [white](/wiki/White_people "White people") [middle\-class](/wiki/Middle-class "Middle-class") suburban city of Orange County with ample farmland, but the city later experienced a decline by the 1970s. Since 1978, the nucleus of Little Saigon has long been Bolsa Avenue, where early pioneers [Danh Quach](/wiki/Danh_Quach "Danh Quach") and [Frank Jao](/wiki/Frank_Jao "Frank Jao") established businesses. During that year, the well\-known *[Nguoi Viet Daily News](/wiki/Nguoi_Viet_Daily_News "Nguoi Viet Daily News")* also began publishing from a home in Garden Grove. Other new Vietnamese\-American arrivals soon revitalized the area by opening their own businesses in old, formerly white\-owned storefronts, and investors constructed large shopping centers containing a mix of businesses. The Vietnamese community and businesses later spread into adjacent Garden Grove, [Midway City](/wiki/Midway_City "Midway City"), [Fountain Valley](/wiki/Fountain_Valley%2C_California "Fountain Valley, California"), [Stanton](/wiki/Stanton%2C_California "Stanton, California"), [Anaheim](/wiki/Anaheim%2C_California "Anaheim, California"), and [Santa Ana](/wiki/Santa_Ana%2C_California "Santa Ana, California").
In Orange County, Little Saigon is now a wide, spread\-out community dotted with myriad suburban\-style strip malls containing a mixture of Vietnamese and Chinese\-Vietnamese businesses. It is located southwest of [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland "Disneyland") between the State Route 22 and [Interstate 405](/wiki/Interstate_405_%28California%29 "Interstate 405 (California)"). However, the main focus of Little Saigon is Bolsa Avenue (where [Asian Garden Mall](/wiki/Asian_Garden_Mall "Asian Garden Mall") and Little Saigon Plaza are considered the heart), which runs through Westminster; the street was officially designated Little Saigon by the [city council](/wiki/City_council "City council") of Westminster in the late 1980s. The borders of Little Saigon can be considered to be Trask Avenue and W McFadden Avenue on the north and south and Euclid Street and Magnolia Street on the east and west, respectively. About three\-quarters of the population in this area are Vietnamese.{{cite news\|author\=Merrill Balassone \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/news/local/orange/la\-re\-guide23oct23,1,1114291\.story?page\=1\&cset\=true\&ctrack\=1 \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|date\=October 23, 2005 \|title\=The heart of Little Saigon beats strong \|access\-date\=January 13, 2007}}
[thumb\|Tết Festival in Little Saigon, [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California "Orange County, California")](/wiki/Image:Tet_Festival_Little_Saigon.jpg "Tet Festival Little Saigon.jpg")
Westminster is generally considered the main cultural center of the Vietnamese American community with several Vietnamese\-language television stations, radio stations, and newspapers originating from Little Saigon and adjacent areas. At least one radio station broadcast 24 hours a day in Vietnamese and 4 television substations broadcasting in Vietnamese 24 hours a day as of 2009, and several newspapers serve the Vietnamese\-American community. Little Saigon has also emerged as the prominent center of the Vietnamese [pop music](/wiki/Pop_music "Pop music") industry with several recording studios, and with a recording industry many times larger than in Vietnam itself.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2008\-may\-10\-et\-vietmusic10\-story.html\|author\=Quyen Do\|title\=A big Little Saigon Star\|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|date\=May 10, 2008\|access\-date\=July 28, 2008}} Vietnamese music recorded in Westminster are distributed and sold in Vietnamese communities throughout the United States and in [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), [France](/wiki/France "France"), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") as well as illegally in Vietnam.{{cite news
\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/news/local/orange/la\-tm\-nuvpop8feb19,1,5473095\.story
\|title\=Hanoi Heart Throbs
\|author\=Andrew Vontz
\|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]
\|date\=February 19, 2006
\|access\-date\=March 11, 2007}}
Garden Grove Park is the location of an annual [Vietnamese Lunar New Year](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt "Tết") festival held in late January \- early February known as [Tết](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt "Tết"). Small amusement park rides, dances, and contests are held in [Garden Grove Park](/wiki/Garden_Grove_Park "Garden Grove Park") which is across the street from [Bolsa Grande High School](/wiki/Bolsa_Grande_High_School "Bolsa Grande High School") grounds and is hosted by the Union of Vietnamese Student Association (UVSA). Since 2013, the annual festival has been relocated to the OC Fair Grounds in Costa Mesa.
The Vietnamese American population has now begun to diffuse from Little Saigon to traditionally working\-class [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") cities, such as Santa Ana, and southward to professional middle\-class predominantly white cities such as [Costa Mesa](/wiki/Costa_Mesa%2C_California "Costa Mesa, California"), [Huntington Beach](/wiki/Huntington_Beach%2C_California "Huntington Beach, California"), [Irvine](/wiki/Irvine%2C_California "Irvine, California"), and [Orange](/wiki/Orange%2C_California "Orange, California"). Over the years, the vibrant community of Little Saigon has experienced frequent openings and closures of small mom\-and\-pop Vietnamese businesses, resulting in sights of some abandoned strip plazas. The changing landscape of the Vietnamese American population would bring a more multicultural flavor to [Orange County](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California "Orange County, California"), but as with [Chinatowns](/wiki/Chinatown "Chinatown"), could potentially eliminate its identity as a "Little Saigon" as the population of foreign\-born Vietnamese old\-timers declines and more younger generations of Vietnamese American families attune to mainstream American culture (especially with a preference for fashionable malls over the Vietnamese ethnic malls in Little Saigon) and move on to affluent communities further away from the Little Saigon area.
#### San Diego
[thumb\|upright\|[Vietnamese Heritage flag](/wiki/Flag_of_South_Vietnam "Flag of South Vietnam") displayed along El Cajon Boulevard in San Diego (April 2010\), commemorating the fall of Saigon and the arrival of Vietnamese refugees to the US.](/wiki/File:Vietnamese-American_Heritage_flag.JPG "Vietnamese-American Heritage flag.JPG")
When the "first wave" of Vietnamese immigrants started to arrive in 1981, many settled in the communities adjacent to San Diego State University, such as City Heights and Talmadge, better known as East San Diego. As families and individuals became more affluent however, many relocated to other communities in the city: Linda Vista, Clairemont, Serra Mesa, etc. (Central San Diego) and what was then brand\-new tract communities such as Mira Mesa, [Rancho Penasquitos](/wiki/Rancho_Penasquitos%2C_San_Diego%2C_California "Rancho Penasquitos, San Diego, California"), Rancho Bernardo, etc.
With a population of about 50,000, the San Diego metropolitan area ranks as one of the largest Vietnamese communities in the United States. Because of the Vietnamese population's unique migration patterns in the city, it does not have a huge concentration of Vietnamese businesses in a particular area like other metropolitan areas (e.g., Westminster, San Jose, Houston, etc.) Still, there are three notable Vietnamese business districts in the San Diego region: Mira Mesa Boulevard (North San Diego), El Cajon Boulevard (East San Diego), and Convoy Street/Linda Vista Road (Central San Diego).
The area on El Cajon Boulevard in East San Diego will be getting official City of San Diego status as "Little Saigon San Diego", as referenced on the web page littlesaigonsandiego.org.
On June 4, 2013, City Council approved Little Saigon Cultural and Commercial District in City Heights, San Diego, which is a six\-block section of El Cajon Boulevard from Euclid to Highland avenues.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/politics/sdut\-little\-saigon\-district\-created\-city\-heights\-2013jun04\-story.html\|title\='Little Saigon' official in City Heights\|date\=June 4, 2013}} On February 1, 2019, Little Saigon signs were revealed to be installed on Interstate 15\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.kpbs.org/news/2018/aug/27/little\-saigon\-get\-cultural\-landmark\-sign\-i\-15\-free/\|title \= Little Saigon to Get Cultural Landmark Sign on I\-15 Freeway}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/Little\-Saigon\-Street\-Signs\-City\-Heights\-I\-15\-El\-Cajon\-Boulevard\-505093261\.html\|title\=Signs Point to Little Saigon District: Freeway Signs Recognize Vietnamese Cultural District}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.kpbs.org/news/2019/feb/01/vietnamese\-community\-gets\-little\-saigon\-sign\-inter/\|title \= Vietnamese Community in City Heights Gets Little Saigon Sign off Interstate 15}}
#### San Gabriel Valley
{{see also\|Chinese enclaves in the San Gabriel Valley}}
Due to the large influx and presence of relatively poor ethnic Chinese refugees from Vietnam in the 1980s (which also coincided with the arrival of immigrant elites from [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong")), the San Gabriel Valley region of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") has another important concentration of Vietnamese in Southern California. While not generally referred to as "Little Saigon", the stretch of Garvey Avenue in the working\-class [barrios](/wiki/Barrio "Barrio") of [Rosemead](/wiki/Rosemead%2C_California "Rosemead, California"), [South El Monte](/wiki/South_El_Monte%2C_California "South El Monte, California"), and [El Monte](/wiki/El_Monte%2C_California "El Monte, California") have a relatively heavy but scattered collection of businesses owned mainly by majority ethnic Chinese Vietnamese with a growing number of ethnic Vietnamese residents and business owners as well. Many of these businesses are housed in tiny strip malls while others occupy freestanding, aging buildings. These Vietnamese businesses are very gradually replacing businesses owned by Hispanics.
Rosemead is the Vietnamese center of the San Gabriel Valley. One particular shopping center in Rosemead, called Diamond Square, is anchored by the [Taiwanese American](/wiki/Taiwanese_American "Taiwanese American") chain 99 Ranch Market (now closed) and contains various Chinese Vietnamese small businesses and a food court catering to local Asians. The Diamond Square is now closed, replaced by The Square anchored by [Korean American](/wiki/Korean_American "Korean American") stores. The 99 Ranch Market is replaced by the Square Supermarket.
It remains a major hub for working\-class Vietnamese and [Mainland Chinese](/wiki/Mainland_Chinese "Mainland Chinese") expatriates residing in the area. Many Vietnamese of ethnic Chinese origin also tend to own various businesses \- especially supermarkets, restaurants, beauty parlors, and auto repair shops \- in the main general mixed\-Chinese commercial thoroughfares of Garvey Avenue in [Monterey Park, California](/wiki/Monterey_Park%2C_California "Monterey Park, California") and Valley Boulevard in [Alhambra, California](/wiki/Alhambra%2C_California "Alhambra, California"), [San Gabriel, California](/wiki/San_Gabriel%2C_California "San Gabriel, California"), and Rosemead. There are already several phở and bánh mì eateries represented along Valley Boulevard.
The [Sriracha](/wiki/Sriracha_sauce "Sriracha sauce") hot sauce manufacturer [Huy Fong Foods](/wiki/Huy_Fong_Foods "Huy Fong Foods") (known for its rooster logo and found in countless Vietnamese restaurants) is owned by a Chinese Vietnamese refugee named David Tran and was originally located in [Chinatown, Los Angeles](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Los_Angeles "Chinatown, Los Angeles") but it relocated to its larger facility in Rosemead.
In 2005, John Tran became the first Vietnamese American to be elected to a seat on the city council of Rosemead. Since 2006, he has been the mayor of the city, a position that is held by rotation among the council members.
#### San Jose
[thumb\|right\|Chùa Di Lặc Buddhist Temple in [Little Saigon, San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose "Little Saigon, San Jose").](/wiki/File:Buddhist_Cultural_Center_-_Maitreya_Pagoda%2C_765_Story_Road%2C_San_Jose%2C_California_%2843557496510%29.jpg "Buddhist Cultural Center - Maitreya Pagoda, 765 Story Road, San Jose, California (43557496510).jpg")
{{main\|Little Saigon, San Jose}}
Comprising over 180,000 residents, about 10\.6% of the population, (as of the 2010 U.S. Census) [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California")'s Vietnamese community is comparable to the one in Orange County. San Jose has more Vietnamese residents than any single city outside of Vietnam. Vietnamese\-language radio programs from Orange County are rebroadcast in the region, though San Jose does contain locally produced Vietnamese\-language radio and TV stations such as Que Huong Media, Vien Thao, and Vietoday TV. Although *[Viet Mercury](/wiki/Viet_Mercury "Viet Mercury")*, the Vietnamese\-language edition of the *[San Jose Mercury News](/wiki/San_Jose_Mercury_News "San Jose Mercury News")*, is now discontinued, many other publications offer Vietnamese literature enjoyed by the community, such as Thang Mo and Trieu Thanh magazines as well as newspapers from Calitoday, [Viet Bao](/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_B%C3%A1o_Daily_News "Việt Báo Daily News"), Thoi Bao Daily News (now defunct), and Viet Nam Nhat Bao (Vietnam Daily News). Several strip malls on Tully Road (stretching from Senter Road to Quimby Road) and Senter Road (from Capitol Expressway to Burke Street by [Costco](/wiki/Costco "Costco")), cater to Vietnamese tastes, such as Lion Plaza on the intersection of Tully and King (anchored by Lion Supermarket) and Carribbees Center on Senter and Lewis (anchored by Cho Senter Market, now Lee's Supermarket).
[thumb\|left\|[Little Saigon, San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose "Little Saigon, San Jose").](/wiki/File:Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jos%C3%A9%2C_California_1256_%28cropped%29.jpg "Little Saigon, San José, California 1256 (cropped).jpg")
The epicenter of the Vietnamese\-American community of San Jose, however, is on Story Road (stretching from Senter Road to McLaughlin Avenue), home to the popular Grand Century Mall and Vietnam Town (both shopping malls are owned by Chinese\-Vietnamese real estate developer Lap Tang) and is officially designated by the San Jose City Council as "Little Saigon". Like its counterpart in Orange County, a freeway offramp sign was placed in 2013 on Highway 101 and Freeway 280, designating the Story Road (from Highway 101\) and McLaughlin Avenue (from Freeway 280\) exits to Little Saigon. [Lee's Sandwiches](/wiki/Lee%27s_Sandwiches "Lee's Sandwiches"), (a Vietnamese [bánh mì](/wiki/B%C3%A1nh_m%C3%AC "Bánh mì") [sandwich](/wiki/Sandwich "Sandwich") chain eatery) as well as the [phở](/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%9F "Phở") chain, [Pho Hoa Restaurant](/wiki/Pho_Hoa "Pho Hoa"), had their first locations here in San Jose. Due to the ethnic diversity of the city, where Vietnamese\-Americans here live side by side with other ethnic minorities such as [Mexican\-Americans](/wiki/Mexican-Americans "Mexican-Americans"), [Filipino\-Americans](/wiki/Filipino-Americans "Filipino-Americans"), and [Indian\-Americans](/wiki/Indian-Americans "Indian-Americans"), the Vietnamese community in San Jose is more fully integrated into the local community.
The Vietnamese community of San Jose has been politically divided over the naming of the business district, with various groups favoring "Little Saigon", "New Saigon", and "Vietnamese Business District". Non\-Vietnamese businesses and residents, as well as the San Jose Hispanic Chamber of Commerce have also opposed the name "Little Saigon". In November 2007, the San Jose City Council voted 8–3 to choose the compromise name "Saigon Business District", resulting in ongoing protest, debate, and an effort to recall city council member [Madison Nguyen](/wiki/Madison_Nguyen "Madison Nguyen"), who proposed the name "Saigon Business District". On March 4, 2008, after a public meeting in which more than 1000 "Little Saigon" supporters participated, the city council voted 11–1 to rescind the name "Saigon Business District", but stopped short of renaming it. The recall of Nguyen failed in March 2009\.
San Jose also granted the building of the [Viet Museum](/wiki/Viet_Museum "Viet Museum") in Kelley Park next to the City Historic Museum.[Calitoday.com](http://calitoday.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=411a3441a656f7ec850352ec00b2ddeb) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928000217/http://calitoday.com/news/view\_article.html?article\_id\=411a3441a656f7ec850352ec00b2ddeb \|date\=September 28, 2007 }} The Viet Museum had its grand opening August 25, 2007\.
#### Sacramento
With a large and growing Vietnamese American population, in February 2010, a stretch of Stockton Boulevard in [Sacramento](/wiki/Sacramento%2C_California "Sacramento, California") from Florin Road to Fruitridge Road has been officially named "Little Saigon".[Stockton Boulevard Named 'Little Saigon'](http://www.kcra.com/news/22417299/detail.html){{dead link\|date\=December 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}[Supes OK 'Little Saigon' For Sacramento](http://www.kcra.com/news/22515893/detail.html){{dead link\|date\=December 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Although settlement of Vietnamese refugees began during the 1980s, large numbers of Vietnamese have moved from the [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California "San Jose, California") area to the Sacramento area since the late 1990s and 2000s (decade) (especially after the [dot\-com bust](/wiki/Dot-com_bubble "Dot-com bubble") in Silicon Valley). People were drawn to the area by lower housing prices, lower cost of living, and Vietnamese and Chinese enclaves. The large Asian supermarket [Shun Fat Supermarket](/wiki/Shun_Fat_Supermarket "Shun Fat Supermarket") (a small Southern California\-based chain owned by a Chinese Vietnamese American) opened in 2000 to cater to the local community and anchors Pacific Plaza. One of the First Vietnamese\-Chinese owned supermarkets was Vinh Phat Supermarket. [SF Supermarket](/wiki/SF_Supermarket "SF Supermarket") is a prominent fixture at the intersections of 65th and Stockton Boulevard. This center also houses Huong Lan, which is famous for Vietnamese [banh mi](/wiki/Banh_mi "Banh mi") sandwiches. In 2010, a new [99 Ranch Market](/wiki/99_Ranch_Market "99 Ranch Market") opened on Florin Road. The strip of Stockton Boulevard has a great number of Vietnamese and Chinese restaurants and many places for ethnic foods, such as *phở* and boba. There are nearby Vietnamese Chinese shopping centers planned for development, including Little Saigon Plaza (to be anchored by a supermarket) that is to be developed by prominent San Jose\-based Vietnamese American developers. Other current shopping centers sport names such as Little Vietnam and Pacific Rim Plaza.[Commercial Real Estate Forum – CRE News](http://www.creforum.net/modules/news/article.php?storyid=87) As a testament to the area's burgeoning Vietnamese community, the Southgate branch (66th Avenue, near Stockton Boulevard) of Sacramento Public library carries a large collection of Vietnamese materials.
#### San Francisco
In early 2004, [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California") officially designated Larkin Street between Eddy and O'Farrell streets as "Little Saigon" (*Sài Gòn Nhỏ*). Located in the [Tenderloin district](/wiki/Tenderloin%2C_San_Francisco "Tenderloin, San Francisco") where 2,000 of the city's 13,000 Vietnamese\-American residents live, the two\-block stretch is more than 80% Vietnamese\-owned. Unlike San Jose, with its larger ethnic Vietnamese population, the ethnic Chinese from Vietnam are well represented in San Francisco due to self\-segregation. Banners and directional signs have already been posted. A formal symbolic entrance was erected in July 2008, akin to those for San Francisco's Japantown and Chinatown (albeit smaller).{{cite news
\|url\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\-bin/article.cgi?f\=/c/a/2004/02/16/BAG2751OP81\.DTL
\|title\=S.F.'s Little Saigon: Stretch of Larkin Street named for Vietnamese Americans
\|author\=Cicero A. Estrella
\|publisher\=San Francisco Chronicle
\|date\=February 16, 2004
\|access\-date\=June 23, 2007}}
#### Oakland
The region stretching from 1st Avenue to 23rd Avenue in [Oakland, California](/wiki/Oakland%2C_California "Oakland, California")'s [San Antonio district](/wiki/San_Antonio%2C_Oakland%2C_California "San Antonio, Oakland, California") Eastlake neighborhoodis known as Little Saigon of Oakland. The local Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce{{cite web \|title\=Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce \|url\=https://www.oaklandvnchamber.com/ \|access\-date\=27 July 2022}} estimates that there are approximately 8,000 people of Vietnamese origin or descent living in Oakland, largely concentrated in Eastlake.{{cite news \|last1\=Rusch \|first1\=Katey \|title\=Vietnamese refugees dream of a "Little Saigon" in East Oakland \|url\=https://oaklandnorth.net/2019/04/12/the\-vietnamese\-community\-in\-east\-oakland\-dreams\-of\-a\-little\-saigon/ \|access\-date\=27 July 2022 \|work\=\[\[Oakland North]] \|publisher\=\[\[UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism]] \|date\=April 12, 2019}} Vietnamese businesses are concentrated along International Boulevard and East 12th Street in the district, and include Oakland's Sun Hop Fat market, a fruit and grocery store that was one of the first. Currently there are dozens of Vietnamese\-owned businesses in the area that serve the Vietnamese immigrant community, including restaurants, [print shops](/wiki/Print_shops "Print shops"), jewelry stores, and a [karaoke machine](/wiki/Karaoke_machine "Karaoke machine") store. Shop signs are typically bilingually English and Vietnamese. Yellow Vietnamese Freedom flags and the signs of *Welcome to Little Saigon Oakland* are visible everywhere, as are yellow and red Vietnamese [silk flowers](/wiki/Silk_flower "Silk flower") in the shape of [cherry blossoms](/wiki/Cherry_blossoms "Cherry blossoms") called *Mai*.
[thumb\|South Vietnamese yellow flags are visible everywhere in Oakland's Little Saigon.](/wiki/File:Vietnamese_Yellow_Flag_are_visible_everywhere_in_Oakland_Little_Saigon.jpg "Vietnamese Yellow Flag are visible everywhere in Oakland Little Saigon.jpg")
In 2019, local business owners lobbied for the formal city recognition of the area as “Little Saigon” and began working on a proposal for the creation of a [Business Improvement District](/wiki/Business_Improvement_District "Business Improvement District") (BID)—a region in which local businesses and sometimes additional property owners pay a tax surcharge or mandatory fee to fund neighborhood events, clean\-up efforts, local beautification efforts, and marketing campaigns to promote the district as such rather than individual businesses within it. The 2019\-2021 city council budget allocated $125,000 for BID feasibility studies in both Eastlake and [Oakland's Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Oakland "Chinatown, Oakland").{{cite news \|last1\=Lyndon \|first1\=Isabel \|title\=Vietnamese Mid\-Autumn Festival breathes life into Eastlake park \|url\=https://oaklandnorth.net/2019/09/18/vietnamese\-mid\-autumn\-festival\-breathes\-life\-into\-eastlake\-park/ \|work\=\[\[Oakland North]] \|publisher\=\[\[UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism]] \|access\-date\=27 July 2022 \|date\=September 18, 2019}}
The Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce organizes the annual [Vietnamese Mid\-Autumn Festival](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt_Trung_Thu "Tết Trung Thu"),{{cite web \|title\=About Us \|url\=https://www.oaklandvnchamber.com/about\-ovcc \|publisher\=Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce \|access\-date\=27 July 2022}} in Clinton Square Park{{cite web \|title\=Clinton Square Park \|url\=https://oaklandwiki.org/Clinton\_Square\_Park \|website\=\[\[Oakland Wiki]] \|publisher\=\[\[LocalWiki]] \|access\-date\=27 July 2022}} at the intersection of East 12th Street and 7th Avenue. The Oakland Vietnamese Mid\-Autumn Festival occurs alongside many [Mid\-Autumn Festivals](/wiki/Mid-Autumn_Festival "Mid-Autumn Festival") ("Asian New Year") celebrations for different East Asian communities across the [San Francisco Bay Area](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area "San Francisco Bay Area").
In the summer of 2021, the Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce, along with [Good Good Eatz](/wiki/Good_Good_Eatz "Good Good Eatz") (a program funded by the East Bay Asian Local Development Corporation to promote ethnic food districts{{cite web \|title\=GOOD GOOD EATZ \|url\=https://www.goodgoodeatz.com/ \|publisher\=East Bay Asian Local Development Corporation \|access\-date\=27 July 2022}}) and [Pokémon Go](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Go "Pokémon Go") developer [Niantic](/wiki/Niantic%2C_Inc. "Niantic, Inc.") organized a "Summer Fest" centered on Pokémon Go events and local food, along with [retro video games](/wiki/Retrogaming "Retrogaming") made available by the [Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment](/wiki/Museum_of_Art_and_Digital_Entertainment "Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment") and [COVID\-19 testing](/wiki/COVID-19_testing "COVID-19 testing") and [vaccinations](/wiki/COVID-19_vaccines "COVID-19 vaccines").{{cite news \|last1\=Thapliyal \|first1\=Adesh \|title\=Back With Good Food and Pokémon Go \|url\=https://www.kqed.org/arts/13900641/pokemon\-go\-little\-saigon\-oakland\-vietnamese\-food \|access\-date\=27 July 2022 \|work\=\[\[KQED\-FM\|KQED]] \|date\=August 5, 2021}}
#### Elsewhere
Large concentrations of Vietnamese live in Central districts of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles%2C_California "Los Angeles, California"), although are outnumbered by other Asians and even more numerous Latinos. {{citation needed\|date\=April 2019}} Unofficially, [Riverside County](/wiki/Riverside_County%2C_California "Riverside County, California"), [Fresno](/wiki/Fresno%2C_California "Fresno, California") and [Oxnard](/wiki/Oxnard%2C_California "Oxnard, California") has some Vietnamese. {{citation needed\|date\=April 2019}}
|
[
"### California",
"An [intercity bus service](/wiki/Intercity_bus_service \"Intercity bus service\") named [Xe Đò Hoàng](/wiki/Xe_%C4%90%C3%B2_Ho%C3%A0ng \"Xe Đò Hoàng\") connects the [Little Saigon in Orange county](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_Orange_County \"Little Saigon, Orange County\") to [the one in San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose \"Little Saigon, San Jose\") and various other cities in California and Arizona with high concentration of Vietnamese Americans.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=77RVEAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA107\\|title\\=A People's Guide to Orange County\\|last\\=Lewinnek\\|first\\=Elaine\\|last2\\=Arellano\\|first2\\=Gustavo\\|last3\\=Vo Dang\\|first3\\=Thuy\\|publisher\\=University of California Press\\|year\\=2022\\|pages\\=106–107}}",
"#### Orange County",
"{{main\\|Little Saigon, Orange County}}\n[thumb\\|Phước Lộc Thọ, known in English as [Asian Garden Mall](/wiki/Asian_Garden_Mall \"Asian Garden Mall\"), the first Vietnamese\\-American business center in Little Saigon, Orange County](/wiki/Image:Phuoc_Loc_Tho.jpg \"Phuoc Loc Tho.jpg\")\nThe oldest, largest, and most prominent Little Saigon is centered in [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California \"Orange County, California\"), where over 189,000 [Vietnamese Americans](/wiki/Vietnamese_American \"Vietnamese American\") reside. With other [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") counties, this region constitutes the largest Vietnamese American (VA) population outside of Vietnam. The community originally started emerging in [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster%2C_California \"Westminster, California\"), and quickly spread to the adjacent city of [Garden Grove](/wiki/Garden_Grove%2C_California \"Garden Grove, California\"). Today, these two cities rank as the highest concentration of Vietnamese\\-Americans of any cities in the United States at 37\\.1% and 31\\.1%, respectively (according to the 2011 American Community Survey).",
"About {{convert\\|45\\|mi}} south of Los Angeles, [Westminster](/wiki/Westminster%2C_California \"Westminster, California\") was once a predominantly [white](/wiki/White_people \"White people\") [middle\\-class](/wiki/Middle-class \"Middle-class\") suburban city of Orange County with ample farmland, but the city later experienced a decline by the 1970s. Since 1978, the nucleus of Little Saigon has long been Bolsa Avenue, where early pioneers [Danh Quach](/wiki/Danh_Quach \"Danh Quach\") and [Frank Jao](/wiki/Frank_Jao \"Frank Jao\") established businesses. During that year, the well\\-known *[Nguoi Viet Daily News](/wiki/Nguoi_Viet_Daily_News \"Nguoi Viet Daily News\")* also began publishing from a home in Garden Grove. Other new Vietnamese\\-American arrivals soon revitalized the area by opening their own businesses in old, formerly white\\-owned storefronts, and investors constructed large shopping centers containing a mix of businesses. The Vietnamese community and businesses later spread into adjacent Garden Grove, [Midway City](/wiki/Midway_City \"Midway City\"), [Fountain Valley](/wiki/Fountain_Valley%2C_California \"Fountain Valley, California\"), [Stanton](/wiki/Stanton%2C_California \"Stanton, California\"), [Anaheim](/wiki/Anaheim%2C_California \"Anaheim, California\"), and [Santa Ana](/wiki/Santa_Ana%2C_California \"Santa Ana, California\").",
"In Orange County, Little Saigon is now a wide, spread\\-out community dotted with myriad suburban\\-style strip malls containing a mixture of Vietnamese and Chinese\\-Vietnamese businesses. It is located southwest of [Disneyland](/wiki/Disneyland \"Disneyland\") between the State Route 22 and [Interstate 405](/wiki/Interstate_405_%28California%29 \"Interstate 405 (California)\"). However, the main focus of Little Saigon is Bolsa Avenue (where [Asian Garden Mall](/wiki/Asian_Garden_Mall \"Asian Garden Mall\") and Little Saigon Plaza are considered the heart), which runs through Westminster; the street was officially designated Little Saigon by the [city council](/wiki/City_council \"City council\") of Westminster in the late 1980s. The borders of Little Saigon can be considered to be Trask Avenue and W McFadden Avenue on the north and south and Euclid Street and Magnolia Street on the east and west, respectively. About three\\-quarters of the population in this area are Vietnamese.{{cite news\\|author\\=Merrill Balassone \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/news/local/orange/la\\-re\\-guide23oct23,1,1114291\\.story?page\\=1\\&cset\\=true\\&ctrack\\=1 \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|date\\=October 23, 2005 \\|title\\=The heart of Little Saigon beats strong \\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2007}}",
"[thumb\\|Tết Festival in Little Saigon, [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California \"Orange County, California\")](/wiki/Image:Tet_Festival_Little_Saigon.jpg \"Tet Festival Little Saigon.jpg\")\nWestminster is generally considered the main cultural center of the Vietnamese American community with several Vietnamese\\-language television stations, radio stations, and newspapers originating from Little Saigon and adjacent areas. At least one radio station broadcast 24 hours a day in Vietnamese and 4 television substations broadcasting in Vietnamese 24 hours a day as of 2009, and several newspapers serve the Vietnamese\\-American community. Little Saigon has also emerged as the prominent center of the Vietnamese [pop music](/wiki/Pop_music \"Pop music\") industry with several recording studios, and with a recording industry many times larger than in Vietnam itself.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2008\\-may\\-10\\-et\\-vietmusic10\\-story.html\\|author\\=Quyen Do\\|title\\=A big Little Saigon Star\\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|date\\=May 10, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=July 28, 2008}} Vietnamese music recorded in Westminster are distributed and sold in Vietnamese communities throughout the United States and in [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), and [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") as well as illegally in Vietnam.{{cite news\n\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/news/local/orange/la\\-tm\\-nuvpop8feb19,1,5473095\\.story\n\\|title\\=Hanoi Heart Throbs\n\\|author\\=Andrew Vontz\n\\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\n\\|date\\=February 19, 2006\n\\|access\\-date\\=March 11, 2007}}",
"Garden Grove Park is the location of an annual [Vietnamese Lunar New Year](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt \"Tết\") festival held in late January \\- early February known as [Tết](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt \"Tết\"). Small amusement park rides, dances, and contests are held in [Garden Grove Park](/wiki/Garden_Grove_Park \"Garden Grove Park\") which is across the street from [Bolsa Grande High School](/wiki/Bolsa_Grande_High_School \"Bolsa Grande High School\") grounds and is hosted by the Union of Vietnamese Student Association (UVSA). Since 2013, the annual festival has been relocated to the OC Fair Grounds in Costa Mesa.",
"The Vietnamese American population has now begun to diffuse from Little Saigon to traditionally working\\-class [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") cities, such as Santa Ana, and southward to professional middle\\-class predominantly white cities such as [Costa Mesa](/wiki/Costa_Mesa%2C_California \"Costa Mesa, California\"), [Huntington Beach](/wiki/Huntington_Beach%2C_California \"Huntington Beach, California\"), [Irvine](/wiki/Irvine%2C_California \"Irvine, California\"), and [Orange](/wiki/Orange%2C_California \"Orange, California\"). Over the years, the vibrant community of Little Saigon has experienced frequent openings and closures of small mom\\-and\\-pop Vietnamese businesses, resulting in sights of some abandoned strip plazas. The changing landscape of the Vietnamese American population would bring a more multicultural flavor to [Orange County](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California \"Orange County, California\"), but as with [Chinatowns](/wiki/Chinatown \"Chinatown\"), could potentially eliminate its identity as a \"Little Saigon\" as the population of foreign\\-born Vietnamese old\\-timers declines and more younger generations of Vietnamese American families attune to mainstream American culture (especially with a preference for fashionable malls over the Vietnamese ethnic malls in Little Saigon) and move on to affluent communities further away from the Little Saigon area.",
"#### San Diego",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Vietnamese Heritage flag](/wiki/Flag_of_South_Vietnam \"Flag of South Vietnam\") displayed along El Cajon Boulevard in San Diego (April 2010\\), commemorating the fall of Saigon and the arrival of Vietnamese refugees to the US.](/wiki/File:Vietnamese-American_Heritage_flag.JPG \"Vietnamese-American Heritage flag.JPG\")\nWhen the \"first wave\" of Vietnamese immigrants started to arrive in 1981, many settled in the communities adjacent to San Diego State University, such as City Heights and Talmadge, better known as East San Diego. As families and individuals became more affluent however, many relocated to other communities in the city: Linda Vista, Clairemont, Serra Mesa, etc. (Central San Diego) and what was then brand\\-new tract communities such as Mira Mesa, [Rancho Penasquitos](/wiki/Rancho_Penasquitos%2C_San_Diego%2C_California \"Rancho Penasquitos, San Diego, California\"), Rancho Bernardo, etc.",
"With a population of about 50,000, the San Diego metropolitan area ranks as one of the largest Vietnamese communities in the United States. Because of the Vietnamese population's unique migration patterns in the city, it does not have a huge concentration of Vietnamese businesses in a particular area like other metropolitan areas (e.g., Westminster, San Jose, Houston, etc.) Still, there are three notable Vietnamese business districts in the San Diego region: Mira Mesa Boulevard (North San Diego), El Cajon Boulevard (East San Diego), and Convoy Street/Linda Vista Road (Central San Diego).",
"The area on El Cajon Boulevard in East San Diego will be getting official City of San Diego status as \"Little Saigon San Diego\", as referenced on the web page littlesaigonsandiego.org.",
"On June 4, 2013, City Council approved Little Saigon Cultural and Commercial District in City Heights, San Diego, which is a six\\-block section of El Cajon Boulevard from Euclid to Highland avenues.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/politics/sdut\\-little\\-saigon\\-district\\-created\\-city\\-heights\\-2013jun04\\-story.html\\|title\\='Little Saigon' official in City Heights\\|date\\=June 4, 2013}} On February 1, 2019, Little Saigon signs were revealed to be installed on Interstate 15\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.kpbs.org/news/2018/aug/27/little\\-saigon\\-get\\-cultural\\-landmark\\-sign\\-i\\-15\\-free/\\|title \\= Little Saigon to Get Cultural Landmark Sign on I\\-15 Freeway}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/Little\\-Saigon\\-Street\\-Signs\\-City\\-Heights\\-I\\-15\\-El\\-Cajon\\-Boulevard\\-505093261\\.html\\|title\\=Signs Point to Little Saigon District: Freeway Signs Recognize Vietnamese Cultural District}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.kpbs.org/news/2019/feb/01/vietnamese\\-community\\-gets\\-little\\-saigon\\-sign\\-inter/\\|title \\= Vietnamese Community in City Heights Gets Little Saigon Sign off Interstate 15}}",
"#### San Gabriel Valley",
"{{see also\\|Chinese enclaves in the San Gabriel Valley}}\nDue to the large influx and presence of relatively poor ethnic Chinese refugees from Vietnam in the 1980s (which also coincided with the arrival of immigrant elites from [Taiwan](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") and [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\")), the San Gabriel Valley region of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") has another important concentration of Vietnamese in Southern California. While not generally referred to as \"Little Saigon\", the stretch of Garvey Avenue in the working\\-class [barrios](/wiki/Barrio \"Barrio\") of [Rosemead](/wiki/Rosemead%2C_California \"Rosemead, California\"), [South El Monte](/wiki/South_El_Monte%2C_California \"South El Monte, California\"), and [El Monte](/wiki/El_Monte%2C_California \"El Monte, California\") have a relatively heavy but scattered collection of businesses owned mainly by majority ethnic Chinese Vietnamese with a growing number of ethnic Vietnamese residents and business owners as well. Many of these businesses are housed in tiny strip malls while others occupy freestanding, aging buildings. These Vietnamese businesses are very gradually replacing businesses owned by Hispanics.",
"Rosemead is the Vietnamese center of the San Gabriel Valley. One particular shopping center in Rosemead, called Diamond Square, is anchored by the [Taiwanese American](/wiki/Taiwanese_American \"Taiwanese American\") chain 99 Ranch Market (now closed) and contains various Chinese Vietnamese small businesses and a food court catering to local Asians. The Diamond Square is now closed, replaced by The Square anchored by [Korean American](/wiki/Korean_American \"Korean American\") stores. The 99 Ranch Market is replaced by the Square Supermarket.",
"It remains a major hub for working\\-class Vietnamese and [Mainland Chinese](/wiki/Mainland_Chinese \"Mainland Chinese\") expatriates residing in the area. Many Vietnamese of ethnic Chinese origin also tend to own various businesses \\- especially supermarkets, restaurants, beauty parlors, and auto repair shops \\- in the main general mixed\\-Chinese commercial thoroughfares of Garvey Avenue in [Monterey Park, California](/wiki/Monterey_Park%2C_California \"Monterey Park, California\") and Valley Boulevard in [Alhambra, California](/wiki/Alhambra%2C_California \"Alhambra, California\"), [San Gabriel, California](/wiki/San_Gabriel%2C_California \"San Gabriel, California\"), and Rosemead. There are already several phở and bánh mì eateries represented along Valley Boulevard.",
"The [Sriracha](/wiki/Sriracha_sauce \"Sriracha sauce\") hot sauce manufacturer [Huy Fong Foods](/wiki/Huy_Fong_Foods \"Huy Fong Foods\") (known for its rooster logo and found in countless Vietnamese restaurants) is owned by a Chinese Vietnamese refugee named David Tran and was originally located in [Chinatown, Los Angeles](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Los_Angeles \"Chinatown, Los Angeles\") but it relocated to its larger facility in Rosemead.",
"In 2005, John Tran became the first Vietnamese American to be elected to a seat on the city council of Rosemead. Since 2006, he has been the mayor of the city, a position that is held by rotation among the council members.",
"#### San Jose",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Chùa Di Lặc Buddhist Temple in [Little Saigon, San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose \"Little Saigon, San Jose\").](/wiki/File:Buddhist_Cultural_Center_-_Maitreya_Pagoda%2C_765_Story_Road%2C_San_Jose%2C_California_%2843557496510%29.jpg \"Buddhist Cultural Center - Maitreya Pagoda, 765 Story Road, San Jose, California (43557496510).jpg\")\n{{main\\|Little Saigon, San Jose}}\nComprising over 180,000 residents, about 10\\.6% of the population, (as of the 2010 U.S. Census) [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\")'s Vietnamese community is comparable to the one in Orange County. San Jose has more Vietnamese residents than any single city outside of Vietnam. Vietnamese\\-language radio programs from Orange County are rebroadcast in the region, though San Jose does contain locally produced Vietnamese\\-language radio and TV stations such as Que Huong Media, Vien Thao, and Vietoday TV. Although *[Viet Mercury](/wiki/Viet_Mercury \"Viet Mercury\")*, the Vietnamese\\-language edition of the *[San Jose Mercury News](/wiki/San_Jose_Mercury_News \"San Jose Mercury News\")*, is now discontinued, many other publications offer Vietnamese literature enjoyed by the community, such as Thang Mo and Trieu Thanh magazines as well as newspapers from Calitoday, [Viet Bao](/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_B%C3%A1o_Daily_News \"Việt Báo Daily News\"), Thoi Bao Daily News (now defunct), and Viet Nam Nhat Bao (Vietnam Daily News). Several strip malls on Tully Road (stretching from Senter Road to Quimby Road) and Senter Road (from Capitol Expressway to Burke Street by [Costco](/wiki/Costco \"Costco\")), cater to Vietnamese tastes, such as Lion Plaza on the intersection of Tully and King (anchored by Lion Supermarket) and Carribbees Center on Senter and Lewis (anchored by Cho Senter Market, now Lee's Supermarket). \n[thumb\\|left\\|[Little Saigon, San Jose](/wiki/Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jose \"Little Saigon, San Jose\").](/wiki/File:Little_Saigon%2C_San_Jos%C3%A9%2C_California_1256_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Little Saigon, San José, California 1256 (cropped).jpg\")\nThe epicenter of the Vietnamese\\-American community of San Jose, however, is on Story Road (stretching from Senter Road to McLaughlin Avenue), home to the popular Grand Century Mall and Vietnam Town (both shopping malls are owned by Chinese\\-Vietnamese real estate developer Lap Tang) and is officially designated by the San Jose City Council as \"Little Saigon\". Like its counterpart in Orange County, a freeway offramp sign was placed in 2013 on Highway 101 and Freeway 280, designating the Story Road (from Highway 101\\) and McLaughlin Avenue (from Freeway 280\\) exits to Little Saigon. [Lee's Sandwiches](/wiki/Lee%27s_Sandwiches \"Lee's Sandwiches\"), (a Vietnamese [bánh mì](/wiki/B%C3%A1nh_m%C3%AC \"Bánh mì\") [sandwich](/wiki/Sandwich \"Sandwich\") chain eatery) as well as the [phở](/wiki/Ph%E1%BB%9F \"Phở\") chain, [Pho Hoa Restaurant](/wiki/Pho_Hoa \"Pho Hoa\"), had their first locations here in San Jose. Due to the ethnic diversity of the city, where Vietnamese\\-Americans here live side by side with other ethnic minorities such as [Mexican\\-Americans](/wiki/Mexican-Americans \"Mexican-Americans\"), [Filipino\\-Americans](/wiki/Filipino-Americans \"Filipino-Americans\"), and [Indian\\-Americans](/wiki/Indian-Americans \"Indian-Americans\"), the Vietnamese community in San Jose is more fully integrated into the local community.",
"The Vietnamese community of San Jose has been politically divided over the naming of the business district, with various groups favoring \"Little Saigon\", \"New Saigon\", and \"Vietnamese Business District\". Non\\-Vietnamese businesses and residents, as well as the San Jose Hispanic Chamber of Commerce have also opposed the name \"Little Saigon\". In November 2007, the San Jose City Council voted 8–3 to choose the compromise name \"Saigon Business District\", resulting in ongoing protest, debate, and an effort to recall city council member [Madison Nguyen](/wiki/Madison_Nguyen \"Madison Nguyen\"), who proposed the name \"Saigon Business District\". On March 4, 2008, after a public meeting in which more than 1000 \"Little Saigon\" supporters participated, the city council voted 11–1 to rescind the name \"Saigon Business District\", but stopped short of renaming it. The recall of Nguyen failed in March 2009\\.",
"San Jose also granted the building of the [Viet Museum](/wiki/Viet_Museum \"Viet Museum\") in Kelley Park next to the City Historic Museum.[Calitoday.com](http://calitoday.com/news/view_article.html?article_id=411a3441a656f7ec850352ec00b2ddeb) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928000217/http://calitoday.com/news/view\\_article.html?article\\_id\\=411a3441a656f7ec850352ec00b2ddeb \\|date\\=September 28, 2007 }} The Viet Museum had its grand opening August 25, 2007\\.",
"#### Sacramento",
"With a large and growing Vietnamese American population, in February 2010, a stretch of Stockton Boulevard in [Sacramento](/wiki/Sacramento%2C_California \"Sacramento, California\") from Florin Road to Fruitridge Road has been officially named \"Little Saigon\".[Stockton Boulevard Named 'Little Saigon'](http://www.kcra.com/news/22417299/detail.html){{dead link\\|date\\=December 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}[Supes OK 'Little Saigon' For Sacramento](http://www.kcra.com/news/22515893/detail.html){{dead link\\|date\\=December 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Although settlement of Vietnamese refugees began during the 1980s, large numbers of Vietnamese have moved from the [San Jose](/wiki/San_Jose%2C_California \"San Jose, California\") area to the Sacramento area since the late 1990s and 2000s (decade) (especially after the [dot\\-com bust](/wiki/Dot-com_bubble \"Dot-com bubble\") in Silicon Valley). People were drawn to the area by lower housing prices, lower cost of living, and Vietnamese and Chinese enclaves. The large Asian supermarket [Shun Fat Supermarket](/wiki/Shun_Fat_Supermarket \"Shun Fat Supermarket\") (a small Southern California\\-based chain owned by a Chinese Vietnamese American) opened in 2000 to cater to the local community and anchors Pacific Plaza. One of the First Vietnamese\\-Chinese owned supermarkets was Vinh Phat Supermarket. [SF Supermarket](/wiki/SF_Supermarket \"SF Supermarket\") is a prominent fixture at the intersections of 65th and Stockton Boulevard. This center also houses Huong Lan, which is famous for Vietnamese [banh mi](/wiki/Banh_mi \"Banh mi\") sandwiches. In 2010, a new [99 Ranch Market](/wiki/99_Ranch_Market \"99 Ranch Market\") opened on Florin Road. The strip of Stockton Boulevard has a great number of Vietnamese and Chinese restaurants and many places for ethnic foods, such as *phở* and boba. There are nearby Vietnamese Chinese shopping centers planned for development, including Little Saigon Plaza (to be anchored by a supermarket) that is to be developed by prominent San Jose\\-based Vietnamese American developers. Other current shopping centers sport names such as Little Vietnam and Pacific Rim Plaza.[Commercial Real Estate Forum – CRE News](http://www.creforum.net/modules/news/article.php?storyid=87) As a testament to the area's burgeoning Vietnamese community, the Southgate branch (66th Avenue, near Stockton Boulevard) of Sacramento Public library carries a large collection of Vietnamese materials.",
"#### San Francisco",
"In early 2004, [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\") officially designated Larkin Street between Eddy and O'Farrell streets as \"Little Saigon\" (*Sài Gòn Nhỏ*). Located in the [Tenderloin district](/wiki/Tenderloin%2C_San_Francisco \"Tenderloin, San Francisco\") where 2,000 of the city's 13,000 Vietnamese\\-American residents live, the two\\-block stretch is more than 80% Vietnamese\\-owned. Unlike San Jose, with its larger ethnic Vietnamese population, the ethnic Chinese from Vietnam are well represented in San Francisco due to self\\-segregation. Banners and directional signs have already been posted. A formal symbolic entrance was erected in July 2008, akin to those for San Francisco's Japantown and Chinatown (albeit smaller).{{cite news\n\\|url\\=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi\\-bin/article.cgi?f\\=/c/a/2004/02/16/BAG2751OP81\\.DTL\n\\|title\\=S.F.'s Little Saigon: Stretch of Larkin Street named for Vietnamese Americans\n\\|author\\=Cicero A. Estrella\n\\|publisher\\=San Francisco Chronicle\n\\|date\\=February 16, 2004\n\\|access\\-date\\=June 23, 2007}}",
"#### Oakland",
"The region stretching from 1st Avenue to 23rd Avenue in [Oakland, California](/wiki/Oakland%2C_California \"Oakland, California\")'s [San Antonio district](/wiki/San_Antonio%2C_Oakland%2C_California \"San Antonio, Oakland, California\") Eastlake neighborhoodis known as Little Saigon of Oakland. The local Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce{{cite web \\|title\\=Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce \\|url\\=https://www.oaklandvnchamber.com/ \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022}} estimates that there are approximately 8,000 people of Vietnamese origin or descent living in Oakland, largely concentrated in Eastlake.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Rusch \\|first1\\=Katey \\|title\\=Vietnamese refugees dream of a \"Little Saigon\" in East Oakland \\|url\\=https://oaklandnorth.net/2019/04/12/the\\-vietnamese\\-community\\-in\\-east\\-oakland\\-dreams\\-of\\-a\\-little\\-saigon/ \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Oakland North]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism]] \\|date\\=April 12, 2019}} Vietnamese businesses are concentrated along International Boulevard and East 12th Street in the district, and include Oakland's Sun Hop Fat market, a fruit and grocery store that was one of the first. Currently there are dozens of Vietnamese\\-owned businesses in the area that serve the Vietnamese immigrant community, including restaurants, [print shops](/wiki/Print_shops \"Print shops\"), jewelry stores, and a [karaoke machine](/wiki/Karaoke_machine \"Karaoke machine\") store. Shop signs are typically bilingually English and Vietnamese. Yellow Vietnamese Freedom flags and the signs of *Welcome to Little Saigon Oakland* are visible everywhere, as are yellow and red Vietnamese [silk flowers](/wiki/Silk_flower \"Silk flower\") in the shape of [cherry blossoms](/wiki/Cherry_blossoms \"Cherry blossoms\") called *Mai*.",
"[thumb\\|South Vietnamese yellow flags are visible everywhere in Oakland's Little Saigon.](/wiki/File:Vietnamese_Yellow_Flag_are_visible_everywhere_in_Oakland_Little_Saigon.jpg \"Vietnamese Yellow Flag are visible everywhere in Oakland Little Saigon.jpg\")",
"In 2019, local business owners lobbied for the formal city recognition of the area as “Little Saigon” and began working on a proposal for the creation of a [Business Improvement District](/wiki/Business_Improvement_District \"Business Improvement District\") (BID)—a region in which local businesses and sometimes additional property owners pay a tax surcharge or mandatory fee to fund neighborhood events, clean\\-up efforts, local beautification efforts, and marketing campaigns to promote the district as such rather than individual businesses within it. The 2019\\-2021 city council budget allocated $125,000 for BID feasibility studies in both Eastlake and [Oakland's Chinatown](/wiki/Chinatown%2C_Oakland \"Chinatown, Oakland\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Lyndon \\|first1\\=Isabel \\|title\\=Vietnamese Mid\\-Autumn Festival breathes life into Eastlake park \\|url\\=https://oaklandnorth.net/2019/09/18/vietnamese\\-mid\\-autumn\\-festival\\-breathes\\-life\\-into\\-eastlake\\-park/ \\|work\\=\\[\\[Oakland North]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022 \\|date\\=September 18, 2019}}",
"The Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce organizes the annual [Vietnamese Mid\\-Autumn Festival](/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt_Trung_Thu \"Tết Trung Thu\"),{{cite web \\|title\\=About Us \\|url\\=https://www.oaklandvnchamber.com/about\\-ovcc \\|publisher\\=Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022}} in Clinton Square Park{{cite web \\|title\\=Clinton Square Park \\|url\\=https://oaklandwiki.org/Clinton\\_Square\\_Park \\|website\\=\\[\\[Oakland Wiki]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[LocalWiki]] \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022}} at the intersection of East 12th Street and 7th Avenue. The Oakland Vietnamese Mid\\-Autumn Festival occurs alongside many [Mid\\-Autumn Festivals](/wiki/Mid-Autumn_Festival \"Mid-Autumn Festival\") (\"Asian New Year\") celebrations for different East Asian communities across the [San Francisco Bay Area](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area \"San Francisco Bay Area\").",
"In the summer of 2021, the Oakland Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce, along with [Good Good Eatz](/wiki/Good_Good_Eatz \"Good Good Eatz\") (a program funded by the East Bay Asian Local Development Corporation to promote ethnic food districts{{cite web \\|title\\=GOOD GOOD EATZ \\|url\\=https://www.goodgoodeatz.com/ \\|publisher\\=East Bay Asian Local Development Corporation \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022}}) and [Pokémon Go](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Go \"Pokémon Go\") developer [Niantic](/wiki/Niantic%2C_Inc. \"Niantic, Inc.\") organized a \"Summer Fest\" centered on Pokémon Go events and local food, along with [retro video games](/wiki/Retrogaming \"Retrogaming\") made available by the [Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment](/wiki/Museum_of_Art_and_Digital_Entertainment \"Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment\") and [COVID\\-19 testing](/wiki/COVID-19_testing \"COVID-19 testing\") and [vaccinations](/wiki/COVID-19_vaccines \"COVID-19 vaccines\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Thapliyal \\|first1\\=Adesh \\|title\\=Back With Good Food and Pokémon Go \\|url\\=https://www.kqed.org/arts/13900641/pokemon\\-go\\-little\\-saigon\\-oakland\\-vietnamese\\-food \\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[KQED\\-FM\\|KQED]] \\|date\\=August 5, 2021}}",
"#### Elsewhere",
"Large concentrations of Vietnamese live in Central districts of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles%2C_California \"Los Angeles, California\"), although are outnumbered by other Asians and even more numerous Latinos. {{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2019}} Unofficially, [Riverside County](/wiki/Riverside_County%2C_California \"Riverside County, California\"), [Fresno](/wiki/Fresno%2C_California \"Fresno, California\") and [Oxnard](/wiki/Oxnard%2C_California \"Oxnard, California\") has some Vietnamese. {{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2019}}",
""
] |
Locations in Europe and Australia
---------------------------------
[thumb\|Entrance gate to [Sapa, Prague](/wiki/Sapa_%28Prague%27s_Little_Hanoi%29 "Sapa (Prague's Little Hanoi)")](/wiki/File:TTTM_Sapa_20230106_101419.jpg "TTTM Sapa 20230106 101419.jpg")
### Czech Republic
{{main\|Sapa (Prague's Little Hanoi)}}
"Sapa", fully "TTTM Sapa", sometimes simply called "Prague's Hanoi," is a Vietnamese ethnic enclave, trading center, and market in [Prague's](/wiki/Prague "Prague") [Libuš](/wiki/Libu%C5%A1 "Libuš") and [Kunratice](/wiki/Kunratice_%28Prague%29 "Kunratice (Prague)") districts.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.prague.tips/sapa\-little\-hanoi\-prague/\|title\=Sapa: Little Hanoi in Prague\|date\=2014\-07\-09\|website\=prague.tips\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-31}}
### France
In southern [France](/wiki/France "France"), a "Little Vietnam" in [Sainte\-Livrade\-sur\-Lot](/wiki/Sainte-Livrade-sur-Lot "Sainte-Livrade-sur-Lot") which housed 1,160 Vietnamese refugees in a refugee camp faces demolition after being in existence since 1956\. The location has long been in neglect; 120 families still live in shacks, many of whom are third and fourth generations of people affected by [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2008/06/11/2003414442\|title\=FEATURE: 'Little Vietnam' in rural France faces demolition\|date\=June 11, 2008}}
In [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), Vietnamese stores are concentrated in the [13th arrondissement](/wiki/13th_arrondissement_of_Paris "13th arrondissement of Paris") and [5th arrondissement of Paris](/wiki/5th_arrondissement_of_Paris "5th arrondissement of Paris").
### Germany
There is a large Vietnamese community in [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), especially in former [East Germany](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany") where the Vietnamese migrant workers first came in the 1970s. [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin") has the largest Vietnamese community with about 35,000 people of Vietnamese origin. Boroughs of [Lichtenberg](/wiki/Lichtenberg "Lichtenberg") and [Marzahn\-Hellersdorf](/wiki/Marzahn-Hellersdorf "Marzahn-Hellersdorf") have the highest numbers of Vietnamese populations which were a part of [East Berlin](/wiki/East_Berlin "East Berlin"). The **Dong Xuan Center** in Lichtenberg is the largest Vietnamese market in Germany which offers many things from Vietnam including restaurants, shops, cafes and bars.{{cite web \|title\=Das Zentrum von Little Hanoi \|url\=https://www.dong\-xuan\-berlin.de/ \|website\=www.dong\-xuan\-berlin.de \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-25}} Other German cities like [Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig "Leipzig"), [Chemnitz](/wiki/Chemnitz "Chemnitz") and [Hanover](/wiki/Hanover "Hanover") have also well known Vietnamese communities.
### Australia
In [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne") the suburb of [Footscray](/wiki/Footscray%2C_Victoria "Footscray, Victoria") has a large proportion of Vietnamese\-Australians, the CBD of Footscray is often nicknamed Little Saigon. Other Vietnamese communities are centered around Springvale Road in Springvale, Victoria Street in Richmond, and St Albans.
In [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), the suburbs [Cabramatta](/wiki/Cabramatta "Cabramatta"), [Canley Vale](/wiki/Canley_Vale "Canley Vale") and [Canley Heights](/wiki/Canley_Heights "Canley Heights") have a large number of Vietnamese people, with Cabramatta earning the nickname of 'Little Saigon'.
In [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide "Adelaide"), Vietnamese businesses are concentrated around [Woodville](/wiki/Woodville%2C_South_Australia "Woodville, South Australia"), in particular along Hanson Road.
|
[
"Locations in Europe and Australia\n---------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|Entrance gate to [Sapa, Prague](/wiki/Sapa_%28Prague%27s_Little_Hanoi%29 \"Sapa (Prague's Little Hanoi)\")](/wiki/File:TTTM_Sapa_20230106_101419.jpg \"TTTM Sapa 20230106 101419.jpg\")",
"### Czech Republic",
"{{main\\|Sapa (Prague's Little Hanoi)}}",
"\"Sapa\", fully \"TTTM Sapa\", sometimes simply called \"Prague's Hanoi,\" is a Vietnamese ethnic enclave, trading center, and market in [Prague's](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\") [Libuš](/wiki/Libu%C5%A1 \"Libuš\") and [Kunratice](/wiki/Kunratice_%28Prague%29 \"Kunratice (Prague)\") districts.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.prague.tips/sapa\\-little\\-hanoi\\-prague/\\|title\\=Sapa: Little Hanoi in Prague\\|date\\=2014\\-07\\-09\\|website\\=prague.tips\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-31}}",
"### France",
"In southern [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), a \"Little Vietnam\" in [Sainte\\-Livrade\\-sur\\-Lot](/wiki/Sainte-Livrade-sur-Lot \"Sainte-Livrade-sur-Lot\") which housed 1,160 Vietnamese refugees in a refugee camp faces demolition after being in existence since 1956\\. The location has long been in neglect; 120 families still live in shacks, many of whom are third and fourth generations of people affected by [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2008/06/11/2003414442\\|title\\=FEATURE: 'Little Vietnam' in rural France faces demolition\\|date\\=June 11, 2008}}",
"In [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), Vietnamese stores are concentrated in the [13th arrondissement](/wiki/13th_arrondissement_of_Paris \"13th arrondissement of Paris\") and [5th arrondissement of Paris](/wiki/5th_arrondissement_of_Paris \"5th arrondissement of Paris\").",
"### Germany",
"There is a large Vietnamese community in [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), especially in former [East Germany](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\") where the Vietnamese migrant workers first came in the 1970s. [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\") has the largest Vietnamese community with about 35,000 people of Vietnamese origin. Boroughs of [Lichtenberg](/wiki/Lichtenberg \"Lichtenberg\") and [Marzahn\\-Hellersdorf](/wiki/Marzahn-Hellersdorf \"Marzahn-Hellersdorf\") have the highest numbers of Vietnamese populations which were a part of [East Berlin](/wiki/East_Berlin \"East Berlin\"). The **Dong Xuan Center** in Lichtenberg is the largest Vietnamese market in Germany which offers many things from Vietnam including restaurants, shops, cafes and bars.{{cite web \\|title\\=Das Zentrum von Little Hanoi \\|url\\=https://www.dong\\-xuan\\-berlin.de/ \\|website\\=www.dong\\-xuan\\-berlin.de \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-25}} Other German cities like [Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig \"Leipzig\"), [Chemnitz](/wiki/Chemnitz \"Chemnitz\") and [Hanover](/wiki/Hanover \"Hanover\") have also well known Vietnamese communities.",
"### Australia",
"In [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\") the suburb of [Footscray](/wiki/Footscray%2C_Victoria \"Footscray, Victoria\") has a large proportion of Vietnamese\\-Australians, the CBD of Footscray is often nicknamed Little Saigon. Other Vietnamese communities are centered around Springvale Road in Springvale, Victoria Street in Richmond, and St Albans.",
"In [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), the suburbs [Cabramatta](/wiki/Cabramatta \"Cabramatta\"), [Canley Vale](/wiki/Canley_Vale \"Canley Vale\") and [Canley Heights](/wiki/Canley_Heights \"Canley Heights\") have a large number of Vietnamese people, with Cabramatta earning the nickname of 'Little Saigon'.",
"In [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide \"Adelaide\"), Vietnamese businesses are concentrated around [Woodville](/wiki/Woodville%2C_South_Australia \"Woodville, South Australia\"), in particular along Hanson Road.",
""
] |
History
-------
After the [2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq](/wiki/2003_U.S._invasion_of_Iraq "2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq"), the camp was taken over by elite American [special operations](/wiki/Special_operations "Special operations") forces. The main purpose of the camp was to interrogate prisoners for information about [Jordanian](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan") [terrorist](/wiki/Terrorist "Terrorist") [Abu Musab al\-Zarqawi](/wiki/Abu_Musab_al-Zarqawi "Abu Musab al-Zarqawi"). *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* reported on 19 March 2006, the three\-year anniversary of the U.S. invasion, that the elite unit, known as [Task Force 6\-26](/wiki/Task_Force_6-26 "Task Force 6-26"), used the facility to interrogate prisoners both before and after the [Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse](/wiki/Abu_Ghraib_prisoner_abuse "Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse") scandal.{{cite journal
\| first\=Eric
\| last\=Schmitt
\|author2\=Carolyn Marshall
\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/19/international/middleeast/19abuse.html
\| title\=Task Force 6\-26: In Secret Unit's 'Black Room,' a Grim Portrait of U.S. Abuse\| journal\=New York Times
\|date\=19 March 2006}}
Some of the interrogation took place in "The Black Room", which used to be a torture chamber when Saddam's government ran the facility. The camp was the target of repeated warnings and investigations from U.S. officials since August 2003\. There were placards around the camp that read "[No Blood No Foul](/wiki/No_Blood_No_Foul "No Blood No Foul")", a reference to the notion, described by a Pentagon official, that "If you don't make them bleed, they can't prosecute for it."
Allegations of abuse were first reported in the mainstream U.S. media in 2005\.R. Jeffrey Smith and Josh White, "Soldier Who Reported Abuse Was Sent to Psychiatrist," *The Washington Post* (5 March 2005\) p. A15\. After the more extensive *New York Times* report in 2006, which was "based on documents and interviews with more than a dozen people", the independent organization [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch "Human Rights Watch") issued a report documenting detainee abuse in Iraq. The report confirmed the charges about Camp Nama uncovered by *The New York Times*, noting that "from 2003 to the present, numerous U.S. personnel and Iraqi detainees have reported serious mistreatment of detainees by the special task force, including beatings, exposure to extreme cold, threats of death, humiliation, and various forms of heavy interrogation. Many of these allegations have been contained in documents released to the American Civil Liberties Union and other human rights groups pursuant to Freedom of Information Act litigation."Human Rights Watch, *"[No Blood, No Foul": Soldiers' Accounts of Detainee Abuse in Iraq](http://hrw.org/reports/2006/us0706/)* 18:3 (July 2006\).
The report included an extensive interview with one Sergeant, using the pseudonym "Jeff Perry", who worked as an interrogator with the task force running the detention center. Sergeant "Perry" indicated that written authorizations were required for most abusive techniques, indicating that the use of these tactics was approved up the [chain of command](/wiki/Command_hierarchy "Command hierarchy"):
> There was an authorization template on a computer, a sheet that you would print out, or actually just type it in. And it was a checklist. And it was all already typed out for you, environmental controls, hot and cold, you know, strobe lights, music, so forth. Working dogs, which, when I was there, wasn’t being used. But you would just check what you want to use off, and if you planned on using a harsh interrogation you’d just get it signed off.
I never saw a sheet that wasn’t signed. It would be signed off by the commander, whoever that was, whether it was O3 \[captain] or O6 \[colonel], whoever was in charge at the time. ... When the O6 was there, yeah, he would sign off on that. ... He would sign off on that every time it was done.
Some interrogators would go and use these techniques without typing up one of those things just because it was a hassle, or he didn’t want to do it and knew it was going to be approved anyway, and you’re not gonna get in that much trouble if you get caught doing one of these things without a signature.
Techniques involving outright assault—hitting, slapping, and beating—were apparently not on the list, but were regularly used at Nama, indicating that the harsh methods that were approved often degenerated into even harsher treatment in practice.
Human Rights Watch's senior researcher on terrorism and counterterrorism commented, "These accounts rebut U.S. government claims that torture and abuse in Iraq was unauthorized and exceptional—on the contrary, it was condoned and commonly used.""[U.S.: Soldiers Tell of Detainee Abuse in Iraq](http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/07/19/usint13767.htm)." *Human Rights Watch* press release (23 July 2006\).
### Investigation and inter\-agency conflict
The reports of abuses inside Camp Nama were said to have outraged even seasoned CIA, FBI and DIA investigators accustomed to dealing with non\-cooperative and hostile detainees, and to have provoked a culture clash between agencies and groups involved with the facility. By early 2004, one of Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld's top aides, Under\-Secretary for Defense Intelligence [Stephen A. Cambone](/wiki/Stephen_Cambone "Stephen Cambone"), ordered a subordinate, DIA head Vice Adm. [Lowell E. Jacoby](/wiki/Lowell_E._Jacoby "Lowell E. Jacoby") to "get to the bottom" of any misconduct.
By June 25, 2004, Admiral Jacoby wrote a two\-page memo to Cambone, in which he described a series of complaints, including a May 2004 incident in which a DIA interrogator said he witnessed task force soldiers punch a detainee hard enough to require medical help. The DIA officer took photos of the injuries, but a supervisor confiscated them, the memo said. The memo provoked an angry reaction from Cambone. "Get to the bottom of this immediately. This is not acceptable," Cambone said in a handwritten note on June 26, 2004, to his top deputy, Lt. Gen. [William G. Boykin](/wiki/William_G._Boykin "William G. Boykin"). "In particular, I want to know if this is part of a pattern of behavior by TF 6\-26\."
According to *The New York Times* article, General Boykin had earlier said (on March 17\) through a spokesman that he told Mr. Cambone he had found no pattern of misconduct with the task force. The article does not provide further detail on Boykin's response to the investigation after Cambone's and Jacoby's intervention in June 2004\.
### Transfer to LSA Anaconda
According to *The New York Times* article, in the summer of 2004, Camp Nama closed and the unit moved to "a new headquarters in Balad, 45 miles north of Baghdad." This would probably refer to Balad AB, also known as [Logistics Support Area Anaconda](/wiki/Logistics_Support_Area_Anaconda "Logistics Support Area Anaconda") and later as [Joint Base Balad](/wiki/Joint_Base_Balad "Joint Base Balad").
Since the transfer the unit's operations are said to have been shrouded in even tighter secrecy. According to [Thomas E. Ricks](/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_%28journalist%29 "Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)") of *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")*, a new "detainee center" has indeed been established at Camp Balad, under the auspices of a new unit, the [Joint Special Operations Task Force](/wiki/Joint_Special_Operations_Task_Force "Joint Special Operations Task Force"); entry is not permitted to normal Army Rangers personnel.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.williambowles.info/spysrus/taskforce\_121\.html \|title\=Sarah Meyer's notes on TF121 \|access\-date\=2018\-04\-02 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618170751/http://williambowles.info/spysrus/taskforce\_121\.html \|archive\-date\=2013\-06\-18 \|url\-status\=dead }}
### Prisoner abuse
British soldiers testified that:{{cite web \|url\=http://m.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/apr/01/camp\-nama\-iraq\-human\-rights\-abuses \|title\=Camp Nama: British personnel reveal horrors of secret US base in Baghdad \|last1\=Cobain \|first1\=Ian \|date\=April 1, 2013 \|website\=The Guardian \|access\-date\=July 22, 2016 }}
* Iraqi prisoners being held for prolonged periods in cells the size of large dog kennels.
* Prisoners being subjected to electric shocks.
* Prisoners being routinely hooded.
* Inmates being taken into a sound\-proofed shipping container for interrogation, and emerging in a state of physical distress.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"After the [2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq](/wiki/2003_U.S._invasion_of_Iraq \"2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq\"), the camp was taken over by elite American [special operations](/wiki/Special_operations \"Special operations\") forces. The main purpose of the camp was to interrogate prisoners for information about [Jordanian](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\") [terrorist](/wiki/Terrorist \"Terrorist\") [Abu Musab al\\-Zarqawi](/wiki/Abu_Musab_al-Zarqawi \"Abu Musab al-Zarqawi\"). *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* reported on 19 March 2006, the three\\-year anniversary of the U.S. invasion, that the elite unit, known as [Task Force 6\\-26](/wiki/Task_Force_6-26 \"Task Force 6-26\"), used the facility to interrogate prisoners both before and after the [Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse](/wiki/Abu_Ghraib_prisoner_abuse \"Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse\") scandal.{{cite journal\n\\| first\\=Eric\n\\| last\\=Schmitt\n\\|author2\\=Carolyn Marshall\n\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/19/international/middleeast/19abuse.html\n\\| title\\=Task Force 6\\-26: In Secret Unit's 'Black Room,' a Grim Portrait of U.S. Abuse\\| journal\\=New York Times\n\\|date\\=19 March 2006}}\n Some of the interrogation took place in \"The Black Room\", which used to be a torture chamber when Saddam's government ran the facility. The camp was the target of repeated warnings and investigations from U.S. officials since August 2003\\. There were placards around the camp that read \"[No Blood No Foul](/wiki/No_Blood_No_Foul \"No Blood No Foul\")\", a reference to the notion, described by a Pentagon official, that \"If you don't make them bleed, they can't prosecute for it.\"",
"Allegations of abuse were first reported in the mainstream U.S. media in 2005\\.R. Jeffrey Smith and Josh White, \"Soldier Who Reported Abuse Was Sent to Psychiatrist,\" *The Washington Post* (5 March 2005\\) p. A15\\. After the more extensive *New York Times* report in 2006, which was \"based on documents and interviews with more than a dozen people\", the independent organization [Human Rights Watch](/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch \"Human Rights Watch\") issued a report documenting detainee abuse in Iraq. The report confirmed the charges about Camp Nama uncovered by *The New York Times*, noting that \"from 2003 to the present, numerous U.S. personnel and Iraqi detainees have reported serious mistreatment of detainees by the special task force, including beatings, exposure to extreme cold, threats of death, humiliation, and various forms of heavy interrogation. Many of these allegations have been contained in documents released to the American Civil Liberties Union and other human rights groups pursuant to Freedom of Information Act litigation.\"Human Rights Watch, *\"[No Blood, No Foul\": Soldiers' Accounts of Detainee Abuse in Iraq](http://hrw.org/reports/2006/us0706/)* 18:3 (July 2006\\).",
"The report included an extensive interview with one Sergeant, using the pseudonym \"Jeff Perry\", who worked as an interrogator with the task force running the detention center. Sergeant \"Perry\" indicated that written authorizations were required for most abusive techniques, indicating that the use of these tactics was approved up the [chain of command](/wiki/Command_hierarchy \"Command hierarchy\"):",
"",
"> There was an authorization template on a computer, a sheet that you would print out, or actually just type it in. And it was a checklist. And it was all already typed out for you, environmental controls, hot and cold, you know, strobe lights, music, so forth. Working dogs, which, when I was there, wasn’t being used. But you would just check what you want to use off, and if you planned on using a harsh interrogation you’d just get it signed off.",
"I never saw a sheet that wasn’t signed. It would be signed off by the commander, whoever that was, whether it was O3 \\[captain] or O6 \\[colonel], whoever was in charge at the time. ... When the O6 was there, yeah, he would sign off on that. ... He would sign off on that every time it was done.\nSome interrogators would go and use these techniques without typing up one of those things just because it was a hassle, or he didn’t want to do it and knew it was going to be approved anyway, and you’re not gonna get in that much trouble if you get caught doing one of these things without a signature.\nTechniques involving outright assault—hitting, slapping, and beating—were apparently not on the list, but were regularly used at Nama, indicating that the harsh methods that were approved often degenerated into even harsher treatment in practice.",
"Human Rights Watch's senior researcher on terrorism and counterterrorism commented, \"These accounts rebut U.S. government claims that torture and abuse in Iraq was unauthorized and exceptional—on the contrary, it was condoned and commonly used.\"\"[U.S.: Soldiers Tell of Detainee Abuse in Iraq](http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/07/19/usint13767.htm).\" *Human Rights Watch* press release (23 July 2006\\).",
"### Investigation and inter\\-agency conflict",
"The reports of abuses inside Camp Nama were said to have outraged even seasoned CIA, FBI and DIA investigators accustomed to dealing with non\\-cooperative and hostile detainees, and to have provoked a culture clash between agencies and groups involved with the facility. By early 2004, one of Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld's top aides, Under\\-Secretary for Defense Intelligence [Stephen A. Cambone](/wiki/Stephen_Cambone \"Stephen Cambone\"), ordered a subordinate, DIA head Vice Adm. [Lowell E. Jacoby](/wiki/Lowell_E._Jacoby \"Lowell E. Jacoby\") to \"get to the bottom\" of any misconduct.",
"By June 25, 2004, Admiral Jacoby wrote a two\\-page memo to Cambone, in which he described a series of complaints, including a May 2004 incident in which a DIA interrogator said he witnessed task force soldiers punch a detainee hard enough to require medical help. The DIA officer took photos of the injuries, but a supervisor confiscated them, the memo said. The memo provoked an angry reaction from Cambone. \"Get to the bottom of this immediately. This is not acceptable,\" Cambone said in a handwritten note on June 26, 2004, to his top deputy, Lt. Gen. [William G. Boykin](/wiki/William_G._Boykin \"William G. Boykin\"). \"In particular, I want to know if this is part of a pattern of behavior by TF 6\\-26\\.\"",
"According to *The New York Times* article, General Boykin had earlier said (on March 17\\) through a spokesman that he told Mr. Cambone he had found no pattern of misconduct with the task force. The article does not provide further detail on Boykin's response to the investigation after Cambone's and Jacoby's intervention in June 2004\\.",
"### Transfer to LSA Anaconda",
"According to *The New York Times* article, in the summer of 2004, Camp Nama closed and the unit moved to \"a new headquarters in Balad, 45 miles north of Baghdad.\" This would probably refer to Balad AB, also known as [Logistics Support Area Anaconda](/wiki/Logistics_Support_Area_Anaconda \"Logistics Support Area Anaconda\") and later as [Joint Base Balad](/wiki/Joint_Base_Balad \"Joint Base Balad\").",
"Since the transfer the unit's operations are said to have been shrouded in even tighter secrecy. According to [Thomas E. Ricks](/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_%28journalist%29 \"Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)\") of *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")*, a new \"detainee center\" has indeed been established at Camp Balad, under the auspices of a new unit, the [Joint Special Operations Task Force](/wiki/Joint_Special_Operations_Task_Force \"Joint Special Operations Task Force\"); entry is not permitted to normal Army Rangers personnel.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.williambowles.info/spysrus/taskforce\\_121\\.html \\|title\\=Sarah Meyer's notes on TF121 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-02 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618170751/http://williambowles.info/spysrus/taskforce\\_121\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-18 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### Prisoner abuse",
"British soldiers testified that:{{cite web \\|url\\=http://m.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/apr/01/camp\\-nama\\-iraq\\-human\\-rights\\-abuses \\|title\\=Camp Nama: British personnel reveal horrors of secret US base in Baghdad \\|last1\\=Cobain \\|first1\\=Ian \\|date\\=April 1, 2013 \\|website\\=The Guardian \\|access\\-date\\=July 22, 2016 }}",
"* Iraqi prisoners being held for prolonged periods in cells the size of large dog kennels.\n* Prisoners being subjected to electric shocks.\n* Prisoners being routinely hooded.\n* Inmates being taken into a sound\\-proofed shipping container for interrogation, and emerging in a state of physical distress."
] |
Preliminary explanations
------------------------
Al\-Masudi is the only source that writes about the battle. His information about the location of the battle and the participants is a little confused. First, there is confusion about the place designated by the name W.l.n.d.r. Second, it is unclear precisely who participated in the battle on the side opposing the Byzantines, and how numerous they were. There are also questions about the Pecheneg involvement in the battle, and their number of troops.
### Location
Al\-Masudi, as an [Arab](/wiki/Arab "Arab"), wrote in the [Arabic alphabet](/wiki/Arabic_alphabet "Arabic alphabet"), which does not use letters for short [vowels](/wiki/Vowel "Vowel") (although there are special [diacritics](/wiki/Arabic_diacritics "Arabic diacritics") for short vowels, called *ḥarakāt*, but they are not generally used, and they were not used by Al\-Masudi). As a result, when he wrote down names of foreign tribes, towns and countries, it is hard to know how these names sounded, because only consonants are known. This is the case with ولندر \= W.l.n.d.r (و \- W, ل \- l, ن \- n, د \- d, ر \- r). In the translated editions of his work, Latin transcriptions of W.l.n.d.r appear with vowels chosen by the editors (*Walendar* in the French translation of Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille from 1838,al\-Masudi, 1838, p. 59 Valandar or Vanandar in the Turkish edition from 2004\),Mesudî. Murûc ez\-Zeheb (Altın Bozkırlar). Arapçadan Çeviri ve notlar D. Ahsen Batur. Selenge Yayınları, İstanbul 2004, p.93 in order to make it easier to pronounce. The Hungarian translation of the part of al\-Masudi's work which refers to the battle, writes the name correctly, putting points in the place of the vowels (ex. W.l.n.d.r).Maszúdí. In Györffy György: A magyarok elődeiről és a honfoglalásról; Osiris Kiadó, Budapest, 2002 p. 98\-101
Al\-Masudi wrote his accounts about northern countries based on verbal information from people who visited these regions. As a result, some of his information has to be handled with care. For example, he writes that W.l.n.d.r was a Greek town between the mountains and the sea, but historians such as [György Györffy](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Gy%C3%B6rffy "György Györffy") and [Gyula Kristó](/wiki/Gyula_Krist%C3%B3 "Gyula Kristó") – accepting the claim of Josef Marquart – believe that it was not a city but a derivation of the old name of the Bulgarians: [Onogur](/wiki/Onogurs "Onogurs")/Onogundur (Ten [Oghur](/wiki/Turkic_tribal_confederations "Turkic tribal confederations") Tribes), which sounded *\*wnondur*, which in old [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_language "Hungarian language") became *nándor*, from which the old Hungarian name of [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade"), Nándorfehérvár (White castle of the Bulgarians) originates, and in the works of the Arab geographer [Ahmad ibn Rustah](/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Rustah "Ahmad ibn Rustah") and the Persian geographer [Abu Saʿīd Gardēzī](/wiki/Abu_Sa%CA%BF%C4%ABd_Gard%C4%93z%C4%AB "Abu Saʿīd Gardēzī"), appears as W.n.n.d.r.Györffy György: A magyarok elődeiről és a honfoglalásról; Osiris Kiadó, Budapest, 2002, note no. 155, p. 275 So the historians conclude that W.l.n.d.r in reality was not a town, like al\-Masudi believed, but the old name of the Bulgarians, so the battle was somewhere in the territory of the [First Bulgarian Empire](/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire "First Bulgarian Empire"). Therefore, the battle was not fought around a town between the Byzantines and the Hungarian\-Pecheneg army, but rather it was a battle between the Bulgarian Empire and the Byzantines against the Magyars and Pechenegs.Kristó Gyula: Levedi törzsszövetségétől Szent István Államáig; Magvető Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 1980, p. 270Györffy György, 2002 p. 98
It is possible that the exact location of the battle was [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade"), as orientalist Mihály Kmoskó considered, due to the fact that its old Hungarian name has in it the old, Turkic name of the Bulgarians in the form used by the Hungarians: *nándor*, and although is not near to a sea, but it is on the [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube")'s bank, which could be understood as sea, plus the [Carpathian Mountains](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains "Carpathian Mountains") and [Dinaric Alps](/wiki/Dinaric_Alps "Dinaric Alps") are also close, and the mountain of [Avala](/wiki/Avala "Avala"), and it was on the Hungarian border, so for its inhabitants would have been easy to attack their territories, as al\-Masudi wrote. So in al\-Masudi's text W.l.n.d.r could designate both the Bulgarians and the city of Belgrade, in some sentences designating the country, while others the city. But these are only suppositions. Josef Marquart identified the settlement with the fort [Develtos](/wiki/Develtos "Develtos") laid near [Burgas](/wiki/Burgas "Burgas"). Hansgerd Göckenjan and István Zimonyi considered [Bulgarophygon](/wiki/Bulgarophygon "Bulgarophygon") (Babaeski) as the place of battle, based on the data that the relief army reached the besieged city in eight days from [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople").B. Szabó János – Sudár Balázs, 2022 pp. 117–118\.
### Belligerents
Al\-Masudi writes about four [Turkic nations](/wiki/Turkic_peoples "Turkic peoples") (a term designate the nomadic culture and lifestyle), who took part in the battle against the Byzantines:
* b.dʒ.n.k (بجناك), which can be identified with the name of the Pechenegs,
* y.dʒ.n.i (يجنى) or b.dʒ.n.i (بجنى)Maszúdí. In Györffy György, 2002, p. 99 believed by the historians that also designates the **Pechenegs**,Györffy György, 2002, p. 98
* b.dʒ.g.r.d (بجغرد), which can be identified with the name *Badjgird*, used very often by the Arab historians and geographers to designate the domestic name of the Hungarians: **Magyar** ([Ahmad ibn Fadlan](/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Fadlan "Ahmad ibn Fadlan"),Onuncu Asırda Türkistan'da bir İslâm Seyyahı. İbn Fazlan Seyahatnâmesi. Hazırlayan Ramazan Şeşen. Bedir Yayınevi, İstanbul 1975, p. 42 [Abu Zayd al\-Balkhi](/wiki/Abu_Zayd_al-Balkhi "Abu Zayd al-Balkhi"),Balkhí. In Györffy György, 2002 p. 94 Abū Hamid al\-Gharnāti,Adorján Imre, [Muzulmánok a magyarok közt. A kezdetektől az Árpád\-kor végéig](http://terebess.hu/keletkultinfo/muzulmagy.html) Fejér Megyei Pedagógiai Szolgáltató Intézet, 1988 etc.) in the 9th–12th centuries. This name in the 10–13th centuries was used by the Arab geographers for two groups: the Hungarians living in the Carpathian Basin, and the Hungarians who lived between the [Kama River](/wiki/Kama_River "Kama River") and the [Ural Mountains](/wiki/Ural_Mountains "Ural Mountains") in the place called Magna Hungaria,Aradi Éva, [About the Territory of Magna Hungaria](http://epa.oszk.hu/01500/01521/00018/pdf/EPA01521_EurasianStudies_0213_009-043.pdf) [Journal of Eurasian Studies](/wiki/Journal_of_Eurasian_Studies "Journal of Eurasian Studies"). Volume
V., Issue 2\., April–June 2013, p. 10\-21 who remained there and maybe they became the ancestors of the today [Bashkirs](/wiki/Bashkirs "Bashkirs"), like some believe. Maybe this is why the Hungarians and the people living in the early Middle Ages in today's [Bashkortostan](/wiki/Bashkortostan "Bashkortostan") were named the same.
* nu.k.r.da (نوكردة), which original reading is probably *Unkaríya*, derives from the name *Onogur*/*Ungar*,Kristó Gyula, 1980, p. 269 designating the other name of the Magyars, in which they are known in the majority of the [European languages](/wiki/Languages_of_Europe "Languages of Europe"): *Hungarian*/*Ungar*/*венгерский*/*húngaro*/*hongrois*. So, the historians think that, in the same way as for the b.dʒ.n.k and b.dʒ.n.i/y.dʒ.n.i (for the Pechenegs), al\-Masudi mistakenly thought that the two names of the same tribal confederation (*Magyar* and *Hungarian*) designate two different nations.
In contrast, Gyula Kristó argued that these two names actually designate the two main components of the [Principality of Hungary](/wiki/Principality_of_Hungary "Principality of Hungary"), forming the core of the Hungarian Nation: Magyars and [Onogurs](/wiki/Onogurs "Onogurs"). Many sources *(Vita Hrodberti episcopi Salisburgensis*,Szádeczky\-Kardoss Samu: Az avar történelem forrásai, Magyar Őstörténeti Könyvtár, Balassi Kiadó, Budapest, 1998, p. 224 Vita St. Paulini,Szádeczky\-Kardoss 1998, p. 297 Epitaphium Liutprandi regis Langobardorum,Szádeczky\-Kardoss 1998, p. 266 *Annales Alamannici. Codex Modoetiensis*,Szádeczky\-Kardoss 1998, p. 296 the Diploma of [Louis the German](/wiki/Louis_the_German "Louis the German") from 860Szádeczky\-Kardoss 1998, p. 307) prove that the [Avars](/wiki/Pannonian_Avars "Pannonian Avars") in the Middle and Late Avar period (670–804\) and after the Carolingian conquest from 804 were often called Onogurs.Róna\-Tas András: A honfoglaló magyar nép; Balassi Kiadó, Budapest, 1996, p. 219\-220 Therefore, the b.dʒ.g.r.d could refer to the newly settled Magyars (895\) and nu.k.r.da (Onogurs) to the descendants of the Avars, which survived during the Caroling and Bulgarian occupation of much of the Carpathian Basin (804\-900\), becoming the components of the Magyars,Szabados György: Magyar államalapítások a IX\-XI. században; Szegedi Középkori Könyvtár, Szeged, 2011, p. 114\-120 and in the same time gave the name which the Europeans use for denominating this nation. It is not excluded, that in 934, when the battle took place, the Onogurs in Hungary still had a kind of autonomy, with their own leaders, which may explain the fact that al\-Masudi sees them as a separate political entity with its own king.Maszúdí. In Györffy György, 2002, p. 98 Hungarian translation from the original Arabic: "*A kazárok és az alánok nyugatról négy türk néppel határosak \[...]. Közülük mindegyiknek (külön) királya van, s területük több napi járóföldre terjed"*. English translation from the Hungarian: "*The Khazars and the Alans are neighboured from West from four Turkic nations \[...]. Every one of them has (his own) king, and their territories spread to lands which can be crossed in several days"*. About the Hungarian campaign in the [Duchy of Saxony](/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxony "Duchy of Saxony") from 906, [Annalista Saxo](/wiki/Annalista_Saxo "Annalista Saxo") writes that of the two raiding Hungarian armies one was *Avar* and the second *Magyar*.Dümmerth Dezső: Álmos az áldozat; Panoráma, Budapest, 1986, p. 135\-136 Hungarian translation from the original Latin: "*A delemincusok felfogadták az avarokat, Saxonia hercege, Henrik ellen; ezek, miután sok öldöklést vittek véghez Saxoniában, roppant zsákmánnyal Dalamantia felé fordulván vissza, szembetalálkoztak a magyarok másik seregével"*. English translation from the Hungarian: "The Dalemnicians hired the **Avars"**, against Henry, the prince of Saxony; and these, after they made many massacres in Saxony, when they returned in Dalamantia, met face in face with the other army of the **Magyars**" This account could refer to the different ethnic component of the two armies which came from Hungary, and the fact that the successors of the Avars/Onogurs fought as separate armies under their own commanders, or the chronicler could not make difference between the Hungarian and Avar, and used when the one when the other name.
So as a response, to the question of who and how many were the nations who fought the **Byzantines** and the **Bulgarians**, the historians conclude that they were two nomadic political entities: the **[Principality of Hungary](/wiki/Principality_of_Hungary "Principality of Hungary")** and the **[Pecheneg Tribal Confederation](/wiki/Pechenegs "Pechenegs")**.
### Involvement of the Pechenegs
Al\-Masudi writes that the Pechenegs were stronger and more warlike than the Hungarians. He also writes that in the battle of W.l.n.d.r participated the kings of the Pechenegs and the Hungarians, and, because the unsuccessfulness of the fights of the first day, in the second day of the battle, the lead of the troops was taken by the Pecheneg king, who led to victory the allied nomadic troops.Maszúdí. In Györffy György, 2002 p. 99\-100 This information could be correct if there was no contradictory data from Byzantine chroniclers, about the campaign of 934, who write about the attack of the *Τούρκων* (Turks),Symeon Magister, 1838, p. 746 the name in which they name the Hungarians in the 9–10th centuries,Romsics Ignác, [A magyarok őstörténetéről. Bizonyosságok, hipotézisek, hiedelmek](http://www.matud.iif.hu/2014/05/01.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029033814/http://www.matud.iif.hu/2014/05/01\.htm \|date\=2016\-10\-29 }} Magyar Tudomány; 175\. évf., 2014/5, p. 521 but do not mention anything about the Pecheneg (called by the Byzantine historians Moesians, Sarmatians, or Scythians, but never as Turks)Elemér Illyés, [Ethnic Continuity in the Carpatho\-Danubian Area](http://www.promacedonia.org/en/ei/ei_1.htm) Columbia University Press. East European Monographs; 2 edition, 1992, p. 3 participation in it. The fact that Byzantine chroniclers do not mention about the Pechenegs in this campaign, shows that their involvement was less important than al\-Masudi writes. The Byzantines were directly implied in the events, and of course were much closer than al\-Masudi who never terveled north to Caucasus, and took his information from others verbal accounts. Because the Hungarians were the westernmost participants of the events, it is probable that al\-Masudi's informants did not met with them, and the information which they related to the Arab geographer, were taken from Pechenegs, who, of course, exaggerated their strength and importance in the battle. However the participation of the Pecheneg troops is confirmed by al\-Masudi, but the information about the greater strength of the Pechenegs, their great scale participation, and the decisive importance of their leader in achieving the victory we have to take cautiously. The fact that the Pechenegs were not the leaders of this army is proven even by al\-Masudi, when he writes that after the first day of the battle, the Pecheneg king asked for permission to make the battle plan for the second day, which request was granted to him.Maszúdí. In Györffy György, 2002 p. 100\. Hungarian translation from the original Arabic: "*A seregek éjjel is hadirendben maradtak, a négy király pedig haditanácsot tartott. A besenyők királya ezt mondta: "Bízzátok rám a vezetést holnap korán reggel". Ebbe bele is egyeztek."*. English translation from the Hungarian: "During the night, the armies remained in battle order, and the four kings made a war council. The king of the Pechenegs said: "Tomorrow early in the morning entrust me the lead". They agreed." If the Pecheneg leader would be in charge, he would not had to ask permission to take over the lead of the army after the first day. The conclusion is that the campaign and the battle was led by a Hungarian commander, and the lead was given to the Pecheneg "king" only for the second day of the battle, after a common agreement. So, the Pecheneg commanders taking over the troops was only an exceptional case, and this contradict al\-Masudi's affirmation about the Pecheneg superiority.
Some historians, basing on the accounts from *[De Administrando Imperio](/wiki/De_Administrando_Imperio "De Administrando Imperio")* of [Constantine VII](/wiki/Constantine_VII "Constantine VII"), believe that the Hungarians were afraid of the Pechenegs, because the events from 895, when the Pechenegs, called by the Bulgarians, drove away the Hungarians from their old lands, forcing them to move to the [Carpathian Basin](/wiki/Carpathian_Basin "Carpathian Basin"), and starting the [Hungarian Conquest](/wiki/Hungarian_conquest_of_the_Carpathian_Basin "Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin").Kristó Gyula, 1980, p. 182\-189 And the same writing claims that the Hungarians were terrorized even to think about the possibility of a war between them and the Pechenegs.De Administrando Imperio. In Györffy György, 2002, p. 113 Hungarian translation from the original Greek: "*"Mi nem kezdünk ki a besenyőkkel; mert nem bírunk velük harcolni, minthogy nagy ország az, nagyszámú nép és gonosz fickók; többé ilyen beszédet ne mondj nekünk, mert nem kedvünkre való az""*. English translation from the Hungarian: "We do not pick a quarel with the Pechenegs; because they are too much for us, because they have a big country, are too numerous, and they are vicious guys; do not speak again things like this, because we do not like it". But in the last years this question was researched by historians, and the conclusion was that the Byzantine accounts about the crushing defeat and the fear of the Hungarians from Pechenegs are overreacted, and sometimes even false.Szabados György, [A legyőzött magyarok, mint hódítók? The Administrando Imperio és a népvándorlások antik modellje (The defeated Hungarians as conquerors? De Administrando Imperio and the classic model of the Migrations)](http://real.mtak.hu/21158/1/Szabados_2014_bizanc_konftanulmany_proto_pdf_u_205640.730207.pdf) Olajos Terézia szerk.: A Kárpát\-medence, a magyarság és Bizánc. The Carpathian Basin, the Hungarians and Byzantium. Szeged, 2014\. (Acta Universitatis Szegediensis. Opuscula Byzantina XI.) 259–275 Al\-Masudi's account too contradicts these claims from *De Administrando Imperio*: if the Hungarians were so terrorized by the Pechenegs, why would they enter in a war with them because the banal case of a foreign merchant? And if the Pechenegs felt so superior, why would they forgive the Hungarians for entering in a war with them, conclude peace with them in equal terms, moreover help them to avenge the Bulgarian attack on the Hungarian lands, letting them also to lead the campaign? In another contemporary work of a Byzantine emperor, *[Tactica](/wiki/Tactica_of_Emperor_Leo_VI_the_Wise "Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise")* of [Leo VI the Wise](/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise "Leo VI the Wise") written around 904, writes about the nations which use nomadic warfare: "The Scythian peoples ..., usually live a nomadic life. \[Among them] only the Bulgarians and the Turks \[Hungarians] care about the battle order, which is similar by \[the both of] them, and because of this, they fight the close combat with greater strength, and \[only they] are ruled by a single person".Györffy György, 2002, p. 107 So, according to this work, which because, unlike the *De Administrando Imperio*, which is about politics, is a book about war strategy, so is more relevant from the point of view of the question in discussion, the Pechenegs were weak in battle organisation and close combat, in which the Hungarians are presented as good. Also, according to Leo the Wise, the Hungarians had the advantage of having a single ruler, while the Pechenegs never united and obeid to their own tribe chiefs. This shows again that Al\-Masudi and [Constantine VII](/wiki/Constantine_VII "Constantine VII") were wrong when they wrote that the Hungarians were weaker than the Pechenegs.
### Number of participants
Al\-Masudi writes that the Hungarian–Pecheneg army was composed of 60,000 warriors, which they gathered with little effort, because if they would do a greater recruiting and concentration of troops, they could have 100,000 soldiers. It is known that in their campaign on a foreign country, the Hungarians never used their whole army, just a part of it, being aware of the fact that they have to leave a substantial number of warriors home, to defend their territory in case of a foreign attack. We have very few reliable accounts about the number of the Hungarian troops which took part in military actions of the period of the [Hungarian invasions of Europe](/wiki/Hungarian_invasions_of_Europe "Hungarian invasions of Europe"). For example, such informations like those given by the [Annales Sangallenses maiores](/wiki/Annales_Sangallenses_maiores "Annales Sangallenses maiores"), which write about 100,000 Hungarian warriors who took part in the [Battle of Lechfeld](/wiki/Battle_of_Lechfeld_%28955%29 "Battle of Lechfeld (955)") in 955,Annales Sanctgallenses Maiores. In Györffy György, 2002, p. 240 or 36,000 Hungarians killed in 933 in the [Battle of Riade](/wiki/Battle_of_Riade "Battle of Riade")Kristó Gyula, 1980, p. 268 are highly exaggerated. The fact that the Arab geographer and historian [Ahmad ibn Rustah](/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Rustah "Ahmad ibn Rustah") wrote that the whole force of the [Principality of Hungary](/wiki/Principality_of_Hungary "Principality of Hungary") at the beginning of the 10th century consisted from 20,000 warriors,Ibn Ruszta és Gardézi. In Györffy György, 2002, p. 86 Hungarian translation from the original Arabic: "*Főnökük 20,000 lovassal vonul (lovagol) ki"*. English translation from the Hungarian: "Their commander marches (rides) with 20,000 riders".Szabados György, 2011, p. 108\-110 shows very well how exaggerated were the above\-mentioned numbers. More reliable sources about the Hungarian raids in Europe tell about armies between 200The Complete Works of Luidprand of Cremona. Transl by Paolo Squatriti. The Catholic University of America Press, Washington D.C., 2007, p. 266 and 5,000\.Chronicon Sagornini of John the Deacon. In Györffy György, 2002 p. 205 As for the Battle of Lechfeld from 955, about which many historians think that it was the battle from the period of the Hungarian invasions in which the most Hungarian warriors participated, the modern historians conclude, that the Magyars had not 100,000, as mentioned before, but 6,000\-8,000 warriors.Négyesi Lajos, [Az augsburgi csata](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00023/17.htm) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények, 116\. évf. 1\. sz. / 2003 So an army of 60,000 nomadic warriors is certainly exaggerated, even if we take into consideration also the participation of the Pechenegs and the warriors recruited from the Muslim merchants. In conclusion in the Battle of W.l.n.d.r could not participate more than 8,000 Hungarians, taken together with maximum an equal number of Pecheneg warriors, and maybe 1,000\-2,000 Muslims, it was at most **18,000**.
Al\-Masudi writes that the Byzantine army consisted of 50,000 Greek soldiers plus 12,000 Arabs converted to Christianity, which fought as cavalry equipped with lances, and formed the vanguard of the army.Györffy György, 2002 p. 99 But, as shown before, we know that the Christian army had also Bulgarian troops. We can give right to al\-Masudi, when he writes that the Byzantine\-Bulgarian army was larger than the Hungarian\-Pecheneg one, but it was not much bigger, maximum **20,000**.
### Date
Al\-Masudi writes that the battle took place around the year of 320 after the [Hijra](/wiki/Hijra_%28Islam%29 "Hijra (Islam)") (932\), or after that.Maszúdi. In. Györffy György, 2002 p. 99 The Byzantine chronicler [Symeon the Metaphrast](/wiki/Symeon_the_Metaphrast "Symeon the Metaphrast") writes that the anti\-Byzantine campaign of the Hungarians took place in the "seventh year of the [indiction](/wiki/Indiction "Indiction") in the month of April".Symeon Magister, 1838, p. 756 Latin translation from Medieval Greek to Latin: "*Mense Aprili, indictione septima..."*. English translation from Latin: "In \[the month] April of the seventh indiction..." The historians agree that the seventh indiction means that it was the year 934\. So if we accept April as the date they entered in the territory of the Byzantine Empire, which than, because of the great extent of the First Bulgarian Empire after the death of its emperor [Simeon I](/wiki/Simeon_I_of_Bulgaria "Simeon I of Bulgaria"), was near to Constantinople, and take in consideration that a nomadic army of riders was moving really fast, even if they stopped on the road to plunder, they made the road maximum in a month, so there is an assumption that the Battle of W.l.n.d.r was fought between the end of February and beginning of April.
|
[
"Preliminary explanations\n------------------------",
"Al\\-Masudi is the only source that writes about the battle. His information about the location of the battle and the participants is a little confused. First, there is confusion about the place designated by the name W.l.n.d.r. Second, it is unclear precisely who participated in the battle on the side opposing the Byzantines, and how numerous they were. There are also questions about the Pecheneg involvement in the battle, and their number of troops.",
"### Location",
"Al\\-Masudi, as an [Arab](/wiki/Arab \"Arab\"), wrote in the [Arabic alphabet](/wiki/Arabic_alphabet \"Arabic alphabet\"), which does not use letters for short [vowels](/wiki/Vowel \"Vowel\") (although there are special [diacritics](/wiki/Arabic_diacritics \"Arabic diacritics\") for short vowels, called *ḥarakāt*, but they are not generally used, and they were not used by Al\\-Masudi). As a result, when he wrote down names of foreign tribes, towns and countries, it is hard to know how these names sounded, because only consonants are known. This is the case with ولندر \\= W.l.n.d.r (و \\- W, ل \\- l, ن \\- n, د \\- d, ر \\- r). In the translated editions of his work, Latin transcriptions of W.l.n.d.r appear with vowels chosen by the editors (*Walendar* in the French translation of Barbier de Meynard and Pavet de Courteille from 1838,al\\-Masudi, 1838, p. 59 Valandar or Vanandar in the Turkish edition from 2004\\),Mesudî. Murûc ez\\-Zeheb (Altın Bozkırlar). Arapçadan Çeviri ve notlar D. Ahsen Batur. Selenge Yayınları, İstanbul 2004, p.93 in order to make it easier to pronounce. The Hungarian translation of the part of al\\-Masudi's work which refers to the battle, writes the name correctly, putting points in the place of the vowels (ex. W.l.n.d.r).Maszúdí. In Györffy György: A magyarok elődeiről és a honfoglalásról; Osiris Kiadó, Budapest, 2002 p. 98\\-101",
"Al\\-Masudi wrote his accounts about northern countries based on verbal information from people who visited these regions. As a result, some of his information has to be handled with care. For example, he writes that W.l.n.d.r was a Greek town between the mountains and the sea, but historians such as [György Györffy](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Gy%C3%B6rffy \"György Györffy\") and [Gyula Kristó](/wiki/Gyula_Krist%C3%B3 \"Gyula Kristó\") – accepting the claim of Josef Marquart – believe that it was not a city but a derivation of the old name of the Bulgarians: [Onogur](/wiki/Onogurs \"Onogurs\")/Onogundur (Ten [Oghur](/wiki/Turkic_tribal_confederations \"Turkic tribal confederations\") Tribes), which sounded *\\*wnondur*, which in old [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_language \"Hungarian language\") became *nándor*, from which the old Hungarian name of [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\"), Nándorfehérvár (White castle of the Bulgarians) originates, and in the works of the Arab geographer [Ahmad ibn Rustah](/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Rustah \"Ahmad ibn Rustah\") and the Persian geographer [Abu Saʿīd Gardēzī](/wiki/Abu_Sa%CA%BF%C4%ABd_Gard%C4%93z%C4%AB \"Abu Saʿīd Gardēzī\"), appears as W.n.n.d.r.Györffy György: A magyarok elődeiről és a honfoglalásról; Osiris Kiadó, Budapest, 2002, note no. 155, p. 275 So the historians conclude that W.l.n.d.r in reality was not a town, like al\\-Masudi believed, but the old name of the Bulgarians, so the battle was somewhere in the territory of the [First Bulgarian Empire](/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire \"First Bulgarian Empire\"). Therefore, the battle was not fought around a town between the Byzantines and the Hungarian\\-Pecheneg army, but rather it was a battle between the Bulgarian Empire and the Byzantines against the Magyars and Pechenegs.Kristó Gyula: Levedi törzsszövetségétől Szent István Államáig; Magvető Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 1980, p. 270Györffy György, 2002 p. 98",
"It is possible that the exact location of the battle was [Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\"), as orientalist Mihály Kmoskó considered, due to the fact that its old Hungarian name has in it the old, Turkic name of the Bulgarians in the form used by the Hungarians: *nándor*, and although is not near to a sea, but it is on the [Danube](/wiki/Danube \"Danube\")'s bank, which could be understood as sea, plus the [Carpathian Mountains](/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains \"Carpathian Mountains\") and [Dinaric Alps](/wiki/Dinaric_Alps \"Dinaric Alps\") are also close, and the mountain of [Avala](/wiki/Avala \"Avala\"), and it was on the Hungarian border, so for its inhabitants would have been easy to attack their territories, as al\\-Masudi wrote. So in al\\-Masudi's text W.l.n.d.r could designate both the Bulgarians and the city of Belgrade, in some sentences designating the country, while others the city. But these are only suppositions. Josef Marquart identified the settlement with the fort [Develtos](/wiki/Develtos \"Develtos\") laid near [Burgas](/wiki/Burgas \"Burgas\"). Hansgerd Göckenjan and István Zimonyi considered [Bulgarophygon](/wiki/Bulgarophygon \"Bulgarophygon\") (Babaeski) as the place of battle, based on the data that the relief army reached the besieged city in eight days from [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\").B. Szabó János – Sudár Balázs, 2022 pp. 117–118\\.",
"### Belligerents",
"Al\\-Masudi writes about four [Turkic nations](/wiki/Turkic_peoples \"Turkic peoples\") (a term designate the nomadic culture and lifestyle), who took part in the battle against the Byzantines: \n* b.dʒ.n.k (بجناك), which can be identified with the name of the Pechenegs,\n* y.dʒ.n.i (يجنى) or b.dʒ.n.i (بجنى)Maszúdí. In Györffy György, 2002, p. 99 believed by the historians that also designates the **Pechenegs**,Györffy György, 2002, p. 98\n* b.dʒ.g.r.d (بجغرد), which can be identified with the name *Badjgird*, used very often by the Arab historians and geographers to designate the domestic name of the Hungarians: **Magyar** ([Ahmad ibn Fadlan](/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Fadlan \"Ahmad ibn Fadlan\"),Onuncu Asırda Türkistan'da bir İslâm Seyyahı. İbn Fazlan Seyahatnâmesi. Hazırlayan Ramazan Şeşen. Bedir Yayınevi, İstanbul 1975, p. 42 [Abu Zayd al\\-Balkhi](/wiki/Abu_Zayd_al-Balkhi \"Abu Zayd al-Balkhi\"),Balkhí. In Györffy György, 2002 p. 94 Abū Hamid al\\-Gharnāti,Adorján Imre, [Muzulmánok a magyarok közt. A kezdetektől az Árpád\\-kor végéig](http://terebess.hu/keletkultinfo/muzulmagy.html) Fejér Megyei Pedagógiai Szolgáltató Intézet, 1988 etc.) in the 9th–12th centuries. This name in the 10–13th centuries was used by the Arab geographers for two groups: the Hungarians living in the Carpathian Basin, and the Hungarians who lived between the [Kama River](/wiki/Kama_River \"Kama River\") and the [Ural Mountains](/wiki/Ural_Mountains \"Ural Mountains\") in the place called Magna Hungaria,Aradi Éva, [About the Territory of Magna Hungaria](http://epa.oszk.hu/01500/01521/00018/pdf/EPA01521_EurasianStudies_0213_009-043.pdf) [Journal of Eurasian Studies](/wiki/Journal_of_Eurasian_Studies \"Journal of Eurasian Studies\"). Volume \nV., Issue 2\\., April–June 2013, p. 10\\-21 who remained there and maybe they became the ancestors of the today [Bashkirs](/wiki/Bashkirs \"Bashkirs\"), like some believe. Maybe this is why the Hungarians and the people living in the early Middle Ages in today's [Bashkortostan](/wiki/Bashkortostan \"Bashkortostan\") were named the same.\n* nu.k.r.da (نوكردة), which original reading is probably *Unkaríya*, derives from the name *Onogur*/*Ungar*,Kristó Gyula, 1980, p. 269 designating the other name of the Magyars, in which they are known in the majority of the [European languages](/wiki/Languages_of_Europe \"Languages of Europe\"): *Hungarian*/*Ungar*/*венгерский*/*húngaro*/*hongrois*. So, the historians think that, in the same way as for the b.dʒ.n.k and b.dʒ.n.i/y.dʒ.n.i (for the Pechenegs), al\\-Masudi mistakenly thought that the two names of the same tribal confederation (*Magyar* and *Hungarian*) designate two different nations.",
"In contrast, Gyula Kristó argued that these two names actually designate the two main components of the [Principality of Hungary](/wiki/Principality_of_Hungary \"Principality of Hungary\"), forming the core of the Hungarian Nation: Magyars and [Onogurs](/wiki/Onogurs \"Onogurs\"). Many sources *(Vita Hrodberti episcopi Salisburgensis*,Szádeczky\\-Kardoss Samu: Az avar történelem forrásai, Magyar Őstörténeti Könyvtár, Balassi Kiadó, Budapest, 1998, p. 224 Vita St. Paulini,Szádeczky\\-Kardoss 1998, p. 297 Epitaphium Liutprandi regis Langobardorum,Szádeczky\\-Kardoss 1998, p. 266 *Annales Alamannici. Codex Modoetiensis*,Szádeczky\\-Kardoss 1998, p. 296 the Diploma of [Louis the German](/wiki/Louis_the_German \"Louis the German\") from 860Szádeczky\\-Kardoss 1998, p. 307) prove that the [Avars](/wiki/Pannonian_Avars \"Pannonian Avars\") in the Middle and Late Avar period (670–804\\) and after the Carolingian conquest from 804 were often called Onogurs.Róna\\-Tas András: A honfoglaló magyar nép; Balassi Kiadó, Budapest, 1996, p. 219\\-220 Therefore, the b.dʒ.g.r.d could refer to the newly settled Magyars (895\\) and nu.k.r.da (Onogurs) to the descendants of the Avars, which survived during the Caroling and Bulgarian occupation of much of the Carpathian Basin (804\\-900\\), becoming the components of the Magyars,Szabados György: Magyar államalapítások a IX\\-XI. században; Szegedi Középkori Könyvtár, Szeged, 2011, p. 114\\-120 and in the same time gave the name which the Europeans use for denominating this nation. It is not excluded, that in 934, when the battle took place, the Onogurs in Hungary still had a kind of autonomy, with their own leaders, which may explain the fact that al\\-Masudi sees them as a separate political entity with its own king.Maszúdí. In Györffy György, 2002, p. 98 Hungarian translation from the original Arabic: \"*A kazárok és az alánok nyugatról négy türk néppel határosak \\[...]. Közülük mindegyiknek (külön) királya van, s területük több napi járóföldre terjed\"*. English translation from the Hungarian: \"*The Khazars and the Alans are neighboured from West from four Turkic nations \\[...]. Every one of them has (his own) king, and their territories spread to lands which can be crossed in several days\"*. About the Hungarian campaign in the [Duchy of Saxony](/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxony \"Duchy of Saxony\") from 906, [Annalista Saxo](/wiki/Annalista_Saxo \"Annalista Saxo\") writes that of the two raiding Hungarian armies one was *Avar* and the second *Magyar*.Dümmerth Dezső: Álmos az áldozat; Panoráma, Budapest, 1986, p. 135\\-136 Hungarian translation from the original Latin: \"*A delemincusok felfogadták az avarokat, Saxonia hercege, Henrik ellen; ezek, miután sok öldöklést vittek véghez Saxoniában, roppant zsákmánnyal Dalamantia felé fordulván vissza, szembetalálkoztak a magyarok másik seregével\"*. English translation from the Hungarian: \"The Dalemnicians hired the **Avars\"**, against Henry, the prince of Saxony; and these, after they made many massacres in Saxony, when they returned in Dalamantia, met face in face with the other army of the **Magyars**\" This account could refer to the different ethnic component of the two armies which came from Hungary, and the fact that the successors of the Avars/Onogurs fought as separate armies under their own commanders, or the chronicler could not make difference between the Hungarian and Avar, and used when the one when the other name.",
"So as a response, to the question of who and how many were the nations who fought the **Byzantines** and the **Bulgarians**, the historians conclude that they were two nomadic political entities: the **[Principality of Hungary](/wiki/Principality_of_Hungary \"Principality of Hungary\")** and the **[Pecheneg Tribal Confederation](/wiki/Pechenegs \"Pechenegs\")**.",
"### Involvement of the Pechenegs",
"Al\\-Masudi writes that the Pechenegs were stronger and more warlike than the Hungarians. He also writes that in the battle of W.l.n.d.r participated the kings of the Pechenegs and the Hungarians, and, because the unsuccessfulness of the fights of the first day, in the second day of the battle, the lead of the troops was taken by the Pecheneg king, who led to victory the allied nomadic troops.Maszúdí. In Györffy György, 2002 p. 99\\-100 This information could be correct if there was no contradictory data from Byzantine chroniclers, about the campaign of 934, who write about the attack of the *Τούρκων* (Turks),Symeon Magister, 1838, p. 746 the name in which they name the Hungarians in the 9–10th centuries,Romsics Ignác, [A magyarok őstörténetéről. Bizonyosságok, hipotézisek, hiedelmek](http://www.matud.iif.hu/2014/05/01.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029033814/http://www.matud.iif.hu/2014/05/01\\.htm \\|date\\=2016\\-10\\-29 }} Magyar Tudomány; 175\\. évf., 2014/5, p. 521 but do not mention anything about the Pecheneg (called by the Byzantine historians Moesians, Sarmatians, or Scythians, but never as Turks)Elemér Illyés, [Ethnic Continuity in the Carpatho\\-Danubian Area](http://www.promacedonia.org/en/ei/ei_1.htm) Columbia University Press. East European Monographs; 2 edition, 1992, p. 3 participation in it. The fact that Byzantine chroniclers do not mention about the Pechenegs in this campaign, shows that their involvement was less important than al\\-Masudi writes. The Byzantines were directly implied in the events, and of course were much closer than al\\-Masudi who never terveled north to Caucasus, and took his information from others verbal accounts. Because the Hungarians were the westernmost participants of the events, it is probable that al\\-Masudi's informants did not met with them, and the information which they related to the Arab geographer, were taken from Pechenegs, who, of course, exaggerated their strength and importance in the battle. However the participation of the Pecheneg troops is confirmed by al\\-Masudi, but the information about the greater strength of the Pechenegs, their great scale participation, and the decisive importance of their leader in achieving the victory we have to take cautiously. The fact that the Pechenegs were not the leaders of this army is proven even by al\\-Masudi, when he writes that after the first day of the battle, the Pecheneg king asked for permission to make the battle plan for the second day, which request was granted to him.Maszúdí. In Györffy György, 2002 p. 100\\. Hungarian translation from the original Arabic: \"*A seregek éjjel is hadirendben maradtak, a négy király pedig haditanácsot tartott. A besenyők királya ezt mondta: \"Bízzátok rám a vezetést holnap korán reggel\". Ebbe bele is egyeztek.\"*. English translation from the Hungarian: \"During the night, the armies remained in battle order, and the four kings made a war council. The king of the Pechenegs said: \"Tomorrow early in the morning entrust me the lead\". They agreed.\" If the Pecheneg leader would be in charge, he would not had to ask permission to take over the lead of the army after the first day. The conclusion is that the campaign and the battle was led by a Hungarian commander, and the lead was given to the Pecheneg \"king\" only for the second day of the battle, after a common agreement. So, the Pecheneg commanders taking over the troops was only an exceptional case, and this contradict al\\-Masudi's affirmation about the Pecheneg superiority.",
"Some historians, basing on the accounts from *[De Administrando Imperio](/wiki/De_Administrando_Imperio \"De Administrando Imperio\")* of [Constantine VII](/wiki/Constantine_VII \"Constantine VII\"), believe that the Hungarians were afraid of the Pechenegs, because the events from 895, when the Pechenegs, called by the Bulgarians, drove away the Hungarians from their old lands, forcing them to move to the [Carpathian Basin](/wiki/Carpathian_Basin \"Carpathian Basin\"), and starting the [Hungarian Conquest](/wiki/Hungarian_conquest_of_the_Carpathian_Basin \"Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin\").Kristó Gyula, 1980, p. 182\\-189 And the same writing claims that the Hungarians were terrorized even to think about the possibility of a war between them and the Pechenegs.De Administrando Imperio. In Györffy György, 2002, p. 113 Hungarian translation from the original Greek: \"*\"Mi nem kezdünk ki a besenyőkkel; mert nem bírunk velük harcolni, minthogy nagy ország az, nagyszámú nép és gonosz fickók; többé ilyen beszédet ne mondj nekünk, mert nem kedvünkre való az\"\"*. English translation from the Hungarian: \"We do not pick a quarel with the Pechenegs; because they are too much for us, because they have a big country, are too numerous, and they are vicious guys; do not speak again things like this, because we do not like it\". But in the last years this question was researched by historians, and the conclusion was that the Byzantine accounts about the crushing defeat and the fear of the Hungarians from Pechenegs are overreacted, and sometimes even false.Szabados György, [A legyőzött magyarok, mint hódítók? The Administrando Imperio és a népvándorlások antik modellje (The defeated Hungarians as conquerors? De Administrando Imperio and the classic model of the Migrations)](http://real.mtak.hu/21158/1/Szabados_2014_bizanc_konftanulmany_proto_pdf_u_205640.730207.pdf) Olajos Terézia szerk.: A Kárpát\\-medence, a magyarság és Bizánc. The Carpathian Basin, the Hungarians and Byzantium. Szeged, 2014\\. (Acta Universitatis Szegediensis. Opuscula Byzantina XI.) 259–275 Al\\-Masudi's account too contradicts these claims from *De Administrando Imperio*: if the Hungarians were so terrorized by the Pechenegs, why would they enter in a war with them because the banal case of a foreign merchant? And if the Pechenegs felt so superior, why would they forgive the Hungarians for entering in a war with them, conclude peace with them in equal terms, moreover help them to avenge the Bulgarian attack on the Hungarian lands, letting them also to lead the campaign? In another contemporary work of a Byzantine emperor, *[Tactica](/wiki/Tactica_of_Emperor_Leo_VI_the_Wise \"Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise\")* of [Leo VI the Wise](/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise \"Leo VI the Wise\") written around 904, writes about the nations which use nomadic warfare: \"The Scythian peoples ..., usually live a nomadic life. \\[Among them] only the Bulgarians and the Turks \\[Hungarians] care about the battle order, which is similar by \\[the both of] them, and because of this, they fight the close combat with greater strength, and \\[only they] are ruled by a single person\".Györffy György, 2002, p. 107 So, according to this work, which because, unlike the *De Administrando Imperio*, which is about politics, is a book about war strategy, so is more relevant from the point of view of the question in discussion, the Pechenegs were weak in battle organisation and close combat, in which the Hungarians are presented as good. Also, according to Leo the Wise, the Hungarians had the advantage of having a single ruler, while the Pechenegs never united and obeid to their own tribe chiefs. This shows again that Al\\-Masudi and [Constantine VII](/wiki/Constantine_VII \"Constantine VII\") were wrong when they wrote that the Hungarians were weaker than the Pechenegs.",
"### Number of participants",
"Al\\-Masudi writes that the Hungarian–Pecheneg army was composed of 60,000 warriors, which they gathered with little effort, because if they would do a greater recruiting and concentration of troops, they could have 100,000 soldiers. It is known that in their campaign on a foreign country, the Hungarians never used their whole army, just a part of it, being aware of the fact that they have to leave a substantial number of warriors home, to defend their territory in case of a foreign attack. We have very few reliable accounts about the number of the Hungarian troops which took part in military actions of the period of the [Hungarian invasions of Europe](/wiki/Hungarian_invasions_of_Europe \"Hungarian invasions of Europe\"). For example, such informations like those given by the [Annales Sangallenses maiores](/wiki/Annales_Sangallenses_maiores \"Annales Sangallenses maiores\"), which write about 100,000 Hungarian warriors who took part in the [Battle of Lechfeld](/wiki/Battle_of_Lechfeld_%28955%29 \"Battle of Lechfeld (955)\") in 955,Annales Sanctgallenses Maiores. In Györffy György, 2002, p. 240 or 36,000 Hungarians killed in 933 in the [Battle of Riade](/wiki/Battle_of_Riade \"Battle of Riade\")Kristó Gyula, 1980, p. 268 are highly exaggerated. The fact that the Arab geographer and historian [Ahmad ibn Rustah](/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Rustah \"Ahmad ibn Rustah\") wrote that the whole force of the [Principality of Hungary](/wiki/Principality_of_Hungary \"Principality of Hungary\") at the beginning of the 10th century consisted from 20,000 warriors,Ibn Ruszta és Gardézi. In Györffy György, 2002, p. 86 Hungarian translation from the original Arabic: \"*Főnökük 20,000 lovassal vonul (lovagol) ki\"*. English translation from the Hungarian: \"Their commander marches (rides) with 20,000 riders\".Szabados György, 2011, p. 108\\-110 shows very well how exaggerated were the above\\-mentioned numbers. More reliable sources about the Hungarian raids in Europe tell about armies between 200The Complete Works of Luidprand of Cremona. Transl by Paolo Squatriti. The Catholic University of America Press, Washington D.C., 2007, p. 266 and 5,000\\.Chronicon Sagornini of John the Deacon. In Györffy György, 2002 p. 205 As for the Battle of Lechfeld from 955, about which many historians think that it was the battle from the period of the Hungarian invasions in which the most Hungarian warriors participated, the modern historians conclude, that the Magyars had not 100,000, as mentioned before, but 6,000\\-8,000 warriors.Négyesi Lajos, [Az augsburgi csata](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00023/17.htm) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények, 116\\. évf. 1\\. sz. / 2003 So an army of 60,000 nomadic warriors is certainly exaggerated, even if we take into consideration also the participation of the Pechenegs and the warriors recruited from the Muslim merchants. In conclusion in the Battle of W.l.n.d.r could not participate more than 8,000 Hungarians, taken together with maximum an equal number of Pecheneg warriors, and maybe 1,000\\-2,000 Muslims, it was at most **18,000**.",
"Al\\-Masudi writes that the Byzantine army consisted of 50,000 Greek soldiers plus 12,000 Arabs converted to Christianity, which fought as cavalry equipped with lances, and formed the vanguard of the army.Györffy György, 2002 p. 99 But, as shown before, we know that the Christian army had also Bulgarian troops. We can give right to al\\-Masudi, when he writes that the Byzantine\\-Bulgarian army was larger than the Hungarian\\-Pecheneg one, but it was not much bigger, maximum **20,000**.",
"### Date",
"Al\\-Masudi writes that the battle took place around the year of 320 after the [Hijra](/wiki/Hijra_%28Islam%29 \"Hijra (Islam)\") (932\\), or after that.Maszúdi. In. Györffy György, 2002 p. 99 The Byzantine chronicler [Symeon the Metaphrast](/wiki/Symeon_the_Metaphrast \"Symeon the Metaphrast\") writes that the anti\\-Byzantine campaign of the Hungarians took place in the \"seventh year of the [indiction](/wiki/Indiction \"Indiction\") in the month of April\".Symeon Magister, 1838, p. 756 Latin translation from Medieval Greek to Latin: \"*Mense Aprili, indictione septima...\"*. English translation from Latin: \"In \\[the month] April of the seventh indiction...\" The historians agree that the seventh indiction means that it was the year 934\\. So if we accept April as the date they entered in the territory of the Byzantine Empire, which than, because of the great extent of the First Bulgarian Empire after the death of its emperor [Simeon I](/wiki/Simeon_I_of_Bulgaria \"Simeon I of Bulgaria\"), was near to Constantinople, and take in consideration that a nomadic army of riders was moving really fast, even if they stopped on the road to plunder, they made the road maximum in a month, so there is an assumption that the Battle of W.l.n.d.r was fought between the end of February and beginning of April.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Gustavo, a patriotic Cuban communist, catches the eye of an attractive girl, Yolanda, at a rock concert where his brother Bobby is performing. Before he can approach her, the concert is broken up by police. Later Gustavo sees Yolanda in public, and befriends her. Gustavo tells his father Tomás, a psychiatrist widower, about his affections for Yolanda.
Yolanda and Gustavo disagree over Gustavo's communist views; they agree not to talk about politics. Gustavo is granted a scholarship to study at the [University in Prague](/wiki/Charles_University_in_Prague "Charles University in Prague"). Bobby complains to Gustavo that the police will not return his band’s equipment, preaching to him about the lack of freedom in Cuba. In protest, Bobby and his band are disruptive in public, leading to their arrest. Gustavo and Yolanda enjoy each other's company on the beach, though they are refused service at a bar that is for tourists only. A rich Italian businessman, Claudio, buys them two beers out of sympathy.
Tomás informs Gustavo that he is reluctantly accepting a job as a pianist at a tourist bar, as it pays considerably more than his job as a professional psychiatrist. Tomás is somewhat dismayed at the irony. Bobby is interrogated in prison, where he is beaten for his insubordination. Gustavo and Tomás bail him out. Yolanda is upset that Gustavo is leaving for Prague. She tells Gustavo that she dreams of living in Miami.
Bobby and his band deliberately infect themselves with [HIV](/wiki/HIV "HIV"), stating if they have to choose between "socialism or death", a popular slogan in Cuban propaganda, they choose death. Gustavo and Tomás are horrified. Gustavo and Yolanda go to a cheap hotel so they can have sex. Gustavo is too depressed, however. Instead he starts talking about his problems. Yolanda leaves. Gustavo looks for Yolanda at her home, but she is not there. He later sees her getting into a car with Claudio.
Gustavo confronts Yolanda, who says Claudio bought her just dinner, and that nothing happened. Police come to arrest Bobby, on the grounds that he has AIDS. Gustavo and Tomás visit Bobby in the detainment camp for people infected with AIDS. Bobby apologises for how his choice affected his family.
Gustavo, who eats leftovers in the kitchen where Tomás works as a pianist, sees Yolanda having dinner with Claudio through the kitchen window. Gustavo aggressively confronts Claudio, and is subsequently thrown out of the restaurant. The kitchen staff tell Gustavo that they see Yolanda there often, whoring herself out to tourists. Later Yolanda is seen crying in Claudio's apartment. Claudio is sympathetic, but cannot convince her to stay with him that night. Tomás is fired from his job. Gustavo's teacher tells him that due to his attacking Claudio his scholarship has been cancelled. Gustavo states he believes there never actually was a scholarship in the first place. His teacher admits there was no scholarship, but he had to pretend there was in order to keep his job.
Gustavo confronts Yolanda, who tells him Claudio has asked her to marry him, implying that she will accept for the financial security he can offer her. She asks Gustavo to forgive her. They spend the night together for the last time.
After being encouraged by Bobby to do so, Gustavo proposes to Yolanda. She accepts, but states she is leaving for Miami tomorrow, asking Gustavo to come with her. Gustavo refuses, stating things are so bad in Cuba because everybody leaves instead of fixing the problem. Yolanda and her parents board a rickety boat headed for Miami. Gustavo attends a speech made by Fidel Castro. A man in front of him has a pistol tucked into the back of his pants. Gustavo takes it, and runs towards where Castro is standing, aiming the gun at him. Gustavo is shot dead by a guard.
Text on screen informs the viewer that Yolanda and her family were intercepted by the [United States Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard "United States Coast Guard"), but were allowed to settle in America in August 1995\. They currently live in [Union City, New Jersey](/wiki/Union_City%2C_New_Jersey "Union City, New Jersey"). Gustavo was declared a traitor to Cuba, and the location of his remains are unknown. The film ends with old home\-video footage showing Yolanda and Gustavo enjoying each other's company on the beach.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Gustavo, a patriotic Cuban communist, catches the eye of an attractive girl, Yolanda, at a rock concert where his brother Bobby is performing. Before he can approach her, the concert is broken up by police. Later Gustavo sees Yolanda in public, and befriends her. Gustavo tells his father Tomás, a psychiatrist widower, about his affections for Yolanda.",
"Yolanda and Gustavo disagree over Gustavo's communist views; they agree not to talk about politics. Gustavo is granted a scholarship to study at the [University in Prague](/wiki/Charles_University_in_Prague \"Charles University in Prague\"). Bobby complains to Gustavo that the police will not return his band’s equipment, preaching to him about the lack of freedom in Cuba. In protest, Bobby and his band are disruptive in public, leading to their arrest. Gustavo and Yolanda enjoy each other's company on the beach, though they are refused service at a bar that is for tourists only. A rich Italian businessman, Claudio, buys them two beers out of sympathy.",
"Tomás informs Gustavo that he is reluctantly accepting a job as a pianist at a tourist bar, as it pays considerably more than his job as a professional psychiatrist. Tomás is somewhat dismayed at the irony. Bobby is interrogated in prison, where he is beaten for his insubordination. Gustavo and Tomás bail him out. Yolanda is upset that Gustavo is leaving for Prague. She tells Gustavo that she dreams of living in Miami.",
"Bobby and his band deliberately infect themselves with [HIV](/wiki/HIV \"HIV\"), stating if they have to choose between \"socialism or death\", a popular slogan in Cuban propaganda, they choose death. Gustavo and Tomás are horrified. Gustavo and Yolanda go to a cheap hotel so they can have sex. Gustavo is too depressed, however. Instead he starts talking about his problems. Yolanda leaves. Gustavo looks for Yolanda at her home, but she is not there. He later sees her getting into a car with Claudio.",
"Gustavo confronts Yolanda, who says Claudio bought her just dinner, and that nothing happened. Police come to arrest Bobby, on the grounds that he has AIDS. Gustavo and Tomás visit Bobby in the detainment camp for people infected with AIDS. Bobby apologises for how his choice affected his family.",
"Gustavo, who eats leftovers in the kitchen where Tomás works as a pianist, sees Yolanda having dinner with Claudio through the kitchen window. Gustavo aggressively confronts Claudio, and is subsequently thrown out of the restaurant. The kitchen staff tell Gustavo that they see Yolanda there often, whoring herself out to tourists. Later Yolanda is seen crying in Claudio's apartment. Claudio is sympathetic, but cannot convince her to stay with him that night. Tomás is fired from his job. Gustavo's teacher tells him that due to his attacking Claudio his scholarship has been cancelled. Gustavo states he believes there never actually was a scholarship in the first place. His teacher admits there was no scholarship, but he had to pretend there was in order to keep his job.",
"Gustavo confronts Yolanda, who tells him Claudio has asked her to marry him, implying that she will accept for the financial security he can offer her. She asks Gustavo to forgive her. They spend the night together for the last time.",
"After being encouraged by Bobby to do so, Gustavo proposes to Yolanda. She accepts, but states she is leaving for Miami tomorrow, asking Gustavo to come with her. Gustavo refuses, stating things are so bad in Cuba because everybody leaves instead of fixing the problem. Yolanda and her parents board a rickety boat headed for Miami. Gustavo attends a speech made by Fidel Castro. A man in front of him has a pistol tucked into the back of his pants. Gustavo takes it, and runs towards where Castro is standing, aiming the gun at him. Gustavo is shot dead by a guard.",
"Text on screen informs the viewer that Yolanda and her family were intercepted by the [United States Coast Guard](/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard \"United States Coast Guard\"), but were allowed to settle in America in August 1995\\. They currently live in [Union City, New Jersey](/wiki/Union_City%2C_New_Jersey \"Union City, New Jersey\"). Gustavo was declared a traitor to Cuba, and the location of his remains are unknown. The film ends with old home\\-video footage showing Yolanda and Gustavo enjoying each other's company on the beach.",
""
] |
Early life and career
---------------------
Kozhevnikova was born in 1984, in the family of a Soviet hockey player, two\-time Olympic champion, Merited Master of Sports [Alexander Kozhevnikov](/wiki/Aleksandr_Kozhevnikov_%28ice_hockey%29 "Aleksandr Kozhevnikov (ice hockey)") and English teacher Margarita Kozhevnikova.
Kozhevnikova's grandfather, Major General, participant of the Great Patriotic War Valentin Nikolaevich Trofimov (1923\-2013\).
Kozhevnikova has a brother and a sister.
Kozhevnikova is the "Master of Sports" in rhythmic gymnastics, champion of Moscow. Graduated from the RATI\-GITIS in 2006\.
In 2001, when Kozhevnikova was only a teenager, she starred in the video for the song "You Will Become An Adult" by the [Lyceum group](/wiki/Litsey "Litsey"). In 2002, Kozhevnikova chose RATI\-GITIS to participate in the Love Stories music group. In 2005, while studying at the institute, she began her career as an actress, participating in extras and playing secondary roles.
Kozhevnikova is known for her role in the Russian TV series "Univer".
In September 2009, The [Playboy](/wiki/Playboy "Playboy") magazine published eight photographs of Kozhevnikova, in five of which she is completely naked.
|
[
"Early life and career\n---------------------",
"Kozhevnikova was born in 1984, in the family of a Soviet hockey player, two\\-time Olympic champion, Merited Master of Sports [Alexander Kozhevnikov](/wiki/Aleksandr_Kozhevnikov_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Aleksandr Kozhevnikov (ice hockey)\") and English teacher Margarita Kozhevnikova.",
"Kozhevnikova's grandfather, Major General, participant of the Great Patriotic War Valentin Nikolaevich Trofimov (1923\\-2013\\).",
"Kozhevnikova has a brother and a sister.",
"Kozhevnikova is the \"Master of Sports\" in rhythmic gymnastics, champion of Moscow. Graduated from the RATI\\-GITIS in 2006\\.",
"In 2001, when Kozhevnikova was only a teenager, she starred in the video for the song \"You Will Become An Adult\" by the [Lyceum group](/wiki/Litsey \"Litsey\"). In 2002, Kozhevnikova chose RATI\\-GITIS to participate in the Love Stories music group. In 2005, while studying at the institute, she began her career as an actress, participating in extras and playing secondary roles.",
"Kozhevnikova is known for her role in the Russian TV series \"Univer\".",
"In September 2009, The [Playboy](/wiki/Playboy \"Playboy\") magazine published eight photographs of Kozhevnikova, in five of which she is completely naked.",
""
] |
Trackage
--------
By 1918 all track was in place with the exception of that between Hodgkins and Willow Springs, which had been removed. At that time the railroad owned {{convert\|12\.027\|mi\|km\|2}} of track, leased {{convert\|4\.758\|mi\|km\|2}}, and had trackage rights on {{convert\|9\.95\|mi\|km\|2}}. The general route was from Western Ave. in Chicago west along 35th St. to Cicero., south along Cicero Ave. to the Sanitary Canal, and then west along the canal through Stickney Township to Harlem Ave. There it crossed the Des Plaines River and went southwest parallel to it through Lyons and McCook to Hodgkins.{{sfnp\|ICC Vol. 149\|1929\|pp\=226\-227 and \[https://catalog.archives.gov/id/160924704 map]}}{{cite book\|title\=Englewood Quadrangle Illinois (Cook County)\|year\=1929\|publisher\=US Geological Survey\|url\= https://prd\-tnm.s3\.amazonaws.com/StagedProducts/Maps/HistoricalTopo/PDF/IL/24000/IL\_Englewood\_307540\_1929\_24000\_geo.pdf\|access\-date\=January 13, 2022}}{{cite book\|title\=Berwyn Quadrangle Illinois (Cook County)\|year\=1928\|publisher\=US Geological Survey\|url\= https://prd\-tnm.s3\.amazonaws.com/StagedProducts/Maps/HistoricalTopo/PDF/IL/24000/IL\_Berwyn\_307045\_1928\_24000\_geo.pdf\|access\-date\=January 13, 2022}}
The railroad's engine servicing and main yard were in Dolese and Shepard's Hawthorne Quarry, on the east side of Cicero Ave. from 30th St. to 33rd St. The area was bounded by [Western Electric](/wiki/Western_Electric "Western Electric")'s lumber and pole yard on the North, the [Belt Railway of Chicago](/wiki/Belt_Railway_of_Chicago "Belt Railway of Chicago") on the East, the [Illinois Central Railroad](/wiki/Illinois_Central_Railroad "Illinois Central Railroad") (now [CN Railway](/wiki/Canadian_National_Railway "Canadian National Railway")) on the South, and Cicero Ave. on the west.{{sfnp\|ICC Vol. 149\|1929\|pages\=230, 240}}{{cite book\|title\=Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Chicago, Illinois\|year\=1918\|publisher\=Sanborn Map\|page\=Vol. C Sheet 112}}
The eastern end of the tracks was a connection with the now defunct [Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad](/wiki/Pittsburgh%2C_Cincinnati%2C_Chicago_and_St._Louis_Railroad "Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad") (the "Panhandle Line", part of the [Pennsylvania Railroad system](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad "Pennsylvania Railroad")), from the southbound Panhandle it split west, crossing 31st Bvld. on a curving bridge, and then followed the Sanitary Canal. Just east of Damen Ave. they crossed the "Collateral Channel" (now a slip) on an unusual Rall bascule lift bridge.{{cite book\|title\=Map of City of Chicago\|year\=1940\|publisher\=Work Projects Admin.}}{{cite web\|title\=Chicago and Illinois Western Railway bridge\|url\=https://historicbridges.org/bridges/browser/?bridgebrowser\=illinois/rall/
\|website\=HistoricBridges.com\|date\=2022\|access\-date\=January 13, 2022}}
West of Damen Ave. the Illinois Central crossed over to the north side of the Sanitary Canal and ran west just south of 33rd St. The C\&IW crossed it and ran along its south side, switching heavy industry on the south side of the tracks.
