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Heritage listing ---------------- The Jenner precinct demonstrates the lifestyle of the late 19th century residents of the Potts Point area, which was characterised by the beauty of its houses and grounds and the wealth of its residents. The north wing represents a rare and valuable example of the status of the house servants. The precinct is also significant because of its 40\-year period as a private hospital and for its extensive association with the Navy and with the operations of [Garden Island](/wiki/Garden_Island%2C_New_South_Wales "Garden Island, New South Wales"), one of the largest engineering undertakings in 20th century Australia. Jenner (1871\) represents a fine example of the domestic work of Edmund Blacket with interesting internal detailing by Blacket and his then employee Horbury Hunt. The building's second floor was the work of Thomas Rowe in 1877\. The building represents the transition in architectural taste which took place in the second half of the 19th century with the lower two floors on the western facade exhibiting the Regency style, and elsewhere the more flamboyant asymmetrical characteristics of the 19th century Italianate villa. The building also has a relationship with other 19th century marine villas of [Bomera and Tarana](/wiki/Bomera_and_Tarana "Bomera and Tarana") and [Elizabeth Bay House](/wiki/Elizabeth_Bay_House "Elizabeth Bay House"). The precinct is also potentially important in terms of historical archaeology both in the building fabric and remnant formal garden settings. Jenner appears to be the only remaining garden of the once numerous fashionable 19th century villas on Pott's Point, as well as a fine example of a boldly designed late 19th century suburban garden. Jenner House was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register "New South Wales State Heritage Register") on 2 April 1999\.
[ "Heritage listing\n----------------", "The Jenner precinct demonstrates the lifestyle of the late 19th century residents of the Potts Point area, which was characterised by the beauty of its houses and grounds and the wealth of its residents. The north wing represents a rare and valuable example of the status of the house servants. The precinct is also significant because of its 40\\-year period as a private hospital and for its extensive association with the Navy and with the operations of [Garden Island](/wiki/Garden_Island%2C_New_South_Wales \"Garden Island, New South Wales\"), one of the largest engineering undertakings in 20th century Australia.", "Jenner (1871\\) represents a fine example of the domestic work of Edmund Blacket with interesting internal detailing by Blacket and his then employee Horbury Hunt. The building's second floor was the work of Thomas Rowe in 1877\\. The building represents the transition in architectural taste which took place in the second half of the 19th century with the lower two floors on the western facade exhibiting the Regency style, and elsewhere the more flamboyant asymmetrical characteristics of the 19th century Italianate villa.", "The building also has a relationship with other 19th century marine villas of [Bomera and Tarana](/wiki/Bomera_and_Tarana \"Bomera and Tarana\") and [Elizabeth Bay House](/wiki/Elizabeth_Bay_House \"Elizabeth Bay House\"). The precinct is also potentially important in terms of historical archaeology both in the building fabric and remnant formal garden settings.", "Jenner appears to be the only remaining garden of the once numerous fashionable 19th century villas on Pott's Point, as well as a fine example of a boldly designed late 19th century suburban garden.", "Jenner House was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register \"New South Wales State Heritage Register\") on 2 April 1999\\.", "" ]
Plot ---- The movie opens where a little boy writes a letter to Santa Claus that he wants a remote control flying bug and mails it to the North Pole. At the North Pole, an Inuit Eskimo boy named Tim\-Tim picks up the mail to deliver it to Santa's Workshop. Beatrice Lovejoy, Santa's wife, picks up the mail, but she won't allow Tim\-Tim to take a peek inside. As Santa is about to make his rounds, Mrs. Lovejoy closes the roof and reminds Santa to celebrate his retirement in Sydney, Australia. As Santa gives Santa's robe and hat to Nicholas, Beatrice and all the elves congratulate him on being the new Santa. After Santa and Mrs. Lovejoy leave, Nicholas takes over the workshop and receives a letter from the little boy who wanted a remote control flying bug. Tim\-Tim secretly enters the workshop and Beatrice notices him and decides to show him around. Nicholas asks Tim\-Tim why is he in the workshop and asks him to leave, but Beatrice decides to show him around the workshop. On board the airplane, Santa worries about Nicholas as Mrs. Lovejoy convinces to Santa to remind of himself of something. He pulls his blue bunny toy and holds it to his heart. When Nicholas woke up the next morning, the white hair appears on his face. He gets rid of it by shaving, but the white hair reappears. He attempts making a remote control flying bug, which turns out to be a fiery bee and causes it to damage the workshop a bit as the elves stopped it. He told Beatrice about what happened, and he saw Tim\-Tim again and his voice deepens as he felt what happened and angrily tells Tim\-Tim to leave, and then he left through Rufus's door. Beatrice saw what happened to Nicholas as she goes with Waldorf to a room to ring the emergency bell to call the Council of Retired Santas to explain what happened. At the Daffodil Orphanage, Santa and Mrs. Lovejoy meets with the Director of the Orphanage Mr. Ratchet and Santa asks him for a job, but Mr. Ratchet refuses the offer and asks Santa to leave. Santa hears something at the Orphanage fireplace, and he goes up there and lands in Santa's workshop. Santa returns and takes Nicholas to the basement to find that the magic snowflake was melted. They see the Council of Retired Santas arrive as Nicholas and Beatrice explain what happened to Santa. Santa tells Nicholas that he has Grown\-up\-itis. Beatrice and Santa ask the Victorian Santa to take over the workshop until Nicholas is cured. Santa and Nicholas go to the snow field as Nicholas sees a door marked 24\. Santa explains to Nicholas that it is the advent calendar doors, and only Nicholas can see it with his eyes. Nicholas enters door 24, and he sees himself in the future as a tyrannical corporate executive who makes products designed to make kids grow up faster. Nicholas and Rufus find a hamster marked 7 as they exit door 24\. Meanwhile, at Santa's workshop, Beatrice shows Victorian Santa a handheld game, and he realizes that it does not exist in Victorian era. He expresses disdain at all the other modern toys kids that are now being made and decides to do something about it. Back at the advent calendar, Nicholas shows Santa a hamster with the number 7 and says that it is the next door to enter. He then enters door 7 and meets with Tim\-Tim and his mother, who is the Shaman of the Eskimo Village. The Shaman explains to Nicholas he is to find door 3 near bear mountain that leads to the past. Nicholas tells Santa about the last door to enter near bear mountain, then Nicholas sees door 1\. Santa warns Nicholas not to enter the door, but Nicholas ignores Santa's warning and enters it anyway. Seeing baby Nicholas with his parents boarding a ship, Nicholas tries to stop them, but it was too late. After he exits door 1, the advent calendar doors collapse as Nicholas now has a beard and Santa asks Nicholas that door 3 still works if he can find it. So Nicholas and Rufus go to bear mountain on their own to find door 3 as Santa returns to Daffodil Orphanage. Back at Santa's workshop, Victorian Santa converts toys to bricks and Beatrice notices this and asks the Victorian Santa why, he explains to Beatrice that kids will use their imaginations with bricks for anything they can come up with. He then locks Beatrice in a toy production room until after Christmas Eve so that she will not stop him. Back at the Orphanage, Santa picks up the bunny to entertain Zoe, a little girl at the orphanage, until Mr. Ratchet sees this and Santa takes Mr. Ratchet and Zoe to the fireplace through the tunnels to the ship at the North Pole. Mr. Ratchet knows how to steer the ship. They finally arrive at Santa's workshop and seeing Victorian Santa making bricks instead of toys and tries to convince him to revert it, but Victorian Santa refuses, and he locks up Santa, Mr. Ratchet, and Zoe in the toy production room as Waldorf barely escapes and goes to find Nicholas. Meanwhile, Nicholas and Rufus arrive at bear mountain by moonlight. Nicholas runs and slides down the snow and his beard is starting to fade away as the magic snowflake is restored, and the spirit fairies fly to bear mountain. He finally arrives at bear mountain, and the magic snowflake spirit fairies reveal the bear and take Nicholas to the base of bear mountain. The bear reveals door 3 as he hears Waldorf calling. Nicholas finally enters door 3 and sees himself when he was 3\-years\-old at the orphanage. Nicholas figures out that his Teddy bear was a toy that Santa gave to him when he was 3\-years\-old. At the toy production room of Santa's Workshop, Santa entertains and gives a bunny to Zoe and Mr. Ratchet sees how thoughtful Santa was to Zoe. Santa knew that it was his glowing heart that was the bonding connection. Back at the orphanage in the past, Nicholas hugs his teddy bear to his heart and gives it back to his 3\-year\-old self and exits door 3\. At last, Nicholas's Grown\-up\-itis is cured as Nicholas and Rufus ride on Waldorf to Tim\-Tim's igloo in the Eskimo Village and the Shaman congratulates Nicholas upon succeeding in his tasks. Nicholas invites Tim\-Tim to Santa's workshop and apologizes for yelling. Nicholas, Tim\-Tim, Rufus, and Waldorf head to Santa's Workshop as Tim\-Tim distract the elves. Then, Nicholas unlocks the door to the toy production room with his pencil as a lock pick and explains everything to Santa. Victorian Santa notices this and locks them in the toy production room as well, along with Tim\-Tim. Nicholas comes up with a plan to make the little boy's Christmas wish come true, so Nicholas makes a remote control butterfly and uses a pencil as a lock pick attached to the butterfly to unlock the door of the toy production room. As they are freed at last, Nicholas rides on Waldorf to stop the Victorian Santa. When Nicholas sees Victorian Santa, he convinces him to change his ways and makes him turn around back to the workshop. Nicholas collapses, and Victorian Santa is stricken with remorse. Eventually, Nicholas is revived with the butterfly wings that he made for the child who wrote the letter at the start of the movie, and the sleigh returns to the workshop. Nicholas, Beatrice, Humphrey, and Santa convert the bricks back into toys only to find that there are 2 hours left to make the Christmas delivery around the world. Nicholas convinces them to use the butterfly wings to speed things up. They make a speedy Christmas delivery around the world and deliver the remote control butterfly to the child who wanted it for Christmas. Everything is successful as Nicholas now allows children to visit at Santa's Workshop. Victorian Santa has kept his promise and provides Christmas dinner to Santa, Nicholas, Beatrice, Mr. Ratchet, Zoe, Waldorf, Humphrey and Tim\-Tim. Mrs. Lovejoy enters the room and figures out why Santa was not in Sydney. Santa explains to Mrs. Lovejoy about the events that had happened. Mr. Ratchet sees what Santa did all along and finally offers Santa the job to run the Orphanage. Everyone, including, Mrs. Lovejoy, enjoys Christmas Dinner. At the basement, the retired Santas are still playing a choosing game under the magic snowflake.
[ "Plot\n----", "The movie opens where a little boy writes a letter to Santa Claus that he wants a remote control flying bug and mails it to the North Pole. At the North Pole, an Inuit Eskimo boy named Tim\\-Tim picks up the mail to deliver it to Santa's Workshop. Beatrice Lovejoy, Santa's wife, picks up the mail, but she won't allow Tim\\-Tim to take a peek inside. As Santa is about to make his rounds, Mrs. Lovejoy closes the roof and reminds Santa to celebrate his retirement in Sydney, Australia. As Santa gives Santa's robe and hat to Nicholas, Beatrice and all the elves congratulate him on being the new Santa. After Santa and Mrs. Lovejoy leave, Nicholas takes over the workshop and receives a letter from the little boy who wanted a remote control flying bug. Tim\\-Tim secretly enters the workshop and Beatrice notices him and decides to show him around. Nicholas asks Tim\\-Tim why is he in the workshop and asks him to leave, but Beatrice decides to show him around the workshop. On board the airplane, Santa worries about Nicholas as Mrs. Lovejoy convinces to Santa to remind of himself of something. He pulls his blue bunny toy and holds it to his heart.", "When Nicholas woke up the next morning, the white hair appears on his face. He gets rid of it by shaving, but the white hair reappears. He attempts making a remote control flying bug, which turns out to be a fiery bee and causes it to damage the workshop a bit as the elves stopped it. He told Beatrice about what happened, and he saw Tim\\-Tim again and his voice deepens as he felt what happened and angrily tells Tim\\-Tim to leave, and then he left through Rufus's door. Beatrice saw what happened to Nicholas as she goes with Waldorf to a room to ring the emergency bell to call the Council of Retired Santas to explain what happened. At the Daffodil Orphanage, Santa and Mrs. Lovejoy meets with the Director of the Orphanage Mr. Ratchet and Santa asks him for a job, but Mr. Ratchet refuses the offer and asks Santa to leave. Santa hears something at the Orphanage fireplace, and he goes up there and lands in Santa's workshop.", "Santa returns and takes Nicholas to the basement to find that the magic snowflake was melted. They see the Council of Retired Santas arrive as Nicholas and Beatrice explain what happened to Santa. Santa tells Nicholas that he has Grown\\-up\\-itis. Beatrice and Santa ask the Victorian Santa to take over the workshop until Nicholas is cured. Santa and Nicholas go to the snow field as Nicholas sees a door marked 24\\. Santa explains to Nicholas that it is the advent calendar doors, and only Nicholas can see it with his eyes. Nicholas enters door 24, and he sees himself in the future as a tyrannical corporate executive who makes products designed to make kids grow up faster. Nicholas and Rufus find a hamster marked 7 as they exit door 24\\.", "Meanwhile, at Santa's workshop, Beatrice shows Victorian Santa a handheld game, and he realizes that it does not exist in Victorian era. He expresses disdain at all the other modern toys kids that are now being made and decides to do something about it. Back at the advent calendar, Nicholas shows Santa a hamster with the number 7 and says that it is the next door to enter. He then enters door 7 and meets with Tim\\-Tim and his mother, who is the Shaman of the Eskimo Village. The Shaman explains to Nicholas he is to find door 3 near bear mountain that leads to the past. Nicholas tells Santa about the last door to enter near bear mountain, then Nicholas sees door 1\\. Santa warns Nicholas not to enter the door, but Nicholas ignores Santa's warning and enters it anyway. Seeing baby Nicholas with his parents boarding a ship, Nicholas tries to stop them, but it was too late. After he exits door 1, the advent calendar doors collapse as Nicholas now has a beard and Santa asks Nicholas that door 3 still works if he can find it. So Nicholas and Rufus go to bear mountain on their own to find door 3 as Santa returns to Daffodil Orphanage.", "Back at Santa's workshop, Victorian Santa converts toys to bricks and Beatrice notices this and asks the Victorian Santa why, he explains to Beatrice that kids will use their imaginations with bricks for anything they can come up with. He then locks Beatrice in a toy production room until after Christmas Eve so that she will not stop him. Back at the Orphanage, Santa picks up the bunny to entertain Zoe, a little girl at the orphanage, until Mr. Ratchet sees this and Santa takes Mr. Ratchet and Zoe to the fireplace through the tunnels to the ship at the North Pole. Mr. Ratchet knows how to steer the ship. They finally arrive at Santa's workshop and seeing Victorian Santa making bricks instead of toys and tries to convince him to revert it, but Victorian Santa refuses, and he locks up Santa, Mr. Ratchet, and Zoe in the toy production room as Waldorf barely escapes and goes to find Nicholas.", "Meanwhile, Nicholas and Rufus arrive at bear mountain by moonlight. Nicholas runs and slides down the snow and his beard is starting to fade away as the magic snowflake is restored, and the spirit fairies fly to bear mountain. He finally arrives at bear mountain, and the magic snowflake spirit fairies reveal the bear and take Nicholas to the base of bear mountain. The bear reveals door 3 as he hears Waldorf calling. Nicholas finally enters door 3 and sees himself when he was 3\\-years\\-old at the orphanage. Nicholas figures out that his Teddy bear was a toy that Santa gave to him when he was 3\\-years\\-old. At the toy production room of Santa's Workshop, Santa entertains and gives a bunny to Zoe and Mr. Ratchet sees how thoughtful Santa was to Zoe. Santa knew that it was his glowing heart that was the bonding connection. Back at the orphanage in the past, Nicholas hugs his teddy bear to his heart and gives it back to his 3\\-year\\-old self and exits door 3\\. At last, Nicholas's Grown\\-up\\-itis is cured as Nicholas and Rufus ride on Waldorf to Tim\\-Tim's igloo in the Eskimo Village and the Shaman congratulates Nicholas upon succeeding in his tasks. Nicholas invites Tim\\-Tim to Santa's workshop and apologizes for yelling. Nicholas, Tim\\-Tim, Rufus, and Waldorf head to Santa's Workshop as Tim\\-Tim distract the elves. Then, Nicholas unlocks the door to the toy production room with his pencil as a lock pick and explains everything to Santa. Victorian Santa notices this and locks them in the toy production room as well, along with Tim\\-Tim.", "Nicholas comes up with a plan to make the little boy's Christmas wish come true, so Nicholas makes a remote control butterfly and uses a pencil as a lock pick attached to the butterfly to unlock the door of the toy production room. As they are freed at last, Nicholas rides on Waldorf to stop the Victorian Santa. When Nicholas sees Victorian Santa, he convinces him to change his ways and makes him turn around back to the workshop. Nicholas collapses, and Victorian Santa is stricken with remorse. Eventually, Nicholas is revived with the butterfly wings that he made for the child who wrote the letter at the start of the movie, and the sleigh returns to the workshop.", "Nicholas, Beatrice, Humphrey, and Santa convert the bricks back into toys only to find that there are 2 hours left to make the Christmas delivery around the world. Nicholas convinces them to use the butterfly wings to speed things up. They make a speedy Christmas delivery around the world and deliver the remote control butterfly to the child who wanted it for Christmas. Everything is successful as Nicholas now allows children to visit at Santa's Workshop. Victorian Santa has kept his promise and provides Christmas dinner to Santa, Nicholas, Beatrice, Mr. Ratchet, Zoe, Waldorf, Humphrey and Tim\\-Tim. Mrs. Lovejoy enters the room and figures out why Santa was not in Sydney. Santa explains to Mrs. Lovejoy about the events that had happened. Mr. Ratchet sees what Santa did all along and finally offers Santa the job to run the Orphanage. Everyone, including, Mrs. Lovejoy, enjoys Christmas Dinner. At the basement, the retired Santas are still playing a choosing game under the magic snowflake.", "" ]