At Central Park Ave. there was an interchange with the north–south [Illinois Northern Railroad](/wiki/Illinois_Northern_Railroad_%281901-1975%29 "Illinois Northern Railroad (1901-1975)").
In 1925 Pulaski Road was named Crawford Ave. Commonwealth Edison built a large coal generating plane east of Pulaski Rd., Peoples Gas Light and Coke (under common ownership) had one on the west side, and the C\&IW had a large yard west of Pulaski, switching coal to the plants. All three were named Crawford Ave. even after the 1952 name change.
The Belt Railway was the Chicago city limits, after the Illinois Railroad and Warehouse Commission gave approval to a crossing with the Belt Railway in 1913 the eastern part of the line could open in 1914\. When the line crossed the Belt Railway it curved south through an industrial area between the Belt Railroad and Cicero Ave. down to the sanitary canal. There the tracks turned southwest.{{cite book\|title\=43rd Annual Report of the Railroad and Warehouse Commission\|year\=1913\|publisher\=State of Illinois\|pages\=416–417}}
In 1930 the Sanitary District of Chicago (now [Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago](/wiki/Metropolitan_Water_Reclamation_District_of_Greater_Chicago "Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago")) opened its Stickney plant. The sanitary district has its own railroad which the C\&IW used for short distances switching outside traffic to the district, but the two railroads don't interchange cars.
At about Oak Park Ave. the [Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway "Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway") (now BNSF Railway) crossed over to the north side of the Sanitary Canal and went west. Just west of Harlem Ave. it crossed the Des Plaines River and generally followed along the north side of the river through Hodgkins and on to Joliet. The C\&IW ran along the north side of the Santa Fe southwest to Hodgkins, where it entered the Santa Fe's yard and ended.
Just east of today's 1st Ave. (Ill. 171\) the tracks turned farther south and continued into the C\&IW McCook yard. At the west end of the yard they crossed the north–south [Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad](/wiki/Indiana_Harbor_Belt_Railroad "Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad") and ran along the south side of the Dolese and Shepard (now [Vulcan Materials Company](/wiki/Vulcan_Materials_Company "Vulcan Materials Company")) and other quarries to the Santa Fe yard at Hodgkins.
The C\&IW had one branch line from the north–south section along Cicero Ave. Northbound traffic could, instead of curving to the east and crossing the Belt Railway at 33rd St., continue north, cross the Illinois Central, and run through the Hawthorne quarry to the [Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Burlington_and_Quincy_Railroad "Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad") (now [BNSF Railway](/wiki/BNSF_Railway "BNSF Railway")) and a connection with the [Manufacturers' Junction Railway](/wiki/Manufacturers%27_Junction_Railway "Manufacturers' Junction Railway") north of there.
|
[
"Trackage\n--------",
"By 1918 all track was in place with the exception of that between Hodgkins and Willow Springs, which had been removed. At that time the railroad owned {{convert\\|12\\.027\\|mi\\|km\\|2}} of track, leased {{convert\\|4\\.758\\|mi\\|km\\|2}}, and had trackage rights on {{convert\\|9\\.95\\|mi\\|km\\|2}}. The general route was from Western Ave. in Chicago west along 35th St. to Cicero., south along Cicero Ave. to the Sanitary Canal, and then west along the canal through Stickney Township to Harlem Ave. There it crossed the Des Plaines River and went southwest parallel to it through Lyons and McCook to Hodgkins.{{sfnp\\|ICC Vol. 149\\|1929\\|pp\\=226\\-227 and \\[https://catalog.archives.gov/id/160924704 map]}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Englewood Quadrangle Illinois (Cook County)\\|year\\=1929\\|publisher\\=US Geological Survey\\|url\\= https://prd\\-tnm.s3\\.amazonaws.com/StagedProducts/Maps/HistoricalTopo/PDF/IL/24000/IL\\_Englewood\\_307540\\_1929\\_24000\\_geo.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2022}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Berwyn Quadrangle Illinois (Cook County)\\|year\\=1928\\|publisher\\=US Geological Survey\\|url\\= https://prd\\-tnm.s3\\.amazonaws.com/StagedProducts/Maps/HistoricalTopo/PDF/IL/24000/IL\\_Berwyn\\_307045\\_1928\\_24000\\_geo.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2022}}",
"The railroad's engine servicing and main yard were in Dolese and Shepard's Hawthorne Quarry, on the east side of Cicero Ave. from 30th St. to 33rd St. The area was bounded by [Western Electric](/wiki/Western_Electric \"Western Electric\")'s lumber and pole yard on the North, the [Belt Railway of Chicago](/wiki/Belt_Railway_of_Chicago \"Belt Railway of Chicago\") on the East, the [Illinois Central Railroad](/wiki/Illinois_Central_Railroad \"Illinois Central Railroad\") (now [CN Railway](/wiki/Canadian_National_Railway \"Canadian National Railway\")) on the South, and Cicero Ave. on the west.{{sfnp\\|ICC Vol. 149\\|1929\\|pages\\=230, 240}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Sanborn Fire Insurance Map from Chicago, Illinois\\|year\\=1918\\|publisher\\=Sanborn Map\\|page\\=Vol. C Sheet 112}}",
"The eastern end of the tracks was a connection with the now defunct [Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad](/wiki/Pittsburgh%2C_Cincinnati%2C_Chicago_and_St._Louis_Railroad \"Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad\") (the \"Panhandle Line\", part of the [Pennsylvania Railroad system](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad \"Pennsylvania Railroad\")), from the southbound Panhandle it split west, crossing 31st Bvld. on a curving bridge, and then followed the Sanitary Canal. Just east of Damen Ave. they crossed the \"Collateral Channel\" (now a slip) on an unusual Rall bascule lift bridge.{{cite book\\|title\\=Map of City of Chicago\\|year\\=1940\\|publisher\\=Work Projects Admin.}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Chicago and Illinois Western Railway bridge\\|url\\=https://historicbridges.org/bridges/browser/?bridgebrowser\\=illinois/rall/\n\\|website\\=HistoricBridges.com\\|date\\=2022\\|access\\-date\\=January 13, 2022}}",
"West of Damen Ave. the Illinois Central crossed over to the north side of the Sanitary Canal and ran west just south of 33rd St. The C\\&IW crossed it and ran along its south side, switching heavy industry on the south side of the tracks.",
"At Central Park Ave. there was an interchange with the north–south [Illinois Northern Railroad](/wiki/Illinois_Northern_Railroad_%281901-1975%29 \"Illinois Northern Railroad (1901-1975)\").",
"In 1925 Pulaski Road was named Crawford Ave. Commonwealth Edison built a large coal generating plane east of Pulaski Rd., Peoples Gas Light and Coke (under common ownership) had one on the west side, and the C\\&IW had a large yard west of Pulaski, switching coal to the plants. All three were named Crawford Ave. even after the 1952 name change.",
"The Belt Railway was the Chicago city limits, after the Illinois Railroad and Warehouse Commission gave approval to a crossing with the Belt Railway in 1913 the eastern part of the line could open in 1914\\. When the line crossed the Belt Railway it curved south through an industrial area between the Belt Railroad and Cicero Ave. down to the sanitary canal. There the tracks turned southwest.{{cite book\\|title\\=43rd Annual Report of the Railroad and Warehouse Commission\\|year\\=1913\\|publisher\\=State of Illinois\\|pages\\=416–417}}",
"In 1930 the Sanitary District of Chicago (now [Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago](/wiki/Metropolitan_Water_Reclamation_District_of_Greater_Chicago \"Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago\")) opened its Stickney plant. The sanitary district has its own railroad which the C\\&IW used for short distances switching outside traffic to the district, but the two railroads don't interchange cars.",
"At about Oak Park Ave. the [Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway \"Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway\") (now BNSF Railway) crossed over to the north side of the Sanitary Canal and went west. Just west of Harlem Ave. it crossed the Des Plaines River and generally followed along the north side of the river through Hodgkins and on to Joliet. The C\\&IW ran along the north side of the Santa Fe southwest to Hodgkins, where it entered the Santa Fe's yard and ended.",
"Just east of today's 1st Ave. (Ill. 171\\) the tracks turned farther south and continued into the C\\&IW McCook yard. At the west end of the yard they crossed the north–south [Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad](/wiki/Indiana_Harbor_Belt_Railroad \"Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad\") and ran along the south side of the Dolese and Shepard (now [Vulcan Materials Company](/wiki/Vulcan_Materials_Company \"Vulcan Materials Company\")) and other quarries to the Santa Fe yard at Hodgkins.",
"The C\\&IW had one branch line from the north–south section along Cicero Ave. Northbound traffic could, instead of curving to the east and crossing the Belt Railway at 33rd St., continue north, cross the Illinois Central, and run through the Hawthorne quarry to the [Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Burlington_and_Quincy_Railroad \"Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad\") (now [BNSF Railway](/wiki/BNSF_Railway \"BNSF Railway\")) and a connection with the [Manufacturers' Junction Railway](/wiki/Manufacturers%27_Junction_Railway \"Manufacturers' Junction Railway\") north of there.",
""
] |
Attestations
------------
References to the ship occur in the *Poetic Edda*, the *Prose Edda*, and in *Heimskringla*. The ship is mentioned twice in the *Poetic Edda* and both incidents therein occur in the poem *[Grímnismál](/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l "Grímnismál")*. In *Grímnismál*, Odin (disguised as *[Grímnir](/wiki/List_of_names_of_Odin "List of names of Odin")*), tortured, starved, and thirsty, imparts in the young [Agnar](/wiki/Agnarr_Geirr%C3%B6%C3%B0sson "Agnarr Geirröðsson") cosmological knowledge, including information about the origin of the ship Skíðblaðnir:
{{quote\|
{{wikitable\|
\|
\[\[Benjamin Thorpe]] translation:
\[\[Sons of Ivaldi\|Ivaldi's sons]] went in days of old
Skidbladnir to form,
of ships the best, for the bright Frey,
\[\[Njörðr\|Niörd]]'s benign son.
\[\[Yggdrasil]]'s ash is of all trees the most excellent,
and of all ships, Skidbladnir.
of the \[\[Æsir]], \[\[Odin]],
and of horses, \[\[Sleipnir]],
\[\[Bifröst]] of bridges, and of \[\[skald\|skallds]] \[\[Bragi]],
\[\[Hábrók\|Hâbrôk]] of hawks, and of dogs, \[\[Garmr\|Garm]],
{{bracket\|\[\[Brimir]] of swords.}}Thorpe (1866:25\).
\|
\[\[Henry Adams Bellows (businessman)\|Henry Adams Bellows]] translation:
In days of old did Ivaldi's sons
Skithblathnir fashion fair,
The best of ships for the bright god Freyr,
The noble son of Njorth.
The best of trees must Yggdrasil be,
Skithblathnir best of boats;
Of all the gods is Othin the greatest,
And Sleipnir the best of steeds;
Bifrost of bridges, Bragi of skalds,
Hobrok of hawks, and Garm of hounds.Bellows (1923:101\).
}}
}}
*Skíðblaðnir* is mentioned several times in the *Prose Edda*, where it appears in the books *[Gylfaginning](/wiki/Gylfaginning "Gylfaginning")* and *[Skáldskaparmál](/wiki/Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l "Skáldskaparmál")*. The first mention of *Skíðblaðnir* in the *Poetic Edda* occurs in chapter 43, where the enthroned figure of [High](/wiki/High%2C_Just-As-High%2C_and_Third "High, Just-As-High, and Third") tells [Gangleri](/wiki/Gylfi "Gylfi") (king [Gylfi](/wiki/Gylfi "Gylfi") in disguise) that the god Odin is an important deity. High quotes the second of the above\-mentioned *Grímnismál* stanzas in support.Faulkes (1995:34\).
The boat is first directly addressed in chapter 43; there Gangleri asks that, if *Skíðblaðnir* is the best of ships, what there is to know about it, and asks if there is no other ship as good or as large as it. High responds that while *Skíðblaðnir* is the finest ship and the most ingeniously created, the biggest ship is in fact *[Naglfar](/wiki/Naglfar "Naglfar")*, which is owned by [Muspell](/wiki/Muspell "Muspell"). The Sons of Ivaldi, who High adds are [dwarfs](/wiki/Dwarf_%28Germanic_mythology%29 "Dwarf (Germanic mythology)"), crafted the ship and gave it to Freyr. High continues that the ship is big enough for all of the gods to travel aboard it with wargear and weapons in tow, and that, as soon as its sail is hoisted, the ship finds good wind, and goes wherever it need be. It is made up of so many parts and with such craftsmanship that, when it is not needed at sea, it may be folded up like cloth and placed into one's pocket. Gangleri comments that *Skíðblaðnir* sounds like a great ship, and that it must have taken a lot of magic to create something like it.Faulkes (1995:36–37\).
The next mention of the ship occurs in *Skáldskaparmál* where, in chapter 6, poetic ways of referring to Freyr are provided. Among other names, Freyr is referred to as "possessor of *Skidbladnir* and of the boar known as [Gullinbursti](/wiki/Gullinbursti "Gullinbursti")". The first of the two *Grímnismál* stanzas mentioned above is then provided as reference.Faulkes (1995:75\).
In chapter 35, a myth explaining *Skíðblaðnir*{{'}}s creation is provided. The chapter details that the god [Loki](/wiki/Loki "Loki") once cut off the goddess's [Sif](/wiki/Sif "Sif")'s hair in an act of mischief. Sif's husband, Thor, enraged, found Loki, caught hold of him, and threatened to break every last bone in his body. Loki promises to have the [Svartálfar](/wiki/Svart%C3%A1lfar "Svartálfar") make Sif a new head of hair that will grow just as any other. Loki goes to the dwarfs known as Ivaldi's sons, and they made not only Sif a new head of gold hair but also Skíðblaðnir and the spear [Gungnir](/wiki/Gungnir "Gungnir"). As the tale continues, Loki risks his neck for the creation of the devastating hammer [Mjöllnir](/wiki/Mj%C3%B6llnir "Mjöllnir"), the multiplying ring [Draupnir](/wiki/Draupnir "Draupnir"), and the speedy, sky\-and\-water traveling, bright\-bristled boar [Gullinbursti](/wiki/Gullinbursti "Gullinbursti"). In the end, Loki's wit saves him his head, but results in the stitching together of his lips. The newly created items are doled out by the dwarfs to Sif, Thor, Odin, and Freyr. Freyr is gifted both Gullinbursti and *Skíðblaðnir*, the latter of which is again said to receive fair wind whenever its sail was set, and that it will go wherever it needs to, and that it can be folded up much as cloth and placed in one's pocket at will.Faulkes (1995:96–97\).
*Skíðblaðnir* receives a final mention in *Skáldskaparmál* where, in chapter 75, it appears on a list of ships.Faulkes (1995:162\).
The ship gets a single mention in the *Heimskringla* book *[Ynglinga saga](/wiki/Ynglinga_saga "Ynglinga saga")*. In chapter 7, a [euhemerized](/wiki/Euhemerism "Euhemerism") Odin is said to have had various magical abilities, including that "he was also able with mere words to extinguish fires, to calm the sea, and to turn the winds any way he pleased. He had a ship called *Skíthblathnir* with which he sailed over great seas. It could be folded together like a cloth."Hollander (2007:10–11\).
|
[
"Attestations\n------------",
"References to the ship occur in the *Poetic Edda*, the *Prose Edda*, and in *Heimskringla*. The ship is mentioned twice in the *Poetic Edda* and both incidents therein occur in the poem *[Grímnismál](/wiki/Gr%C3%ADmnism%C3%A1l \"Grímnismál\")*. In *Grímnismál*, Odin (disguised as *[Grímnir](/wiki/List_of_names_of_Odin \"List of names of Odin\")*), tortured, starved, and thirsty, imparts in the young [Agnar](/wiki/Agnarr_Geirr%C3%B6%C3%B0sson \"Agnarr Geirröðsson\") cosmological knowledge, including information about the origin of the ship Skíðblaðnir:\n{{quote\\|\n{{wikitable\\|\n\\|\n\\[\\[Benjamin Thorpe]] translation:\n\\[\\[Sons of Ivaldi\\|Ivaldi's sons]] went in days of old\nSkidbladnir to form,\nof ships the best, for the bright Frey,\n\\[\\[Njörðr\\|Niörd]]'s benign son.\n\\[\\[Yggdrasil]]'s ash is of all trees the most excellent,\nand of all ships, Skidbladnir.\nof the \\[\\[Æsir]], \\[\\[Odin]],\nand of horses, \\[\\[Sleipnir]],\n\\[\\[Bifröst]] of bridges, and of \\[\\[skald\\|skallds]] \\[\\[Bragi]],\n\\[\\[Hábrók\\|Hâbrôk]] of hawks, and of dogs, \\[\\[Garmr\\|Garm]],\n{{bracket\\|\\[\\[Brimir]] of swords.}}Thorpe (1866:25\\).\n\\|\n\\[\\[Henry Adams Bellows (businessman)\\|Henry Adams Bellows]] translation:\nIn days of old did Ivaldi's sons\nSkithblathnir fashion fair,\nThe best of ships for the bright god Freyr,\nThe noble son of Njorth.\nThe best of trees must Yggdrasil be,\nSkithblathnir best of boats;\nOf all the gods is Othin the greatest,\nAnd Sleipnir the best of steeds;\nBifrost of bridges, Bragi of skalds,\nHobrok of hawks, and Garm of hounds.Bellows (1923:101\\).\n}}\n}}\n*Skíðblaðnir* is mentioned several times in the *Prose Edda*, where it appears in the books *[Gylfaginning](/wiki/Gylfaginning \"Gylfaginning\")* and *[Skáldskaparmál](/wiki/Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l \"Skáldskaparmál\")*. The first mention of *Skíðblaðnir* in the *Poetic Edda* occurs in chapter 43, where the enthroned figure of [High](/wiki/High%2C_Just-As-High%2C_and_Third \"High, Just-As-High, and Third\") tells [Gangleri](/wiki/Gylfi \"Gylfi\") (king [Gylfi](/wiki/Gylfi \"Gylfi\") in disguise) that the god Odin is an important deity. High quotes the second of the above\\-mentioned *Grímnismál* stanzas in support.Faulkes (1995:34\\).",
"The boat is first directly addressed in chapter 43; there Gangleri asks that, if *Skíðblaðnir* is the best of ships, what there is to know about it, and asks if there is no other ship as good or as large as it. High responds that while *Skíðblaðnir* is the finest ship and the most ingeniously created, the biggest ship is in fact *[Naglfar](/wiki/Naglfar \"Naglfar\")*, which is owned by [Muspell](/wiki/Muspell \"Muspell\"). The Sons of Ivaldi, who High adds are [dwarfs](/wiki/Dwarf_%28Germanic_mythology%29 \"Dwarf (Germanic mythology)\"), crafted the ship and gave it to Freyr. High continues that the ship is big enough for all of the gods to travel aboard it with wargear and weapons in tow, and that, as soon as its sail is hoisted, the ship finds good wind, and goes wherever it need be. It is made up of so many parts and with such craftsmanship that, when it is not needed at sea, it may be folded up like cloth and placed into one's pocket. Gangleri comments that *Skíðblaðnir* sounds like a great ship, and that it must have taken a lot of magic to create something like it.Faulkes (1995:36–37\\).",
"The next mention of the ship occurs in *Skáldskaparmál* where, in chapter 6, poetic ways of referring to Freyr are provided. Among other names, Freyr is referred to as \"possessor of *Skidbladnir* and of the boar known as [Gullinbursti](/wiki/Gullinbursti \"Gullinbursti\")\". The first of the two *Grímnismál* stanzas mentioned above is then provided as reference.Faulkes (1995:75\\).",
"In chapter 35, a myth explaining *Skíðblaðnir*{{'}}s creation is provided. The chapter details that the god [Loki](/wiki/Loki \"Loki\") once cut off the goddess's [Sif](/wiki/Sif \"Sif\")'s hair in an act of mischief. Sif's husband, Thor, enraged, found Loki, caught hold of him, and threatened to break every last bone in his body. Loki promises to have the [Svartálfar](/wiki/Svart%C3%A1lfar \"Svartálfar\") make Sif a new head of hair that will grow just as any other. Loki goes to the dwarfs known as Ivaldi's sons, and they made not only Sif a new head of gold hair but also Skíðblaðnir and the spear [Gungnir](/wiki/Gungnir \"Gungnir\"). As the tale continues, Loki risks his neck for the creation of the devastating hammer [Mjöllnir](/wiki/Mj%C3%B6llnir \"Mjöllnir\"), the multiplying ring [Draupnir](/wiki/Draupnir \"Draupnir\"), and the speedy, sky\\-and\\-water traveling, bright\\-bristled boar [Gullinbursti](/wiki/Gullinbursti \"Gullinbursti\"). In the end, Loki's wit saves him his head, but results in the stitching together of his lips. The newly created items are doled out by the dwarfs to Sif, Thor, Odin, and Freyr. Freyr is gifted both Gullinbursti and *Skíðblaðnir*, the latter of which is again said to receive fair wind whenever its sail was set, and that it will go wherever it needs to, and that it can be folded up much as cloth and placed in one's pocket at will.Faulkes (1995:96–97\\).",
"*Skíðblaðnir* receives a final mention in *Skáldskaparmál* where, in chapter 75, it appears on a list of ships.Faulkes (1995:162\\).",
"The ship gets a single mention in the *Heimskringla* book *[Ynglinga saga](/wiki/Ynglinga_saga \"Ynglinga saga\")*. In chapter 7, a [euhemerized](/wiki/Euhemerism \"Euhemerism\") Odin is said to have had various magical abilities, including that \"he was also able with mere words to extinguish fires, to calm the sea, and to turn the winds any way he pleased. He had a ship called *Skíthblathnir* with which he sailed over great seas. It could be folded together like a cloth.\"Hollander (2007:10–11\\).",
""
] |
Life and work
-------------
Jeremy Brooks was born in Southampton in 1926 and went to Brighton Grammar School until, with the onset of World War II, he was evacuated with his family to Llandudno in North Wales, where he attended John Bright school. School was followed immediately by military training and service in the Navy, where he saw the last years of the war from the deck of a minesweeper in the Mediterranean (an experience that provided material for his novel, *Smith, As Hero*).
After the war Brooks went on a navy scholarship to Oxford, where his English tutor was [C. S. Lewis](/wiki/C._S._Lewis "C. S. Lewis"). He then attended Camberwell School of Art, where his wife, the painter [Eleanor Brooks](https://artuk.org/discover/artists/brooks-eleanor-b-1925) (née Nevile), was also a student (although they did not meet at that time). He and Eleanor were married in 1950 and, after a spell on a Houseboat on the Thames, they eventually set up home in a near\-derelict and remote cottage in North Wales on the estate of Clough Williams Ellis (the architect and creator of the [Portmeirion](/wiki/Portmeirion "Portmeirion") hotel), where his wife still lives today.
Throughout the fifties, living in near\-poverty with three young children, Brooks pursued his writing. Critical success came with his second novel, [*Jampot Smith*](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Jampot-Smith-Library-Wales/dp/190576250X) (recently republished in the Library of Wales classics series). This led to opportunities for paid work and the family eventually moved to London, with the manuscript of his third novel (*Henry’s War*, 1962\) lying on the back shelf of the car (where a bottle of his wife's ink slowly seeped into it for the duration of the journey, obliterating all but the edges of each page of tissue\-thin typing paper – a disaster that Brooks later said had resulted in a better book).
Now settled in London, Brooks wrote his fourth novel (*Smith, As Hero*, 1964\) and worked for *New Statesman*, *The Sunday Times* and the [Royal Shakespeare Company](/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company "Royal Shakespeare Company") at the Aldwych, becoming Literary Manager there in 1964\. As such, he was closely involved with the important figures of the theatre world throughout much of the sixties and seventies, particularly [Peter Hall](/wiki/Peter_Hall_%28director%29 "Peter Hall (director)") and [Trevor Nunn](/wiki/Trevor_Nunn "Trevor Nunn"), but also David Jones, Terry Hands, Adrian Noble, Clifford Williams, David Hare, David Edgar.
This was a period of great upheaval in establishment theatre, with ground\-breaking productions coming thick and fast ([Peter Brook](/wiki/Peter_Brook "Peter Brook")'s *Midsummer Night's Dream* and *Marat\-Sade*; works by Harold Pinter and Edward Bond; *As You Like It* with an all\-male cast; Tom Stoppard's *Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead*) and the politics of the counter culture sometimes interfering with the smooth running of the RSC. For Brooks the writer, this was too much distraction and he left the RSC sometime in the early seventies to concentrate on his own projects (among them an unfinished manuscript that deals in a highly personal and semi\-fictionalised way with his time at the RSC). During all this time and on through the eighties, Brooks directed his creative energies largely towards theatre and film projects. He had never made any money from his novels (not even from *Smith As Hero* which spent time on the best\-seller lists) and now with a family of four children, he needed to earn. He wrote screenplays (*[Our Mother's House](/wiki/Our_Mother%27s_House "Our Mother's House")*; *Work is a Four Letter Word*); television scripts for directors such as [Karel Reisz](/wiki/Karel_Reisz "Karel Reisz") and [Ken Loach](/wiki/Ken_Loach "Ken Loach") and a great number of important and memorable adaptations of classics for the stage (*The Lower Depths*, *The Government Inspector* (with [Paul Scofield](/wiki/Paul_Scofield "Paul Scofield")), *Enemies* (with a young [Helen Mirren](/wiki/Helen_Mirren "Helen Mirren")), *The Forest*, *A Child's Christmas in Wales* (co\-written with Adrian Mitchell), *The Cherry Orchard*, *Medea*, *The Wind in the Willows* and many more). The majority of these were for the RSC, where he worked closely with the director David Jones, but in later life he formed a fruitful relationship with Theatre Clwyd at Mold. This took him back to North Wales, where he died in 1994\.
Throughout his life, Brooks also wrote poetry (as a schoolboy he had won an [Eisteddfod](/wiki/Eisteddfod "Eisteddfod") poetry competition) and although during the 1950s many of his poems were published in poetry magazines such as *Elegebra*, he subsequently never sought its publication, poetry being, for him, a very personal and private pursuit. Moreover, only his earlier poetic work survives (collected in a privately published edition, *[Wales 1950](http://www.gwales.com/goto/biblio/en/9780954901707/)*, Rugosa Press, 2008\), an unpublished collection of his poems written throughout the 1960s having been stolen and never recovered.
|
[
"Life and work\n-------------",
"Jeremy Brooks was born in Southampton in 1926 and went to Brighton Grammar School until, with the onset of World War II, he was evacuated with his family to Llandudno in North Wales, where he attended John Bright school. School was followed immediately by military training and service in the Navy, where he saw the last years of the war from the deck of a minesweeper in the Mediterranean (an experience that provided material for his novel, *Smith, As Hero*).",
"After the war Brooks went on a navy scholarship to Oxford, where his English tutor was [C. S. Lewis](/wiki/C._S._Lewis \"C. S. Lewis\"). He then attended Camberwell School of Art, where his wife, the painter [Eleanor Brooks](https://artuk.org/discover/artists/brooks-eleanor-b-1925) (née Nevile), was also a student (although they did not meet at that time). He and Eleanor were married in 1950 and, after a spell on a Houseboat on the Thames, they eventually set up home in a near\\-derelict and remote cottage in North Wales on the estate of Clough Williams Ellis (the architect and creator of the [Portmeirion](/wiki/Portmeirion \"Portmeirion\") hotel), where his wife still lives today.",
"Throughout the fifties, living in near\\-poverty with three young children, Brooks pursued his writing. Critical success came with his second novel, [*Jampot Smith*](https://www.amazon.co.uk/Jampot-Smith-Library-Wales/dp/190576250X) (recently republished in the Library of Wales classics series). This led to opportunities for paid work and the family eventually moved to London, with the manuscript of his third novel (*Henry’s War*, 1962\\) lying on the back shelf of the car (where a bottle of his wife's ink slowly seeped into it for the duration of the journey, obliterating all but the edges of each page of tissue\\-thin typing paper – a disaster that Brooks later said had resulted in a better book).",
"Now settled in London, Brooks wrote his fourth novel (*Smith, As Hero*, 1964\\) and worked for *New Statesman*, *The Sunday Times* and the [Royal Shakespeare Company](/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company \"Royal Shakespeare Company\") at the Aldwych, becoming Literary Manager there in 1964\\. As such, he was closely involved with the important figures of the theatre world throughout much of the sixties and seventies, particularly [Peter Hall](/wiki/Peter_Hall_%28director%29 \"Peter Hall (director)\") and [Trevor Nunn](/wiki/Trevor_Nunn \"Trevor Nunn\"), but also David Jones, Terry Hands, Adrian Noble, Clifford Williams, David Hare, David Edgar.",
"This was a period of great upheaval in establishment theatre, with ground\\-breaking productions coming thick and fast ([Peter Brook](/wiki/Peter_Brook \"Peter Brook\")'s *Midsummer Night's Dream* and *Marat\\-Sade*; works by Harold Pinter and Edward Bond; *As You Like It* with an all\\-male cast; Tom Stoppard's *Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead*) and the politics of the counter culture sometimes interfering with the smooth running of the RSC. For Brooks the writer, this was too much distraction and he left the RSC sometime in the early seventies to concentrate on his own projects (among them an unfinished manuscript that deals in a highly personal and semi\\-fictionalised way with his time at the RSC). During all this time and on through the eighties, Brooks directed his creative energies largely towards theatre and film projects. He had never made any money from his novels (not even from *Smith As Hero* which spent time on the best\\-seller lists) and now with a family of four children, he needed to earn. He wrote screenplays (*[Our Mother's House](/wiki/Our_Mother%27s_House \"Our Mother's House\")*; *Work is a Four Letter Word*); television scripts for directors such as [Karel Reisz](/wiki/Karel_Reisz \"Karel Reisz\") and [Ken Loach](/wiki/Ken_Loach \"Ken Loach\") and a great number of important and memorable adaptations of classics for the stage (*The Lower Depths*, *The Government Inspector* (with [Paul Scofield](/wiki/Paul_Scofield \"Paul Scofield\")), *Enemies* (with a young [Helen Mirren](/wiki/Helen_Mirren \"Helen Mirren\")), *The Forest*, *A Child's Christmas in Wales* (co\\-written with Adrian Mitchell), *The Cherry Orchard*, *Medea*, *The Wind in the Willows* and many more). The majority of these were for the RSC, where he worked closely with the director David Jones, but in later life he formed a fruitful relationship with Theatre Clwyd at Mold. This took him back to North Wales, where he died in 1994\\.",
"Throughout his life, Brooks also wrote poetry (as a schoolboy he had won an [Eisteddfod](/wiki/Eisteddfod \"Eisteddfod\") poetry competition) and although during the 1950s many of his poems were published in poetry magazines such as *Elegebra*, he subsequently never sought its publication, poetry being, for him, a very personal and private pursuit. Moreover, only his earlier poetic work survives (collected in a privately published edition, *[Wales 1950](http://www.gwales.com/goto/biblio/en/9780954901707/)*, Rugosa Press, 2008\\), an unpublished collection of his poems written throughout the 1960s having been stolen and never recovered.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
*Cities* is a role\-playing supplement that is "generic" in nature — that is, it is not designed for any specific role\-playing game system. Two editions of the book were published by Midkemia Press, in 1979 and 1983; [Chaosium](/wiki/Chaosium "Chaosium") published a third edition in 1986 titled *Cities: Create and Explore Your Own Fantasy Communities*.
The book provides information about urban centres — villages, towns and cities — that can be used by a [gamemaster](/wiki/Gamemaster "Gamemaster") to design an adventure or campaign.
### 1st \& 2nd (Midkemia) editions
These editions were written by Stephen Abrams, April Abrams, and Jon Everson, and are divided into several sections. The first is "Encounters", a table of 28 encounters that might befall a party of adventurers — the town watch, an aristocrat, pilgrims, etc. Each encounter also has several specific events that can be used as story hooks to draw the characters into an adventure. For example, "Characters see a slaver beating a slave."
The second section, "Cities, Towns and Villages: Building Your Own", provides details on how the gamemaster can design either a small village of up to 400 people, or —using a different system — how to design a town or city. These include details of the open market or bazaar, and typical businesses and shops that would be found, in three economic stratas: wealthy, merchant and poor. There are also descriptions of several specialized urban centres such as a fishing village.
The third section, "City Catch\-up Tables", is a series of tables to randomly determine how a character spends his or her time when not involved in an adventure, including employment status and earnings, savings and weekly costs. There are also tables to indicate whether an unusual event has happened to the character such as illness, being accused of a crime, or offending someone.
The appendices provide a variety of tables and charts that cover a number of subjects, including information a selection of inns and taverns, stables, and occupational backgrounds.
### 3rd (Chaosium) edition
The third edition was written by Stephen Abrams and Jon Everson, and follows a structure similar to the first two editions. The first section is still "Encounters", although the number and type of encounters has been expanded.
The second section, "Populating Villages, Towns and Cities", is a set of charts and guidelines for randomly developing an urban area with shops and residences.
The third section, "Character Catch\-up", serves the same purpose as the first two editions.
### 4th (Avalon Hill) edition
The fourth edition was published by [Avalon Hill](/wiki/Avalon_Hill "Avalon Hill") as *RuneQuest Cities* in 1988 for the *[RuneQuest](/wiki/RuneQuest "RuneQuest")* role\-playing game.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"*Cities* is a role\\-playing supplement that is \"generic\" in nature — that is, it is not designed for any specific role\\-playing game system. Two editions of the book were published by Midkemia Press, in 1979 and 1983; [Chaosium](/wiki/Chaosium \"Chaosium\") published a third edition in 1986 titled *Cities: Create and Explore Your Own Fantasy Communities*.",
"The book provides information about urban centres — villages, towns and cities — that can be used by a [gamemaster](/wiki/Gamemaster \"Gamemaster\") to design an adventure or campaign.",
"### 1st \\& 2nd (Midkemia) editions",
"These editions were written by Stephen Abrams, April Abrams, and Jon Everson, and are divided into several sections. The first is \"Encounters\", a table of 28 encounters that might befall a party of adventurers — the town watch, an aristocrat, pilgrims, etc. Each encounter also has several specific events that can be used as story hooks to draw the characters into an adventure. For example, \"Characters see a slaver beating a slave.\"",
"The second section, \"Cities, Towns and Villages: Building Your Own\", provides details on how the gamemaster can design either a small village of up to 400 people, or —using a different system — how to design a town or city. These include details of the open market or bazaar, and typical businesses and shops that would be found, in three economic stratas: wealthy, merchant and poor. There are also descriptions of several specialized urban centres such as a fishing village.",
"The third section, \"City Catch\\-up Tables\", is a series of tables to randomly determine how a character spends his or her time when not involved in an adventure, including employment status and earnings, savings and weekly costs. There are also tables to indicate whether an unusual event has happened to the character such as illness, being accused of a crime, or offending someone.",
"The appendices provide a variety of tables and charts that cover a number of subjects, including information a selection of inns and taverns, stables, and occupational backgrounds.",
"### 3rd (Chaosium) edition",
"The third edition was written by Stephen Abrams and Jon Everson, and follows a structure similar to the first two editions. The first section is still \"Encounters\", although the number and type of encounters has been expanded.",
"The second section, \"Populating Villages, Towns and Cities\", is a set of charts and guidelines for randomly developing an urban area with shops and residences.",
"The third section, \"Character Catch\\-up\", serves the same purpose as the first two editions.",
"### 4th (Avalon Hill) edition",
"The fourth edition was published by [Avalon Hill](/wiki/Avalon_Hill \"Avalon Hill\") as *RuneQuest Cities* in 1988 for the *[RuneQuest](/wiki/RuneQuest \"RuneQuest\")* role\\-playing game.",
""
] |
History
-------
John Cennick, a teacher at the Moravian School for the children of miners in [Kingswood](/wiki/Kingswood%2C_South_Gloucestershire "Kingswood, South Gloucestershire"), worked alongside [John Wesley](/wiki/John_Wesley "John Wesley") in the evangelical revival in the Bristol area of England. He subsequently became a Minister of the Moravian Church. In 1746, he was sent to Dublin to preach in an evangelical campaign in Ireland. This work resulted in Moravian societies in counties [Antrim](/wiki/County_Antrim "County Antrim"), [Down](/wiki/County_Down "County Down"), [Londonderry](/wiki/County_Londonderry "County Londonderry"), [Armagh](/wiki/County_Armagh "County Armagh"), [Tyrone](/wiki/County_Tyrone "County Tyrone"), [Cavan](/wiki/County_Cavan "County Cavan") and [Donegal](/wiki/County_Donegal "County Donegal").
Cennick founded the Kilwarlin congregation in 1755 and built a church for it. In 1759, the congregation purchased some land for a burial ground. There was also a [manse](/wiki/Manse "Manse") for the minister's residence. About eighty people attended the church. However, by 1834, the buildings were in ruins and only six members remained.
Kilwarlin's renewal came with the arrival of a new minister, Basil Patras Zula.
Zula, born in 1796, was a Greek chieftain who had fought in the [War of Independence](/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence "Greek War of Independence") against the [Turks](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"). The Turkish commander put a price on Zula's head and this, together with subsequent ambushes, appears to have induced a nervous state of mind for the remainder of the latter's life. He spent some time hiding in Italy but, in 1822, returned to Greece to take part in the [siege of Missolonghi](/wiki/Third_siege_of_Missolonghi "Third siege of Missolonghi"). The slaughter revolting him, he went to [Smyrna](/wiki/Smyrna "Smyrna") where he met an Englishman, Sir William Eden. Eden returned to England in 1828, taking Zula with him, and, from there, the two men went to Ireland.
In Dublin, Zula met a Moravian school teacher called Ann Linfoot who knew Greek and was able to converse with him. Linfoot invited Zula to attend services at the Bishop Street Moravian Church in Dublin. Joining the congregation, Zula eventually offered himself for service as a Minister of the Moravian Church and was accepted. In 1829, he married Ann Linfoot and, in 1834, the couple accepted a call to serve the Kilwarlin congregation.
[thumb\|left\|Zula's groundworks at Kilwarlin after Thermopylæ](/wiki/Image:Kilwarlin_grounds.jpg "Kilwarlin grounds.jpg")
A new church was built and opened for worship in March 1835\. Twenty\-six new members joined the congregation on the same day. The congregation continued to expand and, in January 1837, Zula was ordained by Hans Peter Hallbeck, a Moravian bishop from South Africa.
When rebuilding Kilwarlin Manse, Zula incorporated 'a number of escape mechanisms{{thinsp\|—}}two doors in all the downstairs rooms, two separate staircases and outside at the back a small room built on stilts with a trap\-door leading to a hiding place under the floor'. Zula never had to put these devices to use and died naturally in Dublin on 4 October 1844\. His body was brought back to Kilwarlin for burial. His widow, Ann, continued to live in the manse and ran a boarding school for 'Select Young Ladies' until her own death in 1858\.
A curious feature of Kilwarlin Moravian Church is that Zula, at his own expense, had the grounds landscaped to represent the terrain of the ancient [Battle of Thermopylæ](/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae "Battle of Thermopylae") in which the [Spartan](/wiki/Sparta "Sparta") army saved [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens") from attack by the [Persians](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire "Achaemenid Empire").{{Cite web \|title\=Kilwarlin Moravian Church \|url\=http://www.lisburn.com/churches/Lisburn\-churches/kilwarlin\-moravian\-church.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411204747/http://www.lisburn.com/churches/Lisburn\-churches/kilwarlin\-moravian\-church.html \|archive\-date\=2021\-04\-11 \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-13 \|website\=Lisburn.com \|language\=en}} Most of the landscaping still remains.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"John Cennick, a teacher at the Moravian School for the children of miners in [Kingswood](/wiki/Kingswood%2C_South_Gloucestershire \"Kingswood, South Gloucestershire\"), worked alongside [John Wesley](/wiki/John_Wesley \"John Wesley\") in the evangelical revival in the Bristol area of England. He subsequently became a Minister of the Moravian Church. In 1746, he was sent to Dublin to preach in an evangelical campaign in Ireland. This work resulted in Moravian societies in counties [Antrim](/wiki/County_Antrim \"County Antrim\"), [Down](/wiki/County_Down \"County Down\"), [Londonderry](/wiki/County_Londonderry \"County Londonderry\"), [Armagh](/wiki/County_Armagh \"County Armagh\"), [Tyrone](/wiki/County_Tyrone \"County Tyrone\"), [Cavan](/wiki/County_Cavan \"County Cavan\") and [Donegal](/wiki/County_Donegal \"County Donegal\").",
"Cennick founded the Kilwarlin congregation in 1755 and built a church for it. In 1759, the congregation purchased some land for a burial ground. There was also a [manse](/wiki/Manse \"Manse\") for the minister's residence. About eighty people attended the church. However, by 1834, the buildings were in ruins and only six members remained.",
"Kilwarlin's renewal came with the arrival of a new minister, Basil Patras Zula.",
"Zula, born in 1796, was a Greek chieftain who had fought in the [War of Independence](/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence \"Greek War of Independence\") against the [Turks](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\"). The Turkish commander put a price on Zula's head and this, together with subsequent ambushes, appears to have induced a nervous state of mind for the remainder of the latter's life. He spent some time hiding in Italy but, in 1822, returned to Greece to take part in the [siege of Missolonghi](/wiki/Third_siege_of_Missolonghi \"Third siege of Missolonghi\"). The slaughter revolting him, he went to [Smyrna](/wiki/Smyrna \"Smyrna\") where he met an Englishman, Sir William Eden. Eden returned to England in 1828, taking Zula with him, and, from there, the two men went to Ireland.",
"In Dublin, Zula met a Moravian school teacher called Ann Linfoot who knew Greek and was able to converse with him. Linfoot invited Zula to attend services at the Bishop Street Moravian Church in Dublin. Joining the congregation, Zula eventually offered himself for service as a Minister of the Moravian Church and was accepted. In 1829, he married Ann Linfoot and, in 1834, the couple accepted a call to serve the Kilwarlin congregation.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Zula's groundworks at Kilwarlin after Thermopylæ](/wiki/Image:Kilwarlin_grounds.jpg \"Kilwarlin grounds.jpg\")",
"A new church was built and opened for worship in March 1835\\. Twenty\\-six new members joined the congregation on the same day. The congregation continued to expand and, in January 1837, Zula was ordained by Hans Peter Hallbeck, a Moravian bishop from South Africa.",
"When rebuilding Kilwarlin Manse, Zula incorporated 'a number of escape mechanisms{{thinsp\\|—}}two doors in all the downstairs rooms, two separate staircases and outside at the back a small room built on stilts with a trap\\-door leading to a hiding place under the floor'. Zula never had to put these devices to use and died naturally in Dublin on 4 October 1844\\. His body was brought back to Kilwarlin for burial. His widow, Ann, continued to live in the manse and ran a boarding school for 'Select Young Ladies' until her own death in 1858\\.",
"A curious feature of Kilwarlin Moravian Church is that Zula, at his own expense, had the grounds landscaped to represent the terrain of the ancient [Battle of Thermopylæ](/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae \"Battle of Thermopylae\") in which the [Spartan](/wiki/Sparta \"Sparta\") army saved [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\") from attack by the [Persians](/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire \"Achaemenid Empire\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kilwarlin Moravian Church \\|url\\=http://www.lisburn.com/churches/Lisburn\\-churches/kilwarlin\\-moravian\\-church.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411204747/http://www.lisburn.com/churches/Lisburn\\-churches/kilwarlin\\-moravian\\-church.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-13 \\|website\\=Lisburn.com \\|language\\=en}} Most of the landscaping still remains.",
""
] |
Library
-------
### Characteristics
The public library is an important cultural center of the [city with powiat rights](/wiki/City_with_powiat_rights "City with powiat rights") [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz") along with the surrounding [Bydgoszcz County](/wiki/Bydgoszcz_County "Bydgoszcz County"), as well as the remainder of the Western part of the [Kuyavian\-Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship "Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship"). The institution organizes exhibitions of collections, meetings with authors and numerous events aimed for all ages: in 2014, its various activities gathered more than 31 000 visitors. [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz") public library comprises 34 branches, among which 10 for children and 17 for adults. The Library ensemble possessed altogether nearly 1 million volumes, had 50 000 registered readers in 2014\.Sprawozdanie z realizacji polityki kulturalnej Bydgoszczy za 2015 r. – załącznik do Uchwały nr XIX/294/15 Rady Miasta Bydgoszczy z dnia 28 pazdziernika 2015 r
The library has:
* a Department of Special Collections, where are stored valuable works in different reading rooms (journals, bibliographies, Regional publishings);
* a Centre for Economic and Legal Information;
* a dedicated space to the memory of [Adam Grzymała\-Siedlecki](/wiki/Adam_Grzyma%C5%82a-Siedlecki "Adam Grzymała-Siedlecki") at [Libelta Street](/wiki/Gimnazjalna%2C_Libelta_and_Szwalbego_Streets_in_Bydgoszcz%23Libelta_Street "Gimnazjalna, Libelta and Szwalbego Streets in Bydgoszcz#Libelta Street") 5, last place where the author lived.
The library has a valuable antique books, coming from the old Bernardine monastery stock.{{cite book \|last\=Mincer \|first\=Franciszek \|date\=1991 \|title\=Biblioteka bernardynów bydgoskich i jej ofiarodawcy \- Kronika Bydgoska XI \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=TOWARZYSTWO MIŁOŚNIKÓW MIASTA BYDGOSZCZY}} 10 000 old prints are referenced:
* 98 works produced from the 15th century;
* 758 works from the 16th century;
* 583 works from the 17th century;
* 118 works from the 18th century.
Currently collection includes 97 [incunables](/wiki/Incunable "Incunable") (issued before 1500\), the following ones being the most precious:
* "Homiliae" by Saint [John Chrysostom](/wiki/John_Chrysostom "John Chrysostom") (1466\);
* "Rule for all religious" ({{lang\-pl\|Regułę dla wszystkich zakonników}}) by [Girolamo Savonarola](/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola "Girolamo Savonarola"), published in [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence") in 1495\.
Other important volumes:{{cite book \|last\=Jastrzębski\|first\=Włodzimierz \|date\=2011\|title\=Encyklopedia Bydgoszczy, t. 1 \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=Towarzystwo Miłośników Miasta Bydgoszczy \|pages\=65–90\|isbn\=978\-83\-926423\-3\-6}}
* 25 editions of the [Bible](/wiki/Bible "Bible"), including 9 from the 15th century;
* 3 editions from the 15th century of the [Golden Legend](/wiki/Golden_Legend "Golden Legend") by [Jacobus de Voragine](/wiki/Jacobus_de_Voragine "Jacobus de Voragine");
* 16th century works from printers [Aldus Manutius](/wiki/Aldus_Manutius "Aldus Manutius") and [Christophe Plantin](/wiki/Christophe_Plantin "Christophe Plantin");
* first theological works in Polish of [Stanislaus Hosius](/wiki/Stanislaus_Hosius "Stanislaus Hosius"), [Stanisław Sokołowski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Soko%C5%82owski_%28kaznodzieja%29 "Stanisław Sokołowski (kaznodzieja)") and Walenty Wróbel;
* "Zwierciadło filozofii" (*The Mirror of philosophy*) printed by [Florian Ungler](/wiki/Florian_Ungler "Florian Ungler") (1513\);
* "Physics" by [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle") (1519\);
* 1910 manuscript "[The Oath](/wiki/Rota_%28poem%29 "Rota (poem)")" ({{lang\-pl\|Rota}}), by [Maria Konopnicka](/wiki/Maria_Konopnicka "Maria Konopnicka");
* more than 200 maps and plans of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz").
Since 1936, Bernardine library manuscripts are exhibited in the "Royal Hall" and the "Bernardyńska ward" designed by Wiktor Zabielski and Jerzy Rupniewski, with [stained glass](/wiki/Stained_glass "Stained glass") by Edwarda Kwiatkowski.
The facility is run together by the municipality of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz") and the local government of [Kuyavian\-Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship "Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship").
### History
#### Bernardine Monastery Library
Origins of the actual institution date back to the creation of the Bernardine library in 1488, which stood at the location of today's [Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace "Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace"). In 1591, Wojciech Język from [Sambir](/wiki/Sambir "Sambir"), then Bernardine guardian, expanded the monastery and built a new brick room for the library.
The monastery had organised [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscripts "Manuscripts") into several disciplines:
* Theology, including works by Catholic authors and representatives of the [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation "Protestant Reformation") and [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation");
* Philosophy, with works from ancient authors, [scholastics](/wiki/Scholasticism "Scholasticism"), [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") philosophers ([Jan of Stobnica](/wiki/Jan_of_Stobnica "Jan of Stobnica"), [Michał Falkener](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Falkener "Michał Falkener"));
* History, encompassing Roman classics works.
In addition, the library had books dealing with [law](/wiki/Law "Law"), [geography](/wiki/Geography "Geography"), [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics "Mathematics"), [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy "Astronomy"), medical science, mining and metallurgy. Stocks comprised also historical [incunables](/wiki/Incunable "Incunable"), colorfully decorated by Bernardine brother Aleksi, famous for his adorning of [antiphonary](/wiki/Antiphonary "Antiphonary") books.
Most of the books come from purchase or donations, some have been brought by monks travelling abroad (Dionizy Szyjka, Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian "Kościan"), Melchior Dębiński, Wawrzyniec of [Słupca](/wiki/S%C5%82upca "Słupca") and others).
In 1574, the [starost of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Starosta "Starosta") Jan Kościelecki secured the maintenance of the library by assuring a fixed amount of income from a local sawmill. In 1631, Jan Synodoniusz of [Pakość](/wiki/Pako%C5%9B%C4%87 "Pakość"), dying chaplain of the Church of the Holy cross in Bydgoszcz (now gone), bequeathed to the library a sizable collection of books. Likewise the son of Andrzej Rozrażewski, founder of the [Poor Clares](/wiki/Poor_Clares "Poor Clares") monastery, gave many [Venetian](/wiki/Venice "Venice") [incunables](/wiki/Incunable "Incunable"). Other well\-known donators include: [governor](/wiki/Starosta "Starosta") of [Kcynia](/wiki/Kcynia "Kcynia") Piotr Czarnkowski (ca 1620\), [governor](/wiki/Starosta "Starosta") of [Solec](/wiki/Solec_Kujawski "Solec Kujawski") Antoni Grasiński, Bydgoszcz Mayor Wojciech Łochowski or town's woman Elżbieta Szychowa.
The library, its adjoined [scriptorium](/wiki/Scriptorium "Scriptorium") and the Bernardine academic study of philosophy helped to develop a broader intellectual environment in the city. One of the famous professor of the philosophy was [Bartłomiej of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bart%C5%82omiej_z_Bydgoszczy "Bartłomiej z Bydgoszczy"), a bernardine monk who conducted fruitful scholarship work at the local monastery, issuing the first Latin\-polish dictionary in 1532\.{{cite book \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=July 2014\|title\=Bydgoszcz Guide \|url\=http://kujawsko\-pomorskie.travel/en \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=City of Bydgoszcz \|page\=20\|isbn\=83\-917786\-7\-3 }}
Several written chronicles written at the beginning of the 17th century by Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian "Kościan") describe this fertile scholar period.{{cite book \|last\=Kantak \|first\=Kamil\|date\=1907 \|title\=Kronika bernardynów bydgoskich t. XXXIII\|url\= \|location\=Poznań \|publisher\=Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk Poznańskiego \|page\=}}
The library luckily survived the violent times of Polish history, such as the [Swedish invasion](/wiki/Deluge_%28history%29 "Deluge (history)") (1656\-1660\) or the [Great Northern War](/wiki/Great_Northern_War "Great Northern War") (1700\-1721\). In 1810, only 2400 volumes were left in stock; at the dissolution of the monastery in 1829, the library, then under the authority of the Head of the city police,{{cite web \|url\=http://biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl/biblioteka\-glowna/biblioteka\-bernardynow/\|title\=Biblioteka Bernardynów\|date\=2016 \|website\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl \|publisher\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz \|access\-date\=6 November 2016}} was moved to the nearby House of [Loreto](/wiki/Sisters_of_Loreto "Sisters of Loreto")'s order and at the demolition of the monastery in 1838, the books have been placed in a compartment behind the main altar of the [Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace "Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace"). They have been then transferred to the [cathedral](/wiki/St._Martin_and_St._Nicholas_Cathedral%2C_Bydgoszcz "St. Martin and St. Nicholas Cathedral, Bydgoszcz") where they survived until 1907\.
At the request of the German authorities, these old volumes have been moved to the stock of [Bromberg](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz")'s Municipal Library. Shortly before the reintegration of Bydgoszcz to the [Polish territory](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic") in 1920, ecclesiastical authorities (among whom German priest Jan Filipiak)
placed these old volumes to the [Church of the Holy Trinity](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_in_Bydgoszcz "Church of the Holy Trinity in Bydgoszcz"), for fear of losing them in the hands of the Germans leaving the city.
#### Municipal Library
[thumb\|300px\|Municipal library 1910](/wiki/File:Pomnik_krola_Fryderyka_II_Wielkiego_1910.jpg "Pomnik krola Fryderyka II Wielkiego 1910.jpg")
City library was established on October 1, 1903:{{cite web \|url\=http://biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl/biblioteka\-glowna/historia/ \|title\=Historia \|date\=2016 \|website\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl \|publisher\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz \|access\-date\=6 November 2016}} located initially in a building on the corner of [Bernardyńska](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz "Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz") and [Jagiellońska](/wiki/Jagiello%C5%84ska_street_in_Bydgoszcz "Jagiellońska street in Bydgoszcz") streets, it has then been housed from 1904 to 1906 at [Gdańska Street](/wiki/Gda%C5%84ska_Street%2C_Bydgoszcz "Gdańska Street, Bydgoszcz") 27 (at the plot where stands today [Tenement Carl Meinhardt](/wiki/Tenement_Carl_Meinhardt_Bydgoszcz "Tenement Carl Meinhardt Bydgoszcz")).{{cite book \|last\=Umiński \|first\=Janusz \|date\=1996 \|title\=Przewodnik:Bydgoszcz\|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=Regionalny Oddział PTTK „Szlak Brdy" \|page\= \|isbn\=}}
First library resources were offered by German private donators: historian [Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer](/wiki/Friedrich_Ludwig_Georg_von_Raumer "Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer"), editor [Heinrich Kruse](/wiki/Heinrich_Kruse "Heinrich Kruse") and German scientific societies affiliated to the *German Society of Arts and Sciences in Bromberg*, mainly *Historical Society from Bromberg \- [Netze District](/wiki/Netze_District "Netze District")* ({{lang\-de\|Historische Gesellschaft für den Netzedistrikt zu Bromberg}}). The first director of the institution was [Georg Minde\-Pouet](/wiki/Georg_Minde-Pouet "Georg Minde-Pouet"), who quickly demonstrated a real ability to acquire the funds needed for the maintenance of the library. He had the building expanded, acquiring a wing on Jana Kazimierza street.{{cite web \|url\=http://bydgoszcz.wyborcza.pl/bydgoszcz/1,128852,14041528,Potomek\_hugenotow\_dyrektorem\_biblioteki.html \|title\=Potomek hugenotów dyrektorem biblioteki \|last\=wal \|first\= \|date\=5 June 2013 \|website\=bydgoszcz.wyborcza \|publisher\=bydgoszcz.wyborcza \|access\-date\=11 August 2018}}
When the building and its resources moved to the hands of Polish authorities in April 1920, the institution consisted of 75 000 volumes, of which only 300 were in Polish. Witold Bełza, the new director, (1920\-1939 and 1945\-1952\), began to acquire more Polish books, and in 1939 the stock increased to 150 000 volumes, including:
* 15th to 18th century [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscript "Manuscript") and books from the former Bernardine Library;
* a collection of nearly 2 700 royal documents, privileges, decrees, manuscripts and autographs;
* the only surviving manuscript of "[The Oath](/wiki/Rota_%28poem%29 "Rota (poem)")" donated by [Feliks Nowowiejski](/wiki/Feliks_Nowowiejski "Feliks Nowowiejski");
* a dozen of books from [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin "Vladimir Lenin")'s collection in [Poronin](/wiki/Poronin "Poronin"), donated by [Adam Grzymała\-Siedlecki](/wiki/Adam_Grzyma%C5%82a-Siedlecki "Adam Grzymała-Siedlecki").
During [interwar period](/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281918-1939%29 "History of Poland (1918-1939)"), the collections of the Municipal Library in Bydgoszcz were regarded as the richest on [Kujawy](/wiki/Kujawy "Kujawy") in terms of [literature](/wiki/Literature "Literature").
During the [occupation](/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%9345%29 "Occupation of Poland (1939–45)") the library has been isolated, forbidden to be consulted. Part of the Polish\-language literature was handed over for destruction, even though many books were rescued by Polish citizens working in the warehouse. The historian [Michał Nycz](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Nycz "Michał Nycz") moved many royal manuscripts away from the Nazi authorities. Some of the books were hidden in the Municipal museum or in basements of elementary schools in the suburbs of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz"), so as not to be evacuated by German occupation forces. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), 20% of the library stock have been lost, including 99 [incunables](/wiki/Incunable "Incunable").
[thumb\|300px\|Plaque in memory of [Józef Wybicki](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki "Józef Wybicki")](/wiki/File:Tablica_J_Wybickiego_na_bibliotece.jpg "Tablica J Wybickiego na bibliotece.jpg")
After 1946, predominant trend was to collect scientific and popular works. The most valuable items, gathered in the Department of Special Collections, were isolated from the central database in 1953\. It included among others, 1382 volumes from the Bernardine library, 4 900 items related to [cartography](/wiki/Cartography "Cartography"), 972 manuscripts of artists such as [Józef Ignacy Kraszewski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski "Józef Ignacy Kraszewski"), [Maria Konopnicka](/wiki/Maria_Konopnicka "Maria Konopnicka"), Julian Krzyżanowski, [Jan Matejko](/wiki/Jan_Matejko "Jan Matejko"), [Henryk Sienkiewicz](/wiki/Henryk_Sienkiewicz "Henryk Sienkiewicz"), Adam Grzymała\-Siedlecki, [Leopold Staff](/wiki/Leopold_Staff "Leopold Staff"), [Stanisław Wyspiański](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski "Stanisław Wyspiański") and [Tadeusz Boy\-Żeleński](/wiki/Tadeusz_Boy-%C5%BBele%C5%84ski "Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński"). In 1957, were incorporated into this Department a collection of medals, plaques, stamps, biographical materials of regional activists, and in 1959 a series of small prints.{{cite book \|last\=Sucharska \|first\=Anna\|date\=1988 \|title\=Kultura w Bydgoszczy w latach 1945\-1980\. Bydgoszcz wczoraj i dziś 1945\-1980 \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=Bydgoskie Towarzystwo Naukowe. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe Warszawa\-Poznań}}
From the 1950s to the 1970s, the municipal library established many branches throughout the city: a new building has been planned to be erected, but the project was finally rejected and transformed to a major overhaul of the existing edifice. In the 1980s, repairs to a damaged building required to change the location of part of the stock.
In 1968, the institution has been granted a scientific department, and in 1975, the library was labelled as *provincial library*. In 2009, a plaque in memory of [Józef Wybicki](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki "Józef Wybicki"), a Polish jurist, political and military activist, has been unveiled on a wall of the Municipal Library, recalling its judicial past.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.pomorska.pl/wiadomosci/bydgoszcz/art/7043267,jozef\-wybicki\-byl\-zwiazany\-z\-bydgoszcza\-przypomni\-o\-tym\-tablica\-na\-bibliotece,id,t.html\|title\=Józef Wybicki był związany z Bydgoszczą. Przypomni o tym tablica na bibliotece \|last1\=RAV\|date\=3 May 2009 \|website\=pomorska.pl \|publisher\=Gazeta Pomorska \|access\-date\=6 November 2016}}
### Directors
Since its inception, the Municipal Library has been managed by the following directors:{{cite book \|last\=Pietrzak \|first\=Zofia \|date\=1996 \|title\=Jak rodził się bydgoski księgozbiór. Kalendarz Bydgoski \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=Towarzystwo Miłośników Miasta Bydgoszczy \|page\=136}}
* Jerzy Minde\-Pouet (1903\-1913\);
* Marcin Bollert (1913\-1920\);
* [Witold Bełza](/wiki/Witold_Be%C5%82za "Witold Bełza") (1920\-1939\);
* Ferdinand Lang (1939\-1945\);
* [Witold Bełza](/wiki/Witold_Be%C5%82za "Witold Bełza") (1945\-1952\);
* Józef Podgóreczny (1952\-1965\);
* Mgr. Bolesława Podraza (1965\- );
* Mgr. Antoni Sobieszczyk ( \-1992\);
* Ewa Stelmachowska (1992\-2020\);
* Krzysztof Gonia (2020\- ).{{cite web \|url\=https://bydgoszcz.wyborcza.pl/bydgoszcz/7,48722,26665299,wojewodzka\-i\-miejska\-biblioteka\-publiczna\-w\-bydgoszczy\-ma\-nowego.html \|title\=Wojewódzka i Miejska Biblioteka Publiczna w Bydgoszczy ma nowego dyrektora \|last\=sza \|first\= \|date\=7 January 2021 \|website\=bydgoszcz.wyborcza.pl \|publisher\=Gazeta Wyborcza \|access\-date\=7 January 2021}}
|
[
"Library\n-------",
"### Characteristics",
"The public library is an important cultural center of the [city with powiat rights](/wiki/City_with_powiat_rights \"City with powiat rights\") [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\") along with the surrounding [Bydgoszcz County](/wiki/Bydgoszcz_County \"Bydgoszcz County\"), as well as the remainder of the Western part of the [Kuyavian\\-Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship \"Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship\"). The institution organizes exhibitions of collections, meetings with authors and numerous events aimed for all ages: in 2014, its various activities gathered more than 31 000 visitors. [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\") public library comprises 34 branches, among which 10 for children and 17 for adults. The Library ensemble possessed altogether nearly 1 million volumes, had 50 000 registered readers in 2014\\.Sprawozdanie z realizacji polityki kulturalnej Bydgoszczy za 2015 r. – załącznik do Uchwały nr XIX/294/15 Rady Miasta Bydgoszczy z dnia 28 pazdziernika 2015 r",
"The library has:\n* a Department of Special Collections, where are stored valuable works in different reading rooms (journals, bibliographies, Regional publishings);\n* a Centre for Economic and Legal Information;\n* a dedicated space to the memory of [Adam Grzymała\\-Siedlecki](/wiki/Adam_Grzyma%C5%82a-Siedlecki \"Adam Grzymała-Siedlecki\") at [Libelta Street](/wiki/Gimnazjalna%2C_Libelta_and_Szwalbego_Streets_in_Bydgoszcz%23Libelta_Street \"Gimnazjalna, Libelta and Szwalbego Streets in Bydgoszcz#Libelta Street\") 5, last place where the author lived.",
"The library has a valuable antique books, coming from the old Bernardine monastery stock.{{cite book \\|last\\=Mincer \\|first\\=Franciszek \\|date\\=1991 \\|title\\=Biblioteka bernardynów bydgoskich i jej ofiarodawcy \\- Kronika Bydgoska XI \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=TOWARZYSTWO MIŁOŚNIKÓW MIASTA BYDGOSZCZY}} 10 000 old prints are referenced:\n* 98 works produced from the 15th century;\n* 758 works from the 16th century;\n* 583 works from the 17th century;\n* 118 works from the 18th century.",
"Currently collection includes 97 [incunables](/wiki/Incunable \"Incunable\") (issued before 1500\\), the following ones being the most precious:\n* \"Homiliae\" by Saint [John Chrysostom](/wiki/John_Chrysostom \"John Chrysostom\") (1466\\);\n* \"Rule for all religious\" ({{lang\\-pl\\|Regułę dla wszystkich zakonników}}) by [Girolamo Savonarola](/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola \"Girolamo Savonarola\"), published in [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") in 1495\\.",
"Other important volumes:{{cite book \\|last\\=Jastrzębski\\|first\\=Włodzimierz \\|date\\=2011\\|title\\=Encyklopedia Bydgoszczy, t. 1 \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=Towarzystwo Miłośników Miasta Bydgoszczy \\|pages\\=65–90\\|isbn\\=978\\-83\\-926423\\-3\\-6}}\n* 25 editions of the [Bible](/wiki/Bible \"Bible\"), including 9 from the 15th century;\n* 3 editions from the 15th century of the [Golden Legend](/wiki/Golden_Legend \"Golden Legend\") by [Jacobus de Voragine](/wiki/Jacobus_de_Voragine \"Jacobus de Voragine\");\n* 16th century works from printers [Aldus Manutius](/wiki/Aldus_Manutius \"Aldus Manutius\") and [Christophe Plantin](/wiki/Christophe_Plantin \"Christophe Plantin\");\n* first theological works in Polish of [Stanislaus Hosius](/wiki/Stanislaus_Hosius \"Stanislaus Hosius\"), [Stanisław Sokołowski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Soko%C5%82owski_%28kaznodzieja%29 \"Stanisław Sokołowski (kaznodzieja)\") and Walenty Wróbel;\n* \"Zwierciadło filozofii\" (*The Mirror of philosophy*) printed by [Florian Ungler](/wiki/Florian_Ungler \"Florian Ungler\") (1513\\);\n* \"Physics\" by [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") (1519\\);\n* 1910 manuscript \"[The Oath](/wiki/Rota_%28poem%29 \"Rota (poem)\")\" ({{lang\\-pl\\|Rota}}), by [Maria Konopnicka](/wiki/Maria_Konopnicka \"Maria Konopnicka\");\n* more than 200 maps and plans of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\").",
"Since 1936, Bernardine library manuscripts are exhibited in the \"Royal Hall\" and the \"Bernardyńska ward\" designed by Wiktor Zabielski and Jerzy Rupniewski, with [stained glass](/wiki/Stained_glass \"Stained glass\") by Edwarda Kwiatkowski.",
"The facility is run together by the municipality of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\") and the local government of [Kuyavian\\-Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship \"Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship\").",
"### History",
"#### Bernardine Monastery Library",
"Origins of the actual institution date back to the creation of the Bernardine library in 1488, which stood at the location of today's [Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace \"Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace\"). In 1591, Wojciech Język from [Sambir](/wiki/Sambir \"Sambir\"), then Bernardine guardian, expanded the monastery and built a new brick room for the library.",
"The monastery had organised [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscripts \"Manuscripts\") into several disciplines:\n* Theology, including works by Catholic authors and representatives of the [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation \"Protestant Reformation\") and [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\");\n* Philosophy, with works from ancient authors, [scholastics](/wiki/Scholasticism \"Scholasticism\"), [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") philosophers ([Jan of Stobnica](/wiki/Jan_of_Stobnica \"Jan of Stobnica\"), [Michał Falkener](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Falkener \"Michał Falkener\"));\n* History, encompassing Roman classics works.\nIn addition, the library had books dealing with [law](/wiki/Law \"Law\"), [geography](/wiki/Geography \"Geography\"), [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\"), [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy \"Astronomy\"), medical science, mining and metallurgy. Stocks comprised also historical [incunables](/wiki/Incunable \"Incunable\"), colorfully decorated by Bernardine brother Aleksi, famous for his adorning of [antiphonary](/wiki/Antiphonary \"Antiphonary\") books.",
"Most of the books come from purchase or donations, some have been brought by monks travelling abroad (Dionizy Szyjka, Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian \"Kościan\"), Melchior Dębiński, Wawrzyniec of [Słupca](/wiki/S%C5%82upca \"Słupca\") and others).",
"In 1574, the [starost of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Starosta \"Starosta\") Jan Kościelecki secured the maintenance of the library by assuring a fixed amount of income from a local sawmill. In 1631, Jan Synodoniusz of [Pakość](/wiki/Pako%C5%9B%C4%87 \"Pakość\"), dying chaplain of the Church of the Holy cross in Bydgoszcz (now gone), bequeathed to the library a sizable collection of books. Likewise the son of Andrzej Rozrażewski, founder of the [Poor Clares](/wiki/Poor_Clares \"Poor Clares\") monastery, gave many [Venetian](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") [incunables](/wiki/Incunable \"Incunable\"). Other well\\-known donators include: [governor](/wiki/Starosta \"Starosta\") of [Kcynia](/wiki/Kcynia \"Kcynia\") Piotr Czarnkowski (ca 1620\\), [governor](/wiki/Starosta \"Starosta\") of [Solec](/wiki/Solec_Kujawski \"Solec Kujawski\") Antoni Grasiński, Bydgoszcz Mayor Wojciech Łochowski or town's woman Elżbieta Szychowa.",
"The library, its adjoined [scriptorium](/wiki/Scriptorium \"Scriptorium\") and the Bernardine academic study of philosophy helped to develop a broader intellectual environment in the city. One of the famous professor of the philosophy was [Bartłomiej of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bart%C5%82omiej_z_Bydgoszczy \"Bartłomiej z Bydgoszczy\"), a bernardine monk who conducted fruitful scholarship work at the local monastery, issuing the first Latin\\-polish dictionary in 1532\\.{{cite book \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=July 2014\\|title\\=Bydgoszcz Guide \\|url\\=http://kujawsko\\-pomorskie.travel/en \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=City of Bydgoszcz \\|page\\=20\\|isbn\\=83\\-917786\\-7\\-3 }}\nSeveral written chronicles written at the beginning of the 17th century by Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian \"Kościan\") describe this fertile scholar period.{{cite book \\|last\\=Kantak \\|first\\=Kamil\\|date\\=1907 \\|title\\=Kronika bernardynów bydgoskich t. XXXIII\\|url\\= \\|location\\=Poznań \\|publisher\\=Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk Poznańskiego \\|page\\=}}",
"The library luckily survived the violent times of Polish history, such as the [Swedish invasion](/wiki/Deluge_%28history%29 \"Deluge (history)\") (1656\\-1660\\) or the [Great Northern War](/wiki/Great_Northern_War \"Great Northern War\") (1700\\-1721\\). In 1810, only 2400 volumes were left in stock; at the dissolution of the monastery in 1829, the library, then under the authority of the Head of the city police,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl/biblioteka\\-glowna/biblioteka\\-bernardynow/\\|title\\=Biblioteka Bernardynów\\|date\\=2016 \\|website\\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl \\|publisher\\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2016}} was moved to the nearby House of [Loreto](/wiki/Sisters_of_Loreto \"Sisters of Loreto\")'s order and at the demolition of the monastery in 1838, the books have been placed in a compartment behind the main altar of the [Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace \"Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace\"). They have been then transferred to the [cathedral](/wiki/St._Martin_and_St._Nicholas_Cathedral%2C_Bydgoszcz \"St. Martin and St. Nicholas Cathedral, Bydgoszcz\") where they survived until 1907\\.",
"At the request of the German authorities, these old volumes have been moved to the stock of [Bromberg](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\")'s Municipal Library. Shortly before the reintegration of Bydgoszcz to the [Polish territory](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\") in 1920, ecclesiastical authorities (among whom German priest Jan Filipiak)\nplaced these old volumes to the [Church of the Holy Trinity](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_in_Bydgoszcz \"Church of the Holy Trinity in Bydgoszcz\"), for fear of losing them in the hands of the Germans leaving the city.",
"#### Municipal Library",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|Municipal library 1910](/wiki/File:Pomnik_krola_Fryderyka_II_Wielkiego_1910.jpg \"Pomnik krola Fryderyka II Wielkiego 1910.jpg\")\nCity library was established on October 1, 1903:{{cite web \\|url\\=http://biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl/biblioteka\\-glowna/historia/ \\|title\\=Historia \\|date\\=2016 \\|website\\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl \\|publisher\\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2016}} located initially in a building on the corner of [Bernardyńska](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz \"Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz\") and [Jagiellońska](/wiki/Jagiello%C5%84ska_street_in_Bydgoszcz \"Jagiellońska street in Bydgoszcz\") streets, it has then been housed from 1904 to 1906 at [Gdańska Street](/wiki/Gda%C5%84ska_Street%2C_Bydgoszcz \"Gdańska Street, Bydgoszcz\") 27 (at the plot where stands today [Tenement Carl Meinhardt](/wiki/Tenement_Carl_Meinhardt_Bydgoszcz \"Tenement Carl Meinhardt Bydgoszcz\")).{{cite book \\|last\\=Umiński \\|first\\=Janusz \\|date\\=1996 \\|title\\=Przewodnik:Bydgoszcz\\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=Regionalny Oddział PTTK „Szlak Brdy\" \\|page\\= \\|isbn\\=}}",
"First library resources were offered by German private donators: historian [Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer](/wiki/Friedrich_Ludwig_Georg_von_Raumer \"Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer\"), editor [Heinrich Kruse](/wiki/Heinrich_Kruse \"Heinrich Kruse\") and German scientific societies affiliated to the *German Society of Arts and Sciences in Bromberg*, mainly *Historical Society from Bromberg \\- [Netze District](/wiki/Netze_District \"Netze District\")* ({{lang\\-de\\|Historische Gesellschaft für den Netzedistrikt zu Bromberg}}). The first director of the institution was [Georg Minde\\-Pouet](/wiki/Georg_Minde-Pouet \"Georg Minde-Pouet\"), who quickly demonstrated a real ability to acquire the funds needed for the maintenance of the library. He had the building expanded, acquiring a wing on Jana Kazimierza street.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://bydgoszcz.wyborcza.pl/bydgoszcz/1,128852,14041528,Potomek\\_hugenotow\\_dyrektorem\\_biblioteki.html \\|title\\=Potomek hugenotów dyrektorem biblioteki \\|last\\=wal \\|first\\= \\|date\\=5 June 2013 \\|website\\=bydgoszcz.wyborcza \\|publisher\\=bydgoszcz.wyborcza \\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2018}}",
"When the building and its resources moved to the hands of Polish authorities in April 1920, the institution consisted of 75 000 volumes, of which only 300 were in Polish. Witold Bełza, the new director, (1920\\-1939 and 1945\\-1952\\), began to acquire more Polish books, and in 1939 the stock increased to 150 000 volumes, including:\n* 15th to 18th century [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscript \"Manuscript\") and books from the former Bernardine Library;\n* a collection of nearly 2 700 royal documents, privileges, decrees, manuscripts and autographs;\n* the only surviving manuscript of \"[The Oath](/wiki/Rota_%28poem%29 \"Rota (poem)\")\" donated by [Feliks Nowowiejski](/wiki/Feliks_Nowowiejski \"Feliks Nowowiejski\");\n* a dozen of books from [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin \"Vladimir Lenin\")'s collection in [Poronin](/wiki/Poronin \"Poronin\"), donated by [Adam Grzymała\\-Siedlecki](/wiki/Adam_Grzyma%C5%82a-Siedlecki \"Adam Grzymała-Siedlecki\").",
"During [interwar period](/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281918-1939%29 \"History of Poland (1918-1939)\"), the collections of the Municipal Library in Bydgoszcz were regarded as the richest on [Kujawy](/wiki/Kujawy \"Kujawy\") in terms of [literature](/wiki/Literature \"Literature\").",
"During the [occupation](/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%9345%29 \"Occupation of Poland (1939–45)\") the library has been isolated, forbidden to be consulted. Part of the Polish\\-language literature was handed over for destruction, even though many books were rescued by Polish citizens working in the warehouse. The historian [Michał Nycz](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Nycz \"Michał Nycz\") moved many royal manuscripts away from the Nazi authorities. Some of the books were hidden in the Municipal museum or in basements of elementary schools in the suburbs of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\"), so as not to be evacuated by German occupation forces. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), 20% of the library stock have been lost, including 99 [incunables](/wiki/Incunable \"Incunable\").\n[thumb\\|300px\\|Plaque in memory of [Józef Wybicki](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki \"Józef Wybicki\")](/wiki/File:Tablica_J_Wybickiego_na_bibliotece.jpg \"Tablica J Wybickiego na bibliotece.jpg\")\nAfter 1946, predominant trend was to collect scientific and popular works. The most valuable items, gathered in the Department of Special Collections, were isolated from the central database in 1953\\. It included among others, 1382 volumes from the Bernardine library, 4 900 items related to [cartography](/wiki/Cartography \"Cartography\"), 972 manuscripts of artists such as [Józef Ignacy Kraszewski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski \"Józef Ignacy Kraszewski\"), [Maria Konopnicka](/wiki/Maria_Konopnicka \"Maria Konopnicka\"), Julian Krzyżanowski, [Jan Matejko](/wiki/Jan_Matejko \"Jan Matejko\"), [Henryk Sienkiewicz](/wiki/Henryk_Sienkiewicz \"Henryk Sienkiewicz\"), Adam Grzymała\\-Siedlecki, [Leopold Staff](/wiki/Leopold_Staff \"Leopold Staff\"), [Stanisław Wyspiański](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski \"Stanisław Wyspiański\") and [Tadeusz Boy\\-Żeleński](/wiki/Tadeusz_Boy-%C5%BBele%C5%84ski \"Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński\"). In 1957, were incorporated into this Department a collection of medals, plaques, stamps, biographical materials of regional activists, and in 1959 a series of small prints.{{cite book \\|last\\=Sucharska \\|first\\=Anna\\|date\\=1988 \\|title\\=Kultura w Bydgoszczy w latach 1945\\-1980\\. Bydgoszcz wczoraj i dziś 1945\\-1980 \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=Bydgoskie Towarzystwo Naukowe. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe Warszawa\\-Poznań}}",
"From the 1950s to the 1970s, the municipal library established many branches throughout the city: a new building has been planned to be erected, but the project was finally rejected and transformed to a major overhaul of the existing edifice. In the 1980s, repairs to a damaged building required to change the location of part of the stock.",
"In 1968, the institution has been granted a scientific department, and in 1975, the library was labelled as *provincial library*. In 2009, a plaque in memory of [Józef Wybicki](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki \"Józef Wybicki\"), a Polish jurist, political and military activist, has been unveiled on a wall of the Municipal Library, recalling its judicial past.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.pomorska.pl/wiadomosci/bydgoszcz/art/7043267,jozef\\-wybicki\\-byl\\-zwiazany\\-z\\-bydgoszcza\\-przypomni\\-o\\-tym\\-tablica\\-na\\-bibliotece,id,t.html\\|title\\=Józef Wybicki był związany z Bydgoszczą. Przypomni o tym tablica na bibliotece \\|last1\\=RAV\\|date\\=3 May 2009 \\|website\\=pomorska.pl \\|publisher\\=Gazeta Pomorska \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2016}}",
"### Directors",
"Since its inception, the Municipal Library has been managed by the following directors:{{cite book \\|last\\=Pietrzak \\|first\\=Zofia \\|date\\=1996 \\|title\\=Jak rodził się bydgoski księgozbiór. Kalendarz Bydgoski \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=Towarzystwo Miłośników Miasta Bydgoszczy \\|page\\=136}}\n* Jerzy Minde\\-Pouet (1903\\-1913\\);\n* Marcin Bollert (1913\\-1920\\);\n* [Witold Bełza](/wiki/Witold_Be%C5%82za \"Witold Bełza\") (1920\\-1939\\);\n* Ferdinand Lang (1939\\-1945\\);\n* [Witold Bełza](/wiki/Witold_Be%C5%82za \"Witold Bełza\") (1945\\-1952\\);\n* Józef Podgóreczny (1952\\-1965\\);\n* Mgr. Bolesława Podraza (1965\\- );\n* Mgr. Antoni Sobieszczyk ( \\-1992\\);\n* Ewa Stelmachowska (1992\\-2020\\);\n* Krzysztof Gonia (2020\\- ).{{cite web \\|url\\=https://bydgoszcz.wyborcza.pl/bydgoszcz/7,48722,26665299,wojewodzka\\-i\\-miejska\\-biblioteka\\-publiczna\\-w\\-bydgoszczy\\-ma\\-nowego.html \\|title\\=Wojewódzka i Miejska Biblioteka Publiczna w Bydgoszczy ma nowego dyrektora \\|last\\=sza \\|first\\= \\|date\\=7 January 2021 \\|website\\=bydgoszcz.wyborcza.pl \\|publisher\\=Gazeta Wyborcza \\|access\\-date\\=7 January 2021}}",
""
] |
### Characteristics
The public library is an important cultural center of the [city with powiat rights](/wiki/City_with_powiat_rights "City with powiat rights") [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz") along with the surrounding [Bydgoszcz County](/wiki/Bydgoszcz_County "Bydgoszcz County"), as well as the remainder of the Western part of the [Kuyavian\-Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship "Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship"). The institution organizes exhibitions of collections, meetings with authors and numerous events aimed for all ages: in 2014, its various activities gathered more than 31 000 visitors. [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz") public library comprises 34 branches, among which 10 for children and 17 for adults. The Library ensemble possessed altogether nearly 1 million volumes, had 50 000 registered readers in 2014\.Sprawozdanie z realizacji polityki kulturalnej Bydgoszczy za 2015 r. – załącznik do Uchwały nr XIX/294/15 Rady Miasta Bydgoszczy z dnia 28 pazdziernika 2015 r
The library has:
* a Department of Special Collections, where are stored valuable works in different reading rooms (journals, bibliographies, Regional publishings);
* a Centre for Economic and Legal Information;
* a dedicated space to the memory of [Adam Grzymała\-Siedlecki](/wiki/Adam_Grzyma%C5%82a-Siedlecki "Adam Grzymała-Siedlecki") at [Libelta Street](/wiki/Gimnazjalna%2C_Libelta_and_Szwalbego_Streets_in_Bydgoszcz%23Libelta_Street "Gimnazjalna, Libelta and Szwalbego Streets in Bydgoszcz#Libelta Street") 5, last place where the author lived.
The library has a valuable antique books, coming from the old Bernardine monastery stock.{{cite book \|last\=Mincer \|first\=Franciszek \|date\=1991 \|title\=Biblioteka bernardynów bydgoskich i jej ofiarodawcy \- Kronika Bydgoska XI \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=TOWARZYSTWO MIŁOŚNIKÓW MIASTA BYDGOSZCZY}} 10 000 old prints are referenced:
* 98 works produced from the 15th century;
* 758 works from the 16th century;
* 583 works from the 17th century;
* 118 works from the 18th century.
Currently collection includes 97 [incunables](/wiki/Incunable "Incunable") (issued before 1500\), the following ones being the most precious:
* "Homiliae" by Saint [John Chrysostom](/wiki/John_Chrysostom "John Chrysostom") (1466\);
* "Rule for all religious" ({{lang\-pl\|Regułę dla wszystkich zakonników}}) by [Girolamo Savonarola](/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola "Girolamo Savonarola"), published in [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence") in 1495\.
Other important volumes:{{cite book \|last\=Jastrzębski\|first\=Włodzimierz \|date\=2011\|title\=Encyklopedia Bydgoszczy, t. 1 \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=Towarzystwo Miłośników Miasta Bydgoszczy \|pages\=65–90\|isbn\=978\-83\-926423\-3\-6}}
* 25 editions of the [Bible](/wiki/Bible "Bible"), including 9 from the 15th century;
* 3 editions from the 15th century of the [Golden Legend](/wiki/Golden_Legend "Golden Legend") by [Jacobus de Voragine](/wiki/Jacobus_de_Voragine "Jacobus de Voragine");
* 16th century works from printers [Aldus Manutius](/wiki/Aldus_Manutius "Aldus Manutius") and [Christophe Plantin](/wiki/Christophe_Plantin "Christophe Plantin");
* first theological works in Polish of [Stanislaus Hosius](/wiki/Stanislaus_Hosius "Stanislaus Hosius"), [Stanisław Sokołowski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Soko%C5%82owski_%28kaznodzieja%29 "Stanisław Sokołowski (kaznodzieja)") and Walenty Wróbel;
* "Zwierciadło filozofii" (*The Mirror of philosophy*) printed by [Florian Ungler](/wiki/Florian_Ungler "Florian Ungler") (1513\);
* "Physics" by [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle "Aristotle") (1519\);
* 1910 manuscript "[The Oath](/wiki/Rota_%28poem%29 "Rota (poem)")" ({{lang\-pl\|Rota}}), by [Maria Konopnicka](/wiki/Maria_Konopnicka "Maria Konopnicka");
* more than 200 maps and plans of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz").
Since 1936, Bernardine library manuscripts are exhibited in the "Royal Hall" and the "Bernardyńska ward" designed by Wiktor Zabielski and Jerzy Rupniewski, with [stained glass](/wiki/Stained_glass "Stained glass") by Edwarda Kwiatkowski.
The facility is run together by the municipality of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz") and the local government of [Kuyavian\-Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship "Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship").
|
[
"### Characteristics",
"The public library is an important cultural center of the [city with powiat rights](/wiki/City_with_powiat_rights \"City with powiat rights\") [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\") along with the surrounding [Bydgoszcz County](/wiki/Bydgoszcz_County \"Bydgoszcz County\"), as well as the remainder of the Western part of the [Kuyavian\\-Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship \"Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship\"). The institution organizes exhibitions of collections, meetings with authors and numerous events aimed for all ages: in 2014, its various activities gathered more than 31 000 visitors. [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\") public library comprises 34 branches, among which 10 for children and 17 for adults. The Library ensemble possessed altogether nearly 1 million volumes, had 50 000 registered readers in 2014\\.Sprawozdanie z realizacji polityki kulturalnej Bydgoszczy za 2015 r. – załącznik do Uchwały nr XIX/294/15 Rady Miasta Bydgoszczy z dnia 28 pazdziernika 2015 r",
"The library has:\n* a Department of Special Collections, where are stored valuable works in different reading rooms (journals, bibliographies, Regional publishings);\n* a Centre for Economic and Legal Information;\n* a dedicated space to the memory of [Adam Grzymała\\-Siedlecki](/wiki/Adam_Grzyma%C5%82a-Siedlecki \"Adam Grzymała-Siedlecki\") at [Libelta Street](/wiki/Gimnazjalna%2C_Libelta_and_Szwalbego_Streets_in_Bydgoszcz%23Libelta_Street \"Gimnazjalna, Libelta and Szwalbego Streets in Bydgoszcz#Libelta Street\") 5, last place where the author lived.",
"The library has a valuable antique books, coming from the old Bernardine monastery stock.{{cite book \\|last\\=Mincer \\|first\\=Franciszek \\|date\\=1991 \\|title\\=Biblioteka bernardynów bydgoskich i jej ofiarodawcy \\- Kronika Bydgoska XI \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=TOWARZYSTWO MIŁOŚNIKÓW MIASTA BYDGOSZCZY}} 10 000 old prints are referenced:\n* 98 works produced from the 15th century;\n* 758 works from the 16th century;\n* 583 works from the 17th century;\n* 118 works from the 18th century.",
"Currently collection includes 97 [incunables](/wiki/Incunable \"Incunable\") (issued before 1500\\), the following ones being the most precious:\n* \"Homiliae\" by Saint [John Chrysostom](/wiki/John_Chrysostom \"John Chrysostom\") (1466\\);\n* \"Rule for all religious\" ({{lang\\-pl\\|Regułę dla wszystkich zakonników}}) by [Girolamo Savonarola](/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola \"Girolamo Savonarola\"), published in [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") in 1495\\.",
"Other important volumes:{{cite book \\|last\\=Jastrzębski\\|first\\=Włodzimierz \\|date\\=2011\\|title\\=Encyklopedia Bydgoszczy, t. 1 \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=Towarzystwo Miłośników Miasta Bydgoszczy \\|pages\\=65–90\\|isbn\\=978\\-83\\-926423\\-3\\-6}}\n* 25 editions of the [Bible](/wiki/Bible \"Bible\"), including 9 from the 15th century;\n* 3 editions from the 15th century of the [Golden Legend](/wiki/Golden_Legend \"Golden Legend\") by [Jacobus de Voragine](/wiki/Jacobus_de_Voragine \"Jacobus de Voragine\");\n* 16th century works from printers [Aldus Manutius](/wiki/Aldus_Manutius \"Aldus Manutius\") and [Christophe Plantin](/wiki/Christophe_Plantin \"Christophe Plantin\");\n* first theological works in Polish of [Stanislaus Hosius](/wiki/Stanislaus_Hosius \"Stanislaus Hosius\"), [Stanisław Sokołowski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Soko%C5%82owski_%28kaznodzieja%29 \"Stanisław Sokołowski (kaznodzieja)\") and Walenty Wróbel;\n* \"Zwierciadło filozofii\" (*The Mirror of philosophy*) printed by [Florian Ungler](/wiki/Florian_Ungler \"Florian Ungler\") (1513\\);\n* \"Physics\" by [Aristotle](/wiki/Aristotle \"Aristotle\") (1519\\);\n* 1910 manuscript \"[The Oath](/wiki/Rota_%28poem%29 \"Rota (poem)\")\" ({{lang\\-pl\\|Rota}}), by [Maria Konopnicka](/wiki/Maria_Konopnicka \"Maria Konopnicka\");\n* more than 200 maps and plans of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\").",
"Since 1936, Bernardine library manuscripts are exhibited in the \"Royal Hall\" and the \"Bernardyńska ward\" designed by Wiktor Zabielski and Jerzy Rupniewski, with [stained glass](/wiki/Stained_glass \"Stained glass\") by Edwarda Kwiatkowski.",
"The facility is run together by the municipality of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\") and the local government of [Kuyavian\\-Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship \"Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship\").",
""
] |
### History
#### Bernardine Monastery Library
Origins of the actual institution date back to the creation of the Bernardine library in 1488, which stood at the location of today's [Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace "Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace"). In 1591, Wojciech Język from [Sambir](/wiki/Sambir "Sambir"), then Bernardine guardian, expanded the monastery and built a new brick room for the library.
The monastery had organised [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscripts "Manuscripts") into several disciplines:
* Theology, including works by Catholic authors and representatives of the [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation "Protestant Reformation") and [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation");
* Philosophy, with works from ancient authors, [scholastics](/wiki/Scholasticism "Scholasticism"), [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") philosophers ([Jan of Stobnica](/wiki/Jan_of_Stobnica "Jan of Stobnica"), [Michał Falkener](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Falkener "Michał Falkener"));
* History, encompassing Roman classics works.
In addition, the library had books dealing with [law](/wiki/Law "Law"), [geography](/wiki/Geography "Geography"), [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics "Mathematics"), [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy "Astronomy"), medical science, mining and metallurgy. Stocks comprised also historical [incunables](/wiki/Incunable "Incunable"), colorfully decorated by Bernardine brother Aleksi, famous for his adorning of [antiphonary](/wiki/Antiphonary "Antiphonary") books.
Most of the books come from purchase or donations, some have been brought by monks travelling abroad (Dionizy Szyjka, Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian "Kościan"), Melchior Dębiński, Wawrzyniec of [Słupca](/wiki/S%C5%82upca "Słupca") and others).
In 1574, the [starost of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Starosta "Starosta") Jan Kościelecki secured the maintenance of the library by assuring a fixed amount of income from a local sawmill. In 1631, Jan Synodoniusz of [Pakość](/wiki/Pako%C5%9B%C4%87 "Pakość"), dying chaplain of the Church of the Holy cross in Bydgoszcz (now gone), bequeathed to the library a sizable collection of books. Likewise the son of Andrzej Rozrażewski, founder of the [Poor Clares](/wiki/Poor_Clares "Poor Clares") monastery, gave many [Venetian](/wiki/Venice "Venice") [incunables](/wiki/Incunable "Incunable"). Other well\-known donators include: [governor](/wiki/Starosta "Starosta") of [Kcynia](/wiki/Kcynia "Kcynia") Piotr Czarnkowski (ca 1620\), [governor](/wiki/Starosta "Starosta") of [Solec](/wiki/Solec_Kujawski "Solec Kujawski") Antoni Grasiński, Bydgoszcz Mayor Wojciech Łochowski or town's woman Elżbieta Szychowa.
The library, its adjoined [scriptorium](/wiki/Scriptorium "Scriptorium") and the Bernardine academic study of philosophy helped to develop a broader intellectual environment in the city. One of the famous professor of the philosophy was [Bartłomiej of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bart%C5%82omiej_z_Bydgoszczy "Bartłomiej z Bydgoszczy"), a bernardine monk who conducted fruitful scholarship work at the local monastery, issuing the first Latin\-polish dictionary in 1532\.{{cite book \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=July 2014\|title\=Bydgoszcz Guide \|url\=http://kujawsko\-pomorskie.travel/en \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=City of Bydgoszcz \|page\=20\|isbn\=83\-917786\-7\-3 }}
Several written chronicles written at the beginning of the 17th century by Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian "Kościan") describe this fertile scholar period.{{cite book \|last\=Kantak \|first\=Kamil\|date\=1907 \|title\=Kronika bernardynów bydgoskich t. XXXIII\|url\= \|location\=Poznań \|publisher\=Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk Poznańskiego \|page\=}}
The library luckily survived the violent times of Polish history, such as the [Swedish invasion](/wiki/Deluge_%28history%29 "Deluge (history)") (1656\-1660\) or the [Great Northern War](/wiki/Great_Northern_War "Great Northern War") (1700\-1721\). In 1810, only 2400 volumes were left in stock; at the dissolution of the monastery in 1829, the library, then under the authority of the Head of the city police,{{cite web \|url\=http://biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl/biblioteka\-glowna/biblioteka\-bernardynow/\|title\=Biblioteka Bernardynów\|date\=2016 \|website\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl \|publisher\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz \|access\-date\=6 November 2016}} was moved to the nearby House of [Loreto](/wiki/Sisters_of_Loreto "Sisters of Loreto")'s order and at the demolition of the monastery in 1838, the books have been placed in a compartment behind the main altar of the [Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace "Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace"). They have been then transferred to the [cathedral](/wiki/St._Martin_and_St._Nicholas_Cathedral%2C_Bydgoszcz "St. Martin and St. Nicholas Cathedral, Bydgoszcz") where they survived until 1907\.
At the request of the German authorities, these old volumes have been moved to the stock of [Bromberg](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz")'s Municipal Library. Shortly before the reintegration of Bydgoszcz to the [Polish territory](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic") in 1920, ecclesiastical authorities (among whom German priest Jan Filipiak)
placed these old volumes to the [Church of the Holy Trinity](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_in_Bydgoszcz "Church of the Holy Trinity in Bydgoszcz"), for fear of losing them in the hands of the Germans leaving the city.
#### Municipal Library
[thumb\|300px\|Municipal library 1910](/wiki/File:Pomnik_krola_Fryderyka_II_Wielkiego_1910.jpg "Pomnik krola Fryderyka II Wielkiego 1910.jpg")
City library was established on October 1, 1903:{{cite web \|url\=http://biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl/biblioteka\-glowna/historia/ \|title\=Historia \|date\=2016 \|website\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl \|publisher\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz \|access\-date\=6 November 2016}} located initially in a building on the corner of [Bernardyńska](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz "Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz") and [Jagiellońska](/wiki/Jagiello%C5%84ska_street_in_Bydgoszcz "Jagiellońska street in Bydgoszcz") streets, it has then been housed from 1904 to 1906 at [Gdańska Street](/wiki/Gda%C5%84ska_Street%2C_Bydgoszcz "Gdańska Street, Bydgoszcz") 27 (at the plot where stands today [Tenement Carl Meinhardt](/wiki/Tenement_Carl_Meinhardt_Bydgoszcz "Tenement Carl Meinhardt Bydgoszcz")).{{cite book \|last\=Umiński \|first\=Janusz \|date\=1996 \|title\=Przewodnik:Bydgoszcz\|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=Regionalny Oddział PTTK „Szlak Brdy" \|page\= \|isbn\=}}
First library resources were offered by German private donators: historian [Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer](/wiki/Friedrich_Ludwig_Georg_von_Raumer "Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer"), editor [Heinrich Kruse](/wiki/Heinrich_Kruse "Heinrich Kruse") and German scientific societies affiliated to the *German Society of Arts and Sciences in Bromberg*, mainly *Historical Society from Bromberg \- [Netze District](/wiki/Netze_District "Netze District")* ({{lang\-de\|Historische Gesellschaft für den Netzedistrikt zu Bromberg}}). The first director of the institution was [Georg Minde\-Pouet](/wiki/Georg_Minde-Pouet "Georg Minde-Pouet"), who quickly demonstrated a real ability to acquire the funds needed for the maintenance of the library. He had the building expanded, acquiring a wing on Jana Kazimierza street.{{cite web \|url\=http://bydgoszcz.wyborcza.pl/bydgoszcz/1,128852,14041528,Potomek\_hugenotow\_dyrektorem\_biblioteki.html \|title\=Potomek hugenotów dyrektorem biblioteki \|last\=wal \|first\= \|date\=5 June 2013 \|website\=bydgoszcz.wyborcza \|publisher\=bydgoszcz.wyborcza \|access\-date\=11 August 2018}}
When the building and its resources moved to the hands of Polish authorities in April 1920, the institution consisted of 75 000 volumes, of which only 300 were in Polish. Witold Bełza, the new director, (1920\-1939 and 1945\-1952\), began to acquire more Polish books, and in 1939 the stock increased to 150 000 volumes, including:
* 15th to 18th century [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscript "Manuscript") and books from the former Bernardine Library;
* a collection of nearly 2 700 royal documents, privileges, decrees, manuscripts and autographs;
* the only surviving manuscript of "[The Oath](/wiki/Rota_%28poem%29 "Rota (poem)")" donated by [Feliks Nowowiejski](/wiki/Feliks_Nowowiejski "Feliks Nowowiejski");
* a dozen of books from [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin "Vladimir Lenin")'s collection in [Poronin](/wiki/Poronin "Poronin"), donated by [Adam Grzymała\-Siedlecki](/wiki/Adam_Grzyma%C5%82a-Siedlecki "Adam Grzymała-Siedlecki").
During [interwar period](/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281918-1939%29 "History of Poland (1918-1939)"), the collections of the Municipal Library in Bydgoszcz were regarded as the richest on [Kujawy](/wiki/Kujawy "Kujawy") in terms of [literature](/wiki/Literature "Literature").
During the [occupation](/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%9345%29 "Occupation of Poland (1939–45)") the library has been isolated, forbidden to be consulted. Part of the Polish\-language literature was handed over for destruction, even though many books were rescued by Polish citizens working in the warehouse. The historian [Michał Nycz](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Nycz "Michał Nycz") moved many royal manuscripts away from the Nazi authorities. Some of the books were hidden in the Municipal museum or in basements of elementary schools in the suburbs of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz"), so as not to be evacuated by German occupation forces. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), 20% of the library stock have been lost, including 99 [incunables](/wiki/Incunable "Incunable").
[thumb\|300px\|Plaque in memory of [Józef Wybicki](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki "Józef Wybicki")](/wiki/File:Tablica_J_Wybickiego_na_bibliotece.jpg "Tablica J Wybickiego na bibliotece.jpg")
After 1946, predominant trend was to collect scientific and popular works. The most valuable items, gathered in the Department of Special Collections, were isolated from the central database in 1953\. It included among others, 1382 volumes from the Bernardine library, 4 900 items related to [cartography](/wiki/Cartography "Cartography"), 972 manuscripts of artists such as [Józef Ignacy Kraszewski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski "Józef Ignacy Kraszewski"), [Maria Konopnicka](/wiki/Maria_Konopnicka "Maria Konopnicka"), Julian Krzyżanowski, [Jan Matejko](/wiki/Jan_Matejko "Jan Matejko"), [Henryk Sienkiewicz](/wiki/Henryk_Sienkiewicz "Henryk Sienkiewicz"), Adam Grzymała\-Siedlecki, [Leopold Staff](/wiki/Leopold_Staff "Leopold Staff"), [Stanisław Wyspiański](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski "Stanisław Wyspiański") and [Tadeusz Boy\-Żeleński](/wiki/Tadeusz_Boy-%C5%BBele%C5%84ski "Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński"). In 1957, were incorporated into this Department a collection of medals, plaques, stamps, biographical materials of regional activists, and in 1959 a series of small prints.{{cite book \|last\=Sucharska \|first\=Anna\|date\=1988 \|title\=Kultura w Bydgoszczy w latach 1945\-1980\. Bydgoszcz wczoraj i dziś 1945\-1980 \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=Bydgoskie Towarzystwo Naukowe. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe Warszawa\-Poznań}}
From the 1950s to the 1970s, the municipal library established many branches throughout the city: a new building has been planned to be erected, but the project was finally rejected and transformed to a major overhaul of the existing edifice. In the 1980s, repairs to a damaged building required to change the location of part of the stock.
In 1968, the institution has been granted a scientific department, and in 1975, the library was labelled as *provincial library*. In 2009, a plaque in memory of [Józef Wybicki](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki "Józef Wybicki"), a Polish jurist, political and military activist, has been unveiled on a wall of the Municipal Library, recalling its judicial past.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.pomorska.pl/wiadomosci/bydgoszcz/art/7043267,jozef\-wybicki\-byl\-zwiazany\-z\-bydgoszcza\-przypomni\-o\-tym\-tablica\-na\-bibliotece,id,t.html\|title\=Józef Wybicki był związany z Bydgoszczą. Przypomni o tym tablica na bibliotece \|last1\=RAV\|date\=3 May 2009 \|website\=pomorska.pl \|publisher\=Gazeta Pomorska \|access\-date\=6 November 2016}}
|
[
"### History",
"#### Bernardine Monastery Library",
"Origins of the actual institution date back to the creation of the Bernardine library in 1488, which stood at the location of today's [Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace \"Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace\"). In 1591, Wojciech Język from [Sambir](/wiki/Sambir \"Sambir\"), then Bernardine guardian, expanded the monastery and built a new brick room for the library.",
"The monastery had organised [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscripts \"Manuscripts\") into several disciplines:\n* Theology, including works by Catholic authors and representatives of the [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation \"Protestant Reformation\") and [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\");\n* Philosophy, with works from ancient authors, [scholastics](/wiki/Scholasticism \"Scholasticism\"), [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") philosophers ([Jan of Stobnica](/wiki/Jan_of_Stobnica \"Jan of Stobnica\"), [Michał Falkener](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Falkener \"Michał Falkener\"));\n* History, encompassing Roman classics works.\nIn addition, the library had books dealing with [law](/wiki/Law \"Law\"), [geography](/wiki/Geography \"Geography\"), [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\"), [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy \"Astronomy\"), medical science, mining and metallurgy. Stocks comprised also historical [incunables](/wiki/Incunable \"Incunable\"), colorfully decorated by Bernardine brother Aleksi, famous for his adorning of [antiphonary](/wiki/Antiphonary \"Antiphonary\") books.",
"Most of the books come from purchase or donations, some have been brought by monks travelling abroad (Dionizy Szyjka, Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian \"Kościan\"), Melchior Dębiński, Wawrzyniec of [Słupca](/wiki/S%C5%82upca \"Słupca\") and others).",
"In 1574, the [starost of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Starosta \"Starosta\") Jan Kościelecki secured the maintenance of the library by assuring a fixed amount of income from a local sawmill. In 1631, Jan Synodoniusz of [Pakość](/wiki/Pako%C5%9B%C4%87 \"Pakość\"), dying chaplain of the Church of the Holy cross in Bydgoszcz (now gone), bequeathed to the library a sizable collection of books. Likewise the son of Andrzej Rozrażewski, founder of the [Poor Clares](/wiki/Poor_Clares \"Poor Clares\") monastery, gave many [Venetian](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") [incunables](/wiki/Incunable \"Incunable\"). Other well\\-known donators include: [governor](/wiki/Starosta \"Starosta\") of [Kcynia](/wiki/Kcynia \"Kcynia\") Piotr Czarnkowski (ca 1620\\), [governor](/wiki/Starosta \"Starosta\") of [Solec](/wiki/Solec_Kujawski \"Solec Kujawski\") Antoni Grasiński, Bydgoszcz Mayor Wojciech Łochowski or town's woman Elżbieta Szychowa.",
"The library, its adjoined [scriptorium](/wiki/Scriptorium \"Scriptorium\") and the Bernardine academic study of philosophy helped to develop a broader intellectual environment in the city. One of the famous professor of the philosophy was [Bartłomiej of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bart%C5%82omiej_z_Bydgoszczy \"Bartłomiej z Bydgoszczy\"), a bernardine monk who conducted fruitful scholarship work at the local monastery, issuing the first Latin\\-polish dictionary in 1532\\.{{cite book \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=July 2014\\|title\\=Bydgoszcz Guide \\|url\\=http://kujawsko\\-pomorskie.travel/en \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=City of Bydgoszcz \\|page\\=20\\|isbn\\=83\\-917786\\-7\\-3 }}\nSeveral written chronicles written at the beginning of the 17th century by Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian \"Kościan\") describe this fertile scholar period.{{cite book \\|last\\=Kantak \\|first\\=Kamil\\|date\\=1907 \\|title\\=Kronika bernardynów bydgoskich t. XXXIII\\|url\\= \\|location\\=Poznań \\|publisher\\=Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk Poznańskiego \\|page\\=}}",
"The library luckily survived the violent times of Polish history, such as the [Swedish invasion](/wiki/Deluge_%28history%29 \"Deluge (history)\") (1656\\-1660\\) or the [Great Northern War](/wiki/Great_Northern_War \"Great Northern War\") (1700\\-1721\\). In 1810, only 2400 volumes were left in stock; at the dissolution of the monastery in 1829, the library, then under the authority of the Head of the city police,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl/biblioteka\\-glowna/biblioteka\\-bernardynow/\\|title\\=Biblioteka Bernardynów\\|date\\=2016 \\|website\\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl \\|publisher\\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2016}} was moved to the nearby House of [Loreto](/wiki/Sisters_of_Loreto \"Sisters of Loreto\")'s order and at the demolition of the monastery in 1838, the books have been placed in a compartment behind the main altar of the [Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace \"Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace\"). They have been then transferred to the [cathedral](/wiki/St._Martin_and_St._Nicholas_Cathedral%2C_Bydgoszcz \"St. Martin and St. Nicholas Cathedral, Bydgoszcz\") where they survived until 1907\\.",
"At the request of the German authorities, these old volumes have been moved to the stock of [Bromberg](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\")'s Municipal Library. Shortly before the reintegration of Bydgoszcz to the [Polish territory](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\") in 1920, ecclesiastical authorities (among whom German priest Jan Filipiak)\nplaced these old volumes to the [Church of the Holy Trinity](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_in_Bydgoszcz \"Church of the Holy Trinity in Bydgoszcz\"), for fear of losing them in the hands of the Germans leaving the city.",
"#### Municipal Library",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|Municipal library 1910](/wiki/File:Pomnik_krola_Fryderyka_II_Wielkiego_1910.jpg \"Pomnik krola Fryderyka II Wielkiego 1910.jpg\")\nCity library was established on October 1, 1903:{{cite web \\|url\\=http://biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl/biblioteka\\-glowna/historia/ \\|title\\=Historia \\|date\\=2016 \\|website\\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl \\|publisher\\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2016}} located initially in a building on the corner of [Bernardyńska](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz \"Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz\") and [Jagiellońska](/wiki/Jagiello%C5%84ska_street_in_Bydgoszcz \"Jagiellońska street in Bydgoszcz\") streets, it has then been housed from 1904 to 1906 at [Gdańska Street](/wiki/Gda%C5%84ska_Street%2C_Bydgoszcz \"Gdańska Street, Bydgoszcz\") 27 (at the plot where stands today [Tenement Carl Meinhardt](/wiki/Tenement_Carl_Meinhardt_Bydgoszcz \"Tenement Carl Meinhardt Bydgoszcz\")).{{cite book \\|last\\=Umiński \\|first\\=Janusz \\|date\\=1996 \\|title\\=Przewodnik:Bydgoszcz\\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=Regionalny Oddział PTTK „Szlak Brdy\" \\|page\\= \\|isbn\\=}}",
"First library resources were offered by German private donators: historian [Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer](/wiki/Friedrich_Ludwig_Georg_von_Raumer \"Friedrich Ludwig Georg von Raumer\"), editor [Heinrich Kruse](/wiki/Heinrich_Kruse \"Heinrich Kruse\") and German scientific societies affiliated to the *German Society of Arts and Sciences in Bromberg*, mainly *Historical Society from Bromberg \\- [Netze District](/wiki/Netze_District \"Netze District\")* ({{lang\\-de\\|Historische Gesellschaft für den Netzedistrikt zu Bromberg}}). The first director of the institution was [Georg Minde\\-Pouet](/wiki/Georg_Minde-Pouet \"Georg Minde-Pouet\"), who quickly demonstrated a real ability to acquire the funds needed for the maintenance of the library. He had the building expanded, acquiring a wing on Jana Kazimierza street.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://bydgoszcz.wyborcza.pl/bydgoszcz/1,128852,14041528,Potomek\\_hugenotow\\_dyrektorem\\_biblioteki.html \\|title\\=Potomek hugenotów dyrektorem biblioteki \\|last\\=wal \\|first\\= \\|date\\=5 June 2013 \\|website\\=bydgoszcz.wyborcza \\|publisher\\=bydgoszcz.wyborcza \\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2018}}",
"When the building and its resources moved to the hands of Polish authorities in April 1920, the institution consisted of 75 000 volumes, of which only 300 were in Polish. Witold Bełza, the new director, (1920\\-1939 and 1945\\-1952\\), began to acquire more Polish books, and in 1939 the stock increased to 150 000 volumes, including:\n* 15th to 18th century [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscript \"Manuscript\") and books from the former Bernardine Library;\n* a collection of nearly 2 700 royal documents, privileges, decrees, manuscripts and autographs;\n* the only surviving manuscript of \"[The Oath](/wiki/Rota_%28poem%29 \"Rota (poem)\")\" donated by [Feliks Nowowiejski](/wiki/Feliks_Nowowiejski \"Feliks Nowowiejski\");\n* a dozen of books from [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin \"Vladimir Lenin\")'s collection in [Poronin](/wiki/Poronin \"Poronin\"), donated by [Adam Grzymała\\-Siedlecki](/wiki/Adam_Grzyma%C5%82a-Siedlecki \"Adam Grzymała-Siedlecki\").",
"During [interwar period](/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281918-1939%29 \"History of Poland (1918-1939)\"), the collections of the Municipal Library in Bydgoszcz were regarded as the richest on [Kujawy](/wiki/Kujawy \"Kujawy\") in terms of [literature](/wiki/Literature \"Literature\").",
"During the [occupation](/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%9345%29 \"Occupation of Poland (1939–45)\") the library has been isolated, forbidden to be consulted. Part of the Polish\\-language literature was handed over for destruction, even though many books were rescued by Polish citizens working in the warehouse. The historian [Michał Nycz](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Nycz \"Michał Nycz\") moved many royal manuscripts away from the Nazi authorities. Some of the books were hidden in the Municipal museum or in basements of elementary schools in the suburbs of [Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\"), so as not to be evacuated by German occupation forces. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), 20% of the library stock have been lost, including 99 [incunables](/wiki/Incunable \"Incunable\").\n[thumb\\|300px\\|Plaque in memory of [Józef Wybicki](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki \"Józef Wybicki\")](/wiki/File:Tablica_J_Wybickiego_na_bibliotece.jpg \"Tablica J Wybickiego na bibliotece.jpg\")\nAfter 1946, predominant trend was to collect scientific and popular works. The most valuable items, gathered in the Department of Special Collections, were isolated from the central database in 1953\\. It included among others, 1382 volumes from the Bernardine library, 4 900 items related to [cartography](/wiki/Cartography \"Cartography\"), 972 manuscripts of artists such as [Józef Ignacy Kraszewski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Ignacy_Kraszewski \"Józef Ignacy Kraszewski\"), [Maria Konopnicka](/wiki/Maria_Konopnicka \"Maria Konopnicka\"), Julian Krzyżanowski, [Jan Matejko](/wiki/Jan_Matejko \"Jan Matejko\"), [Henryk Sienkiewicz](/wiki/Henryk_Sienkiewicz \"Henryk Sienkiewicz\"), Adam Grzymała\\-Siedlecki, [Leopold Staff](/wiki/Leopold_Staff \"Leopold Staff\"), [Stanisław Wyspiański](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Wyspia%C5%84ski \"Stanisław Wyspiański\") and [Tadeusz Boy\\-Żeleński](/wiki/Tadeusz_Boy-%C5%BBele%C5%84ski \"Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński\"). In 1957, were incorporated into this Department a collection of medals, plaques, stamps, biographical materials of regional activists, and in 1959 a series of small prints.{{cite book \\|last\\=Sucharska \\|first\\=Anna\\|date\\=1988 \\|title\\=Kultura w Bydgoszczy w latach 1945\\-1980\\. Bydgoszcz wczoraj i dziś 1945\\-1980 \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=Bydgoskie Towarzystwo Naukowe. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe Warszawa\\-Poznań}}",
"From the 1950s to the 1970s, the municipal library established many branches throughout the city: a new building has been planned to be erected, but the project was finally rejected and transformed to a major overhaul of the existing edifice. In the 1980s, repairs to a damaged building required to change the location of part of the stock.",
"In 1968, the institution has been granted a scientific department, and in 1975, the library was labelled as *provincial library*. In 2009, a plaque in memory of [Józef Wybicki](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Wybicki \"Józef Wybicki\"), a Polish jurist, political and military activist, has been unveiled on a wall of the Municipal Library, recalling its judicial past.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.pomorska.pl/wiadomosci/bydgoszcz/art/7043267,jozef\\-wybicki\\-byl\\-zwiazany\\-z\\-bydgoszcza\\-przypomni\\-o\\-tym\\-tablica\\-na\\-bibliotece,id,t.html\\|title\\=Józef Wybicki był związany z Bydgoszczą. Przypomni o tym tablica na bibliotece \\|last1\\=RAV\\|date\\=3 May 2009 \\|website\\=pomorska.pl \\|publisher\\=Gazeta Pomorska \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2016}}",
""
] |
#### Bernardine Monastery Library
Origins of the actual institution date back to the creation of the Bernardine library in 1488, which stood at the location of today's [Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace "Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace"). In 1591, Wojciech Język from [Sambir](/wiki/Sambir "Sambir"), then Bernardine guardian, expanded the monastery and built a new brick room for the library.
The monastery had organised [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscripts "Manuscripts") into several disciplines:
* Theology, including works by Catholic authors and representatives of the [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation "Protestant Reformation") and [Counter\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation "Counter-Reformation");
* Philosophy, with works from ancient authors, [scholastics](/wiki/Scholasticism "Scholasticism"), [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") philosophers ([Jan of Stobnica](/wiki/Jan_of_Stobnica "Jan of Stobnica"), [Michał Falkener](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Falkener "Michał Falkener"));
* History, encompassing Roman classics works.
In addition, the library had books dealing with [law](/wiki/Law "Law"), [geography](/wiki/Geography "Geography"), [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics "Mathematics"), [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy "Astronomy"), medical science, mining and metallurgy. Stocks comprised also historical [incunables](/wiki/Incunable "Incunable"), colorfully decorated by Bernardine brother Aleksi, famous for his adorning of [antiphonary](/wiki/Antiphonary "Antiphonary") books.
Most of the books come from purchase or donations, some have been brought by monks travelling abroad (Dionizy Szyjka, Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian "Kościan"), Melchior Dębiński, Wawrzyniec of [Słupca](/wiki/S%C5%82upca "Słupca") and others).
In 1574, the [starost of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Starosta "Starosta") Jan Kościelecki secured the maintenance of the library by assuring a fixed amount of income from a local sawmill. In 1631, Jan Synodoniusz of [Pakość](/wiki/Pako%C5%9B%C4%87 "Pakość"), dying chaplain of the Church of the Holy cross in Bydgoszcz (now gone), bequeathed to the library a sizable collection of books. Likewise the son of Andrzej Rozrażewski, founder of the [Poor Clares](/wiki/Poor_Clares "Poor Clares") monastery, gave many [Venetian](/wiki/Venice "Venice") [incunables](/wiki/Incunable "Incunable"). Other well\-known donators include: [governor](/wiki/Starosta "Starosta") of [Kcynia](/wiki/Kcynia "Kcynia") Piotr Czarnkowski (ca 1620\), [governor](/wiki/Starosta "Starosta") of [Solec](/wiki/Solec_Kujawski "Solec Kujawski") Antoni Grasiński, Bydgoszcz Mayor Wojciech Łochowski or town's woman Elżbieta Szychowa.
The library, its adjoined [scriptorium](/wiki/Scriptorium "Scriptorium") and the Bernardine academic study of philosophy helped to develop a broader intellectual environment in the city. One of the famous professor of the philosophy was [Bartłomiej of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bart%C5%82omiej_z_Bydgoszczy "Bartłomiej z Bydgoszczy"), a bernardine monk who conducted fruitful scholarship work at the local monastery, issuing the first Latin\-polish dictionary in 1532\.{{cite book \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=July 2014\|title\=Bydgoszcz Guide \|url\=http://kujawsko\-pomorskie.travel/en \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=City of Bydgoszcz \|page\=20\|isbn\=83\-917786\-7\-3 }}
Several written chronicles written at the beginning of the 17th century by Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian "Kościan") describe this fertile scholar period.{{cite book \|last\=Kantak \|first\=Kamil\|date\=1907 \|title\=Kronika bernardynów bydgoskich t. XXXIII\|url\= \|location\=Poznań \|publisher\=Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk Poznańskiego \|page\=}}
The library luckily survived the violent times of Polish history, such as the [Swedish invasion](/wiki/Deluge_%28history%29 "Deluge (history)") (1656\-1660\) or the [Great Northern War](/wiki/Great_Northern_War "Great Northern War") (1700\-1721\). In 1810, only 2400 volumes were left in stock; at the dissolution of the monastery in 1829, the library, then under the authority of the Head of the city police,{{cite web \|url\=http://biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl/biblioteka\-glowna/biblioteka\-bernardynow/\|title\=Biblioteka Bernardynów\|date\=2016 \|website\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl \|publisher\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz \|access\-date\=6 November 2016}} was moved to the nearby House of [Loreto](/wiki/Sisters_of_Loreto "Sisters of Loreto")'s order and at the demolition of the monastery in 1838, the books have been placed in a compartment behind the main altar of the [Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace "Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace"). They have been then transferred to the [cathedral](/wiki/St._Martin_and_St._Nicholas_Cathedral%2C_Bydgoszcz "St. Martin and St. Nicholas Cathedral, Bydgoszcz") where they survived until 1907\.
At the request of the German authorities, these old volumes have been moved to the stock of [Bromberg](/wiki/Bydgoszcz "Bydgoszcz")'s Municipal Library. Shortly before the reintegration of Bydgoszcz to the [Polish territory](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic") in 1920, ecclesiastical authorities (among whom German priest Jan Filipiak)
placed these old volumes to the [Church of the Holy Trinity](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_in_Bydgoszcz "Church of the Holy Trinity in Bydgoszcz"), for fear of losing them in the hands of the Germans leaving the city.
|
[
"#### Bernardine Monastery Library",
"Origins of the actual institution date back to the creation of the Bernardine library in 1488, which stood at the location of today's [Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace \"Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace\"). In 1591, Wojciech Język from [Sambir](/wiki/Sambir \"Sambir\"), then Bernardine guardian, expanded the monastery and built a new brick room for the library.",
"The monastery had organised [manuscripts](/wiki/Manuscripts \"Manuscripts\") into several disciplines:\n* Theology, including works by Catholic authors and representatives of the [Protestant Reformation](/wiki/Protestant_Reformation \"Protestant Reformation\") and [Counter\\-Reformation](/wiki/Counter-Reformation \"Counter-Reformation\");\n* Philosophy, with works from ancient authors, [scholastics](/wiki/Scholasticism \"Scholasticism\"), [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") philosophers ([Jan of Stobnica](/wiki/Jan_of_Stobnica \"Jan of Stobnica\"), [Michał Falkener](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Falkener \"Michał Falkener\"));\n* History, encompassing Roman classics works.\nIn addition, the library had books dealing with [law](/wiki/Law \"Law\"), [geography](/wiki/Geography \"Geography\"), [mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\"), [astronomy](/wiki/Astronomy \"Astronomy\"), medical science, mining and metallurgy. Stocks comprised also historical [incunables](/wiki/Incunable \"Incunable\"), colorfully decorated by Bernardine brother Aleksi, famous for his adorning of [antiphonary](/wiki/Antiphonary \"Antiphonary\") books.",
"Most of the books come from purchase or donations, some have been brought by monks travelling abroad (Dionizy Szyjka, Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian \"Kościan\"), Melchior Dębiński, Wawrzyniec of [Słupca](/wiki/S%C5%82upca \"Słupca\") and others).",
"In 1574, the [starost of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Starosta \"Starosta\") Jan Kościelecki secured the maintenance of the library by assuring a fixed amount of income from a local sawmill. In 1631, Jan Synodoniusz of [Pakość](/wiki/Pako%C5%9B%C4%87 \"Pakość\"), dying chaplain of the Church of the Holy cross in Bydgoszcz (now gone), bequeathed to the library a sizable collection of books. Likewise the son of Andrzej Rozrażewski, founder of the [Poor Clares](/wiki/Poor_Clares \"Poor Clares\") monastery, gave many [Venetian](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") [incunables](/wiki/Incunable \"Incunable\"). Other well\\-known donators include: [governor](/wiki/Starosta \"Starosta\") of [Kcynia](/wiki/Kcynia \"Kcynia\") Piotr Czarnkowski (ca 1620\\), [governor](/wiki/Starosta \"Starosta\") of [Solec](/wiki/Solec_Kujawski \"Solec Kujawski\") Antoni Grasiński, Bydgoszcz Mayor Wojciech Łochowski or town's woman Elżbieta Szychowa.",
"The library, its adjoined [scriptorium](/wiki/Scriptorium \"Scriptorium\") and the Bernardine academic study of philosophy helped to develop a broader intellectual environment in the city. One of the famous professor of the philosophy was [Bartłomiej of Bydgoszcz](/wiki/Bart%C5%82omiej_z_Bydgoszczy \"Bartłomiej z Bydgoszczy\"), a bernardine monk who conducted fruitful scholarship work at the local monastery, issuing the first Latin\\-polish dictionary in 1532\\.{{cite book \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=July 2014\\|title\\=Bydgoszcz Guide \\|url\\=http://kujawsko\\-pomorskie.travel/en \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=City of Bydgoszcz \\|page\\=20\\|isbn\\=83\\-917786\\-7\\-3 }}\nSeveral written chronicles written at the beginning of the 17th century by Jan of [Kościan](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bcian \"Kościan\") describe this fertile scholar period.{{cite book \\|last\\=Kantak \\|first\\=Kamil\\|date\\=1907 \\|title\\=Kronika bernardynów bydgoskich t. XXXIII\\|url\\= \\|location\\=Poznań \\|publisher\\=Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk Poznańskiego \\|page\\=}}",
"The library luckily survived the violent times of Polish history, such as the [Swedish invasion](/wiki/Deluge_%28history%29 \"Deluge (history)\") (1656\\-1660\\) or the [Great Northern War](/wiki/Great_Northern_War \"Great Northern War\") (1700\\-1721\\). In 1810, only 2400 volumes were left in stock; at the dissolution of the monastery in 1829, the library, then under the authority of the Head of the city police,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl/biblioteka\\-glowna/biblioteka\\-bernardynow/\\|title\\=Biblioteka Bernardynów\\|date\\=2016 \\|website\\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz.pl \\|publisher\\=biblioteka.bydgoszcz \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2016}} was moved to the nearby House of [Loreto](/wiki/Sisters_of_Loreto \"Sisters of Loreto\")'s order and at the demolition of the monastery in 1838, the books have been placed in a compartment behind the main altar of the [Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace \"Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace\"). They have been then transferred to the [cathedral](/wiki/St._Martin_and_St._Nicholas_Cathedral%2C_Bydgoszcz \"St. Martin and St. Nicholas Cathedral, Bydgoszcz\") where they survived until 1907\\.",
"At the request of the German authorities, these old volumes have been moved to the stock of [Bromberg](/wiki/Bydgoszcz \"Bydgoszcz\")'s Municipal Library. Shortly before the reintegration of Bydgoszcz to the [Polish territory](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\") in 1920, ecclesiastical authorities (among whom German priest Jan Filipiak)\nplaced these old volumes to the [Church of the Holy Trinity](/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_in_Bydgoszcz \"Church of the Holy Trinity in Bydgoszcz\"), for fear of losing them in the hands of the Germans leaving the city.",
""
] |
Buildings
---------
The library complex encompasses two main buildings: one at 24 [Stary Rynek](/wiki/Old_Market_square%2C_Bydgoszcz "Old Market square, Bydgoszcz"), one at 41 [Długa street](/wiki/D%C5%82uga_street_in_Bydgoszcz "Długa street in Bydgoszcz").{{cite book \|last\=Parucka\|first\= Krystyna \|date\=2008 \|title\=Zabytki Bydgoszczy \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=minikatalog. „Tifen”}}
### 24 Stary Rynek
The building was constructed between 1774 and 1778 in the [Neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture "Neoclassical architecture")\-[Neo\-Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_Revival_architecture "Baroque Revival architecture") style, as the seat of the [Netze District](/wiki/Netze_District "Netze District"). From 1781 to 1807, it housed the royal court of [West Prussia](/wiki/West_Prussia "West Prussia"). During the [Duchy of Warsaw](/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw "Duchy of Warsaw") (1807\-1815\), the building contained the seat of the [Bydgoszcz Department](/wiki/Bydgoszcz_Department "Bydgoszcz Department"). Later on, it housed:
* the authorities of the [Bromberg (region)](/wiki/Bromberg_%28region%29 "Bromberg (region)") (from 1815 to 1838\). After this date, the seat moved to the building at 3 [Jagiellońska street](/wiki/Jagiello%C5%84ska_street_in_Bydgoszcz "Jagiellońska street in Bydgoszcz"), now the Regional Office Building;
* the Court of Appeal;
* the Court District and Land Office;
From 1908 onward, the edifice has been welcoming the Municipal Library.
Before 1908, along Jana Kazimierza street and Zaułek street stood a one\-level building, lower than the main edifice, where was established a printing house. Between 1987 and 1999, this edifice has been thoroughly renovated, restoring the original architectural elements of the façade.
The building displays architecture elements recalling the urban residence style, mixing late [Rococo](/wiki/Rococo "Rococo") and early [Neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture "Neoclassical architecture") styles. The front elevation on Stary Rynek boasts 14 [pilaster](/wiki/Pilaster "Pilaster") with [ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order "Ionic order")\-type [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 "Capital (architecture)"). The central part of the facade is crowned with a line of vases and [balustrade](/wiki/Baluster "Baluster"), mirroring the decoration of the double entrance stairs below. The basement ceiling exhibits [vaults](/wiki/Vault_%28architecture%29 "Vault (architecture)") and [cross vaults](/wiki/Groin_vault "Groin vault"). A reconstruction in 1870\-1876 dismantled the [attic](/wiki/Attic_style "Attic style") facade and the monumental staircase covered with a [balustrade](/wiki/Baluster "Baluster").
[thumb\|200px\|"The Well" in 1914 in front of the pharmacy "Under the golden eagle"](/wiki/File:Bdg_Kupffender_Brunnen.jpg "Bdg Kupffender Brunnen.jpg")
### 41 [Długa street](/wiki/D%C5%82uga_street_in_Bydgoszcz "Długa street in Bydgoszcz")
This building has been erected in 1798 for the needs of the court of [West Prussia](/wiki/West_Prussia "West Prussia"). It became in 1903 property of the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia"), and served as the seat of the court hearing till the completion of the edifice on 3 [Jagiellońska street](/wiki/Jagiello%C5%84ska_street_in_Bydgoszcz "Jagiellońska street in Bydgoszcz"). Later on it housed the Municipal Police (*Friedrichstraße 58*).{{cite book \|date\=1905 \|title\=Adressbuch nebst allgemeinem Geschäfts\-Anzeiger von Bromberg und dessen Vororten auf das Jahr 1905 : auf Grund amtlicher und privater Unterlagen\|url\= \|location\=Bromberg\|publisher\=Ditmann\|chapter\=Straßen\|page\=45\|isbn\=}}
Between both library buildings runs the narrow Zaułek street: to unite the architectural ensemble, a covered passage called the "Bridge of Sighs" ({{lang\-pl\|Most Westchnień}}), has been built in 1920\.
Since the 1920s, the Municipal Library owns the edifice. The outbuilding on the first floor harbours a collection of antique books from the ancient Bernardine monastery library, which stood in the 16th century in [Bernardyńska Street](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace "Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace").
The building at 41 Długa has a "L" shape with a side outbuilding and the main entrance on the south elevation. The facades are divided by vertical [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster "Pilaster") and horizontal [cornices](/wiki/Cornices "Cornices"). The [vaulted](/wiki/Arch "Arch") cellars are still preserved. The edifice is topped by a [Mansard roof](/wiki/Mansard_roof "Mansard roof") with eyelid [dormers](/wiki/Dormer "Dormer").
### Fountain
The fountain called "The Well" ({{lang\-pl\|Studzienka}}) was unveiled on October 4, 1909\.{{cite book \|last\=Gliwiński\|first\=Eugeniusz\|date\=1996 \|title\=Bydgoskie pomniki w latach zaboru pruskiego. Kalendarz Bydgoski \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz\|publisher\=TOWARZYSTWO MIŁOŚNIKÓW MIASTA BYDGOSZCZY}} Its creator was sculptor Karol Kowalczewski, and the funder Alfred Kupffender, owner of the pharmacy "Under the Golden Eagle" ({{lang\-pl\|Pod Złotym Orłem}}), located on [Stary Rynek](/wiki/Old_Market_square%2C_Bydgoszcz "Old Market square, Bydgoszcz"). The sculpture commemorated the 100th anniversary of the pharmacy, and stood nearby the shop on the western part of the square: Alfred Kupffender donated it in gratitude towards the municipal authorities which decided to disband the geese\-market which used to be held in front of the Golden Eagle pharmacy.Plaque about Bydgoszcz oldest pharmacies\- Pharmacy museum at [Gdanska Street 5](/wiki/August_Mentzel_Tenement "August Mentzel Tenement")
In 1940, Nazis authorities began to destroy the Jesuit Church that stood on Stary Rynek, and doing so demolished "The Well". Parts of the sculpture, stored in public gardens, survived the occupation period.{{cite book \|last\=Derenda\|first\=Jerzy \|date\=2006 \|title\=Piękna stara Bydgoszcz. Tom I z serii: Bydgoszcz miasto na Kujawach \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=Towarzystwo Miłośników Miasta Bydgoszczy \|page\=471\|isbn\=83\-916178\-0\-7}} Franciszek Górski, stationmaster at a warehouse, even saved those bronze pieces from being melting away for military purposes.{{cite book \|last\=Borucki \|first\=Kazimierz\|date\=1965\|title\=Pomniki w Bydgoszczy zniszczone przez okupanta w latach 1939\-1945\. Komisji Sztuki t.I \|url\= \|location\=Bydgoszcz \|publisher\=Bydgoskie Towarzystwo Naukowe\|page\= \|isbn\=}}
After the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), a newly cast "The Well", has been unveiled on May 1, 1948, moving its original location to stand right before the main elevation of the Municipal Public Library on Stary Rynek.
The buildings are registered on the **[Kuyavian\-Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship "Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship") Heritage List** Nr.601414 Reg.A/868, since September 3, 1953\.
|
[
"Buildings\n---------",
"The library complex encompasses two main buildings: one at 24 [Stary Rynek](/wiki/Old_Market_square%2C_Bydgoszcz \"Old Market square, Bydgoszcz\"), one at 41 [Długa street](/wiki/D%C5%82uga_street_in_Bydgoszcz \"Długa street in Bydgoszcz\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Parucka\\|first\\= Krystyna \\|date\\=2008 \\|title\\=Zabytki Bydgoszczy \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=minikatalog. „Tifen”}}",
"### 24 Stary Rynek",
"The building was constructed between 1774 and 1778 in the [Neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture \"Neoclassical architecture\")\\-[Neo\\-Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_Revival_architecture \"Baroque Revival architecture\") style, as the seat of the [Netze District](/wiki/Netze_District \"Netze District\"). From 1781 to 1807, it housed the royal court of [West Prussia](/wiki/West_Prussia \"West Prussia\"). During the [Duchy of Warsaw](/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw \"Duchy of Warsaw\") (1807\\-1815\\), the building contained the seat of the [Bydgoszcz Department](/wiki/Bydgoszcz_Department \"Bydgoszcz Department\"). Later on, it housed:\n* the authorities of the [Bromberg (region)](/wiki/Bromberg_%28region%29 \"Bromberg (region)\") (from 1815 to 1838\\). After this date, the seat moved to the building at 3 [Jagiellońska street](/wiki/Jagiello%C5%84ska_street_in_Bydgoszcz \"Jagiellońska street in Bydgoszcz\"), now the Regional Office Building;\n* the Court of Appeal;\n* the Court District and Land Office;",
"From 1908 onward, the edifice has been welcoming the Municipal Library.\nBefore 1908, along Jana Kazimierza street and Zaułek street stood a one\\-level building, lower than the main edifice, where was established a printing house. Between 1987 and 1999, this edifice has been thoroughly renovated, restoring the original architectural elements of the façade.",
"The building displays architecture elements recalling the urban residence style, mixing late [Rococo](/wiki/Rococo \"Rococo\") and early [Neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture \"Neoclassical architecture\") styles. The front elevation on Stary Rynek boasts 14 [pilaster](/wiki/Pilaster \"Pilaster\") with [ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order \"Ionic order\")\\-type [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 \"Capital (architecture)\"). The central part of the facade is crowned with a line of vases and [balustrade](/wiki/Baluster \"Baluster\"), mirroring the decoration of the double entrance stairs below. The basement ceiling exhibits [vaults](/wiki/Vault_%28architecture%29 \"Vault (architecture)\") and [cross vaults](/wiki/Groin_vault \"Groin vault\"). A reconstruction in 1870\\-1876 dismantled the [attic](/wiki/Attic_style \"Attic style\") facade and the monumental staircase covered with a [balustrade](/wiki/Baluster \"Baluster\").\n[thumb\\|200px\\|\"The Well\" in 1914 in front of the pharmacy \"Under the golden eagle\"](/wiki/File:Bdg_Kupffender_Brunnen.jpg \"Bdg Kupffender Brunnen.jpg\")",
"### 41 [Długa street](/wiki/D%C5%82uga_street_in_Bydgoszcz \"Długa street in Bydgoszcz\")",
"This building has been erected in 1798 for the needs of the court of [West Prussia](/wiki/West_Prussia \"West Prussia\"). It became in 1903 property of the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\"), and served as the seat of the court hearing till the completion of the edifice on 3 [Jagiellońska street](/wiki/Jagiello%C5%84ska_street_in_Bydgoszcz \"Jagiellońska street in Bydgoszcz\"). Later on it housed the Municipal Police (*Friedrichstraße 58*).{{cite book \\|date\\=1905 \\|title\\=Adressbuch nebst allgemeinem Geschäfts\\-Anzeiger von Bromberg und dessen Vororten auf das Jahr 1905 : auf Grund amtlicher und privater Unterlagen\\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bromberg\\|publisher\\=Ditmann\\|chapter\\=Straßen\\|page\\=45\\|isbn\\=}}",
"Between both library buildings runs the narrow Zaułek street: to unite the architectural ensemble, a covered passage called the \"Bridge of Sighs\" ({{lang\\-pl\\|Most Westchnień}}), has been built in 1920\\.",
"Since the 1920s, the Municipal Library owns the edifice. The outbuilding on the first floor harbours a collection of antique books from the ancient Bernardine monastery library, which stood in the 16th century in [Bernardyńska Street](/wiki/Bernardy%C5%84ska_Street_in_Bydgoszcz%23Bernardine_Church_of_Our_Lady_Queen_of_Peace \"Bernardyńska Street in Bydgoszcz#Bernardine Church of Our Lady Queen of Peace\").",
"The building at 41 Długa has a \"L\" shape with a side outbuilding and the main entrance on the south elevation. The facades are divided by vertical [pilasters](/wiki/Pilaster \"Pilaster\") and horizontal [cornices](/wiki/Cornices \"Cornices\"). The [vaulted](/wiki/Arch \"Arch\") cellars are still preserved. The edifice is topped by a [Mansard roof](/wiki/Mansard_roof \"Mansard roof\") with eyelid [dormers](/wiki/Dormer \"Dormer\").",
"### Fountain",
"The fountain called \"The Well\" ({{lang\\-pl\\|Studzienka}}) was unveiled on October 4, 1909\\.{{cite book \\|last\\=Gliwiński\\|first\\=Eugeniusz\\|date\\=1996 \\|title\\=Bydgoskie pomniki w latach zaboru pruskiego. Kalendarz Bydgoski \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz\\|publisher\\=TOWARZYSTWO MIŁOŚNIKÓW MIASTA BYDGOSZCZY}} Its creator was sculptor Karol Kowalczewski, and the funder Alfred Kupffender, owner of the pharmacy \"Under the Golden Eagle\" ({{lang\\-pl\\|Pod Złotym Orłem}}), located on [Stary Rynek](/wiki/Old_Market_square%2C_Bydgoszcz \"Old Market square, Bydgoszcz\"). The sculpture commemorated the 100th anniversary of the pharmacy, and stood nearby the shop on the western part of the square: Alfred Kupffender donated it in gratitude towards the municipal authorities which decided to disband the geese\\-market which used to be held in front of the Golden Eagle pharmacy.Plaque about Bydgoszcz oldest pharmacies\\- Pharmacy museum at [Gdanska Street 5](/wiki/August_Mentzel_Tenement \"August Mentzel Tenement\")",
"In 1940, Nazis authorities began to destroy the Jesuit Church that stood on Stary Rynek, and doing so demolished \"The Well\". Parts of the sculpture, stored in public gardens, survived the occupation period.{{cite book \\|last\\=Derenda\\|first\\=Jerzy \\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=Piękna stara Bydgoszcz. Tom I z serii: Bydgoszcz miasto na Kujawach \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=Towarzystwo Miłośników Miasta Bydgoszczy \\|page\\=471\\|isbn\\=83\\-916178\\-0\\-7}} Franciszek Górski, stationmaster at a warehouse, even saved those bronze pieces from being melting away for military purposes.{{cite book \\|last\\=Borucki \\|first\\=Kazimierz\\|date\\=1965\\|title\\=Pomniki w Bydgoszczy zniszczone przez okupanta w latach 1939\\-1945\\. Komisji Sztuki t.I \\|url\\= \\|location\\=Bydgoszcz \\|publisher\\=Bydgoskie Towarzystwo Naukowe\\|page\\= \\|isbn\\=}}",
"After the end of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), a newly cast \"The Well\", has been unveiled on May 1, 1948, moving its original location to stand right before the main elevation of the Municipal Public Library on Stary Rynek.",
"The buildings are registered on the **[Kuyavian\\-Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodeship \"Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship\") Heritage List** Nr.601414 Reg.A/868, since September 3, 1953\\.",
""
] |
Career
------
In March 2020, FEWOCiOUS sold his first painting to a New York art collector.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-04\-26 \|title\=Inspire: Teen Artist Fewocious Leads an NFT Renaissance \|url\=https://phillystylemag.com/teen\-artist\-fewocious\-nft\-renaissance \|website\=phillystylemag.com}} FEWOCiOUS eventually gained a following after selling his artwork on the online platforms SuperRare and [Nifty Gateway](/wiki/Nifty_Gateway "Nifty Gateway").
FEWOCiOUS collaborated with his friends and fellow artists parrot\_ism, odious, and Jonathan Wolfe on the collection *Fabricated Fairytales*, which was released in early 2021\.{{Cite web \|last\=Grader \|date\=2022\-10\-07 \|title\=How This Teenager Made Life\-Changing Money With NFTs \|url\=https://wgmimedia.com/teenager\-makes\-money\-with\-nfts/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=WGMI Media \|language\=en\-US}} In 2021, FEWOCiOUS also collaborated with the Nike subsidiary RTFKT on an NFT sneaker collection titled “FEWO WORLD Open Edition,” which included a real pair of sneakers with the purchase of each unique NFT.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-02\-27 \|title\=The FEWOCiOUS x RTFKT Sneaker Project is Paving the Way for NFT Collaborations \|url\=https://www.one37pm.com/nft/fewocious\-rtfkt\-collaboration\-sneakers \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=www.one37pm.com \|language\=en}} The collection of sneakers sold over $3\.1 million in seven minutes.{{Cite web \|last\=Lawler \|first\=Richard \|date\=2021\-12\-14 \|title\=Nike just bought a virtual shoe company that makes NFTs and sneakers ‘for the metaverse’ \|url\=https://www.theverge.com/22833369/nike\-rtfkt\-nft\-sneaker\-shoe\-metaverse\-company \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=The Verge \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-03\-03 \|title\=A Sale of Virtual Sneakers Raised $3\.1 Million USD in Seven Minutes \|url\=https://hypebeast.com/2021/3/rtfkt\-studios\-fewocious\-sale\-nfts \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Hypebeast}}
In June 2021, the New York branch of the auction house [Christie's](/wiki/Christie%27s "Christie's") arranged an auction for FEWOCiOUS's work *Hello, i’m Victor (FEWOCiOUS) and This Is My Life*, which was sold for $2\.16 million.{{Cite web \|last\=Cowen \|first\=Trace William \|title\=NFT Collection From 18\-Year\-Old Artist FEWOCiOUS Bags More Than $2 Million at Auction \|url\=https://www.complex.com/style/a/tracewilliamcowen/nft\-collection\-from\-18\-year\-old\-artist\-fewocious\-bags\-2\-million\-at\-auction \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Complex \|language\=en\-us}}{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-06\-23 \|title\=Christie's Celebrates Pride Month With Colorful NFTs by Digital Artist FEWOCiOUS \|url\=https://hypebeast.com/2021/6/christies\-celebrates\-pride\-month\-with\-colorful\-nfts\-by\-digital\-artist\-fewocious \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Hypebeast}} As a result of the auction, he was featured in a segment for the [ABC News](/wiki/ABC_News_%28United_States%29 "ABC News (United States)") program *[Nightline](/wiki/Nightline "Nightline")*.{{Cite web \|title\=Video Inside the world of NFTs with 18\-year\-old transgender breakout artist Fewocious \|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/video/inside\-world\-nfts\-18\-year\-transgender\-breakout\-artist\-78436329 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=ABC News \|language\=en}} At the time of the sale, FEWOCiOUS was the youngest artist to have a solo sale at [Christie's](/wiki/Christie%27s "Christie's").
In April 2022, FEWOCiOUS sold his *Paint Drop* NFT collection through [Nifty Gateway](/wiki/Nifty_Gateway "Nifty Gateway") for $20 million.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-01\-30 \|title\=From PAK to Fewocious, these are the top NFT artists around the world \|url\=https://www.lifestyleasia.com/hk/tech/top\-famous\-nft\-artists\-from\-across\-the\-world/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Lifestyle Asia Hong Kong \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|title\=NFT artist FEWOCiOUS brought in an incredible $20 million \|url\=https://fortune.com/2022/04/07/nft\-artist\-fewocious\-sells\-20\-million\-24\-hours\-art\-crypto/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Fortune \|language\=en}} The collection was part of his [generative art](/wiki/Generative_art "Generative art") project FewoWorld.
In June 2022, FEWOCiOUS redesigned the logo and cover of *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)")* magazine for its annual Pride Issue.{{Cite web \|last\=Lynch \|first\=Joe \|date\=2022\-06\-25 \|title\=Fewocious Brings a Collaborative, All\-Ages Paint Party to NFT.NYC \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/culture/pride/fewocious\-nft\-nyc\-paint\-party\-1235104580/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Billboard \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Daw \|first\=Stephen \|date\=2022\-06\-02 \|title\=Fewocious Breaks Down the ‘Love Story’ Behind His Billboard Logo Redesign For Pride Month \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/culture/pride/fewocious\-interview\-pride\-issue\-design\-nft\-1235079835/ \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Billboard \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Batycka \|first\=Dorian \|date\=2022\-07\-14 \|title\=Screen Time Well Spent? Meet 6 Teenage NFT Superstars Whose Names—and Eye\-Popping Prices—You Need to Know \|url\=https://news.artnet.com/market/zoomer\-nft\-art\-stars\-2143994 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Artnet News \|language\=en\-US}} In the same month, FEWOCiOUS organized one of series of events called FewoWorld Paint Party in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn")’s [Greenpoint neighborhood](/wiki/Greenpoint%2C_Brooklyn "Greenpoint, Brooklyn") for the fourth annual [NFT.NYC](/wiki/NFT.NYC "NFT.NYC") Week.
The following month, FEWOCiOUS collaborated with *Billboard* again on an exclusive NFT drop, which consisted of a full issue of *Billboard* magazine as part of his FewoWorld project.{{Cite web \|last\=Brandle \|first\=Lars \|date\=2022\-07\-27 \|title\=Billboard ChartStars and FEWOCiOUS Partner for Exclusive NFT Drop \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/business/tech/billboard\-fewocious\-nft\-chartstars\-1235118528/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-08 \|website\=Billboard \|language\=en\-US}}
FEWOCiOUS was one of the artists that collaborated with the [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie "David Bowie") Estate on the multiple artist NFT collection *Bowie on the Blockchain*, which was released in September 2022\.{{Cite web \|last\=Sexton \|first\=Paul \|date\=2022\-09\-06 \|title\=David Bowie Inspires ‘Bowie On The Blockchain’ Multiple Artist NFT Sale \|url\=https://www.udiscovermusic.com/news/david\-bowie\-inspires\-bowie\-on\-the\-blockchain\-nft\-sale%E2%80%A8/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-08 \|website\=uDiscover Music \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Hopper \|first\=Alex \|date\=2022\-09\-06 \|title\=David Bowie's Estate Teams Up With Nine Artists For Special NFT Project \|url\=https://americansongwriter.com/david\-bowies\-estate\-teams\-up\-with\-nine\-artists\-for\-special\-nft\-project/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-08 \|website\=American Songwriter \|language\=en\-US}}
FEWOCiOUS sold the NFT piece *Nice to meet you, I'm Mr. MiSUNDERSTOOD* through the auction house Sothesby's for $2\.8 million in October 2022\.
FEWOCiOUS had his second auction at Christie's in November 2022, during which he did a live painting on stage inside a clear acrylic box.{{Cite web \|date\=2022 \|title\=FEWOCIOUS PUTS HIMSELF IN A BOX FOR CHRISTIE'S AUCTION \|url\=https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/fewocious\-christies\-auction\-interview/ \|website\=highsnobiety.com}}{{Cite web \|title\=FEWOCiOUS, Alpha Centauri Kid Complete Auctions at Christie's \|url\=https://luckytrader.com/news/fewocious\-alpha\-centauri\-kid\-complete\-auctions\-at\-christie\-s \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-05 \|website\=Lucky Trader \|language\=en}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In March 2020, FEWOCiOUS sold his first painting to a New York art collector.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-04\\-26 \\|title\\=Inspire: Teen Artist Fewocious Leads an NFT Renaissance \\|url\\=https://phillystylemag.com/teen\\-artist\\-fewocious\\-nft\\-renaissance \\|website\\=phillystylemag.com}} FEWOCiOUS eventually gained a following after selling his artwork on the online platforms SuperRare and [Nifty Gateway](/wiki/Nifty_Gateway \"Nifty Gateway\").",
"FEWOCiOUS collaborated with his friends and fellow artists parrot\\_ism, odious, and Jonathan Wolfe on the collection *Fabricated Fairytales*, which was released in early 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Grader \\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-07 \\|title\\=How This Teenager Made Life\\-Changing Money With NFTs \\|url\\=https://wgmimedia.com/teenager\\-makes\\-money\\-with\\-nfts/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=WGMI Media \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In 2021, FEWOCiOUS also collaborated with the Nike subsidiary RTFKT on an NFT sneaker collection titled “FEWO WORLD Open Edition,” which included a real pair of sneakers with the purchase of each unique NFT.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-27 \\|title\\=The FEWOCiOUS x RTFKT Sneaker Project is Paving the Way for NFT Collaborations \\|url\\=https://www.one37pm.com/nft/fewocious\\-rtfkt\\-collaboration\\-sneakers \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=www.one37pm.com \\|language\\=en}} The collection of sneakers sold over $3\\.1 million in seven minutes.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lawler \\|first\\=Richard \\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-14 \\|title\\=Nike just bought a virtual shoe company that makes NFTs and sneakers ‘for the metaverse’ \\|url\\=https://www.theverge.com/22833369/nike\\-rtfkt\\-nft\\-sneaker\\-shoe\\-metaverse\\-company \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=The Verge \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-03 \\|title\\=A Sale of Virtual Sneakers Raised $3\\.1 Million USD in Seven Minutes \\|url\\=https://hypebeast.com/2021/3/rtfkt\\-studios\\-fewocious\\-sale\\-nfts \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Hypebeast}}",
"In June 2021, the New York branch of the auction house [Christie's](/wiki/Christie%27s \"Christie's\") arranged an auction for FEWOCiOUS's work *Hello, i’m Victor (FEWOCiOUS) and This Is My Life*, which was sold for $2\\.16 million.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cowen \\|first\\=Trace William \\|title\\=NFT Collection From 18\\-Year\\-Old Artist FEWOCiOUS Bags More Than $2 Million at Auction \\|url\\=https://www.complex.com/style/a/tracewilliamcowen/nft\\-collection\\-from\\-18\\-year\\-old\\-artist\\-fewocious\\-bags\\-2\\-million\\-at\\-auction \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Complex \\|language\\=en\\-us}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-06\\-23 \\|title\\=Christie's Celebrates Pride Month With Colorful NFTs by Digital Artist FEWOCiOUS \\|url\\=https://hypebeast.com/2021/6/christies\\-celebrates\\-pride\\-month\\-with\\-colorful\\-nfts\\-by\\-digital\\-artist\\-fewocious \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Hypebeast}} As a result of the auction, he was featured in a segment for the [ABC News](/wiki/ABC_News_%28United_States%29 \"ABC News (United States)\") program *[Nightline](/wiki/Nightline \"Nightline\")*.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Video Inside the world of NFTs with 18\\-year\\-old transgender breakout artist Fewocious \\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/video/inside\\-world\\-nfts\\-18\\-year\\-transgender\\-breakout\\-artist\\-78436329 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=ABC News \\|language\\=en}} At the time of the sale, FEWOCiOUS was the youngest artist to have a solo sale at [Christie's](/wiki/Christie%27s \"Christie's\").",
"In April 2022, FEWOCiOUS sold his *Paint Drop* NFT collection through [Nifty Gateway](/wiki/Nifty_Gateway \"Nifty Gateway\") for $20 million.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-30 \\|title\\=From PAK to Fewocious, these are the top NFT artists around the world \\|url\\=https://www.lifestyleasia.com/hk/tech/top\\-famous\\-nft\\-artists\\-from\\-across\\-the\\-world/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Lifestyle Asia Hong Kong \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=NFT artist FEWOCiOUS brought in an incredible $20 million \\|url\\=https://fortune.com/2022/04/07/nft\\-artist\\-fewocious\\-sells\\-20\\-million\\-24\\-hours\\-art\\-crypto/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Fortune \\|language\\=en}} The collection was part of his [generative art](/wiki/Generative_art \"Generative art\") project FewoWorld.",
"In June 2022, FEWOCiOUS redesigned the logo and cover of *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* magazine for its annual Pride Issue.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lynch \\|first\\=Joe \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-25 \\|title\\=Fewocious Brings a Collaborative, All\\-Ages Paint Party to NFT.NYC \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/culture/pride/fewocious\\-nft\\-nyc\\-paint\\-party\\-1235104580/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Billboard \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Daw \\|first\\=Stephen \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-02 \\|title\\=Fewocious Breaks Down the ‘Love Story’ Behind His Billboard Logo Redesign For Pride Month \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/culture/pride/fewocious\\-interview\\-pride\\-issue\\-design\\-nft\\-1235079835/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Billboard \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Batycka \\|first\\=Dorian \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-14 \\|title\\=Screen Time Well Spent? Meet 6 Teenage NFT Superstars Whose Names—and Eye\\-Popping Prices—You Need to Know \\|url\\=https://news.artnet.com/market/zoomer\\-nft\\-art\\-stars\\-2143994 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Artnet News \\|language\\=en\\-US}} In the same month, FEWOCiOUS organized one of series of events called FewoWorld Paint Party in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\")’s [Greenpoint neighborhood](/wiki/Greenpoint%2C_Brooklyn \"Greenpoint, Brooklyn\") for the fourth annual [NFT.NYC](/wiki/NFT.NYC \"NFT.NYC\") Week.",
"The following month, FEWOCiOUS collaborated with *Billboard* again on an exclusive NFT drop, which consisted of a full issue of *Billboard* magazine as part of his FewoWorld project.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Brandle \\|first\\=Lars \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-27 \\|title\\=Billboard ChartStars and FEWOCiOUS Partner for Exclusive NFT Drop \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/business/tech/billboard\\-fewocious\\-nft\\-chartstars\\-1235118528/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-08 \\|website\\=Billboard \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"FEWOCiOUS was one of the artists that collaborated with the [David Bowie](/wiki/David_Bowie \"David Bowie\") Estate on the multiple artist NFT collection *Bowie on the Blockchain*, which was released in September 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sexton \\|first\\=Paul \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-06 \\|title\\=David Bowie Inspires ‘Bowie On The Blockchain’ Multiple Artist NFT Sale \\|url\\=https://www.udiscovermusic.com/news/david\\-bowie\\-inspires\\-bowie\\-on\\-the\\-blockchain\\-nft\\-sale%E2%80%A8/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-08 \\|website\\=uDiscover Music \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hopper \\|first\\=Alex \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-06 \\|title\\=David Bowie's Estate Teams Up With Nine Artists For Special NFT Project \\|url\\=https://americansongwriter.com/david\\-bowies\\-estate\\-teams\\-up\\-with\\-nine\\-artists\\-for\\-special\\-nft\\-project/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-08 \\|website\\=American Songwriter \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"FEWOCiOUS sold the NFT piece *Nice to meet you, I'm Mr. MiSUNDERSTOOD* through the auction house Sothesby's for $2\\.8 million in October 2022\\.",
"FEWOCiOUS had his second auction at Christie's in November 2022, during which he did a live painting on stage inside a clear acrylic box.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022 \\|title\\=FEWOCIOUS PUTS HIMSELF IN A BOX FOR CHRISTIE'S AUCTION \\|url\\=https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/fewocious\\-christies\\-auction\\-interview/ \\|website\\=highsnobiety.com}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=FEWOCiOUS, Alpha Centauri Kid Complete Auctions at Christie's \\|url\\=https://luckytrader.com/news/fewocious\\-alpha\\-centauri\\-kid\\-complete\\-auctions\\-at\\-christie\\-s \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-05 \\|website\\=Lucky Trader \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Arch\-enemies
-------------
{{Expand section\|date\=December 2009}}
* Yes : The character is in that game.
* No : The character is not in that game.
* M/R : The character is only mentioned or referenced in that game.
* Mnl : The character is only referenced in the game manual.
| Character | [U0](/wiki/Akalabeth:World_of_Doom "World of Doom") | [U1](/wiki/Ultima_I:The_First_Age_of_Darkness "The First Age of Darkness") | [U2](/wiki/Ultima_II:The_Revenge_of_the_Enchantress "The Revenge of the Enchantress") | [U3](/wiki/Ultima_III:Exodus "Exodus") | [U4](/wiki/Ultima_IV:Quest_of_the_Avatar "Quest of the Avatar") | [U5](/wiki/Ultima_V:Warriors_of_Destiny "Warriors of Destiny") | [U6](/wiki/Ultima_VI:The_False_Prophet "The False Prophet") | [SE](/wiki/Worlds_of_Ultima:The_Savage_Empire "The Savage Empire") | [MD](/wiki/Ultima:Worlds_of_Adventure_2:_Martian_Dreams "Worlds of Adventure 2: Martian Dreams") | [UU1](/wiki/Ultima_Underworld:The_Stygian_Abyss "The Stygian Abyss") | [U7:BG](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate "The Black Gate") | [UU2](/wiki/Ultima_Underworld_II:Labyrinth_of_Worlds "Labyrinth of Worlds") | [U7:SI](/wiki/Ultima_VII_Part_Two:Serpent_Isle "Serpent Isle") | [U8](/wiki/Ultima_VIII:Pagan "Pagan") | [U9](/wiki/Ultima_IX:Ascension "Ascension") | [UO](/wiki/Ultima_Online "Ultima Online") |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Mondain | Mnl | {{yes}} | Mnl | Mnl | M/R | M/R | {{yes}}{{efn\|name\="u6MME"\|In ''Ultima VI'', Mondain, Minax, and Exodus appear as the embodiment of Gargoyle virtues.}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | M/R | M/R | Mnl | Mnl | M/R | M/R |
| Minax | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | Mnl | M/R | Mnl | {{yes}}{{efn\|name\="u6MME"}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | M/R | M/R | Mnl | Mnl | M/R | {{yes}} |
| Exodus | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | M/R | Mnl | {{yes}}{{efn\|name\="u6MME"}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Mnl | Mnl | M/R | {{yes}} |
| Lord Blackthorn | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | M/R | {{no}} | M/R{{efn\|name\="u7\-2"\|In ''Ultima VII Part 2'', A book is found on Monk Isle describing Blackthorn's stay there. Fans also speculate that one of the monks may secretly be Blackthorn in disguise.}} | Mnl | {{yes}} | {{yes}} |
| The Shadowlords | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | Mnl | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Mnl | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | M/R | {{yes}} |
| The Guardian | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{yes}} | {{yes}} | {{yes}} | {{yes}} | {{yes}} |
| Batlin | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{no}} | M/R | {{no}} |
### Mondain
**Mondain** is a powerful wizard and the villain of *[Ultima I](/wiki/Ultima_I:The_First_Age_of_Darkness "The First Age of Darkness")*. He is born as the second son of Wolfgang, the king of the city\-state of Akalabeth. Taught by his father, he masters basic magic, learning to control minor creatures, but as he doesn't show compassion, his father bans him from using magic. Mondain quickly retaliates by killing his father and stealing his gem, which he uses to create the "Gem of Immortality." As his power grows, he gains more control over the minions of darkness. He creates many strange, hybrid creatures in his dark laboratories, including [minotaurs](/wiki/Minotaur "Minotaur"), [lizardmen](/wiki/List_of_reptilian_humanoids "List of reptilian humanoids"), [orcs](/wiki/Orcs "Orcs"), and [goblins](/wiki/Goblins "Goblins"). Mondain's castle is on an island called Terfin.
After being defeated by Lord British, he summons as many creatures as he can in order to conquer Sosaria. Due to the Gem of Immortality, Mondain cannot be killed in the present time, and he cannot be killed without destroying the gem. The Stranger from Another World uses a time machine to travel back in time 1000 years to when Mondain was first creating the gem. The Stranger manages to destroy Mondain's gem and slay him. Mondain's castle is destroyed in the process.
Shattering the Gem of Immortality forms the basis of two later games, *[Ultima V: Warriors of Destiny](/wiki/Ultima_V:Warriors_of_Destiny "Warriors of Destiny")* and *[Ultima Online](/wiki/Ultima_Online "Ultima Online")*. Three shards of the gem are found at the location of the sunken remnants of Terfin in *[Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar](/wiki/Ultima_IV:Quest_of_the_Avatar "Quest of the Avatar")*, along with Mondain's skull. The shards later form the Shadowlords in *Ultima V* and are necessary to defeat them; the skull in *Ultima IV* kills all creatures within an area, also hurting the Avatar's karma. In *Ultima Online*, many different shards exist, all of which are [parallel universes](/wiki/Parallel_universe_%28fiction%29 "Parallel universe (fiction)") containing Britannia.
In *Ultima Online* and *[Ultima IX: Ascension](/wiki/Ultima_IX:Ascension "Ascension")*, Mondain is depicted as bald with a goatee, bearing a resemblance to [Ming the Merciless](/wiki/Ming_the_Merciless "Ming the Merciless"). In *[Ultima VI](/wiki/Ultima_VI:The_False_Prophet "The False Prophet")*, however, he is depicted as having a full head of hair and no facial hair.
### Minax
**Minax**, the beautiful but evil sorceress, is the main enemy of *[Ultima II: The Revenge of the Enchantress](/wiki/Ultima_II:The_Revenge_of_the_Enchantress "The Revenge of the Enchantress")* as well as in *[Ultima Online](/wiki/Ultima_Online "Ultima Online")*.
Underestimated because of her youth, Minax was furious at the death of her tutor and revenge set itself within her dark heart. As her talent for magic and capacity of malevolence far exceeded Mondain's, Minax decided to take control of the evils of the world without the gem. Showing huge magical potential in her youth, Minax was recruited as an apprentice by Mondain. The young sorceress later fell in love with the wizard. She survived her paramour's death at the hands of the Stranger (the event of *[Ultima I](/wiki/Ultima_I:The_First_Age_of_Darkness "The First Age of Darkness")*) and went into hiding. Ten years later, Minax is now older and very powerful, more than Mondain once was. Minax wants to avenge the death of Mondain; thus, after much research, she learns of the Stranger's homeworld. To destroy her "bane's homeworld", she uses dimensional and time gates to set up the Time of Legends, a place located at the Origin of Times. Thus she will be able to attack everybody living "after" this period in that reality without risking being killed like Mondain, since it is impossible to travel in time to before the Origin of Times. To ensure the Stranger would not interfere with her plans for vengeance, Minax invaded his homeworld of Earth. Once there, she used her dark powers to disturb the fabric of time and destroyed the planet. After the Stranger's death, she would be able to conquer Sosaria easily. Twenty years after the death of Mondain, Minax invaded Sosaria with her legions of Darkness.
In *Ultima II*, Lord British called for a hero to crush Minax's evil plans. The Stranger, having narrowly escaped the destruction of Earth, answered British's call. Minax's castle, named Shadowguard, could only be reached through timegates (similar to moongates in the later games); even then an enchanted ring was required to pass through the force fields inside. The war against Minax's vile legions was long and hard, but eventually the hero hunted down the sorceress, pursued her as she teleported throughout the castle, and destroyed her with the quicksword Enilno. With the dark energies released with the death of Minax, the lands of Sosaria changed once again, reforming into two continents: Sosaria proper and Ambrosia. But unbeknownst to all, Mondain and Minax had produced a [progeny](/wiki/Offspring "Offspring"), [Exodus](/wiki/Exodus_%28Ultima%29 "Exodus (Ultima)") \- an entity that was neither man nor machine.
### Exodus
**Exodus** is the eponymous villain of *[Ultima III: Exodus](/wiki/Ultima_III:Exodus "Exodus")*, the creation of both Mondain and Minax. The first sign of the character's appearance is a missing ship, which returns with the crew completely gone and the word "EXODUS" written in blood on the deck of the ship. Exodus then summons creatures to terrorize Sosaria from its castle on the Isle of Fire. Twenty years after Minax's death, the Stranger returns to Sosaria to destroy Exodus.
The passage through the Isle of Fire is blocked by the trapped Great Earth Serpent. The Stranger yells the correct magic word to set the serpent free; the Great Earth Serpent reappears to assist the Avatar in *[Ultima VII Part Two: Serpent Isle](/wiki/Ultima_VII_Part_Two:Serpent_Isle "Serpent Isle")*, grateful for being freed. Castle Exodus is protected by various magical barriers, requiring the Stranger's party to obtain marks in order to safely pass through. In addition to various creatures that attack the party, the floor itself comes to life and also attacks.
Exodus is depicted as having a [demonic](/wiki/Demon "Demon") appearance, however the Stranger realizes in the game that Exodus is not a normal living creature. Instead, Exodus is a magical computer that can only be destroyed by inserting the four cards of Love, Sol, Moons, and Death into its four slots. After destroying Exodus, the Isle of Fire sinks into the ocean until *[Ultima VII: The Black Gate](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate "The Black Gate")*.
In the [Forge of Virtue](/wiki/Forge_of_Virtue "Forge of Virtue") expansion of *Ultima VII*, the Dark Core of Exodus remains on the island. In order to complete the quests for the add\-on, the Avatar must banish the Dark Core into the Ethereal Void.
### Lord Blackthorn
**Lord Blackthorn** becomes regent of Britannia when Lord British disappears while exploring the Underworld in *[Ultima V](/wiki/Ultima_V:Warriors_of_Destiny "Warriors of Destiny")*. Originally, he is a wise and just ruler, but he is twisted by the Shadowlords and becomes an oppressive [tyrant](/wiki/Tyrant "Tyrant"). By the game's conclusion, Lord British is restored to his throne and Blackthorn sent to [exile](/wiki/Exile "Exile") through a red moongate to an unknown world. *[Ultima VII Part Two: Serpent Isle](/wiki/Ultima_VII_Part_Two:Serpent_Isle "Serpent Isle")* explains that his destination is the Serpent Isle. While on Serpent Isle, Blackthorn takes refuge among the Xenkan Monks and finds redemption, eventually joining their order. But *Ultima IX* diverges from this restoration of Lord Blackthorn having him leave the island before the Avatar arrives on the Serpent Island. Blackthorn returns again as a villain in *[Ultima IX: Ascension](/wiki/Ultima_IX:Ascension "Ascension")*, this time as a servant of the Guardian, which again contradicts the restorative end on *Ultima VII: Part Two: Serpent Isle*. In the end Blackthorn perishes at the hand of [Lord British](/wiki/Lord_British "Lord British") after an extensive magical duel at the center of the Great Stygian Abyss, completely contradicting everything written prior to Ascension and after *Ultima VII*.
In *[Ultima Online](/wiki/Ultima_Online "Ultima Online")*, the timeline of which diverges from the main series after *[Ultima I](/wiki/Ultima_I:The_First_Age_of_Darkness "The First Age of Darkness")*, Blackthorn is the closest friend of Lord British, but at the same time he is also his fiercest enemy. He has been defending the peoples' individuality and freedom of belief by creating his own virtue, chaos. In this case, chaos does not represent the destructive force with which it is usually associated. He eventually forged an alliance with various dark magics and emerged as an evil force. After "surviving" through a few years, he was seemingly killed in an assault on the city of Yew. The evil form was later retconned into being an facsimile, and the original Lord Blackthorn became the king of Britannia. Lord Blackthorn was the virtual persona of Ultima Online project director [Starr Long](/wiki/Starr_Long "Starr Long").
### The Shadowlords
### The Guardian
**The Guardian** is an alien being of immense power from another dimension. A large red humanoid, he is described as a conqueror of worlds. He first appears in *[Ultima VII: The Black Gate](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate "The Black Gate")* although for the majority of the game he is only a disembodied voice. Having conquered other worlds, he first attempts to conquer Britannia through his agent Batlin, the founder and leader of the Fellowship. The ultimate plan was to create a black moongate to allow the Guardian to physically enter Britannia and conquer it. The Avatar discovers the Guardian's plan and destroys the black moongate as the Guardian is attempting to enter.
One year later, in *[Ultima Underworld II: Labyrinth of Worlds](/wiki/Ultima_Underworld_II:Labyrinth_of_Worlds "Labyrinth of Worlds")*, the Guardian attempted to conquer Britannia again by creating a blackrock dome around Castle Britannia and trapping the Avatar and his companions inside. The Guardian planned to send troops through a portal within the castle to conquer Britannia by killing its leaders first. The Avatar defeated the Guardian by destroying the portal and the dome. During the course of the game, the Avatar visited several worlds already conquered or destroyed by the Guardian.
It was revealed in *[Ultima VII Part Two: Serpent Isle](/wiki/Ultima_VII_Part_Two:Serpent_Isle "Serpent Isle")* that the Guardian had a backup plan and had sent Batlin to the Serpent Isle to further his plans to conquer Britannia. Batlin attempts to betray the Guardian and is killed for his disloyalty but not before releasing the apocalyptic forces of the Banes of Chaos. The Avatar ends the threat by reuniting the Chaos, Order, and Balance Serpents. At the end of the game, the Avatar is captured by the Guardian.
In *[Ultima VIII: Pagan](/wiki/Ultima_VIII:Pagan "Pagan")*, the Guardian trapped the Avatar on Pagan, a world completely under the control of the Guardian. The Avatar eventually masters the different elemental magic of this world and returns to Britannia.
In *[Ultima IX: Ascension](/wiki/Ultima_IX:Ascension "Ascension")*, it is learned that while the Avatar was trapped on Pagan, the Guardian has managed to erect eight huge columns throughout Britannia, in order to pull the two moons out of orbit, crashing into the planet and destroying it. The Avatar destroys the eight columns and defeats the Guardian. In the final battle, the Guardian reveals that he is the Avatar's other half, created from the evil part of the Avatar abandoned at the conclusion of *[Ultima IV](/wiki/Ultima_IV:Quest_of_the_Avatar "Quest of the Avatar")*. The Avatar defeats the Guardian by using the Armageddon spell to fuse the two of them into one new being.
Fans and chroniclers of the *Ultima* series have speculated that the Guardian was a satirical metaphor for Origin's parent company, [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts "Electronic Arts"), which had been rumored to be stifling [Richard Garriott](/wiki/Richard_Garriott "Richard Garriott")'s creative control over the last installments of the series. Supporting this theory is the fact that the three artifacts of the Guardian, first seen in *[Ultima VII: The Black Gate](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate "The Black Gate")*, are the sphere, the cube, and the tetrahedron, which together are an unmistakable representation of the [EA logo](https://web.archive.org/web/20120306204357/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/Electronic_Arts_historical_logo.svg/300px-Electronic_Arts_historical_logo.svg.png) during the early 1990s when EA's acquisition of Origin was complete and the games were developed. Furthermore, two members of the Fellowship in The Black Gate, Elizabeth and Abraham (E\&A) provide dubious guidance for the Avatar throughout the game and are ultimately unmasked as evildoers.{{cite web \|author\=The Conquest of Origin \|url\=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue\_14/87\-The\-Conquest\-of\-Origin \|title\=The Escapist \|publisher\=Escapistmagazine.com \|access\-date\=2012\-07\-17 \|archive\-date\=2014\-01\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109085348/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue\_14/87\-The\-Conquest\-of\-Origin \|url\-status\=dead }} The Guardian is described as the "Destroyer of Worlds", a possible reference to Origin's tagline which read "We create worlds".
### Batlin
|
[
"Arch\\-enemies\n-------------",
"{{Expand section\\|date\\=December 2009}}",
"* Yes : The character is in that game.\n* No : The character is not in that game.\n* M/R : The character is only mentioned or referenced in that game.\n* Mnl : The character is only referenced in the game manual.",
"",
"| Character | [U0](/wiki/Akalabeth:World_of_Doom \"World of Doom\") | [U1](/wiki/Ultima_I:The_First_Age_of_Darkness \"The First Age of Darkness\") | [U2](/wiki/Ultima_II:The_Revenge_of_the_Enchantress \"The Revenge of the Enchantress\") | [U3](/wiki/Ultima_III:Exodus \"Exodus\") | [U4](/wiki/Ultima_IV:Quest_of_the_Avatar \"Quest of the Avatar\") | [U5](/wiki/Ultima_V:Warriors_of_Destiny \"Warriors of Destiny\") | [U6](/wiki/Ultima_VI:The_False_Prophet \"The False Prophet\") | [SE](/wiki/Worlds_of_Ultima:The_Savage_Empire \"The Savage Empire\") | [MD](/wiki/Ultima:Worlds_of_Adventure_2:_Martian_Dreams \"Worlds of Adventure 2: Martian Dreams\") | [UU1](/wiki/Ultima_Underworld:The_Stygian_Abyss \"The Stygian Abyss\") | [U7:BG](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate \"The Black Gate\") | [UU2](/wiki/Ultima_Underworld_II:Labyrinth_of_Worlds \"Labyrinth of Worlds\") | [U7:SI](/wiki/Ultima_VII_Part_Two:Serpent_Isle \"Serpent Isle\") | [U8](/wiki/Ultima_VIII:Pagan \"Pagan\") | [U9](/wiki/Ultima_IX:Ascension \"Ascension\") | [UO](/wiki/Ultima_Online \"Ultima Online\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Mondain | Mnl | {{yes}} | Mnl | Mnl | M/R | M/R | {{yes}}{{efn\\|name\\=\"u6MME\"\\|In ''Ultima VI'', Mondain, Minax, and Exodus appear as the embodiment of Gargoyle virtues.}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | M/R | M/R | Mnl | Mnl | M/R | M/R |\n| Minax | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | Mnl | M/R | Mnl | {{yes}}{{efn\\|name\\=\"u6MME\"}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | M/R | M/R | Mnl | Mnl | M/R | {{yes}} |\n| Exodus | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | M/R | Mnl | {{yes}}{{efn\\|name\\=\"u6MME\"}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Mnl | Mnl | M/R | {{yes}} |\n| Lord Blackthorn | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | M/R | {{no}} | M/R{{efn\\|name\\=\"u7\\-2\"\\|In ''Ultima VII Part 2'', A book is found on Monk Isle describing Blackthorn's stay there. Fans also speculate that one of the monks may secretly be Blackthorn in disguise.}} | Mnl | {{yes}} | {{yes}} |\n| The Shadowlords | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | Mnl | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{no}} | Mnl | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | M/R | {{yes}} |\n| The Guardian | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{yes}} | {{yes}} | {{yes}} | {{yes}} | {{yes}} |\n| Batlin | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{no}} | {{yes}} | {{no}} | M/R | {{no}} |",
"### Mondain",
"**Mondain** is a powerful wizard and the villain of *[Ultima I](/wiki/Ultima_I:The_First_Age_of_Darkness \"The First Age of Darkness\")*. He is born as the second son of Wolfgang, the king of the city\\-state of Akalabeth. Taught by his father, he masters basic magic, learning to control minor creatures, but as he doesn't show compassion, his father bans him from using magic. Mondain quickly retaliates by killing his father and stealing his gem, which he uses to create the \"Gem of Immortality.\" As his power grows, he gains more control over the minions of darkness. He creates many strange, hybrid creatures in his dark laboratories, including [minotaurs](/wiki/Minotaur \"Minotaur\"), [lizardmen](/wiki/List_of_reptilian_humanoids \"List of reptilian humanoids\"), [orcs](/wiki/Orcs \"Orcs\"), and [goblins](/wiki/Goblins \"Goblins\"). Mondain's castle is on an island called Terfin.",
"After being defeated by Lord British, he summons as many creatures as he can in order to conquer Sosaria. Due to the Gem of Immortality, Mondain cannot be killed in the present time, and he cannot be killed without destroying the gem. The Stranger from Another World uses a time machine to travel back in time 1000 years to when Mondain was first creating the gem. The Stranger manages to destroy Mondain's gem and slay him. Mondain's castle is destroyed in the process.",
"Shattering the Gem of Immortality forms the basis of two later games, *[Ultima V: Warriors of Destiny](/wiki/Ultima_V:Warriors_of_Destiny \"Warriors of Destiny\")* and *[Ultima Online](/wiki/Ultima_Online \"Ultima Online\")*. Three shards of the gem are found at the location of the sunken remnants of Terfin in *[Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar](/wiki/Ultima_IV:Quest_of_the_Avatar \"Quest of the Avatar\")*, along with Mondain's skull. The shards later form the Shadowlords in *Ultima V* and are necessary to defeat them; the skull in *Ultima IV* kills all creatures within an area, also hurting the Avatar's karma. In *Ultima Online*, many different shards exist, all of which are [parallel universes](/wiki/Parallel_universe_%28fiction%29 \"Parallel universe (fiction)\") containing Britannia.",
"In *Ultima Online* and *[Ultima IX: Ascension](/wiki/Ultima_IX:Ascension \"Ascension\")*, Mondain is depicted as bald with a goatee, bearing a resemblance to [Ming the Merciless](/wiki/Ming_the_Merciless \"Ming the Merciless\"). In *[Ultima VI](/wiki/Ultima_VI:The_False_Prophet \"The False Prophet\")*, however, he is depicted as having a full head of hair and no facial hair.",
"### Minax",
"**Minax**, the beautiful but evil sorceress, is the main enemy of *[Ultima II: The Revenge of the Enchantress](/wiki/Ultima_II:The_Revenge_of_the_Enchantress \"The Revenge of the Enchantress\")* as well as in *[Ultima Online](/wiki/Ultima_Online \"Ultima Online\")*.",
"Underestimated because of her youth, Minax was furious at the death of her tutor and revenge set itself within her dark heart. As her talent for magic and capacity of malevolence far exceeded Mondain's, Minax decided to take control of the evils of the world without the gem. Showing huge magical potential in her youth, Minax was recruited as an apprentice by Mondain. The young sorceress later fell in love with the wizard. She survived her paramour's death at the hands of the Stranger (the event of *[Ultima I](/wiki/Ultima_I:The_First_Age_of_Darkness \"The First Age of Darkness\")*) and went into hiding. Ten years later, Minax is now older and very powerful, more than Mondain once was. Minax wants to avenge the death of Mondain; thus, after much research, she learns of the Stranger's homeworld. To destroy her \"bane's homeworld\", she uses dimensional and time gates to set up the Time of Legends, a place located at the Origin of Times. Thus she will be able to attack everybody living \"after\" this period in that reality without risking being killed like Mondain, since it is impossible to travel in time to before the Origin of Times. To ensure the Stranger would not interfere with her plans for vengeance, Minax invaded his homeworld of Earth. Once there, she used her dark powers to disturb the fabric of time and destroyed the planet. After the Stranger's death, she would be able to conquer Sosaria easily. Twenty years after the death of Mondain, Minax invaded Sosaria with her legions of Darkness.",
"In *Ultima II*, Lord British called for a hero to crush Minax's evil plans. The Stranger, having narrowly escaped the destruction of Earth, answered British's call. Minax's castle, named Shadowguard, could only be reached through timegates (similar to moongates in the later games); even then an enchanted ring was required to pass through the force fields inside. The war against Minax's vile legions was long and hard, but eventually the hero hunted down the sorceress, pursued her as she teleported throughout the castle, and destroyed her with the quicksword Enilno. With the dark energies released with the death of Minax, the lands of Sosaria changed once again, reforming into two continents: Sosaria proper and Ambrosia. But unbeknownst to all, Mondain and Minax had produced a [progeny](/wiki/Offspring \"Offspring\"), [Exodus](/wiki/Exodus_%28Ultima%29 \"Exodus (Ultima)\") \\- an entity that was neither man nor machine.",
"### Exodus",
"**Exodus** is the eponymous villain of *[Ultima III: Exodus](/wiki/Ultima_III:Exodus \"Exodus\")*, the creation of both Mondain and Minax. The first sign of the character's appearance is a missing ship, which returns with the crew completely gone and the word \"EXODUS\" written in blood on the deck of the ship. Exodus then summons creatures to terrorize Sosaria from its castle on the Isle of Fire. Twenty years after Minax's death, the Stranger returns to Sosaria to destroy Exodus.",
"The passage through the Isle of Fire is blocked by the trapped Great Earth Serpent. The Stranger yells the correct magic word to set the serpent free; the Great Earth Serpent reappears to assist the Avatar in *[Ultima VII Part Two: Serpent Isle](/wiki/Ultima_VII_Part_Two:Serpent_Isle \"Serpent Isle\")*, grateful for being freed. Castle Exodus is protected by various magical barriers, requiring the Stranger's party to obtain marks in order to safely pass through. In addition to various creatures that attack the party, the floor itself comes to life and also attacks.",
"Exodus is depicted as having a [demonic](/wiki/Demon \"Demon\") appearance, however the Stranger realizes in the game that Exodus is not a normal living creature. Instead, Exodus is a magical computer that can only be destroyed by inserting the four cards of Love, Sol, Moons, and Death into its four slots. After destroying Exodus, the Isle of Fire sinks into the ocean until *[Ultima VII: The Black Gate](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate \"The Black Gate\")*.",
"In the [Forge of Virtue](/wiki/Forge_of_Virtue \"Forge of Virtue\") expansion of *Ultima VII*, the Dark Core of Exodus remains on the island. In order to complete the quests for the add\\-on, the Avatar must banish the Dark Core into the Ethereal Void.",
"### Lord Blackthorn",
"**Lord Blackthorn** becomes regent of Britannia when Lord British disappears while exploring the Underworld in *[Ultima V](/wiki/Ultima_V:Warriors_of_Destiny \"Warriors of Destiny\")*. Originally, he is a wise and just ruler, but he is twisted by the Shadowlords and becomes an oppressive [tyrant](/wiki/Tyrant \"Tyrant\"). By the game's conclusion, Lord British is restored to his throne and Blackthorn sent to [exile](/wiki/Exile \"Exile\") through a red moongate to an unknown world. *[Ultima VII Part Two: Serpent Isle](/wiki/Ultima_VII_Part_Two:Serpent_Isle \"Serpent Isle\")* explains that his destination is the Serpent Isle. While on Serpent Isle, Blackthorn takes refuge among the Xenkan Monks and finds redemption, eventually joining their order. But *Ultima IX* diverges from this restoration of Lord Blackthorn having him leave the island before the Avatar arrives on the Serpent Island. Blackthorn returns again as a villain in *[Ultima IX: Ascension](/wiki/Ultima_IX:Ascension \"Ascension\")*, this time as a servant of the Guardian, which again contradicts the restorative end on *Ultima VII: Part Two: Serpent Isle*. In the end Blackthorn perishes at the hand of [Lord British](/wiki/Lord_British \"Lord British\") after an extensive magical duel at the center of the Great Stygian Abyss, completely contradicting everything written prior to Ascension and after *Ultima VII*.",
"In *[Ultima Online](/wiki/Ultima_Online \"Ultima Online\")*, the timeline of which diverges from the main series after *[Ultima I](/wiki/Ultima_I:The_First_Age_of_Darkness \"The First Age of Darkness\")*, Blackthorn is the closest friend of Lord British, but at the same time he is also his fiercest enemy. He has been defending the peoples' individuality and freedom of belief by creating his own virtue, chaos. In this case, chaos does not represent the destructive force with which it is usually associated. He eventually forged an alliance with various dark magics and emerged as an evil force. After \"surviving\" through a few years, he was seemingly killed in an assault on the city of Yew. The evil form was later retconned into being an facsimile, and the original Lord Blackthorn became the king of Britannia. Lord Blackthorn was the virtual persona of Ultima Online project director [Starr Long](/wiki/Starr_Long \"Starr Long\").",
"### The Shadowlords",
"### The Guardian",
"**The Guardian** is an alien being of immense power from another dimension. A large red humanoid, he is described as a conqueror of worlds. He first appears in *[Ultima VII: The Black Gate](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate \"The Black Gate\")* although for the majority of the game he is only a disembodied voice. Having conquered other worlds, he first attempts to conquer Britannia through his agent Batlin, the founder and leader of the Fellowship. The ultimate plan was to create a black moongate to allow the Guardian to physically enter Britannia and conquer it. The Avatar discovers the Guardian's plan and destroys the black moongate as the Guardian is attempting to enter.",
"One year later, in *[Ultima Underworld II: Labyrinth of Worlds](/wiki/Ultima_Underworld_II:Labyrinth_of_Worlds \"Labyrinth of Worlds\")*, the Guardian attempted to conquer Britannia again by creating a blackrock dome around Castle Britannia and trapping the Avatar and his companions inside. The Guardian planned to send troops through a portal within the castle to conquer Britannia by killing its leaders first. The Avatar defeated the Guardian by destroying the portal and the dome. During the course of the game, the Avatar visited several worlds already conquered or destroyed by the Guardian.",
"It was revealed in *[Ultima VII Part Two: Serpent Isle](/wiki/Ultima_VII_Part_Two:Serpent_Isle \"Serpent Isle\")* that the Guardian had a backup plan and had sent Batlin to the Serpent Isle to further his plans to conquer Britannia. Batlin attempts to betray the Guardian and is killed for his disloyalty but not before releasing the apocalyptic forces of the Banes of Chaos. The Avatar ends the threat by reuniting the Chaos, Order, and Balance Serpents. At the end of the game, the Avatar is captured by the Guardian.",
"In *[Ultima VIII: Pagan](/wiki/Ultima_VIII:Pagan \"Pagan\")*, the Guardian trapped the Avatar on Pagan, a world completely under the control of the Guardian. The Avatar eventually masters the different elemental magic of this world and returns to Britannia.",
"In *[Ultima IX: Ascension](/wiki/Ultima_IX:Ascension \"Ascension\")*, it is learned that while the Avatar was trapped on Pagan, the Guardian has managed to erect eight huge columns throughout Britannia, in order to pull the two moons out of orbit, crashing into the planet and destroying it. The Avatar destroys the eight columns and defeats the Guardian. In the final battle, the Guardian reveals that he is the Avatar's other half, created from the evil part of the Avatar abandoned at the conclusion of *[Ultima IV](/wiki/Ultima_IV:Quest_of_the_Avatar \"Quest of the Avatar\")*. The Avatar defeats the Guardian by using the Armageddon spell to fuse the two of them into one new being.",
"Fans and chroniclers of the *Ultima* series have speculated that the Guardian was a satirical metaphor for Origin's parent company, [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts \"Electronic Arts\"), which had been rumored to be stifling [Richard Garriott](/wiki/Richard_Garriott \"Richard Garriott\")'s creative control over the last installments of the series. Supporting this theory is the fact that the three artifacts of the Guardian, first seen in *[Ultima VII: The Black Gate](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate \"The Black Gate\")*, are the sphere, the cube, and the tetrahedron, which together are an unmistakable representation of the [EA logo](https://web.archive.org/web/20120306204357/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/Electronic_Arts_historical_logo.svg/300px-Electronic_Arts_historical_logo.svg.png) during the early 1990s when EA's acquisition of Origin was complete and the games were developed. Furthermore, two members of the Fellowship in The Black Gate, Elizabeth and Abraham (E\\&A) provide dubious guidance for the Avatar throughout the game and are ultimately unmasked as evildoers.{{cite web \\|author\\=The Conquest of Origin \\|url\\=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue\\_14/87\\-The\\-Conquest\\-of\\-Origin \\|title\\=The Escapist \\|publisher\\=Escapistmagazine.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-17 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109085348/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue\\_14/87\\-The\\-Conquest\\-of\\-Origin \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The Guardian is described as the \"Destroyer of Worlds\", a possible reference to Origin's tagline which read \"We create worlds\".",
"### Batlin",
""
] |
### The Guardian
**The Guardian** is an alien being of immense power from another dimension. A large red humanoid, he is described as a conqueror of worlds. He first appears in *[Ultima VII: The Black Gate](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate "The Black Gate")* although for the majority of the game he is only a disembodied voice. Having conquered other worlds, he first attempts to conquer Britannia through his agent Batlin, the founder and leader of the Fellowship. The ultimate plan was to create a black moongate to allow the Guardian to physically enter Britannia and conquer it. The Avatar discovers the Guardian's plan and destroys the black moongate as the Guardian is attempting to enter.
One year later, in *[Ultima Underworld II: Labyrinth of Worlds](/wiki/Ultima_Underworld_II:Labyrinth_of_Worlds "Labyrinth of Worlds")*, the Guardian attempted to conquer Britannia again by creating a blackrock dome around Castle Britannia and trapping the Avatar and his companions inside. The Guardian planned to send troops through a portal within the castle to conquer Britannia by killing its leaders first. The Avatar defeated the Guardian by destroying the portal and the dome. During the course of the game, the Avatar visited several worlds already conquered or destroyed by the Guardian.
It was revealed in *[Ultima VII Part Two: Serpent Isle](/wiki/Ultima_VII_Part_Two:Serpent_Isle "Serpent Isle")* that the Guardian had a backup plan and had sent Batlin to the Serpent Isle to further his plans to conquer Britannia. Batlin attempts to betray the Guardian and is killed for his disloyalty but not before releasing the apocalyptic forces of the Banes of Chaos. The Avatar ends the threat by reuniting the Chaos, Order, and Balance Serpents. At the end of the game, the Avatar is captured by the Guardian.
In *[Ultima VIII: Pagan](/wiki/Ultima_VIII:Pagan "Pagan")*, the Guardian trapped the Avatar on Pagan, a world completely under the control of the Guardian. The Avatar eventually masters the different elemental magic of this world and returns to Britannia.
In *[Ultima IX: Ascension](/wiki/Ultima_IX:Ascension "Ascension")*, it is learned that while the Avatar was trapped on Pagan, the Guardian has managed to erect eight huge columns throughout Britannia, in order to pull the two moons out of orbit, crashing into the planet and destroying it. The Avatar destroys the eight columns and defeats the Guardian. In the final battle, the Guardian reveals that he is the Avatar's other half, created from the evil part of the Avatar abandoned at the conclusion of *[Ultima IV](/wiki/Ultima_IV:Quest_of_the_Avatar "Quest of the Avatar")*. The Avatar defeats the Guardian by using the Armageddon spell to fuse the two of them into one new being.
Fans and chroniclers of the *Ultima* series have speculated that the Guardian was a satirical metaphor for Origin's parent company, [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts "Electronic Arts"), which had been rumored to be stifling [Richard Garriott](/wiki/Richard_Garriott "Richard Garriott")'s creative control over the last installments of the series. Supporting this theory is the fact that the three artifacts of the Guardian, first seen in *[Ultima VII: The Black Gate](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate "The Black Gate")*, are the sphere, the cube, and the tetrahedron, which together are an unmistakable representation of the [EA logo](https://web.archive.org/web/20120306204357/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/Electronic_Arts_historical_logo.svg/300px-Electronic_Arts_historical_logo.svg.png) during the early 1990s when EA's acquisition of Origin was complete and the games were developed. Furthermore, two members of the Fellowship in The Black Gate, Elizabeth and Abraham (E\&A) provide dubious guidance for the Avatar throughout the game and are ultimately unmasked as evildoers.{{cite web \|author\=The Conquest of Origin \|url\=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue\_14/87\-The\-Conquest\-of\-Origin \|title\=The Escapist \|publisher\=Escapistmagazine.com \|access\-date\=2012\-07\-17 \|archive\-date\=2014\-01\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109085348/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue\_14/87\-The\-Conquest\-of\-Origin \|url\-status\=dead }} The Guardian is described as the "Destroyer of Worlds", a possible reference to Origin's tagline which read "We create worlds".
|
[
"### The Guardian",
"**The Guardian** is an alien being of immense power from another dimension. A large red humanoid, he is described as a conqueror of worlds. He first appears in *[Ultima VII: The Black Gate](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate \"The Black Gate\")* although for the majority of the game he is only a disembodied voice. Having conquered other worlds, he first attempts to conquer Britannia through his agent Batlin, the founder and leader of the Fellowship. The ultimate plan was to create a black moongate to allow the Guardian to physically enter Britannia and conquer it. The Avatar discovers the Guardian's plan and destroys the black moongate as the Guardian is attempting to enter.",
"One year later, in *[Ultima Underworld II: Labyrinth of Worlds](/wiki/Ultima_Underworld_II:Labyrinth_of_Worlds \"Labyrinth of Worlds\")*, the Guardian attempted to conquer Britannia again by creating a blackrock dome around Castle Britannia and trapping the Avatar and his companions inside. The Guardian planned to send troops through a portal within the castle to conquer Britannia by killing its leaders first. The Avatar defeated the Guardian by destroying the portal and the dome. During the course of the game, the Avatar visited several worlds already conquered or destroyed by the Guardian.",
"It was revealed in *[Ultima VII Part Two: Serpent Isle](/wiki/Ultima_VII_Part_Two:Serpent_Isle \"Serpent Isle\")* that the Guardian had a backup plan and had sent Batlin to the Serpent Isle to further his plans to conquer Britannia. Batlin attempts to betray the Guardian and is killed for his disloyalty but not before releasing the apocalyptic forces of the Banes of Chaos. The Avatar ends the threat by reuniting the Chaos, Order, and Balance Serpents. At the end of the game, the Avatar is captured by the Guardian.",
"In *[Ultima VIII: Pagan](/wiki/Ultima_VIII:Pagan \"Pagan\")*, the Guardian trapped the Avatar on Pagan, a world completely under the control of the Guardian. The Avatar eventually masters the different elemental magic of this world and returns to Britannia.",
"In *[Ultima IX: Ascension](/wiki/Ultima_IX:Ascension \"Ascension\")*, it is learned that while the Avatar was trapped on Pagan, the Guardian has managed to erect eight huge columns throughout Britannia, in order to pull the two moons out of orbit, crashing into the planet and destroying it. The Avatar destroys the eight columns and defeats the Guardian. In the final battle, the Guardian reveals that he is the Avatar's other half, created from the evil part of the Avatar abandoned at the conclusion of *[Ultima IV](/wiki/Ultima_IV:Quest_of_the_Avatar \"Quest of the Avatar\")*. The Avatar defeats the Guardian by using the Armageddon spell to fuse the two of them into one new being.",
"Fans and chroniclers of the *Ultima* series have speculated that the Guardian was a satirical metaphor for Origin's parent company, [Electronic Arts](/wiki/Electronic_Arts \"Electronic Arts\"), which had been rumored to be stifling [Richard Garriott](/wiki/Richard_Garriott \"Richard Garriott\")'s creative control over the last installments of the series. Supporting this theory is the fact that the three artifacts of the Guardian, first seen in *[Ultima VII: The Black Gate](/wiki/Ultima_VII:The_Black_Gate \"The Black Gate\")*, are the sphere, the cube, and the tetrahedron, which together are an unmistakable representation of the [EA logo](https://web.archive.org/web/20120306204357/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/eb/Electronic_Arts_historical_logo.svg/300px-Electronic_Arts_historical_logo.svg.png) during the early 1990s when EA's acquisition of Origin was complete and the games were developed. Furthermore, two members of the Fellowship in The Black Gate, Elizabeth and Abraham (E\\&A) provide dubious guidance for the Avatar throughout the game and are ultimately unmasked as evildoers.{{cite web \\|author\\=The Conquest of Origin \\|url\\=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue\\_14/87\\-The\\-Conquest\\-of\\-Origin \\|title\\=The Escapist \\|publisher\\=Escapistmagazine.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-17 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109085348/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/issues/issue\\_14/87\\-The\\-Conquest\\-of\\-Origin \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The Guardian is described as the \"Destroyer of Worlds\", a possible reference to Origin's tagline which read \"We create worlds\".",
""
] |
Origins of the term and historical/cultural variations
------------------------------------------------------
While this article deals with the core definition for the American Southwest, there are many others. The various definitions can be broken down into four main categories: Historical/Archeological; Geological/Topographical; Ecological; and Cultural. In the 1930s and 1940s, many definitions of the Southwest included all or part of Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Colorado, and Utah. As time has gone on, the definition of the Southwest has become more solidified and more compact. For example, in 1948 the [National Geographic Society](/wiki/National_Geographic_Society "National Geographic Society") defined the American Southwest as all of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico, and the southernmost sections of Oregon, Idaho, and Wyoming, as well as parts of southwest Nebraska, western Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. By 1977, the Society's definition had narrowed to only the four states of Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico; and by 1982 the portion of the Southwest in the United States, as defined by the Society, had shrunk to Arizona and New Mexico, with the southernmost strip of Utah and Colorado, as well as the Mojave and Colorado deserts in California. Other individuals who focus on Southwest studies who favored a more limited extent of the area to center on Arizona and New Mexico, with small parts of surrounding areas, include [Erna Fergusson](/wiki/Erna_Fergusson "Erna Fergusson"), [Charles Lummis](/wiki/Charles_Lummis "Charles Lummis") (who claimed to have coined the term, the Southwest), and cultural geographer [Raymond Gastil](/wiki/Raymond_Gastil "Raymond Gastil"), and ethnologist [Miguel León\-Portilla](/wiki/Miguel_Le%C3%B3n-Portilla "Miguel León-Portilla").
Geographer [D. W. Meinig](/wiki/D._W._Meinig "D. W. Meinig") defines the Southwest in a very similar fashion to Reed: the portion of New Mexico west of the [Llano Estacado](/wiki/Llano_Estacado "Llano Estacado") and the portion of Arizona east of the [Mojave](/wiki/Mojave_Desert "Mojave Desert")\-[Sonoran Desert](/wiki/Sonoran_Desert "Sonoran Desert") and south of the "canyon lands" and also including the [El Paso](/wiki/El_Paso%2C_Texas "El Paso, Texas") district of western Texas and the southernmost part of Colorado.*Meinig*, pp. 3–8 Meinig breaks the Southwest down into four distinct subregions. He calls the first subregion "[Northern New Mexico](/wiki/Northern_New_Mexico "Northern New Mexico")," and describes it as focused on [Albuquerque](/wiki/Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico "Albuquerque, New Mexico") and [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe%2C_New_Mexico "Santa Fe, New Mexico"). It extends from the [San Luis Valley](/wiki/San_Luis_Valley "San Luis Valley") of southern Colorado to south of [Socorro](/wiki/Socorro%2C_New_Mexico "Socorro, New Mexico") and including the [Sandia\-Manzano Mountains](/wiki/Sandia-Manzano_Mountains "Sandia-Manzano Mountains"), with an east–west breadth in the north stretching from the upper [Canadian River](/wiki/Canadian_River "Canadian River") to the upper [San Juan River](/wiki/San_Juan_River_%28Colorado_River%29 "San Juan River (Colorado River)"). The area around Albuquerque is sometimes called [Central New Mexico](/wiki/Central_New_Mexico "Central New Mexico").
"Central Arizona" is a vast metropolitan area spread across one contiguous sprawling oasis, essentially equivalent to the [Phoenix metropolitan area](/wiki/Phoenix_metropolitan_area "Phoenix metropolitan area"). The city of [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona "Phoenix, Arizona") is the largest urban center, and located in the approximate center of the area that includes [Tempe](/wiki/Tempe%2C_Arizona "Tempe, Arizona"), [Mesa](/wiki/Mesa%2C_Arizona "Mesa, Arizona"), and many others.*Meinig*, pp. 103–106
Meinig calls the third subregion "El Paso, Tucson, and the Southern Borderlands." While [El Paso](/wiki/El_Paso%2C_Texas "El Paso, Texas") and [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona") are distinctly different cities, they serve as anchor points to the hinterland between them. [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona") occupies a large oasis at the western end of the El Paso\-Tucson corridor. The region between the two cities is a major transportation trunk with settlements serving both highway and railway needs. There are also large mining operations, ranches, and agricultural oases. Both El Paso and Tucson have large military installations nearby; [Fort Bliss](/wiki/Fort_Bliss "Fort Bliss") and [White Sands Missile Range](/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range "White Sands Missile Range") north of El Paso in New Mexico, and, near Tucson, the [Davis\-Monthan Air Force Base](/wiki/Davis-Monthan_Air_Force_Base "Davis-Monthan Air Force Base"). About {{convert\|70\|mi\|km}} to the southeast are the research facilities at [Fort Huachuca](/wiki/Fort_Huachuca "Fort Huachuca"). These military installations form a kind of hinterland around the El Paso\-Tucson region, and are served by scientific and residential communities such as [Sierra Vista](/wiki/Sierra_Vista%2C_Arizona "Sierra Vista, Arizona"), [Las Cruces](/wiki/Las_Cruces%2C_New_Mexico "Las Cruces, New Mexico"), and [Alamogordo](/wiki/Alamogordo%2C_New_Mexico "Alamogordo, New Mexico"). El Paso's influence extends north into the [Mesilla Valley](/wiki/Mesilla_Valley "Mesilla Valley"), and southeast along the Rio Grande into the [Trans\-Pecos](/wiki/Trans-Pecos "Trans-Pecos") region of Texas.*Meinig*, pp. 112–114
The fourth subregion Meinig calls the "Northern Corridor and Navajolands," a major highway and railway trunk which connects Albuquerque and [Flagstaff](/wiki/Flagstaff%2C_Arizona "Flagstaff, Arizona"). Just north of the transportation trunk are large blocks of American Indian land.*Meinig*, pp. 114–119
### Historical/archeological
{{See also\|Oasisamerica}}
As the [US expanded westward](/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States "Territorial evolution of the United States"), the country's [western border](/wiki/American_frontier "American frontier") also shifted westward, and consequently, so did the location of the Southwestern and [Northwestern United States](/wiki/Northwestern_United_States "Northwestern United States"). In the early years of the United States, [newly colonized lands](/wiki/Overmountain_Men "Overmountain Men") lying immediately west of the Appalachian Mountains were [detached](/wiki/State_cessions "State cessions") from North Carolina and given the name [Southwest Territory](/wiki/Southwest_Territory "Southwest Territory"). During the decades that followed, the [region known as "the Southwestern United States"](/wiki/Old_Southwest "Old Southwest") covered much of the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South "Deep South") east of the Mississippi River.
However, as territories and eventual states to the west were added after the [Mexican–American War](/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War "Mexican–American War"), the geographical "Southwest" expanded, and the relationship of these new acquisitions to the South itself became "increasingly unclear.""Encyclopedia of Southern Culture". Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris. University of North Carolina Press 1989
However, archeologist, Erik Reed, gives a description which is the most widely accepted as defining the American Southwest, which runs from Durango, Colorado in the north, to Durango, Mexico, in the south, and from Las Vegas, Nevada in the west to Las Vegas, New Mexico in the East. Reed's definition is roughly equivalent to the western half of the Learning Center of the American Southwest's definition, leaving out any portion of Kansas and Oklahoma, and much of Texas, as well as the eastern half of New Mexico. Since this article is about the Southwestern United States, the areas of Sonora and Chihuahua in Mexico will be excluded. The portion left includes Arizona and western New Mexico, the very southernmost part of Utah, southwestern Colorado, the very tip of west Texas, and triangle formed by the southern tip of Nevada. This will be the defined scope that is used in this article unless otherwise specified in a particular area.
### Geological/topographical
[225px\|thumb\|upright\=1\.35\|Map of the Southwestern United States as defined by the Learning Center of the American Southwest](/wiki/File:LCASMapoftheSouthwest.jpg "LCASMapoftheSouthwest.jpg")
Parts of the other states make up the various areas that can be included in the Southwest, depending on the source. The Learning Center of the American Southwest (LCAS){{efn\|Quote:"The Learning Center of the American Southwest is a collaboration among 48 national park units in four NPS Inventory and Monitoring Networks, three Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Units (CESUs), and several nonprofit partners. This partnership is dedicated to understanding and preserving the unique resources of the American Southwest through science and education."}} does not rely on current state boundaries, and defines the American Southwest as parts of Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, and Utah.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.southwestlearning.org/topics/defining\-southwest \| publisher\=Learning Center of the American Southwest \| title\=Defining the Southwest \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701090148/http://www.southwestlearning.org/topics/defining\-southwest \| archive\-date\=July 1, 2017 \| url\-status\=usurped }}
From this perspective, almost all of the region's physiographical traits, geological formations, and weather are contained within a box between 26° and 38° northern latitude, and 98° 30' and 124° western longitude.{{cite web \| url\=http://jsw.library.arizona.edu/3403/defined.html \| publisher\=University of Arizona \| title\=The Southwest Defined \| editor\-last\=Wilder \| editor\-first\=Joseph Carlton \| access\-date\=July 11, 2015}}
### Ecological
When looking at the fauna of the region, there is a broader definition of the American Southwest. The Southwestern Center for Herpetological Research defines the Southwest as being only the states of Arizona, New Mexico, with parts of California, Nevada, Texas, and Utah; although they include all of those six states in their map of the region, solely for ease of defining the border.{{cite web \| url\=http://southwesternherp.com/americansouthwestdefined.html \| publisher\=Southwestern Center for Herpetological Research \| title\=The American Southwest Defined \| access\-date\=July 13, 2015}}
### Cultural
[thumb\|The [Wigwam](/wiki/Wigwam "Wigwam"). A dwelling used by various Native American tribes among the Southwestern US.](/wiki/File:Apache_Wickiup%2C_Edward_Curtis%2C_1903.jpg "Apache Wickiup, Edward Curtis, 1903.jpg")
[thumb\|Fanciful drawing by [Marguerite Martyn](/wiki/Marguerite_Martyn "Marguerite Martyn") in the *[St. Louis Post\-Dispatch](/wiki/St._Louis_Post-Dispatch "St. Louis Post-Dispatch")* of October 21, 1906, headed "Passing of the Country Store in the Southwest"](/wiki/File:Drawing_of_a_country_store_by_Marguerite_Martyn.jpg "Drawing of a country store by Marguerite Martyn.jpg")
Lawrence Clark Powell, a major bibliographer whose emphasis is on the Southwest, defined the American Southwest in a 1958 *[Arizona Highways](/wiki/Arizona_Highways "Arizona Highways")* article as, "the lands lying west of the Pecos, north of the \[Mexican] Border, south of the Mesa Verde and the Grand Canyon, and east of the mountains which wall off Southern California and make it a land in itself."{{cite web \| url\=http://jsw.library.arizona.edu/3403/problem.html \| publisher\=University of Arizona \| title\=Land, Sky, and People: The Southwest Defined – The Problem: No Consistent Definition \| last\=Byrkit \| first\=James W. \| editor\-last\=Wilder \| editor\-first\=Joseph Carlton \| year\=1992 \| access\-date\=July 11, 2015}}
Texas has long been the focal point of this dichotomy, and is often considered, as such, the *core area* of "the South's Southwest." While the [Trans\-Pecos](/wiki/Trans-Pecos "Trans-Pecos") area is generally acknowledged as part of the *desert Southwest*,"The Southwest Defined. Edited by Joseph Carlton Wilder. University of Arizona Press most of Texas and large parts of Oklahoma are often placed into a sub\-region of the [South](/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States"), which some consider southwestern in the general framework of the original application, meaning the "Western South." This is an area containing the basic elements of Southern [history](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America "Confederate States of America"), [culture](/wiki/Culture_of_the_Southern_United_States "Culture of the Southern United States"), [politics](/wiki/Solid_South "Solid South"), [religion](/wiki/Bible_Belt "Bible Belt"), and [linguistic](/wiki/Southern_American_English "Southern American English") and settlement patterns, yet blended with traits of the frontier West. While this particular Southwest is notably different in many ways from the classic "Old South" or [Southeast](/wiki/Southeastern_United_States "Southeastern United States"), these features are strong enough to give it a separate southwestern identity quite different in nature from that of the interior southwestern states to the west.
One of these distinguishing characteristics in Texas—in addition to having been a [Confederate state](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America "Confederate States of America") during the Civil War—is that Indigenous and Spanish American culture never played a central role in the development of this area in relative comparison to the others, as the vast majority of settlers were Anglo and blacks from the South.Cultural Regions of the United States. Raymond Gastil. University of Washington Press 1975 Although the present\-day state of Oklahoma was [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory "Indian Territory") until the early 20th century, many of these American Indians were from the southeastern United States and became culturally assimilated early on. The majority of members of these tribes also allied themselves with the Confederacy during the Civil War. Combined with that, once the territory was open for settlement, southeastern pioneers made up a disproportionate number of these newcomers. All this contributed to the new state having a character that differed from other parts of the Southwest with large American Indian populations.
The fact that a majority of residents of Texas and Oklahoma—unlike those in other "southwestern" states—self\-identify as living in the South and consider themselves southerners rather than the West and westerners—also lends to treating these two states as a somewhat distinct and separate entity in terms of regional classification.Southern Focus Poll 1992–1999\. Odom Institute; Center for the Study of the American South.
[thumb\|upright\|A Joshua tree (*[Yucca brevifolia](/wiki/Yucca_brevifolia "Yucca brevifolia")*)](/wiki/File:A026%2C_Joshua_Tree_National_Park%2C_California%2C_USA%2C_1998.jpg "A026, Joshua Tree National Park, California, USA, 1998.jpg")
|
[
"Origins of the term and historical/cultural variations\n------------------------------------------------------",
"While this article deals with the core definition for the American Southwest, there are many others. The various definitions can be broken down into four main categories: Historical/Archeological; Geological/Topographical; Ecological; and Cultural. In the 1930s and 1940s, many definitions of the Southwest included all or part of Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Colorado, and Utah. As time has gone on, the definition of the Southwest has become more solidified and more compact. For example, in 1948 the [National Geographic Society](/wiki/National_Geographic_Society \"National Geographic Society\") defined the American Southwest as all of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico, and the southernmost sections of Oregon, Idaho, and Wyoming, as well as parts of southwest Nebraska, western Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. By 1977, the Society's definition had narrowed to only the four states of Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico; and by 1982 the portion of the Southwest in the United States, as defined by the Society, had shrunk to Arizona and New Mexico, with the southernmost strip of Utah and Colorado, as well as the Mojave and Colorado deserts in California. Other individuals who focus on Southwest studies who favored a more limited extent of the area to center on Arizona and New Mexico, with small parts of surrounding areas, include [Erna Fergusson](/wiki/Erna_Fergusson \"Erna Fergusson\"), [Charles Lummis](/wiki/Charles_Lummis \"Charles Lummis\") (who claimed to have coined the term, the Southwest), and cultural geographer [Raymond Gastil](/wiki/Raymond_Gastil \"Raymond Gastil\"), and ethnologist [Miguel León\\-Portilla](/wiki/Miguel_Le%C3%B3n-Portilla \"Miguel León-Portilla\").",
"Geographer [D. W. Meinig](/wiki/D._W._Meinig \"D. W. Meinig\") defines the Southwest in a very similar fashion to Reed: the portion of New Mexico west of the [Llano Estacado](/wiki/Llano_Estacado \"Llano Estacado\") and the portion of Arizona east of the [Mojave](/wiki/Mojave_Desert \"Mojave Desert\")\\-[Sonoran Desert](/wiki/Sonoran_Desert \"Sonoran Desert\") and south of the \"canyon lands\" and also including the [El Paso](/wiki/El_Paso%2C_Texas \"El Paso, Texas\") district of western Texas and the southernmost part of Colorado.*Meinig*, pp. 3–8 Meinig breaks the Southwest down into four distinct subregions. He calls the first subregion \"[Northern New Mexico](/wiki/Northern_New_Mexico \"Northern New Mexico\"),\" and describes it as focused on [Albuquerque](/wiki/Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico \"Albuquerque, New Mexico\") and [Santa Fe](/wiki/Santa_Fe%2C_New_Mexico \"Santa Fe, New Mexico\"). It extends from the [San Luis Valley](/wiki/San_Luis_Valley \"San Luis Valley\") of southern Colorado to south of [Socorro](/wiki/Socorro%2C_New_Mexico \"Socorro, New Mexico\") and including the [Sandia\\-Manzano Mountains](/wiki/Sandia-Manzano_Mountains \"Sandia-Manzano Mountains\"), with an east–west breadth in the north stretching from the upper [Canadian River](/wiki/Canadian_River \"Canadian River\") to the upper [San Juan River](/wiki/San_Juan_River_%28Colorado_River%29 \"San Juan River (Colorado River)\"). The area around Albuquerque is sometimes called [Central New Mexico](/wiki/Central_New_Mexico \"Central New Mexico\").",
"\"Central Arizona\" is a vast metropolitan area spread across one contiguous sprawling oasis, essentially equivalent to the [Phoenix metropolitan area](/wiki/Phoenix_metropolitan_area \"Phoenix metropolitan area\"). The city of [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona \"Phoenix, Arizona\") is the largest urban center, and located in the approximate center of the area that includes [Tempe](/wiki/Tempe%2C_Arizona \"Tempe, Arizona\"), [Mesa](/wiki/Mesa%2C_Arizona \"Mesa, Arizona\"), and many others.*Meinig*, pp. 103–106",
"Meinig calls the third subregion \"El Paso, Tucson, and the Southern Borderlands.\" While [El Paso](/wiki/El_Paso%2C_Texas \"El Paso, Texas\") and [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\") are distinctly different cities, they serve as anchor points to the hinterland between them. [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\") occupies a large oasis at the western end of the El Paso\\-Tucson corridor. The region between the two cities is a major transportation trunk with settlements serving both highway and railway needs. There are also large mining operations, ranches, and agricultural oases. Both El Paso and Tucson have large military installations nearby; [Fort Bliss](/wiki/Fort_Bliss \"Fort Bliss\") and [White Sands Missile Range](/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range \"White Sands Missile Range\") north of El Paso in New Mexico, and, near Tucson, the [Davis\\-Monthan Air Force Base](/wiki/Davis-Monthan_Air_Force_Base \"Davis-Monthan Air Force Base\"). About {{convert\\|70\\|mi\\|km}} to the southeast are the research facilities at [Fort Huachuca](/wiki/Fort_Huachuca \"Fort Huachuca\"). These military installations form a kind of hinterland around the El Paso\\-Tucson region, and are served by scientific and residential communities such as [Sierra Vista](/wiki/Sierra_Vista%2C_Arizona \"Sierra Vista, Arizona\"), [Las Cruces](/wiki/Las_Cruces%2C_New_Mexico \"Las Cruces, New Mexico\"), and [Alamogordo](/wiki/Alamogordo%2C_New_Mexico \"Alamogordo, New Mexico\"). El Paso's influence extends north into the [Mesilla Valley](/wiki/Mesilla_Valley \"Mesilla Valley\"), and southeast along the Rio Grande into the [Trans\\-Pecos](/wiki/Trans-Pecos \"Trans-Pecos\") region of Texas.*Meinig*, pp. 112–114",
"The fourth subregion Meinig calls the \"Northern Corridor and Navajolands,\" a major highway and railway trunk which connects Albuquerque and [Flagstaff](/wiki/Flagstaff%2C_Arizona \"Flagstaff, Arizona\"). Just north of the transportation trunk are large blocks of American Indian land.*Meinig*, pp. 114–119",
"### Historical/archeological",
"{{See also\\|Oasisamerica}}\nAs the [US expanded westward](/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States \"Territorial evolution of the United States\"), the country's [western border](/wiki/American_frontier \"American frontier\") also shifted westward, and consequently, so did the location of the Southwestern and [Northwestern United States](/wiki/Northwestern_United_States \"Northwestern United States\"). In the early years of the United States, [newly colonized lands](/wiki/Overmountain_Men \"Overmountain Men\") lying immediately west of the Appalachian Mountains were [detached](/wiki/State_cessions \"State cessions\") from North Carolina and given the name [Southwest Territory](/wiki/Southwest_Territory \"Southwest Territory\"). During the decades that followed, the [region known as \"the Southwestern United States\"](/wiki/Old_Southwest \"Old Southwest\") covered much of the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South \"Deep South\") east of the Mississippi River.",
"However, as territories and eventual states to the west were added after the [Mexican–American War](/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War \"Mexican–American War\"), the geographical \"Southwest\" expanded, and the relationship of these new acquisitions to the South itself became \"increasingly unclear.\"\"Encyclopedia of Southern Culture\". Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris. University of North Carolina Press 1989",
"However, archeologist, Erik Reed, gives a description which is the most widely accepted as defining the American Southwest, which runs from Durango, Colorado in the north, to Durango, Mexico, in the south, and from Las Vegas, Nevada in the west to Las Vegas, New Mexico in the East. Reed's definition is roughly equivalent to the western half of the Learning Center of the American Southwest's definition, leaving out any portion of Kansas and Oklahoma, and much of Texas, as well as the eastern half of New Mexico. Since this article is about the Southwestern United States, the areas of Sonora and Chihuahua in Mexico will be excluded. The portion left includes Arizona and western New Mexico, the very southernmost part of Utah, southwestern Colorado, the very tip of west Texas, and triangle formed by the southern tip of Nevada. This will be the defined scope that is used in this article unless otherwise specified in a particular area.",
"### Geological/topographical",
"[225px\\|thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.35\\|Map of the Southwestern United States as defined by the Learning Center of the American Southwest](/wiki/File:LCASMapoftheSouthwest.jpg \"LCASMapoftheSouthwest.jpg\")\nParts of the other states make up the various areas that can be included in the Southwest, depending on the source. The Learning Center of the American Southwest (LCAS){{efn\\|Quote:\"The Learning Center of the American Southwest is a collaboration among 48 national park units in four NPS Inventory and Monitoring Networks, three Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Units (CESUs), and several nonprofit partners. This partnership is dedicated to understanding and preserving the unique resources of the American Southwest through science and education.\"}} does not rely on current state boundaries, and defines the American Southwest as parts of Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, and Utah.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.southwestlearning.org/topics/defining\\-southwest \\| publisher\\=Learning Center of the American Southwest \\| title\\=Defining the Southwest \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701090148/http://www.southwestlearning.org/topics/defining\\-southwest \\| archive\\-date\\=July 1, 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=usurped }}\nFrom this perspective, almost all of the region's physiographical traits, geological formations, and weather are contained within a box between 26° and 38° northern latitude, and 98° 30' and 124° western longitude.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://jsw.library.arizona.edu/3403/defined.html \\| publisher\\=University of Arizona \\| title\\=The Southwest Defined \\| editor\\-last\\=Wilder \\| editor\\-first\\=Joseph Carlton \\| access\\-date\\=July 11, 2015}}",
"### Ecological",
"When looking at the fauna of the region, there is a broader definition of the American Southwest. The Southwestern Center for Herpetological Research defines the Southwest as being only the states of Arizona, New Mexico, with parts of California, Nevada, Texas, and Utah; although they include all of those six states in their map of the region, solely for ease of defining the border.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://southwesternherp.com/americansouthwestdefined.html \\| publisher\\=Southwestern Center for Herpetological Research \\| title\\=The American Southwest Defined \\| access\\-date\\=July 13, 2015}}",
"### Cultural",
"[thumb\\|The [Wigwam](/wiki/Wigwam \"Wigwam\"). A dwelling used by various Native American tribes among the Southwestern US.](/wiki/File:Apache_Wickiup%2C_Edward_Curtis%2C_1903.jpg \"Apache Wickiup, Edward Curtis, 1903.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Fanciful drawing by [Marguerite Martyn](/wiki/Marguerite_Martyn \"Marguerite Martyn\") in the *[St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch](/wiki/St._Louis_Post-Dispatch \"St. Louis Post-Dispatch\")* of October 21, 1906, headed \"Passing of the Country Store in the Southwest\"](/wiki/File:Drawing_of_a_country_store_by_Marguerite_Martyn.jpg \"Drawing of a country store by Marguerite Martyn.jpg\")",
"Lawrence Clark Powell, a major bibliographer whose emphasis is on the Southwest, defined the American Southwest in a 1958 *[Arizona Highways](/wiki/Arizona_Highways \"Arizona Highways\")* article as, \"the lands lying west of the Pecos, north of the \\[Mexican] Border, south of the Mesa Verde and the Grand Canyon, and east of the mountains which wall off Southern California and make it a land in itself.\"{{cite web \\| url\\=http://jsw.library.arizona.edu/3403/problem.html \\| publisher\\=University of Arizona \\| title\\=Land, Sky, and People: The Southwest Defined – The Problem: No Consistent Definition \\| last\\=Byrkit \\| first\\=James W. \\| editor\\-last\\=Wilder \\| editor\\-first\\=Joseph Carlton \\| year\\=1992 \\| access\\-date\\=July 11, 2015}}",
"Texas has long been the focal point of this dichotomy, and is often considered, as such, the *core area* of \"the South's Southwest.\" While the [Trans\\-Pecos](/wiki/Trans-Pecos \"Trans-Pecos\") area is generally acknowledged as part of the *desert Southwest*,\"The Southwest Defined. Edited by Joseph Carlton Wilder. University of Arizona Press most of Texas and large parts of Oklahoma are often placed into a sub\\-region of the [South](/wiki/Southern_United_States \"Southern United States\"), which some consider southwestern in the general framework of the original application, meaning the \"Western South.\" This is an area containing the basic elements of Southern [history](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\"), [culture](/wiki/Culture_of_the_Southern_United_States \"Culture of the Southern United States\"), [politics](/wiki/Solid_South \"Solid South\"), [religion](/wiki/Bible_Belt \"Bible Belt\"), and [linguistic](/wiki/Southern_American_English \"Southern American English\") and settlement patterns, yet blended with traits of the frontier West. While this particular Southwest is notably different in many ways from the classic \"Old South\" or [Southeast](/wiki/Southeastern_United_States \"Southeastern United States\"), these features are strong enough to give it a separate southwestern identity quite different in nature from that of the interior southwestern states to the west.",
"One of these distinguishing characteristics in Texas—in addition to having been a [Confederate state](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\") during the Civil War—is that Indigenous and Spanish American culture never played a central role in the development of this area in relative comparison to the others, as the vast majority of settlers were Anglo and blacks from the South.Cultural Regions of the United States. Raymond Gastil. University of Washington Press 1975 Although the present\\-day state of Oklahoma was [Indian Territory](/wiki/Indian_Territory \"Indian Territory\") until the early 20th century, many of these American Indians were from the southeastern United States and became culturally assimilated early on. The majority of members of these tribes also allied themselves with the Confederacy during the Civil War. Combined with that, once the territory was open for settlement, southeastern pioneers made up a disproportionate number of these newcomers. All this contributed to the new state having a character that differed from other parts of the Southwest with large American Indian populations.",
"The fact that a majority of residents of Texas and Oklahoma—unlike those in other \"southwestern\" states—self\\-identify as living in the South and consider themselves southerners rather than the West and westerners—also lends to treating these two states as a somewhat distinct and separate entity in terms of regional classification.Southern Focus Poll 1992–1999\\. Odom Institute; Center for the Study of the American South.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|A Joshua tree (*[Yucca brevifolia](/wiki/Yucca_brevifolia \"Yucca brevifolia\")*)](/wiki/File:A026%2C_Joshua_Tree_National_Park%2C_California%2C_USA%2C_1998.jpg \"A026, Joshua Tree National Park, California, USA, 1998.jpg\")",
""
] |
Land use
--------
### Historic district
{{Infobox NRHP
\| name \= Jackson Heights Historic District
\| nrhp\_type \= hd
\| image \= NYC Jackson Heights 3\.jpg
\| image\_size \= 300
\| caption \= Residential street in Jackson Heights
\| map\_caption \= District position on New York City map
\| location \= Bounded by Roosevelt Ave., Broadway, Leverich St., 70 St., Northern Blvd., and Junction Blvd., \[\[Queens]], \[\[New York City\|NYC]]
\| coordinates \= {{coord\|40\|45\|5\|N\|73\|53\|13\|W\|region:US\-NY\_type:landmark\|display\=inline,title}}
\| district\_map \= {{maplink\|from\=Neighbourhoods/New York City/Jackson Heights Historic District.map \|frame\=yes \|plain\=yes \|icon\=no \|type\=shape \|text\=Jackson Heights Historic District\|coord\={{coord\|40\|45\|5\|N\|73\|53\|13\|W}}\|zoom\=14}}
\| architect \=
\| architecture \= Late 19th and 20th Century Revivals
\| added \= January 27, 1999
\| area \= {{convert\|300\|acre}}
\| refnum \= 99000059{{NRISref \|refnum\=99000059\|version\=2009a}}
\| designated\_other2\_name \= NYC Landmark
\| designated\_other2\_date \= October 19, 1993
\| designated\_other2\_abbr \= NYCL
\| designated\_other2\_link \= New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
\| designated\_other2\_number \= 1831
\| designated\_other2\_color \= \#ffe978
}}
Most of the original neighborhood, comprising the garden city apartment buildings, was made a National Register Historic District and a New York State Historic Register District. The Jackson Heights New York State and National Register Districts range from 93rd Street through 69th Street between Northern Boulevard and Roosevelt Avenue. Some property fronting on Northern Boulevard and Roosevelt Avenue, as well as some "cut\-outs", are not inside the Register Districts. The national [historic district](/wiki/Historic_district_%28United_States%29 "Historic district (United States)") called the **Jackson Heights Historic District**, includes 2,203 contributing buildings, 19 contributing sites, and three contributing objects. Among the landmarked buildings, over 200 original Queensboro Corporation apartment buildings still exist in Jackson Heights.\*{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp\_view.asp?GroupView\=7450 \|title\=National Register of Historic Places Registration: Jackson Heights Historic District \|date\=April 1998 \|access\-date\=January 16, 2011 \|author\=Kathleen LaFrank \|publisher\=\[\[New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation]] \|archive\-date\=October 18, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018234717/http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp\_view.asp?GroupView\=7450 \|url\-status\=dead }}
{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp\_view.asp?GroupView\=7453 \|title\=Accompanying 36 photos \|access\-date\=January 27, 2011 \|archive\-date\=October 18, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018234743/http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp\_view.asp?GroupView\=7453 \|url\-status\=dead }}* It was listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") in 1999\.
Almost 600 buildings in the neighborhood—a rectangle stretching roughly from 76th to 88th Streets and from Roosevelt Avenue almost up to Northern Boulevard—were designated as a New York City Historic District by the [New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission](/wiki/New_York_City_Landmarks_Preservation_Commission "New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission") on October 19, 1993\.{{sfn\|Braine\|2009\|p\=2}} It comprises large apartment buildings with private communal gardens, as well as many groupings of private homes and many stores on the streets surrounding [Roosevelt Avenue](/wiki/Roosevelt_Avenue "Roosevelt Avenue").Myers, Steven Lee. ["Council Votes Historic District In 38\-Block Section of Queens"](https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/27/nyregion/council-votes-historic-district-in-38-block-section-of-queens.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112132350/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/27/nyregion/council\-votes\-historic\-district\-in\-38\-block\-section\-of\-queens.html \|date\=November 12, 2017 }}, *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, January 27, 1994\. Accessed August 20, 2009\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/maps/jackson\_heights.pdf\|title\=Map of the District\|website\=Nyc.gov\|access\-date\=November 11, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100302192004/http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/maps/jackson\_heights.pdf\|archive\-date\=March 2, 2010\|url\-status\=dead}} Unlike the State and National Districts, the local designation comes with aesthetic protections.
In addition to the Jackson Heights Historic District, the [Lent Homestead and Cemetery](/wiki/Lent_Homestead_and_Cemetery "Lent Homestead and Cemetery") and [Jackson Heights post office](/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_%28Jackson_Heights%2C_Queens%29 "United States Post Office (Jackson Heights, Queens)") are listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places").
### Business district
The main retail thoroughfare is 37th Avenue from 72nd Street to Junction Boulevard, with more retail on 73rd, 74th, and 82nd streets between 37th and Roosevelt avenues.Daniel Maurer "[Stretching $50 in Jackson Heights](http://nymag.com/guides/cheap/12355/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416062001/http://nymag.com/guides/cheap/12355/ \|date\=April 16, 2009 }}." [New York Magazine](/wiki/New_York_Magazine "New York Magazine") Stores and restaurants on and near 74th Street tend to cater to the large population from the [Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent "Indian subcontinent") in the neighborhood, with sari and jewelry stores, Indian and Bengali music and movie retailers and many restaurants.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/04/nyregion/bazaar\-with\-the\-feel\-of\-bombay\-right\-in\-queens.html\|title\=Bazaar With the Feel of Bombay, Right in Queens\|last\=Myers\|first\=Steven Lee\|date\=January 4, 1993\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=August 12, 2016\|issn\=0362\-4331}} 37th Avenue contains a wide mix of retailers, including many grocery stores, and 82nd Street contains many national chain stores located in Tudor\-style buildings in the Jackson Heights Historic District. South American retailers and eateries, predominantly from Colombia and Peru dominate Northern Boulevard from 80th Street east to the border of neighboring [Corona](/wiki/Corona%2C_Queens "Corona, Queens") at Junction Boulevard. Roosevelt Avenue is also lined with various mainly Hispanic retail stores.
#### Street food
[thumb\|left\|Street vendor in Jackson Heights](/wiki/File:Food_vendor_seller_in_Jackson_Heights.jpg "Food vendor seller in Jackson Heights.jpg")
Along Roosevelt Avenue from 74th to 108th Streets, street food from all over the world is made and sold at food carts "currently dominated by the Mexican community".Miyares, Ines M. "From Exclusionary Covenant to Ethnic Hyperdiversity in Jackson Heights, Queens." *Geographical Review*, vol. 94, no. 4, Oct. 2004, pp. 462–483 Typical cart food includes Bengali fuchka ([phuchka](/wiki/Panipuri "Panipuri")), Middle Eastern lamb over rice, Nepalese [momo](/wiki/Momo_%28food%29 "Momo (food)"), Colombian [chuzos](/wiki/Pinchitos "Pinchitos") and [arepas](/wiki/Arepa "Arepa"), Greek [souvlaki](/wiki/Souvlaki "Souvlaki"), Ecuadorian [ceviche](/wiki/Ceviche "Ceviche"), Thai steamed chicken over rice, and Mexican [elotes (corn on a cob)](/wiki/Corn_on_the_cob "Corn on the cob"), [tacos](/wiki/Taco "Taco"), homemade [tamales](/wiki/Tamale "Tamale") filled with meats, cheese, fruits or even chilies, fruit [batidos](/wiki/Licuado "Licuado") or [aguas frescas](/wiki/Aguas_frescas "Aguas frescas") (smoothies), and South American sweet [churros](/wiki/Churro "Churro").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.fathomaway.com/street\-food\-tour\-queens\-nyc\-culinary\-backstreets/\|title\=These Street Food Tours Take You Places Others Don't, Like the Heart of Queens\|last\=Schwartz\|first\=Daniel\|date\=April 30, 2018\|website\=Fathomaway.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=March 25, 2019}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://ny.eater.com/2017/5/18/15658114/bourdain\-queens\-wonderland\-street\-food\|title\=Bourdain on Queens: 'This is a Wonderland' Because of Street Food\|last\=Dai\|first\=Serena\|date\=May 18, 2017\|website\=Eater NY\|access\-date\=March 25, 2019}}
In a 2017 episode of his show *[Parts Unknown](/wiki/Anthony_Bourdain:Parts_Unknown "Parts Unknown")*, American chef [Anthony Bourdain](/wiki/Anthony_Bourdain "Anthony Bourdain") visited several Queens eateries, profiling Evelia Coyotzi, who sells tamales in a street cart on Junction Boulevard, the border between Jackson Heights and Corona. Bourdain learned about Coyotzi, a Mexican immigrant who spoke no English, through the [Street Vendor Project](/wiki/Street_Vendor_Project "Street Vendor Project"), which advocates for New York City street vendors.{{Cite web\|url\=https://ny.eater.com/2017/5/22/15671978/anthony\-bourdain\-queens\-alternatives\-restaurants\|title\=Eat Like Anthony Bourdain in Queens—Without the Lines\|last\=Sietsema\|first\=Robert\|date\=May 22, 2017\|website\=Eater NY\|access\-date\=March 29, 2019}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://patch.com/new\-york/jackson\-heights\-elmhurst/queens\-restaurateurs\-remember\-thank\-anthony\-bourdain\|title\=Queens Restaurateurs Remember, Thank Anthony Bourdain\|date\=June 8, 2018\|website\=Jackson Heights\-Elmhurst, NY Patch\|language\=en\|access\-date\=March 29, 2019}}
### Other buildings
[thumb\|Eagle Theater](/wiki/File:Eagle_Theater_JH_jeh.jpg "Eagle Theater JH jeh.jpg")
Most housing units in Jackson Heights are apartments in multi\-unit buildings, many of which are five or six stories. Many of these buildings are [co\-ops](/wiki/Housing_cooperative "Housing cooperative"), some are rentals, and a few are [condominiums](/wiki/Condominium "Condominium"). There are also a number of one\- to three\-family houses, most of which are attached [row houses](/wiki/Row_house "Row house"). 34th and 35th avenues, as well as most side streets between 37th Avenue and [Northern Boulevard](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_25A "New York State Route 25A"), are residential. A section of 90th Street between 30th Avenue and Northern Boulevard was privately developed separately from the Queensboro Corporation. The structures on that stretch of 90th Street are mostly [Tudor](/wiki/Tudor_architecture "Tudor architecture") buildings.
There were five historic movie theaters in Jackson Heights, which have all been either repurposed or closed. The [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") Earle Theater, opened in 1936 on 37th Road between 73rd and 74th streets, was a neighborhood movie theater before becoming a [porn theater](/wiki/Porn_theater "Porn theater") and then, with the name changed to "Eagle", a [Bollywood](/wiki/Bollywood "Bollywood") theater before a strike in the Bollywood industry caused the theater to close permanently in 2009; it is now a [food court](/wiki/Food_court "Food court") selling [cuisine of the Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Indian_subcontinent "Cuisine of the Indian subcontinent").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dnainfo.com/new\-york/20120727/jackson\-heights/former\-eagle\-theater\-jackson\-heights\-reopens\-as\-food\-court\|title\=Former Eagle Theater in Jackson Heights Reopens As Food Court\|work\=DNAinfo New York\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518111706/http://www.dnainfo.com/new\-york/20120727/jackson\-heights/former\-eagle\-theater\-jackson\-heights\-reopens\-as\-food\-court\|archive\-date\=May 18, 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} The Fair Theatre, in the area that overlaps with East Elmhurst, opened in 1939 at Astoria Boulevard and 90th Street, became a porn theater. The Polk Theater, on 37th (formerly Polk) Avenue and 93rd Street, opened in 1938 and closed in 2006; it also was a porn theater during its later years, before it was demolished in 2008\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nydailynews.com/new\-york/queens/polk\-theatre\-part\-film\-history\-deco\-delight\-article\-1\.280961\|title\=The Polk Theatre is part of film history\|website\=Nydailynews.com\|date\=April 14, 2008 \|access\-date\=November 11, 2017}} The Colony Theater, on 82nd Street north of Roosevelt Avenue, opened in 1935 and closed in 1991\. The Jackson, later an Indian\-owned theater called the Jackson Heights Cinema, on 82nd Street south of Roosevelt Avenue, was demolished in March 2017\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dnainfo.com/new\-york/20140115/jackson\-heights/jackson\-heights\-cinema\-operators\-evicted\-for\-owing\-back\-rent\|title\=Credits Roll for Jackson Heights Cinema After Rent Dispute\|work\=DNAinfo New York\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518111703/http://www.dnainfo.com/new\-york/20140115/jackson\-heights/jackson\-heights\-cinema\-operators\-evicted\-for\-owing\-back\-rent\|archive\-date\=May 18, 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} The Boulevard Theater, on Northern Boulevard and 83rd Street, is now a Latin\-American restaurant of the same name.
|
[
"Land use\n--------",
"### Historic district",
"{{Infobox NRHP\n\\| name \\= Jackson Heights Historic District\n\\| nrhp\\_type \\= hd\n\\| image \\= NYC Jackson Heights 3\\.jpg\n\\| image\\_size \\= 300\n\\| caption \\= Residential street in Jackson Heights\n\\| map\\_caption \\= District position on New York City map\n\\| location \\= Bounded by Roosevelt Ave., Broadway, Leverich St., 70 St., Northern Blvd., and Junction Blvd., \\[\\[Queens]], \\[\\[New York City\\|NYC]]\n\\| coordinates \\= {{coord\\|40\\|45\\|5\\|N\\|73\\|53\\|13\\|W\\|region:US\\-NY\\_type:landmark\\|display\\=inline,title}}\n\\| district\\_map \\= {{maplink\\|from\\=Neighbourhoods/New York City/Jackson Heights Historic District.map \\|frame\\=yes \\|plain\\=yes \\|icon\\=no \\|type\\=shape \\|text\\=Jackson Heights Historic District\\|coord\\={{coord\\|40\\|45\\|5\\|N\\|73\\|53\\|13\\|W}}\\|zoom\\=14}}\n\\| architect \\=\n\\| architecture \\= Late 19th and 20th Century Revivals\n\\| added \\= January 27, 1999\n\\| area \\= {{convert\\|300\\|acre}}\n\\| refnum \\= 99000059{{NRISref \\|refnum\\=99000059\\|version\\=2009a}}\n\\| designated\\_other2\\_name \\= NYC Landmark\n\\| designated\\_other2\\_date \\= October 19, 1993\n\\| designated\\_other2\\_abbr \\= NYCL\n\\| designated\\_other2\\_link \\= New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission\n\\| designated\\_other2\\_number \\= 1831\n\\| designated\\_other2\\_color \\= \\#ffe978\n}}",
"Most of the original neighborhood, comprising the garden city apartment buildings, was made a National Register Historic District and a New York State Historic Register District. The Jackson Heights New York State and National Register Districts range from 93rd Street through 69th Street between Northern Boulevard and Roosevelt Avenue. Some property fronting on Northern Boulevard and Roosevelt Avenue, as well as some \"cut\\-outs\", are not inside the Register Districts. The national [historic district](/wiki/Historic_district_%28United_States%29 \"Historic district (United States)\") called the **Jackson Heights Historic District**, includes 2,203 contributing buildings, 19 contributing sites, and three contributing objects. Among the landmarked buildings, over 200 original Queensboro Corporation apartment buildings still exist in Jackson Heights.\\*{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp\\_view.asp?GroupView\\=7450 \\|title\\=National Register of Historic Places Registration: Jackson Heights Historic District \\|date\\=April 1998 \\|access\\-date\\=January 16, 2011 \\|author\\=Kathleen LaFrank \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation]] \\|archive\\-date\\=October 18, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018234717/http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp\\_view.asp?GroupView\\=7450 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp\\_view.asp?GroupView\\=7453 \\|title\\=Accompanying 36 photos \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 18, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018234743/http://www.oprhp.state.ny.us/hpimaging/hp\\_view.asp?GroupView\\=7453 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}* It was listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") in 1999\\.",
"Almost 600 buildings in the neighborhood—a rectangle stretching roughly from 76th to 88th Streets and from Roosevelt Avenue almost up to Northern Boulevard—were designated as a New York City Historic District by the [New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission](/wiki/New_York_City_Landmarks_Preservation_Commission \"New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission\") on October 19, 1993\\.{{sfn\\|Braine\\|2009\\|p\\=2}} It comprises large apartment buildings with private communal gardens, as well as many groupings of private homes and many stores on the streets surrounding [Roosevelt Avenue](/wiki/Roosevelt_Avenue \"Roosevelt Avenue\").Myers, Steven Lee. [\"Council Votes Historic District In 38\\-Block Section of Queens\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/27/nyregion/council-votes-historic-district-in-38-block-section-of-queens.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112132350/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/27/nyregion/council\\-votes\\-historic\\-district\\-in\\-38\\-block\\-section\\-of\\-queens.html \\|date\\=November 12, 2017 }}, *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, January 27, 1994\\. Accessed August 20, 2009\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/maps/jackson\\_heights.pdf\\|title\\=Map of the District\\|website\\=Nyc.gov\\|access\\-date\\=November 11, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100302192004/http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/maps/jackson\\_heights.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=March 2, 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Unlike the State and National Districts, the local designation comes with aesthetic protections.",
"In addition to the Jackson Heights Historic District, the [Lent Homestead and Cemetery](/wiki/Lent_Homestead_and_Cemetery \"Lent Homestead and Cemetery\") and [Jackson Heights post office](/wiki/United_States_Post_Office_%28Jackson_Heights%2C_Queens%29 \"United States Post Office (Jackson Heights, Queens)\") are listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\").",
"### Business district",
"The main retail thoroughfare is 37th Avenue from 72nd Street to Junction Boulevard, with more retail on 73rd, 74th, and 82nd streets between 37th and Roosevelt avenues.Daniel Maurer \"[Stretching $50 in Jackson Heights](http://nymag.com/guides/cheap/12355/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416062001/http://nymag.com/guides/cheap/12355/ \\|date\\=April 16, 2009 }}.\" [New York Magazine](/wiki/New_York_Magazine \"New York Magazine\") Stores and restaurants on and near 74th Street tend to cater to the large population from the [Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent \"Indian subcontinent\") in the neighborhood, with sari and jewelry stores, Indian and Bengali music and movie retailers and many restaurants.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/04/nyregion/bazaar\\-with\\-the\\-feel\\-of\\-bombay\\-right\\-in\\-queens.html\\|title\\=Bazaar With the Feel of Bombay, Right in Queens\\|last\\=Myers\\|first\\=Steven Lee\\|date\\=January 4, 1993\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=August 12, 2016\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} 37th Avenue contains a wide mix of retailers, including many grocery stores, and 82nd Street contains many national chain stores located in Tudor\\-style buildings in the Jackson Heights Historic District. South American retailers and eateries, predominantly from Colombia and Peru dominate Northern Boulevard from 80th Street east to the border of neighboring [Corona](/wiki/Corona%2C_Queens \"Corona, Queens\") at Junction Boulevard. Roosevelt Avenue is also lined with various mainly Hispanic retail stores.",
"#### Street food",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Street vendor in Jackson Heights](/wiki/File:Food_vendor_seller_in_Jackson_Heights.jpg \"Food vendor seller in Jackson Heights.jpg\")\nAlong Roosevelt Avenue from 74th to 108th Streets, street food from all over the world is made and sold at food carts \"currently dominated by the Mexican community\".Miyares, Ines M. \"From Exclusionary Covenant to Ethnic Hyperdiversity in Jackson Heights, Queens.\" *Geographical Review*, vol. 94, no. 4, Oct. 2004, pp. 462–483 Typical cart food includes Bengali fuchka ([phuchka](/wiki/Panipuri \"Panipuri\")), Middle Eastern lamb over rice, Nepalese [momo](/wiki/Momo_%28food%29 \"Momo (food)\"), Colombian [chuzos](/wiki/Pinchitos \"Pinchitos\") and [arepas](/wiki/Arepa \"Arepa\"), Greek [souvlaki](/wiki/Souvlaki \"Souvlaki\"), Ecuadorian [ceviche](/wiki/Ceviche \"Ceviche\"), Thai steamed chicken over rice, and Mexican [elotes (corn on a cob)](/wiki/Corn_on_the_cob \"Corn on the cob\"), [tacos](/wiki/Taco \"Taco\"), homemade [tamales](/wiki/Tamale \"Tamale\") filled with meats, cheese, fruits or even chilies, fruit [batidos](/wiki/Licuado \"Licuado\") or [aguas frescas](/wiki/Aguas_frescas \"Aguas frescas\") (smoothies), and South American sweet [churros](/wiki/Churro \"Churro\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fathomaway.com/street\\-food\\-tour\\-queens\\-nyc\\-culinary\\-backstreets/\\|title\\=These Street Food Tours Take You Places Others Don't, Like the Heart of Queens\\|last\\=Schwartz\\|first\\=Daniel\\|date\\=April 30, 2018\\|website\\=Fathomaway.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=March 25, 2019}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ny.eater.com/2017/5/18/15658114/bourdain\\-queens\\-wonderland\\-street\\-food\\|title\\=Bourdain on Queens: 'This is a Wonderland' Because of Street Food\\|last\\=Dai\\|first\\=Serena\\|date\\=May 18, 2017\\|website\\=Eater NY\\|access\\-date\\=March 25, 2019}}",
"In a 2017 episode of his show *[Parts Unknown](/wiki/Anthony_Bourdain:Parts_Unknown \"Parts Unknown\")*, American chef [Anthony Bourdain](/wiki/Anthony_Bourdain \"Anthony Bourdain\") visited several Queens eateries, profiling Evelia Coyotzi, who sells tamales in a street cart on Junction Boulevard, the border between Jackson Heights and Corona. Bourdain learned about Coyotzi, a Mexican immigrant who spoke no English, through the [Street Vendor Project](/wiki/Street_Vendor_Project \"Street Vendor Project\"), which advocates for New York City street vendors.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ny.eater.com/2017/5/22/15671978/anthony\\-bourdain\\-queens\\-alternatives\\-restaurants\\|title\\=Eat Like Anthony Bourdain in Queens—Without the Lines\\|last\\=Sietsema\\|first\\=Robert\\|date\\=May 22, 2017\\|website\\=Eater NY\\|access\\-date\\=March 29, 2019}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://patch.com/new\\-york/jackson\\-heights\\-elmhurst/queens\\-restaurateurs\\-remember\\-thank\\-anthony\\-bourdain\\|title\\=Queens Restaurateurs Remember, Thank Anthony Bourdain\\|date\\=June 8, 2018\\|website\\=Jackson Heights\\-Elmhurst, NY Patch\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=March 29, 2019}}",
"### Other buildings",
"[thumb\\|Eagle Theater](/wiki/File:Eagle_Theater_JH_jeh.jpg \"Eagle Theater JH jeh.jpg\")\nMost housing units in Jackson Heights are apartments in multi\\-unit buildings, many of which are five or six stories. Many of these buildings are [co\\-ops](/wiki/Housing_cooperative \"Housing cooperative\"), some are rentals, and a few are [condominiums](/wiki/Condominium \"Condominium\"). There are also a number of one\\- to three\\-family houses, most of which are attached [row houses](/wiki/Row_house \"Row house\"). 34th and 35th avenues, as well as most side streets between 37th Avenue and [Northern Boulevard](/wiki/New_York_State_Route_25A \"New York State Route 25A\"), are residential. A section of 90th Street between 30th Avenue and Northern Boulevard was privately developed separately from the Queensboro Corporation. The structures on that stretch of 90th Street are mostly [Tudor](/wiki/Tudor_architecture \"Tudor architecture\") buildings.",
"There were five historic movie theaters in Jackson Heights, which have all been either repurposed or closed. The [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") Earle Theater, opened in 1936 on 37th Road between 73rd and 74th streets, was a neighborhood movie theater before becoming a [porn theater](/wiki/Porn_theater \"Porn theater\") and then, with the name changed to \"Eagle\", a [Bollywood](/wiki/Bollywood \"Bollywood\") theater before a strike in the Bollywood industry caused the theater to close permanently in 2009; it is now a [food court](/wiki/Food_court \"Food court\") selling [cuisine of the Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Indian_subcontinent \"Cuisine of the Indian subcontinent\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dnainfo.com/new\\-york/20120727/jackson\\-heights/former\\-eagle\\-theater\\-jackson\\-heights\\-reopens\\-as\\-food\\-court\\|title\\=Former Eagle Theater in Jackson Heights Reopens As Food Court\\|work\\=DNAinfo New York\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518111706/http://www.dnainfo.com/new\\-york/20120727/jackson\\-heights/former\\-eagle\\-theater\\-jackson\\-heights\\-reopens\\-as\\-food\\-court\\|archive\\-date\\=May 18, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The Fair Theatre, in the area that overlaps with East Elmhurst, opened in 1939 at Astoria Boulevard and 90th Street, became a porn theater. The Polk Theater, on 37th (formerly Polk) Avenue and 93rd Street, opened in 1938 and closed in 2006; it also was a porn theater during its later years, before it was demolished in 2008\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nydailynews.com/new\\-york/queens/polk\\-theatre\\-part\\-film\\-history\\-deco\\-delight\\-article\\-1\\.280961\\|title\\=The Polk Theatre is part of film history\\|website\\=Nydailynews.com\\|date\\=April 14, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=November 11, 2017}} The Colony Theater, on 82nd Street north of Roosevelt Avenue, opened in 1935 and closed in 1991\\. The Jackson, later an Indian\\-owned theater called the Jackson Heights Cinema, on 82nd Street south of Roosevelt Avenue, was demolished in March 2017\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dnainfo.com/new\\-york/20140115/jackson\\-heights/jackson\\-heights\\-cinema\\-operators\\-evicted\\-for\\-owing\\-back\\-rent\\|title\\=Credits Roll for Jackson Heights Cinema After Rent Dispute\\|work\\=DNAinfo New York\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518111703/http://www.dnainfo.com/new\\-york/20140115/jackson\\-heights/jackson\\-heights\\-cinema\\-operators\\-evicted\\-for\\-owing\\-back\\-rent\\|archive\\-date\\=May 18, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The Boulevard Theater, on Northern Boulevard and 83rd Street, is now a Latin\\-American restaurant of the same name.",
""
] |
Culture
-------
[thumb\|left\|[Chiva Bus](/wiki/Chiva_Buses "Chiva Buses") during [Colombian Independence celebration](/wiki/History_of_Colombia "History of Colombia")](/wiki/File:Chiva_Queens_Nueva_york.jpg "Chiva Queens Nueva york.jpg")
Jackson Heights is among the most diverse neighborhoods in New York City and the nation. Half of the population was foreign\-born by the 2000s. It is home to large numbers of South Americans (particularly Colombian, Ecuadorian and Argentinian) and South Asians (Bangladeshis, Pakistanis, Tibetans, Nepalese, and Indians). Because of its large and vibrant Tibetan community, it has been called "the second (if unofficial) capital of the exile Tibetan world, after [Dharamsala](/wiki/Dharamsala "Dharamsala"), India."{{cite journal \|last1\= Dorjee\|first1\=Tenzin \|date\=June 2017 \|title\=Obituary: Elliot Sperling (1951–2017\) \|url\=https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/himalaya/vol37/iss1/33 \|journal\=Himalaya: The Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies \|volume\=37 \|issue\=1 \|access\-date\=July 5, 2020}} Most businesses are Asian\- and Latino\-owned, and there are restaurants, bakeries, specialty shops, legal offices, bars, and beauty salons. There is a [Little India](/wiki/Little_India_%28location%29 "Little India (location)") on 74th Street and a Little Pakistan and Little Bangladesh on 73rd Street.{{sfn\|Braine\|2009\|p\=1}} There is also a large concentration of South Americans east of 77th Street, especially a Little Colombia along 37th Avenue.{{sfn\|Braine\|2009\|p\=1}}
Jackson Heights was heavily Colombian during the 1980s, but other immigrant groups have settled in the area, notably Mexicans. Many of the displaced Colombians have moved to adjacent areas such as [Elmhurst](/wiki/Elmhurst%2C_Queens "Elmhurst, Queens"), [East Elmhurst](/wiki/East_Elmhurst%2C_Queens "East Elmhurst, Queens"), [Corona](/wiki/Corona%2C_Queens "Corona, Queens"), [College Point](/wiki/College_Point%2C_Queens "College Point, Queens") and [Flushing](/wiki/Flushing%2C_Queens "Flushing, Queens"). [Queens County](/wiki/Queens_County%2C_New_York "Queens County, New York") still has the largest concentration of Colombians in the United States of any county (roughly 135,000\).
[thumb\|right\|Scrabble street sign](/wiki/File:35_Av_Scrabble_street_sign.jpg "35 Av Scrabble street sign.jpg")
The 2015 documentary *[In Jackson Heights](/wiki/In_Jackson_Heights "In Jackson Heights")* portrays Jackson Heights as a microcosm of the American [melting pot](/wiki/Melting_pot "Melting pot").{{cite web\|title\=Watch Full Episodes Online of In Jackson Heights on PBS\|url\=https://www.pbs.org/show/jackson\-heights/\|website\=Pbs.org\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=August 24, 2017}}
The word game [Scrabble](/wiki/Scrabble "Scrabble") was co\-invented by former architect [Alfred Mosher Butts](/wiki/Alfred_Mosher_Butts "Alfred Mosher Butts"), who lived in Jackson Heights.{{cite web \|first\=John \|last\=Roleke \|url\=http://queens.about.com/b/a/112059\.htm \|publisher\=About.com \|title\=Scrabble Avenue: Scrabble Invented in Jackson Heights \|access\-date\=August 23, 2005 \|archive\-date\=September 17, 2005 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050917233838/http://queens.about.com/b/a/112059\.htm \|url\-status\=dead }}Kershaw, Sarah. ["NEIGHBORHOOD REPORT: JACKSON HEIGHTS;Rewriting The Story Of Scrabble"](https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/01/nyregion/neighborhood-report-jackson-heights-rewriting-the-story-of-scrabble.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227161828/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/01/nyregion/neighborhood\-report\-jackson\-heights\-rewriting\-the\-story\-of\-scrabble.html \|date\=December 27, 2019 }}, *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, October 1, 1995\. Retrieved May 28, 2009\. There is a street sign at 35th Avenue and 81st Street that is stylized using letters, with their values in Scrabble as a subscript; it was originally erected in 1995,{{Cite news\|last\=Kershaw\|first\=Sarah\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/01/nyregion/neighborhood\-report\-jackson\-heights\-rewriting\-the\-story\-of\-scrabble.html\|title\=NEIGHBORHOOD REPORT: JACKSON HEIGHTS;Rewriting The Story Of Scrabble\|date\=October 1, 1995\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=April 25, 2020\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331}} but after the sign disappeared in 2008,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/16/nyregion/sign\-in\-queens\-marking\-birthplace\-of\-scrabble\-is\-coming\-back.html?\_r\=0 \|title\=For a Bereft Street Corner in Queens, a Red\-Letter Day \|work\=The New York Times \|date\=July 15, 2011 \|access\-date\=November 23, 2014 \|author\=Ember, Sydney}} a replacement was put up in 2011\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.qgazette.com/news/2011\-10\-26/Front\_Page/Historic\_Scrabble\_Sign\_Makes\_Triumphant\_Return\_To\_.html \|title\=Historic Scrabble Sign Makes Triumphant Return To Jackson Heights \|publisher\=Queens Gazette \|date\=October 26, 2011 \|access\-date\=November 23, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006182141/http://www.qgazette.com/news/2011\-10\-26/Front\_Page/Historic\_Scrabble\_Sign\_Makes\_Triumphant\_Return\_To\_.html \|archive\-date\=October 6, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead }}
### Community organizations
The Jackson Heights Garden City Society is a historical society, whose founders include local historians, the Queens Borough Historian and local activists. They created and oversee the Jackson Heights Garden City Trail and publish a walking guidebook to Jackson Heights. They also collect artifacts of the community. Periodically, the Society testifies before the [New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission](/wiki/New_York_City_Landmarks_Preservation_Commission "New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission") on issues of concern to the community.
The 82nd Street Partnership is responsible for the business improvement of the area.{{Cite web\|title\=Welcome to 82nd Street – Jackson Heights \& Elmhurst, Queens\|url\=http://www.82ndstreet.org/\|access\-date\=August 11, 2020\|language\=en\-US}}
In addition, Colombian broadcaster [RCN TV](/wiki/RCN_TV "RCN TV") has its US\-American headquarters in the neighborhood, reflecting the sizable Colombian population in the area.
There is a year\-round [greenmarket](/wiki/Greenmarket "Greenmarket") every Sunday morning at [Travers Park](/wiki/Travers_Park "Travers Park"), as well as various family\-oriented spring and summer concerts.
### LGBTQ community
#### Early history
[thumb\|left\|Senior Citizens marching in the 2018 Queens Pride Parade \|alt\=](/wiki/File:QueensPrideParade_senior2018.jpg "QueensPrideParade senior2018.jpg")
In the 1920s, LGBT actors working in the 42nd Street theater scene decided to make their homes in Jackson Heights due to the lack of affordability of Manhattan neighborhoods and the easy accessibility of the 7 train. That was the beginning of what is now the second largest gay community in New York City.Maly, Michael T. "Chapter 4: Jackson Heights." *Beyond Segregation: Multiracial and Multiethnic Neighborhoods in the United States*, Temple University Press, 2011
Until the 1990s, LGBT activities in Jackson Heights were usually held surreptitiously and at night due to a constant fear of backlash. As the neighborhood continued to grow, more spaces for the gay community were added. One of those was the Queens Center for Gay Seniors, which was created using grant money and is still the only senior center in Queens serving the LGBT community specifically.{{Cite journal\|last\=Iceland\|first\=J.\|date\=March 1, 2007\|title\=Beyond Segregation: Multiracial and Multiethnic Neighborhoods in the United States By Michael T. Maly Temple University Press, 2005\. 278 pages. $68\.50 (cloth), $22\.95 (paper)\|journal\=Social Forces\|volume\=85\|issue\=3\|pages\=1444–1446\|doi\=10\.1353/sof.2007\.0041\|s2cid\=201742462\|issn\=0037\-7732}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://nyc18\.nytimes\-institute.com/2018/05/31/lgbt\-seniors/,%20http://nyc18\.nytimes\-institute.com/2018/05/31/lgbt\-seniors/\|title\=L.G.B.T. Senior Citizens Find Safe Haven at Jackson Heights Community Center {{!}} The New York Times Student Journalism Institute\|date\=May 31, 2018 \|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=April 2, 2019}}
#### Murder of Julio Rivera
The LGBT community became a movement after the 1990 murder of Julio Rivera, a 29\-year\-old bartender who worked at the Magic Touch gay bar. Rivera was raised in the Bronx, but tried to avoid the violence of the streets there, and moved to Jackson Heights as a young adult. On the night of July 2, three men cornered Rivera in a schoolyard that was known as a gay cruising area and beat him with a hammer and beer bottle, and then stabbed him.{{cite web \| last\=Stanley \| first\=Alessandra \| title\=The Symbols Spawned by a Killing \| website\=The New York Times \| date\=November 18, 1991 \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/18/nyregion/the\-symbols\-spawned\-by\-a\-killing.html \| access\-date\=March 27, 2019}} At the beginning of the case, the police department categorized the assault as drug\-related, because Rivera had been a longtime cocaine user and they found traces of cocaine on his body. However, after Rivera's friends and relatives advocated for the case to be examined further, the NYPD concluded that Rivera's death had been an anti\-gay crime, and the three men involved were charged with murder and manslaughter.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/21/nyregion/at\-site\-of\-gay\-mans\-murder\-a\-queens\-street\-corner\-acknowledges\-its\-past.html\|title\=At Site of Gay Man's Murder, a Street Corner Acknowledges Its Past\|date\=March 21, 2016\|website\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=March 27, 2019}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.npr.org/2016/06/24/483397790/julio\-rivera\-and\-the\-making\-of\-a\-hate\-crime\|title\=Julio Rivera and the Making of a Hate Crime\|date\=June 24, 2016\|website\=NPR.org\|access\-date\=March 27, 2019}}
{{blockquote\|If it wasn't for Julio the Queens LGBT movement would not have gotten as far as it has gotten. Julio did not die in vain. He changed people's lives.\|City Councilmember Daniel Dromm, 2015{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nyclgbtsites.org/site/julio\-rivera\-corner/\|title\=Julio Rivera Corner\|website\=NYC LGBT Historic Sites Project\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-27}}\|source\=}}
[thumb\|Julio Rivera](/wiki/File:June_3%2C_2018_Queens_Pride_Parade_%2846522353435%29.jpg "June 3, 2018 Queens Pride Parade (46522353435).jpg")
This was the first real standing for justice and honor for the LGBT community in Queens. The resulting activism led to the Gay and Lesbian Anti\-Violence Project, a social services agency that helps monitor any type of criminal acts against the community citywide. Rivera's sister\-in\-law was elected as the AVP for the LGBT board. Union helped improve the relationship between the Police Department and Jackson Heights's LGBT community and helped with supervision against violence. In 2000, the corner of 78th Street and 37th Avenue, where Rivera was killed, was renamed in his memory"Over 40,000 Attend Our Largest Pride Day Events Ever! *Queens Pride Guide* 2000\. LaGuardia and Wagner Archives, LaGuardia Community College.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nyclgbtsites.org/site/julio\-rivera\-corner/\|title\=Julio Rivera Corner\|website\=NYC LGBT Historic Sites Project\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=March 27, 2019}} and a documentary, *Julio of Jackson Heights*, was made about his murder.{{Cite web \|title\=30 Years Later: Reflections on Julio Rivera's Life and Death \|url\=https://www.latinxproject.nyu.edu/intervenxions/nbsp30\-years\-later\-reflections\-on\-julio\-riveras\-life\-and\-death \|access\-date\=December 4, 2022 \|website\=The Latinx Project at NYU \|language\=en\-US}}
#### 1990s to present
Since the 1990s, the LGBTQ community in Jackson Heights has not only grown in number, but also expanded its diversity and cultures. [The Inaugural Queens Lesbian and Gay Parade and Block Party Festival](/wiki/Queens_Pride_Parade "Queens Pride Parade"), organized by Daniel Dromm and Maritza Martinez, took place on June 6, 1993, in Jackson Heights, marking a watershed in LGBTQ history. Some 1,000 marchers participated, and thousands of spectators attended. More than a dozen LGBTQ organizations sponsored the event. In 1994 Dromm and activist Wayne Mahlke organized the Lesbian and Gay Democratic Club of Queens, "the only LGBT independent Democratic club in the Borough of Queens."{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.lgdcq.nyc/\|title\=Lesbian and Gay Democratic Club of Queens\|website\=www.lgdcq.nyc\|access\-date\=April 4, 2019}} That same year, the Queens Pride Parade commemorated the 25th anniversary of the [Stonewall riots](/wiki/Stonewall_riots "Stonewall riots"). In 1995, Ed Sedarbaum established the SAGE/Queens Clubhouse, the first senior citizens program in Queens to provide outreach to LGBTQ elderly. In 1999, an estimated 40,000 people attend the Queens Pride Parade with some 70 community groups registered.From *Out and About: LGTBQ Life in NYC*. 2019 Calendar. LaGuardia and Wagner Archives, LaGuardia Community College, Queens, New York, 2019\.