History ------- First child to Roebuck "Pops" Staples and his wife Oceola Staples, Cleotha was born in [Drew, Mississippi](/wiki/Drew%2C_Mississippi "Drew, Mississippi"), in 1934\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/cleotha\-staples\-vocalist\-with\-the\-staples\-singers\-8517604\.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220618/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/cleotha\-staples\-vocalist\-with\-the\-staples\-singers\-8517604\.html \|archive\-date\=June 18, 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Cleotha Staples: Vocalist with the Staples Singers\|newspaper\=\[\[The Independent]]\|accessdate\=July 20, 2018\|first\=Pierre\|last\=Perrone\|date\=March 2, 2013}} Two years later, Roebuck moved his family from Mississippi to [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"). Roebuck and Oceola's children, son Pervis and daughters, Mavis and Yvonne, were born in Chicago. Roebuck worked in steel mills and meatpacking plants while his family of four children grew up.Gary Kramer, Liner notes to Riverside l.p. *Hammer and Nails*, 1962\. The family began appearing in [Chicago\-area](/wiki/Chicago_metropolitan_area "Chicago metropolitan area") churches in 1948\.{{cite news\|last1\=Stack\|first1\=Liam\|title\=Yvonne Staples, Member and Manager of the Staple Singers, Dies at 80\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/10/obituaries/yvonne\-staples\-singers.html\|access\-date\= April 16, 2018\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=11 April 2018\|page\=A25}} Their first public singing appearance was at the Mount Zion Church, Chicago, where Roebuck's brother, the Rev. Chester Staples, was pastor.H.R.R. Liner notes to original Vee Jay l.p. *Uncloudy Day*, 1959\. They signed their first professional contract in 1952\.Preiser, David (2002\). *Uncloudy Day* \[CD liner notes]. New York: Koch Jazz. During their early career, they recorded in an acoustic gospel\-[folk](/wiki/Folk_music "Folk music") style with various labels: [United Records](/wiki/United_Records "United Records"), [Vee\-Jay Records](/wiki/Vee-Jay_Records "Vee-Jay Records") (their "[Uncloudy Day](/wiki/Uncloudy_Day "Uncloudy Day")" and "[Will the Circle Be Unbroken?](/wiki/Will_the_Circle_Be_Unbroken%3F "Will the Circle Be Unbroken?")" were best sellers), [Checker Records](/wiki/Checker_Records "Checker Records"), [Riverside Records](/wiki/Riverside_Records "Riverside Records"), and then [Epic Records](/wiki/Epic_Records "Epic Records") in 1965\. "Uncloudy Day" was an early influence on [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan"), who said of it in 2015, "It was the most mysterious thing I'd ever heard ... I'd think about them even at my school desk ... Mavis looked to be about the same age as me in her picture (on the cover of "Uncloudy Day") ... Her singing just knocked me out ... And Mavis was a great singer—deep and mysterious. And even at the young age, I felt that life itself was a mystery."Interview with Bob Dylan. *i* newspaper (London) Feb 3rd 2015 The move to Epic yielded a run of albums, including the live in\-church *[Freedom Highway](/wiki/Freedom_Highway_%28The_Staple_Singers_album%29 "Freedom Highway (The Staple Singers album)")* album produced by [Billy Sherrill](/wiki/Billy_Sherrill "Billy Sherrill"); the title track of which was a civil rights movement protest song penned by Pops Staples. It was on Epic that the Staple Singers developed a style more accessible to mainstream audiences, with "Why (Am I Treated So Bad)" and "[For What It's Worth](/wiki/For_What_It%27s_Worth_%28Buffalo_Springfield_song%29 "For What It's Worth (Buffalo Springfield song)")" ([Stephen Stills](/wiki/Stephen_Stills "Stephen Stills")) in 1967\. In 1968, the Staple Singers signed to [Stax Records](/wiki/Stax_Records "Stax Records") and released two albums with [Steve Cropper](/wiki/Steve_Cropper "Steve Cropper")—*Soul Folk in Action* and *We'll Get Over*, Pervis returning for them.Liner notes to Stax LPs *Soul Folk in Action*, 1968 and *We'll Get Over*, 1969 After Cropper left Stax, Al Bell produced their recordings, conducting the rhythm sessions at the famed [Muscle Shoals Sound Studio](/wiki/Muscle_Shoals_Sound_Studio "Muscle Shoals Sound Studio") and cutting the overdubs himself with engineer/musician [Terry Manning](/wiki/Terry_Manning "Terry Manning") at Memphis's [Ardent Studios](/wiki/Ardent_Studios "Ardent Studios"),Rob Bowman *Stax: 50th Anniversary Celebration* (Beverly Hills) 2007, and see also Rob Bowman, *Soulsville USA: The Story of Stax Records* there cited. moving in a more [funk](/wiki/Funk_music "Funk music") and [soul](/wiki/Soul_music "Soul music") direction. {{quote box\|quote\="For most of this decade, Roebuck Staples—born December 28, 1914, about One Year \& two weeks after \[\[Frank Sinatra]]—has been the oldest performer with direct access to the \[\[hit parade]] by some twenty\-five years, so here's your chance to mind your elders. It's \[\[Mavis Staples\|Mavis]]'s lowdown, occasionally undefined growl that dominates, of course; you should hear how secular she gets with an \[\[O. V. Wright]] blues that got buried on ''\[\[The Staple Swingers]]''. But Pops's unassuming \[\[moralism]] sets the tone and his guitar assures the flow."\|source\=—''The Best of the Staples Singers'' review in ''\[\[Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies]]'' (1981\){{cite book\|last\=Christgau\|first\=Robert\|author\-link\=Robert Christgau\|year\=1981\|title\=Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies\|title\-link\=Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies\|publisher\=\[\[Ticknor \& Fields]]\|isbn\=089919026X\|chapter\=Consumer Guide '70s: S\|chapter\-url\=https://www.robertchristgau.com/get\_chap.php?k\=S\&bk\=70\|access\-date\=March 12, 2019\|via\=robertchristgau.com}}\|width\=23%\|align\=right\|style\=padding:8px;}} The Staple Singers' first Stax hit was "[Heavy Makes You Happy (Sha\-Na\-Boom\-Boom)](/wiki/Heavy_Makes_You_Happy_%28Sha-Na-Boom-Boom%29 "Heavy Makes You Happy (Sha-Na-Boom-Boom)")" in early 1971\. Their late 1971 recording of "[Respect Yourself](/wiki/Respect_Yourself "Respect Yourself")", written by [Luther Ingram](/wiki/Luther_Ingram "Luther Ingram") and [Mack Rice](/wiki/Mack_Rice "Mack Rice"), peaked at number two on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)")* [R\&B](/wiki/R%26B "R&B") chart and number 12 on the *Billboard* Hot 100\. Both hits sold over one million copies and were each awarded a [gold disc](/wiki/Music_recording_sales_certification "Music recording sales certification") by the [Recording Industry Association of America](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America "Recording Industry Association of America").{{cite book\|first\=Joseph\|last\=Murrells\|year\=1978\|title\=The Book of Golden Discs\|edition\=2nd\|publisher\=Barrie and Jenkins Ltd\|location\=London\|page\= \[https://archive.org/details/bookofgoldendisc00murr/page/303 303]\|isbn\=0\-214\-20512\-6\|url\-access\=registration\|url\=https://archive.org/details/bookofgoldendisc00murr/page/303}} The song's theme of self\-empowerment had universal appeal, released in the period immediately following the intense [American civil rights movement](/wiki/American_civil_rights_movement "American civil rights movement") of the 1960s. In 1972, "[I'll Take You There](/wiki/I%27ll_Take_You_There "I'll Take You There")" topped both *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)")* charts. In 1973, "[If You're Ready (Come Go With Me)](/wiki/If_You%27re_Ready_%28Come_Go_With_Me%29 "If You're Ready (Come Go With Me)")" reached number 9 on the Hot 100 and number one on the R\&B chart. After Stax's 1975 bankruptcy, The Staple Singers signed to [Curtis Mayfield](/wiki/Curtis_Mayfield "Curtis Mayfield")'s label, [Curtom Records](/wiki/Curtom_Records "Curtom Records"), and released "[Let's Do It Again](/wiki/Let%27s_Do_It_Again_%28song%29 "Let's Do It Again (song)")", produced by Mayfield; the song became their second number\-one pop hit in the U.S., and the album was also successful. In 1976, they collaborated with [The Band](/wiki/The_Band "The Band") for their film *[The Last Waltz](/wiki/The_Last_Waltz "The Last Waltz")*, performing on the song "[The Weight](/wiki/The_Weight "The Weight")" (which The Staple Singers had previously covered on their first Stax album). However, they were not able to regain their momentum, releasing only occasional minor hits. The 1984 album *Turning Point* featured a cover of [Talking Heads](/wiki/Talking_Heads "Talking Heads")' "Slippery People", which reached the Top 5 on the Dance chart. In 1994, they again performed the song "[The Weight](/wiki/The_Weight "The Weight")" with country music artist [Marty Stuart](/wiki/Marty_Stuart "Marty Stuart") for [MCA Nashville](/wiki/MCA_Nashville_Records "MCA Nashville Records")'s *[Rhythm, Country and Blues](/wiki/Rhythm%2C_Country_and_Blues "Rhythm, Country and Blues")* compilation, somewhat re\-establishing an audience. The song "Respect Yourself" was used by [Spike Lee](/wiki/Spike_Lee "Spike Lee") in the soundtrack to his movie *[Crooklyn](/wiki/Crooklyn "Crooklyn")*, made in 1994\. In 1999, The Staple Singers were inducted into the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame"), where they performed "Respect Yourself" and "I'll Take You There". Pops Staples died of complications from a concussion suffered in December 2000\.{{Cite news\|date\=2000\-12\-21\|title\=R\&B pioneer Pops Staples dies\|language\=en\-GB\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1081167\.stm\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-02\|website\=\[\[BBC News]]}} Cleotha Staples died in Chicago on February 21, 2013, at the age of 78, after suffering from [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease "Alzheimer's disease") for over a decade.Obituaries, *The New York Times*, February 24, 2013; *The Guardian* newspaper (London), February 24, 2013\. [Mavis Staples](/wiki/Mavis_Staples "Mavis Staples") has continued to carry on the family tradition and continues to add her vocal talents to both the projects of other artists and her own solo ventures. In 2022, she released *[Carry Me Home](/wiki/Carry_Me_Home_%28Mavis_Staples_album%29 "Carry Me Home (Mavis Staples album)")*, a collaboration with [Levon Helm](/wiki/Levon_Helm "Levon Helm"), recorded at Helm's Midnight Ramble in 2011\. She appeared at [Glastonbury](/wiki/Glastonbury_Festival "Glastonbury Festival") in 2015{{Cite web\|title\=Glastonbury 2015 \- Mavis Staples\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/events/e84mxj/acts/acgbc8\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-02\|website\=BBC Music Events\|language\=en}} and 2019,{{Cite web\|title\=Glastonbury 2019 \- Mavis Staples\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/events/er3v9r/acts/abcqfx\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-02\|website\=BBC Music Events\|language\=en}} and her 2016 album *[Livin' on a High Note](/wiki/Livin%27_on_a_High_Note "Livin' on a High Note")* includes a simple acoustic version of a [Martin Luther King](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. "Martin Luther King Jr.") sermon in the track "MLK Song".*The Times* newspaper, (London), February 19, 2016\. Yvonne Staples died on April 10, 2018, at the age of 80\. Pervis Staples died suddenly in his home in Dolton, Illinois, on May 6, 2021, at the age of 85, leaving Mavis as the band's last surviving member.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.npr.org/2021/05/13/996553392/pervis\-staples\-founding\-member\-of\-the\-staple\-singers\-dies\-at\-age\-85\|title\=Pervis Staples, Founding Member Of The Staple Singers, Dies At Age 85\|first\=Andrew\|last\=Limbong\|publisher\=NPR\|date\=2021\-05\-13\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-13}}
[ "History\n-------", "First child to Roebuck \"Pops\" Staples and his wife Oceola Staples, Cleotha was born in [Drew, Mississippi](/wiki/Drew%2C_Mississippi \"Drew, Mississippi\"), in 1934\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/cleotha\\-staples\\-vocalist\\-with\\-the\\-staples\\-singers\\-8517604\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220618/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/cleotha\\-staples\\-vocalist\\-with\\-the\\-staples\\-singers\\-8517604\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=June 18, 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Cleotha Staples: Vocalist with the Staples Singers\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Independent]]\\|accessdate\\=July 20, 2018\\|first\\=Pierre\\|last\\=Perrone\\|date\\=March 2, 2013}} Two years later, Roebuck moved his family from Mississippi to [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"). Roebuck and Oceola's children, son Pervis and daughters, Mavis and Yvonne, were born in Chicago. Roebuck worked in steel mills and meatpacking plants while his family of four children grew up.Gary Kramer, Liner notes to Riverside l.p. *Hammer and Nails*, 1962\\. The family began appearing in [Chicago\\-area](/wiki/Chicago_metropolitan_area \"Chicago metropolitan area\") churches in 1948\\.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Stack\\|first1\\=Liam\\|title\\=Yvonne Staples, Member and Manager of the Staple Singers, Dies at 80\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/10/obituaries/yvonne\\-staples\\-singers.html\\|access\\-date\\= April 16, 2018\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=11 April 2018\\|page\\=A25}} Their first public singing appearance was at the Mount Zion Church, Chicago, where Roebuck's brother, the Rev. Chester Staples, was pastor.H.R.R. Liner notes to original Vee Jay l.p. *Uncloudy Day*, 1959\\.", "They signed their first professional contract in 1952\\.Preiser, David (2002\\). *Uncloudy Day* \\[CD liner notes]. New York: Koch Jazz. During their early career, they recorded in an acoustic gospel\\-[folk](/wiki/Folk_music \"Folk music\") style with various labels: [United Records](/wiki/United_Records \"United Records\"), [Vee\\-Jay Records](/wiki/Vee-Jay_Records \"Vee-Jay Records\") (their \"[Uncloudy Day](/wiki/Uncloudy_Day \"Uncloudy Day\")\" and \"[Will the Circle Be Unbroken?](/wiki/Will_the_Circle_Be_Unbroken%3F \"Will the Circle Be Unbroken?\")\" were best sellers), [Checker Records](/wiki/Checker_Records \"Checker Records\"), [Riverside Records](/wiki/Riverside_Records \"Riverside Records\"), and then [Epic Records](/wiki/Epic_Records \"Epic Records\") in 1965\\. \"Uncloudy Day\" was an early influence on [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\"), who said of it in 2015, \"It was the most mysterious thing I'd ever heard ... I'd think about them even at my school desk ... Mavis looked to be about the same age as me in her picture (on the cover of \"Uncloudy Day\") ... Her singing just knocked me out ... And Mavis was a great singer—deep and mysterious. And even at the young age, I felt that life itself was a mystery.\"Interview with Bob Dylan. *i* newspaper (London) Feb 3rd 2015", "The move to Epic yielded a run of albums, including the live in\\-church *[Freedom Highway](/wiki/Freedom_Highway_%28The_Staple_Singers_album%29 \"Freedom Highway (The Staple Singers album)\")* album produced by [Billy Sherrill](/wiki/Billy_Sherrill \"Billy Sherrill\"); the title track of which was a civil rights movement protest song penned by Pops Staples. It was on Epic that the Staple Singers developed a style more accessible to mainstream audiences, with \"Why (Am I Treated So Bad)\" and \"[For What It's Worth](/wiki/For_What_It%27s_Worth_%28Buffalo_Springfield_song%29 \"For What It's Worth (Buffalo Springfield song)\")\" ([Stephen Stills](/wiki/Stephen_Stills \"Stephen Stills\")) in 1967\\. In 1968, the Staple Singers signed to [Stax Records](/wiki/Stax_Records \"Stax Records\") and released two albums with [Steve Cropper](/wiki/Steve_Cropper \"Steve Cropper\")—*Soul Folk in Action* and *We'll Get Over*, Pervis returning for them.Liner notes to Stax LPs *Soul Folk in Action*, 1968 and *We'll Get Over*, 1969 After Cropper left Stax, Al Bell produced their recordings, conducting the rhythm sessions at the famed [Muscle Shoals Sound Studio](/wiki/Muscle_Shoals_Sound_Studio \"Muscle Shoals Sound Studio\") and cutting the overdubs himself with engineer/musician [Terry Manning](/wiki/Terry_Manning \"Terry Manning\") at Memphis's [Ardent Studios](/wiki/Ardent_Studios \"Ardent Studios\"),Rob Bowman *Stax: 50th Anniversary Celebration* (Beverly Hills) 2007, and see also Rob Bowman, *Soulsville USA: The Story of Stax Records* there cited. moving in a more [funk](/wiki/Funk_music \"Funk music\") and [soul](/wiki/Soul_music \"Soul music\") direction.", "{{quote box\\|quote\\=\"For most of this decade, Roebuck Staples—born December 28, 1914, about One Year \\& two weeks after \\[\\[Frank Sinatra]]—has been the oldest performer with direct access to the \\[\\[hit parade]] by some twenty\\-five years, so here's your chance to mind your elders. It's \\[\\[Mavis Staples\\|Mavis]]'s lowdown, occasionally undefined growl that dominates, of course; you should hear how secular she gets with an \\[\\[O. V. Wright]] blues that got buried on ''\\[\\[The Staple Swingers]]''. But Pops's unassuming \\[\\[moralism]] sets the tone and his guitar assures the flow.\"\\|source\\=—''The Best of the Staples Singers'' review in ''\\[\\[Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies]]'' (1981\\){{cite book\\|last\\=Christgau\\|first\\=Robert\\|author\\-link\\=Robert Christgau\\|year\\=1981\\|title\\=Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies\\|title\\-link\\=Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Ticknor \\& Fields]]\\|isbn\\=089919026X\\|chapter\\=Consumer Guide '70s: S\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://www.robertchristgau.com/get\\_chap.php?k\\=S\\&bk\\=70\\|access\\-date\\=March 12, 2019\\|via\\=robertchristgau.com}}\\|width\\=23%\\|align\\=right\\|style\\=padding:8px;}}", "The Staple Singers' first Stax hit was \"[Heavy Makes You Happy (Sha\\-Na\\-Boom\\-Boom)](/wiki/Heavy_Makes_You_Happy_%28Sha-Na-Boom-Boom%29 \"Heavy Makes You Happy (Sha-Na-Boom-Boom)\")\" in early 1971\\. Their late 1971 recording of \"[Respect Yourself](/wiki/Respect_Yourself \"Respect Yourself\")\", written by [Luther Ingram](/wiki/Luther_Ingram \"Luther Ingram\") and [Mack Rice](/wiki/Mack_Rice \"Mack Rice\"), peaked at number two on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* [R\\&B](/wiki/R%26B \"R&B\") chart and number 12 on the *Billboard* Hot 100\\. Both hits sold over one million copies and were each awarded a [gold disc](/wiki/Music_recording_sales_certification \"Music recording sales certification\") by the [Recording Industry Association of America](/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America \"Recording Industry Association of America\").{{cite book\\|first\\=Joseph\\|last\\=Murrells\\|year\\=1978\\|title\\=The Book of Golden Discs\\|edition\\=2nd\\|publisher\\=Barrie and Jenkins Ltd\\|location\\=London\\|page\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/bookofgoldendisc00murr/page/303 303]\\|isbn\\=0\\-214\\-20512\\-6\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/bookofgoldendisc00murr/page/303}} The song's theme of self\\-empowerment had universal appeal, released in the period immediately following the intense [American civil rights movement](/wiki/American_civil_rights_movement \"American civil rights movement\") of the 1960s. In 1972, \"[I'll Take You There](/wiki/I%27ll_Take_You_There \"I'll Take You There\")\" topped both *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* charts. In 1973, \"[If You're Ready (Come Go With Me)](/wiki/If_You%27re_Ready_%28Come_Go_With_Me%29 \"If You're Ready (Come Go With Me)\")\" reached number 9 on the Hot 100 and number one on the R\\&B chart.", "After Stax's 1975 bankruptcy, The Staple Singers signed to [Curtis Mayfield](/wiki/Curtis_Mayfield \"Curtis Mayfield\")'s label, [Curtom Records](/wiki/Curtom_Records \"Curtom Records\"), and released \"[Let's Do It Again](/wiki/Let%27s_Do_It_Again_%28song%29 \"Let's Do It Again (song)\")\", produced by Mayfield; the song became their second number\\-one pop hit in the U.S., and the album was also successful. In 1976, they collaborated with [The Band](/wiki/The_Band \"The Band\") for their film *[The Last Waltz](/wiki/The_Last_Waltz \"The Last Waltz\")*, performing on the song \"[The Weight](/wiki/The_Weight \"The Weight\")\" (which The Staple Singers had previously covered on their first Stax album). However, they were not able to regain their momentum, releasing only occasional minor hits. The 1984 album *Turning Point* featured a cover of [Talking Heads](/wiki/Talking_Heads \"Talking Heads\")' \"Slippery People\", which reached the Top 5 on the Dance chart. In 1994, they again performed the song \"[The Weight](/wiki/The_Weight \"The Weight\")\" with country music artist [Marty Stuart](/wiki/Marty_Stuart \"Marty Stuart\") for [MCA Nashville](/wiki/MCA_Nashville_Records \"MCA Nashville Records\")'s *[Rhythm, Country and Blues](/wiki/Rhythm%2C_Country_and_Blues \"Rhythm, Country and Blues\")* compilation, somewhat re\\-establishing an audience. The song \"Respect Yourself\" was used by [Spike Lee](/wiki/Spike_Lee \"Spike Lee\") in the soundtrack to his movie *[Crooklyn](/wiki/Crooklyn \"Crooklyn\")*, made in 1994\\.", "In 1999, The Staple Singers were inducted into the [Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](/wiki/Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame \"Rock and Roll Hall of Fame\"), where they performed \"Respect Yourself\" and \"I'll Take You There\".", "Pops Staples died of complications from a concussion suffered in December 2000\\.