Daniel Dromm and [Jimmy Van Bramer](/wiki/Jimmy_Van_Bramer "Jimmy Van Bramer") were elected to the New York City Council on November 3, 2009, representing, respectively, the 25th and 26th districts in Queens.{{cite web \| title\=New York City Council – Election Results 2009 \| website\=The New York Times \| date\=November 9, 2009 \| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/elections/2009/results/city\-council.html \| access\-date\=September 29, 2019}} Both City Council members are openly gay.{{cite web \| title\=Van Bramer Hosts Drag Queen Story Hour in Jackson Heights, Celebrate Program's Funding \| website\=LIC Post \| date\=July 26, 2019 \| url\=https://licpost.com/van\-bramer\-hosts\-drag\-queen\-story\-hour\-in\-jackson\-heights\-celebrate\-programs\-funding \| access\-date\=September 29, 2019}}
##### Incidents
On August 15, 2001, Edgar Garzon, a gay man, was murdered in an incident that the Queens district attorney characterized as a "possible [hate crime](/wiki/Hate_crime "Hate crime")." The murder quickly faded from public attention after the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks") a month later. In 2006, John L. McGhee was charged with Garzon's murder.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/30/nyregion/stepping\-off\-plane\-man\-is\-arrested\-in\-01\-queens\-murder.html\|title\=Stepping Off Plane, Man Is Arrested in '01 Queens Murder\|last\=Fahim\|first\=Kareem\|date\=June 30, 2006\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=April 4, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331}}
On June 3, 2018, 25\-year\-old school teacher Brandon Soriano was attacked by two men following the 2018 Pride Parade in what has been deemed a hate crime.{{Cite web\|url\=https://jacksonheightspost.com/homophobic\-attack\-mars\-otherwise\-jubilant\-queens\-pride\-parade\|title\=Homophobic Attack Mars Otherwise Jubilant Queens Pride Parade\|date\=June 4, 2018\|website\=Jackson Heights Post\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=April 4, 2019}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://newyork.cbslocal.com/2018/06/04/queens\-pride\-parade\-hate\-crime/\|title\='Homophobia Is Real:' Man, 25, Attacked By Pair Of Strangers In Potential Hate Crime Following Queens Pride Parade\|date\=June 4, 2018\|language\=en\|access\-date\=April 4, 2019}} Five days later, a Latina transgender woman was allegedly stabbed repeatedly a few blocks away.{{Cite web\|url\=http://gothamist.com/2018/06/13/jackson\_heights\_rally.php\|title\=LGBTQ Activists Rally In Jackson Heights Following Recent Attacks\|last1\=Hern\|first1\=Katherine\|last2\=ez\|website\=Gothamist\|access\-date\=April 4, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404155822/http://gothamist.com/2018/06/13/jackson\_heights\_rally.php\|archive\-date\=April 4, 2019\|url\-status\=dead}}
|
[
"Culture\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Chiva Bus](/wiki/Chiva_Buses \"Chiva Buses\") during [Colombian Independence celebration](/wiki/History_of_Colombia \"History of Colombia\")](/wiki/File:Chiva_Queens_Nueva_york.jpg \"Chiva Queens Nueva york.jpg\")\nJackson Heights is among the most diverse neighborhoods in New York City and the nation. Half of the population was foreign\\-born by the 2000s. It is home to large numbers of South Americans (particularly Colombian, Ecuadorian and Argentinian) and South Asians (Bangladeshis, Pakistanis, Tibetans, Nepalese, and Indians). Because of its large and vibrant Tibetan community, it has been called \"the second (if unofficial) capital of the exile Tibetan world, after [Dharamsala](/wiki/Dharamsala \"Dharamsala\"), India.\"{{cite journal \\|last1\\= Dorjee\\|first1\\=Tenzin \\|date\\=June 2017 \\|title\\=Obituary: Elliot Sperling (1951–2017\\) \\|url\\=https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/himalaya/vol37/iss1/33 \\|journal\\=Himalaya: The Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies \\|volume\\=37 \\|issue\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=July 5, 2020}} Most businesses are Asian\\- and Latino\\-owned, and there are restaurants, bakeries, specialty shops, legal offices, bars, and beauty salons. There is a [Little India](/wiki/Little_India_%28location%29 \"Little India (location)\") on 74th Street and a Little Pakistan and Little Bangladesh on 73rd Street.{{sfn\\|Braine\\|2009\\|p\\=1}} There is also a large concentration of South Americans east of 77th Street, especially a Little Colombia along 37th Avenue.{{sfn\\|Braine\\|2009\\|p\\=1}}",
"Jackson Heights was heavily Colombian during the 1980s, but other immigrant groups have settled in the area, notably Mexicans. Many of the displaced Colombians have moved to adjacent areas such as [Elmhurst](/wiki/Elmhurst%2C_Queens \"Elmhurst, Queens\"), [East Elmhurst](/wiki/East_Elmhurst%2C_Queens \"East Elmhurst, Queens\"), [Corona](/wiki/Corona%2C_Queens \"Corona, Queens\"), [College Point](/wiki/College_Point%2C_Queens \"College Point, Queens\") and [Flushing](/wiki/Flushing%2C_Queens \"Flushing, Queens\"). [Queens County](/wiki/Queens_County%2C_New_York \"Queens County, New York\") still has the largest concentration of Colombians in the United States of any county (roughly 135,000\\).",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Scrabble street sign](/wiki/File:35_Av_Scrabble_street_sign.jpg \"35 Av Scrabble street sign.jpg\")",
"The 2015 documentary *[In Jackson Heights](/wiki/In_Jackson_Heights \"In Jackson Heights\")* portrays Jackson Heights as a microcosm of the American [melting pot](/wiki/Melting_pot \"Melting pot\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Watch Full Episodes Online of In Jackson Heights on PBS\\|url\\=https://www.pbs.org/show/jackson\\-heights/\\|website\\=Pbs.org\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=August 24, 2017}}",
"The word game [Scrabble](/wiki/Scrabble \"Scrabble\") was co\\-invented by former architect [Alfred Mosher Butts](/wiki/Alfred_Mosher_Butts \"Alfred Mosher Butts\"), who lived in Jackson Heights.{{cite web \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Roleke \\|url\\=http://queens.about.com/b/a/112059\\.htm \\|publisher\\=About.com \\|title\\=Scrabble Avenue: Scrabble Invented in Jackson Heights \\|access\\-date\\=August 23, 2005 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 17, 2005 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050917233838/http://queens.about.com/b/a/112059\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}Kershaw, Sarah. [\"NEIGHBORHOOD REPORT: JACKSON HEIGHTS;Rewriting The Story Of Scrabble\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/01/nyregion/neighborhood-report-jackson-heights-rewriting-the-story-of-scrabble.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227161828/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/01/nyregion/neighborhood\\-report\\-jackson\\-heights\\-rewriting\\-the\\-story\\-of\\-scrabble.html \\|date\\=December 27, 2019 }}, *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, October 1, 1995\\. Retrieved May 28, 2009\\. There is a street sign at 35th Avenue and 81st Street that is stylized using letters, with their values in Scrabble as a subscript; it was originally erected in 1995,{{Cite news\\|last\\=Kershaw\\|first\\=Sarah\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/01/nyregion/neighborhood\\-report\\-jackson\\-heights\\-rewriting\\-the\\-story\\-of\\-scrabble.html\\|title\\=NEIGHBORHOOD REPORT: JACKSON HEIGHTS;Rewriting The Story Of Scrabble\\|date\\=October 1, 1995\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=April 25, 2020\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} but after the sign disappeared in 2008,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/16/nyregion/sign\\-in\\-queens\\-marking\\-birthplace\\-of\\-scrabble\\-is\\-coming\\-back.html?\\_r\\=0 \\|title\\=For a Bereft Street Corner in Queens, a Red\\-Letter Day \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=July 15, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=November 23, 2014 \\|author\\=Ember, Sydney}} a replacement was put up in 2011\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.qgazette.com/news/2011\\-10\\-26/Front\\_Page/Historic\\_Scrabble\\_Sign\\_Makes\\_Triumphant\\_Return\\_To\\_.html \\|title\\=Historic Scrabble Sign Makes Triumphant Return To Jackson Heights \\|publisher\\=Queens Gazette \\|date\\=October 26, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=November 23, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006182141/http://www.qgazette.com/news/2011\\-10\\-26/Front\\_Page/Historic\\_Scrabble\\_Sign\\_Makes\\_Triumphant\\_Return\\_To\\_.html \\|archive\\-date\\=October 6, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### Community organizations",
"The Jackson Heights Garden City Society is a historical society, whose founders include local historians, the Queens Borough Historian and local activists. They created and oversee the Jackson Heights Garden City Trail and publish a walking guidebook to Jackson Heights. They also collect artifacts of the community. Periodically, the Society testifies before the [New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission](/wiki/New_York_City_Landmarks_Preservation_Commission \"New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission\") on issues of concern to the community.",
"The 82nd Street Partnership is responsible for the business improvement of the area.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Welcome to 82nd Street – Jackson Heights \\& Elmhurst, Queens\\|url\\=http://www.82ndstreet.org/\\|access\\-date\\=August 11, 2020\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"In addition, Colombian broadcaster [RCN TV](/wiki/RCN_TV \"RCN TV\") has its US\\-American headquarters in the neighborhood, reflecting the sizable Colombian population in the area.",
"There is a year\\-round [greenmarket](/wiki/Greenmarket \"Greenmarket\") every Sunday morning at [Travers Park](/wiki/Travers_Park \"Travers Park\"), as well as various family\\-oriented spring and summer concerts.",
"### LGBTQ community",
"#### Early history",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Senior Citizens marching in the 2018 Queens Pride Parade \\|alt\\=](/wiki/File:QueensPrideParade_senior2018.jpg \"QueensPrideParade senior2018.jpg\")",
"In the 1920s, LGBT actors working in the 42nd Street theater scene decided to make their homes in Jackson Heights due to the lack of affordability of Manhattan neighborhoods and the easy accessibility of the 7 train. That was the beginning of what is now the second largest gay community in New York City.Maly, Michael T. \"Chapter 4: Jackson Heights.\" *Beyond Segregation: Multiracial and Multiethnic Neighborhoods in the United States*, Temple University Press, 2011",
"Until the 1990s, LGBT activities in Jackson Heights were usually held surreptitiously and at night due to a constant fear of backlash. As the neighborhood continued to grow, more spaces for the gay community were added. One of those was the Queens Center for Gay Seniors, which was created using grant money and is still the only senior center in Queens serving the LGBT community specifically.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Iceland\\|first\\=J.\\|date\\=March 1, 2007\\|title\\=Beyond Segregation: Multiracial and Multiethnic Neighborhoods in the United States By Michael T. Maly Temple University Press, 2005\\. 278 pages. $68\\.50 (cloth), $22\\.95 (paper)\\|journal\\=Social Forces\\|volume\\=85\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=1444–1446\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/sof.2007\\.0041\\|s2cid\\=201742462\\|issn\\=0037\\-7732}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://nyc18\\.nytimes\\-institute.com/2018/05/31/lgbt\\-seniors/,%20http://nyc18\\.nytimes\\-institute.com/2018/05/31/lgbt\\-seniors/\\|title\\=L.G.B.T. Senior Citizens Find Safe Haven at Jackson Heights Community Center {{!}} The New York Times Student Journalism Institute\\|date\\=May 31, 2018 \\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2019}}",
"#### Murder of Julio Rivera",
"The LGBT community became a movement after the 1990 murder of Julio Rivera, a 29\\-year\\-old bartender who worked at the Magic Touch gay bar. Rivera was raised in the Bronx, but tried to avoid the violence of the streets there, and moved to Jackson Heights as a young adult. On the night of July 2, three men cornered Rivera in a schoolyard that was known as a gay cruising area and beat him with a hammer and beer bottle, and then stabbed him.{{cite web \\| last\\=Stanley \\| first\\=Alessandra \\| title\\=The Symbols Spawned by a Killing \\| website\\=The New York Times \\| date\\=November 18, 1991 \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/18/nyregion/the\\-symbols\\-spawned\\-by\\-a\\-killing.html \\| access\\-date\\=March 27, 2019}} At the beginning of the case, the police department categorized the assault as drug\\-related, because Rivera had been a longtime cocaine user and they found traces of cocaine on his body. However, after Rivera's friends and relatives advocated for the case to be examined further, the NYPD concluded that Rivera's death had been an anti\\-gay crime, and the three men involved were charged with murder and manslaughter.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/21/nyregion/at\\-site\\-of\\-gay\\-mans\\-murder\\-a\\-queens\\-street\\-corner\\-acknowledges\\-its\\-past.html\\|title\\=At Site of Gay Man's Murder, a Street Corner Acknowledges Its Past\\|date\\=March 21, 2016\\|website\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=March 27, 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2016/06/24/483397790/julio\\-rivera\\-and\\-the\\-making\\-of\\-a\\-hate\\-crime\\|title\\=Julio Rivera and the Making of a Hate Crime\\|date\\=June 24, 2016\\|website\\=NPR.org\\|access\\-date\\=March 27, 2019}}",
"{{blockquote\\|If it wasn't for Julio the Queens LGBT movement would not have gotten as far as it has gotten. Julio did not die in vain. He changed people's lives.\\|City Councilmember Daniel Dromm, 2015{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nyclgbtsites.org/site/julio\\-rivera\\-corner/\\|title\\=Julio Rivera Corner\\|website\\=NYC LGBT Historic Sites Project\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-27}}\\|source\\=}}\n[thumb\\|Julio Rivera](/wiki/File:June_3%2C_2018_Queens_Pride_Parade_%2846522353435%29.jpg \"June 3, 2018 Queens Pride Parade (46522353435).jpg\")\nThis was the first real standing for justice and honor for the LGBT community in Queens. The resulting activism led to the Gay and Lesbian Anti\\-Violence Project, a social services agency that helps monitor any type of criminal acts against the community citywide. Rivera's sister\\-in\\-law was elected as the AVP for the LGBT board. Union helped improve the relationship between the Police Department and Jackson Heights's LGBT community and helped with supervision against violence. In 2000, the corner of 78th Street and 37th Avenue, where Rivera was killed, was renamed in his memory\"Over 40,000 Attend Our Largest Pride Day Events Ever! *Queens Pride Guide* 2000\\. LaGuardia and Wagner Archives, LaGuardia Community College.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nyclgbtsites.org/site/julio\\-rivera\\-corner/\\|title\\=Julio Rivera Corner\\|website\\=NYC LGBT Historic Sites Project\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=March 27, 2019}} and a documentary, *Julio of Jackson Heights*, was made about his murder.{{Cite web \\|title\\=30 Years Later: Reflections on Julio Rivera's Life and Death \\|url\\=https://www.latinxproject.nyu.edu/intervenxions/nbsp30\\-years\\-later\\-reflections\\-on\\-julio\\-riveras\\-life\\-and\\-death \\|access\\-date\\=December 4, 2022 \\|website\\=The Latinx Project at NYU \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"#### 1990s to present",
"Since the 1990s, the LGBTQ community in Jackson Heights has not only grown in number, but also expanded its diversity and cultures. [The Inaugural Queens Lesbian and Gay Parade and Block Party Festival](/wiki/Queens_Pride_Parade \"Queens Pride Parade\"), organized by Daniel Dromm and Maritza Martinez, took place on June 6, 1993, in Jackson Heights, marking a watershed in LGBTQ history. Some 1,000 marchers participated, and thousands of spectators attended. More than a dozen LGBTQ organizations sponsored the event. In 1994 Dromm and activist Wayne Mahlke organized the Lesbian and Gay Democratic Club of Queens, \"the only LGBT independent Democratic club in the Borough of Queens.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lgdcq.nyc/\\|title\\=Lesbian and Gay Democratic Club of Queens\\|website\\=www.lgdcq.nyc\\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2019}} That same year, the Queens Pride Parade commemorated the 25th anniversary of the [Stonewall riots](/wiki/Stonewall_riots \"Stonewall riots\"). In 1995, Ed Sedarbaum established the SAGE/Queens Clubhouse, the first senior citizens program in Queens to provide outreach to LGBTQ elderly. In 1999, an estimated 40,000 people attend the Queens Pride Parade with some 70 community groups registered.From *Out and About: LGTBQ Life in NYC*. 2019 Calendar. LaGuardia and Wagner Archives, LaGuardia Community College, Queens, New York, 2019\\.",
"Daniel Dromm and [Jimmy Van Bramer](/wiki/Jimmy_Van_Bramer \"Jimmy Van Bramer\") were elected to the New York City Council on November 3, 2009, representing, respectively, the 25th and 26th districts in Queens.{{cite web \\| title\\=New York City Council – Election Results 2009 \\| website\\=The New York Times \\| date\\=November 9, 2009 \\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/elections/2009/results/city\\-council.html \\| access\\-date\\=September 29, 2019}} Both City Council members are openly gay.{{cite web \\| title\\=Van Bramer Hosts Drag Queen Story Hour in Jackson Heights, Celebrate Program's Funding \\| website\\=LIC Post \\| date\\=July 26, 2019 \\| url\\=https://licpost.com/van\\-bramer\\-hosts\\-drag\\-queen\\-story\\-hour\\-in\\-jackson\\-heights\\-celebrate\\-programs\\-funding \\| access\\-date\\=September 29, 2019}}",
"##### Incidents",
"On August 15, 2001, Edgar Garzon, a gay man, was murdered in an incident that the Queens district attorney characterized as a \"possible [hate crime](/wiki/Hate_crime \"Hate crime\").\" The murder quickly faded from public attention after the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") a month later. In 2006, John L. McGhee was charged with Garzon's murder.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/30/nyregion/stepping\\-off\\-plane\\-man\\-is\\-arrested\\-in\\-01\\-queens\\-murder.html\\|title\\=Stepping Off Plane, Man Is Arrested in '01 Queens Murder\\|last\\=Fahim\\|first\\=Kareem\\|date\\=June 30, 2006\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}",
"On June 3, 2018, 25\\-year\\-old school teacher Brandon Soriano was attacked by two men following the 2018 Pride Parade in what has been deemed a hate crime.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://jacksonheightspost.com/homophobic\\-attack\\-mars\\-otherwise\\-jubilant\\-queens\\-pride\\-parade\\|title\\=Homophobic Attack Mars Otherwise Jubilant Queens Pride Parade\\|date\\=June 4, 2018\\|website\\=Jackson Heights Post\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2019}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://newyork.cbslocal.com/2018/06/04/queens\\-pride\\-parade\\-hate\\-crime/\\|title\\='Homophobia Is Real:' Man, 25, Attacked By Pair Of Strangers In Potential Hate Crime Following Queens Pride Parade\\|date\\=June 4, 2018\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2019}} Five days later, a Latina transgender woman was allegedly stabbed repeatedly a few blocks away.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://gothamist.com/2018/06/13/jackson\\_heights\\_rally.php\\|title\\=LGBTQ Activists Rally In Jackson Heights Following Recent Attacks\\|last1\\=Hern\\|first1\\=Katherine\\|last2\\=ez\\|website\\=Gothamist\\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404155822/http://gothamist.com/2018/06/13/jackson\\_heights\\_rally.php\\|archive\\-date\\=April 4, 2019\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
""
] |
Examples of clinical cancer applications
----------------------------------------
A virtual karyotype can be generated from nearly any tumor, but the clinical meaning of the genomic aberrations identified are different for each tumor type. Clinical utility varies and appropriateness is best determined by an oncologist or pathologist in consultation with the laboratory director of the lab performing the virtual karyotype. Below are examples of types of cancers where the clinical implications of specific genomic aberrations are well established. This list is representative, not exhaustive. The web site for the Cytogenetics Laboratory at Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene has additional examples of clinically relevant genetic changes that are readily detectable by virtual karyotyping.<http://www.slh.wisc.edu/cytogenetics/cancer/bmdeletion_tabl.dot>
### Neuroblastoma
Based on a series of 493 [neuroblastoma](/wiki/Neuroblastoma "Neuroblastoma") samples, it has been reported that overall genomic pattern, as tested by array\-based karyotyping, is a predictor of outcome in neuroblastoma:{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Janoueix\-Lerosey I, Schleiermacher G, Michels E, etal \|title\=Overall genomic pattern is a predictor of outcome in neuroblastoma \|journal\=J. Clin. Oncol. \|volume\=27 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=1026–33 \|date\=March 2009 \|pmid\=19171713 \|doi\=10\.1200/JCO.2008\.16\.0630 \|url\=http://www.jco.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view\=long\&pmid\=19171713\|doi\-access\=free }}
* Tumors presenting exclusively with whole chromosome copy number changes were associated with excellent survival.
* Tumors presenting with any kind of segmental chromosome copy number changes were associated with a high risk of relapse.
* Within tumors showing segmental alterations, additional independent predictors of decreased overall survival were MYCN amplification, 1p and 11q deletions, and 1q gain.
Earlier publications categorized neuroblastomas into three major subtypes based on cytogenetic profiles:{{cite journal \| last1 \= Michels \| first1 \= E \| last2 \= Vandesompele \| first2 \= J \| last3 \= Hoebeeck \| first3 \= J \| last4 \= Menten \| first4 \= B \| last5 \= De Preter \| first5 \= K \| last6 \= Laureys \| first6 \= G \| last7 \= Van Roy \| first7 \= N \| last8 \= Speleman \| first8 \= F. \| year \= 2006 \| title \= Genome wide measurement of DNA copy number changes in neuroblastoma: dissecting amplicons and mapping losses, gains and breakpoints \| journal \= Cytogenet. Genome Res. \| pmid \= 17124410 \| volume \= 115 \| issue \= 3–4\| pages \= 273–282 \| doi \= 10\.1159/000095924 \| s2cid \= 14012430 \|name\-list\-style\=vanc }}
* Subtype 1: favorable neuroblastoma with near triploidy and a predominance of numerical gains and losses, mostly representing non\-metastatic NB stages 1, 2 and 4S.
* Subtypes 2A and 2B: found in unfavorable widespread neuroblastoma, stages 3 and 4, with 11q loss and 17q gain without MYCN amplification (subtype 2A) or with MYCN amplification often together with 1p deletions and 17q gain (subtype 2B).
### Wilms' tumor
Tumor\-specific loss\-of\-heterozygosity (LOH) for chromosomes 1p and 16q identifies a subset of [Wilms' tumor](/wiki/Wilms%27_tumor "Wilms' tumor") patients who have a significantly increased risk of relapse and death. LOH for these chromosomal regions can now be used as an independent prognostic factor together with disease stage to target intensity of treatment to risk of treatment failure.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.ejca.2009\.01\.005 \|author1\=Messahel B \|author2\=Williams R \|author3\=Ridolfi A \|author4\=A'hern R \|author5\=Warren W \|author6\=Tinworth L \|author7\=Hobson R \|author8\=Al\-Saadi R \|author9\=Whyman G \|author10\=Brundler MA \|author11\=Kelsey A \|author12\=Sebire N \|author13\=Jones C \|author14\=Vujanic G \|author15\=Pritchard\-Jones K \|author16\=Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG) \|date\=March 2009 \| title \= Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG). Allele loss at 16q defines poorer prognosis Wilms tumour irrespective of treatment approach in the UKW1\-3 clinical trials: a Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG) Study \| journal \= Eur J Cancer \| volume \= 45 \| issue \= 5\| pages \= 819–26 \| pmid \= 19231157}}{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1200/JCO.2005\.01\.2799 \|author1\=Grundy PE \|author2\=\[\[Breslow NE]] \|author3\=Li S \|author4\=Perlman E \|author5\=Beckwith JB \|author6\=Ritchey ML \|author7\=Shamberger RC \|author8\=Haase GM \|author9\=D'Angio GJ \|author10\=Donaldson M \|author11\=Coppes MJ \|author12\=Malogolowkin M \|author13\=Shearer P \|author14\=Thomas PR \|author15\=Macklis R \|author16\=Tomlinson G \|author17\=Huff V \|author18\=Green DM \|author19\=National Wilms Tumor Study Group \|date\=October 2005 \| title \= National Wilms Tumor Study Group. Loss of heterozygosity for chromosomes 1p and 16q is an adverse prognostic factor in favorable\-histology Wilms tumor: a report from the National Wilms Tumor Study Group \| journal \= J Clin Oncol \| volume \= 23 \| issue \= 29\| pages \= 7312–21 \| pmid \= 16129848\|doi\-access\=free }}
### Renal\-cell carcinoma
[Renal epithelial neoplasms](/wiki/Renal_cell_carcinoma "Renal cell carcinoma") have characteristic cytogenetic aberrations that can aid in classification.{{cite journal \| last1\=van den Berg \|first1\=E \| last2\= Störkel \|first2\=S \|title\= Kidney: Clear cell renal cell carcinoma \|journal\= Atlas Genet Cytogenet Oncol Haematol \|year\=2003 \|url\= http://AtlasGeneticsOncology.org/Tumors/ClearCellRenalCC5020\.html \| access\-date\=14 December 2010 \| volume\=7 \|issue\=3 \| pages\= 424–431}} See also [Atlas of Genetics and Cytogenetics in Oncology and Haematology](http://atlasgeneticsoncology.org//Tumors/RenalCellCarcinID5021.html).
* Clear cell carcinoma: loss of 3p
* Papillary carcinoma: trisomy 7 and 17
* Chromophobe carcinoma: hypodiploid with loss of chromosomes 1, 2, 6, 10, 13, 17, 21
Array\-based karyotyping can be used to identify characteristic chromosomal aberrations in renal tumors with challenging morphology. Array\-based karyotyping performs well on paraffin embedded tumors{{cite journal \| last1 \= Lyons\-Weiler \| first1 \= MA \| last2 \= Hagenkord \| first2 \= JM \| last3 \= Sciulli \| first3 \= CM \| last4 \= Dhir \| first4 \= R \| last5 \= Monzon \| first5 \= FA. \|name\-list\-style\=vanc \| year \= 2008\| title \= Optimization of the Affymetrix GeneChip Mapping 10K 2\.0 Assay for Routine Clinical Use on Formalin Fixed Paraffin Embedded Tissues \| journal \= Diag Mol Path \| volume \= 17 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 3–13 \|pmid\=18303412 \| doi \= 10\.1097/PDM.0b013e31815aca30\| s2cid \= 24420204 }} and is amenable to routine clinical use.
In addition, recent literature indicates that certain chromosomal aberrations are associated with outcome in specific subtypes of renal epithelial tumors.{{cite journal \|author1\=Klatte T \|author2\=Pantuck AJ \|author3\=Said JW \|author4\=Seligson DB \|author5\=Rao NP \|author6\=LaRochelle JC \|author7\=Shuch B \|author8\=Zisman A \|author9\=Kabbinavar FF \|author10\=Belldegrun AS \| title \= Cytogenetic and molecular tumor profiling for type 1 and type 2 papillary renal cell carcinoma. \| journal \= Clinical Cancer Research \| volume \= 15 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 1162–9 \| year \= 2009 \| pmid \= 19228721 \| doi \= 10\.1158/1078\-0432\.CCR\-08\-1229 \|doi\-access\=free }}
Clear cell renal carcinoma: del 9p and del 14q are poor prognostic indicators.{{cite journal \|author1\=Brunelli M \|author2\=Eccher A \|author3\=Gobbo S \|author4\=Ficarra V \|author5\=Novara G \|author6\=Cossu\-Rocca P \|author7\=Bonetti F \|author8\=Menestrina F \|author9\=Cheng L \|author10\=Eble JN \|author11\=Martignoni G \| title \= Loss of chromosome 9p is an independent prognostic factor in patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma. \| journal \= Modern Pathology \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 1–6 \| year \= 2008 \| pmid \= 17906617 \| doi \= 10\.1038/modpathol.3800967 \|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \|author1\=Klatte T \|author2\=Rao PN \|author3\=de Martino M \|author4\=LaRochelle J \|author5\=Shuch B \|author6\=Zomorodian N \|author7\=Said J \|author8\=Kabbinavar FF \|author9\=Belldegrun AS \|author10\=Pantuck AJ \| title \= Cytogenetic profile predicts prognosis of patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma. \| journal \= Journal of Clinical Oncology \| volume \= 27 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 746–53 \| year \= 2009 \| pmid \= 19124809 \| doi \= 10\.1200/JCO.2007\.15\.8345 \|doi\-access\=free }}
Papillary renal cell carcinoma: duplication of 1q marks fatal progression.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Szponar \| first1 \= A \| last2 \= Zubakov \| first2 \= D \| last3 \= Pawlak \| first3 \= J \| last4 \= Jauch \| first4 \= A \| last5 \= Kovacs \| first5 \= G \| title \= Three genetic developmental stages of papillary renal cell tumors: duplication of chromosome 1q marks fatal progression. \| journal \= International Journal of Cancer \| volume \= 124 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 2071–6 \| year \= 2009 \| pmid \= 19123481 \| doi \= 10\.1002/ijc.24180 \|name\-list\-style\=vanc \| doi\-access \= free }}
### Chronic lymphocytic leukemia
[thumb\|Schematic karyogram of a human, with annotated [bands and sub\-bands](/wiki/Locus_%28genetics%29 "Locus (genetics)") as used in the [International System for Human Cytogenomic Nomenclature](/wiki/International_System_for_Human_Cytogenomic_Nomenclature "International System for Human Cytogenomic Nomenclature") for the locations of genetic abnormalities. It shows 22 [homologous](/wiki/Homologous_chromosome "Homologous chromosome") [autosomal](/wiki/Autosomal "Autosomal") chromosome pairs, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two [sex chromosomes](/wiki/Sex_chromosome "Sex chromosome"), as well as the [mitochondrial genome](/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics "Human mitochondrial genetics") (at bottom left). {{further\|Karyotype}}](/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png "Human karyotype with bands and sub-bands.png")
Array\-based karyotyping is a cost\-effective alternative to FISH for detecting chromosomal abnormalities in [chronic lymphocytic leukemia](/wiki/Chronic_lymphocytic_leukemia "Chronic lymphocytic leukemia") (CLL). Several clinical validation studies have shown \>95% concordance with the standard CLL FISH panel.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1073/pnas.0304717101 \|author1\=Schwaenen C \|author2\=Nessling M \|author3\=Wessendorf S \|author4\=Salvi T \|author5\=Wrobel G \|author6\=Radlwimmer B \|author7\=Kestler HA \|author8\=Haslinger C \|author9\=Stilgenbauer S \|author10\=Döhner H \|author11\=Bentz M \|author12\=Lichter P \| title \= Automated array\-based genomic profiling in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: development of a clinical tool and discovery of recurrent genomic alterations \| journal \= Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A \| volume \= 101 \| issue \= 4\| pages \= 1039–44 \| pmid \= 14730057 \| pmc \= 327147\|year\=2004 \|bibcode\=2004PNAS..101\.1039S \|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1182/blood\-2006\-07\-034256 \|author1\=Pfeifer D \|author2\=Pantic M \|author3\=Skatulla I \|author4\=Rawluk J \|author5\=Kreutz C \|author6\=Martens UM \|author7\=Fisch P \|author8\=Timmer J \|author9\=Veelken H \| title \= Genome\-wide analysis of DNA copy number changes and LOH in CLL using high\-density SNP arrays \| journal \= Blood \| volume \= 109 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 1202–10 \| pmid \= 17053054 \| date\=February 2007\|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \| pages\=442–451 \| pmid\=18687794 \| pmc\=2518739 \|doi\=10\.2353/jmoldx.2008\.080033 \|author1\=Gunn SR \|author2\=Mohammed MS \|author3\=Gorre ME \|author4\=Cotter PD \|author5\=Kim J \|author6\=Bahler DW \|author7\=Preobrazhensky SN \|author8\=Higgins RA \|author9\=Bolla AR \|author10\=Ismail SH \|author11\=de Jong D \|author12\=Eldering E \|author13\=van Oers MH \|author14\=Mellink CH \|author15\=Keating MJ \|author16\=Schlette EJ \|author17\=Abruzzo LV \|author18\=Robetorye RS \| title\=Whole\-genome scanning by array comparative genomic hybridization as a clinical tool for risk assessment in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. \| journal\=The Journal of Molecular Diagnostics \| volume\=10 \| issue\=5 \|date\=September 2008}}{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.2353/jmoldx.2009\.080037 \|author1\=Sargent R \|author2\=Jones D \|author3\=Abruzzo LV \|author4\=Yao H \|author5\=Bonderover J \|author6\=Cisneros M \|author7\=Wierda WG \|author8\=Keating MJ \|author9\=Luthra R \|date\=January 2009 \| title \= Customized oligonucleotide array\-based comparative genomic hybridization as a clinical assay for genomic profiling of chronic lymphocytic leukemia \| journal \= J Mol Diagn \| volume \= 11 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 25–34 \| pmid \= 19074592 \| pmc \= 2607562}} In addition, many studies using array\-based karyotyping have identified 'atypical deletions' missed by the standard FISH probes and acquired uniparental disomy at key loci for prognostic risk in CLL.2009 May;23(5\):829\-33{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.2353/jmoldx.2010\.090118 \| last1 \= Hagenkord \| first1 \= JM\| year \= 2010 \| last2 \= Monzon \| first2 \= FA \| last3 \= Kash \| first3 \= SF \| last4 \= Lilleberg \| first4 \= S \| last5 \= Xie \| first5 \= Q \| last6 \= Kant \| first6 \= JA \| title \= Array\-based karyotyping for prognostic assessment in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: performance comparison of affymetrix 10K2\.0, 250K Nsp, and SNP6\.0 arrays \| journal \= J Mol Diagn \| volume \= 12 \| issue \= 2\| pages \= 184–96 \| pmid \= 20075210 \| pmc \= 2871725 \|name\-list\-style\=vanc }}
Four main genetic aberrations are recognized in CLL cells that have a major impact on disease behavior.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Dohner H, Stilgenbauer S, Benner A, etal \|year\=2000\|title\=Genomic aberrations and survival in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. \|journal\=NEJM\|volume\=343\|issue\=26\|pages\=1910–6\|pmid\=11136261\| doi \= 10\.1056/NEJM200012283432602\|doi\-access\=free}}
1. Deletions of part of the short arm of chromosome 17 (del 17p) which target p53 are particularly deleterious. Patients with this abnormality have significantly short interval before they require therapy and a shorter survival. This abnormality is found in 5–10% of patients with CLL.
2. Deletions of the long arm on chromosome 11 (del 11q) are also unfavorable although not to the degree seen with del 17p. The abnormality targets the ATM gene and occurs infrequently in CLL (5–10%).
3. Trisomy 12, an additional chromosome 12, is a relatively frequent finding occurring in 20–25% of patients and imparts an intermediate prognosis.
4. Deletion of 13q14 (del 13q14\) is the most common abnormality in CLL with roughly 50% of patients with cells containing this defect. When del 13q14 is seen in isolation, patients have the best prognosis and most will live many years, even decades, without the need for therapy.
### Multiple myeloma
Avet\-Loiseau, et al. in *Journal of Clinical Oncology*, used SNP array karyotyping of 192 [multiple myeloma](/wiki/Multiple_myeloma "Multiple myeloma") (MM) samples to identify genetic lesions associated with prognosis, which were then validated in a separate cohort (n \= 273\).{{cite journal \| pmid\= 19687334 \|pmc\= 2754906 \|doi\=10\.1200/JCO.2008\.20\.6136 \|author1\=Hervé Avet\-Loiseau \|author2\=Cheng Li \|author3\=Florence Magrangeas \|author4\=Wilfried Gouraud \|author5\=Catherine Charbonnel \|author6\=Jean\-Luc Harousseau \|author7\=Michel Attal \|author8\=Gerald Marit \|author9\=Claire Mathiot \|author10\=Thierry Facon \|author11\=Philippe Moreau \|author12\=Kenneth C. Anderson \|author13\=Loïc Campion \|author14\=Nikhil C. Munshi \|author15\=Stéphane Minvielle \| title\= Prognostic significance of copy\-number alterations in multiple myeloma. \| journal\= Journal of Clinical Oncology \| volume\=27 \| issue\=27 \|date\=September 2009 \| pages\=4585–90}} In MM, lack of a proliferative clone makes conventional cytogenetics informative in only \~30% of cases. FISH panels are useful in MM, but standard panels would not detect several key genetic abnormalities reported in this study.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2022}}
1. Virtual karyotyping identified chromosomal abnormalities in 98% of MM cases
2. del(12p13\.31\)is an independent adverse marker
3. amp(5q31\.1\) is a favorable marker
4. The prognostic impact of amp(5q31\.1\) over\-rides that of hyperdiploidy and also identifies patients who greatly benefit from high\-dose therapy.
Array\-based karyotyping cannot detect balanced translocations, such as t(4;14\) seen in \~15% of MM. Therefore, FISH for this translocation should also be performed if using SNP arrays to detect genome\-wide copy number alterations of prognostic significance in MM.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2022}}
### Medulloblastoma
Array\-based karyotyping of 260 [medulloblastomas](/wiki/Medulloblastoma "Medulloblastoma") by Pfister S, et al. resulted in the following clinical subgroups based on cytogenetic profiles:{{cite journal \|author1\=Pfister S \|author2\=Remke M \|author3\=Benner A \|author4\=Mendrzyk F \|author5\=Toedt G \|author6\=Felsberg J \|author7\=Wittmann A \|author8\=Devens F \|author9\=Gerber NU \|author10\=Joos S \|author11\=Kulozik A \|author12\=Reifenberger G \|author13\=Rutkowski S \|author14\=Wiestler OD \|author15\=Radlwimmer B \|author16\=Scheurlen W \|author17\=Lichter P \|author18\=Korshunov A \|date\=April 2009 \| pmid \= 19255330 \| title \= Outcome Prediction in Pediatric Medulloblastoma based on DNA Copy Number Aberrations of Chromosomes 6q and 17q and the MYC and MYCN Loci \| journal \= J Clin Oncol \| volume \= 27\| issue \= 10\| pages \= 1627–1636 \|doi\=10\.1200/JCO.2008\.17\.9432\|doi\-access\=free }}
* Poor prognosis: gain of 6q or amplification of MYC or MYCN
* Intermediate: gain of 17q or an i(17q) without gain of 6q or amplification of MYC or MYCN
* Excellent prognosis: 6q and 17q balanced or 6q deletion
### Oligodendroglioma
The 1p/19q co\-deletion is considered a "genetic signature" of [oligodendroglioma](/wiki/Oligodendroglioma "Oligodendroglioma"). Allelic losses on 1p and 19q, either separately or combined, are more common in classic oligodendrogliomas than in either astrocytomas or oligoastrocytomas.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Barbashina V, Salazar P, Holland EC, Rosenblum MK, Ladanyi M \|title\=Allelic losses at 1p36 and 19q13 in gliomas: correlation with histologic classification, definition of a 150\-kb minimal deleted region on 1p36, and evaluation of CAMTA1 as a candidate tumor suppressor gene \|journal\=Clin. Cancer Res. \|volume\=11 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=1119–28 \|date\=1 February 2005\|doi\=10\.1158/1078\-0432\.1119\.11\.3 \|pmid\=15709179 \|url\=http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/content/full/11/3/1119\|doi\-access\=free }} In one study, classic oligodendrogliomas showed 1p loss in 35 of 42 (83%) cases, 19q loss in 28 of 39 (72%), and these were combined in 27 of 39 (69%) cases; there was no significant difference in 1p/19q loss of heterozygosity status between low\-grade and anaplastic oligodendrogliomas. 1p/19q co\-deletion has been correlated with both chemosensitivity and improved prognosis in oligodendrogliomas.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Laigle\-Donadey F, Benouaich\-Amiel A, Hoang\-Xuan K, Sanson M \|title\=\[Molecular biology of oligodendroglial tumors] \|language\=fr \|journal\=Neuro\-Chirurgie \|volume\=51 \|issue\=3–4 Pt 2 \|pages\=260–8 \|year\=2005 \|pmid\=16292170 \|doi\=10\.1016/s0028\-3770(05\)83487\-3}}{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Walker C, Haylock B, Husband D, etal \|title\=Clinical use of genotype to predict chemosensitivity in oligodendroglial tumors \|journal\=Neurology \|volume\=66 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=1661–7 \|year\=2006 \|pmid\=16769937 \|doi\=10\.1212/01\.wnl.0000218270\.12495\.9a\|s2cid\=39812093 }} Most larger cancer treatment centers routinely check for the deletion of 1p/19q as part of the [pathology](/wiki/Pathology "Pathology") report for oligodendrogliomas. The status of the 1p/19q loci can be detected by FISH or virtual karyotyping. Virtual karyotyping has the advantage of assessing the entire genome in one assay, as well as the 1p/19q loci. This allows assessment of other key loci in glial tumors, such as EGFR and TP53 copy number status.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2022}}
Whereas the prognostic relevance of 1p and 19q deletions is well established for anaplastic oligodendrogliomas and mixed oligoastrocytomas, the prognostic relevance of the deletions for low\-grade gliomas is more controversial. In terms of low\-grade gliomas, a recent study also suggests that 1p/19q co\-deletion may be associated with a (1;19\)(q10;p10\) translocation which, like the combined 1p/19q deletion, is associated with superior overall survival and progression\-free survival in low\-grade glioma patients.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Jenkins RB, Blair H, Ballman KV, etal \|title\=A t(1;19\)(q10;p10\) mediates the combined deletions of 1p and 19q and predicts a better prognosis of patients with oligodendroglioma \|journal\=Cancer Res. \|volume\=66 \|issue\=20 \|pages\=9852–61 \|date\=October 2006 \|pmid\=17047046 \|doi\=10\.1158/0008\-5472\.CAN\-06\-1796 \|url\=http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/content/full/66/20/9852\|doi\-access\=free }} Oligodendrogliomas show only rarely mutations in the p53 gene, which is in contrast to other gliomas.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Ohgaki H, Eibl RH, Wiestler OD, Yasargil MG, Newcomb EW, Kleihues P \|title\=p53 mutations in nonastrocytic human brain tumors \|journal\=Cancer Res. \|volume\=51 \|issue\=22 \|pages\=6202–5 \|date\=15 November 1991\|pmid\=1933879 \|url\=http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/reprint/51/22/6202}} [Epidermal growth factor receptor](/wiki/Epidermal_growth_factor_receptor "Epidermal growth factor receptor") amplification and whole 1p/19q codeletion are mutually exclusive and predictive of completely different outcomes, with EGFR amplification predicting poor prognosis.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Ducray F, Idbaih A, de Reyniès A, etal \|title\=Anaplastic oligodendrogliomas with 1p19q codeletion have a proneural gene expression profile \|journal\=Mol. Cancer \|volume\=7 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=41 \|year\=2008 \|pmid\=18492260 \|pmc\=2415112 \|doi\=10\.1186/1476\-4598\-7\-41 \|doi\-access\=free }}
### Glioblastoma
Yin et al.{{cite journal \|date\=May 2009 \|author1\=Dong Yin \|author2\=Seishi Ogawa \|author3\=Norihiko Kawamata \|author4\=Patrizia Tunici \|author5\=Gaetano Finocchiaro \|author6\=Marica Eoli \|author7\=Christian Ruckert \|author8\=Thien Huynh \|author9\=Gentao Liu \|author10\=Motohiro Kato \|author11\=Masashi Sanada \|author12\=Anna Jauch \|author13\=Martin Dugas \|author14\=Keith L. Black \|author15\=H. Phillip Koeffler \| title \= High\-Resolution Genomic Copy Number Profiling of Glioblastoma Multiforme by Single Nucleotide Polymorphism DNA Microarray \| journal \= Mol Cancer Res \| volume \= 7 \| issue \= 5\|pages\=665–77 \|doi\=10\.1158/1541\-7786\.MCR\-08\-0270\|pmid\=19435819 \|doi\-access\=free }} studied 55 [glioblastoma](/wiki/Glioblastoma "Glioblastoma") and 6 GBM cell lines using SNP array karyotyping. Acquired UPD was identified at 17p in 13/61 cases. A significantly shortened survival time was found in patients with 13q14 (RB) deletion or 17p13\.1 (p53\) deletion/acquired UPD. Taken together, these results suggest that this technique is a rapid, robust, and inexpensive method to profile genome\-wide abnormalities in GBM. Because SNP array karyotyping can be performed on paraffin embedded tumors, it is an attractive option when tumor cells fail to grow in culture for metaphase cytogenetics or when the desire for karyotyping arises after the specimen has been formalin fixed.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2022}}
The importance of detecting acquired UPD (copy neutral LOH) in glioblastoma:{{citation needed\|date\=December 2022}}
* Of patients with 17p abnormality, \~50% were deletions and \~50% were aUPD
* Both 17p del and 17p UPD were associated with worse outcome.
* 9/13 had homozygous TP53 mutations underlying the 17p UPD.
In addition, in cases with uncertain grade by morphology, genomic profiling can assist in diagnosis.
* Concomitant gain of 7 and loss of 10 is essentially pathognomonic for GBMCancer Cytogenetics, 3rd Ed, Chapter 19, Tumors of the Nervous System, Wiley Blackwell 2009\.
* EGFR amplification, loss of PTEN (on 10q), and loss of p16 (on 9p) occur almost exclusively in glioblastoma and can provide means to distinguish anaplastic astrocytoma from glioblastoma.Tumors of the Central Nervous System. Vol 7\. Washington DC: American Registry of Pathology; 2007
### Acute lymphoblastic leukemia
[Cytogenetics](/wiki/Cytogenetics "Cytogenetics"), the study of characteristic large changes in the [chromosomes](/wiki/Chromosome "Chromosome") of [cancer cells](/wiki/Cancer_cell "Cancer cell"), has been increasingly recognized as an important predictor of outcome in [acute lymphoblastic leukemia](/wiki/Acute_lymphoblastic_leukemia "Acute lymphoblastic leukemia") (ALL).{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Moorman A, Harrison C, Buck G, Richards S, Secker\-Walker L, Martineau M, Vance G, Cherry A, Higgins R, Fielding A, Foroni L, Paietta E, Tallman M, Litzow M, Wiernik P, Rowe J, Goldstone A, Dewald G \|title\=Karyotype is an independent prognostic factor in adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL): analysis of cytogenetic data from patients treated on the Medical Research Council (MRC) UKALLXII/Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) 2993 trial \|journal\=Blood \|volume\=109 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=3189–97 \|year\=2007 \|pmid\=17170120 \|doi\=10\.1182/blood\-2006\-10\-051912\|s2cid\=1038016 \|doi\-access\=free }}
NB: Balanced translocations cannot be detected by array\-based karyotyping (see Limitations below).
Some cytogenetic subtypes have a worse prognosis than others. These include:
* A translocation between [chromosomes](/wiki/Chromosome "Chromosome") 9 and 22, known as the [Philadelphia chromosome](/wiki/Philadelphia_chromosome "Philadelphia chromosome"), occurs in about 20% of adult and 5% in pediatric cases of ALL.
* A translocation between chromosomes 4 and 11 occurs in about 4% of cases and is most common in infants under 12 months.
* Not all translocations of chromosomes carry a poorer prognosis. Some translocations are relatively favorable. For example, Hyperdiploidy (\>50 chromosomes) is a good prognostic factor.
* Genome\-wide assessment of copy number changes can be done by conventional cytogenetics or virtual karyotyping. SNP array virtual karyotyping can detect copy number changes and LOH status, while arrayCGH can detect only copy number changes. [Copy neutral LOH](/wiki/Loss_of_heterozygosity "Loss of heterozygosity") (acquired uniparental disomy) has been reported at key loci in ALL, such as CDKN2A gene at 9p, which have prognostic significance.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1182/blood\-2007\-05\-088310 \|author1\=Kawamata N \|author2\=Ogawa S \|author3\=Zimmermann M \|author4\=Kato M \|author5\=Sanada M \|author6\=Hemminki K \|author7\=Yamatomo G \|author8\=Nannya Y \|author9\=Koehler R \|author10\=Flohr T \|author11\=Miller CW \|author12\=Harbott J \|author13\=Ludwig WD \|author14\=Stanulla M \|author15\=Schrappe M \|author16\=Bartram CR \|author17\=Koeffler HP \|date\=January 2008 \| title \= Molecular allelokaryotyping of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemias by high\-resolution single nucleotide polymorphism oligonucleotide genomic microarray \| journal \= Blood \| volume \= 111 \| issue \= 2\| pages \= 776–84 \| pmid \= 17890455 \| pmc \= 2200831}}{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1002/gcc.20616 \|author1\=Bungaro S \|author2\=Dell'Orto MC \|author3\=Zangrando A \|author4\=Basso D \|author5\=Gorletta T \|author6\=Lo Nigro L \|author7\=Leszl A \|author8\=Young BD \|author9\=Basso G \|author10\=Bicciato S \|author11\=Biondi A \|author12\=te Kronnie G \|author13\=Cazzaniga G \|date\=January 2009 \| title \= Integration of genomic and gene expression data of childhood ALL without known aberrations identifies subgroups with specific genetic hallmarks \| journal \= Genes Chromosomes Cancer \| volume \= 48 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 22–38 \| pmid \= 18803328\|doi\-access\=free }}{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1182/blood\-2008\-07\-166801 \|author1\=Sulong S \|author2\=Moorman AV \|author3\=Irving JA \|author4\=Strefford JC \|author5\=Konn ZJ \|author6\=Case MC \|author7\=Minto L \|author8\=Barber KE \|author9\=Parker H \|author10\=Wright SL \|author11\=Stewart AR \|author12\=Bailey S \|author13\=Bown NP \|author14\=Hall AG \|author15\=Harrison CJ \|date\=January 2009 \| title \= A comprehensive analysis of the CDKN2A gene in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia reveals genomic deletion, copy number neutral loss of heterozygosity, and association with specific cytogenetic subgroups \| journal \= Blood \| volume \= 113 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 100–7 \| pmid \= 18838613\|s2cid\=206872587 \|doi\-access\=free }} SNP array virtual karyotyping can readily detect copy neutral LOH. Array CGH, FISH, and conventional cytogenetics cannot detect copy neutral LOH.
| Cytogenetic change | Risk category |
| --- | --- |
| [Philadelphia chromosome](/wiki/Philadelphia_chromosome "Philadelphia chromosome") | Poor prognosis |
| t(4;11\)(q21;q23\) | Poor prognosis |
| t(8;14\)(q24\.1;q32\) | Poor prognosis |
| Complex [karyotype](/wiki/Karyotype "Karyotype") (more than four abnormalities) | Poor prognosis |
| Low [hypodiploidy](/wiki/Hypodiploidy "Hypodiploidy") or near [triploidy](/wiki/Triploidy "Triploidy") | Poor prognosis |
| High [hyperdiploidy](/wiki/Hyperdiploidy "Hyperdiploidy") | Good prognosis |
| del(9p) | Good prognosis |
**Correlation of prognosis with bone marrow cytogenetic finding in acute lymphoblastic leukemia**
| Prognosis | Cytogenetic findings |
| --- | --- |
| Favorable | Hyperdiploidy \> 50 ; t (12;21\) |
| Intermediate | Hyperdioloidy 47 \-50; Normal(diploidy); del (6q); Rearrangements of 8q24 |
| Unfavorable | Hypodiploidy\-near haploidy; Near tetraploidy; del (17p); t (9;22\); t (11q23\) |
Unclassified ALL is considered to have an intermediate prognosis.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Den Boer ML, van Slegtenhorst M, De Menezes RX, etal \|title\=A subtype of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia with poor treatment outcome: a genome\-wide classification study \|journal\=Lancet Oncol. \|volume\= 10\|issue\= 2\|pages\= 125–34\|date\=January 2009 \|pmid\=19138562 \|doi\=10\.1016/S1470\-2045(08\)70339\-5 \|pmc\=2707020}}
### Myelodysplastic syndrome
[Myelodysplastic syndrome](/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome "Myelodysplastic syndrome") (MDS) has remarkable clinical, morphological, and genetic heterogeneity. Cytogenetics play a decisive role in the World Health Organization's classification\-based International Prognostic Scoring System (IPSS) for MDS.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1007/s00277\-008\-0483\-y \| last1 \= Hasse \| first1 \= D \|name\-list\-style\=vanc \| year \= 2008 \| title \= Cytogenetic features in myelodysplastic syndromes \| journal \= Ann Hematol \| volume \= 87 \| issue \= 7\| pages \= 515–526 \| pmid \= 18414863 \| pmc \= 2413090}}WHO Classification of Tumours of Haematopoeitic and Lymphoid Tissues, Edited by Swerdlow SH, et al. IARC Press, 2008, Lyon.
* Good Prognosis: normal karyotype, isolated del(5q), isolated del(20q), \-Y
* Poor Prognosis: complex abnormalities (i.e., \>\=3 abnormalities), −7 or del(7q)
* Intermediate Prognosis: all other abnormalities, including trisomy 8 and del(11q)
In a comparison of metaphase cytogenetics, FISH panel, and SNP array karyotyping for MDS, it was found that each technique provided a similar diagnostic yield. No single method detected all defects, and detection rates improved by \~5% when all three methods were used.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.leukres.2009\.08\.023 \| year \= 2010 \|author1\=Makishima H \|author2\=Rataul M \|author3\=Gondek LP \|author4\=Huh J \|author5\=Cook JR \|author6\=Theil KS \|author7\=Sekeres MA \|author8\=Kuczkowski E \|author9\=O'Keefe C \|author10\=Maciejewski JP \| title \= FISH and SNP\-A karyotyping in myelodysplastic syndromes: Improving cytogenetic detection of del(5q), monosomy 7, del(7q), trisomy 8, and del(20q) \| journal \= Leuk Res \| volume \= 34 \| issue \= 4\| pages \= 447–453 \| pmid \= 19758696 \| pmc \= 2826525}}
Acquired UPD, which is not detectable by FISH or cytogenetics, has been reported at several key loci in MDS using SNP array karyotyping, including deletion of 7/7q.Sanada, et al. "Gain\-of\-function of mutated C\-CBL tumour suppressor in myeloid neoplasms." *Nature* 13 August 2009; 460, 904–909\.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1182/blood\-2007\-05\-092304 \| last1 \= Gondek \| first1 \=LP\| last2 \= Tiu \| year \= 2008 \| first2 \= R \| last3 \= O'Keefe \| first3 \= CL \| last4 \= Sekeres \| first4 \= MA \| last5 \= Theil \| first5 \= KS \| last6 \= MacIejewski \| first6 \= JP \| title \= Chromosomal lesions and uniparental disomy detected by SNP arrays in MDS, MDS/MPD, and MDS\-derived AML \| journal \= Blood \| volume \= 111 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 1534–42 \|name\-list\-style\=vanc \| pmid \= 17954704 \| pmc \= 2214746}}
### Myeloproliferative neoplasms/myeloproliferative disorders
Philadelphia chromosome–negative [myeloproliferative neoplasms](/wiki/Myeloproliferative_disease "Myeloproliferative disease") (MPNs) including polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia, and primary myelofibrosis show an inherent tendency for transformation into leukemia (MPN\-blast phase), which is accompanied by acquisition of additional genomic lesions.
In a study of 159 cases,{{cite journal \|date\=April 2010 \|author1\=Thoennissen NH \|author2\=Krug UO \|author3\=Lee DH \|author4\=Kawamata N \|author5\=Iwanski GB \|author6\=Lasho T \|author7\=Weiss T \|author8\=Nowak D \|author9\=Koren\-Michowitz M \|author10\=Kato M \|author11\=Sanada M \|author12\=Shih LY \|author13\=Nagler A \|author14\=Raynaud SD \|author15\=Müller\-Tidow C \|author16\=Mesa R \|author17\=Haferlach T \|author18\=Gilliland DG \|author19\=Tefferi A \|author20\=Ogawa S \|author21\=Koeffler HP \| title \= Prevalence and prognostic impact of allelic imbalances associated with leukemic transformation of Philadelphia chromosome\-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms \| journal \= Blood \| volume \= 115\| pages \= 2882–2890 \|pmid\=20068225 \| pmc \= 2854432 \| doi\=10\.1182/blood\-2009\-07\-235119 \| issue\=14}} SNP\-array analysis was able to capture practically all cytogenetic abnormalities and to uncover additional lesions with potentially important clinical implications.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2022}}
* The number of genomic alterations was more than 2 to 3 times greater in the blast phase as in the chronic phase of the disease.
* Deletion of 17p (TP53\) was significantly associated with prior exposure to hydroxyurea as well as a complex karyotype in samples with MPN\-blast crisis. Both deletion and 17p copy neutral LOH, were associated with a complex karyotype, a poor prognostic marker in myeloid malignancies. Copy neutral LOH (acquired UPD)is readily detectably by SNP array karyotype, but not by cytogenetics, FISH, or array CGH.
* Blast phase patients with loss of chromosomal material on 7q showed poor survival. Loss of 7q is known to be predictive for rapid progression and poor response in AML therapy. MPN\-blast phase patients with cytogenetically undetectable 7q copy neutral\-LOH had comparable survival rates to those with 7/7q in their leukemic cells.
* 9p copy neutral\-LOH with homozygous JAK2 mutation was also linked to an inferior outcome in MPN\-blast crisis in comparison with patients with either heterozygous JAK2V617F or wild\-type JAK2\. In contrast to LOH on 17p, the prognostic impact of 9pCNN\-LOH was independent of established risk factors such as 7/7q, 5q, or complex karyotype.
### Colorectal cancer
Identification of biomarkers in [colorectal cancer](/wiki/Colorectal_cancer "Colorectal cancer") is particularly important for patients with stage II disease, where less than 20% have tumor recurrence. 18q LOH is an established biomarker associated with high risk of tumor recurrence in stage II colon cancer.Lenz HJ, "Established Biomarkers for Colorectal Carcinoma", American Society of Clinical Oncology Educational Book, 2009, p215\-219\. Figure 7 shows a SNP array karyotype of a colorectal carcinoma (whole genome view).
Colorectal cancers are classified into specific tumor phenotypes based on molecular profiles which can be integrated with the results of other ancillary tests, such as microsatellite instability testing, IHC, and KRAS mutation status:
* Chromosomal instability (CIN) which have allelic imbalance at a number of chromosomal loci, including 5q, 8p, 17p, and 18q (Fig 7\).
* Microsatellite instability (MSI) which tend to have diploid karyotypes.
### Malignant rhabdoid tumors
[Malignant rhabdoid tumors](/wiki/Rhabdoid_tumor "Rhabdoid tumor") are rare, highly aggressive neoplasms found most commonly in infants and young children. Due to their heterogenous histologic features, diagnosis can often be difficult and misclassifications can occur. In these tumors, the INI1 gene (SMARCB1\)on chromosome 22q functions as a classic tumor suppressor gene. Inactivation of INI1 can occur via deletion, mutation, or acquired UPD.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1158/1078\-0432\.CCR\-08\-2091 \|author1\=Jackson EM \|author2\=Sievert AJ \|author3\=Gai X \|author4\=Hakonarson H \|author5\=Judkins AR \|author6\=Tooke L \|author7\=Perin JC \|author8\=Xie H \|author9\=Shaikh TH \|author10\=Biegel JA \| title \= Genomic analysis using high density single nucleotide polymorphism\-based oligonucleotide arrays and multiplex ligation\-dependent probe amplification provides comprehensive analysis of INI1/SMARCB1 in Malignant Rhabdoid Tumors \| journal \= Clin Cancer Res \| volume \= 15 \| issue \= 6\| pages \= 1923–1930 \| pmid \= 19276269 \| pmc \= 2668138\|year\=2009 }}
In a recent study, SNP array karyotyping identified deletions or LOH of 22q in 49/51 rhabdoid tumors. Of these, 14 were copy neutral LOH (or acquired UPD), which is detectable by SNP array karyotyping, but not by FISH, cytogenetics, or arrayCGH. MLPA detected a single exon homozygous deletion in one sample that was below the resolution of the SNP array.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2022}}
SNP array karyotyping can be used to distinguish, for example, a medulloblastoma with an isochromosome 17q from a primary rhabdoid tumor with loss of 22q11\.2\. When indicated, molecular analysis of INI1 using MLPA and direct sequencing may then be employed. Once the tumor\-associated changes are found, an analysis of germline DNA from the patient and the parents can be done to rule out an inherited or de novo germline mutation or deletion of INI1, so that appropriate recurrence risk assessments can be made.
### Uveal melanoma
The most important genetic alteration associated with poor prognosis in [uveal melanoma](/wiki/Uveal_melanoma "Uveal melanoma") is loss of an entire copy of [Chromosome 3](/wiki/Chromosome_3_%28human%29 "Chromosome 3 (human)") ([Monosomy](/wiki/Monosomy "Monosomy") 3\), which is strongly correlated with metastatic spread.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Prescher G, Bornfeld N, Hirche H, Horsthemke B, Jöckel KH, Becher R \| title \= Prognostic implications of monosomy 3 in uveal melanoma \| journal \= Lancet \| volume \= 347 \| issue \= 9010 \| pages \= 1222–1225 \| year \= 1996 \| pmid \= 8622452 \| doi \= 10\.1016/S0140\-6736(96\)90736\-9\| s2cid \= 44328116 }} Gains on chromosomes [6](/wiki/Chromosome_6_%28human%29 "Chromosome 6 (human)") and [8](/wiki/Chromosome_8_%28human%29 "Chromosome 8 (human)") are often used to refine the predictive value of the Monosomy 3 screen, with gain of 6p indicating a better prognosis and gain of 8q indicating a worse prognosis in [disomy](/wiki/Aneuploidy "Aneuploidy") 3 tumors.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Damato BE, Dopierala J, Klaasen A, van Dijk M, Sibbring J, Coupland S \| title \= Multiplex Ligation\-Dependent Probe Amplification of Uveal Melanoma: Correlation with Metastatic Death \| journal \= Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci \| year \= 2009 \| pmid \= 19182252 \| doi \= 10\.1167/iovs.08\-3165 \| volume \= 50 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= 3048–55\| url \= https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/files/58527122/z7g00709003048\.pdf \| hdl \= 11370/b69b62d5\-b7c2\-4afb\-9fb2\-60c6f71d4906 \| hdl\-access \= free }} In rare instances, monosomy 3 tumors may duplicate the remaining copy of the chromosome to return to a disomic state referred to as [isodisomy](/wiki/Isodisomy "Isodisomy").{{cite journal \|vauthors\=White VA, McNeil BK, Horsman DE \| title \= Acquired homozygosity (isodisomy) of chromosome 3 in uveal melanoma \| journal \= Cancer Genet Cytogenet \| volume \= 102\| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 40–45 \| year \= 1998 \| pmid \= 9530338 \| doi \= 10\.1016/S0165\-4608(97\)00290\-2}} Isodisomy 3 is prognostically equivalent to monosomy 3, and both can be detected by tests for chromosome 3 [loss of heterozygosity](/wiki/Loss_of_heterozygosity "Loss of heterozygosity").{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Onken MD, Worley LA, Person E, Char DH, Bowcock AM, Harbour JW \| title \= Loss of heterozygosity of chromosome 3 detected with single nucleotide polymorphisms is superior to monosomy 3 for predicting metastasis in uveal melanoma \| journal \= Clin Cancer Res \| volume \= 13 \| issue \= 10 \| pages \= 2923–2937 \| year \= 2007 \| pmid \= 17504992 \| doi \= 10\.1158/1078\-0432\.CCR\-06\-2383\| doi\-access \= free }}
|
[
"Examples of clinical cancer applications\n----------------------------------------",
"A virtual karyotype can be generated from nearly any tumor, but the clinical meaning of the genomic aberrations identified are different for each tumor type. Clinical utility varies and appropriateness is best determined by an oncologist or pathologist in consultation with the laboratory director of the lab performing the virtual karyotype. Below are examples of types of cancers where the clinical implications of specific genomic aberrations are well established. This list is representative, not exhaustive. The web site for the Cytogenetics Laboratory at Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene has additional examples of clinically relevant genetic changes that are readily detectable by virtual karyotyping.<http://www.slh.wisc.edu/cytogenetics/cancer/bmdeletion_tabl.dot>",
"### Neuroblastoma",
"Based on a series of 493 [neuroblastoma](/wiki/Neuroblastoma \"Neuroblastoma\") samples, it has been reported that overall genomic pattern, as tested by array\\-based karyotyping, is a predictor of outcome in neuroblastoma:{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Janoueix\\-Lerosey I, Schleiermacher G, Michels E, etal \\|title\\=Overall genomic pattern is a predictor of outcome in neuroblastoma \\|journal\\=J. Clin. Oncol. \\|volume\\=27 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=1026–33 \\|date\\=March 2009 \\|pmid\\=19171713 \\|doi\\=10\\.1200/JCO.2008\\.16\\.0630 \\|url\\=http://www.jco.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view\\=long\\&pmid\\=19171713\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}\n* Tumors presenting exclusively with whole chromosome copy number changes were associated with excellent survival.\n* Tumors presenting with any kind of segmental chromosome copy number changes were associated with a high risk of relapse.\n* Within tumors showing segmental alterations, additional independent predictors of decreased overall survival were MYCN amplification, 1p and 11q deletions, and 1q gain.",
"Earlier publications categorized neuroblastomas into three major subtypes based on cytogenetic profiles:{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Michels \\| first1 \\= E \\| last2 \\= Vandesompele \\| first2 \\= J \\| last3 \\= Hoebeeck \\| first3 \\= J \\| last4 \\= Menten \\| first4 \\= B \\| last5 \\= De Preter \\| first5 \\= K \\| last6 \\= Laureys \\| first6 \\= G \\| last7 \\= Van Roy \\| first7 \\= N \\| last8 \\= Speleman \\| first8 \\= F. \\| year \\= 2006 \\| title \\= Genome wide measurement of DNA copy number changes in neuroblastoma: dissecting amplicons and mapping losses, gains and breakpoints \\| journal \\= Cytogenet. Genome Res. \\| pmid \\= 17124410 \\| volume \\= 115 \\| issue \\= 3–4\\| pages \\= 273–282 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1159/000095924 \\| s2cid \\= 14012430 \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=vanc }}\n* Subtype 1: favorable neuroblastoma with near triploidy and a predominance of numerical gains and losses, mostly representing non\\-metastatic NB stages 1, 2 and 4S.\n* Subtypes 2A and 2B: found in unfavorable widespread neuroblastoma, stages 3 and 4, with 11q loss and 17q gain without MYCN amplification (subtype 2A) or with MYCN amplification often together with 1p deletions and 17q gain (subtype 2B).",
"### Wilms' tumor",
"Tumor\\-specific loss\\-of\\-heterozygosity (LOH) for chromosomes 1p and 16q identifies a subset of [Wilms' tumor](/wiki/Wilms%27_tumor \"Wilms' tumor\") patients who have a significantly increased risk of relapse and death. LOH for these chromosomal regions can now be used as an independent prognostic factor together with disease stage to target intensity of treatment to risk of treatment failure.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.ejca.2009\\.01\\.005 \\|author1\\=Messahel B \\|author2\\=Williams R \\|author3\\=Ridolfi A \\|author4\\=A'hern R \\|author5\\=Warren W \\|author6\\=Tinworth L \\|author7\\=Hobson R \\|author8\\=Al\\-Saadi R \\|author9\\=Whyman G \\|author10\\=Brundler MA \\|author11\\=Kelsey A \\|author12\\=Sebire N \\|author13\\=Jones C \\|author14\\=Vujanic G \\|author15\\=Pritchard\\-Jones K \\|author16\\=Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG) \\|date\\=March 2009 \\| title \\= Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG). Allele loss at 16q defines poorer prognosis Wilms tumour irrespective of treatment approach in the UKW1\\-3 clinical trials: a Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG) Study \\| journal \\= Eur J Cancer \\| volume \\= 45 \\| issue \\= 5\\| pages \\= 819–26 \\| pmid \\= 19231157}}{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1200/JCO.2005\\.01\\.2799 \\|author1\\=Grundy PE \\|author2\\=\\[\\[Breslow NE]] \\|author3\\=Li S \\|author4\\=Perlman E \\|author5\\=Beckwith JB \\|author6\\=Ritchey ML \\|author7\\=Shamberger RC \\|author8\\=Haase GM \\|author9\\=D'Angio GJ \\|author10\\=Donaldson M \\|author11\\=Coppes MJ \\|author12\\=Malogolowkin M \\|author13\\=Shearer P \\|author14\\=Thomas PR \\|author15\\=Macklis R \\|author16\\=Tomlinson G \\|author17\\=Huff V \\|author18\\=Green DM \\|author19\\=National Wilms Tumor Study Group \\|date\\=October 2005 \\| title \\= National Wilms Tumor Study Group. Loss of heterozygosity for chromosomes 1p and 16q is an adverse prognostic factor in favorable\\-histology Wilms tumor: a report from the National Wilms Tumor Study Group \\| journal \\= J Clin Oncol \\| volume \\= 23 \\| issue \\= 29\\| pages \\= 7312–21 \\| pmid \\= 16129848\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Renal\\-cell carcinoma",
"[Renal epithelial neoplasms](/wiki/Renal_cell_carcinoma \"Renal cell carcinoma\") have characteristic cytogenetic aberrations that can aid in classification.{{cite journal \\| last1\\=van den Berg \\|first1\\=E \\| last2\\= Störkel \\|first2\\=S \\|title\\= Kidney: Clear cell renal cell carcinoma \\|journal\\= Atlas Genet Cytogenet Oncol Haematol \\|year\\=2003 \\|url\\= http://AtlasGeneticsOncology.org/Tumors/ClearCellRenalCC5020\\.html \\| access\\-date\\=14 December 2010 \\| volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=3 \\| pages\\= 424–431}} See also [Atlas of Genetics and Cytogenetics in Oncology and Haematology](http://atlasgeneticsoncology.org//Tumors/RenalCellCarcinID5021.html).\n* Clear cell carcinoma: loss of 3p\n* Papillary carcinoma: trisomy 7 and 17\n* Chromophobe carcinoma: hypodiploid with loss of chromosomes 1, 2, 6, 10, 13, 17, 21",
"Array\\-based karyotyping can be used to identify characteristic chromosomal aberrations in renal tumors with challenging morphology. Array\\-based karyotyping performs well on paraffin embedded tumors{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Lyons\\-Weiler \\| first1 \\= MA \\| last2 \\= Hagenkord \\| first2 \\= JM \\| last3 \\= Sciulli \\| first3 \\= CM \\| last4 \\= Dhir \\| first4 \\= R \\| last5 \\= Monzon \\| first5 \\= FA. \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=vanc \\| year \\= 2008\\| title \\= Optimization of the Affymetrix GeneChip Mapping 10K 2\\.0 Assay for Routine Clinical Use on Formalin Fixed Paraffin Embedded Tissues \\| journal \\= Diag Mol Path \\| volume \\= 17 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 3–13 \\|pmid\\=18303412 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1097/PDM.0b013e31815aca30\\| s2cid \\= 24420204 }} and is amenable to routine clinical use.",
"In addition, recent literature indicates that certain chromosomal aberrations are associated with outcome in specific subtypes of renal epithelial tumors.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Klatte T \\|author2\\=Pantuck AJ \\|author3\\=Said JW \\|author4\\=Seligson DB \\|author5\\=Rao NP \\|author6\\=LaRochelle JC \\|author7\\=Shuch B \\|author8\\=Zisman A \\|author9\\=Kabbinavar FF \\|author10\\=Belldegrun AS \\| title \\= Cytogenetic and molecular tumor profiling for type 1 and type 2 papillary renal cell carcinoma. \\| journal \\= Clinical Cancer Research \\| volume \\= 15 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 1162–9 \\| year \\= 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19228721 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1158/1078\\-0432\\.CCR\\-08\\-1229 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} \nClear cell renal carcinoma: del 9p and del 14q are poor prognostic indicators.{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Brunelli M \\|author2\\=Eccher A \\|author3\\=Gobbo S \\|author4\\=Ficarra V \\|author5\\=Novara G \\|author6\\=Cossu\\-Rocca P \\|author7\\=Bonetti F \\|author8\\=Menestrina F \\|author9\\=Cheng L \\|author10\\=Eble JN \\|author11\\=Martignoni G \\| title \\= Loss of chromosome 9p is an independent prognostic factor in patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma. \\| journal \\= Modern Pathology \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 1–6 \\| year \\= 2008 \\| pmid \\= 17906617 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/modpathol.3800967 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Klatte T \\|author2\\=Rao PN \\|author3\\=de Martino M \\|author4\\=LaRochelle J \\|author5\\=Shuch B \\|author6\\=Zomorodian N \\|author7\\=Said J \\|author8\\=Kabbinavar FF \\|author9\\=Belldegrun AS \\|author10\\=Pantuck AJ \\| title \\= Cytogenetic profile predicts prognosis of patients with clear cell renal cell carcinoma. \\| journal \\= Journal of Clinical Oncology \\| volume \\= 27 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 746–53 \\| year \\= 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19124809 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1200/JCO.2007\\.15\\.8345 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} \nPapillary renal cell carcinoma: duplication of 1q marks fatal progression.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Szponar \\| first1 \\= A \\| last2 \\= Zubakov \\| first2 \\= D \\| last3 \\= Pawlak \\| first3 \\= J \\| last4 \\= Jauch \\| first4 \\= A \\| last5 \\= Kovacs \\| first5 \\= G \\| title \\= Three genetic developmental stages of papillary renal cell tumors: duplication of chromosome 1q marks fatal progression. \\| journal \\= International Journal of Cancer \\| volume \\= 124 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 2071–6 \\| year \\= 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19123481 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/ijc.24180 \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=vanc \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}",
"### Chronic lymphocytic leukemia",
"[thumb\\|Schematic karyogram of a human, with annotated [bands and sub\\-bands](/wiki/Locus_%28genetics%29 \"Locus (genetics)\") as used in the [International System for Human Cytogenomic Nomenclature](/wiki/International_System_for_Human_Cytogenomic_Nomenclature \"International System for Human Cytogenomic Nomenclature\") for the locations of genetic abnormalities. It shows 22 [homologous](/wiki/Homologous_chromosome \"Homologous chromosome\") [autosomal](/wiki/Autosomal \"Autosomal\") chromosome pairs, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two [sex chromosomes](/wiki/Sex_chromosome \"Sex chromosome\"), as well as the [mitochondrial genome](/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics \"Human mitochondrial genetics\") (at bottom left). {{further\\|Karyotype}}](/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png \"Human karyotype with bands and sub-bands.png\")\nArray\\-based karyotyping is a cost\\-effective alternative to FISH for detecting chromosomal abnormalities in [chronic lymphocytic leukemia](/wiki/Chronic_lymphocytic_leukemia \"Chronic lymphocytic leukemia\") (CLL). Several clinical validation studies have shown \\>95% concordance with the standard CLL FISH panel.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1073/pnas.0304717101 \\|author1\\=Schwaenen C \\|author2\\=Nessling M \\|author3\\=Wessendorf S \\|author4\\=Salvi T \\|author5\\=Wrobel G \\|author6\\=Radlwimmer B \\|author7\\=Kestler HA \\|author8\\=Haslinger C \\|author9\\=Stilgenbauer S \\|author10\\=Döhner H \\|author11\\=Bentz M \\|author12\\=Lichter P \\| title \\= Automated array\\-based genomic profiling in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: development of a clinical tool and discovery of recurrent genomic alterations \\| journal \\= Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A \\| volume \\= 101 \\| issue \\= 4\\| pages \\= 1039–44 \\| pmid \\= 14730057 \\| pmc \\= 327147\\|year\\=2004 \\|bibcode\\=2004PNAS..101\\.1039S \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1182/blood\\-2006\\-07\\-034256 \\|author1\\=Pfeifer D \\|author2\\=Pantic M \\|author3\\=Skatulla I \\|author4\\=Rawluk J \\|author5\\=Kreutz C \\|author6\\=Martens UM \\|author7\\=Fisch P \\|author8\\=Timmer J \\|author9\\=Veelken H \\| title \\= Genome\\-wide analysis of DNA copy number changes and LOH in CLL using high\\-density SNP arrays \\| journal \\= Blood \\| volume \\= 109 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 1202–10 \\| pmid \\= 17053054 \\| date\\=February 2007\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\| pages\\=442–451 \\| pmid\\=18687794 \\| pmc\\=2518739 \\|doi\\=10\\.2353/jmoldx.2008\\.080033 \\|author1\\=Gunn SR \\|author2\\=Mohammed MS \\|author3\\=Gorre ME \\|author4\\=Cotter PD \\|author5\\=Kim J \\|author6\\=Bahler DW \\|author7\\=Preobrazhensky SN \\|author8\\=Higgins RA \\|author9\\=Bolla AR \\|author10\\=Ismail SH \\|author11\\=de Jong D \\|author12\\=Eldering E \\|author13\\=van Oers MH \\|author14\\=Mellink CH \\|author15\\=Keating MJ \\|author16\\=Schlette EJ \\|author17\\=Abruzzo LV \\|author18\\=Robetorye RS \\| title\\=Whole\\-genome scanning by array comparative genomic hybridization as a clinical tool for risk assessment in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. \\| journal\\=The Journal of Molecular Diagnostics \\| volume\\=10 \\| issue\\=5 \\|date\\=September 2008}}{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.2353/jmoldx.2009\\.080037 \\|author1\\=Sargent R \\|author2\\=Jones D \\|author3\\=Abruzzo LV \\|author4\\=Yao H \\|author5\\=Bonderover J \\|author6\\=Cisneros M \\|author7\\=Wierda WG \\|author8\\=Keating MJ \\|author9\\=Luthra R \\|date\\=January 2009 \\| title \\= Customized oligonucleotide array\\-based comparative genomic hybridization as a clinical assay for genomic profiling of chronic lymphocytic leukemia \\| journal \\= J Mol Diagn \\| volume \\= 11 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 25–34 \\| pmid \\= 19074592 \\| pmc \\= 2607562}} In addition, many studies using array\\-based karyotyping have identified 'atypical deletions' missed by the standard FISH probes and acquired uniparental disomy at key loci for prognostic risk in CLL.2009 May;23(5\\):829\\-33{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.2353/jmoldx.2010\\.090118 \\| last1 \\= Hagenkord \\| first1 \\= JM\\| year \\= 2010 \\| last2 \\= Monzon \\| first2 \\= FA \\| last3 \\= Kash \\| first3 \\= SF \\| last4 \\= Lilleberg \\| first4 \\= S \\| last5 \\= Xie \\| first5 \\= Q \\| last6 \\= Kant \\| first6 \\= JA \\| title \\= Array\\-based karyotyping for prognostic assessment in chronic lymphocytic leukemia: performance comparison of affymetrix 10K2\\.0, 250K Nsp, and SNP6\\.0 arrays \\| journal \\= J Mol Diagn \\| volume \\= 12 \\| issue \\= 2\\| pages \\= 184–96 \\| pmid \\= 20075210 \\| pmc \\= 2871725 \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=vanc }}",
"Four main genetic aberrations are recognized in CLL cells that have a major impact on disease behavior.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Dohner H, Stilgenbauer S, Benner A, etal \\|year\\=2000\\|title\\=Genomic aberrations and survival in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. \\|journal\\=NEJM\\|volume\\=343\\|issue\\=26\\|pages\\=1910–6\\|pmid\\=11136261\\| doi \\= 10\\.1056/NEJM200012283432602\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}\n1. Deletions of part of the short arm of chromosome 17 (del 17p) which target p53 are particularly deleterious. Patients with this abnormality have significantly short interval before they require therapy and a shorter survival. This abnormality is found in 5–10% of patients with CLL.\n2. Deletions of the long arm on chromosome 11 (del 11q) are also unfavorable although not to the degree seen with del 17p. The abnormality targets the ATM gene and occurs infrequently in CLL (5–10%).\n3. Trisomy 12, an additional chromosome 12, is a relatively frequent finding occurring in 20–25% of patients and imparts an intermediate prognosis.\n4. Deletion of 13q14 (del 13q14\\) is the most common abnormality in CLL with roughly 50% of patients with cells containing this defect. When del 13q14 is seen in isolation, patients have the best prognosis and most will live many years, even decades, without the need for therapy.",
"### Multiple myeloma",
"Avet\\-Loiseau, et al. in *Journal of Clinical Oncology*, used SNP array karyotyping of 192 [multiple myeloma](/wiki/Multiple_myeloma \"Multiple myeloma\") (MM) samples to identify genetic lesions associated with prognosis, which were then validated in a separate cohort (n \\= 273\\).{{cite journal \\| pmid\\= 19687334 \\|pmc\\= 2754906 \\|doi\\=10\\.1200/JCO.2008\\.20\\.6136 \\|author1\\=Hervé Avet\\-Loiseau \\|author2\\=Cheng Li \\|author3\\=Florence Magrangeas \\|author4\\=Wilfried Gouraud \\|author5\\=Catherine Charbonnel \\|author6\\=Jean\\-Luc Harousseau \\|author7\\=Michel Attal \\|author8\\=Gerald Marit \\|author9\\=Claire Mathiot \\|author10\\=Thierry Facon \\|author11\\=Philippe Moreau \\|author12\\=Kenneth C. Anderson \\|author13\\=Loïc Campion \\|author14\\=Nikhil C. Munshi \\|author15\\=Stéphane Minvielle \\| title\\= Prognostic significance of copy\\-number alterations in multiple myeloma. \\| journal\\= Journal of Clinical Oncology \\| volume\\=27 \\| issue\\=27 \\|date\\=September 2009 \\| pages\\=4585–90}} In MM, lack of a proliferative clone makes conventional cytogenetics informative in only \\~30% of cases. FISH panels are useful in MM, but standard panels would not detect several key genetic abnormalities reported in this study.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}\n1. Virtual karyotyping identified chromosomal abnormalities in 98% of MM cases\n2. del(12p13\\.31\\)is an independent adverse marker\n3. amp(5q31\\.1\\) is a favorable marker\n4. The prognostic impact of amp(5q31\\.1\\) over\\-rides that of hyperdiploidy and also identifies patients who greatly benefit from high\\-dose therapy.",
"Array\\-based karyotyping cannot detect balanced translocations, such as t(4;14\\) seen in \\~15% of MM. Therefore, FISH for this translocation should also be performed if using SNP arrays to detect genome\\-wide copy number alterations of prognostic significance in MM.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}",
"### Medulloblastoma",
"Array\\-based karyotyping of 260 [medulloblastomas](/wiki/Medulloblastoma \"Medulloblastoma\") by Pfister S, et al. resulted in the following clinical subgroups based on cytogenetic profiles:{{cite journal \\|author1\\=Pfister S \\|author2\\=Remke M \\|author3\\=Benner A \\|author4\\=Mendrzyk F \\|author5\\=Toedt G \\|author6\\=Felsberg J \\|author7\\=Wittmann A \\|author8\\=Devens F \\|author9\\=Gerber NU \\|author10\\=Joos S \\|author11\\=Kulozik A \\|author12\\=Reifenberger G \\|author13\\=Rutkowski S \\|author14\\=Wiestler OD \\|author15\\=Radlwimmer B \\|author16\\=Scheurlen W \\|author17\\=Lichter P \\|author18\\=Korshunov A \\|date\\=April 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19255330 \\| title \\= Outcome Prediction in Pediatric Medulloblastoma based on DNA Copy Number Aberrations of Chromosomes 6q and 17q and the MYC and MYCN Loci \\| journal \\= J Clin Oncol \\| volume \\= 27\\| issue \\= 10\\| pages \\= 1627–1636 \\|doi\\=10\\.1200/JCO.2008\\.17\\.9432\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}\n* Poor prognosis: gain of 6q or amplification of MYC or MYCN\n* Intermediate: gain of 17q or an i(17q) without gain of 6q or amplification of MYC or MYCN\n* Excellent prognosis: 6q and 17q balanced or 6q deletion",
"### Oligodendroglioma",
"The 1p/19q co\\-deletion is considered a \"genetic signature\" of [oligodendroglioma](/wiki/Oligodendroglioma \"Oligodendroglioma\"). Allelic losses on 1p and 19q, either separately or combined, are more common in classic oligodendrogliomas than in either astrocytomas or oligoastrocytomas.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Barbashina V, Salazar P, Holland EC, Rosenblum MK, Ladanyi M \\|title\\=Allelic losses at 1p36 and 19q13 in gliomas: correlation with histologic classification, definition of a 150\\-kb minimal deleted region on 1p36, and evaluation of CAMTA1 as a candidate tumor suppressor gene \\|journal\\=Clin. Cancer Res. \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=1119–28 \\|date\\=1 February 2005\\|doi\\=10\\.1158/1078\\-0432\\.1119\\.11\\.3 \\|pmid\\=15709179 \\|url\\=http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/content/full/11/3/1119\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} In one study, classic oligodendrogliomas showed 1p loss in 35 of 42 (83%) cases, 19q loss in 28 of 39 (72%), and these were combined in 27 of 39 (69%) cases; there was no significant difference in 1p/19q loss of heterozygosity status between low\\-grade and anaplastic oligodendrogliomas. 1p/19q co\\-deletion has been correlated with both chemosensitivity and improved prognosis in oligodendrogliomas.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Laigle\\-Donadey F, Benouaich\\-Amiel A, Hoang\\-Xuan K, Sanson M \\|title\\=\\[Molecular biology of oligodendroglial tumors] \\|language\\=fr \\|journal\\=Neuro\\-Chirurgie \\|volume\\=51 \\|issue\\=3–4 Pt 2 \\|pages\\=260–8 \\|year\\=2005 \\|pmid\\=16292170 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/s0028\\-3770(05\\)83487\\-3}}{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Walker C, Haylock B, Husband D, etal \\|title\\=Clinical use of genotype to predict chemosensitivity in oligodendroglial tumors \\|journal\\=Neurology \\|volume\\=66 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=1661–7 \\|year\\=2006 \\|pmid\\=16769937 \\|doi\\=10\\.1212/01\\.wnl.0000218270\\.12495\\.9a\\|s2cid\\=39812093 }} Most larger cancer treatment centers routinely check for the deletion of 1p/19q as part of the [pathology](/wiki/Pathology \"Pathology\") report for oligodendrogliomas. The status of the 1p/19q loci can be detected by FISH or virtual karyotyping. Virtual karyotyping has the advantage of assessing the entire genome in one assay, as well as the 1p/19q loci. This allows assessment of other key loci in glial tumors, such as EGFR and TP53 copy number status.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}",
"Whereas the prognostic relevance of 1p and 19q deletions is well established for anaplastic oligodendrogliomas and mixed oligoastrocytomas, the prognostic relevance of the deletions for low\\-grade gliomas is more controversial. In terms of low\\-grade gliomas, a recent study also suggests that 1p/19q co\\-deletion may be associated with a (1;19\\)(q10;p10\\) translocation which, like the combined 1p/19q deletion, is associated with superior overall survival and progression\\-free survival in low\\-grade glioma patients.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Jenkins RB, Blair H, Ballman KV, etal \\|title\\=A t(1;19\\)(q10;p10\\) mediates the combined deletions of 1p and 19q and predicts a better prognosis of patients with oligodendroglioma \\|journal\\=Cancer Res. \\|volume\\=66 \\|issue\\=20 \\|pages\\=9852–61 \\|date\\=October 2006 \\|pmid\\=17047046 \\|doi\\=10\\.1158/0008\\-5472\\.CAN\\-06\\-1796 \\|url\\=http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/content/full/66/20/9852\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Oligodendrogliomas show only rarely mutations in the p53 gene, which is in contrast to other gliomas.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Ohgaki H, Eibl RH, Wiestler OD, Yasargil MG, Newcomb EW, Kleihues P \\|title\\=p53 mutations in nonastrocytic human brain tumors \\|journal\\=Cancer Res. \\|volume\\=51 \\|issue\\=22 \\|pages\\=6202–5 \\|date\\=15 November 1991\\|pmid\\=1933879 \\|url\\=http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/reprint/51/22/6202}} [Epidermal growth factor receptor](/wiki/Epidermal_growth_factor_receptor \"Epidermal growth factor receptor\") amplification and whole 1p/19q codeletion are mutually exclusive and predictive of completely different outcomes, with EGFR amplification predicting poor prognosis.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Ducray F, Idbaih A, de Reyniès A, etal \\|title\\=Anaplastic oligodendrogliomas with 1p19q codeletion have a proneural gene expression profile \\|journal\\=Mol. Cancer \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=41 \\|year\\=2008 \\|pmid\\=18492260 \\|pmc\\=2415112 \\|doi\\=10\\.1186/1476\\-4598\\-7\\-41 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Glioblastoma",
"Yin et al.{{cite journal \\|date\\=May 2009 \\|author1\\=Dong Yin \\|author2\\=Seishi Ogawa \\|author3\\=Norihiko Kawamata \\|author4\\=Patrizia Tunici \\|author5\\=Gaetano Finocchiaro \\|author6\\=Marica Eoli \\|author7\\=Christian Ruckert \\|author8\\=Thien Huynh \\|author9\\=Gentao Liu \\|author10\\=Motohiro Kato \\|author11\\=Masashi Sanada \\|author12\\=Anna Jauch \\|author13\\=Martin Dugas \\|author14\\=Keith L. Black \\|author15\\=H. Phillip Koeffler \\| title \\= High\\-Resolution Genomic Copy Number Profiling of Glioblastoma Multiforme by Single Nucleotide Polymorphism DNA Microarray \\| journal \\= Mol Cancer Res \\| volume \\= 7 \\| issue \\= 5\\|pages\\=665–77 \\|doi\\=10\\.1158/1541\\-7786\\.MCR\\-08\\-0270\\|pmid\\=19435819 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} studied 55 [glioblastoma](/wiki/Glioblastoma \"Glioblastoma\") and 6 GBM cell lines using SNP array karyotyping. Acquired UPD was identified at 17p in 13/61 cases. A significantly shortened survival time was found in patients with 13q14 (RB) deletion or 17p13\\.1 (p53\\) deletion/acquired UPD. Taken together, these results suggest that this technique is a rapid, robust, and inexpensive method to profile genome\\-wide abnormalities in GBM. Because SNP array karyotyping can be performed on paraffin embedded tumors, it is an attractive option when tumor cells fail to grow in culture for metaphase cytogenetics or when the desire for karyotyping arises after the specimen has been formalin fixed.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}",
"The importance of detecting acquired UPD (copy neutral LOH) in glioblastoma:{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}\n* Of patients with 17p abnormality, \\~50% were deletions and \\~50% were aUPD\n* Both 17p del and 17p UPD were associated with worse outcome.\n* 9/13 had homozygous TP53 mutations underlying the 17p UPD.",
"In addition, in cases with uncertain grade by morphology, genomic profiling can assist in diagnosis.\n* Concomitant gain of 7 and loss of 10 is essentially pathognomonic for GBMCancer Cytogenetics, 3rd Ed, Chapter 19, Tumors of the Nervous System, Wiley Blackwell 2009\\.\n* EGFR amplification, loss of PTEN (on 10q), and loss of p16 (on 9p) occur almost exclusively in glioblastoma and can provide means to distinguish anaplastic astrocytoma from glioblastoma.Tumors of the Central Nervous System. Vol 7\\. Washington DC: American Registry of Pathology; 2007",
"### Acute lymphoblastic leukemia",
"[Cytogenetics](/wiki/Cytogenetics \"Cytogenetics\"), the study of characteristic large changes in the [chromosomes](/wiki/Chromosome \"Chromosome\") of [cancer cells](/wiki/Cancer_cell \"Cancer cell\"), has been increasingly recognized as an important predictor of outcome in [acute lymphoblastic leukemia](/wiki/Acute_lymphoblastic_leukemia \"Acute lymphoblastic leukemia\") (ALL).{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Moorman A, Harrison C, Buck G, Richards S, Secker\\-Walker L, Martineau M, Vance G, Cherry A, Higgins R, Fielding A, Foroni L, Paietta E, Tallman M, Litzow M, Wiernik P, Rowe J, Goldstone A, Dewald G \\|title\\=Karyotype is an independent prognostic factor in adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL): analysis of cytogenetic data from patients treated on the Medical Research Council (MRC) UKALLXII/Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) 2993 trial \\|journal\\=Blood \\|volume\\=109 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=3189–97 \\|year\\=2007 \\|pmid\\=17170120 \\|doi\\=10\\.1182/blood\\-2006\\-10\\-051912\\|s2cid\\=1038016 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} \nNB: Balanced translocations cannot be detected by array\\-based karyotyping (see Limitations below).",
"Some cytogenetic subtypes have a worse prognosis than others. These include:\n* A translocation between [chromosomes](/wiki/Chromosome \"Chromosome\") 9 and 22, known as the [Philadelphia chromosome](/wiki/Philadelphia_chromosome \"Philadelphia chromosome\"), occurs in about 20% of adult and 5% in pediatric cases of ALL.\n* A translocation between chromosomes 4 and 11 occurs in about 4% of cases and is most common in infants under 12 months.\n* Not all translocations of chromosomes carry a poorer prognosis. Some translocations are relatively favorable. For example, Hyperdiploidy (\\>50 chromosomes) is a good prognostic factor.\n* Genome\\-wide assessment of copy number changes can be done by conventional cytogenetics or virtual karyotyping. SNP array virtual karyotyping can detect copy number changes and LOH status, while arrayCGH can detect only copy number changes. [Copy neutral LOH](/wiki/Loss_of_heterozygosity \"Loss of heterozygosity\") (acquired uniparental disomy) has been reported at key loci in ALL, such as CDKN2A gene at 9p, which have prognostic significance.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1182/blood\\-2007\\-05\\-088310 \\|author1\\=Kawamata N \\|author2\\=Ogawa S \\|author3\\=Zimmermann M \\|author4\\=Kato M \\|author5\\=Sanada M \\|author6\\=Hemminki K \\|author7\\=Yamatomo G \\|author8\\=Nannya Y \\|author9\\=Koehler R \\|author10\\=Flohr T \\|author11\\=Miller CW \\|author12\\=Harbott J \\|author13\\=Ludwig WD \\|author14\\=Stanulla M \\|author15\\=Schrappe M \\|author16\\=Bartram CR \\|author17\\=Koeffler HP \\|date\\=January 2008 \\| title \\= Molecular allelokaryotyping of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemias by high\\-resolution single nucleotide polymorphism oligonucleotide genomic microarray \\| journal \\= Blood \\| volume \\= 111 \\| issue \\= 2\\| pages \\= 776–84 \\| pmid \\= 17890455 \\| pmc \\= 2200831}}{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/gcc.20616 \\|author1\\=Bungaro S \\|author2\\=Dell'Orto MC \\|author3\\=Zangrando A \\|author4\\=Basso D \\|author5\\=Gorletta T \\|author6\\=Lo Nigro L \\|author7\\=Leszl A \\|author8\\=Young BD \\|author9\\=Basso G \\|author10\\=Bicciato S \\|author11\\=Biondi A \\|author12\\=te Kronnie G \\|author13\\=Cazzaniga G \\|date\\=January 2009 \\| title \\= Integration of genomic and gene expression data of childhood ALL without known aberrations identifies subgroups with specific genetic hallmarks \\| journal \\= Genes Chromosomes Cancer \\| volume \\= 48 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 22–38 \\| pmid \\= 18803328\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1182/blood\\-2008\\-07\\-166801 \\|author1\\=Sulong S \\|author2\\=Moorman AV \\|author3\\=Irving JA \\|author4\\=Strefford JC \\|author5\\=Konn ZJ \\|author6\\=Case MC \\|author7\\=Minto L \\|author8\\=Barber KE \\|author9\\=Parker H \\|author10\\=Wright SL \\|author11\\=Stewart AR \\|author12\\=Bailey S \\|author13\\=Bown NP \\|author14\\=Hall AG \\|author15\\=Harrison CJ \\|date\\=January 2009 \\| title \\= A comprehensive analysis of the CDKN2A gene in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia reveals genomic deletion, copy number neutral loss of heterozygosity, and association with specific cytogenetic subgroups \\| journal \\= Blood \\| volume \\= 113 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 100–7 \\| pmid \\= 18838613\\|s2cid\\=206872587 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} SNP array virtual karyotyping can readily detect copy neutral LOH. Array CGH, FISH, and conventional cytogenetics cannot detect copy neutral LOH.",
"",
"| Cytogenetic change | Risk category |\n| --- | --- |\n| [Philadelphia chromosome](/wiki/Philadelphia_chromosome \"Philadelphia chromosome\") | Poor prognosis |\n| t(4;11\\)(q21;q23\\) | Poor prognosis |\n| t(8;14\\)(q24\\.1;q32\\) | Poor prognosis |\n| Complex [karyotype](/wiki/Karyotype \"Karyotype\") (more than four abnormalities) | Poor prognosis |\n| Low [hypodiploidy](/wiki/Hypodiploidy \"Hypodiploidy\") or near [triploidy](/wiki/Triploidy \"Triploidy\") | Poor prognosis |\n| High [hyperdiploidy](/wiki/Hyperdiploidy \"Hyperdiploidy\") | Good prognosis |\n| del(9p) | Good prognosis |",
"**Correlation of prognosis with bone marrow cytogenetic finding in acute lymphoblastic leukemia**",
"| Prognosis | Cytogenetic findings |\n| --- | --- |\n| Favorable | Hyperdiploidy \\> 50 ; t (12;21\\) |\n| Intermediate | Hyperdioloidy 47 \\-50; Normal(diploidy); del (6q); Rearrangements of 8q24 |\n| Unfavorable | Hypodiploidy\\-near haploidy; Near tetraploidy; del (17p); t (9;22\\); t (11q23\\) |",
"",
"Unclassified ALL is considered to have an intermediate prognosis.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Den Boer ML, van Slegtenhorst M, De Menezes RX, etal \\|title\\=A subtype of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia with poor treatment outcome: a genome\\-wide classification study \\|journal\\=Lancet Oncol. \\|volume\\= 10\\|issue\\= 2\\|pages\\= 125–34\\|date\\=January 2009 \\|pmid\\=19138562 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S1470\\-2045(08\\)70339\\-5 \\|pmc\\=2707020}}",
"### Myelodysplastic syndrome",
"[Myelodysplastic syndrome](/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome \"Myelodysplastic syndrome\") (MDS) has remarkable clinical, morphological, and genetic heterogeneity. Cytogenetics play a decisive role in the World Health Organization's classification\\-based International Prognostic Scoring System (IPSS) for MDS.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s00277\\-008\\-0483\\-y \\| last1 \\= Hasse \\| first1 \\= D \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=vanc \\| year \\= 2008 \\| title \\= Cytogenetic features in myelodysplastic syndromes \\| journal \\= Ann Hematol \\| volume \\= 87 \\| issue \\= 7\\| pages \\= 515–526 \\| pmid \\= 18414863 \\| pmc \\= 2413090}}WHO Classification of Tumours of Haematopoeitic and Lymphoid Tissues, Edited by Swerdlow SH, et al. IARC Press, 2008, Lyon.\n* Good Prognosis: normal karyotype, isolated del(5q), isolated del(20q), \\-Y\n* Poor Prognosis: complex abnormalities (i.e., \\>\\=3 abnormalities), −7 or del(7q)\n* Intermediate Prognosis: all other abnormalities, including trisomy 8 and del(11q)",
"In a comparison of metaphase cytogenetics, FISH panel, and SNP array karyotyping for MDS, it was found that each technique provided a similar diagnostic yield. No single method detected all defects, and detection rates improved by \\~5% when all three methods were used.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.leukres.2009\\.08\\.023 \\| year \\= 2010 \\|author1\\=Makishima H \\|author2\\=Rataul M \\|author3\\=Gondek LP \\|author4\\=Huh J \\|author5\\=Cook JR \\|author6\\=Theil KS \\|author7\\=Sekeres MA \\|author8\\=Kuczkowski E \\|author9\\=O'Keefe C \\|author10\\=Maciejewski JP \\| title \\= FISH and SNP\\-A karyotyping in myelodysplastic syndromes: Improving cytogenetic detection of del(5q), monosomy 7, del(7q), trisomy 8, and del(20q) \\| journal \\= Leuk Res \\| volume \\= 34 \\| issue \\= 4\\| pages \\= 447–453 \\| pmid \\= 19758696 \\| pmc \\= 2826525}}",
"Acquired UPD, which is not detectable by FISH or cytogenetics, has been reported at several key loci in MDS using SNP array karyotyping, including deletion of 7/7q.Sanada, et al. \"Gain\\-of\\-function of mutated C\\-CBL tumour suppressor in myeloid neoplasms.\" *Nature* 13 August 2009; 460, 904–909\\.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1182/blood\\-2007\\-05\\-092304 \\| last1 \\= Gondek \\| first1 \\=LP\\| last2 \\= Tiu \\| year \\= 2008 \\| first2 \\= R \\| last3 \\= O'Keefe \\| first3 \\= CL \\| last4 \\= Sekeres \\| first4 \\= MA \\| last5 \\= Theil \\| first5 \\= KS \\| last6 \\= MacIejewski \\| first6 \\= JP \\| title \\= Chromosomal lesions and uniparental disomy detected by SNP arrays in MDS, MDS/MPD, and MDS\\-derived AML \\| journal \\= Blood \\| volume \\= 111 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 1534–42 \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=vanc \\| pmid \\= 17954704 \\| pmc \\= 2214746}}",
"### Myeloproliferative neoplasms/myeloproliferative disorders",
"Philadelphia chromosome–negative [myeloproliferative neoplasms](/wiki/Myeloproliferative_disease \"Myeloproliferative disease\") (MPNs) including polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia, and primary myelofibrosis show an inherent tendency for transformation into leukemia (MPN\\-blast phase), which is accompanied by acquisition of additional genomic lesions.\nIn a study of 159 cases,{{cite journal \\|date\\=April 2010 \\|author1\\=Thoennissen NH \\|author2\\=Krug UO \\|author3\\=Lee DH \\|author4\\=Kawamata N \\|author5\\=Iwanski GB \\|author6\\=Lasho T \\|author7\\=Weiss T \\|author8\\=Nowak D \\|author9\\=Koren\\-Michowitz M \\|author10\\=Kato M \\|author11\\=Sanada M \\|author12\\=Shih LY \\|author13\\=Nagler A \\|author14\\=Raynaud SD \\|author15\\=Müller\\-Tidow C \\|author16\\=Mesa R \\|author17\\=Haferlach T \\|author18\\=Gilliland DG \\|author19\\=Tefferi A \\|author20\\=Ogawa S \\|author21\\=Koeffler HP \\| title \\= Prevalence and prognostic impact of allelic imbalances associated with leukemic transformation of Philadelphia chromosome\\-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms \\| journal \\= Blood \\| volume \\= 115\\| pages \\= 2882–2890 \\|pmid\\=20068225 \\| pmc \\= 2854432 \\| doi\\=10\\.1182/blood\\-2009\\-07\\-235119 \\| issue\\=14}} SNP\\-array analysis was able to capture practically all cytogenetic abnormalities and to uncover additional lesions with potentially important clinical implications.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}\n* The number of genomic alterations was more than 2 to 3 times greater in the blast phase as in the chronic phase of the disease.\n* Deletion of 17p (TP53\\) was significantly associated with prior exposure to hydroxyurea as well as a complex karyotype in samples with MPN\\-blast crisis. Both deletion and 17p copy neutral LOH, were associated with a complex karyotype, a poor prognostic marker in myeloid malignancies. Copy neutral LOH (acquired UPD)is readily detectably by SNP array karyotype, but not by cytogenetics, FISH, or array CGH.\n* Blast phase patients with loss of chromosomal material on 7q showed poor survival. Loss of 7q is known to be predictive for rapid progression and poor response in AML therapy. MPN\\-blast phase patients with cytogenetically undetectable 7q copy neutral\\-LOH had comparable survival rates to those with 7/7q in their leukemic cells.\n* 9p copy neutral\\-LOH with homozygous JAK2 mutation was also linked to an inferior outcome in MPN\\-blast crisis in comparison with patients with either heterozygous JAK2V617F or wild\\-type JAK2\\. In contrast to LOH on 17p, the prognostic impact of 9pCNN\\-LOH was independent of established risk factors such as 7/7q, 5q, or complex karyotype.",
"### Colorectal cancer",
"Identification of biomarkers in [colorectal cancer](/wiki/Colorectal_cancer \"Colorectal cancer\") is particularly important for patients with stage II disease, where less than 20% have tumor recurrence. 18q LOH is an established biomarker associated with high risk of tumor recurrence in stage II colon cancer.Lenz HJ, \"Established Biomarkers for Colorectal Carcinoma\", American Society of Clinical Oncology Educational Book, 2009, p215\\-219\\. Figure 7 shows a SNP array karyotype of a colorectal carcinoma (whole genome view).",
"Colorectal cancers are classified into specific tumor phenotypes based on molecular profiles which can be integrated with the results of other ancillary tests, such as microsatellite instability testing, IHC, and KRAS mutation status:\n* Chromosomal instability (CIN) which have allelic imbalance at a number of chromosomal loci, including 5q, 8p, 17p, and 18q (Fig 7\\).\n* Microsatellite instability (MSI) which tend to have diploid karyotypes.",
"### Malignant rhabdoid tumors",
"[Malignant rhabdoid tumors](/wiki/Rhabdoid_tumor \"Rhabdoid tumor\") are rare, highly aggressive neoplasms found most commonly in infants and young children. Due to their heterogenous histologic features, diagnosis can often be difficult and misclassifications can occur. In these tumors, the INI1 gene (SMARCB1\\)on chromosome 22q functions as a classic tumor suppressor gene. Inactivation of INI1 can occur via deletion, mutation, or acquired UPD.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1158/1078\\-0432\\.CCR\\-08\\-2091 \\|author1\\=Jackson EM \\|author2\\=Sievert AJ \\|author3\\=Gai X \\|author4\\=Hakonarson H \\|author5\\=Judkins AR \\|author6\\=Tooke L \\|author7\\=Perin JC \\|author8\\=Xie H \\|author9\\=Shaikh TH \\|author10\\=Biegel JA \\| title \\= Genomic analysis using high density single nucleotide polymorphism\\-based oligonucleotide arrays and multiplex ligation\\-dependent probe amplification provides comprehensive analysis of INI1/SMARCB1 in Malignant Rhabdoid Tumors \\| journal \\= Clin Cancer Res \\| volume \\= 15 \\| issue \\= 6\\| pages \\= 1923–1930 \\| pmid \\= 19276269 \\| pmc \\= 2668138\\|year\\=2009 }}",
"In a recent study, SNP array karyotyping identified deletions or LOH of 22q in 49/51 rhabdoid tumors. Of these, 14 were copy neutral LOH (or acquired UPD), which is detectable by SNP array karyotyping, but not by FISH, cytogenetics, or arrayCGH. MLPA detected a single exon homozygous deletion in one sample that was below the resolution of the SNP array.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}",
"SNP array karyotyping can be used to distinguish, for example, a medulloblastoma with an isochromosome 17q from a primary rhabdoid tumor with loss of 22q11\\.2\\. When indicated, molecular analysis of INI1 using MLPA and direct sequencing may then be employed. Once the tumor\\-associated changes are found, an analysis of germline DNA from the patient and the parents can be done to rule out an inherited or de novo germline mutation or deletion of INI1, so that appropriate recurrence risk assessments can be made.",
"### Uveal melanoma",
"The most important genetic alteration associated with poor prognosis in [uveal melanoma](/wiki/Uveal_melanoma \"Uveal melanoma\") is loss of an entire copy of [Chromosome 3](/wiki/Chromosome_3_%28human%29 \"Chromosome 3 (human)\") ([Monosomy](/wiki/Monosomy \"Monosomy\") 3\\), which is strongly correlated with metastatic spread.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Prescher G, Bornfeld N, Hirche H, Horsthemke B, Jöckel KH, Becher R \\| title \\= Prognostic implications of monosomy 3 in uveal melanoma \\| journal \\= Lancet \\| volume \\= 347 \\| issue \\= 9010 \\| pages \\= 1222–1225 \\| year \\= 1996 \\| pmid \\= 8622452 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/S0140\\-6736(96\\)90736\\-9\\| s2cid \\= 44328116 }} Gains on chromosomes [6](/wiki/Chromosome_6_%28human%29 \"Chromosome 6 (human)\") and [8](/wiki/Chromosome_8_%28human%29 \"Chromosome 8 (human)\") are often used to refine the predictive value of the Monosomy 3 screen, with gain of 6p indicating a better prognosis and gain of 8q indicating a worse prognosis in [disomy](/wiki/Aneuploidy \"Aneuploidy\") 3 tumors.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Damato BE, Dopierala J, Klaasen A, van Dijk M, Sibbring J, Coupland S \\| title \\= Multiplex Ligation\\-Dependent Probe Amplification of Uveal Melanoma: Correlation with Metastatic Death \\| journal \\= Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci \\| year \\= 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19182252 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1167/iovs.08\\-3165 \\| volume \\= 50 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 3048–55\\| url \\= https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/files/58527122/z7g00709003048\\.pdf \\| hdl \\= 11370/b69b62d5\\-b7c2\\-4afb\\-9fb2\\-60c6f71d4906 \\| hdl\\-access \\= free }} In rare instances, monosomy 3 tumors may duplicate the remaining copy of the chromosome to return to a disomic state referred to as [isodisomy](/wiki/Isodisomy \"Isodisomy\").{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=White VA, McNeil BK, Horsman DE \\| title \\= Acquired homozygosity (isodisomy) of chromosome 3 in uveal melanoma \\| journal \\= Cancer Genet Cytogenet \\| volume \\= 102\\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 40–45 \\| year \\= 1998 \\| pmid \\= 9530338 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/S0165\\-4608(97\\)00290\\-2}} Isodisomy 3 is prognostically equivalent to monosomy 3, and both can be detected by tests for chromosome 3 [loss of heterozygosity](/wiki/Loss_of_heterozygosity \"Loss of heterozygosity\").{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Onken MD, Worley LA, Person E, Char DH, Bowcock AM, Harbour JW \\| title \\= Loss of heterozygosity of chromosome 3 detected with single nucleotide polymorphisms is superior to monosomy 3 for predicting metastasis in uveal melanoma \\| journal \\= Clin Cancer Res \\| volume \\= 13 \\| issue \\= 10 \\| pages \\= 2923–2937 \\| year \\= 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17504992 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1158/1078\\-0432\\.CCR\\-06\\-2383\\| doi\\-access \\= free }}",
""
] |
Tilsworth Manor
---------------
Built just beside Warren Knoll, on lower ground, was the second "Tilsworth Castle", a 15th\-century [fortified](/wiki/Fortified "Fortified"), and [moated](/wiki/Moat "Moat"), manor house. The manor was inclosed by an [Act of Parliament](/wiki/Act_of_Parliament "Act of Parliament") in 1767\. It was [demolished](/wiki/Demolished "Demolished") about the year 1800 and a new manor house was built on the same location.
It was most likely built by Richard Chamberlain (d. 1496\), the son of the previous mentioned William Chamberlain. The manor passed to Richard's son Edward Chamberlain (b. 1479\), who gave it to his maternal grandfather Sir Richard Fowler in 1528\. It was held in the Fowler family for only 3 generations, until sold by Richard Fowler, in 1606, to Sir Anthony Chester. The sale of the estate followed an incident, in 1600, during which Richard Fowler was imprisoned in the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London "Tower of London") as the result of a forged letter implicating him in a plot to poison [Queen Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England"). Richard's young wife, her lover and her brother were later convicted of the [forgery](/wiki/Forgery "Forgery").
The estate then passed through the hands of eight members of the Chester family before being sold by Charles Chester to Sir Gregory Osborn Page\-Turner, son of [Gregory Page\-Turner, 3rd Baronet](/wiki/Gregory_Page-Turner "Gregory Page-Turner"), in 1838\. The property was then in the ownership of that family, in the forms of Mr. F. A. Page\-Turner and Sir E. H. Page\-Turner, until the latter's death in 1898, at which time it was held by his trustees.
Currently on the site is the third manor, of the same name, built in the 19th century by a member of the Chester family, which still retains the 15th century [gate tower](/wiki/Gatehouse "Gatehouse") and the [moat](/wiki/Moat "Moat"). The current Tilsworth Manor is a private residence, though the Tilsworth [Fête](/wiki/F%C3%AAte "Fête") is held in the grounds each June.
This last site of "Tilsworth Castle" is a [Scheduled Monument](/wiki/Scheduled_Monument "Scheduled Monument").
|
[
"Tilsworth Manor\n---------------",
"Built just beside Warren Knoll, on lower ground, was the second \"Tilsworth Castle\", a 15th\\-century [fortified](/wiki/Fortified \"Fortified\"), and [moated](/wiki/Moat \"Moat\"), manor house. The manor was inclosed by an [Act of Parliament](/wiki/Act_of_Parliament \"Act of Parliament\") in 1767\\. It was [demolished](/wiki/Demolished \"Demolished\") about the year 1800 and a new manor house was built on the same location.",
"It was most likely built by Richard Chamberlain (d. 1496\\), the son of the previous mentioned William Chamberlain. The manor passed to Richard's son Edward Chamberlain (b. 1479\\), who gave it to his maternal grandfather Sir Richard Fowler in 1528\\. It was held in the Fowler family for only 3 generations, until sold by Richard Fowler, in 1606, to Sir Anthony Chester. The sale of the estate followed an incident, in 1600, during which Richard Fowler was imprisoned in the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London \"Tower of London\") as the result of a forged letter implicating him in a plot to poison [Queen Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\"). Richard's young wife, her lover and her brother were later convicted of the [forgery](/wiki/Forgery \"Forgery\").",
"The estate then passed through the hands of eight members of the Chester family before being sold by Charles Chester to Sir Gregory Osborn Page\\-Turner, son of [Gregory Page\\-Turner, 3rd Baronet](/wiki/Gregory_Page-Turner \"Gregory Page-Turner\"), in 1838\\. The property was then in the ownership of that family, in the forms of Mr. F. A. Page\\-Turner and Sir E. H. Page\\-Turner, until the latter's death in 1898, at which time it was held by his trustees.",
"Currently on the site is the third manor, of the same name, built in the 19th century by a member of the Chester family, which still retains the 15th century [gate tower](/wiki/Gatehouse \"Gatehouse\") and the [moat](/wiki/Moat \"Moat\"). The current Tilsworth Manor is a private residence, though the Tilsworth [Fête](/wiki/F%C3%AAte \"Fête\") is held in the grounds each June.",
"This last site of \"Tilsworth Castle\" is a [Scheduled Monument](/wiki/Scheduled_Monument \"Scheduled Monument\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Keiser was born in [Teuchern](/wiki/Teuchern "Teuchern") (in present\-day [Saxony\-Anhalt](/wiki/Saxony-Anhalt "Saxony-Anhalt")), son of the organist and teacher Gottfried Keiser (born about 1650\), and educated by other organists in the town and then from age eleven at the [Thomasschule](/wiki/Thomasschule "Thomasschule") in Leipzig, where his teachers included [Johann Schelle](/wiki/Johann_Schelle "Johann Schelle") and [Johann Kuhnau](/wiki/Johann_Kuhnau "Johann Kuhnau"), direct predecessors of [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach").
In 1694, he became court\-composer to the duke of [Brunswick\-Wolfenbüttel](/wiki/Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel "Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel"), though he had probably come to the court already as early as 1692 to study its renowned operas, which had been going on since 1691, when the city had built a 1,200\-seat opera house. Keiser put on his first opera *Procris und Cephalus* there and, the same year, his opera *Basilius* was put on at Hamburg and, as the musicologist [Johann Mattheson](/wiki/Johann_Mattheson "Johann Mattheson") noted, "received with great success and applause".
This was a fruitful period for him – composing not only operas, but arias, duets, cantatas, sérénades, church music and big oratorios, background music – all for the city's use.
About 1697 he settled permanently in Hamburg, and became the chief composer at the highly renowned [Oper am Gänsemarkt](/wiki/Oper_am_G%C3%A4nsemarkt "Oper am Gänsemarkt") (now rebuilt as the [Hamburg State Opera](/wiki/Hamburg_State_Opera "Hamburg State Opera")) in Hamburg from 1697 to 1717; however he was actually first the director in 1702, and was not at various times from then to 1717, almost each time due to political instabilities.{{sfn\|Burrows\|1996\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/handel00burr/page/17 17, 20, 449]}} From 1703 to 1709, Keiser changed the opera house from being a public institution to a commercial venture with two to three performances a week, in contrast to the opera houses intended for the nobility.
He helped transition opera from the mid\-Baroque to the late\-Baroque. He introduced a more varied type of aria into his operas, with more passive arias,{{clarify\|date\=July 2021\|reason\=meaning slower?}} and also faster arias being introduced into his bilingual and non\-bilingual operas all by the 1703/04 season, *Nebukadnezar,* and *Salomon*.{{clarify\|date\=July 2021\|reason\=This is incomprehensible.}}
Early in 1704, when he was conducting the operas *Nebukadnezar* and *Salomon* in Hamburg, the season had to be unexpectedly concluded, for reasons most likely related to government affairs. He went to Brunswick, and afterward Weissenfels, to reconnect with areas in which he was previously active. He ended up coming out with a masterpiece, *Almira*, at Weissenfels, in July. He stayed there for a while, spending many holidays there, eventually heading back to Hamburg shortly after Easter in 1705, to produce a comeback to Händel's *Nero*, produced in February 1705\.{{sfn\|Burrows\|1996\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/handel00burr/page/17 17, 19]}}
Keiser would have to face Händel again, but this time he would be at home, and Händel had switched to the phonetic Italian version of his name, Giorgio Friderico Hendel. Händel would put on what was planned as a double opera, but was in fact two, *[Florindo](/wiki/Florindo "Florindo")* and *[Daphne](/wiki/Daphne_%28Handel%29 "Daphne (Handel)")*; he did that in January 1708, coming back from Italy. Keiser would counter that by eventually coming out with *La forza dell'amore, oder, Die von Paris entführte Helena* and *Desiderius, König der Langobarden* in the 1708/09 season, not as the theatre's manager, but as someone responding to political insecurities causing the opera company to be disorderly. Keiser worked in the background.{{sfn\|Burrows\|1996\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/handel00burr/page/20 20]}}
[thumb\|Manuscript of the beginning of an opera aria](/wiki/File:Arie_CiV_Schoberin.jpg "Arie CiV Schoberin.jpg")
Keiser would continue as the director probably when things got more stable in the city, maybe in 1710, and he advanced in composing, coming with his own passion music in 1712, which Händel would readily challenge in 1716\.{{Clarify\|date\=July 2021\|reason\=Incomprehensible.}}
In 1718, with the Hamburg Opera defunct, he left Hamburg to seek other employment, going to Thuringia and then Stuttgart. From this period, three manuscripts of trio sonatas for flute, violin and basso continuo survive. During the summer of 1721, he returned to Hamburg, but only a few weeks later made a rapid exit to Copenhagen with a Hamburg opera troupe, probably because of the growing influence of [Georg Philipp Telemann](/wiki/Georg_Philipp_Telemann "Georg Philipp Telemann"), engaged by the city magistrate in Keiser's absence. Between 1721 and 1727, Keiser traveled back and forth between Hamburg and Copenhagen, receiving the title of Master of the Danish Royal Chapel.
After the dissolution of the opera troupe, Keiser returned once more to Hamburg, but changes in its operation made repeating past success difficult.{{clarify\|date\=July 2021\|reason\=Which difficulties?}} Three operas from the period between 1722 and 1734 survive. Personal relations with Telemann remained good, with Telemann programming several productions of Keiser's operas.
In 1728 he became the [St. Mary's Cathedral](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Cathedral_%28Hamburg%29 "St. Mary's Cathedral (Hamburg)") [precentor](/wiki/Precentor "Precentor") of Hamburg (succeeding [Johann Mattheson](/wiki/Johann_Mattheson "Johann Mattheson") to the post), and wrote largely church music there until his death in 1739\.
In an obituary, his colleague Mattheson described him as "the greatest opera composer in the world".
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Keiser was born in [Teuchern](/wiki/Teuchern \"Teuchern\") (in present\\-day [Saxony\\-Anhalt](/wiki/Saxony-Anhalt \"Saxony-Anhalt\")), son of the organist and teacher Gottfried Keiser (born about 1650\\), and educated by other organists in the town and then from age eleven at the [Thomasschule](/wiki/Thomasschule \"Thomasschule\") in Leipzig, where his teachers included [Johann Schelle](/wiki/Johann_Schelle \"Johann Schelle\") and [Johann Kuhnau](/wiki/Johann_Kuhnau \"Johann Kuhnau\"), direct predecessors of [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\").",
"In 1694, he became court\\-composer to the duke of [Brunswick\\-Wolfenbüttel](/wiki/Brunswick-Wolfenb%C3%BCttel \"Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel\"), though he had probably come to the court already as early as 1692 to study its renowned operas, which had been going on since 1691, when the city had built a 1,200\\-seat opera house. Keiser put on his first opera *Procris und Cephalus* there and, the same year, his opera *Basilius* was put on at Hamburg and, as the musicologist [Johann Mattheson](/wiki/Johann_Mattheson \"Johann Mattheson\") noted, \"received with great success and applause\".",
"This was a fruitful period for him – composing not only operas, but arias, duets, cantatas, sérénades, church music and big oratorios, background music – all for the city's use.",
"About 1697 he settled permanently in Hamburg, and became the chief composer at the highly renowned [Oper am Gänsemarkt](/wiki/Oper_am_G%C3%A4nsemarkt \"Oper am Gänsemarkt\") (now rebuilt as the [Hamburg State Opera](/wiki/Hamburg_State_Opera \"Hamburg State Opera\")) in Hamburg from 1697 to 1717; however he was actually first the director in 1702, and was not at various times from then to 1717, almost each time due to political instabilities.{{sfn\\|Burrows\\|1996\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/handel00burr/page/17 17, 20, 449]}} From 1703 to 1709, Keiser changed the opera house from being a public institution to a commercial venture with two to three performances a week, in contrast to the opera houses intended for the nobility.",
"He helped transition opera from the mid\\-Baroque to the late\\-Baroque. He introduced a more varied type of aria into his operas, with more passive arias,{{clarify\\|date\\=July 2021\\|reason\\=meaning slower?}} and also faster arias being introduced into his bilingual and non\\-bilingual operas all by the 1703/04 season, *Nebukadnezar,* and *Salomon*.{{clarify\\|date\\=July 2021\\|reason\\=This is incomprehensible.}}",
"Early in 1704, when he was conducting the operas *Nebukadnezar* and *Salomon* in Hamburg, the season had to be unexpectedly concluded, for reasons most likely related to government affairs. He went to Brunswick, and afterward Weissenfels, to reconnect with areas in which he was previously active. He ended up coming out with a masterpiece, *Almira*, at Weissenfels, in July. He stayed there for a while, spending many holidays there, eventually heading back to Hamburg shortly after Easter in 1705, to produce a comeback to Händel's *Nero*, produced in February 1705\\.{{sfn\\|Burrows\\|1996\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/handel00burr/page/17 17, 19]}}",
"Keiser would have to face Händel again, but this time he would be at home, and Händel had switched to the phonetic Italian version of his name, Giorgio Friderico Hendel. Händel would put on what was planned as a double opera, but was in fact two, *[Florindo](/wiki/Florindo \"Florindo\")* and *[Daphne](/wiki/Daphne_%28Handel%29 \"Daphne (Handel)\")*; he did that in January 1708, coming back from Italy. Keiser would counter that by eventually coming out with *La forza dell'amore, oder, Die von Paris entführte Helena* and *Desiderius, König der Langobarden* in the 1708/09 season, not as the theatre's manager, but as someone responding to political insecurities causing the opera company to be disorderly. Keiser worked in the background.{{sfn\\|Burrows\\|1996\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/handel00burr/page/20 20]}}",
"[thumb\\|Manuscript of the beginning of an opera aria](/wiki/File:Arie_CiV_Schoberin.jpg \"Arie CiV Schoberin.jpg\")\nKeiser would continue as the director probably when things got more stable in the city, maybe in 1710, and he advanced in composing, coming with his own passion music in 1712, which Händel would readily challenge in 1716\\.{{Clarify\\|date\\=July 2021\\|reason\\=Incomprehensible.}}",
"In 1718, with the Hamburg Opera defunct, he left Hamburg to seek other employment, going to Thuringia and then Stuttgart. From this period, three manuscripts of trio sonatas for flute, violin and basso continuo survive. During the summer of 1721, he returned to Hamburg, but only a few weeks later made a rapid exit to Copenhagen with a Hamburg opera troupe, probably because of the growing influence of [Georg Philipp Telemann](/wiki/Georg_Philipp_Telemann \"Georg Philipp Telemann\"), engaged by the city magistrate in Keiser's absence. Between 1721 and 1727, Keiser traveled back and forth between Hamburg and Copenhagen, receiving the title of Master of the Danish Royal Chapel.",
"After the dissolution of the opera troupe, Keiser returned once more to Hamburg, but changes in its operation made repeating past success difficult.{{clarify\\|date\\=July 2021\\|reason\\=Which difficulties?}} Three operas from the period between 1722 and 1734 survive. Personal relations with Telemann remained good, with Telemann programming several productions of Keiser's operas.",
"In 1728 he became the [St. Mary's Cathedral](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Cathedral_%28Hamburg%29 \"St. Mary's Cathedral (Hamburg)\") [precentor](/wiki/Precentor \"Precentor\") of Hamburg (succeeding [Johann Mattheson](/wiki/Johann_Mattheson \"Johann Mattheson\") to the post), and wrote largely church music there until his death in 1739\\.",
"In an obituary, his colleague Mattheson described him as \"the greatest opera composer in the world\".",
""
] |
Other appearances
-----------------
### Prose
[Target](/wiki/Target_Books "Target Books") released a novelisation of *[Mission to Magnus](/wiki/Mission_to_Magnus "Mission to Magnus")* in 1990 written by [Phillip Martin](/wiki/Phillip_Martin "Phillip Martin"). This is based on a serial intended for [Season 23](/wiki/Doctor_Who_%28season_23%29 "Doctor Who (season 23)"), but this was scrapped after the series was put on an 18\-month hiatus in March 1985\. The novel features the Ice Warriors allying themselves with the villain [Sil](/wiki/Sil_%28Doctor_Who%29 "Sil (Doctor Who)") and facing the [Sixth Doctor](/wiki/Sixth_Doctor "Sixth Doctor") and [Peri](/wiki/Peri_Brown "Peri Brown").{{cite web \| title\=Doctor Who – Mission to Magnus \| url\=http://www.personal.leeds.ac.uk/\~ecl6nb/OnTarget/1990/mission/misfacts.htm \| access\-date\=15 April 2013 \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130706193745/http://www.personal.leeds.ac.uk/\~ecl6nb/OnTarget/1990/mission/misfacts.htm \| archive\-date\=6 July 2013 }} They intend to move the planet Magnus Epsilon away from the sun, shifting it into a perpetual winter and turning it into their new home planet. After the Ice Warriors abandon Sil as unnecessary to the completion of their plans, he offers to help the Doctor and Peri defeat them. The Ice Warriors are ultimately destroyed when Magnus Epsilon returns to its original orbit.{{cite web \| title\=Mission to Magnus \| url\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\_ms03\.htm \| access\-date\=15 April 2013}}
After the cancellation of *Doctor Who* in 1989, [Virgin Publishing](/wiki/Virgin_Publishing "Virgin Publishing") secured a license to publish original *Doctor Who* fiction continuing the adventures of the [Seventh Doctor](/wiki/Seventh_Doctor "Seventh Doctor"). The Ice Warriors make several appearances in the [Virgin New Adventures](/wiki/Virgin_New_Adventures "Virgin New Adventures"). The 1992 [Ben Aaronovitch](/wiki/Ben_Aaronovitch "Ben Aaronovitch") novel *[Transit](/wiki/Transit_%28Aaronovitch_novel%29 "Transit (Aaronovitch novel)")* is set after a war between humanity and the Ice Warriors called the "Thousand Day War" and depicts a war veteran, Old Sam, making a gesture of peace at the novel's conclusion.{{cite web \| title\=Transit \| url\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\_na10\.htm \| access\-date\=15 April 2013}} [Craig Hinton's](/wiki/Craig_Hinton "Craig Hinton") 1996 novel *[GodEngine](/wiki/GodEngine "GodEngine")* novel follows on from this, depicting humans and Ice Warriors entering a new era of cooperation after the defeat of a faction allied with [Daleks](/wiki/Dalek "Dalek") who had recently [invaded the Earth](/wiki/The_Dalek_Invasion_of_Earth "The Dalek Invasion of Earth"). This novel also explores the influence of the [Osirians](/wiki/Pyramids_of_Mars "Pyramids of Mars") on Martian culture. The titular GodEngine in particular is shown as an Ice Warrior creation using Osirian technology, with the Daleks intending on replacing the Earth's magnetic core with the GodEngine after an Ice Warrior faction has completed it.{{cite web \| title\=GodEngine \| url\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\_na51\.htm \| access\-date\=15 April 2013}}
*[Legacy](/wiki/Legacy_%28Russell_novel%29 "Legacy (Russell novel)")* by [Gary Russell](/wiki/Gary_Russell "Gary Russell"), released in 1994, is a sequel to the Peladon stories. It features the Doctor and Ice Warriors dispatched by the Galactic Federation to find a murderer hiding himself in the crowds of a Peladonian ceremony. The novel depicts a strained relationship between the Doctor and the Ice Warriors; he remains suspicious of their motives, and the Ice Lord Savaar is irritated by this suspicion. After the Doctor is implicated in murder, Savaar asks to personally execute the Doctor so as to avenge previous Ice Warrior defeats. The two manage to reconcile and work together to defeat the real killer.{{cite web \| title\=Legacy \| url\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\_na25\.htm \| access\-date\=15 April 2013}} Savaar was among a group of Ice Warriors who later attended [Bernice Summerfield's](/wiki/Bernice_Summerfield "Bernice Summerfield") wedding in the 1996 novel *[Happy Endings](/wiki/Happy_Endings_%28novel%29 "Happy Endings (novel)")* by [Paul Cornell](/wiki/Paul_Cornell "Paul Cornell").{{cite web \| title\=Happy Endings \| url\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\_na50\.htm \| access\-date\=15 April 2013}}
*[The Dying Days](/wiki/The_Dying_Days "The Dying Days")* depicts the [Eighth Doctor](/wiki/Eighth_Doctor "Eighth Doctor") preventing an Ice Warrior invasion in 1997, with the aid of the Brigadier and [Bernice Summerfield](/wiki/Bernice_Summerfield "Bernice Summerfield"). The novel reveals that, after the Mars Probe missions, depicted in the 1970 serial *[The Ambassadors of Death](/wiki/The_Ambassadors_of_Death "The Ambassadors of Death")*, Earth made inadvertent hostile contact with the Ice Warriors, which was covered up by British intelligence services. Lord Greyhaven, the minister in charge of the novel's missions to Mars, has been in contact with the Ice Warriors and aids in their take\-over of the United Kingdom. Greyhaven is killed by the Ice Warriors after rethinking his actions and wiping out the Argyre Ice Warrior clan. The invasion attempt is ultimately defeated by the military.{{cite web \| title\=The Dying Days \| url\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\_na61\.htm \| access\-date\=15 April 2013}}
The BBC [Eighth Doctor Adventures](/wiki/Eighth_Doctor_Adventures "Eighth Doctor Adventures") novel [*The Last Resort*](/wiki/The_Last_Resort_%28novel%29 "The Last Resort (novel)") features numerous conflicting alternate timelines in which the Martian race has either been enslaved by humans or else has exterminated all but a select human elite to prevent their enslavement. In these realities, Martian life began as a result of bacteria from the decaying corpses of millions of temporal duplicates of a time\-travelling teenager called Jack Kowaczski, arriving from millions of parallel timelines on the uninhabitable surface of Mars and dying, changing the Martian atmosphere and evolving. With the timeline breaking down due to the temporal complications of the Martians' existence, the Doctor averts the existence of these Martians by going back in time and taking an infant version of Jack Kowaczski back in time to be raised somewhere he can never build his time machine.
The [Past Doctor Adventures](/wiki/Past_Doctor_Adventures "Past Doctor Adventures") *[Fear Itself](/wiki/Fear_Itself_%28Wallace_novel%29 "Fear Itself (Wallace novel)")* (which is set shortly after humans colonise Mars) mentions that native Martians (never named explicitly as Ice Warriors) have been forced into poverty and homelessness by humans, except for a few who have resorted to terrorism to reclaim their planet.
In 2011, as part of the [New Series Adventures](/wiki/New_Series_Adventures "New Series Adventures") range, a novel called *[The Silent Stars Go By](/wiki/The_Silent_Stars_Go_By_%28Abnett_novel%29 "The Silent Stars Go By (Abnett novel)")* was released. It was written by [Dan Abnett](/wiki/Dan_Abnett "Dan Abnett") and features the [Eleventh Doctor](/wiki/Eleventh_Doctor "Eleventh Doctor"), together with [companions](/wiki/Companion_%28Doctor_Who%29 "Companion (Doctor Who)") [Amy Pond](/wiki/Amy_Pond "Amy Pond") and [Rory Williams](/wiki/Rory_Williams "Rory Williams"). The [TARDIS](/wiki/TARDIS "TARDIS") crew accidentally find themselves on an Earth\-like planet during winter, sometime in the future. There they come into contact with the Ice Warriors, who are seeking a new home for themselves as both Earth and Mars are currently uninhabitable, but complications arise when they discover that this planet is the subject of an Earth terraforming project.
### Audio
In the [Big Finish](/wiki/Big_Finish_Productions "Big Finish Productions") audio play *[Red Dawn](/wiki/Red_Dawn_%28audio_drama%29 "Red Dawn (audio drama)")*, [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA")'s first crewed mission to Mars encounters a small band of surviving Ice Warriors who had been placed in suspended animation to defend the tomb of Izdaal, the greatest warrior of the Martian race. According to this story, previous uncrewed Mars probes had brought back fragments of alien technology and DNA, and scientists had gone so far as to create human/Martian hybrid clones. This story, set in the 21st century, appears to depict the first full contact between humans and Ice Warriors. This is difficult to reconcile with *The Dying Days*, and may support the idea that the novels and audios take place in separate [parallel universes](/wiki/Parallel_universe_%28fiction%29 "Parallel universe (fiction)").
Another audio play, *Frozen Time*, sees the Seventh Doctor and a human expedition discovering a group of Ice Warriors frozen in the Antarctic. These are revealed to be criminals deliberately imprisoned there as punishment. Also, *[The Bride of Peladon](/wiki/The_Bride_of_Peladon "The Bride of Peladon")* saw the Fifth Doctor, [Peri](/wiki/Peri_Brown "Peri Brown") and [Erimem](/wiki/Erimem "Erimem") encountering an Ice Warrior on Peladon, the Ice Warrior investigating the recent death of his sister on Peladon, culminating in him sacrificing his life to trap the Osiran responsible for his sister's death.
The Ice Warriors made an appearance in the [Bernice Summerfield](/wiki/Bernice_Summerfield "Bernice Summerfield") audio *[The Dance of the Dead](/wiki/The_Dance_of_the_Dead "The Dance of the Dead")*, and the new gardener on the [Braxiatel Collection](/wiki/Irving_Braxiatel "Irving Braxiatel") is an Ice Warrior named Hass.
The Fifth Doctor meets the Ice Warriors yet again in the audio play *[The Judgement of Isskar](/wiki/The_Judgement_of_Isskar "The Judgement of Isskar")*. This serves as a sort of [origin story](/wiki/Origin_story "Origin story") for them. The Doctor lands on Mars, looking for a segment of the Key to Time. At this point, Martians are a peaceful [communal](/wiki/Commune_%28intentional_community%29 "Commune (intentional community)") community who do not even know the meaning of the word "warrior". But, when the segment is taken away, the Martian atmosphere slowly erodes. They become desperate scavengers and, eventually, Ice Warriors.
In the 2010 [*Deimos* / *The Resurrection of Mars*](/wiki/Deimos_and_The_Resurrection_of_Mars "Deimos and The Resurrection of Mars"), it is explained that many Ice Warriors went into [cryogenic suspension](/wiki/Cryogenic_suspension "Cryogenic suspension") after Mars was rendered inhospitable. Some of these vaults were on the Martian moon [Deimos](/wiki/Deimos_%28moon%29 "Deimos (moon)") and others were in the [Asteroid Belt](/wiki/Asteroid_Belt "Asteroid Belt"). Centuries later, some of these Ice Warriors were revived and eventually discovered a new home world. The planet was a beautiful, civilized utopia called Halcyon. The Ice Warriors killed all of the twenty billion inhabitants and renamed it New Mars. The Doctor's old foe [the Monk](/wiki/The_Monk_%28Doctor_Who%29 "The Monk (Doctor Who)") attempts to wake the Martians up centuries in advance so that they can re\-colonise Mars at the cost of the human colonists on the planet at this time, arguing to the Doctor that this will save the inhabitants of Halcyon later. The Doctor prevents this plan to preserve history, but the Monk uses this scheme to manipulate the Doctor's current companion Tamsin to join him (not revealing to Tamsin that he was the reason the Ice Warriors woke up in the first place).
In *[Lords of the Red Planet](/wiki/Lords_of_the_Red_Planet "Lords of the Red Planet")*, the Second Doctor encounters the Ice Warriors at an early point of their history. This, along with *The Judgment of Isskar*, serves as an origin story for the Ice Warriors, with *Lords* essentially depicting their genetic origin while *Judgement* depicted their cultural growth. This story is from an unproduced script of Patrick Troughton's final season as the Doctor, re\-created by Big Finish Productions. In this version of their origin, the Ice Warriors were the products of genetic engineering by the original inhabitants of Mars to act as a security force, augmenting a race of turtle\-like creatures to serve the more lizard\-esque Martians, but the research project that created the Ice Warriors was taken over by a psychopath who sought to create her own power base. Guided by the Doctor's example, her Ice Warriors are destroyed through the sacrifice of an early Ice Lord and a prototype Ice Warrior, with only a few examples of the species left alive, leaving it open whether the Ice Warriors depicted here will become the Ice Warrior culture witnessed in the show or if her creations will 'die out' and the familiar species will naturally evolve from the turtle\-like creatures later.
In *[Doctor Who: The Tenth Doctor Adventures](/wiki/Doctor_Who:The_Tenth_Doctor_Adventures "The Tenth Doctor Adventures") Volume Two\- Cold Vengeance*, the [Tenth Doctor](/wiki/Tenth_Doctor "Tenth Doctor") and [Rose Tyler](/wiki/Rose_Tyler "Rose Tyler") land on an asteroid that is being used as one of several freezer storage shops for the planet below, but learn that it was created from ice taken from another planet in this system, the other planet having previously been an Ice Warrior colony before the humans destroyed most of its population and forced the survivors to freeze themselves and hide. When a raid on the asteroid turns off the coolant system, a group of Ice Warriors hidden in the ice defrost enough to escape, attempting to crash the asteroid and another spaceship into the planet below in revenge for their past treatment, but the Doctor is able to destroy both asteroid and ship before they can crash. The last Ice Lord learns that some of his people survive on the colony below, living in the ghettos of the human city, but he attempts to destroy the Doctor with his suit's self\-destruct systems rather than accept that his vengeance has been for nothing.