{{Cite news\\|date\\=2000\\-12\\-21\\|title\\=R\\&B pioneer Pops Staples dies\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1081167\\.stm\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-02\\|website\\=\\[\\[BBC News]]}} Cleotha Staples died in Chicago on February 21, 2013, at the age of 78, after suffering from [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease \"Alzheimer's disease\") for over a decade.Obituaries, *The New York Times*, February 24, 2013; *The Guardian* newspaper (London), February 24, 2013\\. [Mavis Staples](/wiki/Mavis_Staples \"Mavis Staples\") has continued to carry on the family tradition and continues to add her vocal talents to both the projects of other artists and her own solo ventures. In 2022, she released *[Carry Me Home](/wiki/Carry_Me_Home_%28Mavis_Staples_album%29 \"Carry Me Home (Mavis Staples album)\")*, a collaboration with [Levon Helm](/wiki/Levon_Helm \"Levon Helm\"), recorded at Helm's Midnight Ramble in 2011\\. She appeared at [Glastonbury](/wiki/Glastonbury_Festival \"Glastonbury Festival\") in 2015{{Cite web\\|title\\=Glastonbury 2015 \\- Mavis Staples\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/events/e84mxj/acts/acgbc8\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-02\\|website\\=BBC Music Events\\|language\\=en}} and 2019,{{Cite web\\|title\\=Glastonbury 2019 \\- Mavis Staples\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/events/er3v9r/acts/abcqfx\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-02\\|website\\=BBC Music Events\\|language\\=en}} and her 2016 album *[Livin' on a High Note](/wiki/Livin%27_on_a_High_Note \"Livin' on a High Note\")* includes a simple acoustic version of a [Martin Luther King](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr. \"Martin Luther King Jr.\") sermon in the track \"MLK Song\".*The Times* newspaper, (London), February 19, 2016\\. Yvonne Staples died on April 10, 2018, at the age of 80\\. Pervis Staples died suddenly in his home in Dolton, Illinois, on May 6, 2021, at the age of 85, leaving Mavis as the band's last surviving member.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/2021/05/13/996553392/pervis\\-staples\\-founding\\-member\\-of\\-the\\-staple\\-singers\\-dies\\-at\\-age\\-85\\|title\\=Pervis Staples, Founding Member Of The Staple Singers, Dies At Age 85\\|first\\=Andrew\\|last\\=Limbong\\|publisher\\=NPR\\|date\\=2021\\-05\\-13\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-13}}", "" ]
Synopsis -------- Brock recalls his days at the [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley "University of California, Berkeley"), and how he was turned off by hecklers at a speech by then United States ambassador to the United Nations, [Jeane Kirkpatrick](/wiki/Jeane_Kirkpatrick "Jeane Kirkpatrick"). Brock's main attraction to [conservatism](/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States "Conservatism in the United States") was his disdain for [communism](/wiki/Communism "Communism"). After college, Brock moved with his then\-partner (called "Andrew" to conceal his identity) to Washington, D.C. In D.C., Brock worked for *[The Washington Times](/wiki/The_Washington_Times "The Washington Times")* and *[The American Spectator](/wiki/The_American_Spectator "The American Spectator")*. Brock claims while he was working for those publications he thought he was doing honest journalism, but later stated that he had never corroborated his facts. While working for *The American Spectator*, he wrote an article on [Anita Hill](/wiki/Anita_Hill "Anita Hill"), which he later expanded into *[The Real Anita Hill](/wiki/The_Real_Anita_Hill "The Real Anita Hill")*, a book that made him popular in the conservative movement. Brock would later say that many of the details he used were false. After [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") was elected, Brock was assigned to write a story, later dubbed [Troopergate](/wiki/Troopergate_%28Bill_Clinton%29 "Troopergate (Bill Clinton)"), about four Arkansas state troopers who held a grudge against [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton"). He claims that the troopers made up stories about affairs that could never be corroborated. Brock was given assurances that the troopers would not get paid for telling their stories. He later discovered he was deceived, and that the troopers had been paid by [Richard Mellon Scaife](/wiki/Richard_Mellon_Scaife "Richard Mellon Scaife"), who bankrolled *The American Spectator* and the [Arkansas Project](/wiki/Arkansas_Project "Arkansas Project"), a secret project to discredit Clinton. Brock made sure to conceal the identities of the women identified by the troopers, with the exception of one woman named "Paula". Brock thought that by not revealing her last name, it would be enough to conceal her identity. Brock did not take into account that [Little Rock](/wiki/Little_Rock "Little Rock") is a small city. Eventually her identity would be revealed as [Paula Jones](/wiki/Paula_Jones "Paula Jones"), which led to her civil lawsuit against Bill Clinton. Following the Troopergate story, Brock wrote a book about [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton "Hillary Clinton"), *[The Seduction of Hillary Rodham](/wiki/The_Seduction_of_Hillary_Rodham "The Seduction of Hillary Rodham")*. Unlike the Anita Hill book, Brock decided not to put anything in the book that he could not corroborate. The book was not as critical of Hillary Clinton as it was promised to be. Brock claims that conservatives planned on the book being so damning as to influence the outcome of the 1996 presidential election. *The Seduction of Hillary Rodham* was the beginning of Brock's falling out with the conservative movement. The issue that forced him to leave the conservative movement was the movement's intolerance towards [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality"). Brock had reluctantly come out of the closet, prior to writing the Hillary Clinton book, and believes this contributed to his being shunned by many in the movement. Brock voted for [Al Gore](/wiki/Al_Gore "Al Gore") in 2000, the first time he voted since he voted for [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") in 1984\. During the period in which he did not vote, he had two rationalizations for his non\-voting: * He believed that his vote did not count in liberal [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington_D.C. "Washington D.C.") * He believed that not voting allowed him to stay neutral Brock proclaimed that the latter rationalization was bogus, as he was not neutral during that time period.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "Brock recalls his days at the [University of California, Berkeley](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley \"University of California, Berkeley\"), and how he was turned off by hecklers at a speech by then United States ambassador to the United Nations, [Jeane Kirkpatrick](/wiki/Jeane_Kirkpatrick \"Jeane Kirkpatrick\"). Brock's main attraction to [conservatism](/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States \"Conservatism in the United States\") was his disdain for [communism](/wiki/Communism \"Communism\").", "After college, Brock moved with his then\\-partner (called \"Andrew\" to conceal his identity) to Washington, D.C. In D.C., Brock worked for *[The Washington Times](/wiki/The_Washington_Times \"The Washington Times\")* and *[The American Spectator](/wiki/The_American_Spectator \"The American Spectator\")*. Brock claims while he was working for those publications he thought he was doing honest journalism, but later stated that he had never corroborated his facts.", "While working for *The American Spectator*, he wrote an article on [Anita Hill](/wiki/Anita_Hill \"Anita Hill\"), which he later expanded into *[The Real Anita Hill](/wiki/The_Real_Anita_Hill \"The Real Anita Hill\")*, a book that made him popular in the conservative movement. Brock would later say that many of the details he used were false.", "After [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") was elected, Brock was assigned to write a story, later dubbed [Troopergate](/wiki/Troopergate_%28Bill_Clinton%29 \"Troopergate (Bill Clinton)\"), about four Arkansas state troopers who held a grudge against [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\"). He claims that the troopers made up stories about affairs that could never be corroborated. Brock was given assurances that the troopers would not get paid for telling their stories. He later discovered he was deceived, and that the troopers had been paid by [Richard Mellon Scaife](/wiki/Richard_Mellon_Scaife \"Richard Mellon Scaife\"), who bankrolled *The American Spectator* and the [Arkansas Project](/wiki/Arkansas_Project \"Arkansas Project\"), a secret project to discredit Clinton.", "Brock made sure to conceal the identities of the women identified by the troopers, with the exception of one woman named \"Paula\". Brock thought that by not revealing her last name, it would be enough to conceal her identity. Brock did not take into account that [Little Rock](/wiki/Little_Rock \"Little Rock\") is a small city. Eventually her identity would be revealed as [Paula Jones](/wiki/Paula_Jones \"Paula Jones\"), which led to her civil lawsuit against Bill Clinton.", "Following the Troopergate story, Brock wrote a book about [Hillary Clinton](/wiki/Hillary_Clinton \"Hillary Clinton\"), *[The Seduction of Hillary Rodham](/wiki/The_Seduction_of_Hillary_Rodham \"The Seduction of Hillary Rodham\")*. Unlike the Anita Hill book, Brock decided not to put anything in the book that he could not corroborate. The book was not as critical of Hillary Clinton as it was promised to be. Brock claims that conservatives planned on the book being so damning as to influence the outcome of the 1996 presidential election.", "*The Seduction of Hillary Rodham* was the beginning of Brock's falling out with the conservative movement. The issue that forced him to leave the conservative movement was the movement's intolerance towards [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\"). Brock had reluctantly come out of the closet, prior to writing the Hillary Clinton book, and believes this contributed to his being shunned by many in the movement.", "Brock voted for [Al Gore](/wiki/Al_Gore \"Al Gore\") in 2000, the first time he voted since he voted for [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") in 1984\\. During the period in which he did not vote, he had two rationalizations for his non\\-voting:\n* He believed that his vote did not count in liberal [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington_D.C. \"Washington D.C.\")\n* He believed that not voting allowed him to stay neutral\nBrock proclaimed that the latter rationalization was bogus, as he was not neutral during that time period.", "" ]
Summary ------- Maigret's expected Saturday evening in January, of a meal and watching his recently installed television, is suspended when Léonard Planchon, a nervous man with a [hare lip](/wiki/Hare_lip "Hare lip"), visits him. He has often called at Police Headquarters on a Saturday and left before seeing Maigret; this time he has followed Maigret home. He tells him he wants to murder his wife and her lover. Maigret has not been sought out at home before and is interested in Planchon. In a long conversation, Planchon, who has a decorating business, tells Maigret how he met his wife, and about Roger Prou, an employee. Prou has moved into his house and into his bedroom; Planchon has to sleep on a camp bed. In the evenings he visits bistros and gets drunk. Maigret tells Planchon to phone him every day. On Sunday morning Maigret phones Headquarters and asks if there are any reports from the [18th arrondissement of Paris](/wiki/18th_arrondissement_of_Paris "18th arrondissement of Paris"), where Planchon lives, thinking there might be a murder. In the afternoon, Maigret and his wife take a walk past Planchon's home; on Monday he gets colleagues, pretending to be council surveyors, to look round the house. In the evening Planchon phones, but he does not phone next day. On Wednesday, having still not heard from him, Maigret phones the house; Prou replies, saying Planchon will not be back. Maigret visits the house and sees Planchon's wife Renée; she says that Planchon left with suitcases on Monday evening, and that three weeks earlier he had signed the business over to Prou. Although Maigret is not sure what sort of case he is investigating, he manages to get permission from the Deputy Prosecutor to interview Planchon's employees. The last interview is with Prou, who explains how he found the cash for Planchon's business, some of it borrowed from relatives. During the interview Maigret borrows the transfer document and a [graphologist](/wiki/Graphology "Graphology") examines it: he thinks Planchon's signature on it may have been forged. Maigret's colleagues check the bars frequented by Planchon. A prostitute is found who knew him: on Monday he was so drunk she helped him back to his house. Maigret, aware that Planchon could not have left with suitcases if he was too drunk to stand, persuades the Deputy Prosecutor to give him a search warrant, and the house is searched. When a bundle of banknotes is found under floorboards, the case soon reaches a conclusion.
[ "Summary\n-------", "Maigret's expected Saturday evening in January, of a meal and watching his recently installed television, is suspended when Léonard Planchon, a nervous man with a [hare lip](/wiki/Hare_lip \"Hare lip\"), visits him. He has often called at Police Headquarters on a Saturday and left before seeing Maigret; this time he has followed Maigret home. He tells him he wants to murder his wife and her lover. Maigret has not been sought out at home before and is interested in Planchon. In a long conversation, Planchon, who has a decorating business, tells Maigret how he met his wife, and about Roger Prou, an employee. Prou has moved into his house and into his bedroom; Planchon has to sleep on a camp bed. In the evenings he visits bistros and gets drunk. Maigret tells Planchon to phone him every day.", "On Sunday morning Maigret phones Headquarters and asks if there are any reports from the [18th arrondissement of Paris](/wiki/18th_arrondissement_of_Paris \"18th arrondissement of Paris\"), where Planchon lives, thinking there might be a murder. In the afternoon, Maigret and his wife take a walk past Planchon's home; on Monday he gets colleagues, pretending to be council surveyors, to look round the house. In the evening Planchon phones, but he does not phone next day. On Wednesday, having still not heard from him, Maigret phones the house; Prou replies, saying Planchon will not be back.", "Maigret visits the house and sees Planchon's wife Renée; she says that Planchon left with suitcases on Monday evening, and that three weeks earlier he had signed the business over to Prou.", "Although Maigret is not sure what sort of case he is investigating, he manages to get permission from the Deputy Prosecutor to interview Planchon's employees. The last interview is with Prou, who explains how he found the cash for Planchon's business, some of it borrowed from relatives. During the interview Maigret borrows the transfer document and a [graphologist](/wiki/Graphology \"Graphology\") examines it: he thinks Planchon's signature on it may have been forged.", "Maigret's colleagues check the bars frequented by Planchon. A prostitute is found who knew him: on Monday he was so drunk she helped him back to his house. Maigret, aware that Planchon could not have left with suitcases if he was too drunk to stand, persuades the Deputy Prosecutor to give him a search warrant, and the house is searched. When a bundle of banknotes is found under floorboards, the case soon reaches a conclusion.", "" ]
Season synopses --------------- | Season | Originally Aired | | Winner | Runner(s)\-up | Third place | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | First Aired | Last Aired | | 1 | {{nowrap\|April 24, 2020}} | May 3, 2020 | Earl Brooks Jr. (T\&T) | Dejean Cain (T\&T) | Kersh Ramsey (T\&T) | | 2 | May 7, 2021 | May 22, 2021 | Keishaun Julien (T\&T) | Dejean Cain (T\&T) | Tyeesha Alexander (T\&T) | | 3 | May 6, 2022 | June 12, 2022 | Mathieu Borgne (France) | Hanif Goodridge (T\&T) | Shaquille Forbes (T\&T) | | ### Season 1 (2020\) The first season for *PanoGrama* was promoted and aired in April 2020\. Participants were accepted on a registration basis and were allowed to compete without screening. All episodes aired live on Instagram. The first season was hosted by Nevin Roach, with the judging panel consisting of Ojay Richards, David Walcott and Kenneth Joseph. The first season was won by Earl Brooks Jr. (T\&T), followed by Dejean Cain (T\&T) in 2nd and Kersh Ramsey (T\&T) in 3rd. Mikey Mercer, Nandi Yard, Hance John and Jadon Philip were guest performers. The winner received cash. ### Season 2 (2021\) Following the success of the previous season, *PanoGrama received more final injections for the project and got its first title sponsor. It was renamed the NLCB PanoGrama.*{{Cite news \|last\=Blood \|first\=Sandra L. \|date\=May 1, 2021 \|title\=PanoGrama 2021 gets a boost \|pages\=24 \|work\=Trinidad \& Tobago Guardian \|url\=https://e\-paper.guardian.co.tt/html5/reader/production/default.aspx?pubname\=\&edid\=2509a40f\-a0d6\-46b8\-8ddb\-6028578b9bb6}} The second season aired between May 7 and 22, 2021 and the broadcast was expanded to YouTube, Facebook and Television. Auditions were introduced to screen participants and the judging panel was increased from 3 to 5\. Liam Teague, Victor Provost and Andy Chichester were added to the previous panel, while Kenneth Joseph was removed. Aundrea Wharton was added as co\-host to support Nevin Roach. The 'Knowledge for Success Series' was added to the programme to better help with the development of participants and was delivered by Liam Teague, Steffon Campbell and Natasha Joseph. The second season was won by Keishaun Julien (T\&T), followed by Dejean Cain (T\&T) in 2nd and Tyeesha Alexander (T\&T) in 3rd.{{Cite news \|last\=Doughty \|first\=Melissa \|date\=May 28, 2021 \|title\=Tobago pannist Keishaun Julien wins PanoGrama \|work\=Trinidad \& Tobago Newsday \|url\=https://newsday.co.tt/2021/05/28/tobago\-pannist\-keishaun\-julien\-wins\-panograma/}} The winner received cash, a brand\-new instrument, and the opportunity to headline a show in Canada. Kylie Fisher and Ricardo Seales were guest performers. ### Season 3 (2022\) The third season saw the introduction of the first female judge. Mia Gormandy\-Benjamin was appointed to the panel, which was reduced to 3 judges as in the first season. Liam Teague and Victor Provost remained on the main panel, while Andy Chichester and Ojay Richards were substitutes. PanoGrama got its first international television deal to be broadcast in 19 countries. For the first time, a steelpannist not from Trinidad and Tobago won the competition. Mathieu Borgne (France) placed first, followed by Hanif Goodridge (T\&T) in 2nd and Shaquille Forbes (T\&T) in 3rd.{{Cite news \|last\=Entertainment \|first\=Loop \|date\=June 14, 2022 \|title\=France's Mathieu Borgne cops PanoGrama 2022 crown \|work\=Loop News Caribbean \|url\=https://caribbean.loopnews.com/content/frances\-mathieu\-borgne\-cops\-panograma\-2022\-crown}} Neptunes Riddim Section guest performed.