### Comics
In the *Doctor Who* comic strip published in the *Radio Times* in 1996, an Ice Warrior named [Ssard](/wiki/Ssard "Ssard") became a companion to the [Eighth Doctor](/wiki/Eighth_Doctor "Eighth Doctor"), together with the human [Stacy Townsend](/wiki/Stacy_Townsend "Stacy Townsend"). Ssard's introductory strip dealt with a "medieval" period of Mars's history. Stacy and Ssard reappeared in the [BBC Books](/wiki/BBC_Books "BBC Books") novel *Placebo Effect* by Gary Russell, where the two were married. In the monthly *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who_Magazine "Doctor Who Magazine")* comic strips, an Ice Warrior named Harma is part of [Abslom Daak's](/wiki/Abslom_Daak "Abslom Daak") Dalek\-killing band, the Star Tigers. Another *Doctor Who Weekly* back\-up strip, *Deathworld* (\#15 and \#16\), featured a conflict between the Ice Warriors and the Cybermen. In the story *4\-Dimensional Vistas* (*Doctor Who Monthly* \#78\-83\), the [Fifth Doctor](/wiki/Fifth_Doctor "Fifth Doctor") and his new companion [Gus Goodman](/wiki/List_of_companions_in_Doctor_Who_spin-offs%23G "List of companions in Doctor Who spin-offs#G") discover the Ice Warriors at an Arctic Base, allied with the [Meddling Monk](/wiki/Meddling_Monk "Meddling Monk") and planning to use a giant crystal to create a sonic cannon. The Seventh Doctor faced the Ice Warriors in the comic "A Cold Day in Hell" with Frobisher as the companion. The comic was printed in "Doctor Who Magazine"(130\-133\).
|
[
"Other appearances\n-----------------",
"### Prose",
"[Target](/wiki/Target_Books \"Target Books\") released a novelisation of *[Mission to Magnus](/wiki/Mission_to_Magnus \"Mission to Magnus\")* in 1990 written by [Phillip Martin](/wiki/Phillip_Martin \"Phillip Martin\"). This is based on a serial intended for [Season 23](/wiki/Doctor_Who_%28season_23%29 \"Doctor Who (season 23)\"), but this was scrapped after the series was put on an 18\\-month hiatus in March 1985\\. The novel features the Ice Warriors allying themselves with the villain [Sil](/wiki/Sil_%28Doctor_Who%29 \"Sil (Doctor Who)\") and facing the [Sixth Doctor](/wiki/Sixth_Doctor \"Sixth Doctor\") and [Peri](/wiki/Peri_Brown \"Peri Brown\").{{cite web \\| title\\=Doctor Who – Mission to Magnus \\| url\\=http://www.personal.leeds.ac.uk/\\~ecl6nb/OnTarget/1990/mission/misfacts.htm \\| access\\-date\\=15 April 2013 \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130706193745/http://www.personal.leeds.ac.uk/\\~ecl6nb/OnTarget/1990/mission/misfacts.htm \\| archive\\-date\\=6 July 2013 }} They intend to move the planet Magnus Epsilon away from the sun, shifting it into a perpetual winter and turning it into their new home planet. After the Ice Warriors abandon Sil as unnecessary to the completion of their plans, he offers to help the Doctor and Peri defeat them. The Ice Warriors are ultimately destroyed when Magnus Epsilon returns to its original orbit.{{cite web \\| title\\=Mission to Magnus \\| url\\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\\_ms03\\.htm \\| access\\-date\\=15 April 2013}}",
"After the cancellation of *Doctor Who* in 1989, [Virgin Publishing](/wiki/Virgin_Publishing \"Virgin Publishing\") secured a license to publish original *Doctor Who* fiction continuing the adventures of the [Seventh Doctor](/wiki/Seventh_Doctor \"Seventh Doctor\"). The Ice Warriors make several appearances in the [Virgin New Adventures](/wiki/Virgin_New_Adventures \"Virgin New Adventures\"). The 1992 [Ben Aaronovitch](/wiki/Ben_Aaronovitch \"Ben Aaronovitch\") novel *[Transit](/wiki/Transit_%28Aaronovitch_novel%29 \"Transit (Aaronovitch novel)\")* is set after a war between humanity and the Ice Warriors called the \"Thousand Day War\" and depicts a war veteran, Old Sam, making a gesture of peace at the novel's conclusion.{{cite web \\| title\\=Transit \\| url\\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\\_na10\\.htm \\| access\\-date\\=15 April 2013}} [Craig Hinton's](/wiki/Craig_Hinton \"Craig Hinton\") 1996 novel *[GodEngine](/wiki/GodEngine \"GodEngine\")* novel follows on from this, depicting humans and Ice Warriors entering a new era of cooperation after the defeat of a faction allied with [Daleks](/wiki/Dalek \"Dalek\") who had recently [invaded the Earth](/wiki/The_Dalek_Invasion_of_Earth \"The Dalek Invasion of Earth\"). This novel also explores the influence of the [Osirians](/wiki/Pyramids_of_Mars \"Pyramids of Mars\") on Martian culture. The titular GodEngine in particular is shown as an Ice Warrior creation using Osirian technology, with the Daleks intending on replacing the Earth's magnetic core with the GodEngine after an Ice Warrior faction has completed it.{{cite web \\| title\\=GodEngine \\| url\\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\\_na51\\.htm \\| access\\-date\\=15 April 2013}}",
"*[Legacy](/wiki/Legacy_%28Russell_novel%29 \"Legacy (Russell novel)\")* by [Gary Russell](/wiki/Gary_Russell \"Gary Russell\"), released in 1994, is a sequel to the Peladon stories. It features the Doctor and Ice Warriors dispatched by the Galactic Federation to find a murderer hiding himself in the crowds of a Peladonian ceremony. The novel depicts a strained relationship between the Doctor and the Ice Warriors; he remains suspicious of their motives, and the Ice Lord Savaar is irritated by this suspicion. After the Doctor is implicated in murder, Savaar asks to personally execute the Doctor so as to avenge previous Ice Warrior defeats. The two manage to reconcile and work together to defeat the real killer.{{cite web \\| title\\=Legacy \\| url\\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\\_na25\\.htm \\| access\\-date\\=15 April 2013}} Savaar was among a group of Ice Warriors who later attended [Bernice Summerfield's](/wiki/Bernice_Summerfield \"Bernice Summerfield\") wedding in the 1996 novel *[Happy Endings](/wiki/Happy_Endings_%28novel%29 \"Happy Endings (novel)\")* by [Paul Cornell](/wiki/Paul_Cornell \"Paul Cornell\").{{cite web \\| title\\=Happy Endings \\| url\\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\\_na50\\.htm \\| access\\-date\\=15 April 2013}}",
"*[The Dying Days](/wiki/The_Dying_Days \"The Dying Days\")* depicts the [Eighth Doctor](/wiki/Eighth_Doctor \"Eighth Doctor\") preventing an Ice Warrior invasion in 1997, with the aid of the Brigadier and [Bernice Summerfield](/wiki/Bernice_Summerfield \"Bernice Summerfield\"). The novel reveals that, after the Mars Probe missions, depicted in the 1970 serial *[The Ambassadors of Death](/wiki/The_Ambassadors_of_Death \"The Ambassadors of Death\")*, Earth made inadvertent hostile contact with the Ice Warriors, which was covered up by British intelligence services. Lord Greyhaven, the minister in charge of the novel's missions to Mars, has been in contact with the Ice Warriors and aids in their take\\-over of the United Kingdom. Greyhaven is killed by the Ice Warriors after rethinking his actions and wiping out the Argyre Ice Warrior clan. The invasion attempt is ultimately defeated by the military.{{cite web \\| title\\=The Dying Days \\| url\\= http://www.drwhoguide.com/who\\_na61\\.htm \\| access\\-date\\=15 April 2013}}",
"The BBC [Eighth Doctor Adventures](/wiki/Eighth_Doctor_Adventures \"Eighth Doctor Adventures\") novel [*The Last Resort*](/wiki/The_Last_Resort_%28novel%29 \"The Last Resort (novel)\") features numerous conflicting alternate timelines in which the Martian race has either been enslaved by humans or else has exterminated all but a select human elite to prevent their enslavement. In these realities, Martian life began as a result of bacteria from the decaying corpses of millions of temporal duplicates of a time\\-travelling teenager called Jack Kowaczski, arriving from millions of parallel timelines on the uninhabitable surface of Mars and dying, changing the Martian atmosphere and evolving. With the timeline breaking down due to the temporal complications of the Martians' existence, the Doctor averts the existence of these Martians by going back in time and taking an infant version of Jack Kowaczski back in time to be raised somewhere he can never build his time machine.",
"The [Past Doctor Adventures](/wiki/Past_Doctor_Adventures \"Past Doctor Adventures\") *[Fear Itself](/wiki/Fear_Itself_%28Wallace_novel%29 \"Fear Itself (Wallace novel)\")* (which is set shortly after humans colonise Mars) mentions that native Martians (never named explicitly as Ice Warriors) have been forced into poverty and homelessness by humans, except for a few who have resorted to terrorism to reclaim their planet.",
"In 2011, as part of the [New Series Adventures](/wiki/New_Series_Adventures \"New Series Adventures\") range, a novel called *[The Silent Stars Go By](/wiki/The_Silent_Stars_Go_By_%28Abnett_novel%29 \"The Silent Stars Go By (Abnett novel)\")* was released. It was written by [Dan Abnett](/wiki/Dan_Abnett \"Dan Abnett\") and features the [Eleventh Doctor](/wiki/Eleventh_Doctor \"Eleventh Doctor\"), together with [companions](/wiki/Companion_%28Doctor_Who%29 \"Companion (Doctor Who)\") [Amy Pond](/wiki/Amy_Pond \"Amy Pond\") and [Rory Williams](/wiki/Rory_Williams \"Rory Williams\"). The [TARDIS](/wiki/TARDIS \"TARDIS\") crew accidentally find themselves on an Earth\\-like planet during winter, sometime in the future. There they come into contact with the Ice Warriors, who are seeking a new home for themselves as both Earth and Mars are currently uninhabitable, but complications arise when they discover that this planet is the subject of an Earth terraforming project.",
"### Audio",
"In the [Big Finish](/wiki/Big_Finish_Productions \"Big Finish Productions\") audio play *[Red Dawn](/wiki/Red_Dawn_%28audio_drama%29 \"Red Dawn (audio drama)\")*, [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s first crewed mission to Mars encounters a small band of surviving Ice Warriors who had been placed in suspended animation to defend the tomb of Izdaal, the greatest warrior of the Martian race. According to this story, previous uncrewed Mars probes had brought back fragments of alien technology and DNA, and scientists had gone so far as to create human/Martian hybrid clones. This story, set in the 21st century, appears to depict the first full contact between humans and Ice Warriors. This is difficult to reconcile with *The Dying Days*, and may support the idea that the novels and audios take place in separate [parallel universes](/wiki/Parallel_universe_%28fiction%29 \"Parallel universe (fiction)\").",
"Another audio play, *Frozen Time*, sees the Seventh Doctor and a human expedition discovering a group of Ice Warriors frozen in the Antarctic. These are revealed to be criminals deliberately imprisoned there as punishment. Also, *[The Bride of Peladon](/wiki/The_Bride_of_Peladon \"The Bride of Peladon\")* saw the Fifth Doctor, [Peri](/wiki/Peri_Brown \"Peri Brown\") and [Erimem](/wiki/Erimem \"Erimem\") encountering an Ice Warrior on Peladon, the Ice Warrior investigating the recent death of his sister on Peladon, culminating in him sacrificing his life to trap the Osiran responsible for his sister's death.",
"The Ice Warriors made an appearance in the [Bernice Summerfield](/wiki/Bernice_Summerfield \"Bernice Summerfield\") audio *[The Dance of the Dead](/wiki/The_Dance_of_the_Dead \"The Dance of the Dead\")*, and the new gardener on the [Braxiatel Collection](/wiki/Irving_Braxiatel \"Irving Braxiatel\") is an Ice Warrior named Hass.",
"The Fifth Doctor meets the Ice Warriors yet again in the audio play *[The Judgement of Isskar](/wiki/The_Judgement_of_Isskar \"The Judgement of Isskar\")*. This serves as a sort of [origin story](/wiki/Origin_story \"Origin story\") for them. The Doctor lands on Mars, looking for a segment of the Key to Time. At this point, Martians are a peaceful [communal](/wiki/Commune_%28intentional_community%29 \"Commune (intentional community)\") community who do not even know the meaning of the word \"warrior\". But, when the segment is taken away, the Martian atmosphere slowly erodes. They become desperate scavengers and, eventually, Ice Warriors.",
"In the 2010 [*Deimos* / *The Resurrection of Mars*](/wiki/Deimos_and_The_Resurrection_of_Mars \"Deimos and The Resurrection of Mars\"), it is explained that many Ice Warriors went into [cryogenic suspension](/wiki/Cryogenic_suspension \"Cryogenic suspension\") after Mars was rendered inhospitable. Some of these vaults were on the Martian moon [Deimos](/wiki/Deimos_%28moon%29 \"Deimos (moon)\") and others were in the [Asteroid Belt](/wiki/Asteroid_Belt \"Asteroid Belt\"). Centuries later, some of these Ice Warriors were revived and eventually discovered a new home world. The planet was a beautiful, civilized utopia called Halcyon. The Ice Warriors killed all of the twenty billion inhabitants and renamed it New Mars. The Doctor's old foe [the Monk](/wiki/The_Monk_%28Doctor_Who%29 \"The Monk (Doctor Who)\") attempts to wake the Martians up centuries in advance so that they can re\\-colonise Mars at the cost of the human colonists on the planet at this time, arguing to the Doctor that this will save the inhabitants of Halcyon later. The Doctor prevents this plan to preserve history, but the Monk uses this scheme to manipulate the Doctor's current companion Tamsin to join him (not revealing to Tamsin that he was the reason the Ice Warriors woke up in the first place).",
"In *[Lords of the Red Planet](/wiki/Lords_of_the_Red_Planet \"Lords of the Red Planet\")*, the Second Doctor encounters the Ice Warriors at an early point of their history. This, along with *The Judgment of Isskar*, serves as an origin story for the Ice Warriors, with *Lords* essentially depicting their genetic origin while *Judgement* depicted their cultural growth. This story is from an unproduced script of Patrick Troughton's final season as the Doctor, re\\-created by Big Finish Productions. In this version of their origin, the Ice Warriors were the products of genetic engineering by the original inhabitants of Mars to act as a security force, augmenting a race of turtle\\-like creatures to serve the more lizard\\-esque Martians, but the research project that created the Ice Warriors was taken over by a psychopath who sought to create her own power base. Guided by the Doctor's example, her Ice Warriors are destroyed through the sacrifice of an early Ice Lord and a prototype Ice Warrior, with only a few examples of the species left alive, leaving it open whether the Ice Warriors depicted here will become the Ice Warrior culture witnessed in the show or if her creations will 'die out' and the familiar species will naturally evolve from the turtle\\-like creatures later.",
"In *[Doctor Who: The Tenth Doctor Adventures](/wiki/Doctor_Who:The_Tenth_Doctor_Adventures \"The Tenth Doctor Adventures\") Volume Two\\- Cold Vengeance*, the [Tenth Doctor](/wiki/Tenth_Doctor \"Tenth Doctor\") and [Rose Tyler](/wiki/Rose_Tyler \"Rose Tyler\") land on an asteroid that is being used as one of several freezer storage shops for the planet below, but learn that it was created from ice taken from another planet in this system, the other planet having previously been an Ice Warrior colony before the humans destroyed most of its population and forced the survivors to freeze themselves and hide. When a raid on the asteroid turns off the coolant system, a group of Ice Warriors hidden in the ice defrost enough to escape, attempting to crash the asteroid and another spaceship into the planet below in revenge for their past treatment, but the Doctor is able to destroy both asteroid and ship before they can crash. The last Ice Lord learns that some of his people survive on the colony below, living in the ghettos of the human city, but he attempts to destroy the Doctor with his suit's self\\-destruct systems rather than accept that his vengeance has been for nothing.",
"### Comics",
"In the *Doctor Who* comic strip published in the *Radio Times* in 1996, an Ice Warrior named [Ssard](/wiki/Ssard \"Ssard\") became a companion to the [Eighth Doctor](/wiki/Eighth_Doctor \"Eighth Doctor\"), together with the human [Stacy Townsend](/wiki/Stacy_Townsend \"Stacy Townsend\"). Ssard's introductory strip dealt with a \"medieval\" period of Mars's history. Stacy and Ssard reappeared in the [BBC Books](/wiki/BBC_Books \"BBC Books\") novel *Placebo Effect* by Gary Russell, where the two were married. In the monthly *[Doctor Who](/wiki/Doctor_Who_Magazine \"Doctor Who Magazine\")* comic strips, an Ice Warrior named Harma is part of [Abslom Daak's](/wiki/Abslom_Daak \"Abslom Daak\") Dalek\\-killing band, the Star Tigers. Another *Doctor Who Weekly* back\\-up strip, *Deathworld* (\\#15 and \\#16\\), featured a conflict between the Ice Warriors and the Cybermen. In the story *4\\-Dimensional Vistas* (*Doctor Who Monthly* \\#78\\-83\\), the [Fifth Doctor](/wiki/Fifth_Doctor \"Fifth Doctor\") and his new companion [Gus Goodman](/wiki/List_of_companions_in_Doctor_Who_spin-offs%23G \"List of companions in Doctor Who spin-offs#G\") discover the Ice Warriors at an Arctic Base, allied with the [Meddling Monk](/wiki/Meddling_Monk \"Meddling Monk\") and planning to use a giant crystal to create a sonic cannon. The Seventh Doctor faced the Ice Warriors in the comic \"A Cold Day in Hell\" with Frobisher as the companion. The comic was printed in \"Doctor Who Magazine\"(130\\-133\\).",
""
] |
### Audio
In the [Big Finish](/wiki/Big_Finish_Productions "Big Finish Productions") audio play *[Red Dawn](/wiki/Red_Dawn_%28audio_drama%29 "Red Dawn (audio drama)")*, [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA")'s first crewed mission to Mars encounters a small band of surviving Ice Warriors who had been placed in suspended animation to defend the tomb of Izdaal, the greatest warrior of the Martian race. According to this story, previous uncrewed Mars probes had brought back fragments of alien technology and DNA, and scientists had gone so far as to create human/Martian hybrid clones. This story, set in the 21st century, appears to depict the first full contact between humans and Ice Warriors. This is difficult to reconcile with *The Dying Days*, and may support the idea that the novels and audios take place in separate [parallel universes](/wiki/Parallel_universe_%28fiction%29 "Parallel universe (fiction)").
Another audio play, *Frozen Time*, sees the Seventh Doctor and a human expedition discovering a group of Ice Warriors frozen in the Antarctic. These are revealed to be criminals deliberately imprisoned there as punishment. Also, *[The Bride of Peladon](/wiki/The_Bride_of_Peladon "The Bride of Peladon")* saw the Fifth Doctor, [Peri](/wiki/Peri_Brown "Peri Brown") and [Erimem](/wiki/Erimem "Erimem") encountering an Ice Warrior on Peladon, the Ice Warrior investigating the recent death of his sister on Peladon, culminating in him sacrificing his life to trap the Osiran responsible for his sister's death.
The Ice Warriors made an appearance in the [Bernice Summerfield](/wiki/Bernice_Summerfield "Bernice Summerfield") audio *[The Dance of the Dead](/wiki/The_Dance_of_the_Dead "The Dance of the Dead")*, and the new gardener on the [Braxiatel Collection](/wiki/Irving_Braxiatel "Irving Braxiatel") is an Ice Warrior named Hass.
The Fifth Doctor meets the Ice Warriors yet again in the audio play *[The Judgement of Isskar](/wiki/The_Judgement_of_Isskar "The Judgement of Isskar")*. This serves as a sort of [origin story](/wiki/Origin_story "Origin story") for them. The Doctor lands on Mars, looking for a segment of the Key to Time. At this point, Martians are a peaceful [communal](/wiki/Commune_%28intentional_community%29 "Commune (intentional community)") community who do not even know the meaning of the word "warrior". But, when the segment is taken away, the Martian atmosphere slowly erodes. They become desperate scavengers and, eventually, Ice Warriors.
In the 2010 [*Deimos* / *The Resurrection of Mars*](/wiki/Deimos_and_The_Resurrection_of_Mars "Deimos and The Resurrection of Mars"), it is explained that many Ice Warriors went into [cryogenic suspension](/wiki/Cryogenic_suspension "Cryogenic suspension") after Mars was rendered inhospitable. Some of these vaults were on the Martian moon [Deimos](/wiki/Deimos_%28moon%29 "Deimos (moon)") and others were in the [Asteroid Belt](/wiki/Asteroid_Belt "Asteroid Belt"). Centuries later, some of these Ice Warriors were revived and eventually discovered a new home world. The planet was a beautiful, civilized utopia called Halcyon. The Ice Warriors killed all of the twenty billion inhabitants and renamed it New Mars. The Doctor's old foe [the Monk](/wiki/The_Monk_%28Doctor_Who%29 "The Monk (Doctor Who)") attempts to wake the Martians up centuries in advance so that they can re\-colonise Mars at the cost of the human colonists on the planet at this time, arguing to the Doctor that this will save the inhabitants of Halcyon later. The Doctor prevents this plan to preserve history, but the Monk uses this scheme to manipulate the Doctor's current companion Tamsin to join him (not revealing to Tamsin that he was the reason the Ice Warriors woke up in the first place).
In *[Lords of the Red Planet](/wiki/Lords_of_the_Red_Planet "Lords of the Red Planet")*, the Second Doctor encounters the Ice Warriors at an early point of their history. This, along with *The Judgment of Isskar*, serves as an origin story for the Ice Warriors, with *Lords* essentially depicting their genetic origin while *Judgement* depicted their cultural growth. This story is from an unproduced script of Patrick Troughton's final season as the Doctor, re\-created by Big Finish Productions. In this version of their origin, the Ice Warriors were the products of genetic engineering by the original inhabitants of Mars to act as a security force, augmenting a race of turtle\-like creatures to serve the more lizard\-esque Martians, but the research project that created the Ice Warriors was taken over by a psychopath who sought to create her own power base. Guided by the Doctor's example, her Ice Warriors are destroyed through the sacrifice of an early Ice Lord and a prototype Ice Warrior, with only a few examples of the species left alive, leaving it open whether the Ice Warriors depicted here will become the Ice Warrior culture witnessed in the show or if her creations will 'die out' and the familiar species will naturally evolve from the turtle\-like creatures later.
In *[Doctor Who: The Tenth Doctor Adventures](/wiki/Doctor_Who:The_Tenth_Doctor_Adventures "The Tenth Doctor Adventures") Volume Two\- Cold Vengeance*, the [Tenth Doctor](/wiki/Tenth_Doctor "Tenth Doctor") and [Rose Tyler](/wiki/Rose_Tyler "Rose Tyler") land on an asteroid that is being used as one of several freezer storage shops for the planet below, but learn that it was created from ice taken from another planet in this system, the other planet having previously been an Ice Warrior colony before the humans destroyed most of its population and forced the survivors to freeze themselves and hide. When a raid on the asteroid turns off the coolant system, a group of Ice Warriors hidden in the ice defrost enough to escape, attempting to crash the asteroid and another spaceship into the planet below in revenge for their past treatment, but the Doctor is able to destroy both asteroid and ship before they can crash. The last Ice Lord learns that some of his people survive on the colony below, living in the ghettos of the human city, but he attempts to destroy the Doctor with his suit's self\-destruct systems rather than accept that his vengeance has been for nothing.
|
[
"### Audio",
"In the [Big Finish](/wiki/Big_Finish_Productions \"Big Finish Productions\") audio play *[Red Dawn](/wiki/Red_Dawn_%28audio_drama%29 \"Red Dawn (audio drama)\")*, [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s first crewed mission to Mars encounters a small band of surviving Ice Warriors who had been placed in suspended animation to defend the tomb of Izdaal, the greatest warrior of the Martian race. According to this story, previous uncrewed Mars probes had brought back fragments of alien technology and DNA, and scientists had gone so far as to create human/Martian hybrid clones. This story, set in the 21st century, appears to depict the first full contact between humans and Ice Warriors. This is difficult to reconcile with *The Dying Days*, and may support the idea that the novels and audios take place in separate [parallel universes](/wiki/Parallel_universe_%28fiction%29 \"Parallel universe (fiction)\").",
"Another audio play, *Frozen Time*, sees the Seventh Doctor and a human expedition discovering a group of Ice Warriors frozen in the Antarctic. These are revealed to be criminals deliberately imprisoned there as punishment. Also, *[The Bride of Peladon](/wiki/The_Bride_of_Peladon \"The Bride of Peladon\")* saw the Fifth Doctor, [Peri](/wiki/Peri_Brown \"Peri Brown\") and [Erimem](/wiki/Erimem \"Erimem\") encountering an Ice Warrior on Peladon, the Ice Warrior investigating the recent death of his sister on Peladon, culminating in him sacrificing his life to trap the Osiran responsible for his sister's death.",
"The Ice Warriors made an appearance in the [Bernice Summerfield](/wiki/Bernice_Summerfield \"Bernice Summerfield\") audio *[The Dance of the Dead](/wiki/The_Dance_of_the_Dead \"The Dance of the Dead\")*, and the new gardener on the [Braxiatel Collection](/wiki/Irving_Braxiatel \"Irving Braxiatel\") is an Ice Warrior named Hass.",
"The Fifth Doctor meets the Ice Warriors yet again in the audio play *[The Judgement of Isskar](/wiki/The_Judgement_of_Isskar \"The Judgement of Isskar\")*. This serves as a sort of [origin story](/wiki/Origin_story \"Origin story\") for them. The Doctor lands on Mars, looking for a segment of the Key to Time. At this point, Martians are a peaceful [communal](/wiki/Commune_%28intentional_community%29 \"Commune (intentional community)\") community who do not even know the meaning of the word \"warrior\". But, when the segment is taken away, the Martian atmosphere slowly erodes. They become desperate scavengers and, eventually, Ice Warriors.",
"In the 2010 [*Deimos* / *The Resurrection of Mars*](/wiki/Deimos_and_The_Resurrection_of_Mars \"Deimos and The Resurrection of Mars\"), it is explained that many Ice Warriors went into [cryogenic suspension](/wiki/Cryogenic_suspension \"Cryogenic suspension\") after Mars was rendered inhospitable. Some of these vaults were on the Martian moon [Deimos](/wiki/Deimos_%28moon%29 \"Deimos (moon)\") and others were in the [Asteroid Belt](/wiki/Asteroid_Belt \"Asteroid Belt\"). Centuries later, some of these Ice Warriors were revived and eventually discovered a new home world. The planet was a beautiful, civilized utopia called Halcyon. The Ice Warriors killed all of the twenty billion inhabitants and renamed it New Mars. The Doctor's old foe [the Monk](/wiki/The_Monk_%28Doctor_Who%29 \"The Monk (Doctor Who)\") attempts to wake the Martians up centuries in advance so that they can re\\-colonise Mars at the cost of the human colonists on the planet at this time, arguing to the Doctor that this will save the inhabitants of Halcyon later. The Doctor prevents this plan to preserve history, but the Monk uses this scheme to manipulate the Doctor's current companion Tamsin to join him (not revealing to Tamsin that he was the reason the Ice Warriors woke up in the first place).",
"In *[Lords of the Red Planet](/wiki/Lords_of_the_Red_Planet \"Lords of the Red Planet\")*, the Second Doctor encounters the Ice Warriors at an early point of their history. This, along with *The Judgment of Isskar*, serves as an origin story for the Ice Warriors, with *Lords* essentially depicting their genetic origin while *Judgement* depicted their cultural growth. This story is from an unproduced script of Patrick Troughton's final season as the Doctor, re\\-created by Big Finish Productions. In this version of their origin, the Ice Warriors were the products of genetic engineering by the original inhabitants of Mars to act as a security force, augmenting a race of turtle\\-like creatures to serve the more lizard\\-esque Martians, but the research project that created the Ice Warriors was taken over by a psychopath who sought to create her own power base. Guided by the Doctor's example, her Ice Warriors are destroyed through the sacrifice of an early Ice Lord and a prototype Ice Warrior, with only a few examples of the species left alive, leaving it open whether the Ice Warriors depicted here will become the Ice Warrior culture witnessed in the show or if her creations will 'die out' and the familiar species will naturally evolve from the turtle\\-like creatures later.",
"In *[Doctor Who: The Tenth Doctor Adventures](/wiki/Doctor_Who:The_Tenth_Doctor_Adventures \"The Tenth Doctor Adventures\") Volume Two\\- Cold Vengeance*, the [Tenth Doctor](/wiki/Tenth_Doctor \"Tenth Doctor\") and [Rose Tyler](/wiki/Rose_Tyler \"Rose Tyler\") land on an asteroid that is being used as one of several freezer storage shops for the planet below, but learn that it was created from ice taken from another planet in this system, the other planet having previously been an Ice Warrior colony before the humans destroyed most of its population and forced the survivors to freeze themselves and hide. When a raid on the asteroid turns off the coolant system, a group of Ice Warriors hidden in the ice defrost enough to escape, attempting to crash the asteroid and another spaceship into the planet below in revenge for their past treatment, but the Doctor is able to destroy both asteroid and ship before they can crash. The last Ice Lord learns that some of his people survive on the colony below, living in the ghettos of the human city, but he attempts to destroy the Doctor with his suit's self\\-destruct systems rather than accept that his vengeance has been for nothing.",
""
] |
Research achievements
---------------------
Already Schnell's early research at Scharnhorst received great national and international recognition. He significantly contributed to progress in the biometrical, [population genetic](/wiki/Population_genetic "Population genetic"), and quantitative genetic foundations of modern plant breeding. His greatest achievements were an extension of the linkage theory to an arbitrary number of loci and the derivation of formulae for the genetic covariance between relatives in the presence of arbitrary linkage and epistasis. The genuine impact of these two breakthroughs only became apparent about five decades later with the advent of affordable high\-throughput genotyping and sequencing technologies. In addition, Schnell extended the theory of selection for quantitative traits to multiple stages and developed models for assessing the influence of epistasis on heterosis. Last but not least, he modernized the design and analysis of plant breeding field experiments by implementing new statistical tools and electronic data processing technologies.
Schnell's breeding activities were mainly directed to the two open\-pollinated cereals [rye](/wiki/Rye "Rye") and [maize](/wiki/Maize "Maize"). In rye he started a systematic search for cytoplasmic male sterility in backcross generations of crosses between European and *exotic* rye accessions. This program was continued by HH Geiger and in 1984 lead to the first listed hybrid rye varieties worldwide. In maize Schnell developed early\-maturing flint and dent line gene pools and in 1965 released the first German double\-cross hybrid 'Velox' (FAO 210\).
At the University of Hohenheim Schnell focused on the development of a comprehensive theory of plant breeding. Major research topics of his group included
* modelling epistasis in the presence of linkage,
* quantitative genetic interpretation of heterosis,
* expected response to multi\-stage and multi\-trait selection,
* optimal breeding plans and
* [genetic correlation](/wiki/Genetic_correlation "Genetic correlation") between testcross and per se performance of inbred lines.
All theoretical studies were accompanied by extensive field experiments, many of which were conducted in collaboration with breeding companies.
After his retirement (1981\) Schnell concentrated his research on the development of a unified quantitative genetic theory of [heterosis](/wiki/Heterosis "Heterosis"). In several papers and scientific talks he made valuable contributions to this topic. In one of his last papers (together with C.C. Cockerham, Genetics 1992\) he clarified the influence of multiplicative gene action versus other types of epistasis in heterosis.
Schnell excelled in intellectual power, clear research concepts, and a strong mission towards promoting plant breeding. His creative power resulted from his enthusiasm for gaining scientific knowledge and for developing superior breeding strategies. He once compared his scientific enthusiasm with a stampeder's frenetic search for gold.
|
[
"Research achievements\n---------------------",
"Already Schnell's early research at Scharnhorst received great national and international recognition. He significantly contributed to progress in the biometrical, [population genetic](/wiki/Population_genetic \"Population genetic\"), and quantitative genetic foundations of modern plant breeding. His greatest achievements were an extension of the linkage theory to an arbitrary number of loci and the derivation of formulae for the genetic covariance between relatives in the presence of arbitrary linkage and epistasis. The genuine impact of these two breakthroughs only became apparent about five decades later with the advent of affordable high\\-throughput genotyping and sequencing technologies. In addition, Schnell extended the theory of selection for quantitative traits to multiple stages and developed models for assessing the influence of epistasis on heterosis. Last but not least, he modernized the design and analysis of plant breeding field experiments by implementing new statistical tools and electronic data processing technologies.",
"Schnell's breeding activities were mainly directed to the two open\\-pollinated cereals [rye](/wiki/Rye \"Rye\") and [maize](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\"). In rye he started a systematic search for cytoplasmic male sterility in backcross generations of crosses between European and *exotic* rye accessions. This program was continued by HH Geiger and in 1984 lead to the first listed hybrid rye varieties worldwide. In maize Schnell developed early\\-maturing flint and dent line gene pools and in 1965 released the first German double\\-cross hybrid 'Velox' (FAO 210\\).",
"At the University of Hohenheim Schnell focused on the development of a comprehensive theory of plant breeding. Major research topics of his group included \n* modelling epistasis in the presence of linkage,\n* quantitative genetic interpretation of heterosis,\n* expected response to multi\\-stage and multi\\-trait selection,\n* optimal breeding plans and\n* [genetic correlation](/wiki/Genetic_correlation \"Genetic correlation\") between testcross and per se performance of inbred lines.",
"All theoretical studies were accompanied by extensive field experiments, many of which were conducted in collaboration with breeding companies.",
"After his retirement (1981\\) Schnell concentrated his research on the development of a unified quantitative genetic theory of [heterosis](/wiki/Heterosis \"Heterosis\"). In several papers and scientific talks he made valuable contributions to this topic. In one of his last papers (together with C.C. Cockerham, Genetics 1992\\) he clarified the influence of multiplicative gene action versus other types of epistasis in heterosis.",
"Schnell excelled in intellectual power, clear research concepts, and a strong mission towards promoting plant breeding. His creative power resulted from his enthusiasm for gaining scientific knowledge and for developing superior breeding strategies. He once compared his scientific enthusiasm with a stampeder's frenetic search for gold.",
""
] |
Personality
-----------
### Profile
Musician, UNESCO Artist for Peace, Ambassadress of musical relations for the events commemorating the 1300th anniversary of the Capital of Nara Heijo\-Kyo.
While registered at the Academic institute of music of Toho, in the theory of musical composition section, she began to compose in the audio\-visual area for successful television series, commercials, and the cinema. She studied in France under the direction of composer Jean\-Claude Petit.
Since 1988, Missa Johnouchi is accompanied by the Orchestre National de l’Opéra de Paris and the Orchestre National de Paris on her albums. In 1993, she participated in the international conductors contest of Besançon.
Her album of Asian original compositions, “Healing Music”, was one of the best selling albums in the occidental countries.
Among her several performances, and for the first time ever, she gave a concert based on her own compositions, as a pianist and as a conductor, in the department of Nara, in front of Kofukuji and Higashikondo (indicated like national treasures).
Missa Johnouchi wrote, composed, and played the music in the opening ceremony of the Flower Festival of Hamanakako, entitled “New elegances of the flowers”, whose production was ensured by a great Master of Japanese poetry, Mannojo Nomura.
At the “World Heritage Torch\-Run Concert” Missa Johnouchi organized upon the initiative of several countries around the world. The artist plays her own musical compositions on the piano and directs the national orchestras of these countries. She performed in America, China, Tunisia, Italy, Australia, Venezuela, Peru, Canada, Macedonia, Romania and France for commemorative events.
At Carnegie Hall in New York, 200 families of the victims of the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, were invited to the concert organized for the wish to obtain peace.
She also performed for the 30th anniversary of the Japanese and Australian relations at the Opera house in Sidney, a UNESCO list of the world heritage.
In 2006, for the first time, a Japanese female composer and conductor was appointed a UNESCO Artist for Peace.
In May 2007, at the “World Heritage Torch\-Run Concert for the 35th anniversary of the convention on the protection of the world heritage” in the [church of Saint\-Germain\-des\-Prés](/wiki/Church_of_Saint-Germain-des-Pr%C3%A9s "Church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés") in Paris, Missa Johnouchi played her own music, and she directed the Orchestre National de l’Opéra de Paris that accompanied her.
Moreover, she composed the music that accompanied the images of the exhibition at the Petit Palais of Paris, entitled “Shôkokuji, Gold Pavilion, Silver Pavilion, Zen and Art with Kyoto within the celebration of the 150th birthday of the Japanese and French relations and the 50th birthday of the Paris and Kyoto twin cities”.
In October 2009, the album “Spiritual Discovery” is released, for the first time in cooperation with UNESCO.
Still today, she continues, in her own country and abroad, in her role as a UNESCO messenger, as could be seen during the exceptional concert that took place at UNESCO’s Headquarters on 12 November 2009 in Paris, and in Tokyo in November 2010, where she gave a charity concert for the children of Afghanistan. She was the first Japanese female “UNESCO Artist for Peace (in charge of the world heritage)” in the section musical composition and conduction, to continue to transmit the message on “ Peace of the heart”, “ conservation of the world heritage”, “ environmental protection”, “ education”.
|
[
"Personality\n-----------",
"### Profile",
"Musician, UNESCO Artist for Peace, Ambassadress of musical relations for the events commemorating the 1300th anniversary of the Capital of Nara Heijo\\-Kyo.",
"While registered at the Academic institute of music of Toho, in the theory of musical composition section, she began to compose in the audio\\-visual area for successful television series, commercials, and the cinema. She studied in France under the direction of composer Jean\\-Claude Petit.",
"Since 1988, Missa Johnouchi is accompanied by the Orchestre National de l’Opéra de Paris and the Orchestre National de Paris on her albums. In 1993, she participated in the international conductors contest of Besançon.\nHer album of Asian original compositions, “Healing Music”, was one of the best selling albums in the occidental countries.\nAmong her several performances, and for the first time ever, she gave a concert based on her own compositions, as a pianist and as a conductor, in the department of Nara, in front of Kofukuji and Higashikondo (indicated like national treasures).",
"Missa Johnouchi wrote, composed, and played the music in the opening ceremony of the Flower Festival of Hamanakako, entitled “New elegances of the flowers”, whose production was ensured by a great Master of Japanese poetry, Mannojo Nomura.",
"At the “World Heritage Torch\\-Run Concert” Missa Johnouchi organized upon the initiative of several countries around the world. The artist plays her own musical compositions on the piano and directs the national orchestras of these countries. She performed in America, China, Tunisia, Italy, Australia, Venezuela, Peru, Canada, Macedonia, Romania and France for commemorative events.",
"At Carnegie Hall in New York, 200 families of the victims of the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, were invited to the concert organized for the wish to obtain peace.",
"She also performed for the 30th anniversary of the Japanese and Australian relations at the Opera house in Sidney, a UNESCO list of the world heritage.",
"In 2006, for the first time, a Japanese female composer and conductor was appointed a UNESCO Artist for Peace.\nIn May 2007, at the “World Heritage Torch\\-Run Concert for the 35th anniversary of the convention on the protection of the world heritage” in the [church of Saint\\-Germain\\-des\\-Prés](/wiki/Church_of_Saint-Germain-des-Pr%C3%A9s \"Church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés\") in Paris, Missa Johnouchi played her own music, and she directed the Orchestre National de l’Opéra de Paris that accompanied her.",
"Moreover, she composed the music that accompanied the images of the exhibition at the Petit Palais of Paris, entitled “Shôkokuji, Gold Pavilion, Silver Pavilion, Zen and Art with Kyoto within the celebration of the 150th birthday of the Japanese and French relations and the 50th birthday of the Paris and Kyoto twin cities”.",
"In October 2009, the album “Spiritual Discovery” is released, for the first time in cooperation with UNESCO.",
"Still today, she continues, in her own country and abroad, in her role as a UNESCO messenger, as could be seen during the exceptional concert that took place at UNESCO’s Headquarters on 12 November 2009 in Paris, and in Tokyo in November 2010, where she gave a charity concert for the children of Afghanistan. She was the first Japanese female “UNESCO Artist for Peace (in charge of the world heritage)” in the section musical composition and conduction, to continue to transmit the message on “ Peace of the heart”, “ conservation of the world heritage”, “ environmental protection”, “ education”.",
""
] |
### Profile
Musician, UNESCO Artist for Peace, Ambassadress of musical relations for the events commemorating the 1300th anniversary of the Capital of Nara Heijo\-Kyo.
While registered at the Academic institute of music of Toho, in the theory of musical composition section, she began to compose in the audio\-visual area for successful television series, commercials, and the cinema. She studied in France under the direction of composer Jean\-Claude Petit.
Since 1988, Missa Johnouchi is accompanied by the Orchestre National de l’Opéra de Paris and the Orchestre National de Paris on her albums. In 1993, she participated in the international conductors contest of Besançon.
Her album of Asian original compositions, “Healing Music”, was one of the best selling albums in the occidental countries.
Among her several performances, and for the first time ever, she gave a concert based on her own compositions, as a pianist and as a conductor, in the department of Nara, in front of Kofukuji and Higashikondo (indicated like national treasures).
Missa Johnouchi wrote, composed, and played the music in the opening ceremony of the Flower Festival of Hamanakako, entitled “New elegances of the flowers”, whose production was ensured by a great Master of Japanese poetry, Mannojo Nomura.
At the “World Heritage Torch\-Run Concert” Missa Johnouchi organized upon the initiative of several countries around the world. The artist plays her own musical compositions on the piano and directs the national orchestras of these countries. She performed in America, China, Tunisia, Italy, Australia, Venezuela, Peru, Canada, Macedonia, Romania and France for commemorative events.
At Carnegie Hall in New York, 200 families of the victims of the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, were invited to the concert organized for the wish to obtain peace.
She also performed for the 30th anniversary of the Japanese and Australian relations at the Opera house in Sidney, a UNESCO list of the world heritage.
In 2006, for the first time, a Japanese female composer and conductor was appointed a UNESCO Artist for Peace.
In May 2007, at the “World Heritage Torch\-Run Concert for the 35th anniversary of the convention on the protection of the world heritage” in the [church of Saint\-Germain\-des\-Prés](/wiki/Church_of_Saint-Germain-des-Pr%C3%A9s "Church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés") in Paris, Missa Johnouchi played her own music, and she directed the Orchestre National de l’Opéra de Paris that accompanied her.
Moreover, she composed the music that accompanied the images of the exhibition at the Petit Palais of Paris, entitled “Shôkokuji, Gold Pavilion, Silver Pavilion, Zen and Art with Kyoto within the celebration of the 150th birthday of the Japanese and French relations and the 50th birthday of the Paris and Kyoto twin cities”.
In October 2009, the album “Spiritual Discovery” is released, for the first time in cooperation with UNESCO.
Still today, she continues, in her own country and abroad, in her role as a UNESCO messenger, as could be seen during the exceptional concert that took place at UNESCO’s Headquarters on 12 November 2009 in Paris, and in Tokyo in November 2010, where she gave a charity concert for the children of Afghanistan. She was the first Japanese female “UNESCO Artist for Peace (in charge of the world heritage)” in the section musical composition and conduction, to continue to transmit the message on “ Peace of the heart”, “ conservation of the world heritage”, “ environmental protection”, “ education”.
|
[
"### Profile",
"Musician, UNESCO Artist for Peace, Ambassadress of musical relations for the events commemorating the 1300th anniversary of the Capital of Nara Heijo\\-Kyo.",
"While registered at the Academic institute of music of Toho, in the theory of musical composition section, she began to compose in the audio\\-visual area for successful television series, commercials, and the cinema. She studied in France under the direction of composer Jean\\-Claude Petit.",
"Since 1988, Missa Johnouchi is accompanied by the Orchestre National de l’Opéra de Paris and the Orchestre National de Paris on her albums. In 1993, she participated in the international conductors contest of Besançon.\nHer album of Asian original compositions, “Healing Music”, was one of the best selling albums in the occidental countries.\nAmong her several performances, and for the first time ever, she gave a concert based on her own compositions, as a pianist and as a conductor, in the department of Nara, in front of Kofukuji and Higashikondo (indicated like national treasures).",
"Missa Johnouchi wrote, composed, and played the music in the opening ceremony of the Flower Festival of Hamanakako, entitled “New elegances of the flowers”, whose production was ensured by a great Master of Japanese poetry, Mannojo Nomura.",
"At the “World Heritage Torch\\-Run Concert” Missa Johnouchi organized upon the initiative of several countries around the world. The artist plays her own musical compositions on the piano and directs the national orchestras of these countries. She performed in America, China, Tunisia, Italy, Australia, Venezuela, Peru, Canada, Macedonia, Romania and France for commemorative events.",
"At Carnegie Hall in New York, 200 families of the victims of the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, were invited to the concert organized for the wish to obtain peace.",
"She also performed for the 30th anniversary of the Japanese and Australian relations at the Opera house in Sidney, a UNESCO list of the world heritage.",
"In 2006, for the first time, a Japanese female composer and conductor was appointed a UNESCO Artist for Peace.\nIn May 2007, at the “World Heritage Torch\\-Run Concert for the 35th anniversary of the convention on the protection of the world heritage” in the [church of Saint\\-Germain\\-des\\-Prés](/wiki/Church_of_Saint-Germain-des-Pr%C3%A9s \"Church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés\") in Paris, Missa Johnouchi played her own music, and she directed the Orchestre National de l’Opéra de Paris that accompanied her.",
"Moreover, she composed the music that accompanied the images of the exhibition at the Petit Palais of Paris, entitled “Shôkokuji, Gold Pavilion, Silver Pavilion, Zen and Art with Kyoto within the celebration of the 150th birthday of the Japanese and French relations and the 50th birthday of the Paris and Kyoto twin cities”.",
"In October 2009, the album “Spiritual Discovery” is released, for the first time in cooperation with UNESCO.",
"Still today, she continues, in her own country and abroad, in her role as a UNESCO messenger, as could be seen during the exceptional concert that took place at UNESCO’s Headquarters on 12 November 2009 in Paris, and in Tokyo in November 2010, where she gave a charity concert for the children of Afghanistan. She was the first Japanese female “UNESCO Artist for Peace (in charge of the world heritage)” in the section musical composition and conduction, to continue to transmit the message on “ Peace of the heart”, “ conservation of the world heritage”, “ environmental protection”, “ education”.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Youth career
Born in [Guelma](/wiki/Guelma "Guelma"), Sayoud began his career in 2002 in the youth ranks of local club Nasr El Fedjoudj.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.algerie360\.com/amir\-saayoud\-accueilli\-en\-enfant\-prodigue\-a\-fedjoudj/ \|title\=Amir Saayoud accueilli en enfant prodigue à Fedjoudj \| Football \| Algerie360\.com \|access\-date\=27 January 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003143432/http://www.algerie360\.com/sport/football/amir\-saayoud\-accueilli\-en\-enfant\-prodigue\-a\-fedjoudj \|archive\-date\=3 October 2009 \|url\-status\=live }} He then played for Rapid de Guelma and [ES Guelma](/wiki/ES_Guelma "ES Guelma") before moving to [ES Sétif](/wiki/ES_S%C3%A9tif "ES Sétif").
While at Sétif, he saw a television commercial for try outs being held in [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers "Algiers") for the 'Play Maker Academy' in [Ismaïlia](/wiki/Isma%C3%AFlia "Ismaïlia"), Egypt. Of the 80 people trying out, Sayoud made the top 5 and was sent to train with 108 other players from the Arab world in [Ismaïlia](/wiki/Isma%C3%AFlia "Ismaïlia"). After four months of training, only 35 players were chosen to stay; Sayoud was among them. The remaining players continued training and participating in matches with Sayoud being chosen as the top player among the group.
He was approached by a number of clubs including [Al\-Ahly](/wiki/Al_Ahly_SC "Al Ahly SC"), [Ismaily](/wiki/Ismaily "Ismaily"), [Al\-Ahli Dubai](/wiki/Al-Ahli_Club_%28Dubai%29 "Al-Ahli Club (Dubai)") and [Al Ain](/wiki/Al_Ain_Club "Al Ain Club"). Sayoud decided to join [Al\-Ahli Dubai](/wiki/Al-Ahli_Dubai "Al-Ahli Dubai"), signing a 4\-year contract with the club. During his brief time in the [United Arab Emirates](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates"), his potential was quickly identified by [Egyptian](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") club [Al\-Ahly](/wiki/Al-Ahly_S.C. "Al-Ahly S.C.").
### Al\-Ahly
#### 2009–2010: Senior debut
On 23 June 2009, Al\-Ahly announced the signing of Sayoud on a five\-year contract.[Ahli sign Algerian playmaker](http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID=57064) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307184800/http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID\=57064 \|date\=7 March 2012 }} [filgoal](/wiki/Filgoal "Filgoal").com Al\-Ahly were set to loan him out to [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria")\-based club [Ittihad](/wiki/El-Ittihad_El-Iskandary "El-Ittihad El-Iskandary") as the club was going to sign Moroccan [striker](/wiki/Forward_%28association_football%29%23Striker "Forward (association football)#Striker") [Abdessalam Benjelloun](/wiki/Abdessalam_Benjelloun "Abdessalam Benjelloun"), and the [Egyptian Premier League](/wiki/Egyptian_Premier_League "Egyptian Premier League") sets a three\-foreigner player quota for every team. With [Gilberto](/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Gilberto "Sebastião Gilberto") and [Francis Doe](/wiki/Francis_Doe "Francis Doe"), the signature of Benjelloun would put the club over the limit. However, Al\-Ahly decided to cancel the deal with Benjelloun and registered Sayoud in the squad list for the 2009–10 season.[Ahli backtrack on Benji, keep 'new Messi](http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID=58026) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307184805/http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID\=58026 \|date\=7 March 2012 }} [filgoal](/wiki/Filgoal "Filgoal").com
He made his debut with the first team in the second league game against [El Geish](/wiki/El_Geish "El Geish") on 11 September 2009 coming on as a substitute for [Francis Doe](/wiki/Francis_Doe "Francis Doe") in the 75th minute. After only 10 minutes in his debut, he gained his first yellow card.[Ahli turn on style to move top](http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID=59469) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307184813/http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID\=59469 \|date\=7 March 2012 }} [filgoal](/wiki/Filgoal "Filgoal").com[El Geish VS Ahly match details](http://www.yallakora.com/arabic/dawry/matchdetails.aspx?matchId=12570&tourId=125){{dead link\|date\=October 2016 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} yallakora.com (Arabic) After his debut, he commented on the important event in his playing career: "I'm really looking forward to playing again, I would like to thank the coaching staff for giving me this opportunity. I promise to repay their faith and live up to expectations."{{Cite news
\| url \= http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID\=59502
\| title \= Sayoud vows to keep impressing
\| date \= 12 September 2009
\| accessdate \= 13 September 2009
\| archive\-date \= 7 March 2012
\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120307184833/http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID\=59502
\| url\-status \= dead
}}
#### 2010: Loan to Al Arabi
On 26 January 2010, Sayoud was loaned out by Al\-Ahly to [Kuwaiti](/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait")\-side [Al Arabi](/wiki/Al-Arabi_SC_%28Kuwait%29 "Al-Arabi SC (Kuwait)") until the end of the season.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ahlyegypt.com/team\_games/soccer/newsroom/\-\-\-76\|title\=Loading...\|website\=www.ahlyegypt.com}} He made six league appearances, scoring one goal. During his time with the club, he also helped Al Arabi reach the final of the [2010 Kuwait Crown Prince Cup](/wiki/2010_Kuwait_Crown_Prince_Cup "2010 Kuwait Crown Prince Cup") where they lost to [Kuwait SC](/wiki/Kuwait_SC "Kuwait SC").{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.dzfoot.com/news\-6387/verts\-amir\-sayoud\-finaliste\-de\-la\-coupe\-du\-koweit/\|title\=Verts : Amir Sayoud finaliste de la Coupe du Koweït\|work\=DZfoot.com\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-25\|language\=fr\-FR}}
#### 2010–2011: Return to Al\-Ahly
At the end of the season, Sayoud returned to Al\-Ahly where he received the number 31 shirt. On 4 November 2010, Sayoud played his second match for Al\-Ahly against [ENPPI Club](/wiki/ENPPI_Club "ENPPI Club") as a substitute for [Hossam Ghaly](/wiki/Hossam_Ghaly "Hossam Ghaly") at the half\-time.
#### 2011: Loan to Al\-Ismaily
On 15 September 2011, Sayoud was loaned out to [Ismaily SC](/wiki/Ismaily_SC "Ismaily SC") until the end of the season.[الأهلي يخذل الرائد ويعير سعيود للإسماعيلي](http://www.alwatan.com.sa/Sports/News_Detail.aspx?ArticleID=69452&CategoryID=6); AlWatan, 16 September On 20 September 2011, Sayoud made his debut for Ismaily as a second\-half substitute in an [Egyptian Cup](/wiki/Egypt_Cup "Egypt Cup") match against Beni Suef, providing an assist for [Mohamed Abougrisha](/wiki/Mohamed_Abougrisha "Mohamed Abougrisha") on the 4th goal in a 4–0 Ismaily win.[Verts : Sayoud débute par une passe décisive](http://www.dzfoot.com/news-9909/verts-sayoud-debute-par-une-passe-decisive/); DZFoot, 20 September 2011\.
In September 2012, Sayoud went on trial with [German 2\.Bundesliga](/wiki/2._Bundesliga "2. Bundesliga") side [MSV Duisburg](/wiki/MSV_Duisburg "MSV Duisburg").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.dzfoot.com/news\-12068\-verts\-amir\-sayoud\-a\-l\-essai\-au\-msv\-duisburg.php\|title\=Amir Sayoud à l'essai au MSV Duisburg\|author\=Walid Z.\|publisher\=DZfoot\|language\=French\|date\=5 September 2012\|accessdate\=5 September 2012}}
In July 2015, Sayoud signed with newly promoted [Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1](/wiki/Algerian_Ligue_Professionnelle_1 "Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1") club [DRB Tadjenanet](/wiki/DRB_Tadjenanet "DRB Tadjenanet").{{cite web\|title\=DRB Tadjenanet : Amir Sayoud pour se relancer\|url\=http://www.dzfoot.com/2015/07/04/drb\-tadjenanet\-amir\-sayoud\-pour\-se\-relancer\-71208\.php\|author\=Toufik O\|publisher\=DZfoot\|date\=4 July 2015\|accessdate\=4 July 2015\|language\=French}}
### Al\-Raed
On 8 July 2023, Sayoud joined [Al\-Raed](/wiki/Al-Raed_FC "Al-Raed FC") on a free transfer from Al\-Tai.{{cite web \|title\=الرائد يُعلن عن ضم الجزائري أمير سعيود \|url\=https://www.alyaum.com/article/6476102}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Youth career",
"Born in [Guelma](/wiki/Guelma \"Guelma\"), Sayoud began his career in 2002 in the youth ranks of local club Nasr El Fedjoudj.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.algerie360\\.com/amir\\-saayoud\\-accueilli\\-en\\-enfant\\-prodigue\\-a\\-fedjoudj/ \\|title\\=Amir Saayoud accueilli en enfant prodigue à Fedjoudj \\| Football \\| Algerie360\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003143432/http://www.algerie360\\.com/sport/football/amir\\-saayoud\\-accueilli\\-en\\-enfant\\-prodigue\\-a\\-fedjoudj \\|archive\\-date\\=3 October 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He then played for Rapid de Guelma and [ES Guelma](/wiki/ES_Guelma \"ES Guelma\") before moving to [ES Sétif](/wiki/ES_S%C3%A9tif \"ES Sétif\").",
"While at Sétif, he saw a television commercial for try outs being held in [Algiers](/wiki/Algiers \"Algiers\") for the 'Play Maker Academy' in [Ismaïlia](/wiki/Isma%C3%AFlia \"Ismaïlia\"), Egypt. Of the 80 people trying out, Sayoud made the top 5 and was sent to train with 108 other players from the Arab world in [Ismaïlia](/wiki/Isma%C3%AFlia \"Ismaïlia\"). After four months of training, only 35 players were chosen to stay; Sayoud was among them. The remaining players continued training and participating in matches with Sayoud being chosen as the top player among the group.",
"He was approached by a number of clubs including [Al\\-Ahly](/wiki/Al_Ahly_SC \"Al Ahly SC\"), [Ismaily](/wiki/Ismaily \"Ismaily\"), [Al\\-Ahli Dubai](/wiki/Al-Ahli_Club_%28Dubai%29 \"Al-Ahli Club (Dubai)\") and [Al Ain](/wiki/Al_Ain_Club \"Al Ain Club\"). Sayoud decided to join [Al\\-Ahli Dubai](/wiki/Al-Ahli_Dubai \"Al-Ahli Dubai\"), signing a 4\\-year contract with the club. During his brief time in the [United Arab Emirates](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates \"United Arab Emirates\"), his potential was quickly identified by [Egyptian](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") club [Al\\-Ahly](/wiki/Al-Ahly_S.C. \"Al-Ahly S.C.\").",
"### Al\\-Ahly",
"#### 2009–2010: Senior debut",
"On 23 June 2009, Al\\-Ahly announced the signing of Sayoud on a five\\-year contract.[Ahli sign Algerian playmaker](http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID=57064) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307184800/http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID\\=57064 \\|date\\=7 March 2012 }} [filgoal](/wiki/Filgoal \"Filgoal\").com Al\\-Ahly were set to loan him out to [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\")\\-based club [Ittihad](/wiki/El-Ittihad_El-Iskandary \"El-Ittihad El-Iskandary\") as the club was going to sign Moroccan [striker](/wiki/Forward_%28association_football%29%23Striker \"Forward (association football)#Striker\") [Abdessalam Benjelloun](/wiki/Abdessalam_Benjelloun \"Abdessalam Benjelloun\"), and the [Egyptian Premier League](/wiki/Egyptian_Premier_League \"Egyptian Premier League\") sets a three\\-foreigner player quota for every team. With [Gilberto](/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A3o_Gilberto \"Sebastião Gilberto\") and [Francis Doe](/wiki/Francis_Doe \"Francis Doe\"), the signature of Benjelloun would put the club over the limit. However, Al\\-Ahly decided to cancel the deal with Benjelloun and registered Sayoud in the squad list for the 2009–10 season.[Ahli backtrack on Benji, keep 'new Messi](http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID=58026) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307184805/http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID\\=58026 \\|date\\=7 March 2012 }} [filgoal](/wiki/Filgoal \"Filgoal\").com",
"He made his debut with the first team in the second league game against [El Geish](/wiki/El_Geish \"El Geish\") on 11 September 2009 coming on as a substitute for [Francis Doe](/wiki/Francis_Doe \"Francis Doe\") in the 75th minute. After only 10 minutes in his debut, he gained his first yellow card.[Ahli turn on style to move top](http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID=59469) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307184813/http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID\\=59469 \\|date\\=7 March 2012 }} [filgoal](/wiki/Filgoal \"Filgoal\").com[El Geish VS Ahly match details](http://www.yallakora.com/arabic/dawry/matchdetails.aspx?matchId=12570&tourId=125){{dead link\\|date\\=October 2016 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} yallakora.com (Arabic) After his debut, he commented on the important event in his playing career: \"I'm really looking forward to playing again, I would like to thank the coaching staff for giving me this opportunity. I promise to repay their faith and live up to expectations.\"{{Cite news\n\\| url \\= http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID\\=59502\n\\| title \\= Sayoud vows to keep impressing\n\\| date \\= 12 September 2009\n\\| accessdate \\= 13 September 2009\n\\| archive\\-date \\= 7 March 2012\n\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120307184833/http://new.filgoal.com/English/News.aspx?NewsID\\=59502\n\\| url\\-status \\= dead\n}}",
"#### 2010: Loan to Al Arabi",
"On 26 January 2010, Sayoud was loaned out by Al\\-Ahly to [Kuwaiti](/wiki/Kuwait \"Kuwait\")\\-side [Al Arabi](/wiki/Al-Arabi_SC_%28Kuwait%29 \"Al-Arabi SC (Kuwait)\") until the end of the season.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ahlyegypt.com/team\\_games/soccer/newsroom/\\-\\-\\-76\\|title\\=Loading...\\|website\\=www.ahlyegypt.com}} He made six league appearances, scoring one goal. During his time with the club, he also helped Al Arabi reach the final of the [2010 Kuwait Crown Prince Cup](/wiki/2010_Kuwait_Crown_Prince_Cup \"2010 Kuwait Crown Prince Cup\") where they lost to [Kuwait SC](/wiki/Kuwait_SC \"Kuwait SC\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dzfoot.com/news\\-6387/verts\\-amir\\-sayoud\\-finaliste\\-de\\-la\\-coupe\\-du\\-koweit/\\|title\\=Verts : Amir Sayoud finaliste de la Coupe du Koweït\\|work\\=DZfoot.com\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-25\\|language\\=fr\\-FR}}",
"#### 2010–2011: Return to Al\\-Ahly",
"At the end of the season, Sayoud returned to Al\\-Ahly where he received the number 31 shirt. On 4 November 2010, Sayoud played his second match for Al\\-Ahly against [ENPPI Club](/wiki/ENPPI_Club \"ENPPI Club\") as a substitute for [Hossam Ghaly](/wiki/Hossam_Ghaly \"Hossam Ghaly\") at the half\\-time.",
"#### 2011: Loan to Al\\-Ismaily",
"On 15 September 2011, Sayoud was loaned out to [Ismaily SC](/wiki/Ismaily_SC \"Ismaily SC\") until the end of the season.[الأهلي يخذل الرائد ويعير سعيود للإسماعيلي](http://www.alwatan.com.sa/Sports/News_Detail.aspx?ArticleID=69452&CategoryID=6); AlWatan, 16 September On 20 September 2011, Sayoud made his debut for Ismaily as a second\\-half substitute in an [Egyptian Cup](/wiki/Egypt_Cup \"Egypt Cup\") match against Beni Suef, providing an assist for [Mohamed Abougrisha](/wiki/Mohamed_Abougrisha \"Mohamed Abougrisha\") on the 4th goal in a 4–0 Ismaily win.[Verts : Sayoud débute par une passe décisive](http://www.dzfoot.com/news-9909/verts-sayoud-debute-par-une-passe-decisive/); DZFoot, 20 September 2011\\.",
"In September 2012, Sayoud went on trial with [German 2\\.Bundesliga](/wiki/2._Bundesliga \"2. Bundesliga\") side [MSV Duisburg](/wiki/MSV_Duisburg \"MSV Duisburg\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dzfoot.com/news\\-12068\\-verts\\-amir\\-sayoud\\-a\\-l\\-essai\\-au\\-msv\\-duisburg.php\\|title\\=Amir Sayoud à l'essai au MSV Duisburg\\|author\\=Walid Z.\\|publisher\\=DZfoot\\|language\\=French\\|date\\=5 September 2012\\|accessdate\\=5 September 2012}}",
"In July 2015, Sayoud signed with newly promoted [Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1](/wiki/Algerian_Ligue_Professionnelle_1 \"Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1\") club [DRB Tadjenanet](/wiki/DRB_Tadjenanet \"DRB Tadjenanet\").{{cite web\\|title\\=DRB Tadjenanet : Amir Sayoud pour se relancer\\|url\\=http://www.dzfoot.com/2015/07/04/drb\\-tadjenanet\\-amir\\-sayoud\\-pour\\-se\\-relancer\\-71208\\.php\\|author\\=Toufik O\\|publisher\\=DZfoot\\|date\\=4 July 2015\\|accessdate\\=4 July 2015\\|language\\=French}}",
"### Al\\-Raed",
"On 8 July 2023, Sayoud joined [Al\\-Raed](/wiki/Al-Raed_FC \"Al-Raed FC\") on a free transfer from Al\\-Tai.{{cite web \\|title\\=الرائد يُعلن عن ضم الجزائري أمير سعيود \\|url\\=https://www.alyaum.com/article/6476102}}",
""
] |
History
-------
{{See also\|Christchurch tramway routes}}
### Background
{{See also\|Lyttelton Line}}
The difficulty experienced by Christchurch's early residents in conveying them and their export goods to [Lyttelton](/wiki/Lyttelton%2C_New_Zealand "Lyttelton, New Zealand") brought about the first proposal for a tramway at a meeting held on 26 September 1855\. The merits of both wooden and iron\-based tramways were discussed and a resolution was passed in support of the construction of either a tramway or a railway.
The issue arose again at a [Provincial Council](/wiki/Provinces_of_New_Zealand "Provinces of New Zealand") meeting on 16 October 1855 at which it was proposed that a line be built to [Sumner](/wiki/Sumner%2C_New_Zealand "Sumner, New Zealand") and goods could then be transported to Lyttelton by boat. A couple of leading and influential figures spoke out against the proposal and it was voted down.
It was not until 1858 that the matter once again gained attention in official circles. Despite a general belief that the idea itself was good, the Provincial Engineer's estimate of £6,000 was enough to ensure that the idea was not acted upon. The Provincial Council eventually opted to construct a railway line; the first section between Christchurch and Ferrymead opened in 1863, and the Ferrymead to Lyttelton section opened in 1867\.
A meeting of prominent local citizens on 20 September 1872 discussed the matter of a tramway and concluded that it would be desirable to construct a line between Papanui and [Christchurch](/wiki/Christchurch_railway_station_%28New_Zealand%29 "Christchurch railway station (New Zealand)") railway stations, especially in light of the north railway having opened to [Rangiora](/wiki/Rangiora "Rangiora") earlier that year. Estimates had been prepared and it was suggested that the company be called "The Christchurch and Papanui Junction Tramway Company". The city council, however, was opposed to the idea and declined to support it, saying, "That in the opinion of this meeting a tramway … is objectionable … for the following reasons: (1\) A tramway is not required, (2\) The streets are not wide enough, (3\) A tramway would retard the railway station being brought into a more convenient place for the citizens".
### White’s Little River tramway: 1861–1872
A partnership was formed in 1861, including well\-known bridge engineer William White, with the aim of constructing a wooden tramway from Christchurch to [Little River](/wiki/Little_River%2C_New_Zealand "Little River, New Zealand"). The goal was to make it cheaper to cart timber from Little River and other building materials from the Halswell Quarry to Christchurch. The plan was for a line of approximately {{convert\|38\|mi\|km}} in length, starting in what is now Moorhouse Avenue, travelling to [Birdlings Flat](/wiki/Birdling%27s_Flat "Birdling's Flat") where it would roughly follow the present state highway to Little River, then on to an area now known as Puaha. The gauge was to be {{RailGauge\|4ft}} and the estimated cost was £1,023 per mile.{{cite web \|title\=Interesting Tramway Projects \|url\=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei\-Gov07\_02Rail\-t1\-body\-d12\-d1\-d3\.html \|website\=NZETC \|accessdate\=24 March 2020}}
White began construction in 1863 and by year's end had built {{convert\|1\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} of the line. The project ultimately failed, due largely to a lack of capital, but animosity from the line's neighbours also disrupted business. Work on the line had ceased by the end of 1866 by which time the Christchurch–Halswell Quarry section had been completed and work had started at the Little River end. The line to the quarry remained in use until 1872\. Little River was eventually served by rail when the [Railways Department](/wiki/New_Zealand_Railways_Department "New Zealand Railways Department")'s [Little River Branch](/wiki/Little_River_Branch "Little River Branch") opened to its namesake terminus in 1886\.
### Horse and steam era: 1880–1906
The idea of building a tramway did not gain widespread support until 1876\. By this time, the city had experienced significant development and the need for improved transport had become evident. With the passing into law of the Tramways Act in 1872 and the city council dropping its opposition to the idea, the political environment had become more agreeable to the formation of tramways.
Trams became a reality for Christchurch on 9 March 1880 when the first revenue services commenced on a line from [Cathedral Square](/wiki/Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch "Cathedral Square, Christchurch") to Christchurch Railway Station via [Colombo Street](/wiki/Colombo_Street "Colombo Street"). The company behind the venture, the Canterbury Tramway Company, had been formed in 1878 then spent the next two years negotiating with the various councils involved, purchasing equipment, constructing its lines, etc. After the first day, issues with the track were identified which resulted in a suspension of services until 16 March.
[thumb\|left\|Route map of private tramway company lines in Christchurch](/wiki/File:Christchurch_private_tramway_route_map.PNG "Christchurch private tramway route map.PNG")
The Company opened several other lines that same year including: Christchurch Railway Station via High and Manchester Streets (24 July); Papanui Railway Station (24 June); Agricultural Show Grounds (6 August) and later in the year to Devon Street. Orders were also placed with local coachbuilders for more tramcars.
In later years, other lines opened by the Company included: Addington Railway Station (5 January 1882\) and later the Addington Show Grounds (28 October 1887\); [Woolston](/wiki/Woolston%2C_New_Zealand "Woolston, New Zealand") (7 July 1882\) then to [Heathcote](/wiki/Heathcote_Valley "Heathcote Valley") (9 December 1882\) and finally Sumner (1 November 1888\). The lines to Papanui and Sumner were the most lucrative.
It was not until 1884 that another player joined the Canterbury Tramway Company in the tramway business. The city council decided that it needed its own line from the central city to serve its cemetery and Reserve. It intended to run the municipal services on the line itself and to contract out the carriage of people. Construction began on 26 November 1885 at Latimer Square and was completed by March 1886\. The line was officially opened on 23 April 1886 and was to have passenger services provided by private contractor Charles O’Malley who had earlier secured a three\-year lease. He proved to be unsuitable and was replaced in August 1886 by the Canterbury Tramway Company. The lease changed hands again after 18 months and was picked up by the New Brighton Tramway Company who remained the leaseholder until [municipalisation](/wiki/Municipalisation "Municipalisation").
Buoyed by the prospect of a tram connection to [New Brighton](/wiki/New_Brighton%2C_New_Zealand "New Brighton, New Zealand") following the opening of the city council's Corporation line, the New Brighton Tramway Company was formed in 1885 with the intention of constructing and operating a line from a junction with the Corporation line to a terminus at New Brighton. Construction began in 1886 and was completed by January 1887\. The first service on the line was a trial run on 8 January 1887, which proved to be a success, and was followed on 15 February by the commencement of revenue services. The Company's acquisition of the lease for the Corporation line at the end of 1888 proved to be fortuitous, giving the Company control over the entire route from the central city to the New Brighton terminus.
The last entrant to the Christchurch tramway scene was the City and Suburban Tramway Company, formed early in 1892 with the intention of constructing lines to Springfield Road and New Brighton from its base at the corner of Manchester, Lichfield, and High Streets. Only the latter of these lines was built, on which construction began on 1 May 1893\. The Company ran into financial difficulties during construction that held up progress until the contractor secured a debt over the Company and completed the line in August 1894\. Revenue services commenced as far as Stanmore Road on 1 September 1893 and it was not until 25 October 1894 that trams were able to run the full length of the line to New Brighton Pier. A deleterious financial position, brought about in part by the Company's need to rent both horses and rolling stock, resulted in the collapse of the Company in 1895\. It was purchased by the contractor who built the Company's line and run under the same name.
The Canterbury Tramway Company had earlier had its own financial difficulties resulting in its collapse in 1893\. After various options were explored the Company was recapitalised as the Christchurch Tramway Company. Various measures were implemented to remedy the issues that plagued the old company including the closure of the Manchester Street route to the railway station, the use of horses in preference to steam motors, and the renewal or replacement of some of its assets. During its time, the Company also extended two of its lines: the Addington line reached [Sunnyside Asylum](/wiki/Sunnyside_Hospital "Sunnyside Hospital") at the end of 1895 with revenue services commencing in the New Year, and the [Sydenham](/wiki/Sydenham%2C_New_Zealand "Sydenham, New Zealand") line was extended to the [Cashmere](/wiki/Cashmere%2C_New_Zealand "Cashmere, New Zealand") Hills and opened on 7 December 1898\.
When the concessions under which the lines of the private tramway companies were operated came up for renewal from the late 1890s, the various local bodies involved saw it as an opportunity to consider municipalisation of the whole system. The tramway companies, which were seeking to extend their concessions to give them some certainty over the future of their business, were rebuffed and eventually the Christchurch Tramway Board was formed to bring the tramways under public control.
### Electric era: 1905–1954
#### Early years
Political pressure and public agitation for a modern tramway system resulted in the formation of the Christchurch Tramway Board in late 1902\. It proceeded to create its own network by purchasing the lines of the private tramway companies and also establishing its own new lines.
Work on the Tramway Board's lines began in September 1904 at the intersection of Fitzgerald Avenue and Ferry Road. It required a great many men using only basic tools with the assistance of horse\-drawn drays and traction engines and attracted considerable interest from the public.
Installation of tramlines sometimes led to improvements of the roads on which they were built. Because as was standard practice at the time, single\-track tram lines were laid in the middle of the road requiring some roads to be widened to allow vehicles to pass trams on either side. Also, any undulations in the road were smoothed out so the track could be laid flush with the road surface.
Private operators were contracted by the board to provide alternative transport while tramlines were unavailable due to construction. These services were run using horse\-drawn drags.
The electrified tram network was inaugurated on 5 June 1905 when an official opening day was held. After speeches at the board's car shed on Falsgrave Street, the official party departed on a procession of seven electric trams bound for Papanui. After an accident en route required the withdrawal of two of the trams, the rest of the party reached their destination where the festivities continued. Revenue services commenced on the Papanui–Railway Station route the following day.
The first tranche of work was completed by September 1906\. Figures provided by *The Press* in June 1906 show that materials used included 2,400 poles, {{convert\|63\|mi\|km}} of [trolley wire](/wiki/Overhead_line "Overhead line"), {{convert\|65\|mi\|km}} of feeder cables, {{convert\|120\|mi\|km}} of telephone and other wires, 80,000 [sleepers](/wiki/Railroad_tie "Railroad tie"), 26,000 electrical bonds, 90,000 yards of [metal](/wiki/Track_ballast "Track ballast"), and 5,500 tons of rails.
Lines built and electrified by the New Zealand Electrical Construction Company were mainly those that had been acquired from the private tramway companies and included: Papanui to Christchurch Railway Station (6 June 1905\); Sumner (steam, 6 June 1905; electric, 25 April 1907\); Cashmere (16 August 1905\); Riccarton (steam, 2 November 1905; electric, 12 March 1906\); Lincoln Road (8 February 1906\); New Brighton (Linwood, 26 March 1906; New Brighton, 6 August 1906\).
#### Heyday
[thumb\|300px\|right\|Tram shelter in [Cathedral Square](/wiki/Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch "Cathedral Square, Christchurch"), circa 1905](/wiki/File:Tram_shelter%2C_Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch%2C_ca_1910.jpeg "Tram shelter, Cathedral Square, Christchurch, ca 1910.jpeg")
The trams quickly became popular with the public and revenue exceeded the board's expectations. [Rolling stock](/wiki/Rolling_stock "Rolling stock") consisted of 27 electric vehicles supplied under the initial contract and the 7 steam motors and 42 trailers acquired from the Christchurch Tramway Company. Twenty\-two trailers from the New Brighton and City and Suburban tramway companies later augmented the fleet.
Though the primary purpose of the tramway was the carriage of passengers, it also carried other items such as mail, newspapers, perambulators, bicycles, construction materials, and animals. The cartage of animals on the tramway was made illegal in December 1915\.
The reality of the environment in which the tramway business was conducted was made clear in 1912 when chairman of the board George Booth explained the main problems the board faced in his annual report. First, Christchurch had a considerable amount of route mileage with little or no revenue potential, necessitated by the geographically diverse nature of the population it served. Second, the growing problem of competition from bicycles and motorcars since the development of the [pneumatic tyre](/wiki/Pneumatic_tyre "Pneumatic tyre"), exacerbated by the generally flat nature of the terrain on which Christchurch was sited. The board's response to these issues had not improved the situation by 1914\.
[left\|thumb\|Route map of Christchurch's electrified tramway network at its peak](/wiki/File:Christchurch_CTB_tramway_route_map_1920s.PNG "Christchurch CTB tramway route map 1920s.PNG")
It was during this period that the construction of the tramway network was completed. Additional lines opened were St. Albans Park (24 December 1906\), Opawa (steam, 14 March 1907; electric, 21 September 1909\), Fendalton (steam, 3 May 1907; electric, 20 November 1909\), Cranford Street (1 July 1910\), North Beach (steam, 24 December 1911; electric, 1 October 1914\), Spreydon (3 August 1911\), Cashmere Hills extension (1 May 1912\), Dallington (1 November 1912\), Northcote extension (28 February 1913\), and the St. Martins line (7 April 1914\) which was the last major line to be opened. The only new tracks to be commissioned after this time (aside from single\- or double\-tracking and renewals) were the extension of the Riccarton line to Plumpton Park (December 1915\), the Lichfield Street link (July 1922\), and the extension of the Spreydon line to Barrington Street (August 1922\). For many years afterwards Christchurch was able to boast the largest network in the country by route mileage at {{convert\|53\.5\|mi}} and in 1912 it was reportedly second only to [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney") in [Australasia](/wiki/Australasia "Australasia").
The growth of the board's business in its early years soon necessitated the purchase of new rolling stock to meet demand. By 1908, the number of electric trams had increased to 39 and had grown to 65 in 1912\. An additional 34 trailers were also added to the fleet by 1920\. Other vehicles acquired included a Baldwin steam motor (1906\), three sprinkler cars, and an overhead lines car. To match this, the size of the board's staff also grew from 196 in 1906 to 350 in 1913 and 530 in 1920, making it the largest employer in the city.
The tramway was credited with encouraging the suburban development of Christchurch. Land along tram routes became more valuable and made it easier for people to live out in the suburbs. The main central city retail precinct, which had been concentrated around the railway station, gradually moved north to avail itself of the increased flow of people generated by the tram routes converging on Cathedral Square. Smaller retail precincts developed around the ends of some lines such as [Fendalton](/wiki/Fendalton "Fendalton") and [Spreydon](/wiki/Spreydon "Spreydon").
#### Halcyon years
The economic uncertainty of the late 1920s culminated in the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of the 1930s, a situation that severely affected the operation of the tramway as much as it affected the rest of the country. Both revenue and patronage suffered sharp declines and as if to make matters worse the loans used to establish the tramway system were due to mature in 1934\. Competition was becoming an increasing problem, particularly from bicycles whose number had increased dramatically.
To contain its financial problems, the board implemented several economy measures. It experimented with the St. Martins cars to trial "one\-man" tram operation, which proved that the concept could work. Between 1932 and 1936, additional trams were converted for this purpose and deployed initially on the more lightly patronised lines before being used on the longer lines as a sufficient number were available. Consequent to the introduction of one\-man trams was the need to install [balloon loops](/wiki/Balloon_loop "Balloon loop") or [wyes](/wiki/Wye_%28rail%29 "Wye (rail)") at the termini of the lines on which these cars were used.
Several under\-performing or severely dilapidated lines were also closed during this period, notably the North Beach line, the Papanui railway station spur and Northcote extension of the Papanui line, and the Dallington–Railway Station route. In most cases, trams on these routes were replaced with buses.
With the arrival of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") came constraints on many aspects of ordinary life that were both beneficial and detrimental to the tramway. Restrictions and rationing of many basic supplies limited the use of private motorised transport leading to huge growth in patronage of the trams and, often, severe overcrowding. This also had the effect of significantly improving the board's revenue. The increased popularity of the trams was also assisted by the large number of New Zealand military personnel based at both the [Burnham Camp](/wiki/Burnham%2C_New_Zealand "Burnham, New Zealand") and [Wigram Aerodrome](/wiki/Wigram_Aerodrome "Wigram Aerodrome"), and the contingent of American military in the city.
It was not all good news for the board during the war years, as its costs also increased during this period; primarily wages, electricity, and maintenance. The war also made it more difficult to obtain supplies and spare parts needed to maintain and repair its assets, requiring a measure of ingenuity to keep things working. War service depleted the board's staff resulting in the hiring of women where necessary to fill gaps. Women were not just to fill gaps – wartime photo shows 28 women conductors at the time. Most trams then carried women conductors. RNM [thumb\|Photo taken circa 1942](/wiki/File:Christchurch_Tram_Conductors_during_World_War_2.jpg "Christchurch Tram Conductors during World War 2.jpg")
The end of the war also brought about the end of the boom for the tramway and marked the beginning of the end. Unlike other tramway systems around the country, the newest of vehicles in service in Christchurch were decades old and the track had suffered from years of neglect with little maintenance having been carried out. Though the imposition of rationing was not finally lifted until the early 1950s, post\-war Christchurch grew faster than the tramway could keep up ensuring that the tramway's replacement was just a matter of time.
#### Demise
Though several lines were closed and replaced by buses in the 1930s due to prevailing economic conditions, most tram routes were closed in the decade following the end of World War 2\. While the war was in some respects a boon for the tramway – with restrictions on other forms of transport patronage of the trams was significantly improved – it also caused problems, which contributed to the end of the trams.
Perhaps one of the biggest problems faced by the tramway system following the war was the much\-improved economic situation that ensued, increasing prosperity for many and giving them options that they might not have had before. Rates of car ownership increased and the city grew significantly in size presenting the board with a twofold problem of trying to maintain what they already had whilst trying to serve many more people over a greater area. Operating costs also increased, due in part to changing work patterns that placed a higher demand on the trams during peak times and reduced off\-peak demand, but also an increase in staff costs, which only served to further increase losses.
To determine the future of [public transport](/wiki/Public_transport "Public transport") in Christchurch, the Future Policy Committee was formed in February 1945\. It considered the matter of the tram network and concluded that the remaining tram routes should be retained and operated until such time as the tracks reached the end of their useful lives at which time they would be replaced by buses. John Fardell, appointed General Manager of the Board in 1946, delivered his own report on the future direction of the Board on 6 October 1947\. He pointed out the poor state of the board's tramway assets and that even with repairs, new infrastructure and rolling stock would be required within a few years to keep the system operational. The board was also at the time in a precarious financial state with years of losses having made it difficult to set aside sufficient funds for the repayment of loans, many of which were due to mature in the 1950s and 1960s. To upgrade the existing tramway to modern standards and extend it into the new suburbs could not be contemplated. While he did not push for the immediate removal of the trams, preferring to run them as long as possible in part to pay off outstanding loans, he did strongly advocate for the introduction of diesel buses to replace trams when they were withdrawn. In this first report, his preference for diesel buses was not absolute, however, as he did recommend the use of [trolley buses](/wiki/Trolleybus "Trolleybus") on the existing North Beach route which still had useful infrastructure in place and on the Papanui–Cashmere route where the trolley buses would have superior hill\-climbing performance characteristics.
The board favoured a mixed trolley/diesel bus fleet and unsuccessfully tried in 1948 and 1949 to raise a loan to further this plan. Mindful of these earlier failures, they were careful to impress upon the public the dire consequences of not planning for bus replacements given the state of the tramway after deciding in April 1950 to purchase 39 diesel buses. The Loans Board subsequently approved this loan proposal in September and it was also sanctioned by a plebiscite of the board's ratepayers.
The Tramway Board, which had been hoping that the diesel buses would be a temporary measure on some routes pending the erection of a trolley bus system, ran into the opposition of the General Manager who was a strong advocate for a standardised diesel bus fleet. He produced a report in December 1951 that was highly critical of trolley buses. Later that month, the board decided not to proceed with trolley buses and cancelled the order it had already placed for them. They were still undecided on the future of the Papanui–Cashmere route, the most profitable and popular of the tram routes, as they were not convinced that buses would be able to cope as a replacement. The General Manager made a point of convincing the board that only buses could adequately serve its needs and those of its customers and finally succeeded in January 1953, when the board relented and agreed that this route would also be served by buses.
[right\|thumb\|Christchurch Tramway Board electrified tramway network, January 1950](/wiki/File:Christchurch_CTB_tramway_route_map_1950.PNG "Christchurch CTB tramway route map 1950.PNG")
With the fate of the trams sealed, the remaining tram routes closed as a sufficient number of buses arrived from [England](/wiki/England "England") to replace them. Since the war, two tram routes had already closed: St. Martins on 20 May 1946 and Fendalton–Opawa on 6 February 1950\. This was now accelerated with the remaining routes being closed over the next few years: Brighton on 18 October 1952; Sumner on 6 December 1952; Riccarton on 14 June 1953; St. Albans Park–Spreydon on 21 June 1953; and Cranford Street–Lincoln Road on 26 July 1953\.
The last route to close was Papanui–Cashmere for which the last timetabled services ran on Friday 10 September 1954\. This was followed the next day by a ceremonial running of the last trams, a task performed by two Hills cars. After their journey to Papanui, then Cashmere, they returned to Cathedral Square where a huge crowd had gathered to witness the event. Speeches were made and a ribbon was cut to symbolically inaugurate the replacement bus service.
#### Disposition
The tram bodies were sold to private individuals, many of whom used them as sheds or huts, and the running gear was sold for scrap. Much of the tramway infrastructure was repurposed. Tram sheds at [Riccarton](/wiki/Riccarton%2C_New_Zealand "Riccarton, New Zealand") and Sumner remained for many years afterwards, the Sumner shed being last used as a dye works factory. Tram shelters became bus stops and traction masts were reused as utility poles.
Little time was wasted in removing sleepered track, which was ploughed out of the ground, and the roads quickly rebuilt. There was also track fixed to concrete for which removal was a much more difficult proposition. As the price of materials recovered would not have met the cost of removing them, this track was simply covered over with a layer of tar that was reapplied when the road surface required renewal. This has caused problems when such roads have needed to be dug up for the installation of utilities and even in more modern times, old tram tracks have been discovered during excavations for the heritage tram circuit extension.
### Ferrymead tramway: 1968–present
{{See also\|Ferrymead Heritage Park}}
The genesis of tram preservation in Christchurch was the Tramway Preservation Association. Tramway enthusiasts set it up in 1960 with branches in Christchurch and Wellington. The Christchurch group aimed to restore to working order two tram vehicles formerly in service with the Canterbury Tramway Company, but then under the ownership of the Christchurch Transport Board. With the enthusiastic support of the board, work commenced on a [Stephenson](/wiki/John_Stephenson_Company "John Stephenson Company") single\-deck horse car of 1887 and [Kitson](/wiki/Kitson_and_Company "Kitson and Company") steam motor no. 7 of 1881\.
[left\|thumb\|Kitson no. 7 hauling two trailers around the township loop at the Ferrymead Heritage Park](/wiki/File:Ferrymead_tramway_01.JPG "Ferrymead tramway 01.JPG")
In 1964, the two branches of the association became independent with the Christchurch group becoming known as the [Tramway Historical Society](/wiki/Tramway_Historical_Society "Tramway Historical Society"). It was also in August of that year that the restored horse car was run along the remaining section of track from the old Papanui line to mark ten years since the closure of the line, an event that also served to significantly boost the profile of the society and its membership.
The society, which had been using old Christchurch Transport Board tramway buildings for storage and restoration, created a purpose\-built facility in 1967 on land obtained at the Ferrymead Historic Park. It was here that a permanent tramway was established and the society was able to realise its goal of making the tramway experience available to the general public. John Fardell, then general manager of the Christchurch Transport Board, officially opened the tramway on 6 January 1968\. Rides were hauled using the society's Kitson steam motor as it was the only motive power available at the time.
A series of extensions to the tramway line opened over the next 16 years culminating in the completion of the Moorhouse township loop in 1984\. Also during this period, the tramway was electrified, allowing the society to run its restored electric trams in addition to its horse\- and steam\-hauled vehicles.
### Modern era: 1995–present
[right\|thumb\|Central city heritage tramway circuit](/wiki/File:Christchurch_heritage_tramway_circuit.png "Christchurch heritage tramway circuit.png")
[right\|thumb\|Workers join tram tracks in City Mall, March 2009](/wiki/File:Workers_join_tram_tracks_in_Christchurch.jpg "Workers join tram tracks in Christchurch.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|Tram driver](/wiki/File:New_Zealand_-_Tram_driver_-_9596.jpg "New Zealand - Tram driver - 9596.jpg")
At the suggestion of the Tramway Historical Society, the city council included plans for a tramline in its Worcester Boulevard project in the early 1990s. It was originally intended to be a line extending along Worcester Street from Cathedral Square but was later extended into a circuit around the central city. The city council granted a licence to Christchurch Tramway Limited to run the tramway and it was opened on 4 February 1995{{cite book \|last1\=Stewart \|first1\=Graham \|editor1\-first\=Lorraine \|editor1\-last\=Olphert \|title\=Around Christchurch by Tram in the 20th Century \|year\=1999 \|publisher\=Grantham House Publishing \|location\=Wellington \|isbn\=1\-86934\-071\-X \|page\=47 }} using vehicles leased from the Tramway Historical Society.{{cite web \|url\=http://christchurchcitylibraries.com/Heritage/Places/Public/Tramway/ \|title\=The Christchurch Tramway \|publisher\=Christchurch City Libraries \|accessdate\=24 October 2010}}
Wood Scenic Line Limited purchased the tramway in 2005{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tram.co.nz/Christchurch\-Tramway\-Ltd/Tramway\-History\_IDL\=1\_IDT\=2961\_ID\=16945\_.html \|title\=Christchurch Tramway History \|publisher\=Christchurch Tramway \|accessdate\=24 October 2010}} to run it as a commercial operation. As such, it is not considered to be part of the public transport system, with its primary focus being tourist traffic. Additional vehicles have been acquired by the tramway including a former [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne") W2 tram that has been converted into a restaurant.
#### Post\-earthquake
Christchurch was hit by a powerful [earthquake on 22 February 2011](/wiki/2011_Christchurch_earthquake "2011 Christchurch earthquake") that damaged the heritage tram circuit. Services were suspended for approximately 1000 days from the 22 February 2011 earthquake until November 2013\. The tramway reopened in November 2013 on a limited route from New Regent Street to Worcester Boulevard. In November 2014, the pre\-earthquake loop reopened.{{cite news \|last1\=O'Callaghan \|first1\=Jody \|title\=Christchurch trams get back on track \|url\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\-press/news/transport/10723739/Christchurch\-trams\-get\-back\-on\-track \|accessdate\=29 February 2016 \|work\=\[\[The Press]] \|date\=10 November 2014}} The route was also extended to travel through the [Re:START](/wiki/Re:START "START") mall and High Street, which was under construction when the 2011 earthquake struck.
The extension is part of an additional loop planned and partially constructed during the late 2000s,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/AK0809/S00281\.htm\|title\=Press release – First tram tracks laid in City Mall\|date\=25 September 2008\|work\=\[\[Christchurch City Council]]\|accessdate\=13 February 2010}} and a new strategy report by [Jan Gehl](/wiki/Jan_Gehl "Jan Gehl") commissioned for Council and published in early 2010 suggested an extension of the tram system (and integration of the trams into the general public transport system) as one of a package of measures aimed at reducing car dominance in the city.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ccc.govt.nz/cityleisure/projectstoimprovechristchurch/publicspacepubliclifestudy/index.aspx\|title\=Jan Gehl Public Space Public Life Study (Christchurch 2009, Public Space Public Life)\|last\=Gehl\|first\=Jan\|year\=2010\|publisher\=\[\[Christchurch City Council]]\|accessdate\=19 February 2010\|author\-link\=Jan Gehl\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100227085323/http://www.ccc.govt.nz/cityleisure/projectstoimprovechristchurch/publicspacepubliclifestudy/index.aspx\|archive\-date\=27 February 2010\|df\=dmy\-all}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{See also\\|Christchurch tramway routes}}",
"### Background",
"{{See also\\|Lyttelton Line}}\nThe difficulty experienced by Christchurch's early residents in conveying them and their export goods to [Lyttelton](/wiki/Lyttelton%2C_New_Zealand \"Lyttelton, New Zealand\") brought about the first proposal for a tramway at a meeting held on 26 September 1855\\. The merits of both wooden and iron\\-based tramways were discussed and a resolution was passed in support of the construction of either a tramway or a railway.",
"The issue arose again at a [Provincial Council](/wiki/Provinces_of_New_Zealand \"Provinces of New Zealand\") meeting on 16 October 1855 at which it was proposed that a line be built to [Sumner](/wiki/Sumner%2C_New_Zealand \"Sumner, New Zealand\") and goods could then be transported to Lyttelton by boat. A couple of leading and influential figures spoke out against the proposal and it was voted down.",
"It was not until 1858 that the matter once again gained attention in official circles. Despite a general belief that the idea itself was good, the Provincial Engineer's estimate of £6,000 was enough to ensure that the idea was not acted upon. The Provincial Council eventually opted to construct a railway line; the first section between Christchurch and Ferrymead opened in 1863, and the Ferrymead to Lyttelton section opened in 1867\\.",
"A meeting of prominent local citizens on 20 September 1872 discussed the matter of a tramway and concluded that it would be desirable to construct a line between Papanui and [Christchurch](/wiki/Christchurch_railway_station_%28New_Zealand%29 \"Christchurch railway station (New Zealand)\") railway stations, especially in light of the north railway having opened to [Rangiora](/wiki/Rangiora \"Rangiora\") earlier that year. Estimates had been prepared and it was suggested that the company be called \"The Christchurch and Papanui Junction Tramway Company\". The city council, however, was opposed to the idea and declined to support it, saying, \"That in the opinion of this meeting a tramway … is objectionable … for the following reasons: (1\\) A tramway is not required, (2\\) The streets are not wide enough, (3\\) A tramway would retard the railway station being brought into a more convenient place for the citizens\".",
"### White’s Little River tramway: 1861–1872",
"A partnership was formed in 1861, including well\\-known bridge engineer William White, with the aim of constructing a wooden tramway from Christchurch to [Little River](/wiki/Little_River%2C_New_Zealand \"Little River, New Zealand\"). The goal was to make it cheaper to cart timber from Little River and other building materials from the Halswell Quarry to Christchurch. The plan was for a line of approximately {{convert\\|38\\|mi\\|km}} in length, starting in what is now Moorhouse Avenue, travelling to [Birdlings Flat](/wiki/Birdling%27s_Flat \"Birdling's Flat\") where it would roughly follow the present state highway to Little River, then on to an area now known as Puaha. The gauge was to be {{RailGauge\\|4ft}} and the estimated cost was £1,023 per mile.{{cite web \\|title\\=Interesting Tramway Projects \\|url\\=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei\\-Gov07\\_02Rail\\-t1\\-body\\-d12\\-d1\\-d3\\.html \\|website\\=NZETC \\|accessdate\\=24 March 2020}}",
"White began construction in 1863 and by year's end had built {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} of the line. The project ultimately failed, due largely to a lack of capital, but animosity from the line's neighbours also disrupted business. Work on the line had ceased by the end of 1866 by which time the Christchurch–Halswell Quarry section had been completed and work had started at the Little River end. The line to the quarry remained in use until 1872\\. Little River was eventually served by rail when the [Railways Department](/wiki/New_Zealand_Railways_Department \"New Zealand Railways Department\")'s [Little River Branch](/wiki/Little_River_Branch \"Little River Branch\") opened to its namesake terminus in 1886\\.",
"### Horse and steam era: 1880–1906",
"The idea of building a tramway did not gain widespread support until 1876\\. By this time, the city had experienced significant development and the need for improved transport had become evident. With the passing into law of the Tramways Act in 1872 and the city council dropping its opposition to the idea, the political environment had become more agreeable to the formation of tramways.",
"Trams became a reality for Christchurch on 9 March 1880 when the first revenue services commenced on a line from [Cathedral Square](/wiki/Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch \"Cathedral Square, Christchurch\") to Christchurch Railway Station via [Colombo Street](/wiki/Colombo_Street \"Colombo Street\"). The company behind the venture, the Canterbury Tramway Company, had been formed in 1878 then spent the next two years negotiating with the various councils involved, purchasing equipment, constructing its lines, etc. After the first day, issues with the track were identified which resulted in a suspension of services until 16 March.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Route map of private tramway company lines in Christchurch](/wiki/File:Christchurch_private_tramway_route_map.PNG \"Christchurch private tramway route map.PNG\")\nThe Company opened several other lines that same year including: Christchurch Railway Station via High and Manchester Streets (24 July); Papanui Railway Station (24 June); Agricultural Show Grounds (6 August) and later in the year to Devon Street. Orders were also placed with local coachbuilders for more tramcars.",
"In later years, other lines opened by the Company included: Addington Railway Station (5 January 1882\\) and later the Addington Show Grounds (28 October 1887\\); [Woolston](/wiki/Woolston%2C_New_Zealand \"Woolston, New Zealand\") (7 July 1882\\) then to [Heathcote](/wiki/Heathcote_Valley \"Heathcote Valley\") (9 December 1882\\) and finally Sumner (1 November 1888\\). The lines to Papanui and Sumner were the most lucrative.",
"It was not until 1884 that another player joined the Canterbury Tramway Company in the tramway business. The city council decided that it needed its own line from the central city to serve its cemetery and Reserve. It intended to run the municipal services on the line itself and to contract out the carriage of people. Construction began on 26 November 1885 at Latimer Square and was completed by March 1886\\. The line was officially opened on 23 April 1886 and was to have passenger services provided by private contractor Charles O’Malley who had earlier secured a three\\-year lease. He proved to be unsuitable and was replaced in August 1886 by the Canterbury Tramway Company. The lease changed hands again after 18 months and was picked up by the New Brighton Tramway Company who remained the leaseholder until [municipalisation](/wiki/Municipalisation \"Municipalisation\").",
"Buoyed by the prospect of a tram connection to [New Brighton](/wiki/New_Brighton%2C_New_Zealand \"New Brighton, New Zealand\") following the opening of the city council's Corporation line, the New Brighton Tramway Company was formed in 1885 with the intention of constructing and operating a line from a junction with the Corporation line to a terminus at New Brighton. Construction began in 1886 and was completed by January 1887\\. The first service on the line was a trial run on 8 January 1887, which proved to be a success, and was followed on 15 February by the commencement of revenue services. The Company's acquisition of the lease for the Corporation line at the end of 1888 proved to be fortuitous, giving the Company control over the entire route from the central city to the New Brighton terminus.",
"The last entrant to the Christchurch tramway scene was the City and Suburban Tramway Company, formed early in 1892 with the intention of constructing lines to Springfield Road and New Brighton from its base at the corner of Manchester, Lichfield, and High Streets. Only the latter of these lines was built, on which construction began on 1 May 1893\\. The Company ran into financial difficulties during construction that held up progress until the contractor secured a debt over the Company and completed the line in August 1894\\. Revenue services commenced as far as Stanmore Road on 1 September 1893 and it was not until 25 October 1894 that trams were able to run the full length of the line to New Brighton Pier. A deleterious financial position, brought about in part by the Company's need to rent both horses and rolling stock, resulted in the collapse of the Company in 1895\\. It was purchased by the contractor who built the Company's line and run under the same name.",
"The Canterbury Tramway Company had earlier had its own financial difficulties resulting in its collapse in 1893\\. After various options were explored the Company was recapitalised as the Christchurch Tramway Company. Various measures were implemented to remedy the issues that plagued the old company including the closure of the Manchester Street route to the railway station, the use of horses in preference to steam motors, and the renewal or replacement of some of its assets. During its time, the Company also extended two of its lines: the Addington line reached [Sunnyside Asylum](/wiki/Sunnyside_Hospital \"Sunnyside Hospital\") at the end of 1895 with revenue services commencing in the New Year, and the [Sydenham](/wiki/Sydenham%2C_New_Zealand \"Sydenham, New Zealand\") line was extended to the [Cashmere](/wiki/Cashmere%2C_New_Zealand \"Cashmere, New Zealand\") Hills and opened on 7 December 1898\\.",
"When the concessions under which the lines of the private tramway companies were operated came up for renewal from the late 1890s, the various local bodies involved saw it as an opportunity to consider municipalisation of the whole system. The tramway companies, which were seeking to extend their concessions to give them some certainty over the future of their business, were rebuffed and eventually the Christchurch Tramway Board was formed to bring the tramways under public control.",
"### Electric era: 1905–1954",
"#### Early years",
"Political pressure and public agitation for a modern tramway system resulted in the formation of the Christchurch Tramway Board in late 1902\\. It proceeded to create its own network by purchasing the lines of the private tramway companies and also establishing its own new lines.",
"Work on the Tramway Board's lines began in September 1904 at the intersection of Fitzgerald Avenue and Ferry Road. It required a great many men using only basic tools with the assistance of horse\\-drawn drays and traction engines and attracted considerable interest from the public.",
"Installation of tramlines sometimes led to improvements of the roads on which they were built. Because as was standard practice at the time, single\\-track tram lines were laid in the middle of the road requiring some roads to be widened to allow vehicles to pass trams on either side. Also, any undulations in the road were smoothed out so the track could be laid flush with the road surface.",
"Private operators were contracted by the board to provide alternative transport while tramlines were unavailable due to construction. These services were run using horse\\-drawn drags.",
"The electrified tram network was inaugurated on 5 June 1905 when an official opening day was held. After speeches at the board's car shed on Falsgrave Street, the official party departed on a procession of seven electric trams bound for Papanui. After an accident en route required the withdrawal of two of the trams, the rest of the party reached their destination where the festivities continued. Revenue services commenced on the Papanui–Railway Station route the following day.",
"The first tranche of work was completed by September 1906\\. Figures provided by *The Press* in June 1906 show that materials used included 2,400 poles, {{convert\\|63\\|mi\\|km}} of [trolley wire](/wiki/Overhead_line \"Overhead line\"), {{convert\\|65\\|mi\\|km}} of feeder cables, {{convert\\|120\\|mi\\|km}} of telephone and other wires, 80,000 [sleepers](/wiki/Railroad_tie \"Railroad tie\"), 26,000 electrical bonds, 90,000 yards of [metal](/wiki/Track_ballast \"Track ballast\"), and 5,500 tons of rails.",
"Lines built and electrified by the New Zealand Electrical Construction Company were mainly those that had been acquired from the private tramway companies and included: Papanui to Christchurch Railway Station (6 June 1905\\); Sumner (steam, 6 June 1905; electric, 25 April 1907\\); Cashmere (16 August 1905\\); Riccarton (steam, 2 November 1905; electric, 12 March 1906\\); Lincoln Road (8 February 1906\\); New Brighton (Linwood, 26 March 1906; New Brighton, 6 August 1906\\).",
"#### Heyday",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|Tram shelter in [Cathedral Square](/wiki/Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch \"Cathedral Square, Christchurch\"), circa 1905](/wiki/File:Tram_shelter%2C_Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch%2C_ca_1910.jpeg \"Tram shelter, Cathedral Square, Christchurch, ca 1910.jpeg\")\nThe trams quickly became popular with the public and revenue exceeded the board's expectations. [Rolling stock](/wiki/Rolling_stock \"Rolling stock\") consisted of 27 electric vehicles supplied under the initial contract and the 7 steam motors and 42 trailers acquired from the Christchurch Tramway Company. Twenty\\-two trailers from the New Brighton and City and Suburban tramway companies later augmented the fleet.",
"Though the primary purpose of the tramway was the carriage of passengers, it also carried other items such as mail, newspapers, perambulators, bicycles, construction materials, and animals. The cartage of animals on the tramway was made illegal in December 1915\\.",
"The reality of the environment in which the tramway business was conducted was made clear in 1912 when chairman of the board George Booth explained the main problems the board faced in his annual report. First, Christchurch had a considerable amount of route mileage with little or no revenue potential, necessitated by the geographically diverse nature of the population it served. Second, the growing problem of competition from bicycles and motorcars since the development of the [pneumatic tyre](/wiki/Pneumatic_tyre \"Pneumatic tyre\"), exacerbated by the generally flat nature of the terrain on which Christchurch was sited. The board's response to these issues had not improved the situation by 1914\\.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Route map of Christchurch's electrified tramway network at its peak](/wiki/File:Christchurch_CTB_tramway_route_map_1920s.PNG \"Christchurch CTB tramway route map 1920s.PNG\")\nIt was during this period that the construction of the tramway network was completed. Additional lines opened were St. Albans Park (24 December 1906\\), Opawa (steam, 14 March 1907; electric, 21 September 1909\\), Fendalton (steam, 3 May 1907; electric, 20 November 1909\\), Cranford Street (1 July 1910\\), North Beach (steam, 24 December 1911; electric, 1 October 1914\\), Spreydon (3 August 1911\\), Cashmere Hills extension (1 May 1912\\), Dallington (1 November 1912\\), Northcote extension (28 February 1913\\), and the St. Martins line (7 April 1914\\) which was the last major line to be opened. The only new tracks to be commissioned after this time (aside from single\\- or double\\-tracking and renewals) were the extension of the Riccarton line to Plumpton Park (December 1915\\), the Lichfield Street link (July 1922\\), and the extension of the Spreydon line to Barrington Street (August 1922\\). For many years afterwards Christchurch was able to boast the largest network in the country by route mileage at {{convert\\|53\\.5\\|mi}} and in 1912 it was reportedly second only to [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") in [Australasia](/wiki/Australasia \"Australasia\").",
"The growth of the board's business in its early years soon necessitated the purchase of new rolling stock to meet demand. By 1908, the number of electric trams had increased to 39 and had grown to 65 in 1912\\. An additional 34 trailers were also added to the fleet by 1920\\. Other vehicles acquired included a Baldwin steam motor (1906\\), three sprinkler cars, and an overhead lines car. To match this, the size of the board's staff also grew from 196 in 1906 to 350 in 1913 and 530 in 1920, making it the largest employer in the city.",
"The tramway was credited with encouraging the suburban development of Christchurch. Land along tram routes became more valuable and made it easier for people to live out in the suburbs. The main central city retail precinct, which had been concentrated around the railway station, gradually moved north to avail itself of the increased flow of people generated by the tram routes converging on Cathedral Square. Smaller retail precincts developed around the ends of some lines such as [Fendalton](/wiki/Fendalton \"Fendalton\") and [Spreydon](/wiki/Spreydon \"Spreydon\").",
"#### Halcyon years",
"The economic uncertainty of the late 1920s culminated in the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") of the 1930s, a situation that severely affected the operation of the tramway as much as it affected the rest of the country. Both revenue and patronage suffered sharp declines and as if to make matters worse the loans used to establish the tramway system were due to mature in 1934\\. Competition was becoming an increasing problem, particularly from bicycles whose number had increased dramatically.",
"To contain its financial problems, the board implemented several economy measures. It experimented with the St. Martins cars to trial \"one\\-man\" tram operation, which proved that the concept could work. Between 1932 and 1936, additional trams were converted for this purpose and deployed initially on the more lightly patronised lines before being used on the longer lines as a sufficient number were available. Consequent to the introduction of one\\-man trams was the need to install [balloon loops](/wiki/Balloon_loop \"Balloon loop\") or [wyes](/wiki/Wye_%28rail%29 \"Wye (rail)\") at the termini of the lines on which these cars were used.",
"Several under\\-performing or severely dilapidated lines were also closed during this period, notably the North Beach line, the Papanui railway station spur and Northcote extension of the Papanui line, and the Dallington–Railway Station route. In most cases, trams on these routes were replaced with buses.",
"With the arrival of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") came constraints on many aspects of ordinary life that were both beneficial and detrimental to the tramway. Restrictions and rationing of many basic supplies limited the use of private motorised transport leading to huge growth in patronage of the trams and, often, severe overcrowding. This also had the effect of significantly improving the board's revenue. The increased popularity of the trams was also assisted by the large number of New Zealand military personnel based at both the [Burnham Camp](/wiki/Burnham%2C_New_Zealand \"Burnham, New Zealand\") and [Wigram Aerodrome](/wiki/Wigram_Aerodrome \"Wigram Aerodrome\"), and the contingent of American military in the city.",
"It was not all good news for the board during the war years, as its costs also increased during this period; primarily wages, electricity, and maintenance. The war also made it more difficult to obtain supplies and spare parts needed to maintain and repair its assets, requiring a measure of ingenuity to keep things working. War service depleted the board's staff resulting in the hiring of women where necessary to fill gaps. Women were not just to fill gaps – wartime photo shows 28 women conductors at the time. Most trams then carried women conductors. RNM [thumb\\|Photo taken circa 1942](/wiki/File:Christchurch_Tram_Conductors_during_World_War_2.jpg \"Christchurch Tram Conductors during World War 2.jpg\")",
"The end of the war also brought about the end of the boom for the tramway and marked the beginning of the end. Unlike other tramway systems around the country, the newest of vehicles in service in Christchurch were decades old and the track had suffered from years of neglect with little maintenance having been carried out. Though the imposition of rationing was not finally lifted until the early 1950s, post\\-war Christchurch grew faster than the tramway could keep up ensuring that the tramway's replacement was just a matter of time.",
"#### Demise",
"Though several lines were closed and replaced by buses in the 1930s due to prevailing economic conditions, most tram routes were closed in the decade following the end of World War 2\\. While the war was in some respects a boon for the tramway – with restrictions on other forms of transport patronage of the trams was significantly improved – it also caused problems, which contributed to the end of the trams.",
"Perhaps one of the biggest problems faced by the tramway system following the war was the much\\-improved economic situation that ensued, increasing prosperity for many and giving them options that they might not have had before. Rates of car ownership increased and the city grew significantly in size presenting the board with a twofold problem of trying to maintain what they already had whilst trying to serve many more people over a greater area. Operating costs also increased, due in part to changing work patterns that placed a higher demand on the trams during peak times and reduced off\\-peak demand, but also an increase in staff costs, which only served to further increase losses.",
"To determine the future of [public transport](/wiki/Public_transport \"Public transport\") in Christchurch, the Future Policy Committee was formed in February 1945\\. It considered the matter of the tram network and concluded that the remaining tram routes should be retained and operated until such time as the tracks reached the end of their useful lives at which time they would be replaced by buses. John Fardell, appointed General Manager of the Board in 1946, delivered his own report on the future direction of the Board on 6 October 1947\\. He pointed out the poor state of the board's tramway assets and that even with repairs, new infrastructure and rolling stock would be required within a few years to keep the system operational. The board was also at the time in a precarious financial state with years of losses having made it difficult to set aside sufficient funds for the repayment of loans, many of which were due to mature in the 1950s and 1960s. To upgrade the existing tramway to modern standards and extend it into the new suburbs could not be contemplated. While he did not push for the immediate removal of the trams, preferring to run them as long as possible in part to pay off outstanding loans, he did strongly advocate for the introduction of diesel buses to replace trams when they were withdrawn. In this first report, his preference for diesel buses was not absolute, however, as he did recommend the use of [trolley buses](/wiki/Trolleybus \"Trolleybus\") on the existing North Beach route which still had useful infrastructure in place and on the Papanui–Cashmere route where the trolley buses would have superior hill\\-climbing performance characteristics.",
"The board favoured a mixed trolley/diesel bus fleet and unsuccessfully tried in 1948 and 1949 to raise a loan to further this plan. Mindful of these earlier failures, they were careful to impress upon the public the dire consequences of not planning for bus replacements given the state of the tramway after deciding in April 1950 to purchase 39 diesel buses. The Loans Board subsequently approved this loan proposal in September and it was also sanctioned by a plebiscite of the board's ratepayers.",
"The Tramway Board, which had been hoping that the diesel buses would be a temporary measure on some routes pending the erection of a trolley bus system, ran into the opposition of the General Manager who was a strong advocate for a standardised diesel bus fleet. He produced a report in December 1951 that was highly critical of trolley buses. Later that month, the board decided not to proceed with trolley buses and cancelled the order it had already placed for them. They were still undecided on the future of the Papanui–Cashmere route, the most profitable and popular of the tram routes, as they were not convinced that buses would be able to cope as a replacement. The General Manager made a point of convincing the board that only buses could adequately serve its needs and those of its customers and finally succeeded in January 1953, when the board relented and agreed that this route would also be served by buses.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Christchurch Tramway Board electrified tramway network, January 1950](/wiki/File:Christchurch_CTB_tramway_route_map_1950.PNG \"Christchurch CTB tramway route map 1950.PNG\")\nWith the fate of the trams sealed, the remaining tram routes closed as a sufficient number of buses arrived from [England](/wiki/England \"England\") to replace them. Since the war, two tram routes had already closed: St. Martins on 20 May 1946 and Fendalton–Opawa on 6 February 1950\\. This was now accelerated with the remaining routes being closed over the next few years: Brighton on 18 October 1952; Sumner on 6 December 1952; Riccarton on 14 June 1953; St. Albans Park–Spreydon on 21 June 1953; and Cranford Street–Lincoln Road on 26 July 1953\\.",
"The last route to close was Papanui–Cashmere for which the last timetabled services ran on Friday 10 September 1954\\. This was followed the next day by a ceremonial running of the last trams, a task performed by two Hills cars. After their journey to Papanui, then Cashmere, they returned to Cathedral Square where a huge crowd had gathered to witness the event. Speeches were made and a ribbon was cut to symbolically inaugurate the replacement bus service.",
"#### Disposition",
"The tram bodies were sold to private individuals, many of whom used them as sheds or huts, and the running gear was sold for scrap. Much of the tramway infrastructure was repurposed. Tram sheds at [Riccarton](/wiki/Riccarton%2C_New_Zealand \"Riccarton, New Zealand\") and Sumner remained for many years afterwards, the Sumner shed being last used as a dye works factory. Tram shelters became bus stops and traction masts were reused as utility poles.",
"Little time was wasted in removing sleepered track, which was ploughed out of the ground, and the roads quickly rebuilt. There was also track fixed to concrete for which removal was a much more difficult proposition. As the price of materials recovered would not have met the cost of removing them, this track was simply covered over with a layer of tar that was reapplied when the road surface required renewal. This has caused problems when such roads have needed to be dug up for the installation of utilities and even in more modern times, old tram tracks have been discovered during excavations for the heritage tram circuit extension.",
"### Ferrymead tramway: 1968–present",
"{{See also\\|Ferrymead Heritage Park}}\nThe genesis of tram preservation in Christchurch was the Tramway Preservation Association. Tramway enthusiasts set it up in 1960 with branches in Christchurch and Wellington. The Christchurch group aimed to restore to working order two tram vehicles formerly in service with the Canterbury Tramway Company, but then under the ownership of the Christchurch Transport Board. With the enthusiastic support of the board, work commenced on a [Stephenson](/wiki/John_Stephenson_Company \"John Stephenson Company\") single\\-deck horse car of 1887 and [Kitson](/wiki/Kitson_and_Company \"Kitson and Company\") steam motor no. 7 of 1881\\.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Kitson no. 7 hauling two trailers around the township loop at the Ferrymead Heritage Park](/wiki/File:Ferrymead_tramway_01.JPG \"Ferrymead tramway 01.JPG\")\nIn 1964, the two branches of the association became independent with the Christchurch group becoming known as the [Tramway Historical Society](/wiki/Tramway_Historical_Society \"Tramway Historical Society\"). It was also in August of that year that the restored horse car was run along the remaining section of track from the old Papanui line to mark ten years since the closure of the line, an event that also served to significantly boost the profile of the society and its membership.",
"The society, which had been using old Christchurch Transport Board tramway buildings for storage and restoration, created a purpose\\-built facility in 1967 on land obtained at the Ferrymead Historic Park. It was here that a permanent tramway was established and the society was able to realise its goal of making the tramway experience available to the general public. John Fardell, then general manager of the Christchurch Transport Board, officially opened the tramway on 6 January 1968\\. Rides were hauled using the society's Kitson steam motor as it was the only motive power available at the time.",
"A series of extensions to the tramway line opened over the next 16 years culminating in the completion of the Moorhouse township loop in 1984\\. Also during this period, the tramway was electrified, allowing the society to run its restored electric trams in addition to its horse\\- and steam\\-hauled vehicles.",
"### Modern era: 1995–present",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Central city heritage tramway circuit](/wiki/File:Christchurch_heritage_tramway_circuit.png \"Christchurch heritage tramway circuit.png\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|Workers join tram tracks in City Mall, March 2009](/wiki/File:Workers_join_tram_tracks_in_Christchurch.jpg \"Workers join tram tracks in Christchurch.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Tram driver](/wiki/File:New_Zealand_-_Tram_driver_-_9596.jpg \"New Zealand - Tram driver - 9596.jpg\")\nAt the suggestion of the Tramway Historical Society, the city council included plans for a tramline in its Worcester Boulevard project in the early 1990s. It was originally intended to be a line extending along Worcester Street from Cathedral Square but was later extended into a circuit around the central city. The city council granted a licence to Christchurch Tramway Limited to run the tramway and it was opened on 4 February 1995{{cite book \\|last1\\=Stewart \\|first1\\=Graham \\|editor1\\-first\\=Lorraine \\|editor1\\-last\\=Olphert \\|title\\=Around Christchurch by Tram in the 20th Century \\|year\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=Grantham House Publishing \\|location\\=Wellington \\|isbn\\=1\\-86934\\-071\\-X \\|page\\=47 }} using vehicles leased from the Tramway Historical Society.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://christchurchcitylibraries.com/Heritage/Places/Public/Tramway/ \\|title\\=The Christchurch Tramway \\|publisher\\=Christchurch City Libraries \\|accessdate\\=24 October 2010}}",
"Wood Scenic Line Limited purchased the tramway in 2005{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tram.co.nz/Christchurch\\-Tramway\\-Ltd/Tramway\\-History\\_IDL\\=1\\_IDT\\=2961\\_ID\\=16945\\_.html \\|title\\=Christchurch Tramway History \\|publisher\\=Christchurch Tramway \\|accessdate\\=24 October 2010}} to run it as a commercial operation. As such, it is not considered to be part of the public transport system, with its primary focus being tourist traffic. Additional vehicles have been acquired by the tramway including a former [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\") W2 tram that has been converted into a restaurant.",
"#### Post\\-earthquake",
"Christchurch was hit by a powerful [earthquake on 22 February 2011](/wiki/2011_Christchurch_earthquake \"2011 Christchurch earthquake\") that damaged the heritage tram circuit. Services were suspended for approximately 1000 days from the 22 February 2011 earthquake until November 2013\\. The tramway reopened in November 2013 on a limited route from New Regent Street to Worcester Boulevard. In November 2014, the pre\\-earthquake loop reopened.{{cite news \\|last1\\=O'Callaghan \\|first1\\=Jody \\|title\\=Christchurch trams get back on track \\|url\\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\\-press/news/transport/10723739/Christchurch\\-trams\\-get\\-back\\-on\\-track \\|accessdate\\=29 February 2016 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Press]] \\|date\\=10 November 2014}} The route was also extended to travel through the [Re:START](/wiki/Re:START \"START\") mall and High Street, which was under construction when the 2011 earthquake struck.",
"The extension is part of an additional loop planned and partially constructed during the late 2000s,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/AK0809/S00281\\.htm\\|title\\=Press release – First tram tracks laid in City Mall\\|date\\=25 September 2008\\|work\\=\\[\\[Christchurch City Council]]\\|accessdate\\=13 February 2010}} and a new strategy report by [Jan Gehl](/wiki/Jan_Gehl \"Jan Gehl\") commissioned for Council and published in early 2010 suggested an extension of the tram system (and integration of the trams into the general public transport system) as one of a package of measures aimed at reducing car dominance in the city.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ccc.govt.nz/cityleisure/projectstoimprovechristchurch/publicspacepubliclifestudy/index.aspx\\|title\\=Jan Gehl Public Space Public Life Study (Christchurch 2009, Public Space Public Life)\\|last\\=Gehl\\|first\\=Jan\\|year\\=2010\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Christchurch City Council]]\\|accessdate\\=19 February 2010\\|author\\-link\\=Jan Gehl\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100227085323/http://www.ccc.govt.nz/cityleisure/projectstoimprovechristchurch/publicspacepubliclifestudy/index.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=27 February 2010\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
""
] |
### Horse and steam era: 1880–1906
The idea of building a tramway did not gain widespread support until 1876\. By this time, the city had experienced significant development and the need for improved transport had become evident. With the passing into law of the Tramways Act in 1872 and the city council dropping its opposition to the idea, the political environment had become more agreeable to the formation of tramways.
Trams became a reality for Christchurch on 9 March 1880 when the first revenue services commenced on a line from [Cathedral Square](/wiki/Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch "Cathedral Square, Christchurch") to Christchurch Railway Station via [Colombo Street](/wiki/Colombo_Street "Colombo Street"). The company behind the venture, the Canterbury Tramway Company, had been formed in 1878 then spent the next two years negotiating with the various councils involved, purchasing equipment, constructing its lines, etc. After the first day, issues with the track were identified which resulted in a suspension of services until 16 March.
[thumb\|left\|Route map of private tramway company lines in Christchurch](/wiki/File:Christchurch_private_tramway_route_map.PNG "Christchurch private tramway route map.PNG")
The Company opened several other lines that same year including: Christchurch Railway Station via High and Manchester Streets (24 July); Papanui Railway Station (24 June); Agricultural Show Grounds (6 August) and later in the year to Devon Street. Orders were also placed with local coachbuilders for more tramcars.
In later years, other lines opened by the Company included: Addington Railway Station (5 January 1882\) and later the Addington Show Grounds (28 October 1887\); [Woolston](/wiki/Woolston%2C_New_Zealand "Woolston, New Zealand") (7 July 1882\) then to [Heathcote](/wiki/Heathcote_Valley "Heathcote Valley") (9 December 1882\) and finally Sumner (1 November 1888\). The lines to Papanui and Sumner were the most lucrative.
It was not until 1884 that another player joined the Canterbury Tramway Company in the tramway business. The city council decided that it needed its own line from the central city to serve its cemetery and Reserve. It intended to run the municipal services on the line itself and to contract out the carriage of people. Construction began on 26 November 1885 at Latimer Square and was completed by March 1886\. The line was officially opened on 23 April 1886 and was to have passenger services provided by private contractor Charles O’Malley who had earlier secured a three\-year lease. He proved to be unsuitable and was replaced in August 1886 by the Canterbury Tramway Company. The lease changed hands again after 18 months and was picked up by the New Brighton Tramway Company who remained the leaseholder until [municipalisation](/wiki/Municipalisation "Municipalisation").
Buoyed by the prospect of a tram connection to [New Brighton](/wiki/New_Brighton%2C_New_Zealand "New Brighton, New Zealand") following the opening of the city council's Corporation line, the New Brighton Tramway Company was formed in 1885 with the intention of constructing and operating a line from a junction with the Corporation line to a terminus at New Brighton. Construction began in 1886 and was completed by January 1887\. The first service on the line was a trial run on 8 January 1887, which proved to be a success, and was followed on 15 February by the commencement of revenue services. The Company's acquisition of the lease for the Corporation line at the end of 1888 proved to be fortuitous, giving the Company control over the entire route from the central city to the New Brighton terminus.
The last entrant to the Christchurch tramway scene was the City and Suburban Tramway Company, formed early in 1892 with the intention of constructing lines to Springfield Road and New Brighton from its base at the corner of Manchester, Lichfield, and High Streets. Only the latter of these lines was built, on which construction began on 1 May 1893\. The Company ran into financial difficulties during construction that held up progress until the contractor secured a debt over the Company and completed the line in August 1894\. Revenue services commenced as far as Stanmore Road on 1 September 1893 and it was not until 25 October 1894 that trams were able to run the full length of the line to New Brighton Pier. A deleterious financial position, brought about in part by the Company's need to rent both horses and rolling stock, resulted in the collapse of the Company in 1895\. It was purchased by the contractor who built the Company's line and run under the same name.
The Canterbury Tramway Company had earlier had its own financial difficulties resulting in its collapse in 1893\. After various options were explored the Company was recapitalised as the Christchurch Tramway Company. Various measures were implemented to remedy the issues that plagued the old company including the closure of the Manchester Street route to the railway station, the use of horses in preference to steam motors, and the renewal or replacement of some of its assets. During its time, the Company also extended two of its lines: the Addington line reached [Sunnyside Asylum](/wiki/Sunnyside_Hospital "Sunnyside Hospital") at the end of 1895 with revenue services commencing in the New Year, and the [Sydenham](/wiki/Sydenham%2C_New_Zealand "Sydenham, New Zealand") line was extended to the [Cashmere](/wiki/Cashmere%2C_New_Zealand "Cashmere, New Zealand") Hills and opened on 7 December 1898\.
When the concessions under which the lines of the private tramway companies were operated came up for renewal from the late 1890s, the various local bodies involved saw it as an opportunity to consider municipalisation of the whole system. The tramway companies, which were seeking to extend their concessions to give them some certainty over the future of their business, were rebuffed and eventually the Christchurch Tramway Board was formed to bring the tramways under public control.
|
[
"### Horse and steam era: 1880–1906",
"The idea of building a tramway did not gain widespread support until 1876\\. By this time, the city had experienced significant development and the need for improved transport had become evident. With the passing into law of the Tramways Act in 1872 and the city council dropping its opposition to the idea, the political environment had become more agreeable to the formation of tramways.",
"Trams became a reality for Christchurch on 9 March 1880 when the first revenue services commenced on a line from [Cathedral Square](/wiki/Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch \"Cathedral Square, Christchurch\") to Christchurch Railway Station via [Colombo Street](/wiki/Colombo_Street \"Colombo Street\"). The company behind the venture, the Canterbury Tramway Company, had been formed in 1878 then spent the next two years negotiating with the various councils involved, purchasing equipment, constructing its lines, etc. After the first day, issues with the track were identified which resulted in a suspension of services until 16 March.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Route map of private tramway company lines in Christchurch](/wiki/File:Christchurch_private_tramway_route_map.PNG \"Christchurch private tramway route map.PNG\")\nThe Company opened several other lines that same year including: Christchurch Railway Station via High and Manchester Streets (24 July); Papanui Railway Station (24 June); Agricultural Show Grounds (6 August) and later in the year to Devon Street. Orders were also placed with local coachbuilders for more tramcars.",
"In later years, other lines opened by the Company included: Addington Railway Station (5 January 1882\\) and later the Addington Show Grounds (28 October 1887\\); [Woolston](/wiki/Woolston%2C_New_Zealand \"Woolston, New Zealand\") (7 July 1882\\) then to [Heathcote](/wiki/Heathcote_Valley \"Heathcote Valley\") (9 December 1882\\) and finally Sumner (1 November 1888\\). The lines to Papanui and Sumner were the most lucrative.",
"It was not until 1884 that another player joined the Canterbury Tramway Company in the tramway business. The city council decided that it needed its own line from the central city to serve its cemetery and Reserve. It intended to run the municipal services on the line itself and to contract out the carriage of people. Construction began on 26 November 1885 at Latimer Square and was completed by March 1886\\. The line was officially opened on 23 April 1886 and was to have passenger services provided by private contractor Charles O’Malley who had earlier secured a three\\-year lease. He proved to be unsuitable and was replaced in August 1886 by the Canterbury Tramway Company. The lease changed hands again after 18 months and was picked up by the New Brighton Tramway Company who remained the leaseholder until [municipalisation](/wiki/Municipalisation \"Municipalisation\").",
"Buoyed by the prospect of a tram connection to [New Brighton](/wiki/New_Brighton%2C_New_Zealand \"New Brighton, New Zealand\") following the opening of the city council's Corporation line, the New Brighton Tramway Company was formed in 1885 with the intention of constructing and operating a line from a junction with the Corporation line to a terminus at New Brighton. Construction began in 1886 and was completed by January 1887\\. The first service on the line was a trial run on 8 January 1887, which proved to be a success, and was followed on 15 February by the commencement of revenue services. The Company's acquisition of the lease for the Corporation line at the end of 1888 proved to be fortuitous, giving the Company control over the entire route from the central city to the New Brighton terminus.",
"The last entrant to the Christchurch tramway scene was the City and Suburban Tramway Company, formed early in 1892 with the intention of constructing lines to Springfield Road and New Brighton from its base at the corner of Manchester, Lichfield, and High Streets. Only the latter of these lines was built, on which construction began on 1 May 1893\\. The Company ran into financial difficulties during construction that held up progress until the contractor secured a debt over the Company and completed the line in August 1894\\. Revenue services commenced as far as Stanmore Road on 1 September 1893 and it was not until 25 October 1894 that trams were able to run the full length of the line to New Brighton Pier. A deleterious financial position, brought about in part by the Company's need to rent both horses and rolling stock, resulted in the collapse of the Company in 1895\\. It was purchased by the contractor who built the Company's line and run under the same name.",
"The Canterbury Tramway Company had earlier had its own financial difficulties resulting in its collapse in 1893\\. After various options were explored the Company was recapitalised as the Christchurch Tramway Company. Various measures were implemented to remedy the issues that plagued the old company including the closure of the Manchester Street route to the railway station, the use of horses in preference to steam motors, and the renewal or replacement of some of its assets. During its time, the Company also extended two of its lines: the Addington line reached [Sunnyside Asylum](/wiki/Sunnyside_Hospital \"Sunnyside Hospital\") at the end of 1895 with revenue services commencing in the New Year, and the [Sydenham](/wiki/Sydenham%2C_New_Zealand \"Sydenham, New Zealand\") line was extended to the [Cashmere](/wiki/Cashmere%2C_New_Zealand \"Cashmere, New Zealand\") Hills and opened on 7 December 1898\\.",
"When the concessions under which the lines of the private tramway companies were operated came up for renewal from the late 1890s, the various local bodies involved saw it as an opportunity to consider municipalisation of the whole system. The tramway companies, which were seeking to extend their concessions to give them some certainty over the future of their business, were rebuffed and eventually the Christchurch Tramway Board was formed to bring the tramways under public control.",
""
] |
### Electric era: 1905–1954
#### Early years
Political pressure and public agitation for a modern tramway system resulted in the formation of the Christchurch Tramway Board in late 1902\. It proceeded to create its own network by purchasing the lines of the private tramway companies and also establishing its own new lines.
Work on the Tramway Board's lines began in September 1904 at the intersection of Fitzgerald Avenue and Ferry Road. It required a great many men using only basic tools with the assistance of horse\-drawn drays and traction engines and attracted considerable interest from the public.
Installation of tramlines sometimes led to improvements of the roads on which they were built. Because as was standard practice at the time, single\-track tram lines were laid in the middle of the road requiring some roads to be widened to allow vehicles to pass trams on either side. Also, any undulations in the road were smoothed out so the track could be laid flush with the road surface.
Private operators were contracted by the board to provide alternative transport while tramlines were unavailable due to construction. These services were run using horse\-drawn drags.
The electrified tram network was inaugurated on 5 June 1905 when an official opening day was held. After speeches at the board's car shed on Falsgrave Street, the official party departed on a procession of seven electric trams bound for Papanui. After an accident en route required the withdrawal of two of the trams, the rest of the party reached their destination where the festivities continued. Revenue services commenced on the Papanui–Railway Station route the following day.
The first tranche of work was completed by September 1906\. Figures provided by *The Press* in June 1906 show that materials used included 2,400 poles, {{convert\|63\|mi\|km}} of [trolley wire](/wiki/Overhead_line "Overhead line"), {{convert\|65\|mi\|km}} of feeder cables, {{convert\|120\|mi\|km}} of telephone and other wires, 80,000 [sleepers](/wiki/Railroad_tie "Railroad tie"), 26,000 electrical bonds, 90,000 yards of [metal](/wiki/Track_ballast "Track ballast"), and 5,500 tons of rails.
Lines built and electrified by the New Zealand Electrical Construction Company were mainly those that had been acquired from the private tramway companies and included: Papanui to Christchurch Railway Station (6 June 1905\); Sumner (steam, 6 June 1905; electric, 25 April 1907\); Cashmere (16 August 1905\); Riccarton (steam, 2 November 1905; electric, 12 March 1906\); Lincoln Road (8 February 1906\); New Brighton (Linwood, 26 March 1906; New Brighton, 6 August 1906\).
#### Heyday
[thumb\|300px\|right\|Tram shelter in [Cathedral Square](/wiki/Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch "Cathedral Square, Christchurch"), circa 1905](/wiki/File:Tram_shelter%2C_Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch%2C_ca_1910.jpeg "Tram shelter, Cathedral Square, Christchurch, ca 1910.jpeg")
The trams quickly became popular with the public and revenue exceeded the board's expectations. [Rolling stock](/wiki/Rolling_stock "Rolling stock") consisted of 27 electric vehicles supplied under the initial contract and the 7 steam motors and 42 trailers acquired from the Christchurch Tramway Company. Twenty\-two trailers from the New Brighton and City and Suburban tramway companies later augmented the fleet.
Though the primary purpose of the tramway was the carriage of passengers, it also carried other items such as mail, newspapers, perambulators, bicycles, construction materials, and animals. The cartage of animals on the tramway was made illegal in December 1915\.
The reality of the environment in which the tramway business was conducted was made clear in 1912 when chairman of the board George Booth explained the main problems the board faced in his annual report. First, Christchurch had a considerable amount of route mileage with little or no revenue potential, necessitated by the geographically diverse nature of the population it served. Second, the growing problem of competition from bicycles and motorcars since the development of the [pneumatic tyre](/wiki/Pneumatic_tyre "Pneumatic tyre"), exacerbated by the generally flat nature of the terrain on which Christchurch was sited. The board's response to these issues had not improved the situation by 1914\.
[left\|thumb\|Route map of Christchurch's electrified tramway network at its peak](/wiki/File:Christchurch_CTB_tramway_route_map_1920s.PNG "Christchurch CTB tramway route map 1920s.PNG")
It was during this period that the construction of the tramway network was completed. Additional lines opened were St. Albans Park (24 December 1906\), Opawa (steam, 14 March 1907; electric, 21 September 1909\), Fendalton (steam, 3 May 1907; electric, 20 November 1909\), Cranford Street (1 July 1910\), North Beach (steam, 24 December 1911; electric, 1 October 1914\), Spreydon (3 August 1911\), Cashmere Hills extension (1 May 1912\), Dallington (1 November 1912\), Northcote extension (28 February 1913\), and the St. Martins line (7 April 1914\) which was the last major line to be opened. The only new tracks to be commissioned after this time (aside from single\- or double\-tracking and renewals) were the extension of the Riccarton line to Plumpton Park (December 1915\), the Lichfield Street link (July 1922\), and the extension of the Spreydon line to Barrington Street (August 1922\). For many years afterwards Christchurch was able to boast the largest network in the country by route mileage at {{convert\|53\.5\|mi}} and in 1912 it was reportedly second only to [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney") in [Australasia](/wiki/Australasia "Australasia").
The growth of the board's business in its early years soon necessitated the purchase of new rolling stock to meet demand. By 1908, the number of electric trams had increased to 39 and had grown to 65 in 1912\. An additional 34 trailers were also added to the fleet by 1920\. Other vehicles acquired included a Baldwin steam motor (1906\), three sprinkler cars, and an overhead lines car. To match this, the size of the board's staff also grew from 196 in 1906 to 350 in 1913 and 530 in 1920, making it the largest employer in the city.
The tramway was credited with encouraging the suburban development of Christchurch. Land along tram routes became more valuable and made it easier for people to live out in the suburbs. The main central city retail precinct, which had been concentrated around the railway station, gradually moved north to avail itself of the increased flow of people generated by the tram routes converging on Cathedral Square. Smaller retail precincts developed around the ends of some lines such as [Fendalton](/wiki/Fendalton "Fendalton") and [Spreydon](/wiki/Spreydon "Spreydon").
#### Halcyon years
The economic uncertainty of the late 1920s culminated in the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of the 1930s, a situation that severely affected the operation of the tramway as much as it affected the rest of the country. Both revenue and patronage suffered sharp declines and as if to make matters worse the loans used to establish the tramway system were due to mature in 1934\. Competition was becoming an increasing problem, particularly from bicycles whose number had increased dramatically.
To contain its financial problems, the board implemented several economy measures. It experimented with the St. Martins cars to trial "one\-man" tram operation, which proved that the concept could work. Between 1932 and 1936, additional trams were converted for this purpose and deployed initially on the more lightly patronised lines before being used on the longer lines as a sufficient number were available. Consequent to the introduction of one\-man trams was the need to install [balloon loops](/wiki/Balloon_loop "Balloon loop") or [wyes](/wiki/Wye_%28rail%29 "Wye (rail)") at the termini of the lines on which these cars were used.
Several under\-performing or severely dilapidated lines were also closed during this period, notably the North Beach line, the Papanui railway station spur and Northcote extension of the Papanui line, and the Dallington–Railway Station route. In most cases, trams on these routes were replaced with buses.
With the arrival of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") came constraints on many aspects of ordinary life that were both beneficial and detrimental to the tramway. Restrictions and rationing of many basic supplies limited the use of private motorised transport leading to huge growth in patronage of the trams and, often, severe overcrowding. This also had the effect of significantly improving the board's revenue. The increased popularity of the trams was also assisted by the large number of New Zealand military personnel based at both the [Burnham Camp](/wiki/Burnham%2C_New_Zealand "Burnham, New Zealand") and [Wigram Aerodrome](/wiki/Wigram_Aerodrome "Wigram Aerodrome"), and the contingent of American military in the city.
It was not all good news for the board during the war years, as its costs also increased during this period; primarily wages, electricity, and maintenance. The war also made it more difficult to obtain supplies and spare parts needed to maintain and repair its assets, requiring a measure of ingenuity to keep things working. War service depleted the board's staff resulting in the hiring of women where necessary to fill gaps. Women were not just to fill gaps – wartime photo shows 28 women conductors at the time. Most trams then carried women conductors. RNM [thumb\|Photo taken circa 1942](/wiki/File:Christchurch_Tram_Conductors_during_World_War_2.jpg "Christchurch Tram Conductors during World War 2.jpg")
The end of the war also brought about the end of the boom for the tramway and marked the beginning of the end. Unlike other tramway systems around the country, the newest of vehicles in service in Christchurch were decades old and the track had suffered from years of neglect with little maintenance having been carried out. Though the imposition of rationing was not finally lifted until the early 1950s, post\-war Christchurch grew faster than the tramway could keep up ensuring that the tramway's replacement was just a matter of time.
#### Demise
Though several lines were closed and replaced by buses in the 1930s due to prevailing economic conditions, most tram routes were closed in the decade following the end of World War 2\. While the war was in some respects a boon for the tramway – with restrictions on other forms of transport patronage of the trams was significantly improved – it also caused problems, which contributed to the end of the trams.
Perhaps one of the biggest problems faced by the tramway system following the war was the much\-improved economic situation that ensued, increasing prosperity for many and giving them options that they might not have had before. Rates of car ownership increased and the city grew significantly in size presenting the board with a twofold problem of trying to maintain what they already had whilst trying to serve many more people over a greater area. Operating costs also increased, due in part to changing work patterns that placed a higher demand on the trams during peak times and reduced off\-peak demand, but also an increase in staff costs, which only served to further increase losses.
To determine the future of [public transport](/wiki/Public_transport "Public transport") in Christchurch, the Future Policy Committee was formed in February 1945\. It considered the matter of the tram network and concluded that the remaining tram routes should be retained and operated until such time as the tracks reached the end of their useful lives at which time they would be replaced by buses. John Fardell, appointed General Manager of the Board in 1946, delivered his own report on the future direction of the Board on 6 October 1947\. He pointed out the poor state of the board's tramway assets and that even with repairs, new infrastructure and rolling stock would be required within a few years to keep the system operational. The board was also at the time in a precarious financial state with years of losses having made it difficult to set aside sufficient funds for the repayment of loans, many of which were due to mature in the 1950s and 1960s. To upgrade the existing tramway to modern standards and extend it into the new suburbs could not be contemplated. While he did not push for the immediate removal of the trams, preferring to run them as long as possible in part to pay off outstanding loans, he did strongly advocate for the introduction of diesel buses to replace trams when they were withdrawn. In this first report, his preference for diesel buses was not absolute, however, as he did recommend the use of [trolley buses](/wiki/Trolleybus "Trolleybus") on the existing North Beach route which still had useful infrastructure in place and on the Papanui–Cashmere route where the trolley buses would have superior hill\-climbing performance characteristics.
The board favoured a mixed trolley/diesel bus fleet and unsuccessfully tried in 1948 and 1949 to raise a loan to further this plan. Mindful of these earlier failures, they were careful to impress upon the public the dire consequences of not planning for bus replacements given the state of the tramway after deciding in April 1950 to purchase 39 diesel buses. The Loans Board subsequently approved this loan proposal in September and it was also sanctioned by a plebiscite of the board's ratepayers.
The Tramway Board, which had been hoping that the diesel buses would be a temporary measure on some routes pending the erection of a trolley bus system, ran into the opposition of the General Manager who was a strong advocate for a standardised diesel bus fleet. He produced a report in December 1951 that was highly critical of trolley buses. Later that month, the board decided not to proceed with trolley buses and cancelled the order it had already placed for them. They were still undecided on the future of the Papanui–Cashmere route, the most profitable and popular of the tram routes, as they were not convinced that buses would be able to cope as a replacement. The General Manager made a point of convincing the board that only buses could adequately serve its needs and those of its customers and finally succeeded in January 1953, when the board relented and agreed that this route would also be served by buses.
[right\|thumb\|Christchurch Tramway Board electrified tramway network, January 1950](/wiki/File:Christchurch_CTB_tramway_route_map_1950.PNG "Christchurch CTB tramway route map 1950.PNG")
With the fate of the trams sealed, the remaining tram routes closed as a sufficient number of buses arrived from [England](/wiki/England "England") to replace them. Since the war, two tram routes had already closed: St. Martins on 20 May 1946 and Fendalton–Opawa on 6 February 1950\. This was now accelerated with the remaining routes being closed over the next few years: Brighton on 18 October 1952; Sumner on 6 December 1952; Riccarton on 14 June 1953; St. Albans Park–Spreydon on 21 June 1953; and Cranford Street–Lincoln Road on 26 July 1953\.
The last route to close was Papanui–Cashmere for which the last timetabled services ran on Friday 10 September 1954\. This was followed the next day by a ceremonial running of the last trams, a task performed by two Hills cars. After their journey to Papanui, then Cashmere, they returned to Cathedral Square where a huge crowd had gathered to witness the event. Speeches were made and a ribbon was cut to symbolically inaugurate the replacement bus service.
#### Disposition
The tram bodies were sold to private individuals, many of whom used them as sheds or huts, and the running gear was sold for scrap. Much of the tramway infrastructure was repurposed. Tram sheds at [Riccarton](/wiki/Riccarton%2C_New_Zealand "Riccarton, New Zealand") and Sumner remained for many years afterwards, the Sumner shed being last used as a dye works factory. Tram shelters became bus stops and traction masts were reused as utility poles.
Little time was wasted in removing sleepered track, which was ploughed out of the ground, and the roads quickly rebuilt. There was also track fixed to concrete for which removal was a much more difficult proposition. As the price of materials recovered would not have met the cost of removing them, this track was simply covered over with a layer of tar that was reapplied when the road surface required renewal. This has caused problems when such roads have needed to be dug up for the installation of utilities and even in more modern times, old tram tracks have been discovered during excavations for the heritage tram circuit extension.
|
[
"### Electric era: 1905–1954",
"#### Early years",
"Political pressure and public agitation for a modern tramway system resulted in the formation of the Christchurch Tramway Board in late 1902\\. It proceeded to create its own network by purchasing the lines of the private tramway companies and also establishing its own new lines.",
"Work on the Tramway Board's lines began in September 1904 at the intersection of Fitzgerald Avenue and Ferry Road. It required a great many men using only basic tools with the assistance of horse\\-drawn drays and traction engines and attracted considerable interest from the public.",
"Installation of tramlines sometimes led to improvements of the roads on which they were built. Because as was standard practice at the time, single\\-track tram lines were laid in the middle of the road requiring some roads to be widened to allow vehicles to pass trams on either side. Also, any undulations in the road were smoothed out so the track could be laid flush with the road surface.",
"Private operators were contracted by the board to provide alternative transport while tramlines were unavailable due to construction. These services were run using horse\\-drawn drags.",
"The electrified tram network was inaugurated on 5 June 1905 when an official opening day was held. After speeches at the board's car shed on Falsgrave Street, the official party departed on a procession of seven electric trams bound for Papanui. After an accident en route required the withdrawal of two of the trams, the rest of the party reached their destination where the festivities continued. Revenue services commenced on the Papanui–Railway Station route the following day.",
"The first tranche of work was completed by September 1906\\. Figures provided by *The Press* in June 1906 show that materials used included 2,400 poles, {{convert\\|63\\|mi\\|km}} of [trolley wire](/wiki/Overhead_line \"Overhead line\"), {{convert\\|65\\|mi\\|km}} of feeder cables, {{convert\\|120\\|mi\\|km}} of telephone and other wires, 80,000 [sleepers](/wiki/Railroad_tie \"Railroad tie\"), 26,000 electrical bonds, 90,000 yards of [metal](/wiki/Track_ballast \"Track ballast\"), and 5,500 tons of rails.",
"Lines built and electrified by the New Zealand Electrical Construction Company were mainly those that had been acquired from the private tramway companies and included: Papanui to Christchurch Railway Station (6 June 1905\\); Sumner (steam, 6 June 1905; electric, 25 April 1907\\); Cashmere (16 August 1905\\); Riccarton (steam, 2 November 1905; electric, 12 March 1906\\); Lincoln Road (8 February 1906\\); New Brighton (Linwood, 26 March 1906; New Brighton, 6 August 1906\\).",
"#### Heyday",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|Tram shelter in [Cathedral Square](/wiki/Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch \"Cathedral Square, Christchurch\"), circa 1905](/wiki/File:Tram_shelter%2C_Cathedral_Square%2C_Christchurch%2C_ca_1910.jpeg \"Tram shelter, Cathedral Square, Christchurch, ca 1910.jpeg\")\nThe trams quickly became popular with the public and revenue exceeded the board's expectations. [Rolling stock](/wiki/Rolling_stock \"Rolling stock\") consisted of 27 electric vehicles supplied under the initial contract and the 7 steam motors and 42 trailers acquired from the Christchurch Tramway Company. Twenty\\-two trailers from the New Brighton and City and Suburban tramway companies later augmented the fleet.",
"Though the primary purpose of the tramway was the carriage of passengers, it also carried other items such as mail, newspapers, perambulators, bicycles, construction materials, and animals. The cartage of animals on the tramway was made illegal in December 1915\\.",
"The reality of the environment in which the tramway business was conducted was made clear in 1912 when chairman of the board George Booth explained the main problems the board faced in his annual report. First, Christchurch had a considerable amount of route mileage with little or no revenue potential, necessitated by the geographically diverse nature of the population it served. Second, the growing problem of competition from bicycles and motorcars since the development of the [pneumatic tyre](/wiki/Pneumatic_tyre \"Pneumatic tyre\"), exacerbated by the generally flat nature of the terrain on which Christchurch was sited. The board's response to these issues had not improved the situation by 1914\\.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Route map of Christchurch's electrified tramway network at its peak](/wiki/File:Christchurch_CTB_tramway_route_map_1920s.PNG \"Christchurch CTB tramway route map 1920s.PNG\")\nIt was during this period that the construction of the tramway network was completed. Additional lines opened were St. Albans Park (24 December 1906\\), Opawa (steam, 14 March 1907; electric, 21 September 1909\\), Fendalton (steam, 3 May 1907; electric, 20 November 1909\\), Cranford Street (1 July 1910\\), North Beach (steam, 24 December 1911; electric, 1 October 1914\\), Spreydon (3 August 1911\\), Cashmere Hills extension (1 May 1912\\), Dallington (1 November 1912\\), Northcote extension (28 February 1913\\), and the St. Martins line (7 April 1914\\) which was the last major line to be opened. The only new tracks to be commissioned after this time (aside from single\\- or double\\-tracking and renewals) were the extension of the Riccarton line to Plumpton Park (December 1915\\), the Lichfield Street link (July 1922\\), and the extension of the Spreydon line to Barrington Street (August 1922\\). For many years afterwards Christchurch was able to boast the largest network in the country by route mileage at {{convert\\|53\\.5\\|mi}} and in 1912 it was reportedly second only to [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") in [Australasia](/wiki/Australasia \"Australasia\").",
"The growth of the board's business in its early years soon necessitated the purchase of new rolling stock to meet demand. By 1908, the number of electric trams had increased to 39 and had grown to 65 in 1912\\. An additional 34 trailers were also added to the fleet by 1920\\. Other vehicles acquired included a Baldwin steam motor (1906\\), three sprinkler cars, and an overhead lines car. To match this, the size of the board's staff also grew from 196 in 1906 to 350 in 1913 and 530 in 1920, making it the largest employer in the city.",
"The tramway was credited with encouraging the suburban development of Christchurch. Land along tram routes became more valuable and made it easier for people to live out in the suburbs. The main central city retail precinct, which had been concentrated around the railway station, gradually moved north to avail itself of the increased flow of people generated by the tram routes converging on Cathedral Square. Smaller retail precincts developed around the ends of some lines such as [Fendalton](/wiki/Fendalton \"Fendalton\") and [Spreydon](/wiki/Spreydon \"Spreydon\").",
"#### Halcyon years",
"The economic uncertainty of the late 1920s culminated in the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") of the 1930s, a situation that severely affected the operation of the tramway as much as it affected the rest of the country. Both revenue and patronage suffered sharp declines and as if to make matters worse the loans used to establish the tramway system were due to mature in 1934\\. Competition was becoming an increasing problem, particularly from bicycles whose number had increased dramatically.",
"To contain its financial problems, the board implemented several economy measures. It experimented with the St. Martins cars to trial \"one\\-man\" tram operation, which proved that the concept could work. Between 1932 and 1936, additional trams were converted for this purpose and deployed initially on the more lightly patronised lines before being used on the longer lines as a sufficient number were available. Consequent to the introduction of one\\-man trams was the need to install [balloon loops](/wiki/Balloon_loop \"Balloon loop\") or [wyes](/wiki/Wye_%28rail%29 \"Wye (rail)\") at the termini of the lines on which these cars were used.",
"Several under\\-performing or severely dilapidated lines were also closed during this period, notably the North Beach line, the Papanui railway station spur and Northcote extension of the Papanui line, and the Dallington–Railway Station route. In most cases, trams on these routes were replaced with buses.",
"With the arrival of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") came constraints on many aspects of ordinary life that were both beneficial and detrimental to the tramway. Restrictions and rationing of many basic supplies limited the use of private motorised transport leading to huge growth in patronage of the trams and, often, severe overcrowding. This also had the effect of significantly improving the board's revenue. The increased popularity of the trams was also assisted by the large number of New Zealand military personnel based at both the [Burnham Camp](/wiki/Burnham%2C_New_Zealand \"Burnham, New Zealand\") and [Wigram Aerodrome](/wiki/Wigram_Aerodrome \"Wigram Aerodrome\"), and the contingent of American military in the city.",
"It was not all good news for the board during the war years, as its costs also increased during this period; primarily wages, electricity, and maintenance. The war also made it more difficult to obtain supplies and spare parts needed to maintain and repair its assets, requiring a measure of ingenuity to keep things working. War service depleted the board's staff resulting in the hiring of women where necessary to fill gaps. Women were not just to fill gaps – wartime photo shows 28 women conductors at the time. Most trams then carried women conductors. RNM [thumb\\|Photo taken circa 1942](/wiki/File:Christchurch_Tram_Conductors_during_World_War_2.jpg \"Christchurch Tram Conductors during World War 2.jpg\")",
"The end of the war also brought about the end of the boom for the tramway and marked the beginning of the end. Unlike other tramway systems around the country, the newest of vehicles in service in Christchurch were decades old and the track had suffered from years of neglect with little maintenance having been carried out. Though the imposition of rationing was not finally lifted until the early 1950s, post\\-war Christchurch grew faster than the tramway could keep up ensuring that the tramway's replacement was just a matter of time.",
"#### Demise",
"Though several lines were closed and replaced by buses in the 1930s due to prevailing economic conditions, most tram routes were closed in the decade following the end of World War 2\\. While the war was in some respects a boon for the tramway – with restrictions on other forms of transport patronage of the trams was significantly improved – it also caused problems, which contributed to the end of the trams.",
"Perhaps one of the biggest problems faced by the tramway system following the war was the much\\-improved economic situation that ensued, increasing prosperity for many and giving them options that they might not have had before. Rates of car ownership increased and the city grew significantly in size presenting the board with a twofold problem of trying to maintain what they already had whilst trying to serve many more people over a greater area. Operating costs also increased, due in part to changing work patterns that placed a higher demand on the trams during peak times and reduced off\\-peak demand, but also an increase in staff costs, which only served to further increase losses.",
"To determine the future of [public transport](/wiki/Public_transport \"Public transport\") in Christchurch, the Future Policy Committee was formed in February 1945\\. It considered the matter of the tram network and concluded that the remaining tram routes should be retained and operated until such time as the tracks reached the end of their useful lives at which time they would be replaced by buses. John Fardell, appointed General Manager of the Board in 1946, delivered his own report on the future direction of the Board on 6 October 1947\\. He pointed out the poor state of the board's tramway assets and that even with repairs, new infrastructure and rolling stock would be required within a few years to keep the system operational. The board was also at the time in a precarious financial state with years of losses having made it difficult to set aside sufficient funds for the repayment of loans, many of which were due to mature in the 1950s and 1960s. To upgrade the existing tramway to modern standards and extend it into the new suburbs could not be contemplated. While he did not push for the immediate removal of the trams, preferring to run them as long as possible in part to pay off outstanding loans, he did strongly advocate for the introduction of diesel buses to replace trams when they were withdrawn. In this first report, his preference for diesel buses was not absolute, however, as he did recommend the use of [trolley buses](/wiki/Trolleybus \"Trolleybus\") on the existing North Beach route which still had useful infrastructure in place and on the Papanui–Cashmere route where the trolley buses would have superior hill\\-climbing performance characteristics.",
"The board favoured a mixed trolley/diesel bus fleet and unsuccessfully tried in 1948 and 1949 to raise a loan to further this plan. Mindful of these earlier failures, they were careful to impress upon the public the dire consequences of not planning for bus replacements given the state of the tramway after deciding in April 1950 to purchase 39 diesel buses. The Loans Board subsequently approved this loan proposal in September and it was also sanctioned by a plebiscite of the board's ratepayers.",
"The Tramway Board, which had been hoping that the diesel buses would be a temporary measure on some routes pending the erection of a trolley bus system, ran into the opposition of the General Manager who was a strong advocate for a standardised diesel bus fleet. He produced a report in December 1951 that was highly critical of trolley buses. Later that month, the board decided not to proceed with trolley buses and cancelled the order it had already placed for them. They were still undecided on the future of the Papanui–Cashmere route, the most profitable and popular of the tram routes, as they were not convinced that buses would be able to cope as a replacement. The General Manager made a point of convincing the board that only buses could adequately serve its needs and those of its customers and finally succeeded in January 1953, when the board relented and agreed that this route would also be served by buses.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Christchurch Tramway Board electrified tramway network, January 1950](/wiki/File:Christchurch_CTB_tramway_route_map_1950.PNG \"Christchurch CTB tramway route map 1950.PNG\")\nWith the fate of the trams sealed, the remaining tram routes closed as a sufficient number of buses arrived from [England](/wiki/England \"England\") to replace them. Since the war, two tram routes had already closed: St. Martins on 20 May 1946 and Fendalton–Opawa on 6 February 1950\\. This was now accelerated with the remaining routes being closed over the next few years: Brighton on 18 October 1952; Sumner on 6 December 1952; Riccarton on 14 June 1953; St. Albans Park–Spreydon on 21 June 1953; and Cranford Street–Lincoln Road on 26 July 1953\\.",
"The last route to close was Papanui–Cashmere for which the last timetabled services ran on Friday 10 September 1954\\. This was followed the next day by a ceremonial running of the last trams, a task performed by two Hills cars. After their journey to Papanui, then Cashmere, they returned to Cathedral Square where a huge crowd had gathered to witness the event. Speeches were made and a ribbon was cut to symbolically inaugurate the replacement bus service.",
"#### Disposition",
"The tram bodies were sold to private individuals, many of whom used them as sheds or huts, and the running gear was sold for scrap. Much of the tramway infrastructure was repurposed. Tram sheds at [Riccarton](/wiki/Riccarton%2C_New_Zealand \"Riccarton, New Zealand\") and Sumner remained for many years afterwards, the Sumner shed being last used as a dye works factory. Tram shelters became bus stops and traction masts were reused as utility poles.",
"Little time was wasted in removing sleepered track, which was ploughed out of the ground, and the roads quickly rebuilt. There was also track fixed to concrete for which removal was a much more difficult proposition. As the price of materials recovered would not have met the cost of removing them, this track was simply covered over with a layer of tar that was reapplied when the road surface required renewal. This has caused problems when such roads have needed to be dug up for the installation of utilities and even in more modern times, old tram tracks have been discovered during excavations for the heritage tram circuit extension.",
""
] |
#### Early years
Political pressure and public agitation for a modern tramway system resulted in the formation of the Christchurch Tramway Board in late 1902\. It proceeded to create its own network by purchasing the lines of the private tramway companies and also establishing its own new lines.
Work on the Tramway Board's lines began in September 1904 at the intersection of Fitzgerald Avenue and Ferry Road. It required a great many men using only basic tools with the assistance of horse\-drawn drays and traction engines and attracted considerable interest from the public.
Installation of tramlines sometimes led to improvements of the roads on which they were built. Because as was standard practice at the time, single\-track tram lines were laid in the middle of the road requiring some roads to be widened to allow vehicles to pass trams on either side. Also, any undulations in the road were smoothed out so the track could be laid flush with the road surface.
Private operators were contracted by the board to provide alternative transport while tramlines were unavailable due to construction. These services were run using horse\-drawn drags.
The electrified tram network was inaugurated on 5 June 1905 when an official opening day was held. After speeches at the board's car shed on Falsgrave Street, the official party departed on a procession of seven electric trams bound for Papanui. After an accident en route required the withdrawal of two of the trams, the rest of the party reached their destination where the festivities continued. Revenue services commenced on the Papanui–Railway Station route the following day.
The first tranche of work was completed by September 1906\. Figures provided by *The Press* in June 1906 show that materials used included 2,400 poles, {{convert\|63\|mi\|km}} of [trolley wire](/wiki/Overhead_line "Overhead line"), {{convert\|65\|mi\|km}} of feeder cables, {{convert\|120\|mi\|km}} of telephone and other wires, 80,000 [sleepers](/wiki/Railroad_tie "Railroad tie"), 26,000 electrical bonds, 90,000 yards of [metal](/wiki/Track_ballast "Track ballast"), and 5,500 tons of rails.
Lines built and electrified by the New Zealand Electrical Construction Company were mainly those that had been acquired from the private tramway companies and included: Papanui to Christchurch Railway Station (6 June 1905\); Sumner (steam, 6 June 1905; electric, 25 April 1907\); Cashmere (16 August 1905\); Riccarton (steam, 2 November 1905; electric, 12 March 1906\); Lincoln Road (8 February 1906\); New Brighton (Linwood, 26 March 1906; New Brighton, 6 August 1906\).
|
[
"#### Early years",
"Political pressure and public agitation for a modern tramway system resulted in the formation of the Christchurch Tramway Board in late 1902\\. It proceeded to create its own network by purchasing the lines of the private tramway companies and also establishing its own new lines.",
"Work on the Tramway Board's lines began in September 1904 at the intersection of Fitzgerald Avenue and Ferry Road. It required a great many men using only basic tools with the assistance of horse\\-drawn drays and traction engines and attracted considerable interest from the public.",
"Installation of tramlines sometimes led to improvements of the roads on which they were built. Because as was standard practice at the time, single\\-track tram lines were laid in the middle of the road requiring some roads to be widened to allow vehicles to pass trams on either side. Also, any undulations in the road were smoothed out so the track could be laid flush with the road surface.",
"Private operators were contracted by the board to provide alternative transport while tramlines were unavailable due to construction. These services were run using horse\\-drawn drags.",
"The electrified tram network was inaugurated on 5 June 1905 when an official opening day was held. After speeches at the board's car shed on Falsgrave Street, the official party departed on a procession of seven electric trams bound for Papanui. After an accident en route required the withdrawal of two of the trams, the rest of the party reached their destination where the festivities continued. Revenue services commenced on the Papanui–Railway Station route the following day.",
"The first tranche of work was completed by September 1906\\. Figures provided by *The Press* in June 1906 show that materials used included 2,400 poles, {{convert\\|63\\|mi\\|km}} of [trolley wire](/wiki/Overhead_line \"Overhead line\"), {{convert\\|65\\|mi\\|km}} of feeder cables, {{convert\\|120\\|mi\\|km}} of telephone and other wires, 80,000 [sleepers](/wiki/Railroad_tie \"Railroad tie\"), 26,000 electrical bonds, 90,000 yards of [metal](/wiki/Track_ballast \"Track ballast\"), and 5,500 tons of rails.",
"Lines built and electrified by the New Zealand Electrical Construction Company were mainly those that had been acquired from the private tramway companies and included: Papanui to Christchurch Railway Station (6 June 1905\\); Sumner (steam, 6 June 1905; electric, 25 April 1907\\); Cashmere (16 August 1905\\); Riccarton (steam, 2 November 1905; electric, 12 March 1906\\); Lincoln Road (8 February 1906\\); New Brighton (Linwood, 26 March 1906; New Brighton, 6 August 1906\\).",
""
] |
#### Halcyon years
The economic uncertainty of the late 1920s culminated in the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of the 1930s, a situation that severely affected the operation of the tramway as much as it affected the rest of the country. Both revenue and patronage suffered sharp declines and as if to make matters worse the loans used to establish the tramway system were due to mature in 1934\. Competition was becoming an increasing problem, particularly from bicycles whose number had increased dramatically.
To contain its financial problems, the board implemented several economy measures. It experimented with the St. Martins cars to trial "one\-man" tram operation, which proved that the concept could work. Between 1932 and 1936, additional trams were converted for this purpose and deployed initially on the more lightly patronised lines before being used on the longer lines as a sufficient number were available. Consequent to the introduction of one\-man trams was the need to install [balloon loops](/wiki/Balloon_loop "Balloon loop") or [wyes](/wiki/Wye_%28rail%29 "Wye (rail)") at the termini of the lines on which these cars were used.
Several under\-performing or severely dilapidated lines were also closed during this period, notably the North Beach line, the Papanui railway station spur and Northcote extension of the Papanui line, and the Dallington–Railway Station route. In most cases, trams on these routes were replaced with buses.
With the arrival of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") came constraints on many aspects of ordinary life that were both beneficial and detrimental to the tramway. Restrictions and rationing of many basic supplies limited the use of private motorised transport leading to huge growth in patronage of the trams and, often, severe overcrowding. This also had the effect of significantly improving the board's revenue. The increased popularity of the trams was also assisted by the large number of New Zealand military personnel based at both the [Burnham Camp](/wiki/Burnham%2C_New_Zealand "Burnham, New Zealand") and [Wigram Aerodrome](/wiki/Wigram_Aerodrome "Wigram Aerodrome"), and the contingent of American military in the city.
It was not all good news for the board during the war years, as its costs also increased during this period; primarily wages, electricity, and maintenance. The war also made it more difficult to obtain supplies and spare parts needed to maintain and repair its assets, requiring a measure of ingenuity to keep things working. War service depleted the board's staff resulting in the hiring of women where necessary to fill gaps. Women were not just to fill gaps – wartime photo shows 28 women conductors at the time. Most trams then carried women conductors. RNM [thumb\|Photo taken circa 1942](/wiki/File:Christchurch_Tram_Conductors_during_World_War_2.jpg "Christchurch Tram Conductors during World War 2.jpg")
The end of the war also brought about the end of the boom for the tramway and marked the beginning of the end. Unlike other tramway systems around the country, the newest of vehicles in service in Christchurch were decades old and the track had suffered from years of neglect with little maintenance having been carried out. Though the imposition of rationing was not finally lifted until the early 1950s, post\-war Christchurch grew faster than the tramway could keep up ensuring that the tramway's replacement was just a matter of time.
|
[
"#### Halcyon years",
"The economic uncertainty of the late 1920s culminated in the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") of the 1930s, a situation that severely affected the operation of the tramway as much as it affected the rest of the country. Both revenue and patronage suffered sharp declines and as if to make matters worse the loans used to establish the tramway system were due to mature in 1934\\. Competition was becoming an increasing problem, particularly from bicycles whose number had increased dramatically.",
"To contain its financial problems, the board implemented several economy measures. It experimented with the St. Martins cars to trial \"one\\-man\" tram operation, which proved that the concept could work. Between 1932 and 1936, additional trams were converted for this purpose and deployed initially on the more lightly patronised lines before being used on the longer lines as a sufficient number were available. Consequent to the introduction of one\\-man trams was the need to install [balloon loops](/wiki/Balloon_loop \"Balloon loop\") or [wyes](/wiki/Wye_%28rail%29 \"Wye (rail)\") at the termini of the lines on which these cars were used.",
"Several under\\-performing or severely dilapidated lines were also closed during this period, notably the North Beach line, the Papanui railway station spur and Northcote extension of the Papanui line, and the Dallington–Railway Station route. In most cases, trams on these routes were replaced with buses.",
"With the arrival of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") came constraints on many aspects of ordinary life that were both beneficial and detrimental to the tramway. Restrictions and rationing of many basic supplies limited the use of private motorised transport leading to huge growth in patronage of the trams and, often, severe overcrowding. This also had the effect of significantly improving the board's revenue. The increased popularity of the trams was also assisted by the large number of New Zealand military personnel based at both the [Burnham Camp](/wiki/Burnham%2C_New_Zealand \"Burnham, New Zealand\") and [Wigram Aerodrome](/wiki/Wigram_Aerodrome \"Wigram Aerodrome\"), and the contingent of American military in the city.",
"It was not all good news for the board during the war years, as its costs also increased during this period; primarily wages, electricity, and maintenance. The war also made it more difficult to obtain supplies and spare parts needed to maintain and repair its assets, requiring a measure of ingenuity to keep things working. War service depleted the board's staff resulting in the hiring of women where necessary to fill gaps. Women were not just to fill gaps – wartime photo shows 28 women conductors at the time. Most trams then carried women conductors. RNM [thumb\\|Photo taken circa 1942](/wiki/File:Christchurch_Tram_Conductors_during_World_War_2.jpg \"Christchurch Tram Conductors during World War 2.jpg\")",
"The end of the war also brought about the end of the boom for the tramway and marked the beginning of the end. Unlike other tramway systems around the country, the newest of vehicles in service in Christchurch were decades old and the track had suffered from years of neglect with little maintenance having been carried out. Though the imposition of rationing was not finally lifted until the early 1950s, post\\-war Christchurch grew faster than the tramway could keep up ensuring that the tramway's replacement was just a matter of time.",
""
] |
#### Demise
Though several lines were closed and replaced by buses in the 1930s due to prevailing economic conditions, most tram routes were closed in the decade following the end of World War 2\. While the war was in some respects a boon for the tramway – with restrictions on other forms of transport patronage of the trams was significantly improved – it also caused problems, which contributed to the end of the trams.
Perhaps one of the biggest problems faced by the tramway system following the war was the much\-improved economic situation that ensued, increasing prosperity for many and giving them options that they might not have had before. Rates of car ownership increased and the city grew significantly in size presenting the board with a twofold problem of trying to maintain what they already had whilst trying to serve many more people over a greater area. Operating costs also increased, due in part to changing work patterns that placed a higher demand on the trams during peak times and reduced off\-peak demand, but also an increase in staff costs, which only served to further increase losses.
To determine the future of [public transport](/wiki/Public_transport "Public transport") in Christchurch, the Future Policy Committee was formed in February 1945\. It considered the matter of the tram network and concluded that the remaining tram routes should be retained and operated until such time as the tracks reached the end of their useful lives at which time they would be replaced by buses. John Fardell, appointed General Manager of the Board in 1946, delivered his own report on the future direction of the Board on 6 October 1947\. He pointed out the poor state of the board's tramway assets and that even with repairs, new infrastructure and rolling stock would be required within a few years to keep the system operational. The board was also at the time in a precarious financial state with years of losses having made it difficult to set aside sufficient funds for the repayment of loans, many of which were due to mature in the 1950s and 1960s. To upgrade the existing tramway to modern standards and extend it into the new suburbs could not be contemplated. While he did not push for the immediate removal of the trams, preferring to run them as long as possible in part to pay off outstanding loans, he did strongly advocate for the introduction of diesel buses to replace trams when they were withdrawn. In this first report, his preference for diesel buses was not absolute, however, as he did recommend the use of [trolley buses](/wiki/Trolleybus "Trolleybus") on the existing North Beach route which still had useful infrastructure in place and on the Papanui–Cashmere route where the trolley buses would have superior hill\-climbing performance characteristics.
The board favoured a mixed trolley/diesel bus fleet and unsuccessfully tried in 1948 and 1949 to raise a loan to further this plan. Mindful of these earlier failures, they were careful to impress upon the public the dire consequences of not planning for bus replacements given the state of the tramway after deciding in April 1950 to purchase 39 diesel buses. The Loans Board subsequently approved this loan proposal in September and it was also sanctioned by a plebiscite of the board's ratepayers.
The Tramway Board, which had been hoping that the diesel buses would be a temporary measure on some routes pending the erection of a trolley bus system, ran into the opposition of the General Manager who was a strong advocate for a standardised diesel bus fleet. He produced a report in December 1951 that was highly critical of trolley buses. Later that month, the board decided not to proceed with trolley buses and cancelled the order it had already placed for them. They were still undecided on the future of the Papanui–Cashmere route, the most profitable and popular of the tram routes, as they were not convinced that buses would be able to cope as a replacement. The General Manager made a point of convincing the board that only buses could adequately serve its needs and those of its customers and finally succeeded in January 1953, when the board relented and agreed that this route would also be served by buses.
[right\|thumb\|Christchurch Tramway Board electrified tramway network, January 1950](/wiki/File:Christchurch_CTB_tramway_route_map_1950.PNG "Christchurch CTB tramway route map 1950.PNG")
With the fate of the trams sealed, the remaining tram routes closed as a sufficient number of buses arrived from [England](/wiki/England "England") to replace them. Since the war, two tram routes had already closed: St. Martins on 20 May 1946 and Fendalton–Opawa on 6 February 1950\. This was now accelerated with the remaining routes being closed over the next few years: Brighton on 18 October 1952; Sumner on 6 December 1952; Riccarton on 14 June 1953; St. Albans Park–Spreydon on 21 June 1953; and Cranford Street–Lincoln Road on 26 July 1953\.
The last route to close was Papanui–Cashmere for which the last timetabled services ran on Friday 10 September 1954\. This was followed the next day by a ceremonial running of the last trams, a task performed by two Hills cars. After their journey to Papanui, then Cashmere, they returned to Cathedral Square where a huge crowd had gathered to witness the event. Speeches were made and a ribbon was cut to symbolically inaugurate the replacement bus service.
|
[
"#### Demise",
"Though several lines were closed and replaced by buses in the 1930s due to prevailing economic conditions, most tram routes were closed in the decade following the end of World War 2\\. While the war was in some respects a boon for the tramway – with restrictions on other forms of transport patronage of the trams was significantly improved – it also caused problems, which contributed to the end of the trams.",
"Perhaps one of the biggest problems faced by the tramway system following the war was the much\\-improved economic situation that ensued, increasing prosperity for many and giving them options that they might not have had before. Rates of car ownership increased and the city grew significantly in size presenting the board with a twofold problem of trying to maintain what they already had whilst trying to serve many more people over a greater area. Operating costs also increased, due in part to changing work patterns that placed a higher demand on the trams during peak times and reduced off\\-peak demand, but also an increase in staff costs, which only served to further increase losses.",
"To determine the future of [public transport](/wiki/Public_transport \"Public transport\") in Christchurch, the Future Policy Committee was formed in February 1945\\. It considered the matter of the tram network and concluded that the remaining tram routes should be retained and operated until such time as the tracks reached the end of their useful lives at which time they would be replaced by buses. John Fardell, appointed General Manager of the Board in 1946, delivered his own report on the future direction of the Board on 6 October 1947\\. He pointed out the poor state of the board's tramway assets and that even with repairs, new infrastructure and rolling stock would be required within a few years to keep the system operational. The board was also at the time in a precarious financial state with years of losses having made it difficult to set aside sufficient funds for the repayment of loans, many of which were due to mature in the 1950s and 1960s. To upgrade the existing tramway to modern standards and extend it into the new suburbs could not be contemplated. While he did not push for the immediate removal of the trams, preferring to run them as long as possible in part to pay off outstanding loans, he did strongly advocate for the introduction of diesel buses to replace trams when they were withdrawn. In this first report, his preference for diesel buses was not absolute, however, as he did recommend the use of [trolley buses](/wiki/Trolleybus \"Trolleybus\") on the existing North Beach route which still had useful infrastructure in place and on the Papanui–Cashmere route where the trolley buses would have superior hill\\-climbing performance characteristics.",
"The board favoured a mixed trolley/diesel bus fleet and unsuccessfully tried in 1948 and 1949 to raise a loan to further this plan. Mindful of these earlier failures, they were careful to impress upon the public the dire consequences of not planning for bus replacements given the state of the tramway after deciding in April 1950 to purchase 39 diesel buses. The Loans Board subsequently approved this loan proposal in September and it was also sanctioned by a plebiscite of the board's ratepayers.",
"The Tramway Board, which had been hoping that the diesel buses would be a temporary measure on some routes pending the erection of a trolley bus system, ran into the opposition of the General Manager who was a strong advocate for a standardised diesel bus fleet. He produced a report in December 1951 that was highly critical of trolley buses. Later that month, the board decided not to proceed with trolley buses and cancelled the order it had already placed for them. They were still undecided on the future of the Papanui–Cashmere route, the most profitable and popular of the tram routes, as they were not convinced that buses would be able to cope as a replacement. The General Manager made a point of convincing the board that only buses could adequately serve its needs and those of its customers and finally succeeded in January 1953, when the board relented and agreed that this route would also be served by buses.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Christchurch Tramway Board electrified tramway network, January 1950](/wiki/File:Christchurch_CTB_tramway_route_map_1950.PNG \"Christchurch CTB tramway route map 1950.PNG\")\nWith the fate of the trams sealed, the remaining tram routes closed as a sufficient number of buses arrived from [England](/wiki/England \"England\") to replace them. Since the war, two tram routes had already closed: St. Martins on 20 May 1946 and Fendalton–Opawa on 6 February 1950\\. This was now accelerated with the remaining routes being closed over the next few years: Brighton on 18 October 1952; Sumner on 6 December 1952; Riccarton on 14 June 1953; St. Albans Park–Spreydon on 21 June 1953; and Cranford Street–Lincoln Road on 26 July 1953\\.",
"The last route to close was Papanui–Cashmere for which the last timetabled services ran on Friday 10 September 1954\\. This was followed the next day by a ceremonial running of the last trams, a task performed by two Hills cars. After their journey to Papanui, then Cashmere, they returned to Cathedral Square where a huge crowd had gathered to witness the event. Speeches were made and a ribbon was cut to symbolically inaugurate the replacement bus service.",
""
] |
Operators
---------
Christchurch's tramway lines were initially constructed and operated by several privately held companies, with the exception of the Corporation Line which was built by the city council and later operated by private companies. The precarious financial state of these companies early in the 20th century and the desire of Christchurch's residents for modern electric trams prompted the municipalisation of the tramway system. The Christchurch Tramway Board was formed and oversaw the operation of trams in Christchurch until they were withdrawn completely in 1954\.
### Canterbury Tramway Company: 1878–1893
The Canterbury Tramway Company was the first of three private Christchurch tramway companies to be formed. The idea for the company began in 1877 with a group of local entrepreneurs and was realised by early the following year. A prospectus was published and shares issued.
The company initially enjoyed commercial success on commencement of its services in 1880 as the novelty of tram travel quickly became fashionable. A steady rise in patronage necessitated the purchase of additional rolling stock. The company's directors were able to report favourably on the company's position in 1881 giving shareholders cause to be optimistic about its future. New lines were opened between 1882 and 1888 resulting in a network of {{convert\|17\|mi}} of tramway, with the Papanui and Sumner lines standing out as the most successful.
However, not all of the company's decisions proved to be sound, and in 1886 its brief 18\-month tenure as operator of the Corporation Line joined a growing list of missteps. By the end of the 1880s the company's future was uncertain and it implemented several economy measures in an attempt to improve its fortunes. This included a permanent fare reduction, the replacement of steam motors with horses on some routes, and the introduction of a one man\-operated tramcar. None of these measures were particularly successful.
By the early 1890s, the company's position had become dire and further attempts to alleviate its problems ensued including fare reductions and an increase in services. However, maintenance suffered which only served to further compound the company's troubles. A liquidator was finally appointed in March 1893\. The company's failure has been attributed to various causes including a lack of revenue to cover expenditure on maintenance, competition, mismanagement, and an economic depression.
Following liquidation, attempts to get the council to assume control of the company, and to dispose of its assets, failed.
### New Brighton Tramway Company: 1885–1906
Following the city council's decision in early 1884 to construct the Corporation Line, a group of local residents informed the council of their intention to build a line from the end of the Corporation Line to New Brighton and registered the New Brighton Tramway Company in mid\-1885\.
Despite mediocre results for the company's first annual returns, its service was proving to be popular, garnering between 3,000 and 5,000 passengers per week.
One of the most important events for the company was becoming the operator of passenger services on the Corporation Line. The city council had put the operation up for tender in late 1888 and accepted the bid from the New Brighton Tramway Company. It began running its services on the line from 7 December after acquiring the remainder of the lease. This gave the company control over the line from the central city all the way out to New Brighton, allowing it to run a more efficient operation and carry many more passengers.
There were trying times ahead for the company in the form of competition from the Canterbury Tramway Company's Sumner line and the alternate Christchurch–New Brighton route established by the City and Suburban Tramway Company. Counter\-measures implemented by the company resulted in only a modicum of success.
In 1906, the Company sold most of its assets to the Christchurch Tramway Board, retaining only its horses, harness, and central city property.
### City and Suburban Tramway Company: 1892–1906
The City and Suburban Tramway Company was formed in early 1892 for the purpose of establishing an alternative route from the city to New Brighton. An Order\-in\-Council was sought in May of that year for permission to construct the two lines it had planned, which was granted in November.
Construction of the company's line began in May 1893 but the company ran short of funds before the line was completed. It commenced services anyway in September 1893 but they were not able to run the full distance to New Brighton until the line was completed the following year in October 1894\.
Financial woes continued and by the end of the company's third year of operation, it was in a parlous state. Renting horses and rolling stock because it could not afford to purchase its own in sufficient number was a significant expense, track maintenance was lacking, and a large debt was still owed to the construction contractor. Unable to meet its obligations, the company entered into voluntary liquidation.
After an attempt to sell the line and vehicles by tender failed, the company was taken over by the construction contractor in lieu of its debt to him. He continued to operate the business under the same name and was somewhat successful in improving the company's fortunes. The line was eventually sold to the Christchurch Tramway Board in 1906\.
### Christchurch Tramway Company: 1893–1905
The Christchurch Tramway Company was formed from the remnants of the Canterbury Tramway Company after new capital was secured. This enabled the new company to commence work on improving the state of its assets. Various economy measures were also implemented including the closure and lifting of its Manchester Street line to Christchurch Railway Station and the replacement of steam motors with horses from September 1893 except on the Sumner line.
The company's only additions to its operations were the opening of extensions to two of its existing lines in the 1890s; the Addington line was extended to Sunnyside Asylum, and the Sydenham line was extended to Cashmere.
The company sought extensions to its city concessions (due to expire in September 1899\) from the mid\-1890s, without which it would not be able to invest further in its business or even, eventually, continue in operation. The various councils through whose territory the company operated eventually decided on municipalisation under the control of the Christchurch Tramway Board, which acquired the company in May 1905\.
### Christchurch Tramway Board: 1905–1989
{{Main\|Christchurch Tramway Board}}
The Christchurch Tramway Board was an autonomous, democratically elected body with full authority to create and operate a tramway within its district. In addition to generating revenue through the collection of fares, it was given authority to levy rates within its district and to raise loans subject to ratepayer approval. The board itself had eight members elected by voters in each of its wards at triennial elections. A ninth member was later added.
The first election was held on 21 January 1903 and the newly elected board met several days later on the 29th. One of its first orders of business was to seek a mandate to raise two loans with which to fund the construction of the new tramway network, proposals that were carried by the ratepayers. For the first two years of its existence, the board spent much of its time planning the new tramway including decisions on such matters as [track gauge](/wiki/Track_gauge "Track gauge"), routes, electrical specifications, etc.
The board's financial performance was very sound in its early years, consistently returning a profit and increased patronage year\-on\-year. It was not until the 1919–1920 fiscal year that the board experienced its first loss, and then again in 1924–1925 and 1927–1928, a symptom of the increasingly difficult economic times ahead. After 1930–1931, the board never again made a profit with the exception of the war years. Despite this it still had a good financial base thanks to its reserve funds of which it had several to cover its various disbursements.
Following the boom of the war years, the board's financial position slowly declined as economic prosperity changed the market in which the Board operated. The rise of competition to the board's services and the irreparably dilapidated state of the tramway network led to its phased withdrawal in the decade following he war. Buses were the new thinking in public transport and following the example of many other cities around the world, they replaced trams as the way to move people around.
The board changed its name in 1951 to the Christchurch Transport Board to reflect its shift away from the tramway as the mainstay of its business. It disappeared as a result of the deregulation of the transport industry in 1989\.{{ref\|Christchurch Tramway Board\|\*}}
### Christchurch City Council
#### Corporation Line
The council only intended to run the night soil service on its Corporation Line and to contract out the other functions to private operators. Tenders for working the line were called for in February 1886 with a three\-year contract being awarded to Charles O’Malley. It soon became apparent that O’Malley was unsuitable and the contract was taken up by the Canterbury Tramway Company in August 1886\.
Nominal through passenger services ran between Christchurch and New Brighton along the Corporation Line and the New Brighton Tramway Company's line with an interchange at "The Junction". Passengers were required to walk about {{convert\|200\|m}} between the two services because neither company would traverse the distance, a situation that proved to be most unsatisfactory for all concerned. The lease for the Corporation Line was eventually transferred to the New Brighton Tramway Company in late 1888 and they remained the operator of the line until the Christchurch Tramway Board acquired it in 1906\.
The council's rubbish disposal service operated during the early hours of the morning from August 1886 until 1902 when a new facility was established in Manchester Street. It involved the use of four men, two horses, two trolleys, and twelve tipcarts with extra men and horses required on Saturdays.
The tramway hearse was widely derided as a gimmick and was never used for its intended purpose. In 1888 it was suggested that the vehicle should be converted for use as a tramcar but was found to be unsuitable for this purpose and was eventually sold in August 1901\.
#### Heritage circuit
The present\-day heritage tram circuit around the central city was the result of a joint venture involving the city council, Christchurch Tramway Ltd., and the Tramway Historical Society. The council built the track as part of its Worcester Boulevard project.
The tram is currently operated as a Christchurch tourist attraction by Welcome Aboard, who also manage the [Christchurch Gondola](/wiki/Christchurch_Gondola "Christchurch Gondola"). Up to seven tram cars are currently in operation daily on the heritage circuit, providing both daytime transport services and a restaurant during evening hours. The tram circuit was closed in 2011 following the [Christchurch earthquake](/wiki/2011_Christchurch_earthquake "2011 Christchurch earthquake"), and was re\-opened on a shortened loop in November 2013 before the full heritage loop was re\-opened in November 2014\.{{cite news\|last1\=O'Callaghan\|first1\=Jody\|title\=Christchurch trams get back on track\|url\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\-press/news/transport/10723739/Christchurch\-trams\-get\-back\-on\-track\|accessdate\=10 November 2016\|work\=\[\[The Press]]\|date\=10 November 2014}} In 2016, local business groups also began{{cite web\|url\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\-press/business/the\-rebuild/80523368/Calls\-to\-extend\-Christchurch\-tram\-past\-Dux\-on\-Poplar\-Lane\|title\=Calls to extend Christchurch tram past Dux on Poplar Lane\|publisher\=The Press\|access\-date\= 10 November 2016\|date \=31 May 2016}} in the Christchurch CBD.
|
[
"Operators\n---------",
"Christchurch's tramway lines were initially constructed and operated by several privately held companies, with the exception of the Corporation Line which was built by the city council and later operated by private companies. The precarious financial state of these companies early in the 20th century and the desire of Christchurch's residents for modern electric trams prompted the municipalisation of the tramway system. The Christchurch Tramway Board was formed and oversaw the operation of trams in Christchurch until they were withdrawn completely in 1954\\.",
"### Canterbury Tramway Company: 1878–1893",
"The Canterbury Tramway Company was the first of three private Christchurch tramway companies to be formed. The idea for the company began in 1877 with a group of local entrepreneurs and was realised by early the following year. A prospectus was published and shares issued.",
"The company initially enjoyed commercial success on commencement of its services in 1880 as the novelty of tram travel quickly became fashionable. A steady rise in patronage necessitated the purchase of additional rolling stock. The company's directors were able to report favourably on the company's position in 1881 giving shareholders cause to be optimistic about its future. New lines were opened between 1882 and 1888 resulting in a network of {{convert\\|17\\|mi}} of tramway, with the Papanui and Sumner lines standing out as the most successful.",
"However, not all of the company's decisions proved to be sound, and in 1886 its brief 18\\-month tenure as operator of the Corporation Line joined a growing list of missteps. By the end of the 1880s the company's future was uncertain and it implemented several economy measures in an attempt to improve its fortunes. This included a permanent fare reduction, the replacement of steam motors with horses on some routes, and the introduction of a one man\\-operated tramcar. None of these measures were particularly successful.",
"By the early 1890s, the company's position had become dire and further attempts to alleviate its problems ensued including fare reductions and an increase in services. However, maintenance suffered which only served to further compound the company's troubles. A liquidator was finally appointed in March 1893\\. The company's failure has been attributed to various causes including a lack of revenue to cover expenditure on maintenance, competition, mismanagement, and an economic depression.",
"Following liquidation, attempts to get the council to assume control of the company, and to dispose of its assets, failed.",
"### New Brighton Tramway Company: 1885–1906",
"Following the city council's decision in early 1884 to construct the Corporation Line, a group of local residents informed the council of their intention to build a line from the end of the Corporation Line to New Brighton and registered the New Brighton Tramway Company in mid\\-1885\\.",
"Despite mediocre results for the company's first annual returns, its service was proving to be popular, garnering between 3,000 and 5,000 passengers per week.",
"One of the most important events for the company was becoming the operator of passenger services on the Corporation Line. The city council had put the operation up for tender in late 1888 and accepted the bid from the New Brighton Tramway Company. It began running its services on the line from 7 December after acquiring the remainder of the lease. This gave the company control over the line from the central city all the way out to New Brighton, allowing it to run a more efficient operation and carry many more passengers.",
"There were trying times ahead for the company in the form of competition from the Canterbury Tramway Company's Sumner line and the alternate Christchurch–New Brighton route established by the City and Suburban Tramway Company. Counter\\-measures implemented by the company resulted in only a modicum of success.",
"In 1906, the Company sold most of its assets to the Christchurch Tramway Board, retaining only its horses, harness, and central city property.",
"### City and Suburban Tramway Company: 1892–1906",
"The City and Suburban Tramway Company was formed in early 1892 for the purpose of establishing an alternative route from the city to New Brighton. An Order\\-in\\-Council was sought in May of that year for permission to construct the two lines it had planned, which was granted in November.",
"Construction of the company's line began in May 1893 but the company ran short of funds before the line was completed. It commenced services anyway in September 1893 but they were not able to run the full distance to New Brighton until the line was completed the following year in October 1894\\.",
"Financial woes continued and by the end of the company's third year of operation, it was in a parlous state. Renting horses and rolling stock because it could not afford to purchase its own in sufficient number was a significant expense, track maintenance was lacking, and a large debt was still owed to the construction contractor. Unable to meet its obligations, the company entered into voluntary liquidation.",
"After an attempt to sell the line and vehicles by tender failed, the company was taken over by the construction contractor in lieu of its debt to him. He continued to operate the business under the same name and was somewhat successful in improving the company's fortunes. The line was eventually sold to the Christchurch Tramway Board in 1906\\.",
"### Christchurch Tramway Company: 1893–1905",
"The Christchurch Tramway Company was formed from the remnants of the Canterbury Tramway Company after new capital was secured. This enabled the new company to commence work on improving the state of its assets. Various economy measures were also implemented including the closure and lifting of its Manchester Street line to Christchurch Railway Station and the replacement of steam motors with horses from September 1893 except on the Sumner line.",
"The company's only additions to its operations were the opening of extensions to two of its existing lines in the 1890s; the Addington line was extended to Sunnyside Asylum, and the Sydenham line was extended to Cashmere.",
"The company sought extensions to its city concessions (due to expire in September 1899\\) from the mid\\-1890s, without which it would not be able to invest further in its business or even, eventually, continue in operation. The various councils through whose territory the company operated eventually decided on municipalisation under the control of the Christchurch Tramway Board, which acquired the company in May 1905\\.",
"### Christchurch Tramway Board: 1905–1989",
"{{Main\\|Christchurch Tramway Board}}\nThe Christchurch Tramway Board was an autonomous, democratically elected body with full authority to create and operate a tramway within its district. In addition to generating revenue through the collection of fares, it was given authority to levy rates within its district and to raise loans subject to ratepayer approval. The board itself had eight members elected by voters in each of its wards at triennial elections. A ninth member was later added.",
"The first election was held on 21 January 1903 and the newly elected board met several days later on the 29th. One of its first orders of business was to seek a mandate to raise two loans with which to fund the construction of the new tramway network, proposals that were carried by the ratepayers. For the first two years of its existence, the board spent much of its time planning the new tramway including decisions on such matters as [track gauge](/wiki/Track_gauge \"Track gauge\"), routes, electrical specifications, etc.",
"The board's financial performance was very sound in its early years, consistently returning a profit and increased patronage year\\-on\\-year. It was not until the 1919–1920 fiscal year that the board experienced its first loss, and then again in 1924–1925 and 1927–1928, a symptom of the increasingly difficult economic times ahead. After 1930–1931, the board never again made a profit with the exception of the war years. Despite this it still had a good financial base thanks to its reserve funds of which it had several to cover its various disbursements.",
"Following the boom of the war years, the board's financial position slowly declined as economic prosperity changed the market in which the Board operated. The rise of competition to the board's services and the irreparably dilapidated state of the tramway network led to its phased withdrawal in the decade following he war. Buses were the new thinking in public transport and following the example of many other cities around the world, they replaced trams as the way to move people around.",
"The board changed its name in 1951 to the Christchurch Transport Board to reflect its shift away from the tramway as the mainstay of its business. It disappeared as a result of the deregulation of the transport industry in 1989\\.{{ref\\|Christchurch Tramway Board\\|\\*}}",
"### Christchurch City Council",
"#### Corporation Line",
"The council only intended to run the night soil service on its Corporation Line and to contract out the other functions to private operators. Tenders for working the line were called for in February 1886 with a three\\-year contract being awarded to Charles O’Malley. It soon became apparent that O’Malley was unsuitable and the contract was taken up by the Canterbury Tramway Company in August 1886\\.",
"Nominal through passenger services ran between Christchurch and New Brighton along the Corporation Line and the New Brighton Tramway Company's line with an interchange at \"The Junction\". Passengers were required to walk about {{convert\\|200\\|m}} between the two services because neither company would traverse the distance, a situation that proved to be most unsatisfactory for all concerned. The lease for the Corporation Line was eventually transferred to the New Brighton Tramway Company in late 1888 and they remained the operator of the line until the Christchurch Tramway Board acquired it in 1906\\.",
"The council's rubbish disposal service operated during the early hours of the morning from August 1886 until 1902 when a new facility was established in Manchester Street. It involved the use of four men, two horses, two trolleys, and twelve tipcarts with extra men and horses required on Saturdays.",
"The tramway hearse was widely derided as a gimmick and was never used for its intended purpose. In 1888 it was suggested that the vehicle should be converted for use as a tramcar but was found to be unsuitable for this purpose and was eventually sold in August 1901\\.",
"#### Heritage circuit",
"The present\\-day heritage tram circuit around the central city was the result of a joint venture involving the city council, Christchurch Tramway Ltd., and the Tramway Historical Society. The council built the track as part of its Worcester Boulevard project.",
"The tram is currently operated as a Christchurch tourist attraction by Welcome Aboard, who also manage the [Christchurch Gondola](/wiki/Christchurch_Gondola \"Christchurch Gondola\"). Up to seven tram cars are currently in operation daily on the heritage circuit, providing both daytime transport services and a restaurant during evening hours. The tram circuit was closed in 2011 following the [Christchurch earthquake](/wiki/2011_Christchurch_earthquake \"2011 Christchurch earthquake\"), and was re\\-opened on a shortened loop in November 2013 before the full heritage loop was re\\-opened in November 2014\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=O'Callaghan\\|first1\\=Jody\\|title\\=Christchurch trams get back on track\\|url\\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\\-press/news/transport/10723739/Christchurch\\-trams\\-get\\-back\\-on\\-track\\|accessdate\\=10 November 2016\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Press]]\\|date\\=10 November 2014}} In 2016, local business groups also began{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\\-press/business/the\\-rebuild/80523368/Calls\\-to\\-extend\\-Christchurch\\-tram\\-past\\-Dux\\-on\\-Poplar\\-Lane\\|title\\=Calls to extend Christchurch tram past Dux on Poplar Lane\\|publisher\\=The Press\\|access\\-date\\= 10 November 2016\\|date \\=31 May 2016}} in the Christchurch CBD.",
""
] |
### Canterbury Tramway Company: 1878–1893
The Canterbury Tramway Company was the first of three private Christchurch tramway companies to be formed. The idea for the company began in 1877 with a group of local entrepreneurs and was realised by early the following year. A prospectus was published and shares issued.
The company initially enjoyed commercial success on commencement of its services in 1880 as the novelty of tram travel quickly became fashionable. A steady rise in patronage necessitated the purchase of additional rolling stock. The company's directors were able to report favourably on the company's position in 1881 giving shareholders cause to be optimistic about its future. New lines were opened between 1882 and 1888 resulting in a network of {{convert\|17\|mi}} of tramway, with the Papanui and Sumner lines standing out as the most successful.
However, not all of the company's decisions proved to be sound, and in 1886 its brief 18\-month tenure as operator of the Corporation Line joined a growing list of missteps. By the end of the 1880s the company's future was uncertain and it implemented several economy measures in an attempt to improve its fortunes. This included a permanent fare reduction, the replacement of steam motors with horses on some routes, and the introduction of a one man\-operated tramcar. None of these measures were particularly successful.
By the early 1890s, the company's position had become dire and further attempts to alleviate its problems ensued including fare reductions and an increase in services. However, maintenance suffered which only served to further compound the company's troubles. A liquidator was finally appointed in March 1893\. The company's failure has been attributed to various causes including a lack of revenue to cover expenditure on maintenance, competition, mismanagement, and an economic depression.
Following liquidation, attempts to get the council to assume control of the company, and to dispose of its assets, failed.
|
[
"### Canterbury Tramway Company: 1878–1893",
"The Canterbury Tramway Company was the first of three private Christchurch tramway companies to be formed. The idea for the company began in 1877 with a group of local entrepreneurs and was realised by early the following year. A prospectus was published and shares issued.",
"The company initially enjoyed commercial success on commencement of its services in 1880 as the novelty of tram travel quickly became fashionable. A steady rise in patronage necessitated the purchase of additional rolling stock. The company's directors were able to report favourably on the company's position in 1881 giving shareholders cause to be optimistic about its future. New lines were opened between 1882 and 1888 resulting in a network of {{convert\\|17\\|mi}} of tramway, with the Papanui and Sumner lines standing out as the most successful.",
"However, not all of the company's decisions proved to be sound, and in 1886 its brief 18\\-month tenure as operator of the Corporation Line joined a growing list of missteps. By the end of the 1880s the company's future was uncertain and it implemented several economy measures in an attempt to improve its fortunes. This included a permanent fare reduction, the replacement of steam motors with horses on some routes, and the introduction of a one man\\-operated tramcar. None of these measures were particularly successful.",
"By the early 1890s, the company's position had become dire and further attempts to alleviate its problems ensued including fare reductions and an increase in services. However, maintenance suffered which only served to further compound the company's troubles. A liquidator was finally appointed in March 1893\\. The company's failure has been attributed to various causes including a lack of revenue to cover expenditure on maintenance, competition, mismanagement, and an economic depression.",
"Following liquidation, attempts to get the council to assume control of the company, and to dispose of its assets, failed.",
""
] |
### New Brighton Tramway Company: 1885–1906
Following the city council's decision in early 1884 to construct the Corporation Line, a group of local residents informed the council of their intention to build a line from the end of the Corporation Line to New Brighton and registered the New Brighton Tramway Company in mid\-1885\.
Despite mediocre results for the company's first annual returns, its service was proving to be popular, garnering between 3,000 and 5,000 passengers per week.
One of the most important events for the company was becoming the operator of passenger services on the Corporation Line. The city council had put the operation up for tender in late 1888 and accepted the bid from the New Brighton Tramway Company. It began running its services on the line from 7 December after acquiring the remainder of the lease. This gave the company control over the line from the central city all the way out to New Brighton, allowing it to run a more efficient operation and carry many more passengers.
There were trying times ahead for the company in the form of competition from the Canterbury Tramway Company's Sumner line and the alternate Christchurch–New Brighton route established by the City and Suburban Tramway Company. Counter\-measures implemented by the company resulted in only a modicum of success.
In 1906, the Company sold most of its assets to the Christchurch Tramway Board, retaining only its horses, harness, and central city property.
|
[
"### New Brighton Tramway Company: 1885–1906",
"Following the city council's decision in early 1884 to construct the Corporation Line, a group of local residents informed the council of their intention to build a line from the end of the Corporation Line to New Brighton and registered the New Brighton Tramway Company in mid\\-1885\\.",
"Despite mediocre results for the company's first annual returns, its service was proving to be popular, garnering between 3,000 and 5,000 passengers per week.",
"One of the most important events for the company was becoming the operator of passenger services on the Corporation Line. The city council had put the operation up for tender in late 1888 and accepted the bid from the New Brighton Tramway Company. It began running its services on the line from 7 December after acquiring the remainder of the lease. This gave the company control over the line from the central city all the way out to New Brighton, allowing it to run a more efficient operation and carry many more passengers.",
"There were trying times ahead for the company in the form of competition from the Canterbury Tramway Company's Sumner line and the alternate Christchurch–New Brighton route established by the City and Suburban Tramway Company. Counter\\-measures implemented by the company resulted in only a modicum of success.",
"In 1906, the Company sold most of its assets to the Christchurch Tramway Board, retaining only its horses, harness, and central city property.",
""
] |
### Christchurch City Council
#### Corporation Line
The council only intended to run the night soil service on its Corporation Line and to contract out the other functions to private operators. Tenders for working the line were called for in February 1886 with a three\-year contract being awarded to Charles O’Malley. It soon became apparent that O’Malley was unsuitable and the contract was taken up by the Canterbury Tramway Company in August 1886\.
Nominal through passenger services ran between Christchurch and New Brighton along the Corporation Line and the New Brighton Tramway Company's line with an interchange at "The Junction". Passengers were required to walk about {{convert\|200\|m}} between the two services because neither company would traverse the distance, a situation that proved to be most unsatisfactory for all concerned. The lease for the Corporation Line was eventually transferred to the New Brighton Tramway Company in late 1888 and they remained the operator of the line until the Christchurch Tramway Board acquired it in 1906\.
The council's rubbish disposal service operated during the early hours of the morning from August 1886 until 1902 when a new facility was established in Manchester Street. It involved the use of four men, two horses, two trolleys, and twelve tipcarts with extra men and horses required on Saturdays.
The tramway hearse was widely derided as a gimmick and was never used for its intended purpose. In 1888 it was suggested that the vehicle should be converted for use as a tramcar but was found to be unsuitable for this purpose and was eventually sold in August 1901\.
#### Heritage circuit
The present\-day heritage tram circuit around the central city was the result of a joint venture involving the city council, Christchurch Tramway Ltd., and the Tramway Historical Society. The council built the track as part of its Worcester Boulevard project.
The tram is currently operated as a Christchurch tourist attraction by Welcome Aboard, who also manage the [Christchurch Gondola](/wiki/Christchurch_Gondola "Christchurch Gondola"). Up to seven tram cars are currently in operation daily on the heritage circuit, providing both daytime transport services and a restaurant during evening hours. The tram circuit was closed in 2011 following the [Christchurch earthquake](/wiki/2011_Christchurch_earthquake "2011 Christchurch earthquake"), and was re\-opened on a shortened loop in November 2013 before the full heritage loop was re\-opened in November 2014\.{{cite news\|last1\=O'Callaghan\|first1\=Jody\|title\=Christchurch trams get back on track\|url\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\-press/news/transport/10723739/Christchurch\-trams\-get\-back\-on\-track\|accessdate\=10 November 2016\|work\=\[\[The Press]]\|date\=10 November 2014}} In 2016, local business groups also began{{cite web\|url\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\-press/business/the\-rebuild/80523368/Calls\-to\-extend\-Christchurch\-tram\-past\-Dux\-on\-Poplar\-Lane\|title\=Calls to extend Christchurch tram past Dux on Poplar Lane\|publisher\=The Press\|access\-date\= 10 November 2016\|date \=31 May 2016}} in the Christchurch CBD.
|
[
"### Christchurch City Council",
"#### Corporation Line",
"The council only intended to run the night soil service on its Corporation Line and to contract out the other functions to private operators. Tenders for working the line were called for in February 1886 with a three\\-year contract being awarded to Charles O’Malley. It soon became apparent that O’Malley was unsuitable and the contract was taken up by the Canterbury Tramway Company in August 1886\\.",
"Nominal through passenger services ran between Christchurch and New Brighton along the Corporation Line and the New Brighton Tramway Company's line with an interchange at \"The Junction\". Passengers were required to walk about {{convert\\|200\\|m}} between the two services because neither company would traverse the distance, a situation that proved to be most unsatisfactory for all concerned. The lease for the Corporation Line was eventually transferred to the New Brighton Tramway Company in late 1888 and they remained the operator of the line until the Christchurch Tramway Board acquired it in 1906\\.",
"The council's rubbish disposal service operated during the early hours of the morning from August 1886 until 1902 when a new facility was established in Manchester Street. It involved the use of four men, two horses, two trolleys, and twelve tipcarts with extra men and horses required on Saturdays.",
"The tramway hearse was widely derided as a gimmick and was never used for its intended purpose. In 1888 it was suggested that the vehicle should be converted for use as a tramcar but was found to be unsuitable for this purpose and was eventually sold in August 1901\\.",
"#### Heritage circuit",
"The present\\-day heritage tram circuit around the central city was the result of a joint venture involving the city council, Christchurch Tramway Ltd., and the Tramway Historical Society. The council built the track as part of its Worcester Boulevard project.",
"The tram is currently operated as a Christchurch tourist attraction by Welcome Aboard, who also manage the [Christchurch Gondola](/wiki/Christchurch_Gondola \"Christchurch Gondola\"). Up to seven tram cars are currently in operation daily on the heritage circuit, providing both daytime transport services and a restaurant during evening hours. The tram circuit was closed in 2011 following the [Christchurch earthquake](/wiki/2011_Christchurch_earthquake \"2011 Christchurch earthquake\"), and was re\\-opened on a shortened loop in November 2013 before the full heritage loop was re\\-opened in November 2014\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=O'Callaghan\\|first1\\=Jody\\|title\\=Christchurch trams get back on track\\|url\\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\\-press/news/transport/10723739/Christchurch\\-trams\\-get\\-back\\-on\\-track\\|accessdate\\=10 November 2016\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Press]]\\|date\\=10 November 2014}} In 2016, local business groups also began{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the\\-press/business/the\\-rebuild/80523368/Calls\\-to\\-extend\\-Christchurch\\-tram\\-past\\-Dux\\-on\\-Poplar\\-Lane\\|title\\=Calls to extend Christchurch tram past Dux on Poplar Lane\\|publisher\\=The Press\\|access\\-date\\= 10 November 2016\\|date \\=31 May 2016}} in the Christchurch CBD.",
""
] |
Propulsion systems
------------------
### Horses
Horses, often the first form of motive power for early tramways elsewhere, were not introduced to Christchurch until 1882 by the Canterbury Tramway Company. They were found to be cheaper to use on shorter lines and where there were fewer passengers. Services provided by both the New Brighton Tramway Company and the City and Suburban Tramway Company were typically hauled by horses as that was the only form of motive power those companies owned.
Where horses were used, they were worked in shifts and changed several times a day. The nature of the work was such that the typical working life of a tramway horse was about four years. Though Christchurch's flat terrain was favourable to the operation of tramways, the task of the tramway horse was made more difficult upon occasion by the overloading of tramcars.
When the Christchurch Tramway Board assumed control of the tramways, it also acquired some horses from the private tramway companies as a transition measure until such time as its network was fully electrified. A lack of materials delayed the completion of the board's line along the route operated by the New Brighton Tramway Company, prompting the board to hire a private contractor for the supply of horses and drivers to continue to provide services using horse trams until the line was ready for electric tram operation the following year. Horses were also used by the board on the city to Richmond section of the old City and Suburban line for a short time, possibly due to the demands placed on their resources by the International Exhibition. Those horses that became surplus to requirements were sold to farmers.
### Steam
[left\|thumb\|Kitson no. 7 outside a Tramway Historical Society barn at the Ferrymead Heritage Park](/wiki/File:Kitson_no._7.JPG "Kitson no. 7.JPG")
Of the private tramway companies based in Christchurch, only the Canterbury Tramway Company and its successor, the Christchurch Tramway Company, ever operated steam motors. The Canterbury Company initially purchased five Kitson steam motors, later ordering a further three. One was scrapped in 1893 and the remaining seven were sold to the Christchurch Tramway Board when the Company ceased operation in 1905\.
The board continued to use steam motors for regular services for a couple of years after commencing operations until its lines were fully electrified but even then continued to use them as demand required it. Several were scrapped in the 1920s but some were retained for use as shunters and in maintenance work until 1935\. Three (Kitsons 6, 7, 8\) were reconditioned as an emergency wartime measure in 1942\. During this time, they were also available for charter and special occasions. Kitson no. 7 was the only steam motor still in service by 1950 and the Tramway Historical Society at the Ferrymead Heritage Park is now its custodian.
Only one other steam motor was used on the Christchurch tramway system, a Baldwin locomotive purchased from the New South Wales Government to help out with the International Exhibition and with existing services as horses were being withdrawn.
### Electricity
Power was initially provided for the tram network by three [direct current](/wiki/Direct_current "Direct current") [turbo\-generators](/wiki/Turbo_generator "Turbo generator") in the Falsgrave Street powerhouse. There was also an [accumulator battery](/wiki/Accumulator_%28energy%29 "Accumulator (energy)") in the powerhouse used during the start\-up phase and for smoothing the power supply. The generators were run using [superheated steam](/wiki/Superheated_steam "Superheated steam") from coal\-fired boilers. Electricity was supplied to the trolley wires at a nominal 600 V DC.
Some special occasions, such as race days, required a large number of trams and trailers to convey all of the patrons. For these events, trams were typically dispatched in convoy for track control purposes (to avoid collisions). Even so, the demand they placed on the power supply was so great that the trams were often slowed to a walking pace.
The tramway power supply was improved in the 1920s when automatic [substations](/wiki/Electrical_substation "Electrical substation") were installed in Cashmere (1920\) and Fendalton (1922\) to boost power to southern and western sections respectively when required. They were supplied [AC](/wiki/Alternating_current "Alternating current") power from the State [hydro](/wiki/Hydroelectricity "Hydroelectricity") scheme and converted it to DC for use by the trams. Mercury\-arc [rectifiers](/wiki/Rectifier "Rectifier") were installed in 1949 displacing the old [rotary converters](/wiki/Rotary_converter "Rotary converter") and steam plant, which were decommissioned prior to the end of the tramway.
|
[
"Propulsion systems\n------------------",
"### Horses",
"Horses, often the first form of motive power for early tramways elsewhere, were not introduced to Christchurch until 1882 by the Canterbury Tramway Company. They were found to be cheaper to use on shorter lines and where there were fewer passengers. Services provided by both the New Brighton Tramway Company and the City and Suburban Tramway Company were typically hauled by horses as that was the only form of motive power those companies owned.",
"Where horses were used, they were worked in shifts and changed several times a day. The nature of the work was such that the typical working life of a tramway horse was about four years. Though Christchurch's flat terrain was favourable to the operation of tramways, the task of the tramway horse was made more difficult upon occasion by the overloading of tramcars.",
"When the Christchurch Tramway Board assumed control of the tramways, it also acquired some horses from the private tramway companies as a transition measure until such time as its network was fully electrified. A lack of materials delayed the completion of the board's line along the route operated by the New Brighton Tramway Company, prompting the board to hire a private contractor for the supply of horses and drivers to continue to provide services using horse trams until the line was ready for electric tram operation the following year. Horses were also used by the board on the city to Richmond section of the old City and Suburban line for a short time, possibly due to the demands placed on their resources by the International Exhibition. Those horses that became surplus to requirements were sold to farmers.",
"### Steam",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Kitson no. 7 outside a Tramway Historical Society barn at the Ferrymead Heritage Park](/wiki/File:Kitson_no._7.JPG \"Kitson no. 7.JPG\")\nOf the private tramway companies based in Christchurch, only the Canterbury Tramway Company and its successor, the Christchurch Tramway Company, ever operated steam motors. The Canterbury Company initially purchased five Kitson steam motors, later ordering a further three. One was scrapped in 1893 and the remaining seven were sold to the Christchurch Tramway Board when the Company ceased operation in 1905\\.",
"The board continued to use steam motors for regular services for a couple of years after commencing operations until its lines were fully electrified but even then continued to use them as demand required it. Several were scrapped in the 1920s but some were retained for use as shunters and in maintenance work until 1935\\. Three (Kitsons 6, 7, 8\\) were reconditioned as an emergency wartime measure in 1942\\. During this time, they were also available for charter and special occasions. Kitson no. 7 was the only steam motor still in service by 1950 and the Tramway Historical Society at the Ferrymead Heritage Park is now its custodian.",
"Only one other steam motor was used on the Christchurch tramway system, a Baldwin locomotive purchased from the New South Wales Government to help out with the International Exhibition and with existing services as horses were being withdrawn.",
"### Electricity",
"Power was initially provided for the tram network by three [direct current](/wiki/Direct_current \"Direct current\") [turbo\\-generators](/wiki/Turbo_generator \"Turbo generator\") in the Falsgrave Street powerhouse. There was also an [accumulator battery](/wiki/Accumulator_%28energy%29 \"Accumulator (energy)\") in the powerhouse used during the start\\-up phase and for smoothing the power supply. The generators were run using [superheated steam](/wiki/Superheated_steam \"Superheated steam\") from coal\\-fired boilers. Electricity was supplied to the trolley wires at a nominal 600 V DC.",
"Some special occasions, such as race days, required a large number of trams and trailers to convey all of the patrons. For these events, trams were typically dispatched in convoy for track control purposes (to avoid collisions). Even so, the demand they placed on the power supply was so great that the trams were often slowed to a walking pace.",
"The tramway power supply was improved in the 1920s when automatic [substations](/wiki/Electrical_substation \"Electrical substation\") were installed in Cashmere (1920\\) and Fendalton (1922\\) to boost power to southern and western sections respectively when required. They were supplied [AC](/wiki/Alternating_current \"Alternating current\") power from the State [hydro](/wiki/Hydroelectricity \"Hydroelectricity\") scheme and converted it to DC for use by the trams. Mercury\\-arc [rectifiers](/wiki/Rectifier \"Rectifier\") were installed in 1949 displacing the old [rotary converters](/wiki/Rotary_converter \"Rotary converter\") and steam plant, which were decommissioned prior to the end of the tramway.",
""
] |
Career
------
*Cadmus* first appears in *[Lloyd's Register](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_Register "Lloyd's Register")* in 1813 with the little information beyond her burthen and place of launch.[*Lloyd's Register* (1813\). Supple. pages "C", Seq. №126\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015005689347?urlappend=%3Bseq=669) After a voyage to Jamaica, *Cadmus* started trading with the East Indies, primarily to [Île de France](/wiki/Mauritius "Mauritius"), but also on to [Bombay](/wiki/Chennai "Chennai") or Bengal.
In 1813 the British [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company") had lost its monopoly on the trade between India and Britain. British ships were then free to sail to India or the Indian Ocean under a licence from the EIC.{{sfnp\|Hackman\|2001\|p\=247}} *Cadmus*{{'}}s owners applied on 20 December 1815 for a licence, which they received the next day.{{sfnp\|House of Commons\|1816}}
For instance, *Cadmus*, Captain J. Dent, master, sailed from Gravesend on 24 January 1817, bound for Île de France. At Île de France *Cadmus* took on some of the undamaged cargo from {{ship\|\|Benson\|1811 ship\|2}}, which had arrived leaky there and been condemned. *Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign ...*, (1827\), Volume 23, p.299\. *Cadmus* arrived back at Gravesend on 21 January 1818\.
Equally, Captain R. Appleby sailed on 28 February 1819 and on 5 April 1821 for [Fort William, India](/wiki/Fort_William%2C_India "Fort William, India").
| Year | Master | Owner | Trade | Source \& notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1814 | I. TaylorJ. Dent | Laing \& Co. | London–Jamaica | *Lloyd's Register* (1814\) |
| 1815 | J. Dent | Blanchard | London–Île de France | *Register of Shipping* (1815\)[*Register of Shipping* (1815\), Seq. №C1\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015024214275?urlappend=%3Bseq=118) |
| 1820 | R. Appleby | Blanchard | London–Île de France | *Register of Shipping* (1820\) |
| 1825 | Snowden | Sturges \& Co. | London\-Quebec | *Register of Shipping* (1825\) |
|
In 1827 T. Sturge \& Co. started to use *Cadmus* as a South Sea whaler.
**Whaling voyage \#1 (1827\-1830\):** Captain Snowden sailed from England on 11 November 1827, bound for Timor. In April 1829 *Cadmus* was near Timor. Then, by March 1830 she had moved to the [Bay of Islands](/wiki/Bay_of_Islands "Bay of Islands") and was whaling there, as was {{HMS\|Woodlark\|1808\|2}}, Grimes, master, and a number of other whaling ships from London, Port Jackson, and the United States. She returned to England on 4 August 1830 with 450 casks of oil.[British Southern Whale Fishery Database – voyages: *Cadmus*.](https://whalinghistory.org/bv/voyages/)
**Whaling voyage \#2 (1830–1834\):** Captain Snowden sailed from England on 24 December 1830, bound for the Pacific Ocean. On 27 August 1831 *Cadmus* was off [Ocean Island](/wiki/Banaba_Island "Banaba Island"). She then sailed to [Christmas Island](/wiki/Kiritimati "Kiritimati"). On 4 April 1832 she was near Guam.
On 21 March 1833 *Cadmus* was at [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), New South Wales, with 112 tuns of sperm oil.[*Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser*, 26 Mar 1833, p.2, "Sydney General Trade List".](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/2211334) There she unloaded her oil for transshipment to London aboard *Nelson*. *Cadmus* left on 9 May.
On 3 July 1833 Snowden passed on the news to {{ship\|\|Cheviot\|1827 ship\|2}} that the whaler {{ship\|\|Borneo\|1817 ship\|2}} had been lost on the coast of the Seychelles.[British Southern Whale Fishery \- Voyages: *Borneo*.](https://whalinghistory.org/bv/voyages/)
By one report Snowden landed 14 mutinous crewmen on the [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands "Bonin Islands"). He had engaged some of them at Sydney.*Journal of the Royal Geographical Society ...*, Volume 26\. p.233\. However, another report states that *Cadmus* was at the Bonins between 22 and 23 August, and that the 14 men that had been landed against the wishes of the inhabitants, had come a month earlier from *Harriet*, Bunker, master.*Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan*, Volumes 32\-34\.
On 17 November 1833 *Cadmus* was at Oahu. Then she was reported to have been at the Bay of Islands on 13 March 1834, and homeward bound. She returned to England on 15 October 1834 with 98 tons of oil.
| Year | Master | Owner | Trade | Source \& notes |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1830 | Snowden | Sturges | London–South Seas | *Register of Shipping* (1830\); Large repairs 1827 \& 1830 |
| 1835 | W. Soot (Foot) | J. Brown | Poole\-North America | *Lloyd's Register* (1835\); Small repairs 1835 |
|
|
[
"Career\n------",
"*Cadmus* first appears in *[Lloyd's Register](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_Register \"Lloyd's Register\")* in 1813 with the little information beyond her burthen and place of launch.[*Lloyd's Register* (1813\\). Supple. pages \"C\", Seq. №126\\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015005689347?urlappend=%3Bseq=669) After a voyage to Jamaica, *Cadmus* started trading with the East Indies, primarily to [Île de France](/wiki/Mauritius \"Mauritius\"), but also on to [Bombay](/wiki/Chennai \"Chennai\") or Bengal.",
"In 1813 the British [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company \"East India Company\") had lost its monopoly on the trade between India and Britain. British ships were then free to sail to India or the Indian Ocean under a licence from the EIC.{{sfnp\\|Hackman\\|2001\\|p\\=247}} *Cadmus*{{'}}s owners applied on 20 December 1815 for a licence, which they received the next day.{{sfnp\\|House of Commons\\|1816}}",
"For instance, *Cadmus*, Captain J. Dent, master, sailed from Gravesend on 24 January 1817, bound for Île de France. At Île de France *Cadmus* took on some of the undamaged cargo from {{ship\\|\\|Benson\\|1811 ship\\|2}}, which had arrived leaky there and been condemned. *Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign ...*, (1827\\), Volume 23, p.299\\. *Cadmus* arrived back at Gravesend on 21 January 1818\\.",
"Equally, Captain R. Appleby sailed on 28 February 1819 and on 5 April 1821 for [Fort William, India](/wiki/Fort_William%2C_India \"Fort William, India\").",
"",
"| Year | Master | Owner | Trade | Source \\& notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1814 | I. TaylorJ. Dent | Laing \\& Co. | London–Jamaica | *Lloyd's Register* (1814\\) |\n| 1815 | J. Dent | Blanchard | London–Île de France | *Register of Shipping* (1815\\)[*Register of Shipping* (1815\\), Seq. №C1\\.](https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015024214275?urlappend=%3Bseq=118) |\n| 1820 | R. Appleby | Blanchard | London–Île de France | *Register of Shipping* (1820\\) |\n| 1825 | Snowden | Sturges \\& Co. | London\\-Quebec | *Register of Shipping* (1825\\) |\n|",
"In 1827 T. Sturge \\& Co. started to use *Cadmus* as a South Sea whaler.",
"**Whaling voyage \\#1 (1827\\-1830\\):** Captain Snowden sailed from England on 11 November 1827, bound for Timor. In April 1829 *Cadmus* was near Timor. Then, by March 1830 she had moved to the [Bay of Islands](/wiki/Bay_of_Islands \"Bay of Islands\") and was whaling there, as was {{HMS\\|Woodlark\\|1808\\|2}}, Grimes, master, and a number of other whaling ships from London, Port Jackson, and the United States. She returned to England on 4 August 1830 with 450 casks of oil.[British Southern Whale Fishery Database – voyages: *Cadmus*.](https://whalinghistory.org/bv/voyages/)",
"**Whaling voyage \\#2 (1830–1834\\):** Captain Snowden sailed from England on 24 December 1830, bound for the Pacific Ocean. On 27 August 1831 *Cadmus* was off [Ocean Island](/wiki/Banaba_Island \"Banaba Island\"). She then sailed to [Christmas Island](/wiki/Kiritimati \"Kiritimati\"). On 4 April 1832 she was near Guam.",
"On 21 March 1833 *Cadmus* was at [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), New South Wales, with 112 tuns of sperm oil.[*Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser*, 26 Mar 1833, p.2, \"Sydney General Trade List\".](https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/2211334) There she unloaded her oil for transshipment to London aboard *Nelson*. *Cadmus* left on 9 May.",
"On 3 July 1833 Snowden passed on the news to {{ship\\|\\|Cheviot\\|1827 ship\\|2}} that the whaler {{ship\\|\\|Borneo\\|1817 ship\\|2}} had been lost on the coast of the Seychelles.[British Southern Whale Fishery \\- Voyages: *Borneo*.](https://whalinghistory.org/bv/voyages/)",
"By one report Snowden landed 14 mutinous crewmen on the [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\"). He had engaged some of them at Sydney.*Journal of the Royal Geographical Society ...*, Volume 26\\. p.233\\. However, another report states that *Cadmus* was at the Bonins between 22 and 23 August, and that the 14 men that had been landed against the wishes of the inhabitants, had come a month earlier from *Harriet*, Bunker, master.*Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan*, Volumes 32\\-34\\.",
"On 17 November 1833 *Cadmus* was at Oahu. Then she was reported to have been at the Bay of Islands on 13 March 1834, and homeward bound. She returned to England on 15 October 1834 with 98 tons of oil.",
"",
"| Year | Master | Owner | Trade | Source \\& notes |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1830 | Snowden | Sturges | London–South Seas | *Register of Shipping* (1830\\); Large repairs 1827 \\& 1830 |\n| 1835 | W. Soot (Foot) | J. Brown | Poole\\-North America | *Lloyd's Register* (1835\\); Small repairs 1835 |\n|",
""
] |
Plot
----
Laurent ([Alain Chabat](/wiki/Alain_Chabat "Alain Chabat")) and Loli ([Victoria Abril](/wiki/Victoria_Abril "Victoria Abril")) are a thirty\-ish married couple living in southern France with their young children. He is an estate agent; she is a housewife. Laurent has extramarital affairs.
Loli is unaware that her husband is unfaithful. Then one day, a campervan breaks down in front of their house. The driver is Marie\-Jo ([Josiane Balasko](/wiki/Josiane_Balasko "Josiane Balasko")), a 40s\-ish [butch](/wiki/Butch_and_femme "Butch and femme") [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian "Lesbian") who works as a DJ. She asks to use their phone. Loli has a blocked sink, so in exchange for using the phone, Marie\-Jo gets Loli's drain back in working order. Loli and Marie\-Jo begin an affair. Laurent is upset, but then his friend Antoine ([Ticky Holgado](/wiki/Ticky_Holgado "Ticky Holgado")) accidentally reveals Laurent's philandering to Loli. This seems to justify her romance. Marie\-Jo moves into the house.
Antoine then suggests that Laurent let Loli have her way, cease all hostility, and wait for the affair to burn out. Laurent agrees, and the household becomes a seemingly idyllic *ménage à trois*. But his strategy has its effect, especially after another lesbian couple, old friends of Marie\-Jo, happen by. Laurent welcomes them, but Loli becomes annoyed and jealous.
Marie\-Jo decides that the situation is not really going to work. She knows that Laurent wants her to leave. While Loli is away on a trip, Marie\-Jo makes a deal with Laurent. She will break up with Loli and leave immediately, if Laurent will give her something she has wanted for years: a baby. Laurent has sex with Marie\-Jo to get her pregnant, and Marie\-Jo departs before Loli returns. Laurent tells Loli nothing, as agreed with Marie\-Jo.
Laurent and Loli settle back down to their old life, but their relationship has been deeply affected. Then Loli hears from a mutual acquaintance that Marie\-Jo is living in Paris and is several months pregnant. Loli is astonished and shocked. She insists that she and Laurent go to Paris and contact Marie\-Jo. They find her working as a DJ in a lesbian dance club. Their intrusion provokes a quarrel with the club owner, who fires Marie\-Jo. Loli and Laurent take her back to their home, where she has her baby.
The *ménage à trois* is re\-established, with the two mothers caring for their children. As Laurent goes to buy a bigger a house, he finds the seller, a handsome Spaniard (Miguel Bosé), in his swimming pool. The two then share a breakfast while gazing into each other's eyes.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Laurent ([Alain Chabat](/wiki/Alain_Chabat \"Alain Chabat\")) and Loli ([Victoria Abril](/wiki/Victoria_Abril \"Victoria Abril\")) are a thirty\\-ish married couple living in southern France with their young children. He is an estate agent; she is a housewife. Laurent has extramarital affairs.",
"Loli is unaware that her husband is unfaithful. Then one day, a campervan breaks down in front of their house. The driver is Marie\\-Jo ([Josiane Balasko](/wiki/Josiane_Balasko \"Josiane Balasko\")), a 40s\\-ish [butch](/wiki/Butch_and_femme \"Butch and femme\") [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian \"Lesbian\") who works as a DJ. She asks to use their phone. Loli has a blocked sink, so in exchange for using the phone, Marie\\-Jo gets Loli's drain back in working order. Loli and Marie\\-Jo begin an affair. Laurent is upset, but then his friend Antoine ([Ticky Holgado](/wiki/Ticky_Holgado \"Ticky Holgado\")) accidentally reveals Laurent's philandering to Loli. This seems to justify her romance. Marie\\-Jo moves into the house.",
"Antoine then suggests that Laurent let Loli have her way, cease all hostility, and wait for the affair to burn out. Laurent agrees, and the household becomes a seemingly idyllic *ménage à trois*. But his strategy has its effect, especially after another lesbian couple, old friends of Marie\\-Jo, happen by. Laurent welcomes them, but Loli becomes annoyed and jealous.",
"Marie\\-Jo decides that the situation is not really going to work. She knows that Laurent wants her to leave. While Loli is away on a trip, Marie\\-Jo makes a deal with Laurent. She will break up with Loli and leave immediately, if Laurent will give her something she has wanted for years: a baby. Laurent has sex with Marie\\-Jo to get her pregnant, and Marie\\-Jo departs before Loli returns. Laurent tells Loli nothing, as agreed with Marie\\-Jo.",
"Laurent and Loli settle back down to their old life, but their relationship has been deeply affected. Then Loli hears from a mutual acquaintance that Marie\\-Jo is living in Paris and is several months pregnant. Loli is astonished and shocked. She insists that she and Laurent go to Paris and contact Marie\\-Jo. They find her working as a DJ in a lesbian dance club. Their intrusion provokes a quarrel with the club owner, who fires Marie\\-Jo. Loli and Laurent take her back to their home, where she has her baby.",
"The *ménage à trois* is re\\-established, with the two mothers caring for their children. As Laurent goes to buy a bigger a house, he finds the seller, a handsome Spaniard (Miguel Bosé), in his swimming pool. The two then share a breakfast while gazing into each other's eyes.",
""
] |
Aircraft history
----------------
[thumb\|[Spitfire](/wiki/Spitfire "Spitfire") AB910, built in 1941, painted in the colours of Spitfire BM327 [No. 64 Squadron](/wiki/No._64_Squadron_RAF "No. 64 Squadron RAF"); this aircraft was flown by Flight Lieutenant Tony Cooper during [Operation Overlord](/wiki/Operation_Overlord "Operation Overlord") on the 6th of June 1944, hence the [D\-Day stripes](/wiki/Invasion_stripes "Invasion stripes").](/wiki/File:Supermarine_Spitfire_Vb_%27AB910_SH-F%27_%E2%80%9CPeterJohn_I%E2%80%9D_%2851546963433%29.jpg "Supermarine Spitfire Vb 'AB910 SH-F' “PeterJohn I” (51546963433).jpg")
Although usually seen flying in a formation of three, the Lancaster flanked by a fighter on each wing, the BBMF comprises a total of 12 aircraft:
* 1 [Avro Lancaster](/wiki/Avro_Lancaster "Avro Lancaster")
* 6 [Supermarine Spitfires](/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfires "Supermarine Spitfires")
* 2 [Hawker Hurricanes](/wiki/Hawker_Hurricanes "Hawker Hurricanes")
* 1 [Douglas Dakota](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain "Douglas C-47 Skytrain")
* 2 [de Havilland Canada DHC\-1 Chipmunks](/wiki/De_Havilland_Canada_DHC-1_Chipmunk "De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk")
Aircraft currently in the flight have served with the RAF, the [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces "United States Army Air Forces"), and the [Royal Canadian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Air_Force "Royal Canadian Air Force"), as well as having been privately owned; whilst in the RAF, they were flown by [Czechoslovakian](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia"), Polish, South African, American and Canadian pilots. Some were sold for scrapping and later saved, whilst at least one has been on operational service with the RAF for almost fifty years.
### Spitfires
Individual aircraft have historic heritages; the oldest of the Spitfires, P7350 (G\-AWIJ), is a Mk.IIa, which originally flew in the [Battle of Britain](/wiki/Battle_of_Britain "Battle of Britain") in 1940,{{sfn\|Rowley\|2017\|p\=
16}} with [No. 266 (Rhodesia) Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._266_Squadron_RAF "No. 266 Squadron RAF") and [603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadron AAF](/wiki/No._603_Squadron_RAF "No. 603 Squadron RAF"). It was also used by [No. 64 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._64_Squadron_RAF "No. 64 Squadron RAF") and [No. 616 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._616_Squadron_RAF "No. 616 Squadron RAF").{{sfn\|Thetford\|1995\|p\=403}} In 2019 she was repainted in the [No. 54 Squadron](/wiki/No._54_Squadron_RAF "No. 54 Squadron RAF") code 'KL\-B', which represents the aircraft flown by [Al Deere](/wiki/Alan_Deere "Alan Deere") from 10 July 1940 until 31 August 1940\.
The Mk Vb Spitfire, AB910, built in 1941{{sfn\|Rowley\|2017\|p\=16}} escorted convoys in the [Battle of the Atlantic](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic "Battle of the Atlantic"). She then flew escort patrols during bombing raids on the German battleships [*Scharnhorst*](/wiki/German_battleship_Scharnhorst "German battleship Scharnhorst") and [*Gneisenau*](/wiki/German_battleship_Gneisenau "German battleship Gneisenau"), then (as part of [No. 133 (Eagle) Squadron](/wiki/No._133_Squadron_RAF "No. 133 Squadron RAF")), she fought in the [Dieppe Raid](/wiki/Dieppe_Raid "Dieppe Raid"). Capping this long career, as part of [No. 402 Squadron RCAF](/wiki/402_Squadron "402 Squadron"), she flew cover patrols over the [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy "Normandy") beaches on [D\-Day](/wiki/D-Day "D-Day") and in the subsequent weeks – as did another of the flight's Spitfires, with [No. 443 Squadron RCAF](/wiki/443_Maritime_Helicopter_Squadron "443 Maritime Helicopter Squadron"). As of August 2018, AB910 was adorned with the D\-Day colour scheme of Flight Lieutenant Tony Cooper's 64 Squadron Mk Vb 'SH\-F' (BM327\) "PeterJohn1" (named after his new\-born son).
[thumb\|Battle of Britain Memorial Flight Spitfire LF Mk. IXe, MK356, QJ\-3, 2017](/wiki/File:Supermarine_Spitfire_LF.IXc_%E2%80%98MK356_QJ-3%E2%80%99_%2842083530554%29.jpg "Supermarine Spitfire LF.IXc ‘MK356 QJ-3’ (42083530554).jpg")
The Mk LFIXe Spitfire, MK356, was built in March 1944 and fitted with a Merlin 66 engine with a two\-speed, two\-stage supercharger optimised for low altitudes. Allocated to the [Royal Canadian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Air_Force "Royal Canadian Air Force") (RCAF) No. 144 Wing, based in various locations around southern England, she took part in the Rodeo fighter sweep over occupied France in the weeks leading up to D\-Day. After the war she served as a [gate guardian](/wiki/Gate_guardian "Gate guardian") at [Hawkinge](/wiki/RAF_Hawkinge "RAF Hawkinge") and [Locking](/wiki/RAF_Locking "RAF Locking"), and was recovered and refurbished in 1992 for the BBMF. From 2017 she was displayed in a desert paint scheme used by [No. 92 (East India) Squadron](/wiki/No._92_Squadron_RAF "No. 92 Squadron RAF") in Tunisia in 1943\. The aircraft crashed in 2024, killing the pilot.
There are also two PRXIX Spitfires, both built in 1945 with Griffon 66 engines. PM631 was too late to see operational services in the Second World War and carried out civilian duties with the Temperature and Humidity Monitoring Flight (THUM) at [RAF Woodvale](/wiki/RAF_Woodvale "RAF Woodvale") until 11 July 1957, when she became part of the Historic Aircraft Flight; she is the longest\-serving aircraft in the BBMF and is currently painted in her original PR Blue markings last worn in 1957\.
[thumb\|PS915 taking off at RIAT 2018\.](/wiki/File:Spitfire_-_RIAT_2018_%2830793041268%29.jpg "Spitfire - RIAT 2018 (30793041268).jpg")
PS915 was operated by [No. 541 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._541_Squadron_RAF "No. 541 Squadron RAF"){{sfn\|Thetford\|1995\|p\=403}} and performed various reconnaissance duties at [RAF Wunstorf](/wiki/Wunstorf_Air_Base "Wunstorf Air Base") in Germany. She returned to the UK in 1954 and was retired to gate guarding duties. In 1987 she was modified with a Griffon 58 engine and refurbished to flying condition by [British Aerospace](/wiki/British_Aerospace "British Aerospace"). She currently carries the markings of PS888 of [81 Squadron](/wiki/No._81_Squadron_RAF "No. 81 Squadron RAF") based at [Seletar](/wiki/Seletar_Airport%23RAF_Seletar "Seletar Airport#RAF Seletar"), Singapore, during the [Malayan Emergency](/wiki/Malayan_Emergency "Malayan Emergency") which conducted the last operational RAF Spitfire sortie on 1 April 1954, photographing communist guerrilla hideouts over an area of jungle in [Johore](/wiki/Johor "Johor"). The ground crew painted the inscription "The Last!" on PS915's left engine cowling.
One Mark XIX Spitfire, PS853, was sold in 1996 to defray the costs of rebuilding Hurricane LF363 after her crash\-landing on the runway at [RAF Wittering](/wiki/RAF_Wittering "RAF Wittering") due to engine failure in 1991\.{{Cite web \|title\=Supermarine Spitfire Mk. XIX G\-RRGN \|url\=https://www.flyinglegends.com/aircraft/supermarine\-spitfire\-mk\-xix.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111211540/https://www.flyinglegends.com/aircraft/supermarine\-spitfire\-mk\-xix.html \|archive\-date\=11 November 2020 \|access\-date\=29 May 2024 \|website\=Flying Legends}}
Spitfire Mark XVI TE311, built as a low\-back with clipped wings and powered with a Packard Merlin engine, was acquired in 2002 and initially allocated for spares, but officially added to the BBMF collection in 2007\. TE311 was made airworthy in the later stages of the 2012 display season. Since January 2024, TE311 has worn the livery of [No. 322 (Dutch) Squadron](/wiki/No._322_%28Dutch%29_Squadron_RAF "No. 322 (Dutch) Squadron RAF") and its Squadron code *"3W\-M"*, along with the Squadron's mascot, *"Polly Grey"*, a [red\-tailed African Grey parrot](/wiki/Grey_parrot "Grey parrot"), on its nose.{{Cite web \|date\=8 January 2024 \|title\=Spitfire TE311 painted in new scheme \|url\=https://www.raf.mod.uk/display\-teams/battle\-of\-britain\-memorial\-flight/news/te311\-paint\-scheme\-2024/ \|access\-date\=10 August 2024 \|website\=Royal Air Force}} In July 2024 the aircraft's [starboard](/wiki/Port_and_starboard "Port and starboard") (right) side was repainted to display the fictitious squadron code *"L\-NG"* in memory of Squadron Leader Mark Long, along with his name and rank pennant under the cockpit.
### Hurricanes
[thumb\|Hurricane Mk. IIc LF363 representing 'RF\-J', 2021\.](/wiki/File:RAF_BATTLE_OF_BRITAIN_MEMORIAL_FLIGHT_HAWKER_HURRICANE_IIC_LF363_%2852246177182%29.jpg "RAF BATTLE OF BRITAIN MEMORIAL FLIGHT HAWKER HURRICANE IIC LF363 (52246177182).jpg")
There are two Hurricanes. LF363 is a Mk IIc and was first flown on 1 January 1944{{sfn\|Rowley\|2017\|p\=16}} and the last Hurricane to have entered service with the RAF. She appeared in the films *[Angels One Five](/wiki/Angels_One_Five "Angels One Five")*, *[Reach for the Sky](/wiki/Reach_for_the_Sky "Reach for the Sky")*, *[The Battle of Britain](/wiki/Battle_of_Britain_%28film%29 "Battle of Britain (film)")*,{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.daveswarbirds.com/bob/hurricane.htm\|title\=Battle of Britain \- Hurricanes\|work\=Daves Warbirds\|access\-date\=17 August 2017\|language\=en\-GB}} and a TV series *The War in the Air*.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2024}} [PZ865](/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane_PZ865 "Hawker Hurricane PZ865"), is a Mk IIc, rolling off the production line on 27 July 1944\.{{sfn\|Rowley\|2017\|p\=16}} It was built six months after LF363;{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2024}} originally owned by [Hawker Aircraft](/wiki/Hawker_Aircraft "Hawker Aircraft"),{{sfn\|Thetford\|1995\|p\=403}} it was handed over to the BBMF during 1972\.{{sfn\|Rowley\|2017\|p\=25}} She is the last Hurricane ever to have been built. She once wore the inscription "The Last of the Many" on her port and starboard sides – the original fabric with this inscription is now located in the BBMF Headquarters at RAF Coningsby.
### Lancaster
[left\|thumb\|[Lancaster](/wiki/Avro_Lancaster "Avro Lancaster") PA474 'AR\-L' at RIAT 2023\.](/wiki/File:RIAT_160723_Avro_Lancaster_PA474.jpg "RIAT 160723 Avro Lancaster PA474.jpg")
The Lancaster bomber \- [PA474](/wiki/Avro_Lancaster_PA474 "Avro Lancaster PA474"), acquired by the BBMF in 1973, is one of only two [surviving airworthy examples of the type](/wiki/List_of_surviving_Avro_Lancasters "List of surviving Avro Lancasters"); the other is in Canada. She was completed on 31 May 1945{{sfn\|Rowley\|2017\|p\=27}} and assigned to reconnaissance duties at [No. 82 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._82_Squadron_RAF "No. 82 Squadron RAF"){{sfn\|Thetford\|1995\|p\=403}} after appearing too late to take part in the [bombing of Japan](/wiki/Air_raids_on_Japan "Air raids on Japan"). After various duties, she was adopted by the [Air Historical Branch](/wiki/Air_Historical_Branch "Air Historical Branch") for display work. She appeared in two films: *[Operation Crossbow](/wiki/Operation_Crossbow_%28film%29 "Operation Crossbow (film)")* and *[The Guns of Navarone](/wiki/The_Guns_of_Navarone_%28film%29 "The Guns of Navarone (film)")*. Having been flown for much of her service with the BBMF as the "City of [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_England "Lincoln, England")", PA474 previously wore the markings of the "Phantom of the Ruhr", a Lancaster that flew 121 sorties (a so\-called "ton\-up" Lancaster). Originally assigned to [100 Squadron](/wiki/No._100_Squadron_RAF "No. 100 Squadron RAF") in June 1943, the original "Phantom" was transferred to [101 Squadron](/wiki/No._101_Squadron_RAF "No. 101 Squadron RAF") in November that year and finished the war as part of [550 Squadron](/wiki/No._550_Squadron_RAF "No. 550 Squadron RAF") at [RAF Ludford Magna](/wiki/RAF_Ludford_Magna "RAF Ludford Magna"). The Lancaster currently carries the markings of AR\-L 'Leader', which served with [No. 460 Squadron RAAF](/wiki/No._460_Squadron_RAAF "No. 460 Squadron RAAF").
PA474 displays the markings of bombs for operations over Germany, ice\-cream cones for operations over Italy and poppies when she releases poppies during exhibition flights. During the 2008 RAF Waddington Air Day, PA474 was flown in formation with the recently restored [Avro Vulcan XH558](/wiki/Avro_Vulcan_XH558 "Avro Vulcan XH558") in an historic display of two Avro "heavy metal" classics.
### Dakota
[thumb\|Dakota ZA947 in its current markings, with 'Kwitcherbichen' inscribed on the port side of the nose.](/wiki/File:ZA947_Douglas_C-47A_Dakota_Mk3_BBMF_%2814478071430%29.jpg "ZA947 Douglas C-47A Dakota Mk3 BBMF (14478071430).jpg")
The [Douglas Dakota](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain "Douglas C-47 Skytrain"), ZA947, built at Long Beach, California in March 1942, was issued to the [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces "United States Army Air Forces") and later transferred to the Royal Canadian Air Force where she served until 1971\. The aircraft was purchased by the [Royal Aircraft Establishment](/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Establishment "Royal Aircraft Establishment") before being issued to the BBMF in March 1993\. She is equipped with authentic period 'para seats' and is used in commemorative parachute drops.
The Dakota did serve solely as a support aircraft for the flight and as a multi\-engine tail\-wheel trainer for the Lancaster, but is now also used as a display aircraft.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.raf.mod.uk/bbmf/theaircraft/dakota.cfm\|title\=The Dakota}}
### Chipmunks
[thumb\|DHC\-1 Chipmunk T10 WG486 in 2010](/wiki/File:WG486_a_DHC.1_Chipmunk_of_the_RAFs_Battle_of_Britain_Memorial_flight_circuit_training_RAF_Coningsby_%284986850087%29_cropped.jpg "WG486 a DHC.1 Chipmunk of the RAFs Battle of Britain Memorial flight circuit training RAF Coningsby (4986850087) cropped.jpg")
The two [de Havilland Canada DHC\-1 Chipmunks](/wiki/De_Havilland_Canada_DHC-1_Chipmunk "De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk") (WG486 and WK518\), are the last in RAF service, but are not intended for display use; rather, they serve to give pilots experience in flying aircraft with a [tailwheel landing gear](/wiki/Tailwheel_landing_gear "Tailwheel landing gear"), a design that has now vanished from the modern RAF fleet. Chipmunk WG486 flew reconnaissance missions over [East Germany](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany"), as part of the [RAF Gatow](/wiki/RAF_Gatow "RAF Gatow") Station Flight, in co\-operation with the British Commander\-in\-Chief's Mission to the [Group of Soviet Forces in Germany](/wiki/Group_of_Soviet_Forces_in_Germany "Group of Soviet Forces in Germany"), commonly known as [BRIXMIS](/wiki/BRIXMIS "BRIXMIS").
### Flypasts
[left\|thumb\|Two [Hawker Hurricanes](/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane "Hawker Hurricane"), three [Supermarine Spitfires](/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfire "Supermarine Spitfire"), one [Douglas Dakota](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain "Douglas C-47 Skytrain") and one [Avro Lancaster](/wiki/Avro_Lancaster "Avro Lancaster") in Trenchard Plus formation at RIAT 2018\.](/wiki/File:RAF_BBMF_Trenchard_Plus_formation_%2843524883192%29.jpg "RAF BBMF Trenchard Plus formation (43524883192).jpg")
The flight also regularly takes part in combined [flypasts](/wiki/Flypast "Flypast") with other recognisable British aircraft, such as the [Red Arrows](/wiki/Red_Arrows "Red Arrows"). It appeared on occasion with [Concorde](/wiki/Concorde "Concorde") before that aircraft's withdrawal from service in October 2003\.
For much of the 2014 display season the flight was joined by Canadian\-built [Lancaster Mark X FM213](/wiki/Avro_Lancaster_FM213 "Avro Lancaster FM213"). This aircraft is owned and operated by the [Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum](/wiki/Canadian_Warplane_Heritage_Museum "Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum") and made the 3,000\-mile trip to the UK, via [Goose Bay](/wiki/CFB_Goose_Bay "CFB Goose Bay") in Canada and [Keflavík](/wiki/Keflav%C3%ADk_International_Airport "Keflavík International Airport") in Iceland, arriving at RAF Coningsby on 9 August. FM213 (C\-GVRA) is dedicated to the memory of P/O Andrew Mynarski [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross "Victoria Cross") and is referred to as the "Mynarski Memorial Lancaster". It is painted in the colours of his aircraft KB726 – VR\-A, which flew with RCAF No. 419 (Moose) Squadron, and is affectionately known as Vera. She displayed with PA474 in the first Lancaster two\-aircraft formation for 50 years, with both Lancasters visiting a large number of air shows and events before Vera's departure back to Canada in mid\-September.
|
[
"Aircraft history\n----------------",
"[thumb\\|[Spitfire](/wiki/Spitfire \"Spitfire\") AB910, built in 1941, painted in the colours of Spitfire BM327 [No. 64 Squadron](/wiki/No._64_Squadron_RAF \"No. 64 Squadron RAF\"); this aircraft was flown by Flight Lieutenant Tony Cooper during [Operation Overlord](/wiki/Operation_Overlord \"Operation Overlord\") on the 6th of June 1944, hence the [D\\-Day stripes](/wiki/Invasion_stripes \"Invasion stripes\").](/wiki/File:Supermarine_Spitfire_Vb_%27AB910_SH-F%27_%E2%80%9CPeterJohn_I%E2%80%9D_%2851546963433%29.jpg \"Supermarine Spitfire Vb 'AB910 SH-F' “PeterJohn I” (51546963433).jpg\")\nAlthough usually seen flying in a formation of three, the Lancaster flanked by a fighter on each wing, the BBMF comprises a total of 12 aircraft:",
"* 1 [Avro Lancaster](/wiki/Avro_Lancaster \"Avro Lancaster\")\n* 6 [Supermarine Spitfires](/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfires \"Supermarine Spitfires\")\n* 2 [Hawker Hurricanes](/wiki/Hawker_Hurricanes \"Hawker Hurricanes\")\n* 1 [Douglas Dakota](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain \"Douglas C-47 Skytrain\")\n* 2 [de Havilland Canada DHC\\-1 Chipmunks](/wiki/De_Havilland_Canada_DHC-1_Chipmunk \"De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk\")",
"Aircraft currently in the flight have served with the RAF, the [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\"), and the [Royal Canadian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Air_Force \"Royal Canadian Air Force\"), as well as having been privately owned; whilst in the RAF, they were flown by [Czechoslovakian](/wiki/Czechoslovakia \"Czechoslovakia\"), Polish, South African, American and Canadian pilots. Some were sold for scrapping and later saved, whilst at least one has been on operational service with the RAF for almost fifty years.",
"### Spitfires",
"Individual aircraft have historic heritages; the oldest of the Spitfires, P7350 (G\\-AWIJ), is a Mk.IIa, which originally flew in the [Battle of Britain](/wiki/Battle_of_Britain \"Battle of Britain\") in 1940,{{sfn\\|Rowley\\|2017\\|p\\=\n16}} with [No. 266 (Rhodesia) Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._266_Squadron_RAF \"No. 266 Squadron RAF\") and [603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadron AAF](/wiki/No._603_Squadron_RAF \"No. 603 Squadron RAF\"). It was also used by [No. 64 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._64_Squadron_RAF \"No. 64 Squadron RAF\") and [No. 616 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._616_Squadron_RAF \"No. 616 Squadron RAF\").{{sfn\\|Thetford\\|1995\\|p\\=403}} In 2019 she was repainted in the [No. 54 Squadron](/wiki/No._54_Squadron_RAF \"No. 54 Squadron RAF\") code 'KL\\-B', which represents the aircraft flown by [Al Deere](/wiki/Alan_Deere \"Alan Deere\") from 10 July 1940 until 31 August 1940\\.",
"The Mk Vb Spitfire, AB910, built in 1941{{sfn\\|Rowley\\|2017\\|p\\=16}} escorted convoys in the [Battle of the Atlantic](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic \"Battle of the Atlantic\"). She then flew escort patrols during bombing raids on the German battleships [*Scharnhorst*](/wiki/German_battleship_Scharnhorst \"German battleship Scharnhorst\") and [*Gneisenau*](/wiki/German_battleship_Gneisenau \"German battleship Gneisenau\"), then (as part of [No. 133 (Eagle) Squadron](/wiki/No._133_Squadron_RAF \"No. 133 Squadron RAF\")), she fought in the [Dieppe Raid](/wiki/Dieppe_Raid \"Dieppe Raid\"). Capping this long career, as part of [No. 402 Squadron RCAF](/wiki/402_Squadron \"402 Squadron\"), she flew cover patrols over the [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy \"Normandy\") beaches on [D\\-Day](/wiki/D-Day \"D-Day\") and in the subsequent weeks – as did another of the flight's Spitfires, with [No. 443 Squadron RCAF](/wiki/443_Maritime_Helicopter_Squadron \"443 Maritime Helicopter Squadron\"). As of August 2018, AB910 was adorned with the D\\-Day colour scheme of Flight Lieutenant Tony Cooper's 64 Squadron Mk Vb 'SH\\-F' (BM327\\) \"PeterJohn1\" (named after his new\\-born son).\n[thumb\\|Battle of Britain Memorial Flight Spitfire LF Mk. IXe, MK356, QJ\\-3, 2017](/wiki/File:Supermarine_Spitfire_LF.IXc_%E2%80%98MK356_QJ-3%E2%80%99_%2842083530554%29.jpg \"Supermarine Spitfire LF.IXc ‘MK356 QJ-3’ (42083530554).jpg\")\nThe Mk LFIXe Spitfire, MK356, was built in March 1944 and fitted with a Merlin 66 engine with a two\\-speed, two\\-stage supercharger optimised for low altitudes. Allocated to the [Royal Canadian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Air_Force \"Royal Canadian Air Force\") (RCAF) No. 144 Wing, based in various locations around southern England, she took part in the Rodeo fighter sweep over occupied France in the weeks leading up to D\\-Day. After the war she served as a [gate guardian](/wiki/Gate_guardian \"Gate guardian\") at [Hawkinge](/wiki/RAF_Hawkinge \"RAF Hawkinge\") and [Locking](/wiki/RAF_Locking \"RAF Locking\"), and was recovered and refurbished in 1992 for the BBMF. From 2017 she was displayed in a desert paint scheme used by [No. 92 (East India) Squadron](/wiki/No._92_Squadron_RAF \"No. 92 Squadron RAF\") in Tunisia in 1943\\. The aircraft crashed in 2024, killing the pilot.",
"There are also two PRXIX Spitfires, both built in 1945 with Griffon 66 engines. PM631 was too late to see operational services in the Second World War and carried out civilian duties with the Temperature and Humidity Monitoring Flight (THUM) at [RAF Woodvale](/wiki/RAF_Woodvale \"RAF Woodvale\") until 11 July 1957, when she became part of the Historic Aircraft Flight; she is the longest\\-serving aircraft in the BBMF and is currently painted in her original PR Blue markings last worn in 1957\\.\n[thumb\\|PS915 taking off at RIAT 2018\\.](/wiki/File:Spitfire_-_RIAT_2018_%2830793041268%29.jpg \"Spitfire - RIAT 2018 (30793041268).jpg\")\nPS915 was operated by [No. 541 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._541_Squadron_RAF \"No. 541 Squadron RAF\"){{sfn\\|Thetford\\|1995\\|p\\=403}} and performed various reconnaissance duties at [RAF Wunstorf](/wiki/Wunstorf_Air_Base \"Wunstorf Air Base\") in Germany. She returned to the UK in 1954 and was retired to gate guarding duties. In 1987 she was modified with a Griffon 58 engine and refurbished to flying condition by [British Aerospace](/wiki/British_Aerospace \"British Aerospace\"). She currently carries the markings of PS888 of [81 Squadron](/wiki/No._81_Squadron_RAF \"No. 81 Squadron RAF\") based at [Seletar](/wiki/Seletar_Airport%23RAF_Seletar \"Seletar Airport#RAF Seletar\"), Singapore, during the [Malayan Emergency](/wiki/Malayan_Emergency \"Malayan Emergency\") which conducted the last operational RAF Spitfire sortie on 1 April 1954, photographing communist guerrilla hideouts over an area of jungle in [Johore](/wiki/Johor \"Johor\"). The ground crew painted the inscription \"The Last!\" on PS915's left engine cowling.",
"One Mark XIX Spitfire, PS853, was sold in 1996 to defray the costs of rebuilding Hurricane LF363 after her crash\\-landing on the runway at [RAF Wittering](/wiki/RAF_Wittering \"RAF Wittering\") due to engine failure in 1991\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Supermarine Spitfire Mk. XIX G\\-RRGN \\|url\\=https://www.flyinglegends.com/aircraft/supermarine\\-spitfire\\-mk\\-xix.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111211540/https://www.flyinglegends.com/aircraft/supermarine\\-spitfire\\-mk\\-xix.html \\|archive\\-date\\=11 November 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2024 \\|website\\=Flying Legends}}",
"Spitfire Mark XVI TE311, built as a low\\-back with clipped wings and powered with a Packard Merlin engine, was acquired in 2002 and initially allocated for spares, but officially added to the BBMF collection in 2007\\. TE311 was made airworthy in the later stages of the 2012 display season. Since January 2024, TE311 has worn the livery of [No. 322 (Dutch) Squadron](/wiki/No._322_%28Dutch%29_Squadron_RAF \"No. 322 (Dutch) Squadron RAF\") and its Squadron code *\"3W\\-M\"*, along with the Squadron's mascot, *\"Polly Grey\"*, a [red\\-tailed African Grey parrot](/wiki/Grey_parrot \"Grey parrot\"), on its nose.{{Cite web \\|date\\=8 January 2024 \\|title\\=Spitfire TE311 painted in new scheme \\|url\\=https://www.raf.mod.uk/display\\-teams/battle\\-of\\-britain\\-memorial\\-flight/news/te311\\-paint\\-scheme\\-2024/ \\|access\\-date\\=10 August 2024 \\|website\\=Royal Air Force}} In July 2024 the aircraft's [starboard](/wiki/Port_and_starboard \"Port and starboard\") (right) side was repainted to display the fictitious squadron code *\"L\\-NG\"* in memory of Squadron Leader Mark Long, along with his name and rank pennant under the cockpit.",
"### Hurricanes",
"[thumb\\|Hurricane Mk. IIc LF363 representing 'RF\\-J', 2021\\.](/wiki/File:RAF_BATTLE_OF_BRITAIN_MEMORIAL_FLIGHT_HAWKER_HURRICANE_IIC_LF363_%2852246177182%29.jpg \"RAF BATTLE OF BRITAIN MEMORIAL FLIGHT HAWKER HURRICANE IIC LF363 (52246177182).jpg\")\nThere are two Hurricanes. LF363 is a Mk IIc and was first flown on 1 January 1944{{sfn\\|Rowley\\|2017\\|p\\=16}} and the last Hurricane to have entered service with the RAF. She appeared in the films *[Angels One Five](/wiki/Angels_One_Five \"Angels One Five\")*, *[Reach for the Sky](/wiki/Reach_for_the_Sky \"Reach for the Sky\")*, *[The Battle of Britain](/wiki/Battle_of_Britain_%28film%29 \"Battle of Britain (film)\")*,{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.daveswarbirds.com/bob/hurricane.htm\\|title\\=Battle of Britain \\- Hurricanes\\|work\\=Daves Warbirds\\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2017\\|language\\=en\\-GB}} and a TV series *The War in the Air*.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2024}} [PZ865](/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane_PZ865 \"Hawker Hurricane PZ865\"), is a Mk IIc, rolling off the production line on 27 July 1944\\.{{sfn\\|Rowley\\|2017\\|p\\=16}} It was built six months after LF363;{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2024}} originally owned by [Hawker Aircraft](/wiki/Hawker_Aircraft \"Hawker Aircraft\"),{{sfn\\|Thetford\\|1995\\|p\\=403}} it was handed over to the BBMF during 1972\\.{{sfn\\|Rowley\\|2017\\|p\\=25}} She is the last Hurricane ever to have been built. She once wore the inscription \"The Last of the Many\" on her port and starboard sides – the original fabric with this inscription is now located in the BBMF Headquarters at RAF Coningsby.",
"### Lancaster",
"[left\\|thumb\\|[Lancaster](/wiki/Avro_Lancaster \"Avro Lancaster\") PA474 'AR\\-L' at RIAT 2023\\.](/wiki/File:RIAT_160723_Avro_Lancaster_PA474.jpg \"RIAT 160723 Avro Lancaster PA474.jpg\")\nThe Lancaster bomber \\- [PA474](/wiki/Avro_Lancaster_PA474 \"Avro Lancaster PA474\"), acquired by the BBMF in 1973, is one of only two [surviving airworthy examples of the type](/wiki/List_of_surviving_Avro_Lancasters \"List of surviving Avro Lancasters\"); the other is in Canada. She was completed on 31 May 1945{{sfn\\|Rowley\\|2017\\|p\\=27}} and assigned to reconnaissance duties at [No. 82 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._82_Squadron_RAF \"No. 82 Squadron RAF\"){{sfn\\|Thetford\\|1995\\|p\\=403}} after appearing too late to take part in the [bombing of Japan](/wiki/Air_raids_on_Japan \"Air raids on Japan\"). After various duties, she was adopted by the [Air Historical Branch](/wiki/Air_Historical_Branch \"Air Historical Branch\") for display work. She appeared in two films: *[Operation Crossbow](/wiki/Operation_Crossbow_%28film%29 \"Operation Crossbow (film)\")* and *[The Guns of Navarone](/wiki/The_Guns_of_Navarone_%28film%29 \"The Guns of Navarone (film)\")*. Having been flown for much of her service with the BBMF as the \"City of [Lincoln](/wiki/Lincoln%2C_England \"Lincoln, England\")\", PA474 previously wore the markings of the \"Phantom of the Ruhr\", a Lancaster that flew 121 sorties (a so\\-called \"ton\\-up\" Lancaster). Originally assigned to [100 Squadron](/wiki/No._100_Squadron_RAF \"No. 100 Squadron RAF\") in June 1943, the original \"Phantom\" was transferred to [101 Squadron](/wiki/No._101_Squadron_RAF \"No. 101 Squadron RAF\") in November that year and finished the war as part of [550 Squadron](/wiki/No._550_Squadron_RAF \"No. 550 Squadron RAF\") at [RAF Ludford Magna](/wiki/RAF_Ludford_Magna \"RAF Ludford Magna\"). The Lancaster currently carries the markings of AR\\-L 'Leader', which served with [No. 460 Squadron RAAF](/wiki/No._460_Squadron_RAAF \"No. 460 Squadron RAAF\").",
"PA474 displays the markings of bombs for operations over Germany, ice\\-cream cones for operations over Italy and poppies when she releases poppies during exhibition flights. During the 2008 RAF Waddington Air Day, PA474 was flown in formation with the recently restored [Avro Vulcan XH558](/wiki/Avro_Vulcan_XH558 \"Avro Vulcan XH558\") in an historic display of two Avro \"heavy metal\" classics.",
"### Dakota",
"[thumb\\|Dakota ZA947 in its current markings, with 'Kwitcherbichen' inscribed on the port side of the nose.](/wiki/File:ZA947_Douglas_C-47A_Dakota_Mk3_BBMF_%2814478071430%29.jpg \"ZA947 Douglas C-47A Dakota Mk3 BBMF (14478071430).jpg\")\nThe [Douglas Dakota](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain \"Douglas C-47 Skytrain\"), ZA947, built at Long Beach, California in March 1942, was issued to the [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\") and later transferred to the Royal Canadian Air Force where she served until 1971\\. The aircraft was purchased by the [Royal Aircraft Establishment](/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Establishment \"Royal Aircraft Establishment\") before being issued to the BBMF in March 1993\\. She is equipped with authentic period 'para seats' and is used in commemorative parachute drops.",
"The Dakota did serve solely as a support aircraft for the flight and as a multi\\-engine tail\\-wheel trainer for the Lancaster, but is now also used as a display aircraft.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.raf.mod.uk/bbmf/theaircraft/dakota.cfm\\|title\\=The Dakota}}",
"### Chipmunks",
"[thumb\\|DHC\\-1 Chipmunk T10 WG486 in 2010](/wiki/File:WG486_a_DHC.1_Chipmunk_of_the_RAFs_Battle_of_Britain_Memorial_flight_circuit_training_RAF_Coningsby_%284986850087%29_cropped.jpg \"WG486 a DHC.1 Chipmunk of the RAFs Battle of Britain Memorial flight circuit training RAF Coningsby (4986850087) cropped.jpg\")\nThe two [de Havilland Canada DHC\\-1 Chipmunks](/wiki/De_Havilland_Canada_DHC-1_Chipmunk \"De Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk\") (WG486 and WK518\\), are the last in RAF service, but are not intended for display use; rather, they serve to give pilots experience in flying aircraft with a [tailwheel landing gear](/wiki/Tailwheel_landing_gear \"Tailwheel landing gear\"), a design that has now vanished from the modern RAF fleet. Chipmunk WG486 flew reconnaissance missions over [East Germany](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\"), as part of the [RAF Gatow](/wiki/RAF_Gatow \"RAF Gatow\") Station Flight, in co\\-operation with the British Commander\\-in\\-Chief's Mission to the [Group of Soviet Forces in Germany](/wiki/Group_of_Soviet_Forces_in_Germany \"Group of Soviet Forces in Germany\"), commonly known as [BRIXMIS](/wiki/BRIXMIS \"BRIXMIS\").",
"### Flypasts",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Two [Hawker Hurricanes](/wiki/Hawker_Hurricane \"Hawker Hurricane\"), three [Supermarine Spitfires](/wiki/Supermarine_Spitfire \"Supermarine Spitfire\"), one [Douglas Dakota](/wiki/Douglas_C-47_Skytrain \"Douglas C-47 Skytrain\") and one [Avro Lancaster](/wiki/Avro_Lancaster \"Avro Lancaster\") in Trenchard Plus formation at RIAT 2018\\.](/wiki/File:RAF_BBMF_Trenchard_Plus_formation_%2843524883192%29.jpg \"RAF BBMF Trenchard Plus formation (43524883192).jpg\")\nThe flight also regularly takes part in combined [flypasts](/wiki/Flypast \"Flypast\") with other recognisable British aircraft, such as the [Red Arrows](/wiki/Red_Arrows \"Red Arrows\"). It appeared on occasion with [Concorde](/wiki/Concorde \"Concorde\") before that aircraft's withdrawal from service in October 2003\\.",
"For much of the 2014 display season the flight was joined by Canadian\\-built [Lancaster Mark X FM213](/wiki/Avro_Lancaster_FM213 \"Avro Lancaster FM213\"). This aircraft is owned and operated by the [Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum](/wiki/Canadian_Warplane_Heritage_Museum \"Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum\") and made the 3,000\\-mile trip to the UK, via [Goose Bay](/wiki/CFB_Goose_Bay \"CFB Goose Bay\") in Canada and [Keflavík](/wiki/Keflav%C3%ADk_International_Airport \"Keflavík International Airport\") in Iceland, arriving at RAF Coningsby on 9 August. FM213 (C\\-GVRA) is dedicated to the memory of P/O Andrew Mynarski [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross \"Victoria Cross\") and is referred to as the \"Mynarski Memorial Lancaster\". It is painted in the colours of his aircraft KB726 – VR\\-A, which flew with RCAF No. 419 (Moose) Squadron, and is affectionately known as Vera. She displayed with PA474 in the first Lancaster two\\-aircraft formation for 50 years, with both Lancasters visiting a large number of air shows and events before Vera's departure back to Canada in mid\\-September.",
""
] |
History of the flight
---------------------
### Biggin Hill
In the years following the Second World War it became traditional for a Spitfire and Hurricane to lead the Victory Day flypast over London. From that event there grew the idea to form a historic collection of flyable aircraft, initially to commemorate the RAF's major battle honour, the Battle of Britain, and latterly with broadened scope, to commemorate the RAF's involvement in all the campaigns of the Second World War. Thus in July 1957 the Historic Aircraft Flight was formed at [RAF Biggin Hill](/wiki/RAF_Biggin_Hill "RAF Biggin Hill") with one Hurricane (LF363\) and three Mk XIX Spitfires (PM631, PS853 and PS915\), in what, even then, had become a predominantly jet\-powered air force.
There is evidence that at least one of the Spifires sometimes flew with a single Hawker Hunter F.5 of [41 Sqn](/wiki/No._41_Squadron_RAF "No. 41 Squadron RAF") (the last operational squadron to operate from RAF Biggin Hill) which co\-resided with the Spitfires and Hurricane at that time. The two aircraft together were referred to in an official Biggin Hill "At Home" Day Display programme as the 'Battle of Britain Flight'.
### Coltishall
The Battle of Britain Memorial Flight arrived at [RAF Coltishall](/wiki/RAF_Coltishall "RAF Coltishall") in [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk "Norfolk") in April 1963, it was then known as the Historic Flight. From 1 April 1969 it was officially known as the Battle of Britain flight, becoming the Battle of Britain Memorial flight when the Lancaster joined the flight in 1973, a name it still holds.
The Flight moved from [RAF Horsham St Faith](/wiki/RAF_Horsham_St_Faith "RAF Horsham St Faith"), (now [Norwich Airport](/wiki/Norwich_Airport "Norwich Airport")) in April 1963, three years after the first [English Electric Lightnings](/wiki/English_Electric_Lightning "English Electric Lightning") arrived and would stay until expansion of the [SEPECAT Jaguar](/wiki/SEPECAT_Jaguar "SEPECAT Jaguar") on the station. As the Jaguar force increased, and hangar space was needed, the flight moved to its current base RAF Coningsby.
It was at Coltishall that the flight became an established unit with dedicated manpower, previously it had been maintained by ad\-hoc groundcrew of the relevant station flight. It was at RAF Coltishall the BBMF was truly born and expanded from two to seven Historic aircraft and a training Chipmunk.
### Coningsby
BBMF moved to its present home at RAF Coningsby in 1976, since then it has acquired several more aircraft including, the first Chipmunk acquired in 1983, a Dakota was originally acquired in 1995, as a more reliable multi\-engine trainer than the [de Havilland Devon](/wiki/De_Havilland_Devon "De Havilland Devon"), that was nicknamed the 'Devon State Two', due to its tendency to return to the ground on an emergency state two; but has since taken a fuller role in BBMFs line up. The Spitfires and Hurricanes in the flight have varied over the years, as new aircraft are acquired and older ones passed to museums or used for parts.
### Past and current BBMF homes
Over the years the BBMF have called many RAF bases "home". These include: [Biggin Hill](/wiki/RAF_Biggin_Hill "RAF Biggin Hill") July 1957–February 1958,{{sfn\|Sturtivant\|Hamlin\|2007\|p\=165}} [North Weald](/wiki/RAF_North_Weald "RAF North Weald") February–May 1958, [Martlesham Heath](/wiki/RAF_Martlesham_Heath "RAF Martlesham Heath") May 1958–November 1961, [Horsham St Faith](/wiki/RAF_Horsham_St_Faith "RAF Horsham St Faith") November 1961–April 1963, [Coltishall](/wiki/RAF_Coltishall "RAF Coltishall") April 1963–March 1976 and [RAF Coningsby](/wiki/RAF_Coningsby "RAF Coningsby") since March 1976\.{{sfn\|Sturtivant\|Hamlin\|2007\|p\=78}}
|
[
"History of the flight\n---------------------",
"### Biggin Hill",
"In the years following the Second World War it became traditional for a Spitfire and Hurricane to lead the Victory Day flypast over London. From that event there grew the idea to form a historic collection of flyable aircraft, initially to commemorate the RAF's major battle honour, the Battle of Britain, and latterly with broadened scope, to commemorate the RAF's involvement in all the campaigns of the Second World War. Thus in July 1957 the Historic Aircraft Flight was formed at [RAF Biggin Hill](/wiki/RAF_Biggin_Hill \"RAF Biggin Hill\") with one Hurricane (LF363\\) and three Mk XIX Spitfires (PM631, PS853 and PS915\\), in what, even then, had become a predominantly jet\\-powered air force.",
"There is evidence that at least one of the Spifires sometimes flew with a single Hawker Hunter F.5 of [41 Sqn](/wiki/No._41_Squadron_RAF \"No. 41 Squadron RAF\") (the last operational squadron to operate from RAF Biggin Hill) which co\\-resided with the Spitfires and Hurricane at that time. The two aircraft together were referred to in an official Biggin Hill \"At Home\" Day Display programme as the 'Battle of Britain Flight'.",
"### Coltishall",
"The Battle of Britain Memorial Flight arrived at [RAF Coltishall](/wiki/RAF_Coltishall \"RAF Coltishall\") in [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk \"Norfolk\") in April 1963, it was then known as the Historic Flight. From 1 April 1969 it was officially known as the Battle of Britain flight, becoming the Battle of Britain Memorial flight when the Lancaster joined the flight in 1973, a name it still holds.",
"The Flight moved from [RAF Horsham St Faith](/wiki/RAF_Horsham_St_Faith \"RAF Horsham St Faith\"), (now [Norwich Airport](/wiki/Norwich_Airport \"Norwich Airport\")) in April 1963, three years after the first [English Electric Lightnings](/wiki/English_Electric_Lightning \"English Electric Lightning\") arrived and would stay until expansion of the [SEPECAT Jaguar](/wiki/SEPECAT_Jaguar \"SEPECAT Jaguar\") on the station. As the Jaguar force increased, and hangar space was needed, the flight moved to its current base RAF Coningsby.",
"It was at Coltishall that the flight became an established unit with dedicated manpower, previously it had been maintained by ad\\-hoc groundcrew of the relevant station flight. It was at RAF Coltishall the BBMF was truly born and expanded from two to seven Historic aircraft and a training Chipmunk.",
"### Coningsby",
"BBMF moved to its present home at RAF Coningsby in 1976, since then it has acquired several more aircraft including, the first Chipmunk acquired in 1983, a Dakota was originally acquired in 1995, as a more reliable multi\\-engine trainer than the [de Havilland Devon](/wiki/De_Havilland_Devon \"De Havilland Devon\"), that was nicknamed the 'Devon State Two', due to its tendency to return to the ground on an emergency state two; but has since taken a fuller role in BBMFs line up. The Spitfires and Hurricanes in the flight have varied over the years, as new aircraft are acquired and older ones passed to museums or used for parts.",
"### Past and current BBMF homes",
"Over the years the BBMF have called many RAF bases \"home\". These include: [Biggin Hill](/wiki/RAF_Biggin_Hill \"RAF Biggin Hill\") July 1957–February 1958,{{sfn\\|Sturtivant\\|Hamlin\\|2007\\|p\\=165}} [North Weald](/wiki/RAF_North_Weald \"RAF North Weald\") February–May 1958, [Martlesham Heath](/wiki/RAF_Martlesham_Heath \"RAF Martlesham Heath\") May 1958–November 1961, [Horsham St Faith](/wiki/RAF_Horsham_St_Faith \"RAF Horsham St Faith\") November 1961–April 1963, [Coltishall](/wiki/RAF_Coltishall \"RAF Coltishall\") April 1963–March 1976 and [RAF Coningsby](/wiki/RAF_Coningsby \"RAF Coningsby\") since March 1976\\.{{sfn\\|Sturtivant\\|Hamlin\\|2007\\|p\\=78}}",
""
] |
Admission to the Manitoba Hockey Association
--------------------------------------------
### League play, 1902–1905
Before the 1902–03 season the Thistles were admitted to the senior league, along with [Brandon Wheat City](/wiki/Brandon_Wheat_City_Hockey_Club "Brandon Wheat City Hockey Club") and the [Portage la Prairie Plains](/wiki/Portage_la_Prairie_Plains "Portage la Prairie Plains"). The two Winnipeg teams, still concerned about the distance to Rat Portage, opposed their inclusion (and that of Portage la Prairie), stating they would play only against Brandon, the winner of the intermediate championship in 1902\. Thus, the two Winnipeg clubs left the league before the start of the season and formed their own two\-team league, the Western Canada Hockey League. Playing in the new three\-team senior league, the Thistles won the championship and were allowed to issue a challenge for the Stanley Cup, held at the time by the [Ottawa Hockey Club](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators_%28original%29 "Ottawa Senators (original)") (also known as the Senators).
For the 1903–04 season the Thistles competed again in the three\-team Manitoba league. Prior to the season, the team was invited to join the Western Canada Hockey League, which still had only the two Winnipeg clubs. While they had downplayed the Thistles' importance before, the Winnipeg clubs were impressed by their play during the Stanley Cup challenge and considered it financially viable to add the team. The Thistles declined the offer and remained in the Manitoba league.{{harvnb\|Wong\|2006\|p\=180}} Kenora finished second in the league with eight wins and four losses.{{harvnb\|Zweig\|2022\|p\=140}} Brandon won the league championship, and earned the chance to compete for the Cup against Ottawa, who won the series and retained it.
Before the [1904–05 season](/wiki/1904%E2%80%9305_MHA_season "1904–05 MHA season") the two Manitoba leagues merged to become the Manitoba Hockey Association.{{harvnb\|Danakas\|Brignall\|2006\|p\=37}} The Thistles were bolstered by the presence of Tommy Phillips (who had returned to visit his dying father) and goaltender [Eddie Giroux](/wiki/Eddie_Giroux "Eddie Giroux"), the only player not from Rat Portage. Giroux moved from [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto") with the promise of a job in the lumber industry and for a chance to play ice hockey.{{harvnb\|Zweig\|2007}}{{efn\|Two other players, Matt Brown and \[\[Si Griffis]], were both born in \[\[St. Catharines, Ontario]] and moved to Rat Portage at a young age.{{harvnb\|Lorenz\|2015\|p\=2082}}}} The Thistles easily won the league championship, finishing with a record of seven wins and one loss, and again challenged Ottawa for the Stanley Cup.{{harvnb\|Zweig\|2022\|p\=156}}{{harvnb\|Lappage\|1988\|p\=83}}
### 1903 Stanley Cup challenge
{{see also\|1902–03 Ottawa Hockey Club season\#Rat Portage vs. Ottawa}}
Donated in 1892 by [Lord Stanley of Preston](/wiki/Frederick_Stanley%2C_16th_Earl_of_Derby "Frederick Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby"), the [Governor General of Canada](/wiki/Governor_General_of_Canada "Governor General of Canada"), the Stanley Cup was originally awarded to the top amateur team in Canada, who would then accept challenges from the winners of other leagues.{{harvnb\|Diamond\|Zweig\|Duplacey\|2003\|pp\=15–16}} From its inception until 1912, the Cup was nearly always won by teams from Montreal, Winnipeg, and Ottawa.{{harvnb\|Diamond\|Zweig\|Duplacey\|2003\|pp\=21–23}} In 1903 Ottawa won the Cup, after finishing the [season](/wiki/1903_CAHL_season "1903 CAHL season") tied for first in the [Canadian Amateur Hockey League](/wiki/Canadian_Amateur_Hockey_League "Canadian Amateur Hockey League") with the [Montreal Victorias](/wiki/Montreal_Victorias "Montreal Victorias"). They played a two\-game, total\-goal series for the league championship. The [Montreal Hockey Club](/wiki/Montreal_Hockey_Club "Montreal Hockey Club"), who had held the Cup, finished third in the league and therefore lost the right to keep it.{{harvnb\|Diamond\|2000\|p\=55}}
The Thistles travelled to Ottawa for a two\-game series to be decided on total goals scored. Relatively unknown outside Manitoba and Western Ontario, there was little press coverage of the team before the start of the series.{{harvnb\|Lorenz\|2015\|p\=2081}} Attendance at the games was rather low as the series coincided with an opening session of the [Canadian Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada "Parliament of Canada"), which was a social affair at the time. While the matches between Ottawa and Montreal, held just days earlier, attracted around 3,000 spectators, the Thistles' games saw 1,500 and then 1,000 viewers.{{harvnb\|Lorenz\|2015\|p\=2082}} Ottawa won the first game 6–2, media summaries suggesting the Thistles were nervous and unprepared for Ottawa's skilled play.{{harvnb\|Danakas\|Brignall\|2006\|p\=35}} Ottawa won the second match 4–2 and retained the Cup. Though the press credited the Thistles for being vastly improved, they felt that overall the team lacked "the finer points of the game".