[ "Season synopses\n---------------", "", "| Season | Originally Aired | | Winner | Runner(s)\\-up | Third place |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| First Aired | Last Aired |\n| 1 | {{nowrap\\|April 24, 2020}} | May 3, 2020 | Earl Brooks Jr. (T\\&T) | Dejean Cain (T\\&T) | Kersh Ramsey (T\\&T) |\n| 2 | May 7, 2021 | May 22, 2021 | Keishaun Julien (T\\&T) | Dejean Cain (T\\&T) | Tyeesha Alexander (T\\&T) |\n| 3 | May 6, 2022 | June 12, 2022 | Mathieu Borgne (France) | Hanif Goodridge (T\\&T) | Shaquille Forbes (T\\&T) |\n|", "### Season 1 (2020\\)", "The first season for *PanoGrama* was promoted and aired in April 2020\\. Participants were accepted on a registration basis and were allowed to compete without screening. All episodes aired live on Instagram. The first season was hosted by Nevin Roach, with the judging panel consisting of Ojay Richards, David Walcott and Kenneth Joseph. The first season was won by Earl Brooks Jr. (T\\&T), followed by Dejean Cain (T\\&T) in 2nd and Kersh Ramsey (T\\&T) in 3rd. Mikey Mercer, Nandi Yard, Hance John and Jadon Philip were guest performers. The winner received cash.", "### Season 2 (2021\\)", "Following the success of the previous season, *PanoGrama received more final injections for the project and got its first title sponsor. It was renamed the NLCB PanoGrama.*{{Cite news \\|last\\=Blood \\|first\\=Sandra L. \\|date\\=May 1, 2021 \\|title\\=PanoGrama 2021 gets a boost \\|pages\\=24 \\|work\\=Trinidad \\& Tobago Guardian \\|url\\=https://e\\-paper.guardian.co.tt/html5/reader/production/default.aspx?pubname\\=\\&edid\\=2509a40f\\-a0d6\\-46b8\\-8ddb\\-6028578b9bb6}} The second season aired between May 7 and 22, 2021 and the broadcast was expanded to YouTube, Facebook and Television. Auditions were introduced to screen participants and the judging panel was increased from 3 to 5\\. Liam Teague, Victor Provost and Andy Chichester were added to the previous panel, while Kenneth Joseph was removed. Aundrea Wharton was added as co\\-host to support Nevin Roach.", "The 'Knowledge for Success Series' was added to the programme to better help with the development of participants and was delivered by Liam Teague, Steffon Campbell and Natasha Joseph.", "The second season was won by Keishaun Julien (T\\&T), followed by Dejean Cain (T\\&T) in 2nd and Tyeesha Alexander (T\\&T) in 3rd.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Doughty \\|first\\=Melissa \\|date\\=May 28, 2021 \\|title\\=Tobago pannist Keishaun Julien wins PanoGrama \\|work\\=Trinidad \\& Tobago Newsday \\|url\\=https://newsday.co.tt/2021/05/28/tobago\\-pannist\\-keishaun\\-julien\\-wins\\-panograma/}} The winner received cash, a brand\\-new instrument, and the opportunity to headline a show in Canada. Kylie Fisher and Ricardo Seales were guest performers.", "### Season 3 (2022\\)", "The third season saw the introduction of the first female judge. Mia Gormandy\\-Benjamin was appointed to the panel, which was reduced to 3 judges as in the first season. Liam Teague and Victor Provost remained on the main panel, while Andy Chichester and Ojay Richards were substitutes. PanoGrama got its first international television deal to be broadcast in 19 countries.", "For the first time, a steelpannist not from Trinidad and Tobago won the competition. Mathieu Borgne (France) placed first, followed by Hanif Goodridge (T\\&T) in 2nd and Shaquille Forbes (T\\&T) in 3rd.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Entertainment \\|first\\=Loop \\|date\\=June 14, 2022 \\|title\\=France's Mathieu Borgne cops PanoGrama 2022 crown \\|work\\=Loop News Caribbean \\|url\\=https://caribbean.loopnews.com/content/frances\\-mathieu\\-borgne\\-cops\\-panograma\\-2022\\-crown}} Neptunes Riddim Section guest performed.", "" ]
Preliminaries ------------- The following sections carry out certain constructions in the two theories [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC") and [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") and compare the resulting implementations of certain mathematical structures (such as the [natural numbers](/wiki/Natural_numbers "Natural numbers")). Mathematical theories prove theorems (and nothing else). So saying that a theory allows the construction of a certain object means that it is a theorem of that theory that that object exists. This is a statement about a definition of the form "the x such that \\phi exists", where \\phi is a [formula](/wiki/Well-formed_formula "Well-formed formula") of our [language](/wiki/Formal_language "Formal language"): the theory proves the existence of "the x such that \\phi" just in case it is a theorem that "there is one and only one x such that \\phi". (See [Bertrand Russell's](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell "Bertrand Russell") [theory of descriptions](/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions "Theory of descriptions").) Loosely, the theory "defines" or "constructs" this object in this case. If the statement is not a theorem, the theory cannot show that the object exists; if the statement is provably false in the theory, it proves that the object cannot exist; loosely, the object cannot be constructed. ZFC and NFU share the language of set theory, so the same formal definitions "the x such that \\phi" can be contemplated in the two theories. A specific form of definition in the language of set theory is [set\-builder notation](/wiki/Set-builder_notation "Set-builder notation"): \\{x \\mid \\phi\\} means "the set A such that for all x, x \\in A \\leftrightarrow \\phi" (A cannot be [free](/wiki/Free_variables_and_bound_variables "Free variables and bound variables") in \\phi). This notation admits certain conventional extensions: \\{x \\in B \\mid \\phi\\} is synonymous with \\{x \\mid x \\in B \\wedge \\phi\\}; \\{f(x\_1,\\ldots,x\_n) \\mid \\phi\\} is defined as \\{z \\mid \\exists x\_1,\\ldots,x\_n\\,(z\=f(x\_1,\\dots,x\_n) \\wedge \\phi)\\}, where f(x\_1,\\ldots,x\_n) is an expression already defined. Expressions definable in set\-builder notation make sense in both ZFC and NFU: it may be that both theories prove that a given definition succeeds, or that neither do (the expression \\{x \\mid x\\not\\in x\\} fails to refer to anything in *any* set theory with classical logic; in [class](/wiki/Class_%28set_theory%29 "Class (set theory)") theories like [NBG](/wiki/Von_Neumann%E2%80%93Bernays%E2%80%93G%C3%B6del_set_theory "Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory") this notation does refer to a class, but it is defined differently), or that one does and the other doesn't. Further, an object defined in the same way in ZFC and NFU may turn out to have different properties in the two theories (or there may be a difference in what can be proved where there is no provable difference between their properties). Further, set theory imports concepts from other branches of mathematics (in intention, *all* branches of mathematics). In some cases, there are different ways to import the concepts into ZFC and NFU. For example, the usual definition of the first infinite [ordinal](/wiki/Ordinal_number "Ordinal number") \\omega in ZFC is not suitable for NFU because the object (defined in purely set theoretical language as the set of all finite [von Neumann ordinals](/wiki/Von_Neumann_ordinal "Von Neumann ordinal")) cannot be shown to exist in NFU. The usual definition of \\omega in NFU is (in purely set theoretical language) the set of all infinite [well\-orderings](/wiki/Well-ordering "Well-ordering") all of whose proper initial segments are finite, an object which can be shown not to exist in ZFC. In the case of such imported objects, there may be different definitions, one for use in ZFC and related theories, and one for use in NFU and related theories. For such "implementations" of imported mathematical concepts to make sense, it is necessary to be able to show that the two parallel interpretations have the expected properties: for example, the implementations of the natural numbers in ZFC and NFU are different, but both are implementations of the same mathematical structure, because both include definitions for all the primitives of [Peano arithmetic](/wiki/Peano_arithmetic "Peano arithmetic") and satisfy (the translations of) the Peano axioms. It is then possible to compare what happens in the two theories as when only set theoretical language is in use, as long as the definitions appropriate to ZFC are understood to be used in the [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC") context and the definitions appropriate to NFU are understood to be used in the NFU context. Whatever is proven to exist in a theory clearly provably exists in any extension of that theory; moreover, analysis of the proof that an object exists in a given theory may show that it exists in weaker versions of that theory (one may consider [Zermelo set theory](/wiki/Zermelo_set_theory "Zermelo set theory") instead of ZFC for much of what is done in this article, for example).
[ "Preliminaries\n-------------", "The following sections carry out certain constructions in the two theories [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\") and [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") and compare the resulting implementations of certain mathematical structures (such as the [natural numbers](/wiki/Natural_numbers \"Natural numbers\")).", "Mathematical theories prove theorems (and nothing else). So saying that a theory allows the construction of a certain object means that it is a theorem of that theory that that object exists. This is a statement about a definition of the form \"the x such that \\\\phi exists\", where \\\\phi is a [formula](/wiki/Well-formed_formula \"Well-formed formula\") of our [language](/wiki/Formal_language \"Formal language\"): the theory proves the existence of \"the x such that \\\\phi\" just in case it is a theorem that \"there is one and only one x such that \\\\phi\". (See [Bertrand Russell's](/wiki/Bertrand_Russell \"Bertrand Russell\") [theory of descriptions](/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions \"Theory of descriptions\").) Loosely, the theory \"defines\" or \"constructs\" this object in this case. If the statement is not a theorem, the theory cannot show that the object exists; if the statement is provably false in the theory, it proves that the object cannot exist; loosely, the object cannot be constructed.", "ZFC and NFU share the language of set theory, so the same formal definitions \"the x such that \\\\phi\" can be contemplated in the two theories. A specific form of definition in the language of set theory is [set\\-builder notation](/wiki/Set-builder_notation \"Set-builder notation\"): \\\\{x \\\\mid \\\\phi\\\\} means \"the set A such that for all x, x \\\\in A \\\\leftrightarrow \\\\phi\" (A cannot be [free](/wiki/Free_variables_and_bound_variables \"Free variables and bound variables\") in \\\\phi). This notation admits certain conventional extensions: \\\\{x \\\\in B \\\\mid \\\\phi\\\\} is synonymous with \\\\{x \\\\mid x \\\\in B \\\\wedge \\\\phi\\\\}; \\\\{f(x\\_1,\\\\ldots,x\\_n) \\\\mid \\\\phi\\\\} is defined as \\\\{z \\\\mid \\\\exists x\\_1,\\\\ldots,x\\_n\\\\,(z\\=f(x\\_1,\\\\dots,x\\_n) \\\\wedge \\\\phi)\\\\}, where f(x\\_1,\\\\ldots,x\\_n) is an expression already defined.", "Expressions definable in set\\-builder notation make sense in both ZFC and NFU: it may be that both theories prove that a given definition succeeds, or that neither do (the expression \\\\{x \\\\mid x\\\\not\\\\in x\\\\} fails to refer to anything in *any* set theory with classical logic; in [class](/wiki/Class_%28set_theory%29 \"Class (set theory)\") theories like [NBG](/wiki/Von_Neumann%E2%80%93Bernays%E2%80%93G%C3%B6del_set_theory \"Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory\") this notation does refer to a class, but it is defined differently), or that one does and the other doesn't. Further, an object defined in the same way in ZFC and NFU may turn out to have different properties in the two theories (or there may be a difference in what can be proved where there is no provable difference between their properties).", "Further, set theory imports concepts from other branches of mathematics (in intention, *all* branches of mathematics). In some cases, there are different ways to import the concepts into ZFC and NFU. For example, the usual definition of the first infinite [ordinal](/wiki/Ordinal_number \"Ordinal number\") \\\\omega in ZFC is not suitable for NFU because the object (defined in purely set theoretical language as the set of all finite [von Neumann ordinals](/wiki/Von_Neumann_ordinal \"Von Neumann ordinal\")) cannot be shown to exist in NFU. The usual definition of \\\\omega in NFU is (in purely set theoretical language) the set of all infinite [well\\-orderings](/wiki/Well-ordering \"Well-ordering\") all of whose proper initial segments are finite, an object which can be shown not to exist in ZFC. In the case of such imported objects, there may be different definitions, one for use in ZFC and related theories, and one for use in NFU and related theories. For such \"implementations\" of imported mathematical concepts to make sense, it is necessary to be able to show that the two parallel interpretations have the expected properties: for example, the implementations of the natural numbers in ZFC and NFU are different, but both are implementations of the same mathematical structure, because both include definitions for all the primitives of [Peano arithmetic](/wiki/Peano_arithmetic \"Peano arithmetic\") and satisfy (the translations of) the Peano axioms. It is then possible to compare what happens in the two theories as when only set theoretical language is in use, as long as the definitions appropriate to ZFC are understood to be used in the [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\") context and the definitions appropriate to NFU are understood to be used in the NFU context.", "Whatever is proven to exist in a theory clearly provably exists in any extension of that theory; moreover, analysis of the proof that an object exists in a given theory may show that it exists in weaker versions of that theory (one may consider [Zermelo set theory](/wiki/Zermelo_set_theory \"Zermelo set theory\") instead of ZFC for much of what is done in this article, for example).", "" ]
Relations --------- [Relations](/wiki/Relation_%28mathematics%29 "Relation (mathematics)") are sets whose members are all [ordered pairs](/wiki/Ordered_pair "Ordered pair"). Where possible, a relation R (understood as a [binary predicate](/wiki/Binary_predicate "Binary predicate")) is implemented as \\{(x,y) \\mid x R y\\} (which may be written as \\{z \\mid \\pi\_1(z) R \\pi\_2(z)\\}). When R is a relation, the notation xRy means \\left(x, y\\right) \\in R. In ZFC, some relations (such as the general equality relation or subset relation on sets) are 'too large' to be sets (but may be harmlessly reified as [proper classes](/wiki/Proper_class "Proper class")). In NFU, some relations (such as the membership relation) are not sets because their definitions are not stratified: in \\{(x,y) \\mid x \\in y\\}, x and y would need to have the same type (because they appear as projections of the same pair), but also successive types (because x is considered as an element of y). ### Related definitions Let R and S be given [binary relations](/wiki/Binary_relation "Binary relation"). Then the following concepts are useful: The **[converse](/wiki/Converse_relation "Converse relation")** of R is the relation \\left\\{\\left(y, x\\right) : xRy\\right\\}. The **domain** of R is the set \\left\\{x : \\exists y \\left(xRy\\right)\\right\\}. The **range** of R is the domain of the converse of R. That is, the set \\left\\{y : \\exists x \\left(xRy\\right)\\right\\}. The **field** of R is the [union](/wiki/Union_%28set_theory%29 "Union (set theory)") of the domain and range of R. The **[preimage](/wiki/Preimage "Preimage")** of a member x of the field of R is the set \\left\\{y : yRx\\right\\} (used in the definition of 'well\-founded' below.) The **downward closure** of a member x of the field of R is the smallest set D containing x, and containing each zRy for each y \\in D (i.e., including the preimage of each of its elements with respect to R as a subset.) The **[relative product](/wiki/Relation_composition "Relation composition")** R\|S of R and S is the relation \\left\\{\\left(x, z\\right) : \\exists y\\,\\left(xRy \\wedge ySz\\right)\\right\\}. Notice that with our formal definition of a binary relation, the range and codomain of a relation are not distinguished. This could be done by representing a relation R with codomain B as \\left(R, B\\right), but our development will not require this. In ZFC, any relation whose domain is a subset of a set A and whose range is a subset of a set B will be a set, since the [Cartesian product](/wiki/Cartesian_product "Cartesian product") A \\times B \= \\left\\{\\left(a, b\\right) : a \\in A \\wedge b \\in B\\right\\} is a set (being a subclass of \\mathcal{P}\\!\\left(A \\cup B\\right)), and *Separation* provides for the existence of \\left\\{\\left(x, y\\right) \\in A \\times B : xRy\\right\\}. In NFU, some relations with global scope (such as equality and subset) can be implemented as sets. In NFU, bear in mind that x and y are three types lower than R in xRy (one type lower if a type\-level ordered pair is used). ### Properties and kinds of relations A binary relation R is: * **[Reflexive](/wiki/Reflexive_relation "Reflexive relation")** if xRx for every x in the field of R. * **[Symmetric](/wiki/Symmetric_relation "Symmetric relation")** if \\forall x, y \\,(xRy \\to yRx). * **[Transitive](/wiki/Transitive_relation "Transitive relation")** if \\forall x, y, z \\,(xRy \\wedge yRz \\rightarrow xRz). * **[Antisymmetric](/wiki/Antisymmetric_relation "Antisymmetric relation")** if \\forall x, y \\,(xRy \\wedge yRx \\rightarrow x\=y). * **[Well\-founded](/wiki/Well-founded_relation "Well-founded relation")** if for every set S which meets the field of R, \\ \\exists x \\in S whose preimage under R does not meet S. * **Extensional** if for every x, y in the field of R, x \= y if and only if x and y have the same preimage under R. Relations having certain combinations of the above properties have standard names. A binary relation R is: * An **[equivalence relation](/wiki/Equivalence_relation "Equivalence relation")** if R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive. * A **[partial order](/wiki/Partial_order "Partial order")** if R is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. * A **[linear order](/wiki/Linear_order "Linear order")** if R is a partial order and for every x, y in the field of R, either xRy or yRx. * A **[well\-ordering](/wiki/Well-ordering "Well-ordering")** if R is a linear order and well\-founded. * A **set picture** if R is well\-founded and extensional, and the field of R either equals the downward closure of one of its members (called its *top element*), or is empty.
[ "Relations\n---------", "[Relations](/wiki/Relation_%28mathematics%29 \"Relation (mathematics)\") are sets whose members are all [ordered pairs](/wiki/Ordered_pair \"Ordered pair\"). Where possible, a relation R (understood as a [binary predicate](/wiki/Binary_predicate \"Binary predicate\")) is implemented as \\\\{(x,y) \\\\mid x R y\\\\} (which may be written as \\\\{z \\\\mid \\\\pi\\_1(z) R \\\\pi\\_2(z)\\\\}). When R is a relation, the notation xRy means \\\\left(x, y\\\\right) \\\\in R.", "In ZFC, some relations (such as the general equality relation or subset relation on sets) are 'too large'\nto be sets (but may be harmlessly reified as [proper classes](/wiki/Proper_class \"Proper class\")). In NFU, some relations (such as the membership relation) are not sets because their definitions are not stratified: in \\\\{(x,y) \\\\mid x \\\\in y\\\\}, x and y would\nneed to have the same type (because they appear as projections of the same pair), but also\nsuccessive types (because x is considered as an element of y).", "### Related definitions", "Let R and S be given [binary relations](/wiki/Binary_relation \"Binary relation\"). Then the following concepts are useful:", "The **[converse](/wiki/Converse_relation \"Converse relation\")** of R is the relation \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(y, x\\\\right) : xRy\\\\right\\\\}.", "The **domain** of R is the set \\\\left\\\\{x : \\\\exists y \\\\left(xRy\\\\right)\\\\right\\\\}.", "The **range** of R is the domain of the converse of R. That is, the set \\\\left\\\\{y : \\\\exists x \\\\left(xRy\\\\right)\\\\right\\\\}.", "The **field** of R is the [union](/wiki/Union_%28set_theory%29 \"Union (set theory)\") of the domain and range of R.", "The **[preimage](/wiki/Preimage \"Preimage\")** of a member x of the field of R is the set \\\\left\\\\{y : yRx\\\\right\\\\} (used in the definition of 'well\\-founded' below.)", "The **downward closure** of a member x of the field of R is the smallest set D containing x, and containing each zRy for each y \\\\in D (i.e., including the preimage of each of its elements with respect to R as a subset.)", "The **[relative product](/wiki/Relation_composition \"Relation composition\")** R\\|S of R and S is the relation \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(x, z\\\\right) : \\\\exists y\\\\,\\\\left(xRy \\\\wedge ySz\\\\right)\\\\right\\\\}.", "Notice that with our formal definition of a binary relation, the range and codomain of a relation are not distinguished. This could be done by representing a relation R with codomain B as \\\\left(R, B\\\\right), but our development will not require this.", "In ZFC, any relation whose domain is a subset of a set A and whose range is a subset of a set B will be a set, since the [Cartesian product](/wiki/Cartesian_product \"Cartesian product\") A \\\\times B \\= \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(a, b\\\\right) : a \\\\in A \\\\wedge b \\\\in B\\\\right\\\\} is a set (being a subclass of \\\\mathcal{P}\\\\!\\\\left(A \\\\cup B\\\\right)), and *Separation* provides for the existence of \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(x, y\\\\right) \\\\in A \\\\times B : xRy\\\\right\\\\}. In NFU, some relations with global scope (such as equality and subset) can be implemented as sets. In NFU, bear in mind that x and y are three types lower than R in xRy (one type lower if a type\\-level ordered pair is used).", "### Properties and kinds of relations", "A binary relation R is:\n* **[Reflexive](/wiki/Reflexive_relation \"Reflexive relation\")** if xRx for every x in the field of R.\n* **[Symmetric](/wiki/Symmetric_relation \"Symmetric relation\")** if \\\\forall x, y \\\\,(xRy \\\\to yRx).\n* **[Transitive](/wiki/Transitive_relation \"Transitive relation\")** if \\\\forall x, y, z \\\\,(xRy \\\\wedge yRz \\\\rightarrow xRz).\n* **[Antisymmetric](/wiki/Antisymmetric_relation \"Antisymmetric relation\")** if \\\\forall x, y \\\\,(xRy \\\\wedge yRx \\\\rightarrow x\\=y).\n* **[Well\\-founded](/wiki/Well-founded_relation \"Well-founded relation\")** if for every set S which meets the field of R, \\\\ \\\\exists x \\\\in S whose preimage under R does not meet S.\n* **Extensional** if for every x, y in the field of R, x \\= y if and only if x and y have the same preimage under R.", "Relations having certain combinations of the above properties have standard names. A binary relation R is:", "* An **[equivalence relation](/wiki/Equivalence_relation \"Equivalence relation\")** if R is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.\n* A **[partial order](/wiki/Partial_order \"Partial order\")** if R is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.\n* A **[linear order](/wiki/Linear_order \"Linear order\")** if R is a partial order and for every x, y in the field of R, either xRy or yRx.\n* A **[well\\-ordering](/wiki/Well-ordering \"Well-ordering\")** if R is a linear order and well\\-founded.\n* A **set picture** if R is well\\-founded and extensional, and the field of R either equals the downward closure of one of its members (called its *top element*), or is empty." ]
### Related definitions Let R and S be given [binary relations](/wiki/Binary_relation "Binary relation"). Then the following concepts are useful: The **[converse](/wiki/Converse_relation "Converse relation")** of R is the relation \\left\\{\\left(y, x\\right) : xRy\\right\\}. The **domain** of R is the set \\left\\{x : \\exists y \\left(xRy\\right)\\right\\}. The **range** of R is the domain of the converse of R. That is, the set \\left\\{y : \\exists x \\left(xRy\\right)\\right\\}. The **field** of R is the [union](/wiki/Union_%28set_theory%29 "Union (set theory)") of the domain and range of R. The **[preimage](/wiki/Preimage "Preimage")** of a member x of the field of R is the set \\left\\{y : yRx\\right\\} (used in the definition of 'well\-founded' below.) The **downward closure** of a member x of the field of R is the smallest set D containing x, and containing each zRy for each y \\in D (i.e., including the preimage of each of its elements with respect to R as a subset.) The **[relative product](/wiki/Relation_composition "Relation composition")** R\|S of R and S is the relation \\left\\{\\left(x, z\\right) : \\exists y\\,\\left(xRy \\wedge ySz\\right)\\right\\}. Notice that with our formal definition of a binary relation, the range and codomain of a relation are not distinguished. This could be done by representing a relation R with codomain B as \\left(R, B\\right), but our development will not require this. In ZFC, any relation whose domain is a subset of a set A and whose range is a subset of a set B will be a set, since the [Cartesian product](/wiki/Cartesian_product "Cartesian product") A \\times B \= \\left\\{\\left(a, b\\right) : a \\in A \\wedge b \\in B\\right\\} is a set (being a subclass of \\mathcal{P}\\!\\left(A \\cup B\\right)), and *Separation* provides for the existence of \\left\\{\\left(x, y\\right) \\in A \\times B : xRy\\right\\}. In NFU, some relations with global scope (such as equality and subset) can be implemented as sets. In NFU, bear in mind that x and y are three types lower than R in xRy (one type lower if a type\-level ordered pair is used).
[ "### Related definitions", "Let R and S be given [binary relations](/wiki/Binary_relation \"Binary relation\"). Then the following concepts are useful:", "The **[converse](/wiki/Converse_relation \"Converse relation\")** of R is the relation \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(y, x\\\\right) : xRy\\\\right\\\\}.", "The **domain** of R is the set \\\\left\\\\{x : \\\\exists y \\\\left(xRy\\\\right)\\\\right\\\\}.", "The **range** of R is the domain of the converse of R. That is, the set \\\\left\\\\{y : \\\\exists x \\\\left(xRy\\\\right)\\\\right\\\\}.", "The **field** of R is the [union](/wiki/Union_%28set_theory%29 \"Union (set theory)\") of the domain and range of R.", "The **[preimage](/wiki/Preimage \"Preimage\")** of a member x of the field of R is the set \\\\left\\\\{y : yRx\\\\right\\\\} (used in the definition of 'well\\-founded' below.)", "The **downward closure** of a member x of the field of R is the smallest set D containing x, and containing each zRy for each y \\\\in D (i.e., including the preimage of each of its elements with respect to R as a subset.)", "The **[relative product](/wiki/Relation_composition \"Relation composition\")** R\\|S of R and S is the relation \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(x, z\\\\right) : \\\\exists y\\\\,\\\\left(xRy \\\\wedge ySz\\\\right)\\\\right\\\\}.", "Notice that with our formal definition of a binary relation, the range and codomain of a relation are not distinguished. This could be done by representing a relation R with codomain B as \\\\left(R, B\\\\right), but our development will not require this.", "In ZFC, any relation whose domain is a subset of a set A and whose range is a subset of a set B will be a set, since the [Cartesian product](/wiki/Cartesian_product \"Cartesian product\") A \\\\times B \\= \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(a, b\\\\right) : a \\\\in A \\\\wedge b \\\\in B\\\\right\\\\} is a set (being a subclass of \\\\mathcal{P}\\\\!\\\\left(A \\\\cup B\\\\right)), and *Separation* provides for the existence of \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(x, y\\\\right) \\\\in A \\\\times B : xRy\\\\right\\\\}. In NFU, some relations with global scope (such as equality and subset) can be implemented as sets. In NFU, bear in mind that x and y are three types lower than R in xRy (one type lower if a type\\-level ordered pair is used).", "" ]
Functions --------- A **functional relation** is a [binary predicate](/wiki/Binary_predicate "Binary predicate") F such that \\forall x, y, z\\,\\left(xFy \\wedge xFz \\to y \= z\\right). Such a [relation](/wiki/Relation_%28mathematics%29 "Relation (mathematics)") ([predicate](/wiki/Predicate_%28logic%29 "Predicate (logic)")) is implemented as a relation (set) exactly as described in the previous section. So the predicate F is implemented by the set \\left\\{\\left(x, y\\right) : xFy\\right\\}. A relation F is a **function** if and only if \\forall x, y, z\\,\\left(\\left(x, y\\right) \\in F \\wedge \\left(x, z\\right) \\in F \\to y \= z\\right). It is therefore possible to define the value function F\\!\\left(x\\right) as the unique object y such that xFy – i.e.: x is F\-related to y such that the relation f holds between x and y – or as the unique object y such that \\left(x, y\\right) \\in F. The presence in both theories of functional predicates which are not sets makes it useful to allow the notation F\\!\\left(x\\right) both for sets F and for important functional predicates. As long as one does not quantify over functions in the latter sense, all such uses are in principle eliminable. Outside of formal set theory, we usually specify a function in terms of its domain and codomain, as in the phrase "Let f: A \\to B be a function". The domain of a function is just its domain as a relation, but we have not yet defined the codomain of a function. To do this we introduce the terminology that a function is **from A to B** if its domain equals A and its range *is contained in* B. In this way, every function is a function from its domain to its range, and a function f from A to B is also a function from A to C for any set C containing B. Indeed, no matter which set we consider to be the codomain of a function, the function does not change as a set since by definition it is just a set of ordered pairs. That is, a function does not determine its codomain by our definition. If one finds this unappealing then one can instead define a function as the ordered pair (f, B), where f is a functional relation and B is its codomain, but we do not take this approach in this article (more elegantly, if one first defines ordered triples \- for example as (x, y, z) \= (x, (y, z))\- then one could define a function as the ordered triple (f, A, B) so as to also include the domain). Note that the same issue exists for relations: outside of formal set theory we usually say "Let R \\subseteq A \\times B be a binary relation", but formally R is a set of ordered pairs such that \\text{dom}\\,R \\subseteq A and \\text{ran}\\,R \\subseteq B. In NFU, x has the same type as F\\!\\left(x\\right), and F is three types higher than F\\!\\left(x\\right) (one type higher, if a type\-level ordered pair is used). To solve this problem, one could define F\\left\[A\\right] as \\left\\{y : \\exists x\\,\\left(x \\in A \\wedge y \= F\\!\\left(x\\right)\\right)\\right\\} for any set A, but this is more conveniently written as \\left\\{F\\!\\left(x\\right) : x \\in A\\right\\}. Then, if A is a set and F is any functional relation, the [Axiom of Replacement](/wiki/Axiom_of_replacement "Axiom of replacement") assures that F\\left\[A\\right] is a set in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC"). In NFU, F\\left\[A\\right] and A now have the same type, and F is two types higher than F\\left\[A\\right] (the same type, if a type\-level ordered pair is used). The function I such that I\\!\\left(x\\right) \= x is not a set in ZFC because it is "too large". I is however a set in NFU. The function (predicate) S such that S\\!\\left(x\\right) \= \\left\\{x\\right\\} is neither a function nor a set in either theory; in ZFC, this is true because such a set would be too large, and, in NFU, this is true because its definition would not be [stratified](/wiki/Stratified_formula%23In_set_theory "Stratified formula#In set theory"). Moreover, S can be proved not to exist in NFU (see the resolution of [Cantor's paradox](/wiki/Cantor%27s_paradox "Cantor's paradox") in [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations").) ### Operations on functions Let f and g be arbitrary functions. The **[composition](/wiki/Function_composition "Function composition")** of f and g, g \\circ f, is defined as the relative product f\\,\|\\,g, but only if this results in a function such that g \\circ f is also a function, with \\left(g \\circ f\\right)\\!\\left(x\\right) \= g\\!\\left(f\\!\\left(x\\right)\\right), if the range of f is a subset of the domain of g. The **[inverse](/wiki/Inverse_function "Inverse function")** of f, f^\\left(\-1\\right), is defined as the [converse](/wiki/Converse_relation "Converse relation") of f if this is a function. Given any set A, the identity function i\_A is the set \\left\\{\\left(x, x\\right) \\mid x \\in A\\right\\}, and this is a set in both ZFC and NFU for different reasons. ### Special kinds of function A function f from A to B is a: * **[Injection](/wiki/Injective_function "Injective function")** from A to B if the [images](/wiki/Image_%28mathematics%29 "Image (mathematics)") under f of distinct members of A are distinct members of B. * **[Surjection](/wiki/Surjection "Surjection")** from A to B if the range of f is B. * **[Bijection](/wiki/Bijection "Bijection")** from A to B if f is both an injection and a surjection. Defining functions as ordered pairs (f, B) or ordered triples (f, A, B) has the advantages that we do not have to introduce the terminology of being a function "from A to B", and that we can speak of "being surjective" outright as opposed to only being able to speak of "being surjective onto B".
[ "Functions\n---------", "A **functional relation** is a [binary predicate](/wiki/Binary_predicate \"Binary predicate\") F such that \\\\forall x, y, z\\\\,\\\\left(xFy \\\\wedge xFz \\\\to y \\= z\\\\right). Such a [relation](/wiki/Relation_%28mathematics%29 \"Relation (mathematics)\") ([predicate](/wiki/Predicate_%28logic%29 \"Predicate (logic)\")) is implemented as a relation (set) exactly as described in the previous section. So the predicate F is implemented by the set \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(x, y\\\\right) : xFy\\\\right\\\\}. A relation F is a **function** if and only if \\\\forall x, y, z\\\\,\\\\left(\\\\left(x, y\\\\right) \\\\in F \\\\wedge \\\\left(x, z\\\\right) \\\\in F \\\\to y \\= z\\\\right). It is therefore possible to define the value function F\\\\!\\\\left(x\\\\right) as the unique object y such that xFy – i.e.: x is F\\-related to y such that the relation f holds between x and y – or as the unique object y such that \\\\left(x, y\\\\right) \\\\in F. The presence in both theories of functional predicates which are not sets makes it useful to allow the notation F\\\\!\\\\left(x\\\\right) both for sets F and for important functional predicates. As long as one does not quantify over functions in the latter sense, all such uses are in principle eliminable.", "Outside of formal set theory, we usually specify a function in terms of its domain and codomain, as in the phrase \"Let f: A \\\\to B be a function\". The domain of a function is just its domain as a relation, but we have not yet defined the codomain of a function. To do this we introduce the terminology that a function is **from A to B** if its domain equals A and its range *is contained in* B. In this way, every function is a function from its domain to its range, and a function f from A to B is also a function from A to C for any set C containing B.", "Indeed, no matter which set we consider to be the codomain of a function, the function does not change as a set since by definition it is just a set of ordered pairs. That is, a function does not determine its codomain by our definition. If one finds this unappealing then one can instead define a function as the ordered pair (f, B), where f is a functional relation and B is its codomain, but we do not take this approach in this article (more elegantly, if one first defines ordered triples \\- for example as (x, y, z) \\= (x, (y, z))\\- then one could define a function as the ordered triple (f, A, B) so as to also include the domain). Note that the same issue exists for relations: outside of formal set theory we usually say \"Let R \\\\subseteq A \\\\times B be a binary relation\", but formally R is a set of ordered pairs such that \\\\text{dom}\\\\,R \\\\subseteq A and \\\\text{ran}\\\\,R \\\\subseteq B.", "In NFU, x has the same type as F\\\\!\\\\left(x\\\\right), and F is three types higher than F\\\\!\\\\left(x\\\\right) (one type higher, if a type\\-level ordered pair is used). To solve this problem, one could define F\\\\left\\[A\\\\right] as \\\\left\\\\{y : \\\\exists x\\\\,\\\\left(x \\\\in A \\\\wedge y \\= F\\\\!\\\\left(x\\\\right)\\\\right)\\\\right\\\\} for any set A, but this is more conveniently written as \\\\left\\\\{F\\\\!\\\\left(x\\\\right) : x \\\\in A\\\\right\\\\}. Then, if A is a set and F is any functional relation, the [Axiom of Replacement](/wiki/Axiom_of_replacement \"Axiom of replacement\") assures that F\\\\left\\[A\\\\right] is a set in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\"). In NFU, F\\\\left\\[A\\\\right] and A now have the same type, and F is two types higher than F\\\\left\\[A\\\\right] (the same type, if a type\\-level ordered pair is used).", "The function I such that I\\\\!\\\\left(x\\\\right) \\= x is not a set in ZFC because it is \"too large\". I is however a set in NFU. The function (predicate) S such that S\\\\!\\\\left(x\\\\right) \\= \\\\left\\\\{x\\\\right\\\\} is neither a function nor a set in either theory; in ZFC, this is true because such a set would be too large, and, in NFU, this is true because its definition would not be [stratified](/wiki/Stratified_formula%23In_set_theory \"Stratified formula#In set theory\"). Moreover, S can be proved not to exist in NFU (see the resolution of [Cantor's paradox](/wiki/Cantor%27s_paradox \"Cantor's paradox\") in [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\").)", "### Operations on functions", "Let f and g be arbitrary functions. The **[composition](/wiki/Function_composition \"Function composition\")** of f and g, g \\\\circ f, is defined as the relative product f\\\\,\\|\\\\,g, but only if this results in a function such that g \\\\circ f is also a function, with \\\\left(g \\\\circ f\\\\right)\\\\!\\\\left(x\\\\right) \\= g\\\\!\\\\left(f\\\\!\\\\left(x\\\\right)\\\\right), if the range of f is a subset of the domain of g. The **[inverse](/wiki/Inverse_function \"Inverse function\")** of f, f^\\\\left(\\-1\\\\right), is defined as the [converse](/wiki/Converse_relation \"Converse relation\") of f if this is a function. Given any set A, the identity function i\\_A is the set \\\\left\\\\{\\\\left(x, x\\\\right) \\\\mid x \\\\in A\\\\right\\\\}, and this is a set in both ZFC and NFU for different reasons.", "### Special kinds of function", "A function f from A to B is a:\n* **[Injection](/wiki/Injective_function \"Injective function\")** from A to B if the [images](/wiki/Image_%28mathematics%29 \"Image (mathematics)\") under f of distinct members of A are distinct members of B.\n* **[Surjection](/wiki/Surjection \"Surjection\")** from A to B if the range of f is B.\n* **[Bijection](/wiki/Bijection \"Bijection\")** from A to B if f is both an injection and a surjection.", "Defining functions as ordered pairs (f, B) or ordered triples (f, A, B) has the advantages that we do not have to introduce the terminology of being a function \"from A to B\", and that we can speak of \"being surjective\" outright as opposed to only being able to speak of \"being surjective onto B\".", "" ]
Finite sets and natural numbers ------------------------------- Natural numbers can be considered either as finite ordinals or finite cardinals. Here consider them as finite cardinal numbers. This is the first place where a major difference between the implementations in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC") and [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") becomes evident. The Axiom of Infinity of ZFC tells us that there is a set *A* which contains \\emptyset and contains y \\cup \\{y\\} for each y \\in A. This set *A* is not uniquely determined (it can be made larger while preserving this closure property): the set *N* of natural numbers is * \\{x \\in A \\mid \\forall B\\,(\\emptyset \\in B \\wedge \\forall y\\,(y \\in B \\rightarrow y \\cup \\{y\\} \\in B) \\rightarrow x \\in B)\\} which is the intersection of all sets which contain the empty set and are closed under the "successor" operation y \\mapsto y \\cup \\{y\\}. In ZFC, a set A is finite if and only if there is n \\in N such that \|n\|\=\|A\|: further, define \|A\| as this *n* for finite *A*. (It can be proved that no two distinct natural numbers are the same size). The usual operations of arithmetic can be defined recursively and in a style very similar to that in which the set of natural numbers itself is defined. For example, \+ (the addition operation on natural numbers) can be defined as the smallest set which contains ((x,\\emptyset),x) for each natural number x and contains ((x,y \\cup \\{y\\}),z \\cup \\{z\\}) whenever it contains ((x,y),z). In NFU, it is not obvious that this approach can be used, since the successor operation y \\cup \\{y\\} is unstratified and so the set *N* as defined above cannot be shown to exist in NFU (it is consistent for the set of finite von Neumann ordinals to exist in NFU, but this strengthens the theory, as the existence of this set implies the Axiom of Counting (for which see below or the [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") article)). The standard definition of the natural numbers, which is actually the oldest [set\-theoretic definition of natural numbers](/wiki/Set-theoretic_definition_of_natural_numbers "Set-theoretic definition of natural numbers"), is as equivalence classes of finite sets under equinumerousness. Essentially the same definition is appropriate to [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") (this is not the usual definition, but the results are the same): define *Fin*, the set of finite sets, as \\{A \\mid \\forall F\\,(\\emptyset \\in F \\wedge \\forall x,y\\,(x \\in F \\rightarrow x \\cup \\{y\\} \\in F) \\rightarrow A \\in F)\\} For any set A \\in Fin, define \|A\| as \\{B \\mid A \\sim B\\}. Define *N* as the set \\{\|A\| \\mid A \\in Fin\\}. The Axiom of Infinity of NFU can be expressed as V \\not\\in Fin: this is enough to establish that each natural number has a nonempty successor (the successor of \|A\| being \|A \\cup \\{x\\}\| for any x \\not\\in A) which is the hard part of showing that the Peano axioms of arithmetic are satisfied. The operations of arithmetic can be defined in a style similar to the style given above (using the definition of successor just given). They can also be defined in a natural set theoretical way: if A and B are disjoint finite sets, define \|A\|\+\|B\| as \|A \\cup B\|. More formally, define *m\+n* for *m* and *n* in *N* as \\{A \\mid \\exists B,C\\,(B \\in m \\wedge C \\in n \\wedge B \\cap C \= \\emptyset \\wedge A \= B \\cup C)\\} (But note that this style of definition is feasible for the ZFC numerals as well, but more circuitous: the form of the [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") definition facilitates set manipulations while the form of the ZFC definition facilitates recursive definitions, but either theory supports either style of definition). The two implementations are quite different. In ZFC, choose a [representative](/wiki/Representative_%28mathematics%29 "Representative (mathematics)") of each finite cardinality (the equivalence classes themselves are too large to be sets); in NFU the equivalence classes themselves are sets, and are thus an obvious choice for objects to stand in for the cardinalities. However, the arithmetic of the two theories is identical: the same abstraction is implemented by these two superficially different approaches.