The Thistles had a mixed reaction to their first Stanley Cup challenge. Small crowds made it a financial failure; the team lost about [C$](/wiki/Canadian_dollar "Canadian dollar")800, a considerable sum at the time. It was still seen as an important step for the team, as it showed they could compete with the best teams in Canada.{{harvnb\|Wong\|2006\|p\=183}} Team [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28ice_hockey%29 "Captain (ice hockey)") [Tom Hooper](/wiki/Tom_Hooper_%28ice_hockey%29 "Tom Hooper (ice hockey)") said that while they "were comparatively inexperienced, and{{nbsp}}... consequently a little nervous", they were "not in the least discouraged" and planned to "be better qualified to play them when \[they] come after the puck next year".
### 1905 Stanley Cup challenge
[thumb\|right\|alt\=Eight young men, part of an early ice hockey team pose for a photograph, with a small silver championship trophy.\|The [Ottawa Hockey Club](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators_%28original%29 "Ottawa Senators (original)") shown with the [Stanley Cup](/wiki/Stanley_Cup "Stanley Cup") in 1905\. The Thistles played Ottawa for the Cup in 1903 and 1905, losing both times.](/wiki/File:Silver7.jpg "Silver7.jpg")
{{see also\|1904–05 Ottawa Hockey Club season\#Ottawa vs. Rat\_Portage}}
The Cup challenge was again played in Ottawa, this time in a best\-of\-three series. Media reports about the Thistles were more positive than those of 1903, the team being regarded as a strong chance for the Cup.{{harvnb\|Lorenz\|2015\|p\=2084}} Attendance for the series was considerable; the games attracted between 3,500 and 4,000 spectators, and hundreds more waiting outside for entry. There were also thousands across Canada who eagerly waited in newspaper offices and other venues for live telegraph reports on the games.{{harvnb\|Lorenz\|2015\|p\=2085}} Newspaper reports made a point of mentioning the home\-grown nature of the team as some of them had begun to use professionals.{{harvnb\|Lorenz\|2015\|pp\=2083–2084}}{{harvnb\|Wong\|2006\|p\=182}}
The Thistles won the first match 9–3, using a new style of play. With forward passing forbidden in ice hockey, conventional strategy was for teams to shoot the puck into the opposing end and skate after it (thereby losing possession of the puck). Instead, as they moved forward, the Thistles emphasised skating and passing the puck back and forth keeping control of it. This strategy was aided by their point and cover\-point men (early names for [defencemen](/wiki/Defencemen "Defencemen")) who lined up on the ice side\-by\-side rather than one in front of the other as was common. Ottawa's star [Frank McGee](/wiki/Frank_McGee_%28ice_hockey%29 "Frank McGee (ice hockey)") had missed the first game. He returned for the succeeding games, helping Ottawa to win the remaining games, 4–2 and 5–4, and retain the Cup.{{harvnb\|Lorenz\|2015\|p\=2083}} Though the Thistles lost the challenge, they were praised, newspapers noting the players' speed in particular. The *[Montreal Star](/wiki/Montreal_Star "Montreal Star")* claimed the Thistles were not only the fastest team from the west to challenge for the Cup, but the fastest "ever{{nbsp}}... seen anywhere on ice". Before heading home after the series, the team played exhibition matches in Montreal and Toronto attracting thousands of spectators.
|
[
"Admission to the Manitoba Hockey Association\n--------------------------------------------",
"### League play, 1902–1905",
"Before the 1902–03 season the Thistles were admitted to the senior league, along with [Brandon Wheat City](/wiki/Brandon_Wheat_City_Hockey_Club \"Brandon Wheat City Hockey Club\") and the [Portage la Prairie Plains](/wiki/Portage_la_Prairie_Plains \"Portage la Prairie Plains\"). The two Winnipeg teams, still concerned about the distance to Rat Portage, opposed their inclusion (and that of Portage la Prairie), stating they would play only against Brandon, the winner of the intermediate championship in 1902\\. Thus, the two Winnipeg clubs left the league before the start of the season and formed their own two\\-team league, the Western Canada Hockey League. Playing in the new three\\-team senior league, the Thistles won the championship and were allowed to issue a challenge for the Stanley Cup, held at the time by the [Ottawa Hockey Club](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators_%28original%29 \"Ottawa Senators (original)\") (also known as the Senators).",
"For the 1903–04 season the Thistles competed again in the three\\-team Manitoba league. Prior to the season, the team was invited to join the Western Canada Hockey League, which still had only the two Winnipeg clubs. While they had downplayed the Thistles' importance before, the Winnipeg clubs were impressed by their play during the Stanley Cup challenge and considered it financially viable to add the team. The Thistles declined the offer and remained in the Manitoba league.{{harvnb\\|Wong\\|2006\\|p\\=180}} Kenora finished second in the league with eight wins and four losses.{{harvnb\\|Zweig\\|2022\\|p\\=140}} Brandon won the league championship, and earned the chance to compete for the Cup against Ottawa, who won the series and retained it.",
"Before the [1904–05 season](/wiki/1904%E2%80%9305_MHA_season \"1904–05 MHA season\") the two Manitoba leagues merged to become the Manitoba Hockey Association.{{harvnb\\|Danakas\\|Brignall\\|2006\\|p\\=37}} The Thistles were bolstered by the presence of Tommy Phillips (who had returned to visit his dying father) and goaltender [Eddie Giroux](/wiki/Eddie_Giroux \"Eddie Giroux\"), the only player not from Rat Portage. Giroux moved from [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\") with the promise of a job in the lumber industry and for a chance to play ice hockey.{{harvnb\\|Zweig\\|2007}}{{efn\\|Two other players, Matt Brown and \\[\\[Si Griffis]], were both born in \\[\\[St. Catharines, Ontario]] and moved to Rat Portage at a young age.{{harvnb\\|Lorenz\\|2015\\|p\\=2082}}}} The Thistles easily won the league championship, finishing with a record of seven wins and one loss, and again challenged Ottawa for the Stanley Cup.{{harvnb\\|Zweig\\|2022\\|p\\=156}}{{harvnb\\|Lappage\\|1988\\|p\\=83}}",
"### 1903 Stanley Cup challenge",
"{{see also\\|1902–03 Ottawa Hockey Club season\\#Rat Portage vs. Ottawa}}\nDonated in 1892 by [Lord Stanley of Preston](/wiki/Frederick_Stanley%2C_16th_Earl_of_Derby \"Frederick Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby\"), the [Governor General of Canada](/wiki/Governor_General_of_Canada \"Governor General of Canada\"), the Stanley Cup was originally awarded to the top amateur team in Canada, who would then accept challenges from the winners of other leagues.{{harvnb\\|Diamond\\|Zweig\\|Duplacey\\|2003\\|pp\\=15–16}} From its inception until 1912, the Cup was nearly always won by teams from Montreal, Winnipeg, and Ottawa.{{harvnb\\|Diamond\\|Zweig\\|Duplacey\\|2003\\|pp\\=21–23}} In 1903 Ottawa won the Cup, after finishing the [season](/wiki/1903_CAHL_season \"1903 CAHL season\") tied for first in the [Canadian Amateur Hockey League](/wiki/Canadian_Amateur_Hockey_League \"Canadian Amateur Hockey League\") with the [Montreal Victorias](/wiki/Montreal_Victorias \"Montreal Victorias\"). They played a two\\-game, total\\-goal series for the league championship. The [Montreal Hockey Club](/wiki/Montreal_Hockey_Club \"Montreal Hockey Club\"), who had held the Cup, finished third in the league and therefore lost the right to keep it.{{harvnb\\|Diamond\\|2000\\|p\\=55}}",
"The Thistles travelled to Ottawa for a two\\-game series to be decided on total goals scored. Relatively unknown outside Manitoba and Western Ontario, there was little press coverage of the team before the start of the series.{{harvnb\\|Lorenz\\|2015\\|p\\=2081}} Attendance at the games was rather low as the series coincided with an opening session of the [Canadian Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada \"Parliament of Canada\"), which was a social affair at the time. While the matches between Ottawa and Montreal, held just days earlier, attracted around 3,000 spectators, the Thistles' games saw 1,500 and then 1,000 viewers.{{harvnb\\|Lorenz\\|2015\\|p\\=2082}} Ottawa won the first game 6–2, media summaries suggesting the Thistles were nervous and unprepared for Ottawa's skilled play.{{harvnb\\|Danakas\\|Brignall\\|2006\\|p\\=35}} Ottawa won the second match 4–2 and retained the Cup. Though the press credited the Thistles for being vastly improved, they felt that overall the team lacked \"the finer points of the game\".",
"The Thistles had a mixed reaction to their first Stanley Cup challenge. Small crowds made it a financial failure; the team lost about [C$](/wiki/Canadian_dollar \"Canadian dollar\")800, a considerable sum at the time. It was still seen as an important step for the team, as it showed they could compete with the best teams in Canada.{{harvnb\\|Wong\\|2006\\|p\\=183}} Team [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Captain (ice hockey)\") [Tom Hooper](/wiki/Tom_Hooper_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Tom Hooper (ice hockey)\") said that while they \"were comparatively inexperienced, and{{nbsp}}... consequently a little nervous\", they were \"not in the least discouraged\" and planned to \"be better qualified to play them when \\[they] come after the puck next year\".",
"### 1905 Stanley Cup challenge",
"[thumb\\|right\\|alt\\=Eight young men, part of an early ice hockey team pose for a photograph, with a small silver championship trophy.\\|The [Ottawa Hockey Club](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators_%28original%29 \"Ottawa Senators (original)\") shown with the [Stanley Cup](/wiki/Stanley_Cup \"Stanley Cup\") in 1905\\. The Thistles played Ottawa for the Cup in 1903 and 1905, losing both times.](/wiki/File:Silver7.jpg \"Silver7.jpg\")\n{{see also\\|1904–05 Ottawa Hockey Club season\\#Ottawa vs. Rat\\_Portage}}\nThe Cup challenge was again played in Ottawa, this time in a best\\-of\\-three series. Media reports about the Thistles were more positive than those of 1903, the team being regarded as a strong chance for the Cup.{{harvnb\\|Lorenz\\|2015\\|p\\=2084}} Attendance for the series was considerable; the games attracted between 3,500 and 4,000 spectators, and hundreds more waiting outside for entry. There were also thousands across Canada who eagerly waited in newspaper offices and other venues for live telegraph reports on the games.{{harvnb\\|Lorenz\\|2015\\|p\\=2085}} Newspaper reports made a point of mentioning the home\\-grown nature of the team as some of them had begun to use professionals.{{harvnb\\|Lorenz\\|2015\\|pp\\=2083–2084}}{{harvnb\\|Wong\\|2006\\|p\\=182}}",
"The Thistles won the first match 9–3, using a new style of play. With forward passing forbidden in ice hockey, conventional strategy was for teams to shoot the puck into the opposing end and skate after it (thereby losing possession of the puck). Instead, as they moved forward, the Thistles emphasised skating and passing the puck back and forth keeping control of it. This strategy was aided by their point and cover\\-point men (early names for [defencemen](/wiki/Defencemen \"Defencemen\")) who lined up on the ice side\\-by\\-side rather than one in front of the other as was common. Ottawa's star [Frank McGee](/wiki/Frank_McGee_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Frank McGee (ice hockey)\") had missed the first game. He returned for the succeeding games, helping Ottawa to win the remaining games, 4–2 and 5–4, and retain the Cup.{{harvnb\\|Lorenz\\|2015\\|p\\=2083}} Though the Thistles lost the challenge, they were praised, newspapers noting the players' speed in particular. The *[Montreal Star](/wiki/Montreal_Star \"Montreal Star\")* claimed the Thistles were not only the fastest team from the west to challenge for the Cup, but the fastest \"ever{{nbsp}}... seen anywhere on ice\". Before heading home after the series, the team played exhibition matches in Montreal and Toronto attracting thousands of spectators.",
""
] |
Career
------
While studying in Chicago, Roberts was a program director for the [Young Women's Christian Association](/wiki/Young_Women%27s_Christian_Association "Young Women's Christian Association").{{Cite news\|last\=Pianin\|first\=Eric\|date\=1982\-07\-25\|title\=The Harris Record\|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1982/07/25/the\-harris\-record/4c8c9a79\-8adf\-4802\-923e\-734ee19bf547/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-19}} While at American University, she concurrently worked as the Assistant Director of the American Council on Human Rights, beginning in 1949 and staying until 1953\. Her first position with the U.S. government was in 1960 as an attorney in the appeals and research section of the criminal division of the [U.S. Department of Justice.](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Justice. "U.S. Department of Justice.") There she met and struck up a friendship with [Robert F. Kennedy](/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy "Robert F. Kennedy"), the new attorney general.
One year later, Harris took a job as a lecturer and the Associate Dean of Students at Howard University. In 1963, she ceased her role as Dean, but stayed on as a lecturer. Concurrently, from 1962–65, she worked with the National Capital Area Civil Liberties Union. As her skills as an organizer bloomed, Harris also became increasingly involved in the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)"). In 1963, she was elevated to a full professorship at Howard, and President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy") appointed her co\-chairman of the National Women's Committee for Civil Rights, described as an "umbrella organization encompassing some 100 women's groups throughout the nation."{{Cite web \|title\=A Higher Standard: Patricia Roberts Harris \|url\=https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/higher\-standard\-patricia\-roberts\-harris \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-28 \|website\=National Museum of African American History and Culture \|language\=en}} Her co\-chair was [Mildred McAfee Horton](/wiki/Mildred_H._McAfee "Mildred H. McAfee").
[left\|thumb\|Patricia Harris in 1965, at her swearing\-in ceremony to be the [U.S. Ambassador to Luxembourg](/wiki/U.S._Ambassador_to_Luxembourg "U.S. Ambassador to Luxembourg")](/wiki/Image:PatriciaHarris.jpg "PatriciaHarris.jpg")
In 1964, Harris was elected a delegate to the [Democratic National Convention](/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention "Democratic National Convention") from the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia "District of Columbia"). She worked in [Lyndon Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson "Lyndon B. Johnson")'s presidential campaign and seconded his nomination at the [1964 Democratic Convention](/wiki/1964_Democratic_Convention "1964 Democratic Convention"). In October 1965, President Johnson appointed her [Ambassador to Luxembourg](/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Luxembourg "United States Ambassador to Luxembourg"), a role she served in until the end of the Johnson administration. She was the first African American woman named as an American envoy. She said of her appointment, "I feel deeply proud and grateful this President chose me to knock down this barrier, but also a little sad about being the 'first Negro woman,' because it implies we were not considered before." Additionally, Johnson named her as alternate delegate to the [United Nations General Assembly](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly "United Nations General Assembly") for the years 1966\-68\.
In 1967, Harris returned to the faculty of [Howard University's School of Law](/wiki/Howard_University%27s_School_of_Law "Howard University's School of Law"), where she was named Dean in 1969, another first for a Black woman. She resigned as Dean a month later when Howard University President [James E. Cheek](/wiki/James_E._Cheek "James E. Cheek") refused to support her strong stand against student protests.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.blackpast.org/aah/harris\-patricia\-roberts\-1924\-1985\#sthash.8aBvGJa5\.dpuf \|title\=Harris, Patricia Roberts (1924\-1985\) {{!}} The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed \|website\=www.blackpast.org\|date\=March 19, 2007 \|access\-date\=March 31, 2016}} She then joined [Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver \& Jacobson](/wiki/Fried%2C_Frank%2C_Harris%2C_Shriver_%26_Jacobson "Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson"), one of [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.")'s most prestigious law firms.
In 1971, Harris was named to the board of directors of [IBM](/wiki/IBM "IBM"), becoming the first Black American woman to sit on a Fortune 500 company's board of directors. In addition, she served on the boards of [Scott Paper](/wiki/Scott_Paper_Company "Scott Paper Company"), the [National Bank of Washington](/wiki/National_Bank_of_Washington "National Bank of Washington"), and [Chase Manhattan Bank](/wiki/Chase_Manhattan_Bank "Chase Manhattan Bank").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.biography.com/people/patricia\-roberts\-harris\-205630\|title\=Biography.com\|access\-date\=May 18, 2019\|archive\-date\=September 12, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912233623/https://www.biography.com/people/patricia\-roberts\-harris\-205630\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Washington\|first\=Elsie\|date\=1971\-09\-24\|title\=Patricia Harris: Blunt new voice in the boardroom\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=cFIEAAAAMBAJ\&q\=patricia\+harris\|journal\=Life Magazine\|via\=Google Books}} Upon her appointment to the Chase Manhattan board, she observed: "The demands on the small pool of Blacks allowed to develop in the last 300 years is too great. What has to happen is that this pool must be increased, and that's something that big corporations can help to do. I'm a first on many boards, but I'm not going to be content to remain the only Black, or the only woman."
Harris continued making an impact on the Democratic Party when, in 1972, she was appointed chairman of the credentials committee and, in 1973, a member\-at\-large of the [Democratic National Committee](/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee "Democratic National Committee").{{Cite web\|last\=Currie\|first\=Netisha\|date\=2021\-01\-19\|title\=Before Kamala: Black Women in Presidential Administrations\|url\=https://rediscovering\-black\-history.blogs.archives.gov/2021/01/19/before\-kamala\-black\-women\-in\-presidential\-administrations/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-19\|website\=Rediscovering Black History\|language\=en\-US}} A testimony to her effectiveness and her commitment to excellence came when President [Jimmy Carter](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter "Jimmy Carter") appointed her to two cabinet\-level posts during his administration.
### Cabinet Secretary
[thumb\|right\|Harris as Secretary of HUD with [President Carter](/wiki/President_Carter "President Carter") and New York Mayor [Abraham Beame](/wiki/Abraham_Beame "Abraham Beame") touring the [South Bronx](/wiki/South_Bronx "South Bronx") in 1977](/wiki/File:Secretary_of_H.U.D._Patricia_Harris%2C_Jimmy_Carter_and_New_York_Mayor_Abraham_Beame_tour_the_South_Bronx._-_NARA_-_176392.jpg "Secretary of H.U.D. Patricia Harris, Jimmy Carter and New York Mayor Abraham Beame tour the South Bronx. - NARA - 176392.jpg")
Harris was appointed to the [cabinet](/wiki/United_States_Cabinet "United States Cabinet") of President [Jimmy Carter](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter "Jimmy Carter") as [Secretary of Housing and Urban Development](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development "United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development") (HUD) when Carter took office in 1977\. At her confirmation hearing, Senator [William Proxmire](/wiki/William_Proxmire "William Proxmire") questioned whether Harris came from a background of too much wealth and power to be an effective HUD Secretary. She responded, "I am a Black woman, the daughter of a Pullman (railroad) car waiter. I am a Black woman who even eight years ago could not buy a house in parts of the District of Columbia. I didn't start out as a member of a prestigious law firm, but as a woman who needed a scholarship to go to school. If you think I have forgotten that, you are wrong."{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1985\-03\-24\-mn\-30131\-story.html\|title\=Patricia Roberts Harris Dies of Cancer \|agency\=Associated Press\|date\=March 24, 1985\|newspaper\=Los Angeles Times\|access\-date\=February 19, 2017\|issn\=0458\-3035}} Otherwise, her confirmation went smoothly. By this time in Harris' life, she had established herself as not only a recognized leader for civil rights, but also as a prominent corporate lawyer and businesswoman. Once confirmed, Harris became the first African American woman to enter the [Presidential line of succession](/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession "United States presidential line of succession"). She served as HUD Secretary from 1977 to 1979, reorganizing the department and shifting from knocking down slums to rehabilitating the neighborhoods through millions of dollars of funding and her Neighborhood Strategy Program for rebuilding, Urban Development Action Grants for luring businesses back into cities, and an expanded Urban Homesteading Plan. *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")*, looking back at her reforms several years later, noted: "\[A]fter two years as secretary, the agency had changed from a mere extension of the nation's housing industry to an advocate for saving inner cities."
As a result of her success leading HUD, Carter appointed Harris as the [Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare](/wiki/Secretary_of_Health%2C_Education%2C_and_Welfare "Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare"), the largest Cabinet agency, in 1979\. Once again, the confirmation process was easy. After the [Department of Education Organization Act](/wiki/Department_of_Education_Organization_Act "Department of Education Organization Act") came into force on May 4, 1980, the department's education functions were transferred to the [Department of Education](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education "United States Department of Education"). Harris remained as Secretary of the renamed [Department of Health and Human Services](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services "United States Department of Health and Human Services") until Carter left office in 1981\. Because the department had merely changed names, as opposed to disbanding with a new department being created, she did not face Senate confirmation again after the change. During her tenure with the Department, Harris faced several budget crises and refreshed the management team.
Harris offered a number of critiques of her own work in these cabinet positions, including that enforcement of civil rights fell off while she was head of HHS, that Congress called her responses to requests for policy changes that would lower health care costs sluggish, and that many of her programs ended up doing little for her hometown of Washington, D.C.
On the other hand, [Office of Management and Budget](/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget "Office of Management and Budget") Associate Director Dennis Green described her approach as "tough\-minded, intelligent, quick to grasp the intricacies of her agency, and she went after what she wanted."
### Post\-government
In 1981, Harris was appointed a full\-time professor at the [George Washington University Law School](/wiki/George_Washington_University_Law_School "George Washington University Law School"). She remained on the faculty until her death in 1985\.
Harris ran unsuccessfully for [Mayor of Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Mayor_of_Washington%2C_D.C. "Mayor of Washington, D.C."), in 1982, losing the [September 14 primary election](/wiki/1982_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_mayoral_election "1982 Washington, D.C., mayoral election") to incumbent mayor [Marion Barry](/wiki/Marion_Barry "Marion Barry"). Among several factors leading to the loss, including her brusque, no\-nonsense means of communication, some scholars have listed that Washington, D.C., had never elected a female mayor. However, the city's first female mayor, [Sharon Pratt](/wiki/Sharon_Pratt "Sharon Pratt") (1991–95\), cut her teeth as Harris' campaign manager for her mayoral race.{{Cite news\|last\=Sherwood\|first\=Tom\|date\=1988\-04\-20\|title\=Sharon Pratt Dixon Said Preparing to Run For D.C. Mayor \|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1988/04/20/sharon\-pratt\-dixon\-said\-preparing\-to\-run\-for\-dc\-mayor/1d33b0d8\-269d\-40bb\-bdc1\-711e7a2e84d9/\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-19\|issn\=0190\-8286}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"While studying in Chicago, Roberts was a program director for the [Young Women's Christian Association](/wiki/Young_Women%27s_Christian_Association \"Young Women's Christian Association\").{{Cite news\\|last\\=Pianin\\|first\\=Eric\\|date\\=1982\\-07\\-25\\|title\\=The Harris Record\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1982/07/25/the\\-harris\\-record/4c8c9a79\\-8adf\\-4802\\-923e\\-734ee19bf547/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-19}} While at American University, she concurrently worked as the Assistant Director of the American Council on Human Rights, beginning in 1949 and staying until 1953\\. Her first position with the U.S. government was in 1960 as an attorney in the appeals and research section of the criminal division of the [U.S. Department of Justice.](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Justice. \"U.S. Department of Justice.\") There she met and struck up a friendship with [Robert F. Kennedy](/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy \"Robert F. Kennedy\"), the new attorney general.",
"One year later, Harris took a job as a lecturer and the Associate Dean of Students at Howard University. In 1963, she ceased her role as Dean, but stayed on as a lecturer. Concurrently, from 1962–65, she worked with the National Capital Area Civil Liberties Union. As her skills as an organizer bloomed, Harris also became increasingly involved in the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\"). In 1963, she was elevated to a full professorship at Howard, and President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\") appointed her co\\-chairman of the National Women's Committee for Civil Rights, described as an \"umbrella organization encompassing some 100 women's groups throughout the nation.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=A Higher Standard: Patricia Roberts Harris \\|url\\=https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/higher\\-standard\\-patricia\\-roberts\\-harris \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-28 \\|website\\=National Museum of African American History and Culture \\|language\\=en}} Her co\\-chair was [Mildred McAfee Horton](/wiki/Mildred_H._McAfee \"Mildred H. McAfee\").",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Patricia Harris in 1965, at her swearing\\-in ceremony to be the [U.S. Ambassador to Luxembourg](/wiki/U.S._Ambassador_to_Luxembourg \"U.S. Ambassador to Luxembourg\")](/wiki/Image:PatriciaHarris.jpg \"PatriciaHarris.jpg\")\nIn 1964, Harris was elected a delegate to the [Democratic National Convention](/wiki/Democratic_National_Convention \"Democratic National Convention\") from the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia \"District of Columbia\"). She worked in [Lyndon Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson \"Lyndon B. Johnson\")'s presidential campaign and seconded his nomination at the [1964 Democratic Convention](/wiki/1964_Democratic_Convention \"1964 Democratic Convention\"). In October 1965, President Johnson appointed her [Ambassador to Luxembourg](/wiki/United_States_Ambassador_to_Luxembourg \"United States Ambassador to Luxembourg\"), a role she served in until the end of the Johnson administration. She was the first African American woman named as an American envoy. She said of her appointment, \"I feel deeply proud and grateful this President chose me to knock down this barrier, but also a little sad about being the 'first Negro woman,' because it implies we were not considered before.\" Additionally, Johnson named her as alternate delegate to the [United Nations General Assembly](/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly \"United Nations General Assembly\") for the years 1966\\-68\\.",
"In 1967, Harris returned to the faculty of [Howard University's School of Law](/wiki/Howard_University%27s_School_of_Law \"Howard University's School of Law\"), where she was named Dean in 1969, another first for a Black woman. She resigned as Dean a month later when Howard University President [James E. Cheek](/wiki/James_E._Cheek \"James E. Cheek\") refused to support her strong stand against student protests.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.blackpast.org/aah/harris\\-patricia\\-roberts\\-1924\\-1985\\#sthash.8aBvGJa5\\.dpuf \\|title\\=Harris, Patricia Roberts (1924\\-1985\\) {{!}} The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed \\|website\\=www.blackpast.org\\|date\\=March 19, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=March 31, 2016}} She then joined [Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver \\& Jacobson](/wiki/Fried%2C_Frank%2C_Harris%2C_Shriver_%26_Jacobson \"Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson\"), one of [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\")'s most prestigious law firms.",
"In 1971, Harris was named to the board of directors of [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\"), becoming the first Black American woman to sit on a Fortune 500 company's board of directors. In addition, she served on the boards of [Scott Paper](/wiki/Scott_Paper_Company \"Scott Paper Company\"), the [National Bank of Washington](/wiki/National_Bank_of_Washington \"National Bank of Washington\"), and [Chase Manhattan Bank](/wiki/Chase_Manhattan_Bank \"Chase Manhattan Bank\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.biography.com/people/patricia\\-roberts\\-harris\\-205630\\|title\\=Biography.com\\|access\\-date\\=May 18, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=September 12, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912233623/https://www.biography.com/people/patricia\\-roberts\\-harris\\-205630\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Washington\\|first\\=Elsie\\|date\\=1971\\-09\\-24\\|title\\=Patricia Harris: Blunt new voice in the boardroom\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=cFIEAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=patricia\\+harris\\|journal\\=Life Magazine\\|via\\=Google Books}} Upon her appointment to the Chase Manhattan board, she observed: \"The demands on the small pool of Blacks allowed to develop in the last 300 years is too great. What has to happen is that this pool must be increased, and that's something that big corporations can help to do. I'm a first on many boards, but I'm not going to be content to remain the only Black, or the only woman.\"",
"Harris continued making an impact on the Democratic Party when, in 1972, she was appointed chairman of the credentials committee and, in 1973, a member\\-at\\-large of the [Democratic National Committee](/wiki/Democratic_National_Committee \"Democratic National Committee\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Currie\\|first\\=Netisha\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-19\\|title\\=Before Kamala: Black Women in Presidential Administrations\\|url\\=https://rediscovering\\-black\\-history.blogs.archives.gov/2021/01/19/before\\-kamala\\-black\\-women\\-in\\-presidential\\-administrations/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-19\\|website\\=Rediscovering Black History\\|language\\=en\\-US}} A testimony to her effectiveness and her commitment to excellence came when President [Jimmy Carter](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter \"Jimmy Carter\") appointed her to two cabinet\\-level posts during his administration.",
"### Cabinet Secretary",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Harris as Secretary of HUD with [President Carter](/wiki/President_Carter \"President Carter\") and New York Mayor [Abraham Beame](/wiki/Abraham_Beame \"Abraham Beame\") touring the [South Bronx](/wiki/South_Bronx \"South Bronx\") in 1977](/wiki/File:Secretary_of_H.U.D._Patricia_Harris%2C_Jimmy_Carter_and_New_York_Mayor_Abraham_Beame_tour_the_South_Bronx._-_NARA_-_176392.jpg \"Secretary of H.U.D. Patricia Harris, Jimmy Carter and New York Mayor Abraham Beame tour the South Bronx. - NARA - 176392.jpg\")\nHarris was appointed to the [cabinet](/wiki/United_States_Cabinet \"United States Cabinet\") of President [Jimmy Carter](/wiki/Jimmy_Carter \"Jimmy Carter\") as [Secretary of Housing and Urban Development](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development \"United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development\") (HUD) when Carter took office in 1977\\. At her confirmation hearing, Senator [William Proxmire](/wiki/William_Proxmire \"William Proxmire\") questioned whether Harris came from a background of too much wealth and power to be an effective HUD Secretary. She responded, \"I am a Black woman, the daughter of a Pullman (railroad) car waiter. I am a Black woman who even eight years ago could not buy a house in parts of the District of Columbia. I didn't start out as a member of a prestigious law firm, but as a woman who needed a scholarship to go to school. If you think I have forgotten that, you are wrong.\"{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1985\\-03\\-24\\-mn\\-30131\\-story.html\\|title\\=Patricia Roberts Harris Dies of Cancer \\|agency\\=Associated Press\\|date\\=March 24, 1985\\|newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times\\|access\\-date\\=February 19, 2017\\|issn\\=0458\\-3035}} Otherwise, her confirmation went smoothly. By this time in Harris' life, she had established herself as not only a recognized leader for civil rights, but also as a prominent corporate lawyer and businesswoman. Once confirmed, Harris became the first African American woman to enter the [Presidential line of succession](/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession \"United States presidential line of succession\"). She served as HUD Secretary from 1977 to 1979, reorganizing the department and shifting from knocking down slums to rehabilitating the neighborhoods through millions of dollars of funding and her Neighborhood Strategy Program for rebuilding, Urban Development Action Grants for luring businesses back into cities, and an expanded Urban Homesteading Plan. *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")*, looking back at her reforms several years later, noted: \"\\[A]fter two years as secretary, the agency had changed from a mere extension of the nation's housing industry to an advocate for saving inner cities.\"",
"As a result of her success leading HUD, Carter appointed Harris as the [Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare](/wiki/Secretary_of_Health%2C_Education%2C_and_Welfare \"Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare\"), the largest Cabinet agency, in 1979\\. Once again, the confirmation process was easy. After the [Department of Education Organization Act](/wiki/Department_of_Education_Organization_Act \"Department of Education Organization Act\") came into force on May 4, 1980, the department's education functions were transferred to the [Department of Education](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education \"United States Department of Education\"). Harris remained as Secretary of the renamed [Department of Health and Human Services](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services \"United States Department of Health and Human Services\") until Carter left office in 1981\\. Because the department had merely changed names, as opposed to disbanding with a new department being created, she did not face Senate confirmation again after the change. During her tenure with the Department, Harris faced several budget crises and refreshed the management team.",
"Harris offered a number of critiques of her own work in these cabinet positions, including that enforcement of civil rights fell off while she was head of HHS, that Congress called her responses to requests for policy changes that would lower health care costs sluggish, and that many of her programs ended up doing little for her hometown of Washington, D.C.",
"On the other hand, [Office of Management and Budget](/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget \"Office of Management and Budget\") Associate Director Dennis Green described her approach as \"tough\\-minded, intelligent, quick to grasp the intricacies of her agency, and she went after what she wanted.\"",
"### Post\\-government",
"In 1981, Harris was appointed a full\\-time professor at the [George Washington University Law School](/wiki/George_Washington_University_Law_School \"George Washington University Law School\"). She remained on the faculty until her death in 1985\\.",
"Harris ran unsuccessfully for [Mayor of Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Mayor_of_Washington%2C_D.C. \"Mayor of Washington, D.C.\"), in 1982, losing the [September 14 primary election](/wiki/1982_Washington%2C_D.C.%2C_mayoral_election \"1982 Washington, D.C., mayoral election\") to incumbent mayor [Marion Barry](/wiki/Marion_Barry \"Marion Barry\"). Among several factors leading to the loss, including her brusque, no\\-nonsense means of communication, some scholars have listed that Washington, D.C., had never elected a female mayor. However, the city's first female mayor, [Sharon Pratt](/wiki/Sharon_Pratt \"Sharon Pratt\") (1991–95\\), cut her teeth as Harris' campaign manager for her mayoral race.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Sherwood\\|first\\=Tom\\|date\\=1988\\-04\\-20\\|title\\=Sharon Pratt Dixon Said Preparing to Run For D.C. Mayor \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1988/04/20/sharon\\-pratt\\-dixon\\-said\\-preparing\\-to\\-run\\-for\\-dc\\-mayor/1d33b0d8\\-269d\\-40bb\\-bdc1\\-711e7a2e84d9/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-19\\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}}",
""
] |
History
-------
The station was opened on 1 March 1872 as *Hirst (for Ashington)*, serving the [Newbiggin\-by\-the\-Sea](/wiki/Newbiggin-by-the-Sea_railway_station "Newbiggin-by-the-Sea railway station") branch of the [North Eastern Railway](/wiki/North_Eastern_Railway_%28UK%29 "North Eastern Railway (UK)").
In 1874, the [North Eastern Railway](/wiki/North_Eastern_Railway_%28United_Kingdom%29 "North Eastern Railway (United Kingdom)") took over the Blyth and Tyne Railway, later becoming part of the [London and North Eastern Railway](/wiki/London_and_North_Eastern_Railway "London and North Eastern Railway") in the [1923 grouping](/wiki/Railways_Act_1921 "Railways Act 1921").
On [nationalisation in 1948](/wiki/Transport_Act_1947 "Transport Act 1947"), ownership was passed to the [North Eastern Region of British Railways](/wiki/North_Eastern_Region_of_British_Railways "North Eastern Region of British Railways").
The station was closed to passenger services on 2 November 1964, as part of the *[Reshaping of British Railways](/wiki/Beeching_cuts "Beeching cuts")*.
The station's signal box was closed on 14 February 2010, with the removal of the main line crossover. The signal box was demolished over the weekend of 10–11 August 2013\.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2013}}
The northbound platform was partially demolished in October 2022 to make space for the new [Northumberland Line](/wiki/Northumberland_Line "Northumberland Line") platform.{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=2022\-10\-10 \|title\=Ashington works \|url\=https://www.northumberlandline.uk/post/ashington\-works \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-27 \|website\=Northumberland Line \|language\=en}}
### Reopening proposals
Proposals to reintroduce passenger rail services to the currently freight\-only section of the former Blyth and Tyne Railway system have been discussed since the 1990s.{{cite hansard \|jurisdiction\=\[\[United Kingdom]] \|url\= https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmhansrd/cm070110/halltext/70110h0010\.htm \|house\= \[\[House of Commons of the United Kingdom\|House of Commons]] \|date\=10 January 2007 \|column\_start\=135WH \|column\_end\=139WH \|speaker\=Denis Murphy \|display\-speakers\=etal \|title\=Ashington, Blyth and Tyne Railway}}{{ATOCConnectingCommunitiesReportS10\|page\=17}}{{Cite web\|last\=Graham\|first\=Hannah\|date\=24 January 2021\|title\='They said it was impossible': Campaigners celebrate success in 15\-year Northumberland railway fight \- Chronicle Live\|url\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/they\-said\-impossible\-campaigners\-celebrate\-19687299\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=25 January 2021\|website\=Chronicle Live}}
In the early 2010s, [Northumberland County Council (NCC)](/wiki/Northumberland_County_Council "Northumberland County Council") became interested in the proposals, commissioning [Network Rail](/wiki/Network_Rail "Network Rail") to complete a [GRIP 1 study](/wiki/Governance_for_Railway_Investment_Projects "Governance for Railway Investment Projects") to examine the best options for the scheme in June 2013\.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.thejournal.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/ashington\-blyth\-tyne\-rail\-line\-4391984\|title\=The Journal: Ashington Blyth and Tyne rail line restoration scheme gets green light\|access\-date\=10 March 2017\|archive\-date\=12 March 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312055609/http://www.thejournal.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/ashington\-blyth\-tyne\-rail\-line\-4391984\|url\-status\=dead}} This report was published in March 2014 and was followed in June 2015 with the commissioning of a more detailed GRIP 2 study at a cost of £850,000\.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.newspostleader.co.uk/news/plans\-for\-rail\-line\-reach\-milestone\-1\-7510419\|title\=New Post Leader: Plans for rail line reach milestone\|access\-date\=10 March 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312081250/http://www.newspostleader.co.uk/news/plans\-for\-rail\-line\-reach\-milestone\-1\-7510419\|archive\-date\=12 March 2017\|url\-status\=dead}} The GRIP 2 study, published in October 2016, confirmed that the reintroduction of a frequent seven\-day a week passenger service between Newcastle, Ashington and possibly a new terminus to the east, at {{rws\|Woodhorn}}, was feasible and could provide economic benefits of £70 million with more than 380,000 people using the line each year by 2034\.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/reopening\-newcastle\-ashington\-rail\-link\-12009036\|title\=Chronicle Live: Reopening of Newcastle to Ashington rail link moves one step closer\|access\-date\=10 March 2017}} Despite a change in the political leadership of Northumberland County Council following the [2017 local elections](/wiki/2017_Northumberland_County_Council_election "2017 Northumberland County Council election"){{Cite web\|url\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/northumberland\-county\-council\-election\-results\-12917274\|title\=Northumberland local elections results IN FULL \- council held by Tories in 'straw draw' drama \- Chronicle Live\|last1\=Kelly\|first1\=Mike\|last2\=Muncaster\|first2\=Michael\|date\=5 May 2017\|website\=Chronicle Live\|access\-date\=22 July 2019}} the authority continued to develop the project,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/northumberlands\-draft\-local\-plan\-unveiled\-14732953\|title\=Northumberland's draft local plan unveiled: What it means for houses, jobs and the green belt \- Chronicle Live\|last\=Graham\|first\=Hannah\|date\=1 June 2018\|website\=Chronicle Live\|access\-date\=22 July 2019}} encouraged by the [Department for Transport's](/wiki/Department_for_Transport "Department for Transport") November 2017 report, *A Strategic Vision for Rail*, which named the line as a possible candidate for a future reintroduction of passenger services.{{Cite book\|url\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/663124/rail\-vision\-web.pdf\|title\=Connecting people: a strategic vision for rail\|date\=November 2017\|publisher\=Department for Transport\|isbn\=9781528601252\|access\-date\=22 July 2019}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.citymetric.com/transport/what\-s\-government\-s\-new\-rail\-strategy\-3543\|title\=What's in the government's new rail strategy? {{!}} CityMetric\|last\=Allen\|first\=Andrew\|date\=12 December 2017\|website\=CityMetric\|access\-date\=22 July 2019\|archive\-date\=22 July 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722174624/https://www.citymetric.com/transport/what\-s\-government\-s\-new\-rail\-strategy\-3543\|url\-status\=dead}} Consequentially, NCC commissioned a further interim study in November 2017 (dubbed *GRIP 2B*) to determine whether high costs and long timescales identified in the GRIP 2 Study could be reduced by reducing the initial scope of the project, but the report failed to deliver on this.{{Cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|title\=SENRUG \- South East Northumberland Rail User Group: Re\-open Ashington Blyth \& Tyne Line\|url\=http://www.senrug.co.uk/Re\-open\-AshingtonBlythTyneLine.php\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408210613/http://www.senrug.co.uk/Re\-open\-AshingtonBlythTyneLine.php\|archive\-date\=8 April 2019\|access\-date\=22 April 2019\|website\=SENRUG \- South East Northumberland Rail User Group}}
Nonetheless, the county council has continued to develop the project, hiring [AECOM](/wiki/AECOM "AECOM") and [SLC Rail](/wiki/SLC_Rail "SLC Rail") as contractors to develop the scheme on their behalf in 2018 and allocating an additional £3\.46 million in funding for a further business case and detailed design study{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.newspostleader.co.uk/news/phasing\-of\-proposed\-northumberland\-rail\-line\-explained\-after\-concerns\-raised\-95319\|title\=Phasing of proposed Northumberland rail line explained after concerns raised {{!}} News Post Leader\|last\=O'Connell\|first\=Ben\|date\=28 February 2019\|website\=News Post Leader\|access\-date\=22 July 2019}} (equivalent to GRIP 3\) in February 2019\. Revised plans were revealed in July 2019 which were reduced in scope from the 2016 GRIP 2 study and proposed 4\-phase project{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/six\-new\-stations\-could\-open\-16585704\|title\=Six new stations could open if Ashington to Newcastle passenger trains resume \- Chronicle Live\|last\=O'Connell\|first\=Ben\|date\=15 July 2019\|website\=Chronicle Live\|access\-date\=22 July 2019}} to reduce the initial cost of the scheme. Phase 1 (at an estimated cost of £90 million) would have seen hourly passenger trains return to a reopened Ashington station and new turn\-back facilities provided to allow trains to terminate there while later phases would have added additional stations and the infrastructure upgrades provided elsewhere on the line to provide a half\-hourly frequency. However, in August 2020, it was reported that these four proposed phases might be merged into a single one.{{Cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=15 August 2020\|title\=Northumberland line could reopen in one phase {{!}} News Post Leader\|url\=https://www.newspostleader.co.uk/news/people/northumberland\-line\-could\-reopen\-one\-phase\-2937804\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=25 January 2021\|website\=News Post Leader}}
The [North East Joint Transport Committee's](/wiki/North_East_Joint_Transport_Committee "North East Joint Transport Committee") bid for £377 million of funding from the [UK Government's](/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom "Government of the United Kingdom") £1\.28 billion *Transforming Cities Fund*, submitted on 20 June 2019, includes £99 million to fund the reintroduction of passenger services between Newcastle and Ashington,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/north\-easts\-377m\-transport\-funding\-16449376\|title\=North East's £377m transport funding bid confirmed \- but leaders say there is more to come \- Chronicle Live\|last\=Holland\|first\=Daniel\|date\=19 June 2019\|website\=Chronicle Live\|access\-date\=22 July 2019}} while further work is ongoing to secure additional public and private investment for the project.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.railengineer.co.uk/2019/03/28/northumberland\-line\-could\-reopen\-for\-passengers\-in\-2022/\|title\=Northumberland Line could reopen for passengers in 2022 {{!}} Rail Engineer\|date\=28 March 2019\|website\=Rail Engineer\|access\-date\=22 July 2019\|archive\-date\=22 July 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722174614/https://www.railengineer.co.uk/2019/03/28/northumberland\-line\-could\-reopen\-for\-passengers\-in\-2022/\|url\-status\=dead}}
The [Department for Transport](/wiki/Department_for_Transport "Department for Transport") allocated an initial grant of £1\.5 million towards the project costs in January 2020{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/rail\-minister\-visits\-bedlington\-station\-17645217\|title\=How plans to re\-open Newcastle to Ashington railway line could boost region\|last\=Sharma\|first\=Sonia\|date\=2020\-01\-28\|website\=North East Chronicle\|access\-date\=2020\-02\-26}} which was supplemented by an allocation of £10 million of funds from Northumberland County Council the following month.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.theconstructionindex.co.uk/news/view/162m\-northumberland\-line\-scheme\-moves\-to\-design\-phase\|title\=£162m Northumberland Line scheme moves to design phase\|website\=The Construction Index\|date\=14 May 2020\|access\-date\=25 May 2020}} This funding enabled AECOM to begin detailed on\-site ground investigation works in October 2020\.{{Cite magazine\|last\=Kennedy\|first\=Catherine\|date\=26 October 2020\|title\=Ground investigation underway to convert Northumberland Line for passenger services \- New Civil Engineer\|url\=https://www.newcivilengineer.com/latest/ground\-investigations\-underway\-to\-convert\-northumberland\-line\-for\-passenger\-services\-26\-10\-2020/\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=25 January 2021\|magazine\=New Civil Engineer}} The allocation of a further £34 million of UK Government funding for the project in January 2021 enables the necessary land to be purchased, detailed designs to be prepared and some early preparatory and site works to begin.{{Cite web\|last\=Burroughs\|first\=David\|date\=23 January 2021\|title\=£794m package to reopen British lines unveiled {{!}} International Railway Journal\|url\=https://www.railjournal.com/infrastructure/794m\-package\-to\-reopen\-british\-lines\-unveiled/\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=21 January 2021\|website\=\[\[International Railway Journal]]}} In January 2021, it was anticipated that the UK Government would fund the remainder of the project cost, estimated at £166 million as of January 2021, once the final phase of design works were completed.{{Cite web\|last\=O'Connell\|first\=Ben\|date\=23 January 2021\|title\=Government confirms £34million for Northumberland Line \- Rail Minister says he's 'lucky to be reopening train lines' {{!}} Northumberland Gazette\|url\=https://www.northumberlandgazette.co.uk/news/politics/council/government\-confirms\-ps34million\-northumberland\-line\-rail\-minister\-says\-hes\-lucky\-be\-reopening\-train\-lines\-3110263\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=25 January 2021\|website\=Northumberland Gazette}} However, in April 2021, it was reported that government officials were seeking to reduce the cost of the project as part of the [Department for Transport's](/wiki/Department_for_Transport "Department for Transport") *Project SPEED* initiative.{{Cite web\|last\=Walker\|first\=Jonathan\|date\=16 April 2021\|title\=Planned new Northumberland rail line is being cut back before work has even begun \- Chronicle Live\|url\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/planned\-new\-northumberland\-rail\-line\-20402593\|access\-date\=2 July 2021\|website\=Chronicle Live}} It was reported that the cost\-saving measures under consideration included and cutting initial service frequencies from two to one trains per hour and dropping the proposed [Blyth Bebside station](/wiki/Bebside_railway_station%23Reopening_proposals "Bebside railway station#Reopening proposals") from initial project scope (although the latter option was later publicly ruled out by [Minister for Railways](/wiki/Department_for_Transport%23Ministers "Department for Transport#Ministers") [Chris Heaton\-Harris](/wiki/Chris_Heaton-Harris "Chris Heaton-Harris")).{{Cite web\|last\=Sharma\|first\=Sonia\|date\=25 April 2021\|title\=Minister confirms plans for all six stations on Northumberland rail line are on track \- Chronicle Live\|url\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\-east\-news/minister\-confirms\-plans\-six\-stations\-20460847\|access\-date\=2 July 2021\|website\=Chronicle Live}}
A planning application for the new station was submitted to Northumberland County Council on 3 February 2021\.{{Cite web\|title\=21/00387/CCD {{!}} Construction of a new single platform railway station including pedestrian lift, new highway access; modifications to existing highways including pedestrian footways; provision of parking for cars, electric vehicles, motorcycles, cycles, and taxis and other associated works including new crossings for pedestrians and cyclists. Construction of facilities ancillary to the station including, lighting, soft and hard landscaping, surface and subsurface drainage, utilities and other services, boundary treatment and other associated works. {{!}} Station Yard Car Park North Wansbeck Square Station Road Ashington Northumberland NE63 9XH\|url\=https://publicaccess.northumberland.gov.uk/online\-applications/applicationDetails.do?keyVal\=QNWSO1QSLQD00\&activeTab\=summary\|access\-date\=15 March 2021\|website\=Northumberland County Council}} The submitted planning documents indicate that the station will have a single {{Convert\|100\|m\|yd\|abbr\=on}} bay platform,{{Cite web\|last1\=Healey\|first1\=Alannah\|last2\=Gillan\|first2\=Peter\|date\=23 February 2021\|title\=21/00387/CCD \- PLANNING STATEMENT\|url\=https://publicaccess.northumberland.gov.uk/online\-applications/files/F86D5A47E05E18553C50FFA7CFC33C64/pdf/21\_00387\_CCD\-PLANNING\_STATEMENT\-1829557\.pdf\|access\-date\=15 March 2021\|website\=Northumberland County Council}} located on a short siding{{Cite web\|date\=23 February 2021\|title\=21/00387/CCD \- PROPOSED GENERAL ARRANGEMENT\|url\=https://publicaccess.northumberland.gov.uk/online\-applications/files/D0B2DE901E801F6406CE3C6519BE000A/pdf/21\_00387\_CCD\-PROPOSED\_GENERAL\_ARRANGEMENT\-1829521\.pdf\|access\-date\=15 March 2021\|website\=Northumberland County Council}} which will be recessed into part of the original down (northbound) platform (requiring its partial demolition).{{Cite web\|last\=Scott\|first\=Gillian\|date\=3 February 2021\|title\=21/00387/CCD \- HERITAGE STATEMENT\|url\=https://publicaccess.northumberland.gov.uk/online\-applications/files/C3BF9A64B3ED530DA07C94EC485EE7F4/pdf/21\_00387\_CCD\-HERITAGE\_STATEMENT\-1813856\.pdf\|access\-date\=15 March 2021\|website\=Northumberland County Council}} It will be accessible from the adjacent *Station Yard Car Park* (to be expanded to a capacity of 275 cars) and will be linked to the existing *Wansbeck Square Footbridge*, via a new lift, to provide access to the eastern side of the through lines.
Northumberland County Council submitted a [Transport and Works Act Order](/wiki/Transport_and_Works_Act_1992 "Transport and Works Act 1992") application to the [Secretary of State for Transport](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Transport "Secretary of State for Transport") [Grant Shapps](/wiki/Grant_Shapps "Grant Shapps") on 26 May 2021,{{Cite web\|last\=Smith\|first\=Ian\|date\=28 May 2021\|title\=New application seeks authorisation for return of passenger rail services on the Northumberland Line {{!}} New Post Leader\|url\=https://www.newspostleader.co.uk/news/politics/council/new\-application\-seeks\-authorisation\-for\-return\-of\-passenger\-rail\-services\-on\-the\-northumberland\-line\-3253937\|access\-date\=2 July 2021\|website\=New Post Leader}}{{Cite web\|title\=Northumberland County Council \- Northumberland Line\|url\=https://www.northumberland.gov.uk/Highways/Transport\-policy/northumberland\-line.aspx\|access\-date\=2 July 2021\|website\=Northumberland County Council}} which was approved on 27 June 2022\.{{Cite web \|date\=27 June 2022 \|title\=Transport and Works Act 1992: Application for Proposed Northumberland Line Order \|url\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/1085952/northumberland\-line\-order\-application\-decision\-letter.pdf \|access\-date\=27 October 2022 \|website\=GOV.UK}} The council has been conferred certain additional powers deemed necessary for the new stations to be constructed and the line upgraded to carry regular passenger services.{{Cite web\|last\=O'Connor\|first\=Duncan\|date\=26 May 2021\|title\=Northumberland Line TWAO Application Letter\|url\=https://www.northumberland.gov.uk/NorthumberlandCountyCouncil/media/Roads\-streets\-and\-transport/transport%20policy/Northumberland%20Line/Northumberland\-Line\-TWAO\-Application\-letter.pdf\|access\-date\=2 July 2021\|website\=Northumberland County Council}} The new *Ashington* station will be constructed by the project's primary construction contractor, [Morgan Sindall](/wiki/Morgan_Sindall "Morgan Sindall").{{Cite magazine\|last\=Horgan\|first\=Rob\|date\=9 August 2021\|title\=Morgan Sindall to build six new stations for Northumberland line restoration {{!}} New Civil Engineer\|url\=https://www.newcivilengineer.com/latest/morgan\-sindall\-to\-build\-six\-new\-stations\-for\-northumberland\-line\-restoration\-09\-08\-2021/?tkn\=1\|access\-date\=11 August 2021\|magazine\=\[\[New Civil Engineer]]}} The main construction phase began in autumn 2022, enabling an opening date in 2024\.
Construction of the new station is underway and is expected to be ready in time for the line opening in December 2024\. {{cite web \|title\=Signalling goes live on new rail line \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c51nj1ngp97o \|website\=BBC News \|publisher\=BBC \|access\-date\=15 April 2024}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The station was opened on 1 March 1872 as *Hirst (for Ashington)*, serving the [Newbiggin\\-by\\-the\\-Sea](/wiki/Newbiggin-by-the-Sea_railway_station \"Newbiggin-by-the-Sea railway station\") branch of the [North Eastern Railway](/wiki/North_Eastern_Railway_%28UK%29 \"North Eastern Railway (UK)\").",
"In 1874, the [North Eastern Railway](/wiki/North_Eastern_Railway_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"North Eastern Railway (United Kingdom)\") took over the Blyth and Tyne Railway, later becoming part of the [London and North Eastern Railway](/wiki/London_and_North_Eastern_Railway \"London and North Eastern Railway\") in the [1923 grouping](/wiki/Railways_Act_1921 \"Railways Act 1921\").",
"On [nationalisation in 1948](/wiki/Transport_Act_1947 \"Transport Act 1947\"), ownership was passed to the [North Eastern Region of British Railways](/wiki/North_Eastern_Region_of_British_Railways \"North Eastern Region of British Railways\").",
"The station was closed to passenger services on 2 November 1964, as part of the *[Reshaping of British Railways](/wiki/Beeching_cuts \"Beeching cuts\")*.",
"The station's signal box was closed on 14 February 2010, with the removal of the main line crossover. The signal box was demolished over the weekend of 10–11 August 2013\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2013}}",
"The northbound platform was partially demolished in October 2022 to make space for the new [Northumberland Line](/wiki/Northumberland_Line \"Northumberland Line\") platform.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-10 \\|title\\=Ashington works \\|url\\=https://www.northumberlandline.uk/post/ashington\\-works \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-27 \\|website\\=Northumberland Line \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Reopening proposals",
"Proposals to reintroduce passenger rail services to the currently freight\\-only section of the former Blyth and Tyne Railway system have been discussed since the 1990s.{{cite hansard \\|jurisdiction\\=\\[\\[United Kingdom]] \\|url\\= https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmhansrd/cm070110/halltext/70110h0010\\.htm \\|house\\= \\[\\[House of Commons of the United Kingdom\\|House of Commons]] \\|date\\=10 January 2007 \\|column\\_start\\=135WH \\|column\\_end\\=139WH \\|speaker\\=Denis Murphy \\|display\\-speakers\\=etal \\|title\\=Ashington, Blyth and Tyne Railway}}{{ATOCConnectingCommunitiesReportS10\\|page\\=17}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Graham\\|first\\=Hannah\\|date\\=24 January 2021\\|title\\='They said it was impossible': Campaigners celebrate success in 15\\-year Northumberland railway fight \\- Chronicle Live\\|url\\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/they\\-said\\-impossible\\-campaigners\\-celebrate\\-19687299\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2021\\|website\\=Chronicle Live}}",
"In the early 2010s, [Northumberland County Council (NCC)](/wiki/Northumberland_County_Council \"Northumberland County Council\") became interested in the proposals, commissioning [Network Rail](/wiki/Network_Rail \"Network Rail\") to complete a [GRIP 1 study](/wiki/Governance_for_Railway_Investment_Projects \"Governance for Railway Investment Projects\") to examine the best options for the scheme in June 2013\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.thejournal.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/ashington\\-blyth\\-tyne\\-rail\\-line\\-4391984\\|title\\=The Journal: Ashington Blyth and Tyne rail line restoration scheme gets green light\\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=12 March 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312055609/http://www.thejournal.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/ashington\\-blyth\\-tyne\\-rail\\-line\\-4391984\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} This report was published in March 2014 and was followed in June 2015 with the commissioning of a more detailed GRIP 2 study at a cost of £850,000\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.newspostleader.co.uk/news/plans\\-for\\-rail\\-line\\-reach\\-milestone\\-1\\-7510419\\|title\\=New Post Leader: Plans for rail line reach milestone\\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312081250/http://www.newspostleader.co.uk/news/plans\\-for\\-rail\\-line\\-reach\\-milestone\\-1\\-7510419\\|archive\\-date\\=12 March 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The GRIP 2 study, published in October 2016, confirmed that the reintroduction of a frequent seven\\-day a week passenger service between Newcastle, Ashington and possibly a new terminus to the east, at {{rws\\|Woodhorn}}, was feasible and could provide economic benefits of £70 million with more than 380,000 people using the line each year by 2034\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/reopening\\-newcastle\\-ashington\\-rail\\-link\\-12009036\\|title\\=Chronicle Live: Reopening of Newcastle to Ashington rail link moves one step closer\\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2017}} Despite a change in the political leadership of Northumberland County Council following the [2017 local elections](/wiki/2017_Northumberland_County_Council_election \"2017 Northumberland County Council election\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/northumberland\\-county\\-council\\-election\\-results\\-12917274\\|title\\=Northumberland local elections results IN FULL \\- council held by Tories in 'straw draw' drama \\- Chronicle Live\\|last1\\=Kelly\\|first1\\=Mike\\|last2\\=Muncaster\\|first2\\=Michael\\|date\\=5 May 2017\\|website\\=Chronicle Live\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2019}} the authority continued to develop the project,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/northumberlands\\-draft\\-local\\-plan\\-unveiled\\-14732953\\|title\\=Northumberland's draft local plan unveiled: What it means for houses, jobs and the green belt \\- Chronicle Live\\|last\\=Graham\\|first\\=Hannah\\|date\\=1 June 2018\\|website\\=Chronicle Live\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2019}} encouraged by the [Department for Transport's](/wiki/Department_for_Transport \"Department for Transport\") November 2017 report, *A Strategic Vision for Rail*, which named the line as a possible candidate for a future reintroduction of passenger services.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/663124/rail\\-vision\\-web.pdf\\|title\\=Connecting people: a strategic vision for rail\\|date\\=November 2017\\|publisher\\=Department for Transport\\|isbn\\=9781528601252\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2019}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.citymetric.com/transport/what\\-s\\-government\\-s\\-new\\-rail\\-strategy\\-3543\\|title\\=What's in the government's new rail strategy? {{!}} CityMetric\\|last\\=Allen\\|first\\=Andrew\\|date\\=12 December 2017\\|website\\=CityMetric\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=22 July 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722174624/https://www.citymetric.com/transport/what\\-s\\-government\\-s\\-new\\-rail\\-strategy\\-3543\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Consequentially, NCC commissioned a further interim study in November 2017 (dubbed *GRIP 2B*) to determine whether high costs and long timescales identified in the GRIP 2 Study could be reduced by reducing the initial scope of the project, but the report failed to deliver on this.{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|title\\=SENRUG \\- South East Northumberland Rail User Group: Re\\-open Ashington Blyth \\& Tyne Line\\|url\\=http://www.senrug.co.uk/Re\\-open\\-AshingtonBlythTyneLine.php\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408210613/http://www.senrug.co.uk/Re\\-open\\-AshingtonBlythTyneLine.php\\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2019\\|access\\-date\\=22 April 2019\\|website\\=SENRUG \\- South East Northumberland Rail User Group}}",
"Nonetheless, the county council has continued to develop the project, hiring [AECOM](/wiki/AECOM \"AECOM\") and [SLC Rail](/wiki/SLC_Rail \"SLC Rail\") as contractors to develop the scheme on their behalf in 2018 and allocating an additional £3\\.46 million in funding for a further business case and detailed design study{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.newspostleader.co.uk/news/phasing\\-of\\-proposed\\-northumberland\\-rail\\-line\\-explained\\-after\\-concerns\\-raised\\-95319\\|title\\=Phasing of proposed Northumberland rail line explained after concerns raised {{!}} News Post Leader\\|last\\=O'Connell\\|first\\=Ben\\|date\\=28 February 2019\\|website\\=News Post Leader\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2019}} (equivalent to GRIP 3\\) in February 2019\\. Revised plans were revealed in July 2019 which were reduced in scope from the 2016 GRIP 2 study and proposed 4\\-phase project{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/six\\-new\\-stations\\-could\\-open\\-16585704\\|title\\=Six new stations could open if Ashington to Newcastle passenger trains resume \\- Chronicle Live\\|last\\=O'Connell\\|first\\=Ben\\|date\\=15 July 2019\\|website\\=Chronicle Live\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2019}} to reduce the initial cost of the scheme. Phase 1 (at an estimated cost of £90 million) would have seen hourly passenger trains return to a reopened Ashington station and new turn\\-back facilities provided to allow trains to terminate there while later phases would have added additional stations and the infrastructure upgrades provided elsewhere on the line to provide a half\\-hourly frequency. However, in August 2020, it was reported that these four proposed phases might be merged into a single one.{{Cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=15 August 2020\\|title\\=Northumberland line could reopen in one phase {{!}} News Post Leader\\|url\\=https://www.newspostleader.co.uk/news/people/northumberland\\-line\\-could\\-reopen\\-one\\-phase\\-2937804\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2021\\|website\\=News Post Leader}}",
"The [North East Joint Transport Committee's](/wiki/North_East_Joint_Transport_Committee \"North East Joint Transport Committee\") bid for £377 million of funding from the [UK Government's](/wiki/Government_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Government of the United Kingdom\") £1\\.28 billion *Transforming Cities Fund*, submitted on 20 June 2019, includes £99 million to fund the reintroduction of passenger services between Newcastle and Ashington,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/north\\-easts\\-377m\\-transport\\-funding\\-16449376\\|title\\=North East's £377m transport funding bid confirmed \\- but leaders say there is more to come \\- Chronicle Live\\|last\\=Holland\\|first\\=Daniel\\|date\\=19 June 2019\\|website\\=Chronicle Live\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2019}} while further work is ongoing to secure additional public and private investment for the project.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.railengineer.co.uk/2019/03/28/northumberland\\-line\\-could\\-reopen\\-for\\-passengers\\-in\\-2022/\\|title\\=Northumberland Line could reopen for passengers in 2022 {{!}} Rail Engineer\\|date\\=28 March 2019\\|website\\=Rail Engineer\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=22 July 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722174614/https://www.railengineer.co.uk/2019/03/28/northumberland\\-line\\-could\\-reopen\\-for\\-passengers\\-in\\-2022/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The [Department for Transport](/wiki/Department_for_Transport \"Department for Transport\") allocated an initial grant of £1\\.5 million towards the project costs in January 2020{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/rail\\-minister\\-visits\\-bedlington\\-station\\-17645217\\|title\\=How plans to re\\-open Newcastle to Ashington railway line could boost region\\|last\\=Sharma\\|first\\=Sonia\\|date\\=2020\\-01\\-28\\|website\\=North East Chronicle\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-02\\-26}} which was supplemented by an allocation of £10 million of funds from Northumberland County Council the following month.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.theconstructionindex.co.uk/news/view/162m\\-northumberland\\-line\\-scheme\\-moves\\-to\\-design\\-phase\\|title\\=£162m Northumberland Line scheme moves to design phase\\|website\\=The Construction Index\\|date\\=14 May 2020\\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2020}} This funding enabled AECOM to begin detailed on\\-site ground investigation works in October 2020\\.{{Cite magazine\\|last\\=Kennedy\\|first\\=Catherine\\|date\\=26 October 2020\\|title\\=Ground investigation underway to convert Northumberland Line for passenger services \\- New Civil Engineer\\|url\\=https://www.newcivilengineer.com/latest/ground\\-investigations\\-underway\\-to\\-convert\\-northumberland\\-line\\-for\\-passenger\\-services\\-26\\-10\\-2020/\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2021\\|magazine\\=New Civil Engineer}} The allocation of a further £34 million of UK Government funding for the project in January 2021 enables the necessary land to be purchased, detailed designs to be prepared and some early preparatory and site works to begin.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Burroughs\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=23 January 2021\\|title\\=£794m package to reopen British lines unveiled {{!}} International Railway Journal\\|url\\=https://www.railjournal.com/infrastructure/794m\\-package\\-to\\-reopen\\-british\\-lines\\-unveiled/\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2021\\|website\\=\\[\\[International Railway Journal]]}} In January 2021, it was anticipated that the UK Government would fund the remainder of the project cost, estimated at £166 million as of January 2021, once the final phase of design works were completed.{{Cite web\\|last\\=O'Connell\\|first\\=Ben\\|date\\=23 January 2021\\|title\\=Government confirms £34million for Northumberland Line \\- Rail Minister says he's 'lucky to be reopening train lines' {{!}} Northumberland Gazette\\|url\\=https://www.northumberlandgazette.co.uk/news/politics/council/government\\-confirms\\-ps34million\\-northumberland\\-line\\-rail\\-minister\\-says\\-hes\\-lucky\\-be\\-reopening\\-train\\-lines\\-3110263\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2021\\|website\\=Northumberland Gazette}} However, in April 2021, it was reported that government officials were seeking to reduce the cost of the project as part of the [Department for Transport's](/wiki/Department_for_Transport \"Department for Transport\") *Project SPEED* initiative.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Walker\\|first\\=Jonathan\\|date\\=16 April 2021\\|title\\=Planned new Northumberland rail line is being cut back before work has even begun \\- Chronicle Live\\|url\\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/planned\\-new\\-northumberland\\-rail\\-line\\-20402593\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021\\|website\\=Chronicle Live}} It was reported that the cost\\-saving measures under consideration included and cutting initial service frequencies from two to one trains per hour and dropping the proposed [Blyth Bebside station](/wiki/Bebside_railway_station%23Reopening_proposals \"Bebside railway station#Reopening proposals\") from initial project scope (although the latter option was later publicly ruled out by [Minister for Railways](/wiki/Department_for_Transport%23Ministers \"Department for Transport#Ministers\") [Chris Heaton\\-Harris](/wiki/Chris_Heaton-Harris \"Chris Heaton-Harris\")).{{Cite web\\|last\\=Sharma\\|first\\=Sonia\\|date\\=25 April 2021\\|title\\=Minister confirms plans for all six stations on Northumberland rail line are on track \\- Chronicle Live\\|url\\=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north\\-east\\-news/minister\\-confirms\\-plans\\-six\\-stations\\-20460847\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021\\|website\\=Chronicle Live}}",
"A planning application for the new station was submitted to Northumberland County Council on 3 February 2021\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=21/00387/CCD {{!}} Construction of a new single platform railway station including pedestrian lift, new highway access; modifications to existing highways including pedestrian footways; provision of parking for cars, electric vehicles, motorcycles, cycles, and taxis and other associated works including new crossings for pedestrians and cyclists. Construction of facilities ancillary to the station including, lighting, soft and hard landscaping, surface and subsurface drainage, utilities and other services, boundary treatment and other associated works. {{!}} Station Yard Car Park North Wansbeck Square Station Road Ashington Northumberland NE63 9XH\\|url\\=https://publicaccess.northumberland.gov.uk/online\\-applications/applicationDetails.do?keyVal\\=QNWSO1QSLQD00\\&activeTab\\=summary\\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2021\\|website\\=Northumberland County Council}} The submitted planning documents indicate that the station will have a single {{Convert\\|100\\|m\\|yd\\|abbr\\=on}} bay platform,{{Cite web\\|last1\\=Healey\\|first1\\=Alannah\\|last2\\=Gillan\\|first2\\=Peter\\|date\\=23 February 2021\\|title\\=21/00387/CCD \\- PLANNING STATEMENT\\|url\\=https://publicaccess.northumberland.gov.uk/online\\-applications/files/F86D5A47E05E18553C50FFA7CFC33C64/pdf/21\\_00387\\_CCD\\-PLANNING\\_STATEMENT\\-1829557\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2021\\|website\\=Northumberland County Council}} located on a short siding{{Cite web\\|date\\=23 February 2021\\|title\\=21/00387/CCD \\- PROPOSED GENERAL ARRANGEMENT\\|url\\=https://publicaccess.northumberland.gov.uk/online\\-applications/files/D0B2DE901E801F6406CE3C6519BE000A/pdf/21\\_00387\\_CCD\\-PROPOSED\\_GENERAL\\_ARRANGEMENT\\-1829521\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2021\\|website\\=Northumberland County Council}} which will be recessed into part of the original down (northbound) platform (requiring its partial demolition).{{Cite web\\|last\\=Scott\\|first\\=Gillian\\|date\\=3 February 2021\\|title\\=21/00387/CCD \\- HERITAGE STATEMENT\\|url\\=https://publicaccess.northumberland.gov.uk/online\\-applications/files/C3BF9A64B3ED530DA07C94EC485EE7F4/pdf/21\\_00387\\_CCD\\-HERITAGE\\_STATEMENT\\-1813856\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2021\\|website\\=Northumberland County Council}} It will be accessible from the adjacent *Station Yard Car Park* (to be expanded to a capacity of 275 cars) and will be linked to the existing *Wansbeck Square Footbridge*, via a new lift, to provide access to the eastern side of the through lines.",
"Northumberland County Council submitted a [Transport and Works Act Order](/wiki/Transport_and_Works_Act_1992 \"Transport and Works Act 1992\") application to the [Secretary of State for Transport](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Transport \"Secretary of State for Transport\") [Grant Shapps](/wiki/Grant_Shapps \"Grant Shapps\") on 26 May 2021,{{Cite web\\|last\\=Smith\\|first\\=Ian\\|date\\=28 May 2021\\|title\\=New application seeks authorisation for return of passenger rail services on the Northumberland Line {{!}} New Post Leader\\|url\\=https://www.newspostleader.co.uk/news/politics/council/new\\-application\\-seeks\\-authorisation\\-for\\-return\\-of\\-passenger\\-rail\\-services\\-on\\-the\\-northumberland\\-line\\-3253937\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021\\|website\\=New Post Leader}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Northumberland County Council \\- Northumberland Line\\|url\\=https://www.northumberland.gov.uk/Highways/Transport\\-policy/northumberland\\-line.aspx\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021\\|website\\=Northumberland County Council}} which was approved on 27 June 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=27 June 2022 \\|title\\=Transport and Works Act 1992: Application for Proposed Northumberland Line Order \\|url\\=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/1085952/northumberland\\-line\\-order\\-application\\-decision\\-letter.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=27 October 2022 \\|website\\=GOV.UK}} The council has been conferred certain additional powers deemed necessary for the new stations to be constructed and the line upgraded to carry regular passenger services.{{Cite web\\|last\\=O'Connor\\|first\\=Duncan\\|date\\=26 May 2021\\|title\\=Northumberland Line TWAO Application Letter\\|url\\=https://www.northumberland.gov.uk/NorthumberlandCountyCouncil/media/Roads\\-streets\\-and\\-transport/transport%20policy/Northumberland%20Line/Northumberland\\-Line\\-TWAO\\-Application\\-letter.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=2 July 2021\\|website\\=Northumberland County Council}} The new *Ashington* station will be constructed by the project's primary construction contractor, [Morgan Sindall](/wiki/Morgan_Sindall \"Morgan Sindall\").{{Cite magazine\\|last\\=Horgan\\|first\\=Rob\\|date\\=9 August 2021\\|title\\=Morgan Sindall to build six new stations for Northumberland line restoration {{!}} New Civil Engineer\\|url\\=https://www.newcivilengineer.com/latest/morgan\\-sindall\\-to\\-build\\-six\\-new\\-stations\\-for\\-northumberland\\-line\\-restoration\\-09\\-08\\-2021/?tkn\\=1\\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2021\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[New Civil Engineer]]}} The main construction phase began in autumn 2022, enabling an opening date in 2024\\.",
"Construction of the new station is underway and is expected to be ready in time for the line opening in December 2024\\. {{cite web \\|title\\=Signalling goes live on new rail line \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c51nj1ngp97o \\|website\\=BBC News \\|publisher\\=BBC \\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2024}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Rise of the Carolingians (732–768\)
{{See also\|List of Frankish kings\|Carolingian Dynasty\|\|\|\|}}Though [Charles Martel](/wiki/Charles_Martel "Charles Martel") chose not to take the title of king (as his son [Pepin III](/wiki/Pepin_III "Pepin III") would) or emperor (as his grandson [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne")), he was the absolute ruler of virtually all of today's continental [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe "Western Europe") north of the [Pyrenees](/wiki/Pyrenees "Pyrenees"). Only the remaining Saxon realms, which he partly conquered, [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy "Lombardy"), and the [Marca Hispanica](/wiki/Marca_Hispanica "Marca Hispanica") south of the Pyrenees were significant additions to the Frankish realms after his death.
Martel cemented his place in history with his defense of Christian Europe against a Muslim army at the [Battle of Tours](/wiki/Battle_of_Tours "Battle of Tours") in 732\. The Iberian [Saracens](/wiki/Saracen "Saracen") had incorporated Berber light horse cavalry with the heavy Arab cavalry to create a formidable army that had almost never been defeated. Christian European forces, meanwhile, lacked the powerful tool of the [stirrup](/wiki/Stirrup "Stirrup"). In this victory, Charles earned the surname *Martel* ("the Hammer").{{Cite book \|last\=Magill \|first\=Frank \|title\=Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages, Volume 2 \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=1998 \|isbn\=978\-1\-5795\-8041\-4 \|pages\=228, 243}} [Edward Gibbon](/wiki/Edward_Gibbon "Edward Gibbon"), the historian of Rome and its aftermath, called Charles Martel "the paramount prince of his age".
Pepin III accepted the nomination as king by [Pope Zachary](/wiki/Pope_Zachary "Pope Zachary") in about 741\. Charlemagne's rule began in 768 at Pepin's death. He proceeded to take control of the kingdom following his brother Carloman's death, as the two brothers co\-inherited their father's kingdom. Charlemagne was crowned Roman Emperor in the year 800\.{{Sfn\|McKitterick\|2008\|p\=23}}
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### Reign of Charlemagne (768–814\)
[thumb\|150px\|The Dorestad Brooch, Carolingian\-style [cloisonné](/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9 "Cloisonné") jewelry from c. 800\. Found in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), 1969\.](/wiki/File:Dorestad_Brooch_AvL.JPG "Dorestad Brooch AvL.JPG")
The Carolingian Empire during the reign of Charlemagne covered most of Western Europe, as the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") once had. Unlike the Romans, whose imperial ventures between the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine") and the [Elbe](/wiki/Elbe "Elbe") lasted fewer than twenty years before being cut short by the disaster at [Teutoburg Forest](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Teutoburg_Forest "Battle of the Teutoburg Forest") (9 AD), Charlemagne defeated the [Germanic](/wiki/Germanic_peoples "Germanic peoples") resistance and extended his realm to the Elbe more lastingly, influencing events almost to the Russian Steppes.
Charlemagne's reign was one of near\-constant warfare, participating in annual campaigns, many led personally. He defeated the [Lombard Kingdom](/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards "Kingdom of the Lombards") in 774 and annexed it into his own domain by declaring himself 'King of the Lombards'. He later led a failed campaign into Spain in 778, ending with the [Battle of Roncevaux Pass](/wiki/Battle_of_Roncevaux_Pass "Battle of Roncevaux Pass"), which is considered Charlemagne's greatest defeat. He then extended his domain into Bavaria after forcing [Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria](/wiki/Tassilo_III%2C_Duke_of_Bavaria "Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria"), to renounce any claim to his title in 794\. His son, Pepin, was ordered to campaign against the [Avars](/wiki/Pannonian_Avars "Pannonian Avars") in 795 since Charlemagne was occupied with Saxon revolts. Eventually, the Avar confederation ended in 803 after Charlemagne sent a Bavarian army into Pannonia. He also conquered Saxon territories in wars and rebellions fought from 772 to 804, with such events as the [Massacre of Verden](/wiki/Massacre_of_Verden "Massacre of Verden") in 782 and the codification of the [Lex Saxonum](/wiki/Lex_Saxonum "Lex Saxonum") in 802\.{{Cite book \|last\=Davis \|first\=Jennifer \|title\=Charlemagne's Practice of Empire \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=2015 \|isbn\=978\-1\-3163\-6859\-6 \|pages\=25}}
Prior to the death of Charlemagne, the Empire was divided among various members of the [Carolingian dynasty](/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty "Carolingian dynasty"). These included King [Charles the Younger](/wiki/Charles_the_Younger "Charles the Younger"), son of Charlemagne, who received [Neustria](/wiki/Neustria "Neustria"); King [Louis the Pious](/wiki/Louis_the_Pious "Louis the Pious"), who received [Aquitaine](/wiki/Aquitaine "Aquitaine"); and King [Pepin](/wiki/Pepin_of_Italy "Pepin of Italy"), who received Italy. Pepin died with an illegitimate son, [Bernard](/wiki/Bernard_of_Italy "Bernard of Italy"), in 810, and Charles died without heirs in 811\. Although Bernard succeeded Pepin as king of Italy, Louis was made co\-emperor in 813, and the entire Empire passed to him with Charlemagne's death in the winter of 814\.{{Cite book \|first\=Joanna \|last\=Story \|title\=Charlemagne: Empire and Society \|publisher\=Manchester University Press \|date\=2005 \|isbn\=978\-0\-7190\-7089\-1}}
### Reign of Louis the Pious and Civil War (814–843\)
[thumb\|right\|250px\|Detailed map of the Carolingian Empire at its greatest extension (814\) and subsequent partition of 843 ([Treaty of Verdun](/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun "Treaty of Verdun")).](/wiki/File:Droysens-21a.jpg "Droysens-21a.jpg")
Louis the Pious' reign as Emperor was unexpected; as the third son of Charlemagne, he was originally crowned King of Aquitaine at three years old.{{Cite book \|last\=Kramer \|first\=Rutger \|title\=Rethinking Authority in the Carolingian Empire: Ideals and Expectations During the Reign of Louis the Pious (813\-828\) \|isbn\=978\-9\-0485\-3268\-1 \|date\=2019 \|pages\=31–34\|publisher\=Amsterdam University Press }} With the deaths of his older siblings, he went from 'a boy who became a king to a man who would be emperor'. Although his reign was mostly overshadowed by the dynastic struggle and resultant civil war, as his epithet states, he was highly interested in matters of religion. One of the first things he did was 'ruling the people by law and with the wealth of his piety',{{Cite book \|last\=Ernold \|title\=Carmen \|volume\=lib. I, 11, 85\-91 \|pages\=10–11}} namely by restoring churches. "The Astronomer"{{Efn\|name\=Astronomer\|An unknown anonymous author, see ''\[\[Vita Hludovici]]''}} stated that, during his kingship of Aquitaine, he 'built up the study of reading and singing, and also the understanding of divine and worldly letters, more quickly than one would believe.'{{Cite book \|author\=Astronumus (the Astronomer) \|title\=\[\[Vita Hludowici]] \|chapter\=Chapter 19 \|page\=336 \|isbn\=}} He also made significant effort to restore many monasteries that had disappeared prior to his reign, as well as sponsoring new ones.
Louis the Pious' reign lacked security; he often had to struggle to maintain control of the Empire. As soon as he heard of the death of Charlemagne, he hurried to Aachen, where he exiled many of Charlemagne's trusted advisors, such as Wala. Wala and his siblings were children of the youngest son of Charles Martel, and so were a threat as a potential alternative ruling family.{{Cite book \|last\=De Jong \|first\=Mayke \|title\=The Penitential State: Authority and Atonement in the Age of Louis the Pious, 814\-840 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=2009 \|location\=Cambridge \|pages\=20–47}} Monastic exile was a tactic Louis used heavily in his early reign to strengthen his position and remove potential rivals. In 817 his nephew, King Bernard of Italy, rebelled against him due to discontent with being the vassal of Lothar, Louis' eldest son."Revolt of Bernard of Italy", *The Cambridge Medieval History Series* volumes 1\-5, Plantagenet Publishing The rebellion was quickly put down by Louis, and by 818 Bernard of Italy was captured and punished \- the punishment of death was commuted to blinding. However, the trauma of the procedure ending up killing him two days later.{{Cite book \|last\=McKitterick \|first\=Rosamond \|title\=The Frankish kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751\-987 \|isbn\=978\-0\-5824\-9005\-5 \|year\=1983 \|publisher\=Longman \|author\-link\=Rosamond McKitterick}} Italy was brought back into Imperial control. In 822 Louis' show of penance for Bernard's death greatly reduced his prestige as Emperor to the nobility – some suggest it opened him up to 'clerical domination'.{{Cite book \|last1\=Knechtges \|first1\=David R. \|last2\=Vance \|first2\=Eugene \|title\=Rhetoric and the Discourses of Power in Court Culture \|date\=2005 \|publisher\=University of Washington Press \|author\-link1\=David R. Knechtges \|isbn\=978\-0\-2959\-8450\-6}} Nonetheless, in 817 Louis had established three new Carolingian kingships for his sons from his first marriage: [Lothar](/wiki/Lothair_I "Lothair I") was made King of Italy and co\-Emperor, [Pepin](/wiki/Pepin_I_of_Aquitaine "Pepin I of Aquitaine") was made King of Aquitaine, and [Louis the German](/wiki/Louis_the_German "Louis the German") was made King of [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria"). His attempts in 823 to bring his fourth son (from his second marriage), [Charles the Bald](/wiki/Charles_the_Bald "Charles the Bald") into the will was marked by the resistance of his eldest sons. Whilst this was part of the reason for strife amongst Louis' sons, some suggest that it was the appointment of Bernard of Septimania as chamberlain which caused discontent with Lothar, as he was stripped of his co\-Emperorship in 829 and was banished to Italy (although it is not known why; The Astronomer simply states that Louis 'dismissed his son Lothar to go back to Italy'{{Cite book \|author\=The Astronomer (anonymous) \|chapter\=The Life of Emperor Louis \|title\=Charlemagne and Louis the Pious: Lives by Einhard, Notker, Ermoldus, Thegan, and the Astronomer \|translator\=Thomas F. X. Noble \|date\=2009 \|page\=275 \|publisher\=Penn State Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-2710\-3715\-8}}) and Bernard assumed his place as second in command to the emperor. With Bernard's influence over not only the emperor, but the empress as well, further discord was sowed amongst prominent nobility. Pepin, Louis' second son, too, was disgruntled; he had been implicated in a failed military campaign in 827, and he was tired of his father's overbearing involvement in the ruling of Aquitaine. As such, the angry nobility supported Pepin, civil war broke out during Lent in 830, and the last years of his reign were plagued by civil war.
Shortly after Easter, his sons attacked Louis' empire and dethroned him in favour of Lothar. The Astronomer stated Louis spent the summer in the custody of his son, 'an emperor in name only'. The following year Louis attacked his sons' kingdoms by drafting new plans for succession. Louis gave Neustria to Pepin, stripped Lothar of his Imperial title and granted the Kingdom of Italy to Charles. Another partition in 832 completely excluded Pepin and Louis the German, making Lothar and Charles the sole benefactors of the kingdom, which precipitated Pepin and Louis the German revolting in the same year, followed by Lothar in 833, and together they imprisoned Louis the Pious and Charles. Lothar brought Pope Gregory IV from Rome under the guise of mediation, but his true role was to legitimise Lothar and his brothers' rule by deposing and excommunicating Louis. By 835, peace was made within the family, and Louis was restored to the Imperial throne at the church of St. Stephen in Metz. When Pepin died in 838, Louis crowned Charles king of Aquitaine, whilst the nobility elected Pepin's son [Pepin II](/wiki/Pepin_II_of_Aquitaine "Pepin II of Aquitaine"), a conflict which was not resolved until 860 with Pepin's death. When Louis the Pious finally died in 840, Lothar claimed the entire empire irrespective of the partitions.
As a result, Charles and Louis the German went to war against Lothar. After losing the [Battle of Fontenay](/wiki/Battle_of_Fontenoy_%28841%29 "Battle of Fontenoy (841)"), Lothar fled to his capital at [Aachen](/wiki/Aachen "Aachen") and raised a new army, which was inferior to that of the younger brothers. In the [Oaths of Strasbourg](/wiki/Oaths_of_Strasbourg "Oaths of Strasbourg"), in 842, Charles and Louis agreed to declare Lothar unfit for the imperial throne. This marked the east–west division of the Empire between Louis and Charles until the Verdun Treaty. Considered a milestone in European history, the Oaths of Strasbourg symbolize the birth of both France and Germany.{{Cite web \|date\=2009\-07\-21 \|title\=Die Geburt Zweier Staaten – Die Straßburger Eide vom 14\. February 842 \| Wir Europäer \| DW.DE \| 21\.07\.2009 \|url\=http://www.dw\-world.de/dw/article/0,,3840415,00\.html \|access\-date\=2013\-03\-26 \|publisher\=Dw\-world.de}} The partition of Carolingian Empire was finally settled in 843 by and between Louis the Pious' three sons in the [Treaty of Verdun](/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun "Treaty of Verdun").{{Cite book \|first\=Eric Joseph \|last\=Goldberg \|title\=Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict Under Louis the German, 817–876 \|date\=2006 \|publisher\=Cornell University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8014\-3890\-5}}
### After the Treaty of Verdun (843–877\)
{{Main\|Treaty of Verdun}}
Lothar received the imperial title, the kingship of Italy, and the territory between the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine") and [Rhone](/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne_River "Rhône River") Rivers, collectively called the [Central Frankish Realm](/wiki/Middle_Francia "Middle Francia"). Louis was guaranteed the kingship of all lands to the east of the Rhine and to the north and east of Italy, which was called the [Eastern Frankish Realm](/wiki/East_Francia "East Francia") which was the precursor to modern Germany. Charles received all lands west of the Rhone, which was called the [Western Frankish Realm](/wiki/West_Francia "West Francia").
Lothar retired Italy to his eldest son [Louis II](/wiki/Louis_II_of_Italy "Louis II of Italy") in 844, making him co\-emperor in 850\. Lothar died in 855, dividing his kingdom into three parts: the territory already held by Louis remained his, the territory of the former Kingdom of [Burgundy](/wiki/Burgundy_%28region%29 "Burgundy (region)") was granted to his third son [Charles of Burgundy](/wiki/Charles_of_Burgundy%2C_son_of_Lothar "Charles of Burgundy, son of Lothar"), and the remaining territory for which there was no traditional name was granted to his second son [Lothar II](/wiki/Lothar_II "Lothar II"), whose realm was named [Lotharingia](/wiki/Lotharingia "Lotharingia").
Louis II, dissatisfied with having received no additional territory upon his father's death, allied with his uncle [Louis the German](/wiki/Louis_the_German "Louis the German") against his brother Lothar and his uncle Charles the Bald in 858\. Lothar reconciled with his brother and uncle shortly after. Charles was so unpopular that he could not raise an army to fight the invasion and instead fled to Burgundy. He was only saved when the bishops refused to crown Louis the German king. In 860, Charles the Bald invaded Charles of Burgundy's kingdom but was repulsed. Lothar II ceded lands to Louis II in 862 for support of a divorce from his wife, which caused repeated conflicts with the pope and his uncles. Charles of Burgundy died in 863, and his kingdom was inherited by Louis II.
Lothar II died in 869 with no legitimate heirs, and his kingdom was divided between Charles the Bald and Louis the German in 870 by the [Treaty of Meerssen](/wiki/Treaty_of_Meerssen "Treaty of Meerssen"). Meanwhile, Louis the German was involved in disputes with his three sons. Louis II died in 875, and named [Carloman](/wiki/Carloman_of_Bavaria "Carloman of Bavaria"), the eldest son of Louis the German, his heir. Charles the Bald, supported by the pope, was crowned both king of Italy and emperor. The following year, Louis the German died. Charles tried to annex his realm too, but was defeated decisively at [Andernach](/wiki/Andernach "Andernach"), and the Kingdom of the eastern Franks was divided between [Louis the Younger](/wiki/Louis_the_Younger "Louis the Younger"), [Carloman of Bavaria](/wiki/Carloman_of_Bavaria "Carloman of Bavaria") and [Charles the Fat](/wiki/Charles_the_Fat "Charles the Fat").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Rise of the Carolingians (732–768\\)",
"{{See also\\|List of Frankish kings\\|Carolingian Dynasty\\|\\|\\|\\|}}Though [Charles Martel](/wiki/Charles_Martel \"Charles Martel\") chose not to take the title of king (as his son [Pepin III](/wiki/Pepin_III \"Pepin III\") would) or emperor (as his grandson [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\")), he was the absolute ruler of virtually all of today's continental [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe \"Western Europe\") north of the [Pyrenees](/wiki/Pyrenees \"Pyrenees\"). Only the remaining Saxon realms, which he partly conquered, [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy \"Lombardy\"), and the [Marca Hispanica](/wiki/Marca_Hispanica \"Marca Hispanica\") south of the Pyrenees were significant additions to the Frankish realms after his death.",
"Martel cemented his place in history with his defense of Christian Europe against a Muslim army at the [Battle of Tours](/wiki/Battle_of_Tours \"Battle of Tours\") in 732\\. The Iberian [Saracens](/wiki/Saracen \"Saracen\") had incorporated Berber light horse cavalry with the heavy Arab cavalry to create a formidable army that had almost never been defeated. Christian European forces, meanwhile, lacked the powerful tool of the [stirrup](/wiki/Stirrup \"Stirrup\"). In this victory, Charles earned the surname *Martel* (\"the Hammer\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Magill \\|first\\=Frank \\|title\\=Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages, Volume 2 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=1998 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-5795\\-8041\\-4 \\|pages\\=228, 243}} [Edward Gibbon](/wiki/Edward_Gibbon \"Edward Gibbon\"), the historian of Rome and its aftermath, called Charles Martel \"the paramount prince of his age\".",
"Pepin III accepted the nomination as king by [Pope Zachary](/wiki/Pope_Zachary \"Pope Zachary\") in about 741\\. Charlemagne's rule began in 768 at Pepin's death. He proceeded to take control of the kingdom following his brother Carloman's death, as the two brothers co\\-inherited their father's kingdom. Charlemagne was crowned Roman Emperor in the year 800\\.{{Sfn\\|McKitterick\\|2008\\|p\\=23}}\n{{Multiple image\n \\| align \\= right\n \\| direction \\= vertical\n \\| width \\= 200\n \\| header \\= Expansion of the Franks\n \\| image1 \\= Franks expansion.gif\n \\| alt1 \\=\n \\| caption1 \\=\n \\| image2 \\= Frankish Empire 481 to 814\\-en.svg\n \\| alt2 \\=\n \\| caption2 \\=\n}}",
"### Reign of Charlemagne (768–814\\)",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|The Dorestad Brooch, Carolingian\\-style [cloisonné](/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9 \"Cloisonné\") jewelry from c. 800\\. Found in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), 1969\\.](/wiki/File:Dorestad_Brooch_AvL.JPG \"Dorestad Brooch AvL.JPG\")\nThe Carolingian Empire during the reign of Charlemagne covered most of Western Europe, as the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") once had. Unlike the Romans, whose imperial ventures between the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\") and the [Elbe](/wiki/Elbe \"Elbe\") lasted fewer than twenty years before being cut short by the disaster at [Teutoburg Forest](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Teutoburg_Forest \"Battle of the Teutoburg Forest\") (9 AD), Charlemagne defeated the [Germanic](/wiki/Germanic_peoples \"Germanic peoples\") resistance and extended his realm to the Elbe more lastingly, influencing events almost to the Russian Steppes.",
"Charlemagne's reign was one of near\\-constant warfare, participating in annual campaigns, many led personally. He defeated the [Lombard Kingdom](/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards \"Kingdom of the Lombards\") in 774 and annexed it into his own domain by declaring himself 'King of the Lombards'. He later led a failed campaign into Spain in 778, ending with the [Battle of Roncevaux Pass](/wiki/Battle_of_Roncevaux_Pass \"Battle of Roncevaux Pass\"), which is considered Charlemagne's greatest defeat. He then extended his domain into Bavaria after forcing [Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria](/wiki/Tassilo_III%2C_Duke_of_Bavaria \"Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria\"), to renounce any claim to his title in 794\\. His son, Pepin, was ordered to campaign against the [Avars](/wiki/Pannonian_Avars \"Pannonian Avars\") in 795 since Charlemagne was occupied with Saxon revolts. Eventually, the Avar confederation ended in 803 after Charlemagne sent a Bavarian army into Pannonia. He also conquered Saxon territories in wars and rebellions fought from 772 to 804, with such events as the [Massacre of Verden](/wiki/Massacre_of_Verden \"Massacre of Verden\") in 782 and the codification of the [Lex Saxonum](/wiki/Lex_Saxonum \"Lex Saxonum\") in 802\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Davis \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|title\\=Charlemagne's Practice of Empire \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=2015 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-3163\\-6859\\-6 \\|pages\\=25}}",
"Prior to the death of Charlemagne, the Empire was divided among various members of the [Carolingian dynasty](/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty \"Carolingian dynasty\"). These included King [Charles the Younger](/wiki/Charles_the_Younger \"Charles the Younger\"), son of Charlemagne, who received [Neustria](/wiki/Neustria \"Neustria\"); King [Louis the Pious](/wiki/Louis_the_Pious \"Louis the Pious\"), who received [Aquitaine](/wiki/Aquitaine \"Aquitaine\"); and King [Pepin](/wiki/Pepin_of_Italy \"Pepin of Italy\"), who received Italy. Pepin died with an illegitimate son, [Bernard](/wiki/Bernard_of_Italy \"Bernard of Italy\"), in 810, and Charles died without heirs in 811\\. Although Bernard succeeded Pepin as king of Italy, Louis was made co\\-emperor in 813, and the entire Empire passed to him with Charlemagne's death in the winter of 814\\.{{Cite book \\|first\\=Joanna \\|last\\=Story \\|title\\=Charlemagne: Empire and Society \\|publisher\\=Manchester University Press \\|date\\=2005 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7190\\-7089\\-1}}",
"### Reign of Louis the Pious and Civil War (814–843\\)",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Detailed map of the Carolingian Empire at its greatest extension (814\\) and subsequent partition of 843 ([Treaty of Verdun](/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun \"Treaty of Verdun\")).](/wiki/File:Droysens-21a.jpg \"Droysens-21a.jpg\")",
"Louis the Pious' reign as Emperor was unexpected; as the third son of Charlemagne, he was originally crowned King of Aquitaine at three years old.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kramer \\|first\\=Rutger \\|title\\=Rethinking Authority in the Carolingian Empire: Ideals and Expectations During the Reign of Louis the Pious (813\\-828\\) \\|isbn\\=978\\-9\\-0485\\-3268\\-1 \\|date\\=2019 \\|pages\\=31–34\\|publisher\\=Amsterdam University Press }} With the deaths of his older siblings, he went from 'a boy who became a king to a man who would be emperor'. Although his reign was mostly overshadowed by the dynastic struggle and resultant civil war, as his epithet states, he was highly interested in matters of religion. One of the first things he did was 'ruling the people by law and with the wealth of his piety',{{Cite book \\|last\\=Ernold \\|title\\=Carmen \\|volume\\=lib. I, 11, 85\\-91 \\|pages\\=10–11}} namely by restoring churches. \"The Astronomer\"{{Efn\\|name\\=Astronomer\\|An unknown anonymous author, see ''\\[\\[Vita Hludovici]]''}} stated that, during his kingship of Aquitaine, he 'built up the study of reading and singing, and also the understanding of divine and worldly letters, more quickly than one would believe.'{{Cite book \\|author\\=Astronumus (the Astronomer) \\|title\\=\\[\\[Vita Hludowici]] \\|chapter\\=Chapter 19 \\|page\\=336 \\|isbn\\=}} He also made significant effort to restore many monasteries that had disappeared prior to his reign, as well as sponsoring new ones.",
"Louis the Pious' reign lacked security; he often had to struggle to maintain control of the Empire. As soon as he heard of the death of Charlemagne, he hurried to Aachen, where he exiled many of Charlemagne's trusted advisors, such as Wala. Wala and his siblings were children of the youngest son of Charles Martel, and so were a threat as a potential alternative ruling family.{{Cite book \\|last\\=De Jong \\|first\\=Mayke \\|title\\=The Penitential State: Authority and Atonement in the Age of Louis the Pious, 814\\-840 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=2009 \\|location\\=Cambridge \\|pages\\=20–47}} Monastic exile was a tactic Louis used heavily in his early reign to strengthen his position and remove potential rivals. In 817 his nephew, King Bernard of Italy, rebelled against him due to discontent with being the vassal of Lothar, Louis' eldest son.\"Revolt of Bernard of Italy\", *The Cambridge Medieval History Series* volumes 1\\-5, Plantagenet Publishing The rebellion was quickly put down by Louis, and by 818 Bernard of Italy was captured and punished \\- the punishment of death was commuted to blinding. However, the trauma of the procedure ending up killing him two days later.{{Cite book \\|last\\=McKitterick \\|first\\=Rosamond \\|title\\=The Frankish kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751\\-987 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-5824\\-9005\\-5 \\|year\\=1983 \\|publisher\\=Longman \\|author\\-link\\=Rosamond McKitterick}} Italy was brought back into Imperial control. In 822 Louis' show of penance for Bernard's death greatly reduced his prestige as Emperor to the nobility – some suggest it opened him up to 'clerical domination'.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Knechtges \\|first1\\=David R. \\|last2\\=Vance \\|first2\\=Eugene \\|title\\=Rhetoric and the Discourses of Power in Court Culture \\|date\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=University of Washington Press \\|author\\-link1\\=David R. Knechtges \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-2959\\-8450\\-6}} Nonetheless, in 817 Louis had established three new Carolingian kingships for his sons from his first marriage: [Lothar](/wiki/Lothair_I \"Lothair I\") was made King of Italy and co\\-Emperor, [Pepin](/wiki/Pepin_I_of_Aquitaine \"Pepin I of Aquitaine\") was made King of Aquitaine, and [Louis the German](/wiki/Louis_the_German \"Louis the German\") was made King of [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\"). His attempts in 823 to bring his fourth son (from his second marriage), [Charles the Bald](/wiki/Charles_the_Bald \"Charles the Bald\") into the will was marked by the resistance of his eldest sons. Whilst this was part of the reason for strife amongst Louis' sons, some suggest that it was the appointment of Bernard of Septimania as chamberlain which caused discontent with Lothar, as he was stripped of his co\\-Emperorship in 829 and was banished to Italy (although it is not known why; The Astronomer simply states that Louis 'dismissed his son Lothar to go back to Italy'{{Cite book \\|author\\=The Astronomer (anonymous) \\|chapter\\=The Life of Emperor Louis \\|title\\=Charlemagne and Louis the Pious: Lives by Einhard, Notker, Ermoldus, Thegan, and the Astronomer \\|translator\\=Thomas F. X. Noble \\|date\\=2009 \\|page\\=275 \\|publisher\\=Penn State Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-2710\\-3715\\-8}}) and Bernard assumed his place as second in command to the emperor. With Bernard's influence over not only the emperor, but the empress as well, further discord was sowed amongst prominent nobility. Pepin, Louis' second son, too, was disgruntled; he had been implicated in a failed military campaign in 827, and he was tired of his father's overbearing involvement in the ruling of Aquitaine. As such, the angry nobility supported Pepin, civil war broke out during Lent in 830, and the last years of his reign were plagued by civil war.",
"Shortly after Easter, his sons attacked Louis' empire and dethroned him in favour of Lothar. The Astronomer stated Louis spent the summer in the custody of his son, 'an emperor in name only'. The following year Louis attacked his sons' kingdoms by drafting new plans for succession. Louis gave Neustria to Pepin, stripped Lothar of his Imperial title and granted the Kingdom of Italy to Charles. Another partition in 832 completely excluded Pepin and Louis the German, making Lothar and Charles the sole benefactors of the kingdom, which precipitated Pepin and Louis the German revolting in the same year, followed by Lothar in 833, and together they imprisoned Louis the Pious and Charles. Lothar brought Pope Gregory IV from Rome under the guise of mediation, but his true role was to legitimise Lothar and his brothers' rule by deposing and excommunicating Louis. By 835, peace was made within the family, and Louis was restored to the Imperial throne at the church of St. Stephen in Metz. When Pepin died in 838, Louis crowned Charles king of Aquitaine, whilst the nobility elected Pepin's son [Pepin II](/wiki/Pepin_II_of_Aquitaine \"Pepin II of Aquitaine\"), a conflict which was not resolved until 860 with Pepin's death. When Louis the Pious finally died in 840, Lothar claimed the entire empire irrespective of the partitions.",
"As a result, Charles and Louis the German went to war against Lothar. After losing the [Battle of Fontenay](/wiki/Battle_of_Fontenoy_%28841%29 \"Battle of Fontenoy (841)\"), Lothar fled to his capital at [Aachen](/wiki/Aachen \"Aachen\") and raised a new army, which was inferior to that of the younger brothers. In the [Oaths of Strasbourg](/wiki/Oaths_of_Strasbourg \"Oaths of Strasbourg\"), in 842, Charles and Louis agreed to declare Lothar unfit for the imperial throne. This marked the east–west division of the Empire between Louis and Charles until the Verdun Treaty. Considered a milestone in European history, the Oaths of Strasbourg symbolize the birth of both France and Germany.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2009\\-07\\-21 \\|title\\=Die Geburt Zweier Staaten – Die Straßburger Eide vom 14\\. February 842 \\| Wir Europäer \\| DW.DE \\| 21\\.07\\.2009 \\|url\\=http://www.dw\\-world.de/dw/article/0,,3840415,00\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-26 \\|publisher\\=Dw\\-world.de}} The partition of Carolingian Empire was finally settled in 843 by and between Louis the Pious' three sons in the [Treaty of Verdun](/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun \"Treaty of Verdun\").{{Cite book \\|first\\=Eric Joseph \\|last\\=Goldberg \\|title\\=Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict Under Louis the German, 817–876 \\|date\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Cornell University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8014\\-3890\\-5}}",
"### After the Treaty of Verdun (843–877\\)",
"{{Main\\|Treaty of Verdun}}\nLothar received the imperial title, the kingship of Italy, and the territory between the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\") and [Rhone](/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne_River \"Rhône River\") Rivers, collectively called the [Central Frankish Realm](/wiki/Middle_Francia \"Middle Francia\"). Louis was guaranteed the kingship of all lands to the east of the Rhine and to the north and east of Italy, which was called the [Eastern Frankish Realm](/wiki/East_Francia \"East Francia\") which was the precursor to modern Germany. Charles received all lands west of the Rhone, which was called the [Western Frankish Realm](/wiki/West_Francia \"West Francia\").",
"Lothar retired Italy to his eldest son [Louis II](/wiki/Louis_II_of_Italy \"Louis II of Italy\") in 844, making him co\\-emperor in 850\\. Lothar died in 855, dividing his kingdom into three parts: the territory already held by Louis remained his, the territory of the former Kingdom of [Burgundy](/wiki/Burgundy_%28region%29 \"Burgundy (region)\") was granted to his third son [Charles of Burgundy](/wiki/Charles_of_Burgundy%2C_son_of_Lothar \"Charles of Burgundy, son of Lothar\"), and the remaining territory for which there was no traditional name was granted to his second son [Lothar II](/wiki/Lothar_II \"Lothar II\"), whose realm was named [Lotharingia](/wiki/Lotharingia \"Lotharingia\").",
"Louis II, dissatisfied with having received no additional territory upon his father's death, allied with his uncle [Louis the German](/wiki/Louis_the_German \"Louis the German\") against his brother Lothar and his uncle Charles the Bald in 858\\. Lothar reconciled with his brother and uncle shortly after. Charles was so unpopular that he could not raise an army to fight the invasion and instead fled to Burgundy. He was only saved when the bishops refused to crown Louis the German king. In 860, Charles the Bald invaded Charles of Burgundy's kingdom but was repulsed. Lothar II ceded lands to Louis II in 862 for support of a divorce from his wife, which caused repeated conflicts with the pope and his uncles. Charles of Burgundy died in 863, and his kingdom was inherited by Louis II.",
"Lothar II died in 869 with no legitimate heirs, and his kingdom was divided between Charles the Bald and Louis the German in 870 by the [Treaty of Meerssen](/wiki/Treaty_of_Meerssen \"Treaty of Meerssen\"). Meanwhile, Louis the German was involved in disputes with his three sons. Louis II died in 875, and named [Carloman](/wiki/Carloman_of_Bavaria \"Carloman of Bavaria\"), the eldest son of Louis the German, his heir. Charles the Bald, supported by the pope, was crowned both king of Italy and emperor. The following year, Louis the German died. Charles tried to annex his realm too, but was defeated decisively at [Andernach](/wiki/Andernach \"Andernach\"), and the Kingdom of the eastern Franks was divided between [Louis the Younger](/wiki/Louis_the_Younger \"Louis the Younger\"), [Carloman of Bavaria](/wiki/Carloman_of_Bavaria \"Carloman of Bavaria\") and [Charles the Fat](/wiki/Charles_the_Fat \"Charles the Fat\").",
""
] |
Government
----------
The government, administration, and organization of the Carolingian Empire were forged in the court of Charlemagne in the decades around the year 800\. In this year, Charlemagne was crowned emperor and adapted his existing royal administration to live up to the expectations of his new title. The political reforms wrought in Aachen were to have an immense impact on the political definition of Western Europe for the rest of the Middle Ages. The Carolingian improvements on the old [Merovingian](/wiki/Merovingian "Merovingian") mechanisms of governance have been lauded by historians for the increased [central control](/wiki/Central_government "Central government"), efficient bureaucracy, accountability, and [cultural renaissance](/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance "Carolingian Renaissance").
The Carolingian Empire was the largest western territory since the [fall of Rome](/wiki/Fall_of_Rome "Fall of Rome"), but historians have come to suspect the depth of the emperor's influence and control. Legally, the Carolingian emperor exercised the *[bannum](/wiki/Bannum "Bannum")*, the right to rule and command, over all of his territories. Also, he had supreme jurisdiction in judicial matters, made legislation, led the army, and protected both the [Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") and the poor. His administration was an attempt to organize the kingdom, church, and nobility around him, however, its efficacy was directly dependent upon the efficiency, loyalty and support of his subjects.
### Military
[thumb\|Carolingian dynasty banner according to the osprey men at arms{{Clarification\|date\=June 2024}}](/wiki/File:Carolingian_Banner.png "Carolingian Banner.png")
[thumb\|Carolingian warrior on a [war horse](/wiki/Horses_in_warfare "Horses in warfare") (8th \- 10th century) with [lance](/wiki/Lance "Lance"), [round shield](/wiki/Shields "Shields"), [chainmail](/wiki/Mail_%28armour%29 "Mail (armour)") and [spangenhelm](/wiki/Spangenhelm "Spangenhelm") in the Coronation Hall of the [Aachen City Hall](/wiki/Aachen_Rathaus "Aachen Rathaus") in June 2014 on the occasion of the exhibition "Charlemagne \- power, art, treasures"](/wiki/File:Carolingian_Warrior.jpg "Carolingian Warrior.jpg")
Almost every year between the accession of Charles Martel and the conclusion of the wars with the Saxons Frankish forces went on campaign or expedition, often into enemy territory.{{Sfn\|Reuter\|2006\|page\=252}} Charlemagne would, for many years, gather an assembly around Easter and launch a military effort that would typically take place through the summer as this would ensure there were enough supplies for the fighting force.{{Sfn\|Hooper\|Bennett\|1996\|p\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=Sf8UIynR0koC\&pg\=PA13 13]}} Charlemagne passed regulations requiring all mustered fighting men to own and bring their own weapons; the wealthy cavalrymen had to bring their own armour, poor men had to bring spears and shields, and those driving the carts had to have bows and arrows in their possession.{{Sfn\|Hooper\|Bennett\|1996\|p\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=Sf8UIynR0koC\&pg\=PA13 13]}} In regards to provisions, men were instructed not to eat food until a specific location was reached, and carts should carry three months worth of food and six months worth of weapons and clothing along with tools.{{Sfn\|Hooper\|Bennett\|1996\|page\=17}} Preference was shown towards [mobility warfare](/wiki/Maneuver_warfare "Maneuver warfare") in place of [defence\-in\-depth](/wiki/Defence-in-depth "Defence-in-depth") infrastructure; captured fortifications were often destroyed so they could not be used to resist Carolingian authority in the future.{{Sfn\|Bowlus\|2006\|p\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=0XBtVwukIogC\&pg\=PA49 49]}} After 800 and during the reign of Louis the Pious, efforts of expansion dwindled. Tim Reuter has shown that many military efforts during Louis' reign were largely defensive and in response to external threats.{{Sfn\|Reuter\|2006\|page\=252}}
It had long been held that Carolingian military success was based on the use of a [cavalry](/wiki/Heavy_cavalry "Heavy cavalry") force created by Charles Martel in the 730s.{{Sfn\|Hooper\|Bennett\|1996\|page\=12}} However, it is clear that no such "cavalry revolution" took place in the Carolingian period leading up to and during the reign of Charlemagne.{{Sfn\|Bowlus\|2006\|page\=49}} This is because the [stirrup](/wiki/Stirrup "Stirrup") was not known to the Franks until the late eighth century and soldiers on horseback would therefore have used swords and lances for striking and not charging.{{Sfn\|Hooper\|Bennett\|1996\|pages\=12–13}} Carolingian military success rested primarily on [siege](/wiki/Siege "Siege") technologies and excellent logistics.{{Sfn\|Bowlus\|2006\|page\=49}} However, large numbers of horses were used by the Frankish military during the age of Charlemagne. This was because [horses provided a quick, long\-distance method of transporting troops](/wiki/Mounted_infantry "Mounted infantry"), which was critical to building and maintaining such a large empire.{{Sfn\|Hooper\|Bennett\|1996\|page\=13}} The importance of horses to the Carolingian military is revealed through the Revised version of the Royal Frankish Annals. The annals mention that whilst Charlemagne was on campaign in 791 "there broke out such a pestilence among the horses \[...] that barely a tenth out of so many thousands are said to have survived."{{Sfn\|King\|1987\|p\=124}} Shortage of horses played a role in preventing Carolingian forces from continuing a campaign against the Avars in Pannonia.{{Sfn\|Hooper\|Bennett\|1996\|page\=17}}
The Frankish royal bodyguards, the continuation of the Merovingian institution of the [antrustion](/wiki/Antrustion "Antrustion"), were consciously modelled on Late Roman precedents. These guards were organized into *schola* and entitled *scholares*, and used armour based on Late Roman and early Byzantine models. Frankish artistic depictions of these bodyguards also mirrored Late Roman traditions.{{Cite book \|first\=Bernard S. \|last\=Bachrach \|author\-link\=Bernard Bachrach \|title\=Early Carolingian Warfare Prelude to Empire \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=University of Pennsylvania Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8122\-2144\-2 \|pages\=70–71}}
### Palaces
[thumb\|Interior of the [Palatine Chapel](/wiki/Palatine_Chapel%2C_Aachen "Palatine Chapel, Aachen") in [Aachen](/wiki/Aachen "Aachen"), Germany](/wiki/File:Aachen_Germany_Imperial-Cathedral-12a.jpg "Aachen Germany Imperial-Cathedral-12a.jpg")
No permanent [capital city](/wiki/Capital_city "Capital city") existed in the empire, the [itinerant court](/wiki/Itinerant_court "Itinerant court") being a typical characteristic of all Western European kingdoms at this time. Some palaces can, however, be distinguished as locations of central administration. In the first year of his reign, Charlemagne went to Aachen ({{Lang\-fr\|Aix\-la\-Chapelle}}; {{Lang\-it\|Aquisgrana}}). He began to build a [palace](/wiki/Charlemagne%27s_Palace_in_Aachen "Charlemagne's Palace in Aachen") there in the 780s{{Cite book \|last\=Nelson \|first\=Janet \|title\=King and Emperor: A New Life of Charlemagne \|publisher\=Allen Lane \|year\=2019 \|location\=London \|pages\=232, 356}} with original plans being thought up perhaps as soon as 768\. The palace chapel, constructed in 796, later became [Aachen Cathedral](/wiki/Aachen_Cathedral "Aachen Cathedral"). During the 790s when construction picked up at Aachen Charlemagne's court became more centred compared with the 770s where court so often found itself located in tents during campaigning.{{Cite book \|last\=Airlie \|first\=Stuart \|title\=Power and Its Problems in Carolingian Europe \|publisher\=Ashgate \|year\=2012 \|pages\=4–11}} Though Aachen was certainly not intended to be a sedentary capital it was built in the political heartland of Charlemagne's realm to act as a meeting place for aristocrats and churchmen so that patronage might be distributed, assemblies held, laws written, and even where scholarly churchmen gathered for the purposes of learning.{{Cite book \|last\=Innes \|first\=Matthew \|title\=Charlemagne's Government \|year\=2005 \|page\=2}} in {{Harvnb\|Story\|2005}} Aachen was also a centre for information and gossip being pulled in from across the Empire by courtiers and churchmen alike. Of course, despite being the centre of Charlemagne's government, until his later years, his court moved often and made use of other palaces at Frankfurt, Ingelheim and Nijmegen. The use of such structures would signal the beginnings of the palace system of government used by the Carolingian court throughout reigns of many Carolingian rulers.{{Sfn\|Costambeys\|2011\|pp\=173–177}} Stuart Airlie has suggested that there were over 150 palaces throughout the Carolingian World which would provide the setting for court activity.
Palaces were not merely locations of administrative government but also stood as important symbols. Under Charlemagne their excellence was a translation of the treasure built up from conquest into a symbolic permanence as well as exclaiming royal authority.{{Sfn\|Costambeys\|2011\|pages\=173–177}} [Einhard](/wiki/Einhard "Einhard") suggested the construction of so\-called 'public buildings' was a testament to Charlemagne's greatness and likeness to the emperors of antiquity and this connection was certainly capitalised upon by the imagery of palace decorations. [Ingelheim](/wiki/Ingelheim_am_Rhein "Ingelheim am Rhein") is a particular example of such symbolism and thus the importance of the palace system in more than mere governance. The palace chapel is written to have been 'lined with images from the Bible' and the hall of the palace 'decorated with a picture cycle celebrating the deeds of great kings' including rulers of antiquity as well as Carolingian rulers such as Charles Martel and Pippin III.{{Sfn\|Costambeys\|2011\|pages\=173–177}}
Louis the Pious used the palace system much to the same effect as Charlemagne during his reign as king of Aquitaine, rotating his court between four winter palaces throughout the region.{{Sfn\|Costambeys\|2011\|pages\=173–177}} During his reign as Emperor he used Aachen, Ingelheim, Frankfurt, and Mainz which were almost always the locations for general assemblies held 'two or three \[times] a year in the period 896–28\...' and while he was not an immobile ruler, his reign has certainly been described as more static.{{Sfn\|Costambeys\|2011\|pages\=173–177}} In this way the palace system can also been seen as a tool of continuity in governance. After the splintering of the Empire the palace system continued to be used by succeeding Carolingian rulers with Charles the Bald centring his power at Compiègne{{Sfn\|McKitterick\|1983\|page\=22}} where the palace chapel was dedicated to the Virgin Mary in 877, something remarked on as a sign of continuity with Aachen's Mother of God chapel.{{Sfn\|Costambeys\|2011\|pages\=410–411}} For Louis the German, Frankfurt has been deemed his own 'neo\-Aachen' and Charles the Fat's palace at Sélestat in Alsace was designed specifically to imitate Aachen.{{Sfn\|Costambeys\|2011\|pages\=410–411}}
The palace system as an idea for Carolingian central administration and governance has been challenged by historian F. L. Ganshof, who argued that the palaces of the Carolingians "contained nothing resembling the specialised services and departments available at the same period to the Byzantine emperor or the caliph of Baghdad."{{Cite book \|last\=Ganshof \|first\=F. L. \|title\=The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy \|publisher\=Longman \|year\=1971 \|pages\=257 \|translator\-last\=Sondheimer \|translator\-first\=Janet}} However, further reading in the works of Carolingian historians such as Matthew Innes, Rosamond McKitterick, and Stuart Airlie suggest that the use of palaces were important in the evolution of Carolingian governance and Janet Nelson has argued that "palaces are places from which power emanates and is exercised..." and the importance of palaces to Carolingian administration, learning, and legitimacy has been widely argued.
### Household
{{See also\|Royal household under the Merovingians and Carolingians}}
The royal household was an itinerant body (until c. 802\) which moved around the kingdom making sure good government was upheld in the localities. The most important positions were the chaplain (who was responsible for all ecclesiastical affairs in the kingdom), and the count of the palace ([Count palatine](/wiki/Count_palatine "Count palatine")) who had supreme control over the household. It also included more minor officials e.g. chamberlain, seneschal, and marshal. The household sometimes led the army (e.g. Seneschal [Andorf](/wiki/Andorf "Andorf") against the [Bretons](/wiki/Bretons "Bretons") in 786\).
Possibly associated with the chaplain and the royal chapel was the office of the chancellor, head of the chancery, a non\-permanent writing office. The charters produced were rudimentary and mostly to do with land deeds. There are 262 surviving from Charles’ reign as opposed to 40 from [Pepin](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short "Pepin the Short")’s and 350 from [Louis the Pious](/wiki/Louis_the_Pious "Louis the Pious").
### Officials
There are 3 main offices which enforced Carolingian authority in the localities:
The [Comes](/wiki/Comes "Comes") ({{Lang\-la\|count}}). Appointed by Charles to administer a *[county](/wiki/County "County")*. The Carolingian Empire (except Bavaria) was divided up into between 110 and 600 counties, each divided into *centenae* which were under the control of a vicar. At first, they were royal agents sent out by Charles but after c. 802 they were important local magnates. They were responsible for justice, enforcing capitularies, levying soldiers, receiving tolls and dues and maintaining roads and bridges. They could technically be dismissed by the king but many offices became hereditary. They were also sometimes corrupt although many were exemplary e.g. Count Eric of Friuli. Provincial governors eventually evolved who supervised several counts.
The [Missi Dominici](/wiki/Missus_Dominicus "Missus Dominicus") ({{Lang\-la\|dominical emissaries}}). Originally appointed ad hoc, a reform in 802 led to the office of *[missus dominicus](/wiki/Missus_dominicus "Missus dominicus")* becoming a permanent one. The *Missi Dominici* were sent out in pairs. One was an ecclesiastic and one secular. Their status as high officials was thought to safeguard them from the temptation of taking bribes. They made four journeys a year in their local *[missaticum](/wiki/Missaticum "Missaticum"),* each lasting a month, and were responsible for making the royal will and capitularies known, judging cases and occasionally raising armies.
The [Vassi Dominici](/wiki/Vassi_Dominici "Vassi Dominici"). These were the king’s vassals and were usually the sons of powerful men, holding ‘benefices’ and forming a contingent in the royal army. They also went on ad hoc missions.
### Legal system
Around 780 Charlemagne reformed the local system of administering justice and created the *scabini*, professional experts on the law. Every count had the help of seven of these scabini, who were supposed to know every national law so that all men could be judged according to it.
Judges were also banned from taking bribes and were supposed to use sworn inquests to establish facts.
In 802, all law was written down and amended (the [Salic law](/wiki/Salic_law "Salic law") was also amended in both 798 and 802, although even Einhard admits in section 29 that this was imperfect). Judges were supposed to have a copy of both the Salic law code and the [Ripuarian law](/wiki/Ripuarian_law "Ripuarian law") code.
Most people in the Carolingian Empire lived under a legal code that directly copied from [Roman law](/wiki/Roman_law "Roman law").{{Cite book \|last\=Carlyle \|first\=Alexander James \|author\-link\=Alexander James Carlyle \|title\=A History of Medieval Political Theory in the West \|last2\=Carlyle \|first2\=Robert Warrand \|author\-link2\=Robert Warrand Carlyle \|publisher\=\[\[William Blackwood and Sons]] \|year\=1909 \|volume\=II \|location\=Edinburgh \|pages\=5}}
### Coinage
[thumb\|A *[denarius](/wiki/Denarius "Denarius")* minted by Prince [Adelchis of Benevento](/wiki/Adelchis_of_Benevento "Adelchis of Benevento") in the name of Emperor Louis II and Empress Engelberga, showing the expansion of Carolingian authority in [southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy "Southern Italy") which Louis achieved](/wiki/File:Adelchis_denier_641521.jpg "Adelchis denier 641521.jpg")
Coinage had a strong association with the Roman Empire, and Charlemagne took up its regulation with his other imperial duties. The Carolingians exercised controls over the silver coinage of the realm, controlling its composition and value. The name of the emperor, not of the minter, appeared on the coins. Charlemagne worked to suppress mints in northern Germany on the [Baltic Sea](/wiki/Baltic_Sea "Baltic Sea").
### Subdivision
The Frankish kingdom was subdivided by Charlemagne into three separate areas to make administration easier. These were the inner "core" of the kingdom ([Austrasia](/wiki/Austrasia "Austrasia"), [Neustria](/wiki/Neustria "Neustria"), and [Burgundy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy "Kingdom of Burgundy")) which were supervised directly by the missatica system and the itinerant household. Outside this was the *regna* where Frankish administration rested upon the counts, and outside this was the marcher areas where ruled powerful governors. These marcher lordships were present in [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany "Brittany"), Spain, and [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria").
Charles also created two sub\-kingdoms in Aquitaine and Italy, ruled by his sons Louis and Pepin respectively. [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria") was also under the command of an autonomous governor, [Gerold](/wiki/Gerold%2C_Prefect_of_Bavaria "Gerold, Prefect of Bavaria"), until his death in 796\. While Charles still had overall authority in these areas they were fairly autonomous with their own chancery and minting facilities.
### *Placitum generalis*
{{Main\|Placitum\|Marchfield (assembly)}}
The annual meeting, the Placitum Generalis or Marchfield, was held every year (between March and May) at a place appointed by the king. It was called for three reasons: to gather the Frankish host to go on a campaign, to discuss political and ecclesiastical matters affecting the kingdom and to legislate for them, and to make judgments. All important men had to go to the meeting and so it was an important way for Charles to make his will known. Originally the meeting worked effectively however later it merely became a forum for discussion and for nobles to express their dissatisfaction.
### Oaths
The oath of fidelity was a way for Charles to ensure loyalty from all his subjects. As early as 779 he banned sworn guilds between other men so that everyone took an oath of loyalty only to him. In 789 (in response to the 786 rebellion) he began legislating that everyone should swear fidelity to him as king, however in 802 he expanded the oath greatly and made it so that all men over age 12 swore it to him.
### Capitularies
[Capitularies](/wiki/Capitularies "Capitularies") were the written records of decisions made by the Carolingian kings in consultation with assemblies during the eighth and ninth century.{{Sfn\|Story\|2005}} The name comes from the Latin *'Capitula'* for *'Chapters **and refers to the way these records were taken and written up, in a chapter by chapter style. They are regarded as being 'amongst the most important sources for the governance of the Frankish Empire in the eight and ninth century' by Sören Kaschke.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Kaschke \|first1\=Sören \|last2\=Mischke \|first2\=Britta \|date\=2019 \|title\=Capitularies in the Carolingian Period \|journal\=History Compass \|language\=en \|volume\=17 \|issue\=10 \|doi\=10\.1111/hic3\.12592 \|s2cid\=203080653 \|issn\=1478\-0542}} The use of capitularies represent a change in the pattern of contact between the king and his provinces in the Carolingian period. The contents of capitularies could include a wide range of topics, including royal orders, instructions for specific officials, deliberations of assemblies on both secular and ecclesiastical affairs as well as additions and alterations to the law.***
Primary evidence shows that capitularies were copied and disseminated all throughout Charlemagne's empire, however there is insufficient evidence to suggest the efficacy of the capitularies and whether they were actually put into practice throughout the realm. As Charlemagne became increasingly stationary, the amount of capitularies produced increased, this was particularly noticeable after the General Admonition of 789\.
There has been debates over the purpose of capitularies. Some historians argue that the capitularies were nothing more than a 'royal wish\-list' while others argue for capitularies representing the basis of a centralised state.{{Sfn\|Story\|2005}} Capitularies were implemented through the use of the [missi'](/wiki/Missus_dominicus "Missus dominicus"),
```
royal agents who would travel around the Carolingian kingdom, usually in pairs of a secular missi and ecclesiastical missi, reading out copied out versions of the latest capitularies to assemblies of people. The missi also had other roles such as handling complex local disputes and can be argued to have been crucial to the success of both capitularies and the expansion of Charlemagne's influence.
```
Some notable capitularies from Charlemagne's reign are:
* The Capitulary of Herstal of 779: Dealt with both ecclesiastical and secular topics, placing importance on the importance of paying [Tithes](/wiki/Tithe "Tithe"), the role of the Bishop and outlining the intolerance of forming an armed following in Charlemagne's empire.
* *[Admonitio Generalis](/wiki/Admonitio_Generalis "Admonitio Generalis")* of 789: One of the most influential Capitularies of Charlemagne's time. Consisted of over 80 chapters, including many laws on religion.
* The Capitulary of Frankfurt of 794: Speaks out against adoptionism and iconoclasm.
* The Programmatic Capitulary of 802\. This shows an increasing sense of vision in society.