[ "Finite sets and natural numbers\n-------------------------------", "Natural numbers can be considered either as finite ordinals or finite cardinals. Here consider them as finite cardinal numbers. This is the first place where a major difference between the implementations in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\") and [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") becomes evident.", "The Axiom of Infinity of ZFC tells us that there is a set *A* which contains \\\\emptyset and contains y \\\\cup \\\\{y\\\\} for each y \\\\in A. This set *A* is not uniquely determined (it can be made larger while preserving this closure property): the set *N* of natural numbers is\n* \\\\{x \\\\in A \\\\mid \\\\forall B\\\\,(\\\\emptyset \\\\in B \\\\wedge \\\\forall y\\\\,(y \\\\in B \\\\rightarrow y \\\\cup \\\\{y\\\\} \\\\in B) \\\\rightarrow x \\\\in B)\\\\}\nwhich is the intersection of all sets which contain the empty set and are closed under the \"successor\" operation y \\\\mapsto y \\\\cup \\\\{y\\\\}.", "In ZFC, a set A is finite if and only if there is n \\\\in N such that \\|n\\|\\=\\|A\\|: further, define \\|A\\| as this *n* for finite *A*. (It can be proved that no two distinct natural numbers are the same size).", "The usual operations of arithmetic can be defined recursively and in a style very similar to that in which the set of natural numbers itself is defined. For example, \\+ (the addition operation on natural numbers) can be defined as the smallest set which contains ((x,\\\\emptyset),x) for each natural number x and contains ((x,y \\\\cup \\\\{y\\\\}),z \\\\cup \\\\{z\\\\}) whenever it contains ((x,y),z).", "In NFU, it is not obvious that this approach can be used, since the successor operation y \\\\cup \\\\{y\\\\} is unstratified and so the set *N* as defined above cannot be shown to exist in NFU (it is consistent for the set of finite von Neumann ordinals to exist in NFU, but this strengthens the theory, as the existence of this set implies the Axiom of Counting (for which see below or the [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") article)).", "The standard definition of the natural numbers, which is actually the oldest [set\\-theoretic definition of natural numbers](/wiki/Set-theoretic_definition_of_natural_numbers \"Set-theoretic definition of natural numbers\"), is as equivalence classes of finite sets under equinumerousness. Essentially the same definition is appropriate to [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") (this is not the usual definition, but the results are the same): define *Fin*, the set of finite sets, as\n\\\\{A \\\\mid \\\\forall F\\\\,(\\\\emptyset \\\\in F \\\\wedge \\\\forall x,y\\\\,(x \\\\in F \\\\rightarrow x \\\\cup \\\\{y\\\\} \\\\in F) \\\\rightarrow A \\\\in F)\\\\}\nFor any set A \\\\in Fin, define \\|A\\| as \\\\{B \\\\mid A \\\\sim B\\\\}. Define *N* as the set \\\\{\\|A\\| \\\\mid A \\\\in Fin\\\\}.", "The Axiom of Infinity of NFU can be expressed as V \\\\not\\\\in Fin: this is enough to establish that each natural number has a nonempty successor (the successor of \\|A\\| being \\|A \\\\cup \\\\{x\\\\}\\| for any x \\\\not\\\\in A) which is the hard part of showing that the Peano axioms of arithmetic are satisfied.", "The operations of arithmetic can be defined in a style similar to the style given above (using the definition of successor just given). They can also be defined in a natural set theoretical way: if A and B are disjoint finite sets, define \\|A\\|\\+\\|B\\| as \\|A \\\\cup B\\|. More formally, define *m\\+n* for *m* and *n* in *N* as\n\\\\{A \\\\mid \\\\exists B,C\\\\,(B \\\\in m \\\\wedge C \\\\in n \\\\wedge B \\\\cap C \\= \\\\emptyset \\\\wedge A \\= B \\\\cup C)\\\\}\n(But note that this style of definition is feasible for the ZFC numerals as well, but more circuitous: the form of the [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") definition facilitates set manipulations while the form of the ZFC definition facilitates recursive definitions, but either theory supports either style of definition).", "The two implementations are quite different. In ZFC, choose a [representative](/wiki/Representative_%28mathematics%29 \"Representative (mathematics)\") of each finite cardinality (the equivalence classes themselves are too large to be sets); in NFU the equivalence classes themselves are sets, and are thus an obvious choice for objects to stand in for the cardinalities. However, the arithmetic of the two theories is identical: the same abstraction is implemented by these two superficially different approaches.", "" ]
Ordinal numbers --------------- Two well\-orderings W\_1 and W\_2 are **similar** and write W\_1 \\sim W\_2 just in case there is a bijection *f* from the field of W\_1 to the field of W\_2 such that x W\_1 y \\leftrightarrow f(x)W\_2f(y) for all *x* and *y*. Similarity is shown to be an equivalence relation in much the same way that equinumerousness was shown to be an equivalence relation above. In [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") (NFU), the **order type** of a well\-ordering *W* is the set of all well\-orderings which are similar to *W*. The set of **ordinal numbers** is the set of all order types of well\-orderings. This does not work in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC"), because the equivalence classes are too large. It would be formally possible to use [Scott's trick](/wiki/Scott%27s_trick "Scott's trick") to define the ordinals in essentially the same way, but a device of [von Neumann](/wiki/John_von_Neumann "John von Neumann") is more commonly used. For any partial order \\leq, the corresponding **strict partial order** \< is defined as \\{(x,y) \\mid x \\leq y \\wedge x \\neq y\\}. Strict linear orders and strict well\-orderings are defined similarly. A set *A* is said to be **transitive** if \\bigcup A \\subseteq A: each element of an element of *A* is also an element of *A*. A **(von Neumann) ordinal** is a transitive set on which membership is a strict well\-ordering. In ZFC, the order type of a well\-ordering *W* is then defined as the unique von Neumann ordinal which is equinumerous with the field of *W* and membership on which is isomorphic to the strict well\-ordering associated with *W*. (the equinumerousness condition distinguishes between well\-orderings with fields of size 0 and 1, whose associated strict well\-orderings are indistinguishable). In ZFC there cannot be a set of all ordinals. In fact, the von Neumann ordinals are an inconsistent totality in any set theory: it can be shown with modest set theoretical assumptions that every element of a von Neumann ordinal is a von Neumann ordinal and the von Neumann ordinals are strictly well\-ordered by membership. It follows that the class of von Neumann ordinals would be a von Neumann ordinal if it were a set: but it would then be an element of itself, which contradicts the fact that membership is a strict well\-ordering of the von Neumann ordinals. The existence of order types for all well\-orderings is not a theorem of [Zermelo set theory](/wiki/Zermelo_set_theory "Zermelo set theory"): it requires the [Axiom of replacement](/wiki/Axiom_of_replacement "Axiom of replacement"). Even Scott's trick cannot be used in Zermelo set theory without an additional assumption (such as the assumption that every set belongs to a [rank](/wiki/Rank_%28set_theory%29 "Rank (set theory)") which is a set, which does not essentially strengthen Zermelo set theory but is not a theorem of that theory). In NFU, the collection of all ordinals is a set by stratified comprehension. The Burali\-Forti paradox is evaded in an unexpected way. There is a natural order on the ordinals defined by \\alpha\\leq \\beta if and only if some (and so any) W\_1 \\in \\alpha is similar to an initial segment of some (and so any) W\_2\\in \\beta. Further, it can be shown that this natural order is a well\-ordering of the ordinals and so must have an order type \\Omega. It would seem that the order type of the ordinals less than \\Omega with the natural order would be \\Omega, contradicting the fact that \\Omega is the order type of the entire natural order on the ordinals (and so not of any of its proper initial segments). But this relies on one's intuition (correct in ZFC) that the order type of the natural order on the ordinals less than \\alpha is \\alpha for any ordinal \\alpha. This assertion is unstratified, because the type of the second \\alpha is four higher than the type of the first (two higher if a type level pair is used). The assertion which is true and provable in NFU is that the order type of the natural order on the ordinals less than \\alpha is T^4(\\alpha) for any ordinal \\alpha, where T(\\alpha) is the order type of W^{\\iota}\=\\{(\\{x\\},\\{y\\})\\mid xWy\\} for any W \\in \\alpha (it is easy to show that this does not depend on the choice of W; note that T raises type by one). Thus the order type of the ordinals less than \\Omega with the natural order is T^4(\\Omega), and T^4(\\Omega)\<\\Omega. All uses of T^4 here can be replaced with T^2 if a type\-level pair is used. This shows that the T operation is nontrivial, which has a number of consequences. It follows immediately that the singleton map x \\mapsto \\{x\\} is not a set, as otherwise restrictions of this map would establish the similarity of *W* and W^{\\iota} for any well\-ordering *W*. T is (externally) bijective and order\-preserving. Because of this, the fact T^4(\\Omega)\<\\Omega establishes that \\Omega \> T(\\Omega) \> T^2(\\Omega) \\ldots is a "descending sequence" in the ordinals which cannot be a set. Ordinals fixed by T are called **Cantorian** ordinals, and ordinals which dominate only cantorian ordinals (which are easily shown to be cantorian themselves) are said to be **strongly cantorian**. There can be no set of cantorian ordinals or set of strongly cantorian ordinals. ### Digression: von Neumann ordinals in NFU It is possible to reason about von Neumann ordinals in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations"). Recall that a von Neumann ordinal is a transitive set *A* such that the restriction of membership to *A* is a strict well\-ordering. This is quite a strong condition in the NFU context, since the membership relation involves a difference of type. A von Neumann ordinal *A* is not an ordinal in the sense of NFU, but \\in\\lceil A belongs to an ordinal \\alpha which may be termed the order type of (membership on) *A*. It is easy to show that the order type of a von Neumann ordinal *A* is cantorian: for any well\-ordering *W* of order type \\alpha, the induced well\-ordering of initial segments of *W* by inclusion has order type T(\\alpha) (it is one type higher, thus the application of T): but the order types of the well\-ordering of a von Neumann ordinal *A* by membership and the well\-ordering of its initial segments by inclusion are clearly the same because the two well\-orderings are actually the same relation, so the order type of *A* is fixed under T. Moreover, the same argument applies to any smaller ordinal (which will be the order type of an initial segment of *A*, also a von Neumann ordinal) so the order type of any von Neumann ordinal is strongly cantorian. The only von Neumann ordinals which can be shown to exist in NFU without additional assumptions are the concrete finite ones. However, the application of a permutation method can convert any model of NFU to a model in which every strongly cantorian ordinal is the order type of a von Neumann ordinal. This suggests that the concept "strongly cantorian ordinal of NFU" might be a better analogue to "ordinal of ZFC" than is the apparent analogue "ordinal of NFU".
[ "Ordinal numbers\n---------------", "Two well\\-orderings W\\_1 and W\\_2 are **similar** and write W\\_1 \\\\sim W\\_2 just in case there is a bijection *f* from the field of W\\_1 to the field of W\\_2 such that x W\\_1 y \\\\leftrightarrow f(x)W\\_2f(y) for all *x* and *y*.", "Similarity is shown to be an equivalence relation in much the same way that equinumerousness was shown to be an equivalence relation above.", "In [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") (NFU), the **order type** of a well\\-ordering *W* is the set of all well\\-orderings which are similar to *W*. The set of **ordinal numbers** is the set of all order types of well\\-orderings.", "This does not work in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\"), because the equivalence classes are too large. It would be formally possible to use [Scott's trick](/wiki/Scott%27s_trick \"Scott's trick\") to define the ordinals in essentially the same way, but a device of [von Neumann](/wiki/John_von_Neumann \"John von Neumann\") is more commonly used.", "For any partial order \\\\leq, the corresponding **strict partial order** \\< is defined as \\\\{(x,y) \\\\mid x \\\\leq y \\\\wedge x \\\\neq y\\\\}. Strict linear orders and strict well\\-orderings are defined similarly.", "A set *A* is said to be **transitive** if \\\\bigcup A \\\\subseteq A: each element of an element of *A* is also an element of *A*. A **(von Neumann) ordinal** is a transitive set on which membership is a strict well\\-ordering.", "In ZFC, the order type of a well\\-ordering *W* is then defined as the unique von Neumann ordinal which is equinumerous with the field of *W* and membership on which is isomorphic to the strict well\\-ordering associated with *W*. (the equinumerousness condition distinguishes between well\\-orderings with fields of size 0 and 1, whose associated strict well\\-orderings are indistinguishable).", "In ZFC there cannot be a set of all ordinals. In fact, the von Neumann ordinals are an inconsistent totality in any set theory: it can be shown with modest set theoretical assumptions that every element of a von Neumann ordinal is a von Neumann ordinal and the von Neumann ordinals are strictly well\\-ordered by membership. It follows that the class of von Neumann ordinals would be a von Neumann ordinal if it were a set: but it would then be an element of itself, which contradicts the fact that membership is a strict well\\-ordering of the von Neumann ordinals.", "The existence of order types for all well\\-orderings is not a theorem of [Zermelo set theory](/wiki/Zermelo_set_theory \"Zermelo set theory\"): it requires the [Axiom of replacement](/wiki/Axiom_of_replacement \"Axiom of replacement\"). Even Scott's trick cannot be used in Zermelo set theory without an additional assumption (such as the assumption that every set belongs to a [rank](/wiki/Rank_%28set_theory%29 \"Rank (set theory)\") which is a set, which does not essentially\nstrengthen Zermelo set theory but is not a theorem of that theory).", "In NFU, the collection of all ordinals is a set by stratified comprehension. The Burali\\-Forti paradox is evaded in an unexpected way. There is a natural order on the ordinals defined by \\\\alpha\\\\leq \\\\beta if and only if some (and so any) W\\_1 \\\\in \\\\alpha is similar to an initial segment of some (and so any) W\\_2\\\\in \\\\beta. Further, it can be shown that this natural order is a well\\-ordering of the ordinals and so must have an order type \\\\Omega. It would seem that the order type of the ordinals less than\n\\\\Omega with the natural order would be \\\\Omega, contradicting the fact that \\\\Omega is the order type of the entire natural order on the ordinals (and so not of any of its proper initial segments). But this relies on one's intuition (correct in ZFC) that the order type of the natural order on the ordinals less than \\\\alpha is \\\\alpha for any ordinal \\\\alpha. This assertion is unstratified, because the type of the second \\\\alpha is four higher than the type of the first (two higher if a type level pair is used). The assertion which is true and provable in NFU is that the order type of the natural order on the ordinals less than \\\\alpha is T^4(\\\\alpha) for any ordinal \\\\alpha, where T(\\\\alpha) is the order type of W^{\\\\iota}\\=\\\\{(\\\\{x\\\\},\\\\{y\\\\})\\\\mid xWy\\\\} for any W \\\\in \\\\alpha (it is easy to show that this does not depend on the choice of W; note that T raises type by one). Thus the order type of the ordinals less than \\\\Omega with the natural order is T^4(\\\\Omega), and T^4(\\\\Omega)\\<\\\\Omega. All uses of T^4 here can be replaced with T^2 if a type\\-level pair is used.", "This shows that the T operation is nontrivial, which has a number of consequences. It follows immediately that the singleton map x \\\\mapsto \\\\{x\\\\} is not a set, as otherwise restrictions of this map would establish the similarity of *W* and W^{\\\\iota} for any well\\-ordering *W*. T is (externally) bijective and order\\-preserving. Because of this, the fact T^4(\\\\Omega)\\<\\\\Omega establishes that \\\\Omega \\> T(\\\\Omega) \\> T^2(\\\\Omega) \\\\ldots is a \"descending sequence\" in the ordinals which cannot be a set.", "Ordinals fixed by T are called **Cantorian** ordinals, and ordinals which dominate only cantorian ordinals (which are easily shown to be cantorian themselves) are said to be **strongly cantorian**. There can be no set of cantorian ordinals or set of strongly cantorian ordinals.", "### Digression: von Neumann ordinals in NFU", "It is possible to reason about von Neumann ordinals in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\"). Recall that a von Neumann ordinal is a transitive set *A* such that the restriction of membership to *A* is a strict well\\-ordering. This is quite a strong condition in the NFU context, since the membership relation involves a difference of type. A von Neumann ordinal *A* is not an ordinal in the sense of NFU, but \\\\in\\\\lceil A belongs to an ordinal \\\\alpha which may be termed the order type of (membership on) *A*. It is easy to show that the order type of a von Neumann ordinal *A* is cantorian: for any well\\-ordering *W* of order type \\\\alpha, the induced well\\-ordering of initial segments of *W* by inclusion has order type T(\\\\alpha) (it is one type higher, thus the application of T): but the order types of the well\\-ordering of a von Neumann ordinal *A* by membership and the well\\-ordering of its initial segments by inclusion are clearly the same because the two well\\-orderings are actually the same relation, so the order type of *A* is fixed under T. Moreover, the same argument applies to any smaller ordinal (which will be the order type of an initial segment of *A*, also a von Neumann ordinal) so the order type of any von Neumann ordinal is strongly cantorian.", "The only von Neumann ordinals which can be shown to exist in NFU without additional assumptions are the concrete finite ones. However, the application of a permutation method can convert any model of NFU to a model in which every strongly cantorian ordinal is the order type of a von Neumann ordinal. This suggests that the concept \"strongly cantorian ordinal of NFU\" might be a better analogue to \"ordinal of ZFC\" than is the apparent analogue \"ordinal of NFU\".", "" ]
Cardinal numbers ---------------- Cardinal numbers are defined in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") in a way which generalizes the definition of natural number: for any set *A*, \|A\| \\,\\overset{\\mathrm{def}}{\=} \\left\\{B \\mid B \\sim A\\right\\}. In [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC"), these equivalence classes are too large as usual. Scott's trick could be used (and indeed is used in [ZF](/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory "Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory")), \|A\| is usually defined as the smallest order type (here a von Neumann ordinal) of a well\-ordering of *A* (that every set can be well\-ordered follows from the Axiom of Choice in the usual way in both theories). The natural order on cardinal numbers is seen to be a well\-ordering: that it is reflexive, antisymmetric (on abstract cardinals, which are now available) and transitive has been shown above. That it is a linear order follows from the Axiom of Choice: well\-order two sets and an initial segment of one well\-ordering will be isomorphic to the other, so one set will have cardinality smaller than that of the other. That it is a well\-ordering follows from the Axiom of Choice in a similar way. With each infinite cardinal, many order types are associated for the usual reasons (in either set theory). Cantor's theorem shows (in both theories) that there are nontrivial distinctions between infinite cardinal numbers. In [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC"), one proves \|A\|\<\|P(A)\|. In [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations"), the usual form of Cantor's theorem is false (consider the case A\=V), but Cantor's theorem is an ill\-typed statement. The correct form of the theorem in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") is \|P\_1(A)\|\<\|P(A)\|, where P\_1(A) is the set of one\-element subsets of A. \|P\_1(V)\|\<\|P(V)\| shows that there are "fewer" singletons than sets (the obvious bijection x \\mapsto \\{x\\} from P\_1(V) to *V* has already been seen not to be a set). It is actually provable in NFU \+ Choice that \|P\_1(V)\|\<\|P(V)\|\\ll\|V\| (where \\ll signals the existence of many intervening cardinals; there are many, many urelements!). Define a type\-raising T operation on cardinals analogous to the T operation on ordinals: T(\|A\|) \= \|P\_1(A)\|; this is an external endomorphism of the cardinals just as the T operation on ordinals is an external endomorphism of the ordinals. A set *A* is said to be **cantorian** just in case \|A\| \= \|P\_1(A)\| \= T(\|A\|); the cardinal \|A\| is also said to be a cantorian cardinal. A set *A* is said to be **strongly cantorian** (and its cardinal to be strongly cantorian as well) just in case the restriction of the singleton map to *A* ((x \\mapsto \\{x\\})\\lceil A) is a set. Well\-orderings of strongly cantorian sets are always strongly cantorian ordinals; this is not always true of well\-orderings of cantorian sets (though the shortest well\-ordering of a cantorian set will be cantorian). A cantorian set is a set which satisfies the usual form of Cantor's theorem. The operations of cardinal arithmetic are defined in a set\-theoretically motivated way in both theories. \|A\| \+ \|B\| \= \\{C \\cup D \\mid C \\sim A \\wedge D \\sim B \\wedge C \\cap D \= \\emptyset\\}. One would like to define \|A\|\\cdot\|B\| as \|A \\times B\|, and one does this in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC"), but there is an obstruction in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") when using the Kuratowski pair: one defines \|A\|\\cdot\|B\| as T^{\-2}(\|A \\times B\|) because of the type displacement of 2 between the pair and its projections, which implies a type displacement of two between a cartesian product and its factors. It is straightforward to prove that the product always exists (but requires attention because the inverse of T is not total). Defining the exponential operation on cardinals requires T in an essential way: if B^A was defined as the collection of functions from *A* to *B*, this is three types higher than *A* or *B*, so it is reasonable to define \|B\|^{\|A\|} as T^{\-3}(\|B^A\|) so that it is the same type as *A* or *B* (T^{\-1} replaces T^{\-3} with type\-level pairs). An effect of this is that the exponential operation is partial: for example, 2^{\|V\|} is undefined. In [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC") one defines \|B\|^{\|A\|} as \|B^A\| without difficulty. The exponential operation is total and behaves exactly as expected on cantorian cardinals, since T fixes such cardinals and it is easy to show that a function space between cantorian sets is cantorian (as are power sets, cartesian products, and other usual type constructors). This offers further encouragement to the view that the "standard" cardinalities in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") are the cantorian (indeed, the strongly cantorian) cardinalities, just as the "standard" ordinals seem to be the strongly cantorian ordinals. Now the usual theorems of cardinal arithmetic with the axiom of choice can be proved, including \\kappa \\cdot \\kappa \= \\kappa. From the case \|V\|\\cdot \|V\| \= \|V\| the existence of a type level ordered pair can be derived: \|V\| \\cdot \|V\| \= T^{\-2}(\|V \\times V\|) is equal to \|V\| just in case \|V \\times V\| \= T^2(\|V\|) \= \|P\_1^2(V)\|, which would be witnessed by a one\-to\-one correspondence between Kuratowski pairs (a,b) and double singletons \\{\\{c\\}\\}: redefine (a,b) as the *c* such that \\{\\{c\\}\\} is associated with the Kuratowski (a,b): this is a type\-level notion of ordered pair.
[ "Cardinal numbers\n----------------", "Cardinal numbers are defined in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") in a way which generalizes the definition of natural\nnumber: for any set *A*, \\|A\\| \\\\,\\\\overset{\\\\mathrm{def}}{\\=} \\\\left\\\\{B \\\\mid B \\\\sim A\\\\right\\\\}.", "In [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\"), these equivalence classes are too large as usual. Scott's trick could be used (and indeed is used in [ZF](/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory \"Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory\")), \\|A\\| is usually defined as the smallest order type (here a von Neumann ordinal) of a well\\-ordering of *A* (that every set can be well\\-ordered follows from\nthe Axiom of Choice in the usual way in both theories).", "The natural order on cardinal numbers is seen to be a well\\-ordering: that it is reflexive, antisymmetric (on abstract cardinals, which are now available) and transitive has been shown above. That it is a linear order follows from the Axiom of Choice: well\\-order two sets and an \ninitial segment of one well\\-ordering will be isomorphic to the other, so one set will have cardinality smaller than that of the other. That it is a well\\-ordering follows from the Axiom of Choice in a similar way.", "With each infinite cardinal, many order types are associated for the usual reasons (in either set theory).", "Cantor's theorem shows (in both theories) that there are nontrivial distinctions between infinite cardinal numbers. In [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\"), one proves \\|A\\|\\<\\|P(A)\\|. In [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\"), the usual form of Cantor's theorem is false (consider the case A\\=V), but Cantor's theorem is an ill\\-typed statement. The correct form of the theorem in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") is \\|P\\_1(A)\\|\\<\\|P(A)\\|, where P\\_1(A) is the set of one\\-element subsets of A. \\|P\\_1(V)\\|\\<\\|P(V)\\| shows that there are \"fewer\" singletons than sets (the obvious bijection x \\\\mapsto \\\\{x\\\\} from P\\_1(V) to *V* has already been seen not to be a set). It is actually provable in NFU \\+ Choice that \\|P\\_1(V)\\|\\<\\|P(V)\\|\\\\ll\\|V\\| (where \\\\ll signals the existence of many intervening cardinals; there are many, many urelements!). Define a type\\-raising T operation on cardinals analogous to the T operation on ordinals: T(\\|A\\|) \\= \\|P\\_1(A)\\|; this is an external endomorphism of the cardinals just as the T operation on ordinals is an external endomorphism of the ordinals.", "A set *A* is said to be **cantorian** just in case \\|A\\| \\= \\|P\\_1(A)\\| \\= T(\\|A\\|); the cardinal \\|A\\| is also said to be a cantorian cardinal. A set *A* is said to be **strongly cantorian** (and its cardinal to be strongly cantorian as well) just in case the restriction of the singleton map to *A* ((x \\\\mapsto \\\\{x\\\\})\\\\lceil A) is a set. Well\\-orderings of strongly cantorian sets are always strongly cantorian ordinals; this is not always true of well\\-orderings of cantorian sets (though the shortest well\\-ordering of a cantorian set will be cantorian). A cantorian set is a set which satisfies the usual form of Cantor's theorem.", "The operations of cardinal arithmetic are defined in a set\\-theoretically motivated way in both theories. \\|A\\| \\+ \\|B\\| \\= \\\\{C \\\\cup D \\\\mid C \\\\sim A \\\\wedge D \\\\sim B \\\\wedge C \\\\cap D \\= \\\\emptyset\\\\}. One would like to define \\|A\\|\\\\cdot\\|B\\| as \\|A \\\\times B\\|, and one does this in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\"), but there is an obstruction in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") when using the Kuratowski pair: one defines \\|A\\|\\\\cdot\\|B\\| as T^{\\-2}(\\|A \\\\times B\\|) because of the type displacement of 2 between the pair and its projections, which implies a type displacement of two between a cartesian product and its factors. It is straightforward to prove that the product always exists (but requires attention because the inverse of T is not total).", "Defining the exponential operation on cardinals requires T in an essential way: if B^A was defined as the collection of functions from *A* to *B*, this is three types higher than *A* or *B*, so it is reasonable to define \\|B\\|^{\\|A\\|} as T^{\\-3}(\\|B^A\\|) so that it is the same type as *A* or *B* (T^{\\-1} replaces T^{\\-3} with type\\-level pairs). An effect of this is that the exponential operation is partial: for example, 2^{\\|V\\|} is undefined. In [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\") one defines \\|B\\|^{\\|A\\|} as \\|B^A\\| without difficulty.", "The exponential operation is total and behaves exactly as expected on cantorian cardinals, since T fixes such cardinals and it is easy to show that a function space between cantorian sets is cantorian (as are power sets, cartesian products, and other usual type constructors). This offers further encouragement to the view that the \"standard\" cardinalities in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") are the cantorian (indeed, the strongly cantorian) cardinalities, just as the \"standard\" ordinals seem to be the strongly cantorian ordinals.", "Now the usual theorems of cardinal arithmetic with the axiom of choice can be proved, including \\\\kappa \\\\cdot \\\\kappa \\= \\\\kappa. From the case \\|V\\|\\\\cdot \\|V\\| \\= \\|V\\| the existence of a type level ordered pair can be derived: \\|V\\| \\\\cdot \\|V\\| \\= T^{\\-2}(\\|V \\\\times V\\|) is equal to \\|V\\| just in case \\|V \\\\times V\\| \\= T^2(\\|V\\|) \\= \\|P\\_1^2(V)\\|, which would be witnessed by a one\\-to\\-one correspondence between Kuratowski pairs (a,b) and double singletons \\\\{\\\\{c\\\\}\\\\}: redefine (a,b) as the *c* such that \\\\{\\\\{c\\\\}\\\\} is associated with the Kuratowski (a,b): this is a type\\-level notion of ordered pair.", "" ]
The Axiom of Counting and subversion of stratification ------------------------------------------------------ So there are two different implementations of the natural numbers in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") (though they are the same in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC")): finite ordinals and finite cardinals. Each of these supports a T operation in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") (basically the same operation). It is easy to prove that T(n) is a natural number if n is a natural number in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") \+ Infinity \+ Choice (and so \|N\| and the first infinite ordinal \\omega are cantorian) but it is not possible to prove in this theory that T(n)\=n. However, common sense indicates that this should be true, and so it can be adopted as an axiom: * **Rosser's Axiom of Counting**: For each natural number *n*, T(n)\=n. One natural consequence of this axiom (and indeed its original formulation) is * \|\\{1,\\ldots,n\\}\| \= n for each natural number *n*. All that can be proved in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") without Counting is \|\\{1,\\ldots,n\\}\| \= T^2(n). A consequence of Counting is that *N* is a strongly cantorian set (again, this is an equivalent assertion). ### Properties of strongly cantorian sets The type of any variable restricted to a strongly cantorian set *A* can be raised or lowered as desired by replacing references to a \\in A with references to \\bigcup f(a) (type of *a* raised; this presupposes that it is known that *a* is a set; otherwise one must say "the element of f(a)" to get this effect) or f^{\-1}(\\{a\\}) (type of a lowered) where f(a) \= \\{a\\} for all a \\in A, so it is not necessary to assign types to such variables for purposes of stratification. Any subset of a strongly cantorian set is strongly cantorian. The power set of a strongly cantorian set is strongly cantorian. The cartesian product of two strongly cantorian sets is strongly cantorian. Introducing the Axiom of Counting means that types need not be assigned to variables restricted to *N* or to *P*(*N*), *R* (the set of reals) or indeed any set ever considered in classical mathematics outside of set theory. There are no analogous phenomena in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC"). See the main [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") article for stronger axioms that can be adjoined to NFU to enforce "standard" behavior of familiar mathematical objects.
[ "The Axiom of Counting and subversion of stratification\n------------------------------------------------------", "So there are two different implementations of the natural numbers in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") (though they are the same in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\")): finite ordinals and finite cardinals. Each of these supports a T operation in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") (basically the same operation). It is easy to prove that T(n) is a natural number if n is a natural number in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") \\+ Infinity \\+ Choice (and so \\|N\\| and the first\ninfinite ordinal \\\\omega are cantorian) but it is not possible to prove in this theory that T(n)\\=n. However, common sense indicates that this should be true, and so it can be adopted as an axiom:\n* **Rosser's Axiom of Counting**: For each natural number *n*, T(n)\\=n.\nOne natural consequence of this axiom (and indeed its original formulation) is\n* \\|\\\\{1,\\\\ldots,n\\\\}\\| \\= n for each natural number *n*.\nAll that can be proved in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") without Counting is \\|\\\\{1,\\\\ldots,n\\\\}\\| \\= T^2(n).", "A consequence of Counting is that *N* is a strongly cantorian set (again, this is an equivalent assertion).", "### Properties of strongly cantorian sets", "The type of any variable restricted to a strongly cantorian set *A* can be raised or lowered as desired by replacing references to a \\\\in A with references to \\\\bigcup f(a) (type of *a* raised; this presupposes that it is known that *a* is a set; otherwise one must say \"the element of f(a)\" to get this effect) or f^{\\-1}(\\\\{a\\\\}) (type of a lowered) where f(a) \\= \\\\{a\\\\} for all a \\\\in A, so it is not necessary to assign types to such variables for purposes of stratification.", "Any subset of a strongly cantorian set is strongly cantorian. The power set of a strongly cantorian set is strongly cantorian. The cartesian product of two strongly cantorian sets is strongly cantorian.", "Introducing the Axiom of Counting means that types need not be assigned to variables restricted to *N* or to *P*(*N*), *R* (the set of reals) or indeed any set ever considered in classical mathematics outside of set theory.", "There are no analogous phenomena in [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\"). See the main [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") article for stronger axioms that can be adjoined to NFU to enforce \"standard\" behavior of familiar mathematical objects.", "" ]
Operations on indexed families of sets -------------------------------------- In this class of constructions it appears that [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC") has an advantage over [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations"): though the constructions are clearly feasible in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations"), they are more complicated than in ZFC for reasons having to do with stratification. Throughout this section assume a type\-level ordered pair. Define (x\_1,x\_2,\\ldots,x\_n) as (x\_1,(x\_2,\\ldots,x\_n)). The definition of the general *n*\-tuple using the Kuratowski pair is trickier, as one needs to keep the types of all the projections the same, and the type displacement between the *n*\-tuple and its projections increases as *n* increases. Here, the *n*\-tuple has the same type as each of its projections. General cartesian products are defined similarly: A\_1 \\times A\_2 \\times \\ldots \\times A\_n \= A\_1 \\times (A\_2 \\times \\ldots \\times A\_n) The definitions are the same in ZFC but without any worries about stratification (the grouping given here is opposite to that more usually used, but this is easily corrected for). Now consider the infinite cartesian product \\Pi\_{i \\in I}A\_i. In ZFC, this is defined as the set of all functions *f* with domain *I* such that f(i) \\in A\_i (where *A* is implicitly understood as a function taking each *i* to A\_i). In NFU, this is requires attention to type. Given a set *I* and set valued function *A* whose value at \\{i\\} in P\_1(I) is written A\_i, Define \\Pi\_{i \\in I}A\_i as the set of all functions *f* with domain *I* such that f(i) \\in A\_i: notice that f(i) \\in A\_i \= A(\\{i\\}) is stratified because of our convention that *A* is a function with values at singletons of the indices. Note that the very largest families of sets (which cannot be indexed by sets of singletons) will not have cartesian products under this definition. Note further that the sets A\_i are at the same type as the index set *I* (since one type higher than its elements); the product, as a set of functions with domain *I* (so at the same type as *I*) is one type higher (assuming a type\-level ordered pair). Now consider the product \\Pi\_{i \\in I}\|A\_i\| of the cardinals of these sets. The cardinality \|\\Pi\_{i \\in I}A\_i\| is one type higher than the cardinals \|A\_i\|, so the correct definition of the infinite product of cardinals is T^{\-1}(\|\\Pi\_{i \\in I}A\_i\|) (because the inverse of T is not total, it is possible that this may not exist). Repeat this for disjoint unions of families of sets and sums of families of cardinals. Again, let *A* be a set\-valued function with domain P\_1(I): write A\_i for A(\\{i\\}). The disjoint union \\Sigma\_{i \\in I}A\_i is the set \\{(i,a) \\mid a \\in A\_i\\}. This set is at the same type as the sets A\_i. The correct definition of the sum \\Sigma\_{i \\in I}\|A\_i\| is thus \|\\Sigma\_{i \\in I}A\_i\|, since there is no type displacement. It is possible to extend these definitions to handle index sets which are not sets of singletons, but this introduces an additional type level and is not needed for most purposes. In ZFC, define the disjoint union \\Sigma\_{i \\in I}A\_i as \\{(i,a) \\mid a \\in A\_i\\}, where A\_i abbreviates A(i). Permutation methods can be used to show relative consistency with NFU of the assertion that for every strongly cantorian set A there is a set *I* of the same size whose elements are self\-singletons: i \= \\{i\\} for each *i* in *I*.