* The [Capitulary for the Jews](/wiki/Capitulary_for_the_Jews "Capitulary for the Jews") of 814, delineating the prohibitions of Jews engaging in commerce or money\-lending.
|
[
"Government\n----------",
"The government, administration, and organization of the Carolingian Empire were forged in the court of Charlemagne in the decades around the year 800\\. In this year, Charlemagne was crowned emperor and adapted his existing royal administration to live up to the expectations of his new title. The political reforms wrought in Aachen were to have an immense impact on the political definition of Western Europe for the rest of the Middle Ages. The Carolingian improvements on the old [Merovingian](/wiki/Merovingian \"Merovingian\") mechanisms of governance have been lauded by historians for the increased [central control](/wiki/Central_government \"Central government\"), efficient bureaucracy, accountability, and [cultural renaissance](/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance \"Carolingian Renaissance\").",
"The Carolingian Empire was the largest western territory since the [fall of Rome](/wiki/Fall_of_Rome \"Fall of Rome\"), but historians have come to suspect the depth of the emperor's influence and control. Legally, the Carolingian emperor exercised the *[bannum](/wiki/Bannum \"Bannum\")*, the right to rule and command, over all of his territories. Also, he had supreme jurisdiction in judicial matters, made legislation, led the army, and protected both the [Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") and the poor. His administration was an attempt to organize the kingdom, church, and nobility around him, however, its efficacy was directly dependent upon the efficiency, loyalty and support of his subjects.",
"### Military",
"[thumb\\|Carolingian dynasty banner according to the osprey men at arms{{Clarification\\|date\\=June 2024}}](/wiki/File:Carolingian_Banner.png \"Carolingian Banner.png\")\n[thumb\\|Carolingian warrior on a [war horse](/wiki/Horses_in_warfare \"Horses in warfare\") (8th \\- 10th century) with [lance](/wiki/Lance \"Lance\"), [round shield](/wiki/Shields \"Shields\"), [chainmail](/wiki/Mail_%28armour%29 \"Mail (armour)\") and [spangenhelm](/wiki/Spangenhelm \"Spangenhelm\") in the Coronation Hall of the [Aachen City Hall](/wiki/Aachen_Rathaus \"Aachen Rathaus\") in June 2014 on the occasion of the exhibition \"Charlemagne \\- power, art, treasures\"](/wiki/File:Carolingian_Warrior.jpg \"Carolingian Warrior.jpg\")",
"Almost every year between the accession of Charles Martel and the conclusion of the wars with the Saxons Frankish forces went on campaign or expedition, often into enemy territory.{{Sfn\\|Reuter\\|2006\\|page\\=252}} Charlemagne would, for many years, gather an assembly around Easter and launch a military effort that would typically take place through the summer as this would ensure there were enough supplies for the fighting force.{{Sfn\\|Hooper\\|Bennett\\|1996\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Sf8UIynR0koC\\&pg\\=PA13 13]}} Charlemagne passed regulations requiring all mustered fighting men to own and bring their own weapons; the wealthy cavalrymen had to bring their own armour, poor men had to bring spears and shields, and those driving the carts had to have bows and arrows in their possession.{{Sfn\\|Hooper\\|Bennett\\|1996\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Sf8UIynR0koC\\&pg\\=PA13 13]}} In regards to provisions, men were instructed not to eat food until a specific location was reached, and carts should carry three months worth of food and six months worth of weapons and clothing along with tools.{{Sfn\\|Hooper\\|Bennett\\|1996\\|page\\=17}} Preference was shown towards [mobility warfare](/wiki/Maneuver_warfare \"Maneuver warfare\") in place of [defence\\-in\\-depth](/wiki/Defence-in-depth \"Defence-in-depth\") infrastructure; captured fortifications were often destroyed so they could not be used to resist Carolingian authority in the future.{{Sfn\\|Bowlus\\|2006\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0XBtVwukIogC\\&pg\\=PA49 49]}} After 800 and during the reign of Louis the Pious, efforts of expansion dwindled. Tim Reuter has shown that many military efforts during Louis' reign were largely defensive and in response to external threats.{{Sfn\\|Reuter\\|2006\\|page\\=252}}",
"It had long been held that Carolingian military success was based on the use of a [cavalry](/wiki/Heavy_cavalry \"Heavy cavalry\") force created by Charles Martel in the 730s.{{Sfn\\|Hooper\\|Bennett\\|1996\\|page\\=12}} However, it is clear that no such \"cavalry revolution\" took place in the Carolingian period leading up to and during the reign of Charlemagne.{{Sfn\\|Bowlus\\|2006\\|page\\=49}} This is because the [stirrup](/wiki/Stirrup \"Stirrup\") was not known to the Franks until the late eighth century and soldiers on horseback would therefore have used swords and lances for striking and not charging.{{Sfn\\|Hooper\\|Bennett\\|1996\\|pages\\=12–13}} Carolingian military success rested primarily on [siege](/wiki/Siege \"Siege\") technologies and excellent logistics.{{Sfn\\|Bowlus\\|2006\\|page\\=49}} However, large numbers of horses were used by the Frankish military during the age of Charlemagne. This was because [horses provided a quick, long\\-distance method of transporting troops](/wiki/Mounted_infantry \"Mounted infantry\"), which was critical to building and maintaining such a large empire.{{Sfn\\|Hooper\\|Bennett\\|1996\\|page\\=13}} The importance of horses to the Carolingian military is revealed through the Revised version of the Royal Frankish Annals. The annals mention that whilst Charlemagne was on campaign in 791 \"there broke out such a pestilence among the horses \\[...] that barely a tenth out of so many thousands are said to have survived.\"{{Sfn\\|King\\|1987\\|p\\=124}} Shortage of horses played a role in preventing Carolingian forces from continuing a campaign against the Avars in Pannonia.{{Sfn\\|Hooper\\|Bennett\\|1996\\|page\\=17}}",
"The Frankish royal bodyguards, the continuation of the Merovingian institution of the [antrustion](/wiki/Antrustion \"Antrustion\"), were consciously modelled on Late Roman precedents. These guards were organized into *schola* and entitled *scholares*, and used armour based on Late Roman and early Byzantine models. Frankish artistic depictions of these bodyguards also mirrored Late Roman traditions.{{Cite book \\|first\\=Bernard S. \\|last\\=Bachrach \\|author\\-link\\=Bernard Bachrach \\|title\\=Early Carolingian Warfare Prelude to Empire \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=University of Pennsylvania Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8122\\-2144\\-2 \\|pages\\=70–71}}",
"### Palaces",
"[thumb\\|Interior of the [Palatine Chapel](/wiki/Palatine_Chapel%2C_Aachen \"Palatine Chapel, Aachen\") in [Aachen](/wiki/Aachen \"Aachen\"), Germany](/wiki/File:Aachen_Germany_Imperial-Cathedral-12a.jpg \"Aachen Germany Imperial-Cathedral-12a.jpg\")\nNo permanent [capital city](/wiki/Capital_city \"Capital city\") existed in the empire, the [itinerant court](/wiki/Itinerant_court \"Itinerant court\") being a typical characteristic of all Western European kingdoms at this time. Some palaces can, however, be distinguished as locations of central administration. In the first year of his reign, Charlemagne went to Aachen ({{Lang\\-fr\\|Aix\\-la\\-Chapelle}}; {{Lang\\-it\\|Aquisgrana}}). He began to build a [palace](/wiki/Charlemagne%27s_Palace_in_Aachen \"Charlemagne's Palace in Aachen\") there in the 780s{{Cite book \\|last\\=Nelson \\|first\\=Janet \\|title\\=King and Emperor: A New Life of Charlemagne \\|publisher\\=Allen Lane \\|year\\=2019 \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=232, 356}} with original plans being thought up perhaps as soon as 768\\. The palace chapel, constructed in 796, later became [Aachen Cathedral](/wiki/Aachen_Cathedral \"Aachen Cathedral\"). During the 790s when construction picked up at Aachen Charlemagne's court became more centred compared with the 770s where court so often found itself located in tents during campaigning.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Airlie \\|first\\=Stuart \\|title\\=Power and Its Problems in Carolingian Europe \\|publisher\\=Ashgate \\|year\\=2012 \\|pages\\=4–11}} Though Aachen was certainly not intended to be a sedentary capital it was built in the political heartland of Charlemagne's realm to act as a meeting place for aristocrats and churchmen so that patronage might be distributed, assemblies held, laws written, and even where scholarly churchmen gathered for the purposes of learning.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Innes \\|first\\=Matthew \\|title\\=Charlemagne's Government \\|year\\=2005 \\|page\\=2}} in {{Harvnb\\|Story\\|2005}} Aachen was also a centre for information and gossip being pulled in from across the Empire by courtiers and churchmen alike. Of course, despite being the centre of Charlemagne's government, until his later years, his court moved often and made use of other palaces at Frankfurt, Ingelheim and Nijmegen. The use of such structures would signal the beginnings of the palace system of government used by the Carolingian court throughout reigns of many Carolingian rulers.{{Sfn\\|Costambeys\\|2011\\|pp\\=173–177}} Stuart Airlie has suggested that there were over 150 palaces throughout the Carolingian World which would provide the setting for court activity.",
"Palaces were not merely locations of administrative government but also stood as important symbols. Under Charlemagne their excellence was a translation of the treasure built up from conquest into a symbolic permanence as well as exclaiming royal authority.{{Sfn\\|Costambeys\\|2011\\|pages\\=173–177}} [Einhard](/wiki/Einhard \"Einhard\") suggested the construction of so\\-called 'public buildings' was a testament to Charlemagne's greatness and likeness to the emperors of antiquity and this connection was certainly capitalised upon by the imagery of palace decorations. [Ingelheim](/wiki/Ingelheim_am_Rhein \"Ingelheim am Rhein\") is a particular example of such symbolism and thus the importance of the palace system in more than mere governance. The palace chapel is written to have been 'lined with images from the Bible' and the hall of the palace 'decorated with a picture cycle celebrating the deeds of great kings' including rulers of antiquity as well as Carolingian rulers such as Charles Martel and Pippin III.{{Sfn\\|Costambeys\\|2011\\|pages\\=173–177}}",
"Louis the Pious used the palace system much to the same effect as Charlemagne during his reign as king of Aquitaine, rotating his court between four winter palaces throughout the region.{{Sfn\\|Costambeys\\|2011\\|pages\\=173–177}} During his reign as Emperor he used Aachen, Ingelheim, Frankfurt, and Mainz which were almost always the locations for general assemblies held 'two or three \\[times] a year in the period 896–28\\...' and while he was not an immobile ruler, his reign has certainly been described as more static.{{Sfn\\|Costambeys\\|2011\\|pages\\=173–177}} In this way the palace system can also been seen as a tool of continuity in governance. After the splintering of the Empire the palace system continued to be used by succeeding Carolingian rulers with Charles the Bald centring his power at Compiègne{{Sfn\\|McKitterick\\|1983\\|page\\=22}} where the palace chapel was dedicated to the Virgin Mary in 877, something remarked on as a sign of continuity with Aachen's Mother of God chapel.{{Sfn\\|Costambeys\\|2011\\|pages\\=410–411}} For Louis the German, Frankfurt has been deemed his own 'neo\\-Aachen' and Charles the Fat's palace at Sélestat in Alsace was designed specifically to imitate Aachen.{{Sfn\\|Costambeys\\|2011\\|pages\\=410–411}}",
"The palace system as an idea for Carolingian central administration and governance has been challenged by historian F. L. Ganshof, who argued that the palaces of the Carolingians \"contained nothing resembling the specialised services and departments available at the same period to the Byzantine emperor or the caliph of Baghdad.\"{{Cite book \\|last\\=Ganshof \\|first\\=F. L. \\|title\\=The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy \\|publisher\\=Longman \\|year\\=1971 \\|pages\\=257 \\|translator\\-last\\=Sondheimer \\|translator\\-first\\=Janet}} However, further reading in the works of Carolingian historians such as Matthew Innes, Rosamond McKitterick, and Stuart Airlie suggest that the use of palaces were important in the evolution of Carolingian governance and Janet Nelson has argued that \"palaces are places from which power emanates and is exercised...\" and the importance of palaces to Carolingian administration, learning, and legitimacy has been widely argued.",
"### Household",
"{{See also\\|Royal household under the Merovingians and Carolingians}}\nThe royal household was an itinerant body (until c. 802\\) which moved around the kingdom making sure good government was upheld in the localities. The most important positions were the chaplain (who was responsible for all ecclesiastical affairs in the kingdom), and the count of the palace ([Count palatine](/wiki/Count_palatine \"Count palatine\")) who had supreme control over the household. It also included more minor officials e.g. chamberlain, seneschal, and marshal. The household sometimes led the army (e.g. Seneschal [Andorf](/wiki/Andorf \"Andorf\") against the [Bretons](/wiki/Bretons \"Bretons\") in 786\\).",
"Possibly associated with the chaplain and the royal chapel was the office of the chancellor, head of the chancery, a non\\-permanent writing office. The charters produced were rudimentary and mostly to do with land deeds. There are 262 surviving from Charles’ reign as opposed to 40 from [Pepin](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short \"Pepin the Short\")’s and 350 from [Louis the Pious](/wiki/Louis_the_Pious \"Louis the Pious\").",
"### Officials",
"There are 3 main offices which enforced Carolingian authority in the localities:",
"The [Comes](/wiki/Comes \"Comes\") ({{Lang\\-la\\|count}}). Appointed by Charles to administer a *[county](/wiki/County \"County\")*. The Carolingian Empire (except Bavaria) was divided up into between 110 and 600 counties, each divided into *centenae* which were under the control of a vicar. At first, they were royal agents sent out by Charles but after c. 802 they were important local magnates. They were responsible for justice, enforcing capitularies, levying soldiers, receiving tolls and dues and maintaining roads and bridges. They could technically be dismissed by the king but many offices became hereditary. They were also sometimes corrupt although many were exemplary e.g. Count Eric of Friuli. Provincial governors eventually evolved who supervised several counts.",
"The [Missi Dominici](/wiki/Missus_Dominicus \"Missus Dominicus\") ({{Lang\\-la\\|dominical emissaries}}). Originally appointed ad hoc, a reform in 802 led to the office of *[missus dominicus](/wiki/Missus_dominicus \"Missus dominicus\")* becoming a permanent one. The *Missi Dominici* were sent out in pairs. One was an ecclesiastic and one secular. Their status as high officials was thought to safeguard them from the temptation of taking bribes. They made four journeys a year in their local *[missaticum](/wiki/Missaticum \"Missaticum\"),* each lasting a month, and were responsible for making the royal will and capitularies known, judging cases and occasionally raising armies.",
"The [Vassi Dominici](/wiki/Vassi_Dominici \"Vassi Dominici\"). These were the king’s vassals and were usually the sons of powerful men, holding ‘benefices’ and forming a contingent in the royal army. They also went on ad hoc missions.",
"### Legal system",
"Around 780 Charlemagne reformed the local system of administering justice and created the *scabini*, professional experts on the law. Every count had the help of seven of these scabini, who were supposed to know every national law so that all men could be judged according to it.",
"Judges were also banned from taking bribes and were supposed to use sworn inquests to establish facts.",
"In 802, all law was written down and amended (the [Salic law](/wiki/Salic_law \"Salic law\") was also amended in both 798 and 802, although even Einhard admits in section 29 that this was imperfect). Judges were supposed to have a copy of both the Salic law code and the [Ripuarian law](/wiki/Ripuarian_law \"Ripuarian law\") code.",
"Most people in the Carolingian Empire lived under a legal code that directly copied from [Roman law](/wiki/Roman_law \"Roman law\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Carlyle \\|first\\=Alexander James \\|author\\-link\\=Alexander James Carlyle \\|title\\=A History of Medieval Political Theory in the West \\|last2\\=Carlyle \\|first2\\=Robert Warrand \\|author\\-link2\\=Robert Warrand Carlyle \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[William Blackwood and Sons]] \\|year\\=1909 \\|volume\\=II \\|location\\=Edinburgh \\|pages\\=5}}",
"### Coinage",
"[thumb\\|A *[denarius](/wiki/Denarius \"Denarius\")* minted by Prince [Adelchis of Benevento](/wiki/Adelchis_of_Benevento \"Adelchis of Benevento\") in the name of Emperor Louis II and Empress Engelberga, showing the expansion of Carolingian authority in [southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy \"Southern Italy\") which Louis achieved](/wiki/File:Adelchis_denier_641521.jpg \"Adelchis denier 641521.jpg\")\nCoinage had a strong association with the Roman Empire, and Charlemagne took up its regulation with his other imperial duties. The Carolingians exercised controls over the silver coinage of the realm, controlling its composition and value. The name of the emperor, not of the minter, appeared on the coins. Charlemagne worked to suppress mints in northern Germany on the [Baltic Sea](/wiki/Baltic_Sea \"Baltic Sea\").",
"### Subdivision",
"The Frankish kingdom was subdivided by Charlemagne into three separate areas to make administration easier. These were the inner \"core\" of the kingdom ([Austrasia](/wiki/Austrasia \"Austrasia\"), [Neustria](/wiki/Neustria \"Neustria\"), and [Burgundy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundy \"Kingdom of Burgundy\")) which were supervised directly by the missatica system and the itinerant household. Outside this was the *regna* where Frankish administration rested upon the counts, and outside this was the marcher areas where ruled powerful governors. These marcher lordships were present in [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany \"Brittany\"), Spain, and [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\").",
"Charles also created two sub\\-kingdoms in Aquitaine and Italy, ruled by his sons Louis and Pepin respectively. [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\") was also under the command of an autonomous governor, [Gerold](/wiki/Gerold%2C_Prefect_of_Bavaria \"Gerold, Prefect of Bavaria\"), until his death in 796\\. While Charles still had overall authority in these areas they were fairly autonomous with their own chancery and minting facilities.",
"### *Placitum generalis*",
"{{Main\\|Placitum\\|Marchfield (assembly)}}\nThe annual meeting, the Placitum Generalis or Marchfield, was held every year (between March and May) at a place appointed by the king. It was called for three reasons: to gather the Frankish host to go on a campaign, to discuss political and ecclesiastical matters affecting the kingdom and to legislate for them, and to make judgments. All important men had to go to the meeting and so it was an important way for Charles to make his will known. Originally the meeting worked effectively however later it merely became a forum for discussion and for nobles to express their dissatisfaction.",
"### Oaths",
"The oath of fidelity was a way for Charles to ensure loyalty from all his subjects. As early as 779 he banned sworn guilds between other men so that everyone took an oath of loyalty only to him. In 789 (in response to the 786 rebellion) he began legislating that everyone should swear fidelity to him as king, however in 802 he expanded the oath greatly and made it so that all men over age 12 swore it to him.",
"### Capitularies",
"[Capitularies](/wiki/Capitularies \"Capitularies\") were the written records of decisions made by the Carolingian kings in consultation with assemblies during the eighth and ninth century.{{Sfn\\|Story\\|2005}} The name comes from the Latin *'Capitula'* for *'Chapters **and refers to the way these records were taken and written up, in a chapter by chapter style. They are regarded as being 'amongst the most important sources for the governance of the Frankish Empire in the eight and ninth century' by Sören Kaschke.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Kaschke \\|first1\\=Sören \\|last2\\=Mischke \\|first2\\=Britta \\|date\\=2019 \\|title\\=Capitularies in the Carolingian Period \\|journal\\=History Compass \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=10 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/hic3\\.12592 \\|s2cid\\=203080653 \\|issn\\=1478\\-0542}} The use of capitularies represent a change in the pattern of contact between the king and his provinces in the Carolingian period. The contents of capitularies could include a wide range of topics, including royal orders, instructions for specific officials, deliberations of assemblies on both secular and ecclesiastical affairs as well as additions and alterations to the law.***",
"Primary evidence shows that capitularies were copied and disseminated all throughout Charlemagne's empire, however there is insufficient evidence to suggest the efficacy of the capitularies and whether they were actually put into practice throughout the realm. As Charlemagne became increasingly stationary, the amount of capitularies produced increased, this was particularly noticeable after the General Admonition of 789\\.\nThere has been debates over the purpose of capitularies. Some historians argue that the capitularies were nothing more than a 'royal wish\\-list' while others argue for capitularies representing the basis of a centralised state.{{Sfn\\|Story\\|2005}} Capitularies were implemented through the use of the [missi'](/wiki/Missus_dominicus \"Missus dominicus\"),\n```\nroyal agents who would travel around the Carolingian kingdom, usually in pairs of a secular missi and ecclesiastical missi, reading out copied out versions of the latest capitularies to assemblies of people. The missi also had other roles such as handling complex local disputes and can be argued to have been crucial to the success of both capitularies and the expansion of Charlemagne's influence.",
"```",
"Some notable capitularies from Charlemagne's reign are:\n* The Capitulary of Herstal of 779: Dealt with both ecclesiastical and secular topics, placing importance on the importance of paying [Tithes](/wiki/Tithe \"Tithe\"), the role of the Bishop and outlining the intolerance of forming an armed following in Charlemagne's empire.\n* *[Admonitio Generalis](/wiki/Admonitio_Generalis \"Admonitio Generalis\")* of 789: One of the most influential Capitularies of Charlemagne's time. Consisted of over 80 chapters, including many laws on religion.\n* The Capitulary of Frankfurt of 794: Speaks out against adoptionism and iconoclasm.\n* The Programmatic Capitulary of 802\\. This shows an increasing sense of vision in society.\n* The [Capitulary for the Jews](/wiki/Capitulary_for_the_Jews \"Capitulary for the Jews\") of 814, delineating the prohibitions of Jews engaging in commerce or money\\-lending.",
""
] |
Mission highlights
------------------
ISSafterSTS96\.jpg\|Illustration of the International Space Station (ISS) during Space Shuttle flight STS\-96
01 ICC STS\-96\.jpg\|Integrated Cargo Carrier (ICC), with among other the Russian cargo crane "STRELA", which was mounted on the ISS
STS\-96 was a logistics and resupply mission for the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station "International Space Station") carrying the Spacehab Double Module (DM) 13th Spacehab overall (6th dual module use).
Space Shuttle *Discovery* carried to the ISS an Integrated Cargo Carrier (ICC) with parts for the Russian cargo crane [STRELA](/wiki/Strela_%28crane%29 "Strela (crane)"), which was mounted to the exterior of the Russian station segment. Furthermore, the ICC carried the SPACEHAB Oceaneering Space System Box (SHOSS) and the "ORU Transfer Device" (OTD), a U.S. built crane.
Other payloads on STS\-96 were the Student Tracked Atmospheric Research Satellite for Heuristic International Networking Equipment ([STARSHINE](/wiki/STARSHINE "STARSHINE")), the Shuttle Vibration Forces Experiment (SVF) and the Orbiter Integrated Vehicle Health Monitoring – HEDS Technology Demonstration (IVHM HTD).
The STARSHINE satellite consists of an inert, {{convert\|483\|mm}} hollow sphere covered by 1,000 evenly distributed, flat, polished mirrors, each 1 inch in diameter. The payload consists of the STARSHINE satellite, integrated with the Pallet Ejection System (PES), then mounted inside a lidless carrier. The HH equipment consists of one HH Lightweight Avionics Plate (LAP), then mounted inside a lidless carrier. Additional HH equipment consists of one Hitchhiker Ejection System Electronics (HESE), one 5\.0 cubic\-foot (142 L) HH canister, and one Adapter Beam Assembly (ABA). The purpose of the mission was to train international student volunteer observers to visually track this optically reflective spacecraft during morning and evening twilight intervals for several months, calculate its orbit from shared observations, and derive atmospheric density from drag\-induced changes in its orbit over time.
[thumb\|left\|160px\|[Space Shuttle *Discovery*](/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Discovery "Space Shuttle Discovery") launches on STS\-96 from Kennedy Space Center, 27 May 1999\.](/wiki/File:STS-96_Launch.jpg "STS-96 Launch.jpg")
The Shuttle Vibration Forces (SVF) Experiment provided flight measurements of the vibratory forces acting between an aerospace payload and its mounting structure. The force transducers were incorporated into four custom brackets which replaced the existing brackets used to attach the 5 ft (1\.5 m) standard canister to the side wall GAS adapter beam. The payload was activated automatically by the Orbiter Lift\-off vibration and operated for approximately 100 seconds. STS\-96 was the second flight of the SVF experiment.
The purpose of the Orbiter Integrated Vehicle Health Monitoring\- HEDS Technology Demonstration ([IVHM](/wiki/IVHM "IVHM") HTD) was to demonstrate competing modern, off\-the\-shelf sensing technologies in an operational environment to make informed design decisions for the eventual Orbiter upgrade IVHM. The objective of [IVHM](/wiki/IVHM "IVHM") was to reduce planned ground processing, streamline problem troubleshooting (unplanned ground processing), enhance visibility into systems operation and improve overall vehicle safety.
A copy of [Blizzard Entertainment's](/wiki/Blizzard_Entertainment "Blizzard Entertainment") *[StarCraft](/wiki/StarCraft "StarCraft")* real\-time strategy game was also flown aboard STS\-96\. It resides at Blizzard's headquarters in Irvine, California.
|
[
"Mission highlights\n------------------",
"",
"ISSafterSTS96\\.jpg\\|Illustration of the International Space Station (ISS) during Space Shuttle flight STS\\-96\n01 ICC STS\\-96\\.jpg\\|Integrated Cargo Carrier (ICC), with among other the Russian cargo crane \"STRELA\", which was mounted on the ISS",
"",
"STS\\-96 was a logistics and resupply mission for the [International Space Station](/wiki/International_Space_Station \"International Space Station\") carrying the Spacehab Double Module (DM) 13th Spacehab overall (6th dual module use).",
"Space Shuttle *Discovery* carried to the ISS an Integrated Cargo Carrier (ICC) with parts for the Russian cargo crane [STRELA](/wiki/Strela_%28crane%29 \"Strela (crane)\"), which was mounted to the exterior of the Russian station segment. Furthermore, the ICC carried the SPACEHAB Oceaneering Space System Box (SHOSS) and the \"ORU Transfer Device\" (OTD), a U.S. built crane.",
"Other payloads on STS\\-96 were the Student Tracked Atmospheric Research Satellite for Heuristic International Networking Equipment ([STARSHINE](/wiki/STARSHINE \"STARSHINE\")), the Shuttle Vibration Forces Experiment (SVF) and the Orbiter Integrated Vehicle Health Monitoring – HEDS Technology Demonstration (IVHM HTD).",
"The STARSHINE satellite consists of an inert, {{convert\\|483\\|mm}} hollow sphere covered by 1,000 evenly distributed, flat, polished mirrors, each 1 inch in diameter. The payload consists of the STARSHINE satellite, integrated with the Pallet Ejection System (PES), then mounted inside a lidless carrier. The HH equipment consists of one HH Lightweight Avionics Plate (LAP), then mounted inside a lidless carrier. Additional HH equipment consists of one Hitchhiker Ejection System Electronics (HESE), one 5\\.0 cubic\\-foot (142 L) HH canister, and one Adapter Beam Assembly (ABA). The purpose of the mission was to train international student volunteer observers to visually track this optically reflective spacecraft during morning and evening twilight intervals for several months, calculate its orbit from shared observations, and derive atmospheric density from drag\\-induced changes in its orbit over time.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|160px\\|[Space Shuttle *Discovery*](/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Discovery \"Space Shuttle Discovery\") launches on STS\\-96 from Kennedy Space Center, 27 May 1999\\.](/wiki/File:STS-96_Launch.jpg \"STS-96 Launch.jpg\")\nThe Shuttle Vibration Forces (SVF) Experiment provided flight measurements of the vibratory forces acting between an aerospace payload and its mounting structure. The force transducers were incorporated into four custom brackets which replaced the existing brackets used to attach the 5 ft (1\\.5 m) standard canister to the side wall GAS adapter beam. The payload was activated automatically by the Orbiter Lift\\-off vibration and operated for approximately 100 seconds. STS\\-96 was the second flight of the SVF experiment.",
"The purpose of the Orbiter Integrated Vehicle Health Monitoring\\- HEDS Technology Demonstration ([IVHM](/wiki/IVHM \"IVHM\") HTD) was to demonstrate competing modern, off\\-the\\-shelf sensing technologies in an operational environment to make informed design decisions for the eventual Orbiter upgrade IVHM. The objective of [IVHM](/wiki/IVHM \"IVHM\") was to reduce planned ground processing, streamline problem troubleshooting (unplanned ground processing), enhance visibility into systems operation and improve overall vehicle safety.",
"A copy of [Blizzard Entertainment's](/wiki/Blizzard_Entertainment \"Blizzard Entertainment\") *[StarCraft](/wiki/StarCraft \"StarCraft\")* real\\-time strategy game was also flown aboard STS\\-96\\. It resides at Blizzard's headquarters in Irvine, California.",
""
] |
Fictional character biography
-----------------------------
Nigel is born Irish in Belfast. He serves in the British police constabulary in Belfast for some years before moving to London. There, he falls in love with Anne, his partner while investigating the [IRA](/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army "Provisional Irish Republican Army"). Their relationship lasts until an Irish terrorist/mercenary by the name of Seamus O'Brien, kills her in front of him. In the ensuing fight, Keane is mortally wounded. But before dying, his powers manifest, saving his life and making him Hellstrike. O'Brien later became the villain *Deathtrap*, leader of the MERCs, a mercenary unit of super powered beings. Hellstrike bears a long grudge against Deathtrap for both this and Anne's murder.
Nigel joined StormWatch One, the main team of superheroes serving the UN. In the Wildstorm universe, the UN is secretly a menacing worldwide conspiracy led by gun\-toting, paranoid "Secret Masters". While they are heroes, the operatives of StormWatch are quite ruthless and do not hesitate to violate the rights of a country in order to advance the agenda of the UN.
After a battle against Deathtrap, Hellstrike was severely injured, falls into coma and his neural circuitry began to fall apart. His body starts to lose cohesion and breaks into pure energy in a tremendous explosion that ruined Skywatch's sickbay. At this time, Nigel decides to give up his life. Then, Fuji contacted him in his comatose state and persuaded him that his life was still worth something, with Fuji using himself as an example. With the help of StormWatch engineering genius Link, Nigel received a tailor\-made containment suit, much like Fuji's, except that Fuji's gives him the control of his own density and avoids radioactive gas leaks, while Hellstrike's acts as a force field preventing him from exploding.
He can manipulate it at will, such as when he learned he could grow genitalia, something he offered to show his teammates. They refused. Unfortunately, others can manipulate it, such as when [the High](/wiki/High_%28comics%29 "High (comics)") grabs his chest and immobilized him.
### Reformation
When [Bendix](/wiki/Henry_Bendix "Henry Bendix") reshapes StormWatch, Hellstrike was attached to StormWatch Prime under [Winter](/wiki/Winter_%28comics%29 "Winter (comics)")'s command. StormWatch Prime was the unit devoted to deal with superhuman threats in hotwar situations.
At some point, he began a relationship with [Fahrenheit](/wiki/Fahrenheit_%28comics%29 "Fahrenheit (comics)") that they kept secret until Weatherman [Battalion](/wiki/Battalion_%28Wildstorm%29 "Battalion (Wildstorm)") found out – it was contrary to regulations about fraternization between field officers. This was discovered when Battalion had to break into Hellstrike's quarters because neither he nor Lauren were responding to the radio calls.
Hellstrike is one of the four super\-powered beings slain during an attack by [Xenomorphs](/wiki/Xenomorph_%28Alien%29 "Xenomorph (Alien)") on Skywatch in the [WildC.A.T.s](/wiki/Wildcats_%28comics%29 "Wildcats (comics)")/[Aliens](/wiki/Alien_%28film%29 "Alien (film)") [crossover](/wiki/Intercompany_crossover "Intercompany crossover"), along with [Fahrenheit](/wiki/Fahrenheit_%28comics%29 "Fahrenheit (comics)"), [Fuji](/wiki/Fuji_%28comics%29 "Fuji (comics)"), and others.
### Rebirth
Hellstrike and his other dead teammates return, partly detailed in the series *[Stormwatch: Post Human Division](/wiki/Stormwatch:Post_Human_Division "Post Human Division")*. The four play a support role to the PHD team, a compressed version of Stormwatch deeply affected by budget cuts. Hellstrike is featured in a flashback in issue \#2 as Fahrenheit fondly recalls his assistance in a fight against the criminal known as 'The Walking Ghost'. Hellstrike later helps the PHD team escape the ice\-encased precinct house they use as a headquarters.
In the Stormwatch PHD issue of *Wildstorm: Armageddon*, it is suggested that Hellstrike and his dead teammates were saved by a possible future version of Jackson King.
Hellstrike is seen rescuing humans in need in a post\-apocalypse Earth. He is being pessimistic because the place they are evacuating the humans to is also suffering problems.*Stormwatch \- PHD* \#17 (2009\)
### The New 52
In September 2011, [The New 52](/wiki/The_New_52 "The New 52") rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, which merged the WildStorm and DC Universes, a version of Hellstrike having a different surname \& ethnicity returns at the beginning of Jim Starlin's run (issue \#19\) of the third volume of *Stormwatch*. While not a member of the original team, Hellstrike appears as a member of the secondary group that forms after a time warp erases the original team from existence.
|
[
"Fictional character biography\n-----------------------------",
"Nigel is born Irish in Belfast. He serves in the British police constabulary in Belfast for some years before moving to London. There, he falls in love with Anne, his partner while investigating the [IRA](/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army \"Provisional Irish Republican Army\"). Their relationship lasts until an Irish terrorist/mercenary by the name of Seamus O'Brien, kills her in front of him. In the ensuing fight, Keane is mortally wounded. But before dying, his powers manifest, saving his life and making him Hellstrike. O'Brien later became the villain *Deathtrap*, leader of the MERCs, a mercenary unit of super powered beings. Hellstrike bears a long grudge against Deathtrap for both this and Anne's murder.",
"Nigel joined StormWatch One, the main team of superheroes serving the UN. In the Wildstorm universe, the UN is secretly a menacing worldwide conspiracy led by gun\\-toting, paranoid \"Secret Masters\". While they are heroes, the operatives of StormWatch are quite ruthless and do not hesitate to violate the rights of a country in order to advance the agenda of the UN.",
"After a battle against Deathtrap, Hellstrike was severely injured, falls into coma and his neural circuitry began to fall apart. His body starts to lose cohesion and breaks into pure energy in a tremendous explosion that ruined Skywatch's sickbay. At this time, Nigel decides to give up his life. Then, Fuji contacted him in his comatose state and persuaded him that his life was still worth something, with Fuji using himself as an example. With the help of StormWatch engineering genius Link, Nigel received a tailor\\-made containment suit, much like Fuji's, except that Fuji's gives him the control of his own density and avoids radioactive gas leaks, while Hellstrike's acts as a force field preventing him from exploding.",
"He can manipulate it at will, such as when he learned he could grow genitalia, something he offered to show his teammates. They refused. Unfortunately, others can manipulate it, such as when [the High](/wiki/High_%28comics%29 \"High (comics)\") grabs his chest and immobilized him.",
"### Reformation",
"When [Bendix](/wiki/Henry_Bendix \"Henry Bendix\") reshapes StormWatch, Hellstrike was attached to StormWatch Prime under [Winter](/wiki/Winter_%28comics%29 \"Winter (comics)\")'s command. StormWatch Prime was the unit devoted to deal with superhuman threats in hotwar situations.",
"At some point, he began a relationship with [Fahrenheit](/wiki/Fahrenheit_%28comics%29 \"Fahrenheit (comics)\") that they kept secret until Weatherman [Battalion](/wiki/Battalion_%28Wildstorm%29 \"Battalion (Wildstorm)\") found out – it was contrary to regulations about fraternization between field officers. This was discovered when Battalion had to break into Hellstrike's quarters because neither he nor Lauren were responding to the radio calls.",
"Hellstrike is one of the four super\\-powered beings slain during an attack by [Xenomorphs](/wiki/Xenomorph_%28Alien%29 \"Xenomorph (Alien)\") on Skywatch in the [WildC.A.T.s](/wiki/Wildcats_%28comics%29 \"Wildcats (comics)\")/[Aliens](/wiki/Alien_%28film%29 \"Alien (film)\") [crossover](/wiki/Intercompany_crossover \"Intercompany crossover\"), along with [Fahrenheit](/wiki/Fahrenheit_%28comics%29 \"Fahrenheit (comics)\"), [Fuji](/wiki/Fuji_%28comics%29 \"Fuji (comics)\"), and others.",
"### Rebirth",
"Hellstrike and his other dead teammates return, partly detailed in the series *[Stormwatch: Post Human Division](/wiki/Stormwatch:Post_Human_Division \"Post Human Division\")*. The four play a support role to the PHD team, a compressed version of Stormwatch deeply affected by budget cuts. Hellstrike is featured in a flashback in issue \\#2 as Fahrenheit fondly recalls his assistance in a fight against the criminal known as 'The Walking Ghost'. Hellstrike later helps the PHD team escape the ice\\-encased precinct house they use as a headquarters.",
"In the Stormwatch PHD issue of *Wildstorm: Armageddon*, it is suggested that Hellstrike and his dead teammates were saved by a possible future version of Jackson King.",
"Hellstrike is seen rescuing humans in need in a post\\-apocalypse Earth. He is being pessimistic because the place they are evacuating the humans to is also suffering problems.*Stormwatch \\- PHD* \\#17 (2009\\)",
"### The New 52",
"In September 2011, [The New 52](/wiki/The_New_52 \"The New 52\") rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, which merged the WildStorm and DC Universes, a version of Hellstrike having a different surname \\& ethnicity returns at the beginning of Jim Starlin's run (issue \\#19\\) of the third volume of *Stormwatch*. While not a member of the original team, Hellstrike appears as a member of the secondary group that forms after a time warp erases the original team from existence.",
""
] |
Career
------
### 1990s
Fey released her first album, titled *Fey*, in 1995, through Sony Music (Mexico). Within a couple of months of the album's release, Fey had scored several hits in her native Mexico, and had reached No. 1 with "Media naranja", "Gatos en el balcon", "Me enamoro de ti" and "La noche se mueve". Fey toured Mexico, including consecutive concerts in the [Teatro Metropolitan](/wiki/Teatro_Metrop%C3%B3litan "Teatro Metropólitan"), and all of Latin America, and reached [Gold status](/wiki/Music_recording_sales_certification "Music recording sales certification") sales by the end of the year. In 1996 Fey released *Tierna la Noche*. "[Azucar Amargo](/wiki/Azucar_Amargo_%28Fey_Song%29 "Azucar Amargo (Fey Song)")", the CD's first single, stayed in the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_magazine "Billboard magazine") chart for more than 30 weeks. Her tour, Tierna la noche, was also successful. Overall the tour consisted of more than 40 presentations in Mexico, the U.S. and Latin America, as well as some presentations in Europe. At the [9th Lo Nuestro Awards](/wiki/Premio_Lo_Nuestro_1997 "Premio Lo Nuestro 1997"), Fey received a nomination for Pop New Artist.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM\-545706\|title\=Premios a Lo Mejor De La Música Latina\|language\=es\|work\=\[\[El Tiempo (Colombia)\|El Tiempo]]\|publisher\=Casa Editorial El Tiempo S.A.\|date\=8 April 1997\|access\-date\=10 June 2013}}
In 1998, and after more than 8 months of absence, Fey released her third album *El color de los sueños*, which itself was different from the preceding two in that the album was a mix of different rhythms and styles. "Ni tu ni nadie", the album's first single, instantly reached number one in the Latin charts; "Diselo con flores", "Canela" and "Cielo Liquido" soon followed. Although the record did very well in sales, it did not compare to the over\-the\-top success of *Tierna la noche*. In the overall period of the three first albums, Fey's amazing popularity and promotion caused all but 4 of the singles released to hit No. 1 in Mexico, with the most important being "Azucar Amargo", "Media Naranja", "Ni tu Ni Nadie", "Muevelo" and "Te Pertenezco", all of them spending more than a month in the top position in Mexico. After almost a year of promotion, Fey announced, at a 1999 charity concert, that: "everything has a cycle, and this is the end of mine".
### Vertigo (fourth studio album)
Vertigo is the long awaited 4th album, which the singer prepared from 2000 to 2002, with several producers, including herself as such, in most of the songs. The album was released in CD and Cassette format, worldwide the album was released in Spanish with 11 and 12 tracks, depending on the country, in Mexico was released a deluxe edition that included a second CD with all the songs in English, plus 3 bonus tracks, included only in that album. The first single was titled "Se lo que vendrá / The Other Side", the song was a resounding success in Mexico, reaching the top of the charts, and the song in English was played on channels such as MTV, where it even made it to the top 100 most requested videos on MTV, as well as being awarded with a prize next to Nick Carter of the Backstreets boys at the MTV Video Music Awards LA.
The promotion consisted of several performances on TV and at the EXA 02 festival, but the album was not promoted outside of Mexico and the United States, which caused the Latin American public to quickly forget the album. To finalize the promotion and after releasing some promotional songs like "Dime" and "Loca por amarte", the single "Noche Ideal / Dressing to kill" was released in CD format, without any kind of radio promotion, and was accompanied by a strictly limited edition with a slipcase with an alternative cover.
It was published in a double edition with one album in English and one in Spanish. The album at the time went gold for its sales, but it is estimated to have surpassed one million copies worldwide. The promotion of Vertigo ended abruptly in December 2002, cancelling the world tour.
### La Fuerza del Destino (fifth studio album)
In 2005, Fey, now a married woman, relaunched her career with *[La Fuerza del Destino](/wiki/La_Fuerza_del_Destino_%28Fey_album%29 "La Fuerza del Destino (Fey album)")*, a tribute to the Spanish group [Mecano](/wiki/Mecano "Mecano"). This album was successful; it contained three top\-ten singles: "La Fuerza Del Destino", "Barco A Venus" and "Me Cuesta Tanto Olvidarte". A radio\-only single, "Un Año Más", was released for the holiday season in Mexico.
Fey toured in support of this album at the Viña del Mar festival 2005, the Selena Vive! festival, and many local clubs across the United States and Latin America. The record excelled sales\-wise, and it gave Fey her very first Latin Grammy nomination for "Best Pop Female Vocal Album". She also received 4 nominations for *Premios Orgullosamente Latino 2005 \& 2006*\-Ritmoson Latino and a Premio Oye nomination. She was recognized by the [Gay \& Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation](/wiki/Gay_%26_Lesbian_Alliance_Against_Defamation "Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation") (GLAAD) in Miami in [2006](/wiki/17th_GLAAD_Media_Awards "17th GLAAD Media Awards") for supporting gay human rights.
### Faltan Lunas (sixth studio album)
After the success of her fifth album, Fey released a sixth one, *[Faltan Lunas](/wiki/Faltan_Lunas "Faltan Lunas")* and was produced by Carlos Jean.{{cite magazine\|title\=Reviews: New and Noteworthy\|magazine\=Billboard\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=lw0EAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=PA76\|date\=12 August 2006\|publisher\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\|pages\=76–\|issn\=0006\-2510}} It was slated for an 1 August 2006, release, but was released on 21 July, Fey's birthday. It features a pop/dance sound along with acoustic elements. The first single released was "Y Aquí Estoy". It was announced by Fey herself that the second single would be "Me Has Vuelto Loca", but it was changed to "Como Un Ángel". The album was only released in a few Latin American countries, and sold around 10,000 copies worldwide, making it her lowest selling album ever. "Como Un Ángel" was released in January 2007, but it failed to make an impact on the charts.
### Dulce Tentación and Sweet Temptation (seventh studio album)
*[Dulce Tentación](/wiki/Dulce_Tentaci%C3%B3n "Dulce Tentación")* was released 28 April 2009, and the English version called "Sweet Temptation" was set to be released over the next months. The album was produced by Sam 'FISH' Fisher, who also co\-wrote more than half of the songs on the record and will be distributed internationally by Universal Music. One track, "Cicatrices" \["Monsters"] was available for download Fey's official site at the end of 2008\. More than 170,000 downloads were registered while the track was available.
The first official single was "Lentamente" (Let Me Show You), a song that put Fey back in the top of the charts in México. The album was an unexpected success, winning a gold status for over 50\.000 copies sold in less than one month in México.{{Cite web \|last\=Garcia \|first\=Julio \|date\=23 April 2006 \|title\=Fey no soportó el Vértigo : Fey no soportó el Vértigo – Artistas \|url\=http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid\=199806 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060423041005/http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid\=199806 \|archive\-date\=23 April 2006 \|access\-date\=2016\-09\-20 \|website\=univision.com}} The second single Provócame (Games That you Play) was released in July 2009, however, a conflict between Fey and her new record label Mi Rey Music over promotion differences and the concept of the new video led Fey to part ways with the record label. Fey decided to create her own record label by buying the rights to her music and to Elephant Music from Mi Rey Music.
Late August 2009 Fey announced on her website that she was now in complete control of Elephant Music and continued to promote "Provócame", however, she suspended promotion of the single due to laryngitis.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.wradio.com.co/nota.aspx?id\=867751 \|title\=Lista Fey para gira por EU tras infección en vías respiratorias \| 20090826 \|publisher\=Wradio.com.co \|access\-date\=2015\-08\-24 \|archive\-date\=7 July 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707052613/http://www.wradio.com.co/nota.aspx?id\=867751 \|url\-status\=dead }} The video debuted on 21 September 2009; she also announced that she was to go on tour at the National Auditorium and record a live DVD. Fey toured clubs in the United States and Mexico.
The last single from the album was "Adicto A Mi Cuerpo". Initial plans for a music video were scrapped due to Fey deciding to move on and record a new album, making the single a radio\-only release. However, it did chart on several online radio stations. "Sweet Temptation" was shelved as Fey decided to record a new album.
### Family, return to Sony Music, Primera Fila (2012–2014\)
During April 2010, it was announced via a press conference that Fey was in the studio recording her eighth studio album, with a lead single tentatively called "Te Amo A Mi Manera" previewed at the conference. The project went to hiatus because of her marriage to Alonso Orozco in September 2010\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.excelsior.com.mx/funcion/2014/07/25/972876\|title\=Fey y Alonso Orozco Soberón concluyen su proceso de divorcio\|date\=26 July 2014\|website\=Excelcior.com\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-20}} Fey gave birth to her first child, Isabella, in January 2011\.
On 8 March 2012, it was confirmed via Sony Music Mexico that Fey would be returning to the record company, after almost ten years since the release of *[Vértigo](/wiki/V%C3%A9rtigo_%28Fey_album%29 "Vértigo (Fey album)")*, and three years after the release of *[Dulce Tentación/Sweet Temptation](/wiki/Dulce_Tentaci%C3%B3n "Dulce Tentación")*, her last studio album.{{Cite web\|url\=http://entretenimiento.starmedia.com/musica/nuevo\-disco\-fey\-primera\-fila.html\|title\=Nuevo disco de Fey: Primera Fila\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-20\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112651/http://entretenimiento.starmedia.com/musica/nuevo\-disco\-fey\-primera\-fila.html\|url\-status\=dead}} She had announced that her eighth album would be a [*Primera Fila*](/wiki/Primera_Fila_%28Fey_album%29 "Primera Fila (Fey album)"), an album composed entirely of live renditions of her past hits and a few new songs. It was recorded in June, and it was released in October 2012\. The first single, "Frío", was released on July, 21st during Fey's 39th birthday celebration. The album was certified gold just three weeks after its release, marking it a success in Fey's career. She began her "Todo Lo Que Soy" (All That I Am) tour in February 2013 in Mexico's National Auditorium, where she had set a record years before for most sold\-out performances by a female artist, to positive reviews.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tvnotas.com.mx/2012/10/28/C\-41164\-fey\-prepara\-una\-noche\-llena\-de\-magia\-en\-auditorio\-nacional.php\|title\=Fey prepares tour\|date\=28 October 2012\|publisher\=TV Notas\|work\=Fey article\|access\-date\=2013\-01\-22\|archive\-date\=29 October 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029162426/http://www.tvnotas.com.mx/2012/10/28/C\-41164\-fey\-prepara\-una\-noche\-llena\-de\-magia\-en\-auditorio\-nacional.php\|url\-status\=dead}} In March 2013, Premios Oye announced Fey as the official image and spokesperson for that year's ceremony, where she also performed.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.enelshow.com/musica/2013/03/05/fey\-es\-la\-imagen\-oficial\-de\-los\-premios\-oye\-2013\|title\=Fey es la imagen oficial de los Premios Oye! 2013\|date\=5 March 2013\|website\=Enelshow.com\|access\-date\=2015\-08\-24\|archive\-date\=3 December 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203032737/http://www.enelshow.com/musica/2013/03/05/fey\-es\-la\-imagen\-oficial\-de\-los\-premios\-oye\-2013\|url\-status\=dead}} On 15 August 2013, Fey performed "Azucar Amargo" at Premios Texas where she also won the "Best Pop/Rock Artist" award.{{cite web\|url\=https://twitter.com/PremiosTexas/status/368187149281406976 \|title\=Premios Texas on Twitter: "Y la ganadora del @premiostexas tu artista rock/ pop es... @officialfey!!! \|website\=Twitter.com \|access\-date\=2015\-08\-24}} In January 2014, Fey announced her divorce from Orozco.
Fey confirmed in April 2014 that she will be a judge for the 2014 season of the dance competition show, "Bailando Por Un Sueño" (Dancing for a Dream).{{cite web\|author\=Mariel Tarifa \|url\=http://www.la\-razon.com/la\_revista/tv\-radio/Fey\-participara\-jurado\-Bailando\-sueno\_0\_2040995893\.html \|title\=Fey participará como jurado en 'Bailando por un sueño' – La Razón \|publisher\=La\-razon.com \|access\-date\=2015\-08\-24}} On 11 December 2014, Fey announced the release date of her *Todo Lo Que Soy* live CD \& DVD package to be released on 17 December physically and 24 December digitally of the same year.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.heyespectaculos.com/critica/musica/465\-critica\-analisis\-disco\-todo\-lo\-que\-soy\-fey\|title\=Crítica del disco: "Todo lo que Soy" – Fey\|website\=Heyespectaculos.com\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-20\|archive\-date\=17 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817220335/http://heyespectaculos.com/critica/musica/465\-critica\-analisis\-disco\-todo\-lo\-que\-soy\-fey\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.informador.com.mx/entretenimiento/2014/566392/6/fey\-presenta\-su\-nuevo\-album\-todo\-lo\-que\-soy.htm\|title\=Fey presenta su nuevo álbum 'Todo lo que soy'\|date\=20 December 2014\|website\=Informador.com\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-20}}
### '90s Pop, Desnuda, Eternas Tours, New music and USA Tour (2016 – onwards)
In February 2016, Fey officially released the single "No Me Acostumbro" alongside Cuban singer/actor [Lenny de la Rosa](/wiki/Lenny_de_la_Rosa "Lenny de la Rosa"), whom she had met as a judge on "Bailando Por Un Sueño" when he was a contestant.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.latintimes.com/fey\-lenny\-de\-la\-rosa\-dating\-mexican\-singer\-denies\-rumors\-after\-surprise\-kiss\-caught\-387530\|title\=Fey Denies Dating Lenny De La Rosa After Steamy Kiss On TV\|website\=Latintimes.com\|date\=31 May 2016\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-20}} In the spring of 2016, Fey began promoting an upcoming tour called "Fey: 9\.0 American Tour" which had a preview date in June 2016 in Mexico City's National Auditorium, home to Fey's own attendance record for a female recording artist.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.milenio.com/hey/musica/nueva\_cancion\_Fey\-auditorio\_telmex\-entrevista\_Fey\_0\_810518990\.html\|title\=Fey regresa con "Amo"\|last\=Calvillo\|first\=Martha\|date\=13 September 2016\|website\=Milenio.com\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-20}} In September 2016, Fey released the digital single entitled "Amo",{{citation needed\|date\=February 2023}} which was accompanied by a *[Fifty Shades of Grey](/wiki/Fifty_Shades_of_Grey_%28film%29 "Fifty Shades of Grey (film)")* inspired video.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cmtv.com.ar/noticias/noticia\_completa.php?bnid\=117\&nid\=18812\&artista\=Fey\&titulo\=\|title\=Fey \|website\=Cmtv.com.ar\|access\-date\=2016\-11\-14}}
In 2017, Fey joined the line\-up of the '90s Pop Tour, joining artists [Aleks Syntek](/wiki/Aleks_Syntek "Aleks Syntek"), [OV7](/wiki/OV7 "OV7"), [Erik Rubin](/wiki/Erik_Rubin "Erik Rubin"), [Beto Cuevas](/wiki/Beto_Cuevas "Beto Cuevas"), JNS, and others. The tour had many dates during the spring and summer of 2017 across Mexico and the US.{{Cite web \|url\=http://prensa.boboproducciones.com/noticia/2016/se\-arm%C3%B3\-el\-revent%C3%B3n\-con\-el\-90s\-pop\-tour \|title\=¡Se armó el reventón con el 90s Pop Tour! • BoBo Producciones • Centro de Prensa \|access\-date\=10 April 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603232004/http://prensa.boboproducciones.com/noticia/2016/se\-arm%C3%B3\-el\-revent%C3%B3n\-con\-el\-90s\-pop\-tour \|archive\-date\=3 June 2017 \|url\-status\=dead }} After this tour, Fey announced plans to start her own tour in wanting to record a live CD \& DVD.
In 2018, Fey released two new singles, "Comiendote Tu Besos," and "No Te Necesito" along with the announcement of a new tour called "Desnuda Tour" (Nude Tour), an entirely different show from what the 9\.0 American Tour was set to be. The tour began in October 2018 in Mexico with rave reviews its opening night as she performed songs from each of her previous albums.
On 25 September 2020, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of her career, Fey launched the English\-language electronic single, "The Perfect Song" featuring [Paul Oakenfold](/wiki/Paul_Oakenfold "Paul Oakenfold"). In November 2020, Fey launched the recorded version of her "Desnuda Tour" via Cinepolis during a stream to raise funds for World Vision, a charity she is the ambassador for.
In February 2023, Fey announced that she and [Alejandra Guzman](/wiki/Alejandra_Guzman "Alejandra Guzman") will embark in a joint show called the "Eternas Tour" (Eternals Tour). The tour was cancelled shortly after its announcement due to management conflicts.{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://www.billboard.com/music/latin/alejandra\-guzman\-fey\-eternas\-tour\-mexico\-1235211520/ \|title\=Alejandra Guzmán \& Fey Postpone Eternas Tour: 'It Is Very Important to Give the Best of Myself' \|magazine\=\[\[Billboard (magazine)\|Billboard]] \|access\-date\=14 February 2023 }} In August 2023, Fey released a new single, "Veneno" with an accompanying music video and announced a tour would follow across the US and Mexico in the fall.{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://remezcla.com/music/watch\-electro\-pop\-diva\-fey\-makes\-fierce\-comeback\-in\-veneno\-music\-video/ \|title\=WATCH: Electro\-Pop Diva Fey Makes Fierce Comeback in 'Veneno' Music Video'}}
In December 2023, Fey announced her long\-awaited tour of the United States supported Live Nation, with which she will be touring the country for much of 2024\.
In January 2024, she released her song "Disparándole A La Nada", the song that supports the tour and debuted in the top \# 5 of iTunes, and then in position \# 4\. With this song Fey began her promotional tour of the United States. She then announce a new show called "Hits" set for Mexico in November 2024\. She continued to release music in June 2024 with the single "Estoy Bailando Por Ti", a duet with Columbian singer [Esteman](/wiki/Esteman "Esteman").{{Cite magazine \| url\=https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v\=834468714792809\|title\=Fey ESTRENA NUEVA colaboración 'Bailando por ti'}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### 1990s",
"Fey released her first album, titled *Fey*, in 1995, through Sony Music (Mexico). Within a couple of months of the album's release, Fey had scored several hits in her native Mexico, and had reached No. 1 with \"Media naranja\", \"Gatos en el balcon\", \"Me enamoro de ti\" and \"La noche se mueve\". Fey toured Mexico, including consecutive concerts in the [Teatro Metropolitan](/wiki/Teatro_Metrop%C3%B3litan \"Teatro Metropólitan\"), and all of Latin America, and reached [Gold status](/wiki/Music_recording_sales_certification \"Music recording sales certification\") sales by the end of the year. In 1996 Fey released *Tierna la Noche*. \"[Azucar Amargo](/wiki/Azucar_Amargo_%28Fey_Song%29 \"Azucar Amargo (Fey Song)\")\", the CD's first single, stayed in the [Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_magazine \"Billboard magazine\") chart for more than 30 weeks. Her tour, Tierna la noche, was also successful. Overall the tour consisted of more than 40 presentations in Mexico, the U.S. and Latin America, as well as some presentations in Europe. At the [9th Lo Nuestro Awards](/wiki/Premio_Lo_Nuestro_1997 \"Premio Lo Nuestro 1997\"), Fey received a nomination for Pop New Artist.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM\\-545706\\|title\\=Premios a Lo Mejor De La Música Latina\\|language\\=es\\|work\\=\\[\\[El Tiempo (Colombia)\\|El Tiempo]]\\|publisher\\=Casa Editorial El Tiempo S.A.\\|date\\=8 April 1997\\|access\\-date\\=10 June 2013}}",
"In 1998, and after more than 8 months of absence, Fey released her third album *El color de los sueños*, which itself was different from the preceding two in that the album was a mix of different rhythms and styles. \"Ni tu ni nadie\", the album's first single, instantly reached number one in the Latin charts; \"Diselo con flores\", \"Canela\" and \"Cielo Liquido\" soon followed. Although the record did very well in sales, it did not compare to the over\\-the\\-top success of *Tierna la noche*. In the overall period of the three first albums, Fey's amazing popularity and promotion caused all but 4 of the singles released to hit No. 1 in Mexico, with the most important being \"Azucar Amargo\", \"Media Naranja\", \"Ni tu Ni Nadie\", \"Muevelo\" and \"Te Pertenezco\", all of them spending more than a month in the top position in Mexico. After almost a year of promotion, Fey announced, at a 1999 charity concert, that: \"everything has a cycle, and this is the end of mine\".",
"### Vertigo (fourth studio album)",
"Vertigo is the long awaited 4th album, which the singer prepared from 2000 to 2002, with several producers, including herself as such, in most of the songs. The album was released in CD and Cassette format, worldwide the album was released in Spanish with 11 and 12 tracks, depending on the country, in Mexico was released a deluxe edition that included a second CD with all the songs in English, plus 3 bonus tracks, included only in that album. The first single was titled \"Se lo que vendrá / The Other Side\", the song was a resounding success in Mexico, reaching the top of the charts, and the song in English was played on channels such as MTV, where it even made it to the top 100 most requested videos on MTV, as well as being awarded with a prize next to Nick Carter of the Backstreets boys at the MTV Video Music Awards LA.",
"The promotion consisted of several performances on TV and at the EXA 02 festival, but the album was not promoted outside of Mexico and the United States, which caused the Latin American public to quickly forget the album. To finalize the promotion and after releasing some promotional songs like \"Dime\" and \"Loca por amarte\", the single \"Noche Ideal / Dressing to kill\" was released in CD format, without any kind of radio promotion, and was accompanied by a strictly limited edition with a slipcase with an alternative cover.",
"It was published in a double edition with one album in English and one in Spanish. The album at the time went gold for its sales, but it is estimated to have surpassed one million copies worldwide. The promotion of Vertigo ended abruptly in December 2002, cancelling the world tour.",
"### La Fuerza del Destino (fifth studio album)",
"In 2005, Fey, now a married woman, relaunched her career with *[La Fuerza del Destino](/wiki/La_Fuerza_del_Destino_%28Fey_album%29 \"La Fuerza del Destino (Fey album)\")*, a tribute to the Spanish group [Mecano](/wiki/Mecano \"Mecano\"). This album was successful; it contained three top\\-ten singles: \"La Fuerza Del Destino\", \"Barco A Venus\" and \"Me Cuesta Tanto Olvidarte\". A radio\\-only single, \"Un Año Más\", was released for the holiday season in Mexico.",
"Fey toured in support of this album at the Viña del Mar festival 2005, the Selena Vive! festival, and many local clubs across the United States and Latin America. The record excelled sales\\-wise, and it gave Fey her very first Latin Grammy nomination for \"Best Pop Female Vocal Album\". She also received 4 nominations for *Premios Orgullosamente Latino 2005 \\& 2006*\\-Ritmoson Latino and a Premio Oye nomination. She was recognized by the [Gay \\& Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation](/wiki/Gay_%26_Lesbian_Alliance_Against_Defamation \"Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation\") (GLAAD) in Miami in [2006](/wiki/17th_GLAAD_Media_Awards \"17th GLAAD Media Awards\") for supporting gay human rights.",
"### Faltan Lunas (sixth studio album)",
"After the success of her fifth album, Fey released a sixth one, *[Faltan Lunas](/wiki/Faltan_Lunas \"Faltan Lunas\")* and was produced by Carlos Jean.{{cite magazine\\|title\\=Reviews: New and Noteworthy\\|magazine\\=Billboard\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lw0EAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=PA76\\|date\\=12 August 2006\\|publisher\\=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.\\|pages\\=76–\\|issn\\=0006\\-2510}} It was slated for an 1 August 2006, release, but was released on 21 July, Fey's birthday. It features a pop/dance sound along with acoustic elements. The first single released was \"Y Aquí Estoy\". It was announced by Fey herself that the second single would be \"Me Has Vuelto Loca\", but it was changed to \"Como Un Ángel\". The album was only released in a few Latin American countries, and sold around 10,000 copies worldwide, making it her lowest selling album ever. \"Como Un Ángel\" was released in January 2007, but it failed to make an impact on the charts.",
"### Dulce Tentación and Sweet Temptation (seventh studio album)",
"*[Dulce Tentación](/wiki/Dulce_Tentaci%C3%B3n \"Dulce Tentación\")* was released 28 April 2009, and the English version called \"Sweet Temptation\" was set to be released over the next months. The album was produced by Sam 'FISH' Fisher, who also co\\-wrote more than half of the songs on the record and will be distributed internationally by Universal Music. One track, \"Cicatrices\" \\[\"Monsters\"] was available for download Fey's official site at the end of 2008\\. More than 170,000 downloads were registered while the track was available.",
"The first official single was \"Lentamente\" (Let Me Show You), a song that put Fey back in the top of the charts in México. The album was an unexpected success, winning a gold status for over 50\\.000 copies sold in less than one month in México.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Garcia \\|first\\=Julio \\|date\\=23 April 2006 \\|title\\=Fey no soportó el Vértigo : Fey no soportó el Vértigo – Artistas \\|url\\=http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid\\=199806 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060423041005/http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid\\=199806 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 April 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-20 \\|website\\=univision.com}} The second single Provócame (Games That you Play) was released in July 2009, however, a conflict between Fey and her new record label Mi Rey Music over promotion differences and the concept of the new video led Fey to part ways with the record label. Fey decided to create her own record label by buying the rights to her music and to Elephant Music from Mi Rey Music.",
"Late August 2009 Fey announced on her website that she was now in complete control of Elephant Music and continued to promote \"Provócame\", however, she suspended promotion of the single due to laryngitis.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wradio.com.co/nota.aspx?id\\=867751 \\|title\\=Lista Fey para gira por EU tras infección en vías respiratorias \\| 20090826 \\|publisher\\=Wradio.com.co \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-24 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707052613/http://www.wradio.com.co/nota.aspx?id\\=867751 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The video debuted on 21 September 2009; she also announced that she was to go on tour at the National Auditorium and record a live DVD. Fey toured clubs in the United States and Mexico.",
"The last single from the album was \"Adicto A Mi Cuerpo\". Initial plans for a music video were scrapped due to Fey deciding to move on and record a new album, making the single a radio\\-only release. However, it did chart on several online radio stations. \"Sweet Temptation\" was shelved as Fey decided to record a new album.",
"### Family, return to Sony Music, Primera Fila (2012–2014\\)",
"During April 2010, it was announced via a press conference that Fey was in the studio recording her eighth studio album, with a lead single tentatively called \"Te Amo A Mi Manera\" previewed at the conference. The project went to hiatus because of her marriage to Alonso Orozco in September 2010\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.excelsior.com.mx/funcion/2014/07/25/972876\\|title\\=Fey y Alonso Orozco Soberón concluyen su proceso de divorcio\\|date\\=26 July 2014\\|website\\=Excelcior.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-20}} Fey gave birth to her first child, Isabella, in January 2011\\.",
"On 8 March 2012, it was confirmed via Sony Music Mexico that Fey would be returning to the record company, after almost ten years since the release of *[Vértigo](/wiki/V%C3%A9rtigo_%28Fey_album%29 \"Vértigo (Fey album)\")*, and three years after the release of *[Dulce Tentación/Sweet Temptation](/wiki/Dulce_Tentaci%C3%B3n \"Dulce Tentación\")*, her last studio album.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://entretenimiento.starmedia.com/musica/nuevo\\-disco\\-fey\\-primera\\-fila.html\\|title\\=Nuevo disco de Fey: Primera Fila\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-20\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112651/http://entretenimiento.starmedia.com/musica/nuevo\\-disco\\-fey\\-primera\\-fila.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} She had announced that her eighth album would be a [*Primera Fila*](/wiki/Primera_Fila_%28Fey_album%29 \"Primera Fila (Fey album)\"), an album composed entirely of live renditions of her past hits and a few new songs. It was recorded in June, and it was released in October 2012\\. The first single, \"Frío\", was released on July, 21st during Fey's 39th birthday celebration. The album was certified gold just three weeks after its release, marking it a success in Fey's career. She began her \"Todo Lo Que Soy\" (All That I Am) tour in February 2013 in Mexico's National Auditorium, where she had set a record years before for most sold\\-out performances by a female artist, to positive reviews.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tvnotas.com.mx/2012/10/28/C\\-41164\\-fey\\-prepara\\-una\\-noche\\-llena\\-de\\-magia\\-en\\-auditorio\\-nacional.php\\|title\\=Fey prepares tour\\|date\\=28 October 2012\\|publisher\\=TV Notas\\|work\\=Fey article\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-22\\|archive\\-date\\=29 October 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029162426/http://www.tvnotas.com.mx/2012/10/28/C\\-41164\\-fey\\-prepara\\-una\\-noche\\-llena\\-de\\-magia\\-en\\-auditorio\\-nacional.php\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In March 2013, Premios Oye announced Fey as the official image and spokesperson for that year's ceremony, where she also performed.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.enelshow.com/musica/2013/03/05/fey\\-es\\-la\\-imagen\\-oficial\\-de\\-los\\-premios\\-oye\\-2013\\|title\\=Fey es la imagen oficial de los Premios Oye! 2013\\|date\\=5 March 2013\\|website\\=Enelshow.com\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-24\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203032737/http://www.enelshow.com/musica/2013/03/05/fey\\-es\\-la\\-imagen\\-oficial\\-de\\-los\\-premios\\-oye\\-2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} On 15 August 2013, Fey performed \"Azucar Amargo\" at Premios Texas where she also won the \"Best Pop/Rock Artist\" award.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/PremiosTexas/status/368187149281406976 \\|title\\=Premios Texas on Twitter: \"Y la ganadora del @premiostexas tu artista rock/ pop es... @officialfey!!! \\|website\\=Twitter.com \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-24}} In January 2014, Fey announced her divorce from Orozco.",
"Fey confirmed in April 2014 that she will be a judge for the 2014 season of the dance competition show, \"Bailando Por Un Sueño\" (Dancing for a Dream).{{cite web\\|author\\=Mariel Tarifa \\|url\\=http://www.la\\-razon.com/la\\_revista/tv\\-radio/Fey\\-participara\\-jurado\\-Bailando\\-sueno\\_0\\_2040995893\\.html \\|title\\=Fey participará como jurado en 'Bailando por un sueño' – La Razón \\|publisher\\=La\\-razon.com \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-08\\-24}} On 11 December 2014, Fey announced the release date of her *Todo Lo Que Soy* live CD \\& DVD package to be released on 17 December physically and 24 December digitally of the same year.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.heyespectaculos.com/critica/musica/465\\-critica\\-analisis\\-disco\\-todo\\-lo\\-que\\-soy\\-fey\\|title\\=Crítica del disco: \"Todo lo que Soy\" – Fey\\|website\\=Heyespectaculos.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-20\\|archive\\-date\\=17 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817220335/http://heyespectaculos.com/critica/musica/465\\-critica\\-analisis\\-disco\\-todo\\-lo\\-que\\-soy\\-fey\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.informador.com.mx/entretenimiento/2014/566392/6/fey\\-presenta\\-su\\-nuevo\\-album\\-todo\\-lo\\-que\\-soy.htm\\|title\\=Fey presenta su nuevo álbum 'Todo lo que soy'\\|date\\=20 December 2014\\|website\\=Informador.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-20}}",
"### '90s Pop, Desnuda, Eternas Tours, New music and USA Tour (2016 – onwards)",
"In February 2016, Fey officially released the single \"No Me Acostumbro\" alongside Cuban singer/actor [Lenny de la Rosa](/wiki/Lenny_de_la_Rosa \"Lenny de la Rosa\"), whom she had met as a judge on \"Bailando Por Un Sueño\" when he was a contestant.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.latintimes.com/fey\\-lenny\\-de\\-la\\-rosa\\-dating\\-mexican\\-singer\\-denies\\-rumors\\-after\\-surprise\\-kiss\\-caught\\-387530\\|title\\=Fey Denies Dating Lenny De La Rosa After Steamy Kiss On TV\\|website\\=Latintimes.com\\|date\\=31 May 2016\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-20}} In the spring of 2016, Fey began promoting an upcoming tour called \"Fey: 9\\.0 American Tour\" which had a preview date in June 2016 in Mexico City's National Auditorium, home to Fey's own attendance record for a female recording artist.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.milenio.com/hey/musica/nueva\\_cancion\\_Fey\\-auditorio\\_telmex\\-entrevista\\_Fey\\_0\\_810518990\\.html\\|title\\=Fey regresa con \"Amo\"\\|last\\=Calvillo\\|first\\=Martha\\|date\\=13 September 2016\\|website\\=Milenio.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-20}} In September 2016, Fey released the digital single entitled \"Amo\",{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2023}} which was accompanied by a *[Fifty Shades of Grey](/wiki/Fifty_Shades_of_Grey_%28film%29 \"Fifty Shades of Grey (film)\")* inspired video.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cmtv.com.ar/noticias/noticia\\_completa.php?bnid\\=117\\&nid\\=18812\\&artista\\=Fey\\&titulo\\=\\|title\\=Fey \\|website\\=Cmtv.com.ar\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-11\\-14}}",
"In 2017, Fey joined the line\\-up of the '90s Pop Tour, joining artists [Aleks Syntek](/wiki/Aleks_Syntek \"Aleks Syntek\"), [OV7](/wiki/OV7 \"OV7\"), [Erik Rubin](/wiki/Erik_Rubin \"Erik Rubin\"), [Beto Cuevas](/wiki/Beto_Cuevas \"Beto Cuevas\"), JNS, and others. The tour had many dates during the spring and summer of 2017 across Mexico and the US.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://prensa.boboproducciones.com/noticia/2016/se\\-arm%C3%B3\\-el\\-revent%C3%B3n\\-con\\-el\\-90s\\-pop\\-tour \\|title\\=¡Se armó el reventón con el 90s Pop Tour! • BoBo Producciones • Centro de Prensa \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603232004/http://prensa.boboproducciones.com/noticia/2016/se\\-arm%C3%B3\\-el\\-revent%C3%B3n\\-con\\-el\\-90s\\-pop\\-tour \\|archive\\-date\\=3 June 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} After this tour, Fey announced plans to start her own tour in wanting to record a live CD \\& DVD.",
"In 2018, Fey released two new singles, \"Comiendote Tu Besos,\" and \"No Te Necesito\" along with the announcement of a new tour called \"Desnuda Tour\" (Nude Tour), an entirely different show from what the 9\\.0 American Tour was set to be. The tour began in October 2018 in Mexico with rave reviews its opening night as she performed songs from each of her previous albums.",
"On 25 September 2020, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of her career, Fey launched the English\\-language electronic single, \"The Perfect Song\" featuring [Paul Oakenfold](/wiki/Paul_Oakenfold \"Paul Oakenfold\"). In November 2020, Fey launched the recorded version of her \"Desnuda Tour\" via Cinepolis during a stream to raise funds for World Vision, a charity she is the ambassador for.",
"In February 2023, Fey announced that she and [Alejandra Guzman](/wiki/Alejandra_Guzman \"Alejandra Guzman\") will embark in a joint show called the \"Eternas Tour\" (Eternals Tour). The tour was cancelled shortly after its announcement due to management conflicts.{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://www.billboard.com/music/latin/alejandra\\-guzman\\-fey\\-eternas\\-tour\\-mexico\\-1235211520/ \\|title\\=Alejandra Guzmán \\& Fey Postpone Eternas Tour: 'It Is Very Important to Give the Best of Myself' \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Billboard (magazine)\\|Billboard]] \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2023 }} In August 2023, Fey released a new single, \"Veneno\" with an accompanying music video and announced a tour would follow across the US and Mexico in the fall.{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://remezcla.com/music/watch\\-electro\\-pop\\-diva\\-fey\\-makes\\-fierce\\-comeback\\-in\\-veneno\\-music\\-video/ \\|title\\=WATCH: Electro\\-Pop Diva Fey Makes Fierce Comeback in 'Veneno' Music Video'}}",
"In December 2023, Fey announced her long\\-awaited tour of the United States supported Live Nation, with which she will be touring the country for much of 2024\\.",
"In January 2024, she released her song \"Disparándole A La Nada\", the song that supports the tour and debuted in the top \\# 5 of iTunes, and then in position \\# 4\\. With this song Fey began her promotional tour of the United States. She then announce a new show called \"Hits\" set for Mexico in November 2024\\. She continued to release music in June 2024 with the single \"Estoy Bailando Por Ti\", a duet with Columbian singer [Esteman](/wiki/Esteman \"Esteman\").{{Cite magazine \\| url\\=https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v\\=834468714792809\\|title\\=Fey ESTRENA NUEVA colaboración 'Bailando por ti'}}",
""
] |
Baseball career
---------------
Kelly was drafted by the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees "New York Yankees") in the ninth round of the [1988 amateur draft](/wiki/1988_Major_League_Baseball_Draft "1988 Major League Baseball Draft"), but did not make his playing debut at the major league level until May 20, 1991, at the age of twenty\-three.
In 1995, with the Yankees battling for the AL Wild Card, Kelly hit a crucial two\-run home run in the ninth inning against the Blue Jays in Toronto to cap a Yankee rally from a 3–0 deficit in the third to last game of the season. Due to Kelly's go\-ahead home run, the Yankees won the game 4–3 and were able to qualify for the playoffs two days later.
Kelly played seven seasons with the Yankees (1991–1997\), spent 1998 with [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals "St. Louis Cardinals"), and spent the first part of the 1999 season with the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays "Toronto Blue Jays").
He played his final MLB game on June 5, 1999, retiring on March 22, 2000\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/23/sports/transactions\-420719\.html \|title\=Transactions\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=2000\-03\-23 \|access\-date\=2011\-04\-10}}
Kelly batted and threw [right\-handed](/wiki/Right-handed "Right-handed"). His career Major League totals were .249 [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 "Batting average (baseball)"), 36 [home runs](/wiki/Home_run "Home run"), and 495 [hits](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball%29 "Hit (baseball)") in 681 games. Kelly moved to Australia in 2001 and [scouted](/wiki/Scout_%28sport%29 "Scout (sport)") for American baseball teams there.
In 2009, he became an assistant coach with the [Australia national baseball team](/wiki/Australia_national_baseball_team "Australia national baseball team").Lefton, Brad. ["In Australia, Two Ex\-Yankees Build Future for Baseball"](https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/08/sports/baseball/08wbc.html), *The New York Times*, March 7, 2009, accessed December 31, 2017
At the same time, he became the [general manager](/wiki/General_manager "General manager") for the [Adelaide Bite](/wiki/Adelaide_Bite "Adelaide Bite") in the [Australian Baseball League](/wiki/Australian_Baseball_League "Australian Baseball League") team.
|
[
"Baseball career\n---------------",
"Kelly was drafted by the [New York Yankees](/wiki/New_York_Yankees \"New York Yankees\") in the ninth round of the [1988 amateur draft](/wiki/1988_Major_League_Baseball_Draft \"1988 Major League Baseball Draft\"), but did not make his playing debut at the major league level until May 20, 1991, at the age of twenty\\-three.",
"In 1995, with the Yankees battling for the AL Wild Card, Kelly hit a crucial two\\-run home run in the ninth inning against the Blue Jays in Toronto to cap a Yankee rally from a 3–0 deficit in the third to last game of the season. Due to Kelly's go\\-ahead home run, the Yankees won the game 4–3 and were able to qualify for the playoffs two days later.",
"Kelly played seven seasons with the Yankees (1991–1997\\), spent 1998 with [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals \"St. Louis Cardinals\"), and spent the first part of the 1999 season with the [Toronto Blue Jays](/wiki/Toronto_Blue_Jays \"Toronto Blue Jays\").",
"He played his final MLB game on June 5, 1999, retiring on March 22, 2000\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/23/sports/transactions\\-420719\\.html \\|title\\=Transactions\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=2000\\-03\\-23 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-04\\-10}}",
"Kelly batted and threw [right\\-handed](/wiki/Right-handed \"Right-handed\"). His career Major League totals were .249 [batting average](/wiki/Batting_average_%28baseball%29 \"Batting average (baseball)\"), 36 [home runs](/wiki/Home_run \"Home run\"), and 495 [hits](/wiki/Hit_%28baseball%29 \"Hit (baseball)\") in 681 games. Kelly moved to Australia in 2001 and [scouted](/wiki/Scout_%28sport%29 \"Scout (sport)\") for American baseball teams there.",
"In 2009, he became an assistant coach with the [Australia national baseball team](/wiki/Australia_national_baseball_team \"Australia national baseball team\").Lefton, Brad. [\"In Australia, Two Ex\\-Yankees Build Future for Baseball\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/08/sports/baseball/08wbc.html), *The New York Times*, March 7, 2009, accessed December 31, 2017",
"At the same time, he became the [general manager](/wiki/General_manager \"General manager\") for the [Adelaide Bite](/wiki/Adelaide_Bite \"Adelaide Bite\") in the [Australian Baseball League](/wiki/Australian_Baseball_League \"Australian Baseball League\") team.",
""
] |
Etymology
---------
### Chinese origin theory
The name *hōtō* is commonly thought to be a [euphony](/wiki/Euphony "Euphony") of {{nihongo\|''hakutaku''\|餺飥}}; the name for *udon* flour after it has been kneaded and cut.
The *[kanji](/wiki/Kanji "Kanji")* "餺飥" first appeared in [Nara period](/wiki/Nara_period "Nara period") dictionaries, and their reading is listed in dictionaries of the [cloistered rule](/wiki/Cloistered_rule "Cloistered rule") period as *hautau*, showing that the pronunciation had already begun to transform into the reading *hōtō*. Though *hōtō* was introduced to Japan far earlier than *udon*, both names are believed to have originated from [China](/wiki/China "China"). For instance, in modern\-day [Shanxi province](/wiki/Shanxi_province "Shanxi province") of China, the word [wonton](/wiki/Wonton "Wonton") is written with similar kanji (餛飩), and is pronounced "hōtō." The [Southern Song](/wiki/Southern_Song "Southern Song") poet [Lu You](/wiki/Lu_You "Lu You") (1125\-1210\) mentioned 馎饦 in one of his poems.
### Local origin theory
Local linguists point out that the word is used in [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period "Edo period") documents to describe all sorts of flour products, including flour made from non\-wheat crops. In the local dialect, the word for flour is *hatakimono*, while the local word for grinding crops into powder is *hataku*. Some linguists theorize that hōtō actually originated from these local words when flour was turned into a popular dish.
Other linguists disagree with the Chinese origin theory because there is no conclusive evidence that the word originated from China. They argue that popular acceptance of *hōtō* as a cuisine found exclusively in the Yamanashi area voids theories stating that the word was imported from overseas. However, from a historical viewpoint, the word *hataku* first appears in documents around 1484 in the [Muromachi period](/wiki/Muromachi_period "Muromachi period"), while *hōtō* or *hautau* can be found much earlier in writings such as *[The Pillow Book](/wiki/The_Pillow_Book "The Pillow Book")*. This contradicts the idea that *hataku* was the basis for the name of the dish.
### Other theories
The word can also be thought of as a euphony of "宝刀" or "放蕩". For "宝刀" (treasure sword), the given explanation is that Takeda Shingen cut the ingredients for the dish with his own sword. However, linguists tend to view this idea as a clever play on words in an advertisement campaign rather than a legitimate theory.
|
[
"Etymology\n---------",
"### Chinese origin theory",
"The name *hōtō* is commonly thought to be a [euphony](/wiki/Euphony \"Euphony\") of {{nihongo\\|''hakutaku''\\|餺飥}}; the name for *udon* flour after it has been kneaded and cut.",
"The *[kanji](/wiki/Kanji \"Kanji\")* \"餺飥\" first appeared in [Nara period](/wiki/Nara_period \"Nara period\") dictionaries, and their reading is listed in dictionaries of the [cloistered rule](/wiki/Cloistered_rule \"Cloistered rule\") period as *hautau*, showing that the pronunciation had already begun to transform into the reading *hōtō*. Though *hōtō* was introduced to Japan far earlier than *udon*, both names are believed to have originated from [China](/wiki/China \"China\"). For instance, in modern\\-day [Shanxi province](/wiki/Shanxi_province \"Shanxi province\") of China, the word [wonton](/wiki/Wonton \"Wonton\") is written with similar kanji (餛飩), and is pronounced \"hōtō.\" The [Southern Song](/wiki/Southern_Song \"Southern Song\") poet [Lu You](/wiki/Lu_You \"Lu You\") (1125\\-1210\\) mentioned 馎饦 in one of his poems.",
"### Local origin theory",
"Local linguists point out that the word is used in [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period \"Edo period\") documents to describe all sorts of flour products, including flour made from non\\-wheat crops. In the local dialect, the word for flour is *hatakimono*, while the local word for grinding crops into powder is *hataku*. Some linguists theorize that hōtō actually originated from these local words when flour was turned into a popular dish.",
"Other linguists disagree with the Chinese origin theory because there is no conclusive evidence that the word originated from China. They argue that popular acceptance of *hōtō* as a cuisine found exclusively in the Yamanashi area voids theories stating that the word was imported from overseas. However, from a historical viewpoint, the word *hataku* first appears in documents around 1484 in the [Muromachi period](/wiki/Muromachi_period \"Muromachi period\"), while *hōtō* or *hautau* can be found much earlier in writings such as *[The Pillow Book](/wiki/The_Pillow_Book \"The Pillow Book\")*. This contradicts the idea that *hataku* was the basis for the name of the dish.",
"### Other theories",
"The word can also be thought of as a euphony of \"宝刀\" or \"放蕩\". For \"宝刀\" (treasure sword), the given explanation is that Takeda Shingen cut the ingredients for the dish with his own sword. However, linguists tend to view this idea as a clever play on words in an advertisement campaign rather than a legitimate theory.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|upright\|left\|Eagle over the eastern entrance of the former imperial waiting rooms in 2010](/wiki/File:Kiel_Hbf_Adler.jpg "Kiel Hbf Adler.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|Imperial steps and east side ramp, looking to the west in 2008\.](/wiki/File:Kiel_Railway_Station_east_front.JPG "Kiel Railway Station east front.JPG")
Kiel's first railway station was built between 1843 and 1846 at Ziegelteich, about 500 m north of the current location. This station was unable to cope with the growing traffic, especially after the declaration of the *Reichskriegshäfen* ("Imperial War Harbours") in Kiel in 1871\. The current location was selected for its improved access to the port by road. Construction began in 1895\.
The western part of the six\-track terminal station was completed and opened in 1899\. Trains continued to run in the meantime to the old station through a gap in the east wing. After the opening of the new station, operations to the old station were abandoned and the east wing was completed in 1900\. The old station was demolished in 1902\. On the east side of the entrance building were the imperial steps (*Kaisertreppe*), which together with a curved driveway provided the shortest possible route to the harbour basin where the [imperial yacht](/wiki/SMY_Hohenzollern "SMY Hohenzollern") was berthed. The final completion of the west wing and the platform hall lasted until 1911 because, among other things, the city monastery and a poorhouse on Sophienblatt, had to be demolished.
In 1944, the station and the adjacent magnificent buildings were severely damaged by the Allies in a heavy air raid. Starting in 1950, the station was rebuilt in a simplified form. The restaurant was located in the eastern part of the entrance building, so that the imperial staircase was no longer available as an entrance. In the 1950s, the station environment was transformed. In particular, the access street of Sophienblatt was greatly broadened.
In preparation for the [1972 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1972_Summer_Olympics "1972 Summer Olympics"), an elevated parking deck was built on the north side of the station forecourt, covering the central bus station, which was at ground level. The pedestrian connection between the railway station and the bus station across the forecourt at the time was effected by means of a pedestrian walk covered by a light steel structure, leading out of the main entrance arch of the railway station and ending at the raised parking level. In the station, a level for shopping was inserted in the station concourse and around the north entrance, which halved the historical ceiling heights. The parking deck and the central bus station underneath it was partly demolished from 2009 to 2010, reducing it by nearly a third at its southern end closest to the station. A hotel of the "Atlantic" chain was built there. It opened in June 2010 and cost around €23 million to build.
[thumb\|Hotel Atlantic opposite the Hauptbahnhof](/wiki/File:Atlantic_Hotel_Kiel.jpg "Atlantic Hotel Kiel.jpg")
A pedestrian bridge that was built to connect the Sophienhof shopping centre, built in 1988, and the station building has affected the architecture of the building.
On the eastern side towards the harbour, the *Erlebniszentrum* (“experience centre”) *CAP* was rebuilt in 1994/1995 with several restaurants and a large cinema. It has direct access at platform height from the easternmost platform. In 2010, the CAP had its second renovation, essentially involving changes in its passageway and entrance areas while retaining some local businesses, including a bowling alley and a discotheque.
[thumb\|Kiel station during reconstruction in 2003 from the north](/wiki/File:Kieler_Hauptbahnhof_Winter_2002-2003.jpg "Kieler Hauptbahnhof Winter 2002-2003.jpg")
[thumb\|Renovated Kiel Hauptbahnhof at night in 2006 from the north](/wiki/File:Kiel_central_station%2C_at_night.jpg "Kiel central station, at night.jpg")
The railway to Hamburg was electrified in 1995\. Since then [Intercity\-Express](/wiki/Intercity-Express "Intercity-Express") trains start and end here daily.
In 1999, a comprehensive renovation of the station started. Among other things, it received a new lobby. The intermediate level of the historic hall was removed and thus the former ceiling height were restored. The pedestrian walkway to the bus station on the north side of the station was demolished without replacement and the pedestrian walkway to the Sophienhof shopping centre was replaced by a steel and glass structure. The redesigned station forecourt and the foyer with shops on the concourse were inaugurated for [Kiel Week](/wiki/Kiel_Week "Kiel Week") in June 2004\. The imperial steps on the east side have been restored. Due to financial and technical difficulties, the reconstruction was interrupted several times and only concluded in May 2006{{cite journal\|title\=Kiel: Bahnhofsumbau vollendet \|journal\= \[\[Eisenbahn\-Revue International]] \|issue\=7/2006 \|issn\=1421\-2811 \|page\=323 \|language\=de}} with the completion of a new station hall, only the cross\-walk at the end of the platforms is still in its original condition although it has been refurbished. The total cost of the conversion amounted to €60 million. The cost for the work in the station hall was estimated to cost around €30 million. From 2013, there will be a further renovation of the station with the creation of tracks 2a and 6a. Track 2a was built outside the train shed with a connection to the platform for tracks 1 and 2\. Tracks 6a is also built outside the train shed with a connection to the platform for tracks 5 and 6\. These are needed to cope with the additional traffic on the Kiel\-Rendsburg (\-Fockbek) route and the Kiel–Schönberger Strand route from 2014\.{{cite news\|newspaper\=Schleswig\-Holsteinischer Zeitungsverlag \|page\= 18 \|url\=http://www.shz.de/nachrichten/top\-thema/artikel/zwei\-neue\-gleise\-fuer\-kiels\-hauptbahnhof.html\|title\=Zwei neue Gleise für Kieler Hauptbahnhof \|date\= 8 May 2013 \|access\-date\=23 June 2013 \|language\=de}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|Eagle over the eastern entrance of the former imperial waiting rooms in 2010](/wiki/File:Kiel_Hbf_Adler.jpg \"Kiel Hbf Adler.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|Imperial steps and east side ramp, looking to the west in 2008\\.](/wiki/File:Kiel_Railway_Station_east_front.JPG \"Kiel Railway Station east front.JPG\")",
"Kiel's first railway station was built between 1843 and 1846 at Ziegelteich, about 500 m north of the current location. This station was unable to cope with the growing traffic, especially after the declaration of the *Reichskriegshäfen* (\"Imperial War Harbours\") in Kiel in 1871\\. The current location was selected for its improved access to the port by road. Construction began in 1895\\.",
"The western part of the six\\-track terminal station was completed and opened in 1899\\. Trains continued to run in the meantime to the old station through a gap in the east wing. After the opening of the new station, operations to the old station were abandoned and the east wing was completed in 1900\\. The old station was demolished in 1902\\. On the east side of the entrance building were the imperial steps (*Kaisertreppe*), which together with a curved driveway provided the shortest possible route to the harbour basin where the [imperial yacht](/wiki/SMY_Hohenzollern \"SMY Hohenzollern\") was berthed. The final completion of the west wing and the platform hall lasted until 1911 because, among other things, the city monastery and a poorhouse on Sophienblatt, had to be demolished.",
"In 1944, the station and the adjacent magnificent buildings were severely damaged by the Allies in a heavy air raid. Starting in 1950, the station was rebuilt in a simplified form. The restaurant was located in the eastern part of the entrance building, so that the imperial staircase was no longer available as an entrance. In the 1950s, the station environment was transformed. In particular, the access street of Sophienblatt was greatly broadened.",
"In preparation for the [1972 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1972_Summer_Olympics \"1972 Summer Olympics\"), an elevated parking deck was built on the north side of the station forecourt, covering the central bus station, which was at ground level. The pedestrian connection between the railway station and the bus station across the forecourt at the time was effected by means of a pedestrian walk covered by a light steel structure, leading out of the main entrance arch of the railway station and ending at the raised parking level. In the station, a level for shopping was inserted in the station concourse and around the north entrance, which halved the historical ceiling heights. The parking deck and the central bus station underneath it was partly demolished from 2009 to 2010, reducing it by nearly a third at its southern end closest to the station. A hotel of the \"Atlantic\" chain was built there. It opened in June 2010 and cost around €23 million to build.",
"[thumb\\|Hotel Atlantic opposite the Hauptbahnhof](/wiki/File:Atlantic_Hotel_Kiel.jpg \"Atlantic Hotel Kiel.jpg\")",
"A pedestrian bridge that was built to connect the Sophienhof shopping centre, built in 1988, and the station building has affected the architecture of the building.",
"On the eastern side towards the harbour, the *Erlebniszentrum* (“experience centre”) *CAP* was rebuilt in 1994/1995 with several restaurants and a large cinema. It has direct access at platform height from the easternmost platform. In 2010, the CAP had its second renovation, essentially involving changes in its passageway and entrance areas while retaining some local businesses, including a bowling alley and a discotheque.",
"[thumb\\|Kiel station during reconstruction in 2003 from the north](/wiki/File:Kieler_Hauptbahnhof_Winter_2002-2003.jpg \"Kieler Hauptbahnhof Winter 2002-2003.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Renovated Kiel Hauptbahnhof at night in 2006 from the north](/wiki/File:Kiel_central_station%2C_at_night.jpg \"Kiel central station, at night.jpg\")",
"The railway to Hamburg was electrified in 1995\\. Since then [Intercity\\-Express](/wiki/Intercity-Express \"Intercity-Express\") trains start and end here daily.",
"In 1999, a comprehensive renovation of the station started. Among other things, it received a new lobby. The intermediate level of the historic hall was removed and thus the former ceiling height were restored. The pedestrian walkway to the bus station on the north side of the station was demolished without replacement and the pedestrian walkway to the Sophienhof shopping centre was replaced by a steel and glass structure. The redesigned station forecourt and the foyer with shops on the concourse were inaugurated for [Kiel Week](/wiki/Kiel_Week \"Kiel Week\") in June 2004\\. The imperial steps on the east side have been restored. Due to financial and technical difficulties, the reconstruction was interrupted several times and only concluded in May 2006{{cite journal\\|title\\=Kiel: Bahnhofsumbau vollendet \\|journal\\= \\[\\[Eisenbahn\\-Revue International]] \\|issue\\=7/2006 \\|issn\\=1421\\-2811 \\|page\\=323 \\|language\\=de}} with the completion of a new station hall, only the cross\\-walk at the end of the platforms is still in its original condition although it has been refurbished. The total cost of the conversion amounted to €60 million. The cost for the work in the station hall was estimated to cost around €30 million. From 2013, there will be a further renovation of the station with the creation of tracks 2a and 6a. Track 2a was built outside the train shed with a connection to the platform for tracks 1 and 2\\. Tracks 6a is also built outside the train shed with a connection to the platform for tracks 5 and 6\\. These are needed to cope with the additional traffic on the Kiel\\-Rendsburg (\\-Fockbek) route and the Kiel–Schönberger Strand route from 2014\\.{{cite news\\|newspaper\\=Schleswig\\-Holsteinischer Zeitungsverlag \\|page\\= 18 \\|url\\=http://www.shz.de/nachrichten/top\\-thema/artikel/zwei\\-neue\\-gleise\\-fuer\\-kiels\\-hauptbahnhof.html\\|title\\=Zwei neue Gleise für Kieler Hauptbahnhof \\|date\\= 8 May 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=23 June 2013 \\|language\\=de}}",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
In the far future (perhaps five to ten million years from now), humans and much of the world's fauna have gone extinct, and new creatures have evolved from the remaining species to take their places. *Jmu*, intelligent primates evolved from [capuchin monkeys](/wiki/Capuchin_monkey "Capuchin monkey"), now fill the niche left by humans, giant [agoutis](/wiki/Agouti "Agouti") that of horses, giant [tapirs](/wiki/Tapir "Tapir") that of [elephants](/wiki/Elephant "Elephant"). There are also giant rabbits. Other animals, like bears, lions, deer, geese, ducks, snakes, dragonflies, grasshoppers, fleas and mayflies, continue to survive in their previous ecological roles. It is a world of depleted resources, much of these having been used up by humans, but the *Jmu* have developed to a fairly high level their own technology, including [aeronautical balloons](/wiki/Balloon_%28aeronautics%29 "Balloon (aeronautics)"), rifles, binoculars and cameras.
Two *Jmu* from South America, zoologist Nawputta and his guide Chujee, an amateur [naturalist](/wiki/Naturalist "Naturalist"), are exploring what was once the [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh") area of North America's Eastern Forest. Their goal is to catalogue new species and investigate the scant, ruinous remains of human civilization. They encounter Nguchoy tsu Chaw, a timber scout for the local *Jmu* colony. He is alone; his own partner, Jawga tsu Shrra, was recently killed by a [rattlesnake](/wiki/Rattlesnake "Rattlesnake"). Nguchoy treats the newcomers with suspicion, but he helpfully steers them towards a huge stand of valuable pine.
In the pine forest the scientists happen upon fresh bones that Nawputta excitedly identifies as human, previously only known from fossils. They appear to have been shot by *Jmu*. Later, Nawputta manages to shoot a live specimen, a primitive armed with a wooden club, which he proceeds to skin and dissect in the interest of science. Discovered by other humans, he and Chujee hastily retreat as they rouse the countryside with signal drums and the whole tribe hunts them with spears. The *Jmu* drive the tribe off with gunfire and escape a subsequent ambush. They outdistance pursuit, but the humans are still on their trail.
Nawputta and Chujee rendezvous back at Nguchoy's camp, finding him absent. Ruminating on previous suspicions, they reason the timber scout encountered the humans first and stirred them up by murdering the man whose remains they had initially found. He then directed his fellow *Jmu* into the same area, intending they meet their own deaths at the hands of the angered humans, leaving him sole, undisputed claim to the valuable timber. In this light, it also occurs to them that the death of Nguchoy's partner came at a most convenient time for him. They locate the grave of Jawga and find he died by gunshot, not snakebite.
On Nguchoy's return, they surprise the scout, who confesses. They thereupon confiscate his canoe and depart down river, leaving him alone to face the vengeance of the approaching humans. Nawputta plans to return to South America before the local colonists rediscover and despoil the forest, hoping to have the human habitat set aside as a preserve for these [living fossils](/wiki/Living_fossil "Living fossil").
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"In the far future (perhaps five to ten million years from now), humans and much of the world's fauna have gone extinct, and new creatures have evolved from the remaining species to take their places. *Jmu*, intelligent primates evolved from [capuchin monkeys](/wiki/Capuchin_monkey \"Capuchin monkey\"), now fill the niche left by humans, giant [agoutis](/wiki/Agouti \"Agouti\") that of horses, giant [tapirs](/wiki/Tapir \"Tapir\") that of [elephants](/wiki/Elephant \"Elephant\"). There are also giant rabbits. Other animals, like bears, lions, deer, geese, ducks, snakes, dragonflies, grasshoppers, fleas and mayflies, continue to survive in their previous ecological roles. It is a world of depleted resources, much of these having been used up by humans, but the *Jmu* have developed to a fairly high level their own technology, including [aeronautical balloons](/wiki/Balloon_%28aeronautics%29 \"Balloon (aeronautics)\"), rifles, binoculars and cameras.",
"Two *Jmu* from South America, zoologist Nawputta and his guide Chujee, an amateur [naturalist](/wiki/Naturalist \"Naturalist\"), are exploring what was once the [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\") area of North America's Eastern Forest. Their goal is to catalogue new species and investigate the scant, ruinous remains of human civilization. They encounter Nguchoy tsu Chaw, a timber scout for the local *Jmu* colony. He is alone; his own partner, Jawga tsu Shrra, was recently killed by a [rattlesnake](/wiki/Rattlesnake \"Rattlesnake\"). Nguchoy treats the newcomers with suspicion, but he helpfully steers them towards a huge stand of valuable pine.",
"In the pine forest the scientists happen upon fresh bones that Nawputta excitedly identifies as human, previously only known from fossils. They appear to have been shot by *Jmu*. Later, Nawputta manages to shoot a live specimen, a primitive armed with a wooden club, which he proceeds to skin and dissect in the interest of science. Discovered by other humans, he and Chujee hastily retreat as they rouse the countryside with signal drums and the whole tribe hunts them with spears. The *Jmu* drive the tribe off with gunfire and escape a subsequent ambush. They outdistance pursuit, but the humans are still on their trail.",
"Nawputta and Chujee rendezvous back at Nguchoy's camp, finding him absent. Ruminating on previous suspicions, they reason the timber scout encountered the humans first and stirred them up by murdering the man whose remains they had initially found. He then directed his fellow *Jmu* into the same area, intending they meet their own deaths at the hands of the angered humans, leaving him sole, undisputed claim to the valuable timber. In this light, it also occurs to them that the death of Nguchoy's partner came at a most convenient time for him. They locate the grave of Jawga and find he died by gunshot, not snakebite.",
"On Nguchoy's return, they surprise the scout, who confesses. They thereupon confiscate his canoe and depart down river, leaving him alone to face the vengeance of the approaching humans. Nawputta plans to return to South America before the local colonists rediscover and despoil the forest, hoping to have the human habitat set aside as a preserve for these [living fossils](/wiki/Living_fossil \"Living fossil\").",
""
] |
Career
------
He has appeared at major festival venues in Salzburg, Vienna, Berlin, Mannheim, Florence, Lisbon, Beijing, Honolulu, Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli International Piano Festival and Monte\-Carlo Piano Masters, among others, and has performed as a recitalist throughout the world.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.steinway.com/artists/giorgi\-latso\|title\=Steinway Artists \|author\=Steinway \& Sons\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-18}}{{Cite web\|url \= https://www.saratogian.com/news/georgian\-pianist\-giorgi\-latso\-to\-play\-for\-eight\-baby\-pigs/article\_4f6e1079\-d12a\-5188\-b174\-045df01b8d1b.html\|title \= Georgian pianist Giorgi Latso to play for eight baby pigs and up to 150 humans at Hubbard Hall in Cambridge\|author \= THE SARATOGIAN, STACEY MORRIS\|date \= 22 May 2013\|access\-date \= 2020\-05\-18}}{{Dead link\|date\=June 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}{{Cite web\|url \= https://teatrocolon.gov.co/beethoven\-concierto\-para\-piano\-no\-5\-emperador\|title \= Beethoven Piano Concerto Emperor\|author \= Teatro Colón\|date \= 2020\-03\-05\|access\-date \= 2020\-05\-18\|archive\-date \= 3 March 2020\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20200303014203/https://teatrocolon.gov.co/beethoven\-concierto\-para\-piano\-no\-5\-emperador\|url\-status \= dead}} His concerts often feature his own compositions and virtuoso transcriptions.
After his performance of [Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven "Ludwig van Beethoven")'s [Emperor Concerto](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._5_%28Beethoven%29 "Piano Concerto No. 5 (Beethoven)") at WUK Kulturhaus, he was described in the Austrian press as "...a technically brilliant pianist imbued with a poignant lyricism and genuine profundity."Borchhardt\-Birbaumer, Gustav, *Verdrängte Erinnerungen* (2007\), p. 49, *Wiener Zeitung*, Vienna. Retrieved 8 January 2011 England Rhinegold Classical Magazine said his recording of [Debussy's Préludes](/wiki/Pr%C3%A9ludes_%28Debussy%29 "Préludes (Debussy)") showed "...extraordinary imagination and a musical tone rarely heard.
Latso composed the score for the film *Waltz\-Fantasy* for which he won an award at the [Bologna Film Festival](/wiki/Bologna_Film_Festival "Bologna Film Festival") in [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy") in 2000\.{{Cite web\|url \= https://festival.ilcinemaritrovato.it/en/\|title\= CINETECA DI BOLOGNA\|author \= FONDAZIONE CINETECA DI BOLOGNA\|access\-date \= 2020\-05\-18}} His compositions also include *Variations on a Theme of [J. S. Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach")* and *Cyber Moment* for violin and piano, which was commissioned and world premiered by the composer in [Wigmore Hall](/wiki/Wigmore_Hall "Wigmore Hall"), [London](/wiki/London "London") in 2010\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.wigmore\-hall.org.uk/about\-us/newmusic/past/2010\-11 \|title\=Commission at Wigmore Hall \|author\=Wigmore Hall \|date\=November 2010 \|access\-date\=2012\-09\-23 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115194236/http://www.wigmore\-hall.org.uk/about\-us/newmusic/past/2010\-11 \|archive\-date\=2013\-01\-15 }}
Among Latso's recordings are [Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin "Frédéric Chopin")'s [24 Études](/wiki/%C3%89tudes_%28Chopin%29 "Études (Chopin)"),Toradze, Gulbat, *Rain Of Pearls* (2002\), p. 4,: Vecherni Tbilisi, Tbilisi. [24 Preludes](/wiki/Preludes_%28Chopin%29 "Preludes (Chopin)") and four [Scherzos](/wiki/Chopin_scherzos "Chopin scherzos"); J.S. Bach's *[Goldberg Variations](/wiki/Goldberg_Variations "Goldberg Variations")*; [Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt "Franz Liszt")'s 12 [Transcendental Études](/wiki/Transcendental_%C3%89tudes "Transcendental Études"); and [Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy "Claude Debussy")'s [Preludes, Book 2](/wiki/Pr%C3%A9ludes_%28Debussy%29 "Préludes (Debussy)").
He has worked with musicians including [Ernest Fleischmann](/wiki/Ernest_Fleischmann "Ernest Fleischmann"), [Christian Altenburger](/wiki/Christian_Altenburger "Christian Altenburger"), [Gianluigi Gelmetti](/wiki/Gianluigi_Gelmetti "Gianluigi Gelmetti"), [Jansug Kakhidze](/wiki/Jansug_Kakhidze "Jansug Kakhidze"), David L. Wen, Irmina Trynkos, Friedrich Kleinhapl, [Ivo Pogorelić](/wiki/Ivo_Pogoreli%C4%87 "Ivo Pogorelić"), [Yundi Li](/wiki/Yundi_Li "Yundi Li"), [Freddy Kempf](/wiki/Freddy_Kempf "Freddy Kempf") and [Joaquín Soriano](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Soriano "Joaquín Soriano"), etc.
[thumb\|400px\|Giorgi Latso Performing with a [National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia](/wiki/National_Symphony_Orchestra_of_Colombia "National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia") in [Teatro Colón](/wiki/Teatro_Col%C3%B3n "Teatro Colón"), [Bogota](/wiki/Bogota "Bogota") in 2020](/wiki/File:Maestro_Giorgi_Latso_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_Bogota.jpg "Maestro Giorgi Latso Teatro Colón Bogota.jpg")
[thumb\|400px\|Latso receiving a prize on Malaysia Gold Award Ceremony 2022 in [Kuala Lumpur](/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur "Kuala Lumpur"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia")](/wiki/File:Asia_Pacific_International_Arts_Festival_Award_Ceremony_Giorgi_Latso.jpg "Asia Pacific International Arts Festival Award Ceremony Giorgi Latso.jpg")
Latso gave several benefit concerts, including concerts held in the National Theater \& Concert Hall, [Taipei City](/wiki/Taipei_City "Taipei City"), Vienna Ehrbar Concert Hall, [Teatro Colón](/wiki/Teatro_de_Crist%C3%B3bal_Col%C3%B3n "Teatro de Cristóbal Colón") in Bogota, Guido\-Feger Concert Hall{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.volksblatt.li/nachricht.aspx?src\=vb\&id\=34683\|title\= Beethoven Piano Concerto Emperor \|author \= VolksBlatt.li\|date \=2011\-06\-11\|access\-date \= 2020\-05\-18}} under the patronage of [Princess Marie Aglaë of Liechtenstein](/wiki/Marie%2C_Princess_of_Liechtenstein "Marie, Princess of Liechtenstein"). *Volksblatt* wrote: "Within the romantic repertoire you can with full justification call him a magnificent pianist and a magician of impeccable technique".Piechocki, Wieslaw., ["Innige Stimmungsperlen"](http://www.volksblatt.li/nachricht.aspx?src=vb&id=34683&p1=in), *[Liechtensteiner Volksblatt](/wiki/Liechtensteiner_Volksblatt "Liechtensteiner Volksblatt")*, p. 37, 6 September 2011 {{in lang\|de}}
Latso has recorded a CD of the complete works for piano and violin by composer [Ignatz Waghalter](/wiki/Ignatz_Waghalter "Ignatz Waghalter") for [Naxos Records](/wiki/Naxos_Records "Naxos Records"), with the London [Royal Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Royal_Philharmonic_Orchestra "Royal Philharmonic Orchestra"), Irmina Trynkos and Alexander Walker.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.naxos.com/news/default.asp?op\=1013\&displayMenu\=Naxos\_News\&type\=2\|title\=Hidden Treasure: The Waghalter Project \|publisher\= Naxos News \|date\=2012\-09\-28\|access\-date\=2012\-09\-23}}{{Cite web\|title\=Pizzicato Magazine\|url\=https://www.pizzicato.lu/kennen\-sie\-ignaz\-waghalter/\|date\=2012\-12\-01\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-17}}
[thumb\|right\|250px\|Giorgi Latso receives American philanthropist [Carol Colburn Grigor](/wiki/Carol_Colburn_Grigor "Carol Colburn Grigor") award at the Charles Dickens Dinner held at the historic Millennium Biltmore Hotel in downtown [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), 2006](/wiki/File:Giorgi_latsabidze_carol_hogel_dean_cutietta_USC.jpg "Giorgi latsabidze carol hogel dean cutietta USC.jpg")
He has given broadcast performances on both radio and television in the United States, Europe, Asia and elsewhere.{{Cite web\|url\=http://whqr.org/post/concert\-pianist\-giorgi\-latsabidze\|title\= Midday Interview: Concert Pianist Giorgi Latso \|author\=WHQR Public Radio 93\.3fm\|date\=2012\-05\-03\|access\-date\=2012\-09\-23}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.publicbroadcasting.net/wvia/.jukebox?action\=viewMedia\&mediaId\=1011641\|title\= WVIA ArtScene with Erica Funke\|author\=WVIA – ArtScene\|date\=2012\-05\-10\|access\-date\=2012\-09\-23}} Latso was listed in the 65th edition of *[Who's Who in America](/wiki/Who%27s_Who_in_America "Who's Who in America")*, and *[Who's Who in American Art](/wiki/Who%27s_Who_in_American_Art "Who's Who in American Art")* 2011\. Since 2011 he has been a member of [Pi Kappa Lambda](/wiki/Pi_Kappa_Lambda "Pi Kappa Lambda").{{Cite web \| url\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1WtYFrgKS1ZZJ\-TkLNTT7puSkfjPmvgDO/preview \|title \= Latso Eta Chapter Pi Kappa .PDF}}
In 2012, he was invited by [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI "Pope Benedict XVI") to his residence in Vatican City to perform the [Mozart Piano Concerto No. 21](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._21_%28Mozart%29 "Piano Concerto No. 21 (Mozart)") with the [Vienna Philharmonic](/wiki/Vienna_Philharmonic "Vienna Philharmonic") at the [Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore](/wiki/Basilica_di_Santa_Maria_Maggiore "Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore") in Rome.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.festivalmusicaeartesacra.net/en/pdf/Arte%20Salva%20Arte%20definitivo.pdf \|title\=Fondazione pro Musica e Arte Sacra\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-20}}Hans Courtial, *L'Arte salva l'Arte* (2012\), Festival Internazionale di Musica e Arte Sacra, Roma e Vaticano, Rome. Retrieved 9 December 2012 {{in lang\|it}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.kvirispalitra.ge/2011\-03\-31\-07\-00\-04/11115\-qarthvelebi\-uckhoethshi\-msoflio\-toppianistebis\-siashi\-shesuli\-qarthveli\-pianisti\-romis\-papma\-vatikanshi\-miitsvia.html\|title\=ქართველები უცხოეთში: მსოფლიო ტოპპიანისტების სიაში შესული ქართველი პიანისტი რომის პაპმა ვატიკანში მიიწვია \|author\=Gabrichidze, Manana \|date\=2012\-02\-02\|access\-date\=2012\-09\-22\|language\=ka}}
Latso made his debut at the [Berliner Philharmonie](/wiki/Berliner_Philharmonie "Berliner Philharmonie") concert hall in Berlin in 2012,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.berliner\-philharmoniker.de/en/konzerte/calendar/details/9341/\|title\=Waghalter Project\|author\=Berliner Philharminiker\|date\=September 2012\|access\-date\=2012\-09\-23\|archive\-date\=16 October 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016110904/http://www.berliner\-philharmoniker.de/en/konzerte/calendar/details/9341/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pianistmagazine.com/\|title\=The essential role of authentic improvisation in piano performance\|author\=Robeson, Paul\|date\=14 June 2013\|access\-date\=2013\-09\-06}} and debut at the [Slovak Philharmonic](/wiki/Slovak_Philharmonic "Slovak Philharmonic") concert hall in [Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava "Bratislava") in 2014\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://stream.filharmonia.sk/\|title\=Archív koncertov\|access\-date\=2014\-03\-22}}
In 2013, he was invited by [Marie, Princess of Liechtenstein](/wiki/Marie%2C_Princess_of_Liechtenstein "Marie, Princess of Liechtenstein"), to move to Vienna, where he resided until 2019\. He gave masterclasses and lectures at universities nationwide. Latso regularly serves on competition jury panels and has been a conference artist for several music teachers associations. From 2015 to 2018 he was a guest professor at the [Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu](/wiki/Conservatori_Superior_de_M%C3%BAsica_del_Liceu "Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu") in Barcelona, Spain.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.barcelonaclasica.info/giorgi\-latso\-vaig\-tocar\-el\-piano\-per\-primera\-vegada\-amb\-5\-anys\-i\-immediatament\-vaig\-saber\-que\-seria\-el\-centre\-de\-la\-meva\-vida\-2/\|title\=Barcelona Classica\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-18}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.conservatoriliceu.es/es/noticias/auditorio/entrevista\-giorgi\-latso\-barcelona\-clasica/\|title\=FUNDACIÓN CONSERVATORI LICEU\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-18}} Latso has been giving masterclasses for years at some of the world’s most prestigious music schools including the Tchaikovsky [Moscow Conservatory](/wiki/Moscow_Conservatory "Moscow Conservatory"),{{Cite web\|url\=http://artix\-fest.com/ru/eksperty/fortepiano\-i\-instrumentalnyj\-ansambl/g\-latso\|title\=Artix Fest Moscow\|access\-date\=2017\-06\-10\|archive\-date\=20 May 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170520225836/http://artix\-fest.com/ru/eksperty/fortepiano\-i\-instrumentalnyj\-ansambl/g\-latso\|url\-status\=dead}} [Hong Kong Academy for the Performing Arts](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Academy_for_the_Performing_Arts "Hong Kong Academy for the Performing Arts"), the [Shanghai Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Shanghai_Conservatory_of_Music "Shanghai Conservatory of Music"), [National University of Colombia](/wiki/National_University_of_Colombia "National University of Colombia"){{Cite web\|url\=https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLScYoh9csY7UMYVestSvPc8LrXi4PdPUxXq\_vk42oenPQ9T5MA/viewform\|title\= National University of Colombia\|access\-date\=2020\-03\-03}} [Mozarteum University of Salzburg](/wiki/Mozarteum_University_of_Salzburg "Mozarteum University of Salzburg"), Vienna Conservatory of Music, [Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu](/wiki/Conservatori_Superior_de_M%C3%BAsica_del_Liceu "Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu"),{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.conservatoriliceu.es/ca/conservatori\-liceu\-estudis\-superiors\-oficials/agenda/masterclass\-amb\-giorgi\-latso\-piano\|title\=Barcelona Liceu Conservatory\|access\-date\=2017\-06\-15\|archive\-date\=9 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009041721/http://www.conservatoriliceu.es/ca/conservatori\-liceu\-estudis\-superiors\-oficials/agenda/masterclass\-amb\-giorgi\-latso\-piano\|url\-status\=dead}} [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California "University of Southern California"), [San Francisco Conservatory of Music](/wiki/San_Francisco_Conservatory_of_Music "San Francisco Conservatory of Music"), [Oberlin Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Oberlin_Conservatory_of_Music "Oberlin Conservatory of Music"), the [Tokyo University of the Arts](/wiki/Tokyo_University_of_the_Arts "Tokyo University of the Arts"), etc.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.konservatorium\-prayner.at/meisterkurse\|title\=Vienna Prayner Konservatorium\|access\-date\=2017\-06\-10}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.talentsummercourses.it/chronological\-order\|title\=Talentsummercourses\|access\-date\=2017\-08\-10\|archive\-date\=8 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171008231533/http://www.talentsummercourses.it/chronological\-order\|url\-status\=dead}}
[thumb\|right\|250px\|[The Latsos](/wiki/The_Latsos_Piano_Duo "The Latsos Piano Duo") giving a charity concert supporting children with the oncological disease, Ehrbar Concert Hall, [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), 2019](/wiki/File:The_Latsos.jpg "The Latsos.jpg")
In 2013, Latso formed [The Latsos Piano Duo](/wiki/The_Latsos_Piano_Duo "The Latsos Piano Duo"){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.thelatsos.com\|title\= Piano Duo 'The Latsos'\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-29}} with his wife Anna Fedorova\-Latso. Since then, they have been performing four\-hands piano recitals and concertos for two pianos worldwide as a piano duo and have appeared at musical centres and festivals as well as in scholarly conferences in Europe, Russia, America, and Asia. One of their concert presentation, held at the historic Doheny Estate \& Gardens Beverly Hills as part of the *Music in the Mansion* Series, was filmed by [Beverly Hills](/wiki/Beverly_Hills "Beverly Hills") Warner Cable Television and live\-streamed on BHTV10 Channel.{{Cite web\|url\=http://beverlyhills.org/cbhfiles/storage/files/11710462551567002880/CityCast\_Apr2019\.pdf\|title\=Beverly Hills Warner Cable Television (BHTV10\)\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-18}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://vimeo.com/channels/1345636/330128254 \|title\=Beverly Hills Warner Cable Television (BHTV10\)\|date\=12 April 2019\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-18}} The duo supports the mission of charities by organizing and performing [benefit concerts](/wiki/Benefit_concert "Benefit concert"). They offer concert performances for [non\-profit](/wiki/Non-profit "Non-profit") organizations and institutions that serve underprivileged communities, children with special needs, hospital patients, and the elderly. In May 2019 with [National Solidarity Fund](/wiki/National_Solidarity_Fund "National Solidarity Fund") and The Embassy of Georgia to the [Republic of Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria"), they performed gala [charity](/wiki/Charity_%28practice%29 "Charity (practice)") concert supporting children and young people suffering from [oncological](/wiki/Oncological "Oncological") disease in Georgia.{{cite web\|title\=National Solidarity Fund Georgia\|url\=http://solidaroba.ge/News/View/653?cId\=1\|language\=ka\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-29}}{{Dead link\|date\=June 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
His 2020 performance with [National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia](/wiki/National_Symphony_Orchestra_of_Colombia "National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia") in [Teatro Colón](/wiki/Teatro_Col%C3%B3n "Teatro Colón") was reviewed in the *Diario gratuito ADN Colombia* as: ″...his piano playing that combines technical wizardry with poetic lyricism sometimes sounds as mighty as the 100 member orchestra. Latsos' clarity of articulation, his warm, soft\-grained tone, and his virtuosity was so formidable as to be unnoticeable.″{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.pressreader.com/colombia/adn\-bogota/20200228/page/35\|title\= BEETHOVEN – CONCIERTO PARA PIANO NO. 5 "EMPERADOR" \|author\=Pressreader Bogota\|date\=2020\-02\-28\|access\-date\=2020\-03\-03}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://sinfonica.com.co/beethoven\-concierto\-para\-piano\-no\-5\-emperador/\|title\=BEETHOVEN {{!}} CONCIERTO PARA PIANO NO. 5 "EMPERADOR"\|author\=La Orquesta Sinfónica Nacional de Colombia\|date\=2020\-03\-05\|access\-date\=2020\-03\-03\|archive\-date\=3 March 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303014154/https://sinfonica.com.co/beethoven\-concierto\-para\-piano\-no\-5\-emperador/\|url\-status\=dead}}
In April 2021 Giorgi Latso was named an honorary Ambassador of the [Los Angeles Philharmonic](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Philharmonic "Los Angeles Philharmonic") International Committee.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.iclaphil.org/\|title\=The International Committee Of The LA Phil\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-30\|archive\-date\=30 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430185801/https://www.iclaphil.org/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://journalofmusic.com/venues/los\-angeles\-philharmonic\-association\|title\=Affiliate Committees\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-21}} In 2022 he received *International Adjudicator Award 2022* at the Asia Pacific International Arts Festival, Book of Records, in [Kuala Lumpur](/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur "Kuala Lumpur"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia").
Giorgi Latso's four\-hand arrangement "[The Stars and Stripes Forever](/wiki/The_Stars_and_Stripes_Forever "The Stars and Stripes Forever")" has been published in 2023 and is protected by the National [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress "Library of Congress") Copyright Office in Washington D.C. {{cite web\|url\=https://www.tunescribers.com/catalog\-search?sort\=newest\_first\&alphabet\=all\&s\=Sousa\-Latso\&limit\=1\|title\=The Stars and Stripes Forever 4 Hand arrangement\|author\= Tunescribers\|access\-date\=2023\-06\-29}}
In 2024 he created *Amadeus International Foundation*, a nonprofit charitable entity {{cite web\|url\=https://www.amadeusinternational.org\|title\= Amadeus International Foundation\|author\= Amadeus International\|access\-date\=2024\-06\-14}} offering an intensive program of master classes, public concerts and audience forums, with the mission to recognize and nurture young and talented pianists. He been serving as CEO and interim artistic director since founding the organization.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"He has appeared at major festival venues in Salzburg, Vienna, Berlin, Mannheim, Florence, Lisbon, Beijing, Honolulu, Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli International Piano Festival and Monte\\-Carlo Piano Masters, among others, and has performed as a recitalist throughout the world.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.steinway.com/artists/giorgi\\-latso\\|title\\=Steinway Artists \\|author\\=Steinway \\& Sons\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-18}}{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://www.saratogian.com/news/georgian\\-pianist\\-giorgi\\-latso\\-to\\-play\\-for\\-eight\\-baby\\-pigs/article\\_4f6e1079\\-d12a\\-5188\\-b174\\-045df01b8d1b.html\\|title \\= Georgian pianist Giorgi Latso to play for eight baby pigs and up to 150 humans at Hubbard Hall in Cambridge\\|author \\= THE SARATOGIAN, STACEY MORRIS\\|date \\= 22 May 2013\\|access\\-date \\= 2020\\-05\\-18}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=June 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://teatrocolon.gov.co/beethoven\\-concierto\\-para\\-piano\\-no\\-5\\-emperador\\|title \\= Beethoven Piano Concerto Emperor\\|author \\= Teatro Colón\\|date \\= 2020\\-03\\-05\\|access\\-date \\= 2020\\-05\\-18\\|archive\\-date \\= 3 March 2020\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200303014203/https://teatrocolon.gov.co/beethoven\\-concierto\\-para\\-piano\\-no\\-5\\-emperador\\|url\\-status \\= dead}} His concerts often feature his own compositions and virtuoso transcriptions.",
"After his performance of [Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\")'s [Emperor Concerto](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._5_%28Beethoven%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 5 (Beethoven)\") at WUK Kulturhaus, he was described in the Austrian press as \"...a technically brilliant pianist imbued with a poignant lyricism and genuine profundity.\"Borchhardt\\-Birbaumer, Gustav, *Verdrängte Erinnerungen* (2007\\), p. 49, *Wiener Zeitung*, Vienna. Retrieved 8 January 2011 England Rhinegold Classical Magazine said his recording of [Debussy's Préludes](/wiki/Pr%C3%A9ludes_%28Debussy%29 \"Préludes (Debussy)\") showed \"...extraordinary imagination and a musical tone rarely heard.",
"Latso composed the score for the film *Waltz\\-Fantasy* for which he won an award at the [Bologna Film Festival](/wiki/Bologna_Film_Festival \"Bologna Film Festival\") in [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") in 2000\\.{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://festival.ilcinemaritrovato.it/en/\\|title\\= CINETECA DI BOLOGNA\\|author \\= FONDAZIONE CINETECA DI BOLOGNA\\|access\\-date \\= 2020\\-05\\-18}} His compositions also include *Variations on a Theme of [J. S. Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\")* and *Cyber Moment* for violin and piano, which was commissioned and world premiered by the composer in [Wigmore Hall](/wiki/Wigmore_Hall \"Wigmore Hall\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\") in 2010\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wigmore\\-hall.org.uk/about\\-us/newmusic/past/2010\\-11 \\|title\\=Commission at Wigmore Hall \\|author\\=Wigmore Hall \\|date\\=November 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-23 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115194236/http://www.wigmore\\-hall.org.uk/about\\-us/newmusic/past/2010\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-15 }}",
"Among Latso's recordings are [Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin \"Frédéric Chopin\")'s [24 Études](/wiki/%C3%89tudes_%28Chopin%29 \"Études (Chopin)\"),Toradze, Gulbat, *Rain Of Pearls* (2002\\), p. 4,: Vecherni Tbilisi, Tbilisi. [24 Preludes](/wiki/Preludes_%28Chopin%29 \"Preludes (Chopin)\") and four [Scherzos](/wiki/Chopin_scherzos \"Chopin scherzos\"); J.S. Bach's *[Goldberg Variations](/wiki/Goldberg_Variations \"Goldberg Variations\")*; [Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt \"Franz Liszt\")'s 12 [Transcendental Études](/wiki/Transcendental_%C3%89tudes \"Transcendental Études\"); and [Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\")'s [Preludes, Book 2](/wiki/Pr%C3%A9ludes_%28Debussy%29 \"Préludes (Debussy)\").",
"He has worked with musicians including [Ernest Fleischmann](/wiki/Ernest_Fleischmann \"Ernest Fleischmann\"), [Christian Altenburger](/wiki/Christian_Altenburger \"Christian Altenburger\"), [Gianluigi Gelmetti](/wiki/Gianluigi_Gelmetti \"Gianluigi Gelmetti\"), [Jansug Kakhidze](/wiki/Jansug_Kakhidze \"Jansug Kakhidze\"), David L. Wen, Irmina Trynkos, Friedrich Kleinhapl, [Ivo Pogorelić](/wiki/Ivo_Pogoreli%C4%87 \"Ivo Pogorelić\"), [Yundi Li](/wiki/Yundi_Li \"Yundi Li\"), [Freddy Kempf](/wiki/Freddy_Kempf \"Freddy Kempf\") and [Joaquín Soriano](/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Soriano \"Joaquín Soriano\"), etc.",
"[thumb\\|400px\\|Giorgi Latso Performing with a [National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia](/wiki/National_Symphony_Orchestra_of_Colombia \"National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia\") in [Teatro Colón](/wiki/Teatro_Col%C3%B3n \"Teatro Colón\"), [Bogota](/wiki/Bogota \"Bogota\") in 2020](/wiki/File:Maestro_Giorgi_Latso_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_Bogota.jpg \"Maestro Giorgi Latso Teatro Colón Bogota.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|400px\\|Latso receiving a prize on Malaysia Gold Award Ceremony 2022 in [Kuala Lumpur](/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur \"Kuala Lumpur\"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\")](/wiki/File:Asia_Pacific_International_Arts_Festival_Award_Ceremony_Giorgi_Latso.jpg \"Asia Pacific International Arts Festival Award Ceremony Giorgi Latso.jpg\")",
"Latso gave several benefit concerts, including concerts held in the National Theater \\& Concert Hall, [Taipei City](/wiki/Taipei_City \"Taipei City\"), Vienna Ehrbar Concert Hall, [Teatro Colón](/wiki/Teatro_de_Crist%C3%B3bal_Col%C3%B3n \"Teatro de Cristóbal Colón\") in Bogota, Guido\\-Feger Concert Hall{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.volksblatt.li/nachricht.aspx?src\\=vb\\&id\\=34683\\|title\\= Beethoven Piano Concerto Emperor \\|author \\= VolksBlatt.li\\|date \\=2011\\-06\\-11\\|access\\-date \\= 2020\\-05\\-18}} under the patronage of [Princess Marie Aglaë of Liechtenstein](/wiki/Marie%2C_Princess_of_Liechtenstein \"Marie, Princess of Liechtenstein\"). *Volksblatt* wrote: \"Within the romantic repertoire you can with full justification call him a magnificent pianist and a magician of impeccable technique\".Piechocki, Wieslaw., [\"Innige Stimmungsperlen\"](http://www.volksblatt.li/nachricht.aspx?src=vb&id=34683&p1=in), *[Liechtensteiner Volksblatt](/wiki/Liechtensteiner_Volksblatt \"Liechtensteiner Volksblatt\")*, p. 37, 6 September 2011 {{in lang\\|de}}",
"Latso has recorded a CD of the complete works for piano and violin by composer [Ignatz Waghalter](/wiki/Ignatz_Waghalter \"Ignatz Waghalter\") for [Naxos Records](/wiki/Naxos_Records \"Naxos Records\"), with the London [Royal Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Royal_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"Royal Philharmonic Orchestra\"), Irmina Trynkos and Alexander Walker.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.naxos.com/news/default.asp?op\\=1013\\&displayMenu\\=Naxos\\_News\\&type\\=2\\|title\\=Hidden Treasure: The Waghalter Project \\|publisher\\= Naxos News \\|date\\=2012\\-09\\-28\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-23}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Pizzicato Magazine\\|url\\=https://www.pizzicato.lu/kennen\\-sie\\-ignaz\\-waghalter/\\|date\\=2012\\-12\\-01\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-17}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Giorgi Latso receives American philanthropist [Carol Colburn Grigor](/wiki/Carol_Colburn_Grigor \"Carol Colburn Grigor\") award at the Charles Dickens Dinner held at the historic Millennium Biltmore Hotel in downtown [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), 2006](/wiki/File:Giorgi_latsabidze_carol_hogel_dean_cutietta_USC.jpg \"Giorgi latsabidze carol hogel dean cutietta USC.jpg\")",
"He has given broadcast performances on both radio and television in the United States, Europe, Asia and elsewhere.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://whqr.org/post/concert\\-pianist\\-giorgi\\-latsabidze\\|title\\= Midday Interview: Concert Pianist Giorgi Latso \\|author\\=WHQR Public Radio 93\\.3fm\\|date\\=2012\\-05\\-03\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-23}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.publicbroadcasting.net/wvia/.jukebox?action\\=viewMedia\\&mediaId\\=1011641\\|title\\= WVIA ArtScene with Erica Funke\\|author\\=WVIA – ArtScene\\|date\\=2012\\-05\\-10\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-23}} Latso was listed in the 65th edition of *[Who's Who in America](/wiki/Who%27s_Who_in_America \"Who's Who in America\")*, and *[Who's Who in American Art](/wiki/Who%27s_Who_in_American_Art \"Who's Who in American Art\")* 2011\\. Since 2011 he has been a member of [Pi Kappa Lambda](/wiki/Pi_Kappa_Lambda \"Pi Kappa Lambda\").{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1WtYFrgKS1ZZJ\\-TkLNTT7puSkfjPmvgDO/preview \\|title \\= Latso Eta Chapter Pi Kappa .PDF}}",
"In 2012, he was invited by [Pope Benedict XVI](/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI \"Pope Benedict XVI\") to his residence in Vatican City to perform the [Mozart Piano Concerto No. 21](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._21_%28Mozart%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 21 (Mozart)\") with the [Vienna Philharmonic](/wiki/Vienna_Philharmonic \"Vienna Philharmonic\") at the [Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore](/wiki/Basilica_di_Santa_Maria_Maggiore \"Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore\") in Rome.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.festivalmusicaeartesacra.net/en/pdf/Arte%20Salva%20Arte%20definitivo.pdf \\|title\\=Fondazione pro Musica e Arte Sacra\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-20}}Hans Courtial, *L'Arte salva l'Arte* (2012\\), Festival Internazionale di Musica e Arte Sacra, Roma e Vaticano, Rome. Retrieved 9 December 2012 {{in lang\\|it}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kvirispalitra.ge/2011\\-03\\-31\\-07\\-00\\-04/11115\\-qarthvelebi\\-uckhoethshi\\-msoflio\\-toppianistebis\\-siashi\\-shesuli\\-qarthveli\\-pianisti\\-romis\\-papma\\-vatikanshi\\-miitsvia.html\\|title\\=ქართველები უცხოეთში: მსოფლიო ტოპპიანისტების სიაში შესული ქართველი პიანისტი რომის პაპმა ვატიკანში მიიწვია \\|author\\=Gabrichidze, Manana \\|date\\=2012\\-02\\-02\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-22\\|language\\=ka}}\nLatso made his debut at the [Berliner Philharmonie](/wiki/Berliner_Philharmonie \"Berliner Philharmonie\") concert hall in Berlin in 2012,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.berliner\\-philharmoniker.de/en/konzerte/calendar/details/9341/\\|title\\=Waghalter Project\\|author\\=Berliner Philharminiker\\|date\\=September 2012\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-23\\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016110904/http://www.berliner\\-philharmoniker.de/en/konzerte/calendar/details/9341/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pianistmagazine.com/\\|title\\=The essential role of authentic improvisation in piano performance\\|author\\=Robeson, Paul\\|date\\=14 June 2013\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-06}} and debut at the [Slovak Philharmonic](/wiki/Slovak_Philharmonic \"Slovak Philharmonic\") concert hall in [Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava \"Bratislava\") in 2014\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://stream.filharmonia.sk/\\|title\\=Archív koncertov\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-22}}",
"In 2013, he was invited by [Marie, Princess of Liechtenstein](/wiki/Marie%2C_Princess_of_Liechtenstein \"Marie, Princess of Liechtenstein\"), to move to Vienna, where he resided until 2019\\. He gave masterclasses and lectures at universities nationwide. Latso regularly serves on competition jury panels and has been a conference artist for several music teachers associations. From 2015 to 2018 he was a guest professor at the [Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu](/wiki/Conservatori_Superior_de_M%C3%BAsica_del_Liceu \"Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu\") in Barcelona, Spain.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.barcelonaclasica.info/giorgi\\-latso\\-vaig\\-tocar\\-el\\-piano\\-per\\-primera\\-vegada\\-amb\\-5\\-anys\\-i\\-immediatament\\-vaig\\-saber\\-que\\-seria\\-el\\-centre\\-de\\-la\\-meva\\-vida\\-2/\\|title\\=Barcelona Classica\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-18}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.conservatoriliceu.es/es/noticias/auditorio/entrevista\\-giorgi\\-latso\\-barcelona\\-clasica/\\|title\\=FUNDACIÓN CONSERVATORI LICEU\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-18}} Latso has been giving masterclasses for years at some of the world’s most prestigious music schools including the Tchaikovsky [Moscow Conservatory](/wiki/Moscow_Conservatory \"Moscow Conservatory\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://artix\\-fest.com/ru/eksperty/fortepiano\\-i\\-instrumentalnyj\\-ansambl/g\\-latso\\|title\\=Artix Fest Moscow\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-10\\|archive\\-date\\=20 May 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170520225836/http://artix\\-fest.com/ru/eksperty/fortepiano\\-i\\-instrumentalnyj\\-ansambl/g\\-latso\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} [Hong Kong Academy for the Performing Arts](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Academy_for_the_Performing_Arts \"Hong Kong Academy for the Performing Arts\"), the [Shanghai Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Shanghai_Conservatory_of_Music \"Shanghai Conservatory of Music\"), [National University of Colombia](/wiki/National_University_of_Colombia \"National University of Colombia\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLScYoh9csY7UMYVestSvPc8LrXi4PdPUxXq\\_vk42oenPQ9T5MA/viewform\\|title\\= National University of Colombia\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-03}} [Mozarteum University of Salzburg](/wiki/Mozarteum_University_of_Salzburg \"Mozarteum University of Salzburg\"), Vienna Conservatory of Music, [Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu](/wiki/Conservatori_Superior_de_M%C3%BAsica_del_Liceu \"Conservatori Superior de Música del Liceu\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.conservatoriliceu.es/ca/conservatori\\-liceu\\-estudis\\-superiors\\-oficials/agenda/masterclass\\-amb\\-giorgi\\-latso\\-piano\\|title\\=Barcelona Liceu Conservatory\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=9 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009041721/http://www.conservatoriliceu.es/ca/conservatori\\-liceu\\-estudis\\-superiors\\-oficials/agenda/masterclass\\-amb\\-giorgi\\-latso\\-piano\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California \"University of Southern California\"), [San Francisco Conservatory of Music](/wiki/San_Francisco_Conservatory_of_Music \"San Francisco Conservatory of Music\"), [Oberlin Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Oberlin_Conservatory_of_Music \"Oberlin Conservatory of Music\"), the [Tokyo University of the Arts](/wiki/Tokyo_University_of_the_Arts \"Tokyo University of the Arts\"), etc.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.konservatorium\\-prayner.at/meisterkurse\\|title\\=Vienna Prayner Konservatorium\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-06\\-10}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.talentsummercourses.it/chronological\\-order\\|title\\=Talentsummercourses\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-10\\|archive\\-date\\=8 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171008231533/http://www.talentsummercourses.it/chronological\\-order\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|[The Latsos](/wiki/The_Latsos_Piano_Duo \"The Latsos Piano Duo\") giving a charity concert supporting children with the oncological disease, Ehrbar Concert Hall, [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), 2019](/wiki/File:The_Latsos.jpg \"The Latsos.jpg\")\nIn 2013, Latso formed [The Latsos Piano Duo](/wiki/The_Latsos_Piano_Duo \"The Latsos Piano Duo\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thelatsos.com\\|title\\= Piano Duo 'The Latsos'\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-29}} with his wife Anna Fedorova\\-Latso. Since then, they have been performing four\\-hands piano recitals and concertos for two pianos worldwide as a piano duo and have appeared at musical centres and festivals as well as in scholarly conferences in Europe, Russia, America, and Asia. One of their concert presentation, held at the historic Doheny Estate \\& Gardens Beverly Hills as part of the *Music in the Mansion* Series, was filmed by [Beverly Hills](/wiki/Beverly_Hills \"Beverly Hills\") Warner Cable Television and live\\-streamed on BHTV10 Channel.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://beverlyhills.org/cbhfiles/storage/files/11710462551567002880/CityCast\\_Apr2019\\.pdf\\|title\\=Beverly Hills Warner Cable Television (BHTV10\\)\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-18}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://vimeo.com/channels/1345636/330128254 \\|title\\=Beverly Hills Warner Cable Television (BHTV10\\)\\|date\\=12 April 2019\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-18}} The duo supports the mission of charities by organizing and performing [benefit concerts](/wiki/Benefit_concert \"Benefit concert\"). They offer concert performances for [non\\-profit](/wiki/Non-profit \"Non-profit\") organizations and institutions that serve underprivileged communities, children with special needs, hospital patients, and the elderly. In May 2019 with [National Solidarity Fund](/wiki/National_Solidarity_Fund \"National Solidarity Fund\") and The Embassy of Georgia to the [Republic of Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\"), they performed gala [charity](/wiki/Charity_%28practice%29 \"Charity (practice)\") concert supporting children and young people suffering from [oncological](/wiki/Oncological \"Oncological\") disease in Georgia.{{cite web\\|title\\=National Solidarity Fund Georgia\\|url\\=http://solidaroba.ge/News/View/653?cId\\=1\\|language\\=ka\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-29}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=June 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"His 2020 performance with [National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia](/wiki/National_Symphony_Orchestra_of_Colombia \"National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia\") in [Teatro Colón](/wiki/Teatro_Col%C3%B3n \"Teatro Colón\") was reviewed in the *Diario gratuito ADN Colombia* as: ″...his piano playing that combines technical wizardry with poetic lyricism sometimes sounds as mighty as the 100 member orchestra. Latsos' clarity of articulation, his warm, soft\\-grained tone, and his virtuosity was so formidable as to be unnoticeable.″{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pressreader.com/colombia/adn\\-bogota/20200228/page/35\\|title\\= BEETHOVEN – CONCIERTO PARA PIANO NO. 5 \"EMPERADOR\" \\|author\\=Pressreader Bogota\\|date\\=2020\\-02\\-28\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-03}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://sinfonica.com.co/beethoven\\-concierto\\-para\\-piano\\-no\\-5\\-emperador/\\|title\\=BEETHOVEN {{!}} CONCIERTO PARA PIANO NO. 5 \"EMPERADOR\"\\|author\\=La Orquesta Sinfónica Nacional de Colombia\\|date\\=2020\\-03\\-05\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-03\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303014154/https://sinfonica.com.co/beethoven\\-concierto\\-para\\-piano\\-no\\-5\\-emperador/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In April 2021 Giorgi Latso was named an honorary Ambassador of the [Los Angeles Philharmonic](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Philharmonic \"Los Angeles Philharmonic\") International Committee.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.iclaphil.org/\\|title\\=The International Committee Of The LA Phil\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-30\\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430185801/https://www.iclaphil.org/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://journalofmusic.com/venues/los\\-angeles\\-philharmonic\\-association\\|title\\=Affiliate Committees\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-21}} In 2022 he received *International Adjudicator Award 2022* at the Asia Pacific International Arts Festival, Book of Records, in [Kuala Lumpur](/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur \"Kuala Lumpur\"), [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\").",
"Giorgi Latso's four\\-hand arrangement \"[The Stars and Stripes Forever](/wiki/The_Stars_and_Stripes_Forever \"The Stars and Stripes Forever\")\" has been published in 2023 and is protected by the National [Library of Congress](/wiki/Library_of_Congress \"Library of Congress\") Copyright Office in Washington D.C. {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tunescribers.com/catalog\\-search?sort\\=newest\\_first\\&alphabet\\=all\\&s\\=Sousa\\-Latso\\&limit\\=1\\|title\\=The Stars and Stripes Forever 4 Hand arrangement\\|author\\= Tunescribers\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-29}}",
"In 2024 he created *Amadeus International Foundation*, a nonprofit charitable entity {{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.amadeusinternational.org\\|title\\= Amadeus International Foundation\\|author\\= Amadeus International\\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-14}} offering an intensive program of master classes, public concerts and audience forums, with the mission to recognize and nurture young and talented pianists. He been serving as CEO and interim artistic director since founding the organization.",
""
] |
Plot
----
The plot revolves around the lives of a few people around an ancient [Syrian church](/wiki/Syrian_churches_of_Kerala "Syrian churches of Kerala") in a [Kuttanadan](/wiki/Kuttanad "Kuttanad") village called Kumarankari. Solomon is in love with Shoshanna who is the daughter of a wealthy contractor. Solomon is a failed band member however he is the son of the famous Estapan ashan, who was renowned in Kerala for his clarinet playing abilities, and died in a boat accident.
Fr. Vincent Vattoli comes to the church as a new recruit to the parish. He learns about the relationship and tries to unite the couple. At this time, the marriage of Shoshanna gets fixed. Solomon attempts to elope, in vain. They are caught by Shoshana's parents and Solomon is mercilessly beaten up.
The people of Kumanamkari and the neighboring town then place a bet in which the St. George's band has to win in order for Solomon's marriage to occur. It was said that Shoshanna would be married to Solomon if they win the competition with Solomon leading the band.
The band takes intense practices and wins the bet, while Solomon's band master dies. At that night Shosana's father backs out of the bet. Him, the evil old parish priest and Solomons uncle are haunted at night by St. George at the time when they were destroying the church. They all came to the realisation that Solomon had divine powers on his side and they stood aside from Solomon's life as obstacles.
Solomon marries Shosana and the band continues to participate in other competitions. Later a call comes to the church informing that the new Priest [Fr](/wiki/Priest "Priest"). Vincent Vattoli is taking charge. The Kumarangiri folks now come to know that Fr. Vincent Vattoli was actually the saint himself who appeared in front of them.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The plot revolves around the lives of a few people around an ancient [Syrian church](/wiki/Syrian_churches_of_Kerala \"Syrian churches of Kerala\") in a [Kuttanadan](/wiki/Kuttanad \"Kuttanad\") village called Kumarankari. Solomon is in love with Shoshanna who is the daughter of a wealthy contractor. Solomon is a failed band member however he is the son of the famous Estapan ashan, who was renowned in Kerala for his clarinet playing abilities, and died in a boat accident.",
"Fr. Vincent Vattoli comes to the church as a new recruit to the parish. He learns about the relationship and tries to unite the couple. At this time, the marriage of Shoshanna gets fixed. Solomon attempts to elope, in vain. They are caught by Shoshana's parents and Solomon is mercilessly beaten up.",
"The people of Kumanamkari and the neighboring town then place a bet in which the St. George's band has to win in order for Solomon's marriage to occur. It was said that Shoshanna would be married to Solomon if they win the competition with Solomon leading the band.",
"The band takes intense practices and wins the bet, while Solomon's band master dies. At that night Shosana's father backs out of the bet. Him, the evil old parish priest and Solomons uncle are haunted at night by St. George at the time when they were destroying the church. They all came to the realisation that Solomon had divine powers on his side and they stood aside from Solomon's life as obstacles.",
"Solomon marries Shosana and the band continues to participate in other competitions. Later a call comes to the church informing that the new Priest [Fr](/wiki/Priest \"Priest\"). Vincent Vattoli is taking charge. The Kumarangiri folks now come to know that Fr. Vincent Vattoli was actually the saint himself who appeared in front of them.",
""
] |
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