[ "Operations on indexed families of sets\n--------------------------------------", "In this class of constructions it appears that [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\") has an advantage over [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\"): though the constructions are clearly feasible in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\"), they are more complicated than in ZFC for reasons having to do with stratification.", "Throughout this section assume a type\\-level ordered pair. Define (x\\_1,x\\_2,\\\\ldots,x\\_n) as (x\\_1,(x\\_2,\\\\ldots,x\\_n)). The definition of the general *n*\\-tuple using the Kuratowski pair is trickier, as one needs to keep the types of all the projections the same, and the type displacement between the *n*\\-tuple and its projections increases as *n* increases. Here, the *n*\\-tuple has the same type as each of its projections.", "General cartesian products are defined similarly: A\\_1 \\\\times A\\_2 \\\\times \\\\ldots \\\\times A\\_n \\= A\\_1 \\\\times (A\\_2 \\\\times \\\\ldots \\\\times A\\_n)", "The definitions are the same in ZFC but without any worries about stratification (the grouping given here is opposite to that more usually used, but this is easily corrected for).", "Now consider the infinite cartesian product \\\\Pi\\_{i \\\\in I}A\\_i. In ZFC, this is defined as the set of all functions *f* with domain *I* such that f(i) \\\\in A\\_i (where *A* is implicitly understood as a function taking each *i* to A\\_i).", "In NFU, this is requires attention to type. Given a set *I* and set valued function *A* whose value at \\\\{i\\\\} in P\\_1(I) is written A\\_i, Define \\\\Pi\\_{i \\\\in I}A\\_i as the set of all functions *f* with domain *I* such that f(i) \\\\in A\\_i: notice that f(i) \\\\in A\\_i \\= A(\\\\{i\\\\}) is stratified because of our convention that *A* is a function with values at singletons of the indices. Note that the very largest families of sets (which cannot be indexed by sets of singletons) will not have cartesian products under this definition. Note further that the sets A\\_i are at the same type as the index set *I* (since one type higher than its elements); the product, as a set of functions with domain *I* (so at the same type as *I*) is one type higher (assuming a type\\-level ordered pair).", "Now consider the product \\\\Pi\\_{i \\\\in I}\\|A\\_i\\| of the cardinals of these sets. The cardinality \\|\\\\Pi\\_{i \\\\in I}A\\_i\\| is one type higher than the cardinals \\|A\\_i\\|, so the correct definition of the infinite product of cardinals is T^{\\-1}(\\|\\\\Pi\\_{i \\\\in I}A\\_i\\|) (because the inverse of T is not total, it is possible that this may not exist).", "Repeat this for disjoint unions of families of sets and sums of families of cardinals. Again, let *A* be a set\\-valued function with domain P\\_1(I): write A\\_i for A(\\\\{i\\\\}). The disjoint union \\\\Sigma\\_{i \\\\in I}A\\_i is the set \\\\{(i,a) \\\\mid a \\\\in A\\_i\\\\}. This set is at the same type as the sets A\\_i.", "The correct definition of the sum \\\\Sigma\\_{i \\\\in I}\\|A\\_i\\| is thus \\|\\\\Sigma\\_{i \\\\in I}A\\_i\\|, since there is no type displacement.", "It is possible to extend these definitions to handle index sets which are not sets of singletons, but this introduces an additional type level and is not needed for most purposes.", "In ZFC, define the disjoint union \\\\Sigma\\_{i \\\\in I}A\\_i as \\\\{(i,a) \\\\mid a \\\\in A\\_i\\\\}, where A\\_i abbreviates A(i).", "Permutation methods can be used to show relative consistency with NFU of the assertion that for every strongly cantorian set A there is a set *I* of the same size whose elements are self\\-singletons: i \\= \\\\{i\\\\} for each *i* in *I*.", "" ]
The cumulative hierarchy ------------------------ In [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC"), define the *cumulative hierarchy* as the ordinal\-indexed sequence of sets satisfying the following conditions: V\_0 \= \\emptyset; V\_{\\alpha\+1} \= P(V\_{\\alpha}); V\_{\\lambda} \= \\bigcup\\{V\_{\\beta} \\mid \\beta\<\\lambda\\} for limit ordinals \\lambda. This is an example of a construction by [transfinite recursion](/wiki/Transfinite_recursion "Transfinite recursion"). The rank of a set *A* is said to be \\alpha if and only if A \\in V\_{\\alpha\+1}\-V\_{\\alpha}. The existence of the ranks as sets depends on the axiom of replacement at each limit step (the hierarchy cannot be constructed in [Zermelo set theory](/wiki/Zermelo_set_theory "Zermelo set theory")); by the axiom of foundation, every set belongs to some rank. The cardinal \|P(V\_{\\omega \+ \\alpha})\| is called \\beth\_{\\alpha}. This construction cannot be carried out in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") because the power set operation is not a set function in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") (P(A) is one type higher than A for purposes of stratification). The sequence of cardinals \\beth\_{\\alpha} can be implemented in NFU. Recall that 2^{\|A\|} is defined as T^{\-1}(\|\\{0,1\\}^A\|), where \\{0,1\\} is a convenient set of size 2, and \|\\{0,1\\}^A\|\=\|P(A)\|. Let \\beth be the smallest set of cardinals which contains \|N\| (the cardinality of the set of natural numbers), contains the cardinal 2^{\|A\|} whenever it contains \|A\|, and which is closed under suprema of sets of cardinals. A convention for ordinal indexing of any well\-ordering W\_\\alpha is defined as the element *x* of the field of W such that the order type of the restriction of W to \\{y \\mid y W x\\} is \\alpha; then define \\beth\_{\\alpha} as the element with index \\alpha in the natural order on the elements of \\beth. The cardinal \\aleph\_{\\alpha} is the element with index \\alpha in the natural order on all infinite cardinals (which is a well\-ordering, see above). Note that \\aleph\_0 \= \|N\| follows immediately from this definition. In all these constructions, notice that the type of the index \\alpha is two higher (with type\-level ordered pair) than the type of W\_{\\alpha}. Each set *A* of ZFC has a transitive closure TC(A) (the intersection of all transitive sets which contains *A*). By the axiom of foundation, the restriction of the membership relation to the transitive closure of *A* is a [well\-founded relation](/wiki/Well-founded_relation "Well-founded relation"). The relation \\in \\lceil TC(A) is either empty or has *A* as its top element, so this relation is a *set picture*. It can be proved in ZFC that every set picture is isomorphic to some \\in \\lceil TC(A). This suggests that (an initial segment of) the cumulative hierarchy can be studied by considering the isomorphism classes of set pictures. These isomorphism classes are sets and make up a set in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations"). There is a natural set relation analogous to membership on isomorphism classes of set pictures: if x is a set picture, write \[x] for its isomorphism class and define \[x] E \[y] as holding if \[x] is the isomorphism class of the restriction of *y* to the downward closure of one of the elements of the preimage under *y* of the top element of *y*. The relation E is a set relation, and it is straightforward to prove that it is well\-founded and extensional. If the definition of E is confusing, it can be deduced from the observation that it is induced by precisely the relationship which holds between the set picture associated with *A* and the set picture associated with *B* when A \\in B in the usual set theory. There is a T operation on isomorphism classes of set pictures analogous to the T operation on ordinals: if *x* is a set picture, so is x^{\\iota} \= \\{(\\{a\\},\\{b\\})\\mid (a,b) \\in x\\}. Define T(\[x]) as \[x^{\\iota}]. It is easy to see that \[x]E\[y] \\leftrightarrow T(\[x])\=T(\[y]). An axiom of extensionality for this simulated set theory follows from E's extensionality. From its well\-foundedness follows an axiom of foundation. There remains the question of what comprehension axiom E may have. Consider any collection of set pictures \\{x^{\\iota}\\mid x \\in S\\} (collection of set pictures whose fields are made up entirely of singletons). Since each x^{\\iota} is one type higher than x (using a type\-level ordered pair), replacing each element \\{a\\} of the field of each x^{\\iota} in the collection with (x,\\{a\\}) results in a collection of set pictures isomorphic to the original collection but with their fields disjoint. The union of these set pictures with a new top element yields a set picture whose isomorphism type will have as its preimages under E exactly the elements of the original collection. That is, for any collection of isomorphism types \[x^{\\iota}] \= T(\[x]), there is an isomorphism type \[y] whose preimage under E is exactly this collection. In particular, there will be an isomorphism type *\[v]* whose preimage under E is the collection of *all* *T*\[*x*]'s (including *T*\[*v*]). Since *T*\[*v*] *E* *v* and E is well\-founded, T\[v] \\neq v. This resembles the resolution of the Burali–Forti paradox discussed above and in the [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") article, and is in fact the local resolution of [Mirimanoff's paradox](/wiki/Mirimanoff%27s_paradox "Mirimanoff's paradox") of the set of all well\-founded sets. There are ranks of isomorphism classes of set pictures just as there are ranks of sets in the usual set theory. For any collection of set pictures *A*, define *S*(*A*) as the set of all isomorphism classes of set pictures whose preimage under E is a subset of A; call A a "complete" set if every subset of *A* is a preimage under E. The collection of "ranks" is the smallest collection containing the empty set and closed under the S operation (which is a kind of power set construction) and under unions of its subcollections. It is straightforward to prove (much as in the usual set theory) that the ranks are well\-ordered by inclusion, and so the ranks have an index in this well\-order: refer to the rank with index \\alpha as R\_{\\alpha}. It is provable that \|R\_{\\alpha}\|\=\\beth\_{\\alpha} for complete ranks R\_{\\alpha}. The union of the complete ranks (which will be the first incomplete rank) with the relation E looks like an initial segment of the universe of Zermelo\-style set theory (not necessarily like the full universe of [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC") because it may not be large enough). It is provable that if R\_{\\alpha} is the first incomplete rank, then R\_{T(\\alpha)} is a complete rank and thus T(\\alpha)\<\\alpha. So there is a "rank of the cumulative hierarchy" with an "external automorphism" T moving the rank downward, exactly the condition on a nonstandard model of a rank in the cumulative hierarchy under which a model of NFU is constructed in the [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") article. There are technical details to verify, but there is an interpretation not only of a fragment of [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC "ZFC") but of [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") itself in this structure, with \[x]\\in\_{NFU}\[y] defined as T(\[x]) E \[y] \\wedge \[y] \\in R\_{T(\\alpha)\+1}: this "relation" E\_{NFU} is not a set relation but has the same type displacement between its arguments as the usual membership relation \\in. So there is a natural construction inside NFU of the cumulative hierarchy of sets which internalizes the natural construction of a model of NFU in Zermelo\-style set theory. Under the Axiom of Cantorian Sets described in the [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations "New Foundations") article, the strongly cantorian part of the set of isomorphism classes of set pictures with the E relation as membership becomes a (proper class) model of ZFC (in which there are *n*\-[Mahlo cardinals](/wiki/Mahlo_cardinals "Mahlo cardinals") for each *n*; this extension of NFU is strictly stronger than ZFC). This is a proper class model because the strongly cantorian isomorphism classes do not make up a set. Permutation methods can be used to create from any model of NFU a model in which every strongly cantorian isomorphism type of set pictures is actually realized as the restriction of the true membership relation to the transitive closure of a set.
[ "The cumulative hierarchy\n------------------------", "In [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\"), define the *cumulative hierarchy* as the ordinal\\-indexed sequence of sets satisfying the following conditions: V\\_0 \\= \\\\emptyset; V\\_{\\\\alpha\\+1} \\= P(V\\_{\\\\alpha}); V\\_{\\\\lambda} \\= \\\\bigcup\\\\{V\\_{\\\\beta} \\\\mid \\\\beta\\<\\\\lambda\\\\} for limit ordinals \\\\lambda. This is an example of a construction by [transfinite recursion](/wiki/Transfinite_recursion \"Transfinite recursion\"). The rank of a set *A* is said to be \\\\alpha if and only if A \\\\in V\\_{\\\\alpha\\+1}\\-V\\_{\\\\alpha}. The existence of the ranks as sets depends on the axiom of replacement at each limit step (the hierarchy cannot be constructed in [Zermelo set theory](/wiki/Zermelo_set_theory \"Zermelo set theory\")); by the axiom of foundation, every set belongs to some rank.", "The cardinal \\|P(V\\_{\\\\omega \\+ \\\\alpha})\\| is called \\\\beth\\_{\\\\alpha}.", "This construction cannot be carried out in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") because the power set operation is not a set function in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") (P(A) is one type higher than A for purposes of stratification).", "The sequence of cardinals \\\\beth\\_{\\\\alpha} can be implemented in NFU. Recall that 2^{\\|A\\|} is defined as T^{\\-1}(\\|\\\\{0,1\\\\}^A\\|), where \\\\{0,1\\\\} is a convenient set of size 2, and \\|\\\\{0,1\\\\}^A\\|\\=\\|P(A)\\|. Let \\\\beth be the smallest set of cardinals which contains \\|N\\| (the cardinality of the set of natural numbers), contains the cardinal 2^{\\|A\\|} whenever it contains \\|A\\|, and which is closed under suprema of sets of cardinals.", "A convention for ordinal indexing of any well\\-ordering W\\_\\\\alpha is defined as the element *x* of the field of W such that\nthe order type of the restriction of W to \\\\{y \\\\mid y W x\\\\} is \\\\alpha; then define \\\\beth\\_{\\\\alpha} as the element with index \\\\alpha in the natural order on the elements of \\\\beth. The cardinal \\\\aleph\\_{\\\\alpha} is the element with index \\\\alpha in the natural order on all infinite cardinals (which is a well\\-ordering, see above). Note that \\\\aleph\\_0 \\= \\|N\\| follows immediately from this definition. In all these constructions, notice that the type of the index \\\\alpha is two higher (with type\\-level ordered pair) than the type of W\\_{\\\\alpha}.", "Each set *A* of ZFC has a transitive closure TC(A) (the intersection of all transitive sets which contains *A*). By the axiom of foundation, the restriction of the membership relation to the transitive closure of *A* is a [well\\-founded relation](/wiki/Well-founded_relation \"Well-founded relation\"). The relation \\\\in \\\\lceil TC(A) is either empty or has *A* as its top element, so this relation is a *set picture*. It can be proved in ZFC that every set picture is isomorphic to some \\\\in \\\\lceil TC(A).", "This suggests that (an initial segment of) the cumulative hierarchy can be studied by considering the isomorphism classes of set pictures. These isomorphism classes are sets and make up a set in [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\"). There is a natural set relation analogous to membership on isomorphism classes of set pictures: if x is a set picture, write \\[x] for its isomorphism class and define \\[x] E \\[y] as holding if \\[x] is the isomorphism class of the restriction of *y* to the downward closure of one of the elements of the preimage under *y* of the top element of *y*. The relation E is a set relation, and it is straightforward to prove that it is well\\-founded and extensional. If the definition of E is confusing, it can be deduced from the observation that it is induced by precisely the relationship which holds between the set picture associated with *A* and the set picture associated with *B* when A \\\\in B in the usual set theory.", "There is a T operation on isomorphism classes of set pictures analogous to the T operation on ordinals: if *x* is a set picture, so is x^{\\\\iota} \\= \\\\{(\\\\{a\\\\},\\\\{b\\\\})\\\\mid (a,b) \\\\in x\\\\}. Define T(\\[x]) as \\[x^{\\\\iota}]. It is easy to see that \\[x]E\\[y] \\\\leftrightarrow T(\\[x])\\=T(\\[y]).", "An axiom of extensionality for this simulated set theory follows from E's extensionality. From its well\\-foundedness follows an axiom of foundation. There remains the question of what comprehension axiom E may have. Consider any collection of set pictures \\\\{x^{\\\\iota}\\\\mid x \\\\in S\\\\} (collection of set pictures whose fields are made up entirely of singletons). Since each x^{\\\\iota} is one type higher than x (using a type\\-level ordered pair), replacing each element \\\\{a\\\\} of the field of each x^{\\\\iota} in the collection with (x,\\\\{a\\\\}) results in a collection of set pictures isomorphic to the original collection but with their fields disjoint. The union of these set\npictures with a new top element yields a set picture whose isomorphism type will have as its preimages under E exactly the elements of the original collection. That is, for any collection of isomorphism types \\[x^{\\\\iota}] \\= T(\\[x]), there is an isomorphism type \\[y] whose preimage under E is exactly this collection.", "In particular, there will be an isomorphism type *\\[v]* whose preimage under E is the collection of *all* *T*\\[*x*]'s (including *T*\\[*v*]). Since *T*\\[*v*] *E* *v* and E is well\\-founded, T\\[v] \\\\neq v. This resembles the resolution of the Burali–Forti paradox discussed above and in the [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") article, and is in fact the local resolution of [Mirimanoff's paradox](/wiki/Mirimanoff%27s_paradox \"Mirimanoff's paradox\") of the set of all well\\-founded sets.", "There are ranks of isomorphism classes of set pictures just as there are ranks of sets in the usual set theory. For any collection of set pictures *A*, define *S*(*A*) as the set of all isomorphism classes of set pictures whose preimage under E is a subset of A; call A a \"complete\" set if every subset of *A* is a preimage under E. The collection of \"ranks\" is the smallest collection containing the empty set and closed under the S operation (which is a kind of power set construction) and under unions of its subcollections. It is straightforward to prove (much as in the usual set theory) that the ranks are well\\-ordered by inclusion, and so the ranks have an index in this well\\-order: refer to the rank with index \\\\alpha as R\\_{\\\\alpha}. It is provable that \\|R\\_{\\\\alpha}\\|\\=\\\\beth\\_{\\\\alpha} for complete ranks R\\_{\\\\alpha}. The union of the complete ranks (which will be the first incomplete rank) with the relation E looks like an initial segment of the universe of Zermelo\\-style set theory (not necessarily like the full universe of [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\") because it may not be large enough). It is provable that if R\\_{\\\\alpha} is the first incomplete rank, then R\\_{T(\\\\alpha)} is a complete rank and thus T(\\\\alpha)\\<\\\\alpha. So there is a \"rank of the cumulative hierarchy\" with an \"external automorphism\" T moving the rank downward, exactly the condition on a nonstandard model of a rank in the cumulative hierarchy under which a model of NFU is constructed in the [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") article. There are technical details to verify, but there is an interpretation not only of a fragment of [ZFC](/wiki/ZFC \"ZFC\") but of [NFU](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") itself in this structure, with \\[x]\\\\in\\_{NFU}\\[y] defined as T(\\[x]) E \\[y] \\\\wedge \\[y] \\\\in R\\_{T(\\\\alpha)\\+1}: this \"relation\" E\\_{NFU} is not a set relation but has the same type displacement between its arguments as the usual membership relation \\\\in.", "So there is a natural construction inside NFU of the cumulative hierarchy of sets which internalizes the natural construction of a model of NFU in Zermelo\\-style set theory.", "Under the Axiom of Cantorian Sets described in the [New Foundations](/wiki/New_Foundations \"New Foundations\") article, the strongly cantorian part of the set of isomorphism classes of set pictures with the E relation as membership becomes a (proper class) model of ZFC (in which there are *n*\\-[Mahlo cardinals](/wiki/Mahlo_cardinals \"Mahlo cardinals\") for each *n*; this extension of NFU is strictly stronger than ZFC). This is a proper class model because the strongly cantorian isomorphism classes do not make up a set.", "Permutation methods can be used to create from any model of NFU a model in which every strongly cantorian isomorphism type of set pictures is actually realized as the restriction of the true membership relation to the transitive closure of a set.", "" ]
History ------- ### Beginnings The high school was established in 1927 in [Quicksand, Kentucky](/wiki/Quicksand%2C_Kentucky "Quicksand, Kentucky"), just south of the county seat of [Jackson. Kentucky](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Kentucky "Jackson, Kentucky"). It came about when in the office of the superintendent of Breathitt County and the [Jackson City School](/wiki/Jackson_City_School "Jackson City School") board of education disagreed on ways of education and how it should be run. It was during that time that the county school children went to the city school (which is an independent school) since it was the only public high school in the county. Soon, the idea of building a county high school was born. In 1927, it was decided that the high school would be located in the growing logging town of Quicksand which was just {{convert\|3\|mi\|km}} southeast of Jackson. The county would use the Quicksand Common Grade School building that was donated to the county school system, in 1917, by Mr. E. O. Robinson, and F. W. Mowbray, the heads of the Mowbray and Robinson Company that was a major logging company that was the major employer for the boomtown. It would be known as Breathitt County High School, but many locals would sometimes call it Quicksand High School (due to its location, since not many high schools back then were known by the county name) or Breathitt High School (due to many reasons, but mainly because many high schools in the area back then only had three initials and not many schools existed as a unified county school with 'county' in its name). It was used so often and was so common that when the second building was constructed, they carved over top of the entrance "Breathitt High School" instead of "Breathitt County High School". Hence, why the name "Breathitt High School" still sticks to many locals today. ### The first high school in Quicksand The campus was located on a hill overlooking the town of Quicksand. It was set up much like a college campus with a boys' and girls' dormitory. These were needed during this time due to inefficient roads, lack of many motor vehicles, and the long travel it would take to go back and forth every day when most kids walked to school during this time. So, most kids would stay for the weekdays and go home for the weekends. There were five buildings on campus: * *The main building* \- which housed the auditorium, the cafeteria, four classrooms, and the administrator's office. * *The boys' dormitory* * *The girls' dormitory* * *The gymnasium* \- which was located just behind the main building * *classroom building* The first year of its existence, consisting of 24 students and two faculty members, was headed by L. K. Rice as principal. Within its first year, it housed a boys' and girls' basketball team that competed in the [KHSAA](/wiki/KHSAA "KHSAA"). There were 2 graduates for its first commencement. They were Roy Bach and Wayne Davis. Enrollment and faculty continued to grow through the end of the decade and up into the 1930s despite the effects of [The Great Depression](/wiki/The_Great_Depression "The Great Depression"). They gained many more extracurricular activities and classes over the years like music, boys' and girls' glee club, FFA, and much more. ### The move to Jackson: the second high school By the mid\-1930s, the board of education knew the buildings were becoming inefficient to contain the rapid growth of the student body and faculty. So, in 1936, an {{convert\|8\|acre\|m2\|adj\=on}} property was bought on Court Street and next to the North Fork of the Kentucky River in the City of Jackson. Building began immediately and was completed to be opened in September 1938\. It was a two\-story red brick building that had about 40 classrooms and a separate gymnasium with an auditorium that housed around 200 people. There was still a huge field behind the high school that could be used for sporting activities of recreation. The building was dedicated in January 1938 by First Lady [Eleanor Roosevelt](/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt "Eleanor Roosevelt") during her visit to the county. All this was due to the efforts from current Superintendent Marie Roberts\-Turner and her fighting for better education to the children of Breathitt County. There were 46 graduates from the graduating class of the new high school (Class of 1939\). With a growing number of students due to the paving of many roads and bus transportation, more was added throughout the years. The high school added more buildings to its campus. These buildings included: * *Arts and Industrial Building* \- Housed the art room, band room, chorus room, and the industrial arts. * *Library Building* \- A two\-story building that housed the Library and Study Hall * *Little Red School* \- an elementary school (grades k\-8\) that was originally built for the purpose of giving high school students a chance to teach, but the enrollment soon grew and more buildings grew as well. * *Breathitt Coliseum* \- Built in 1963 due to the overcrowding of the previous gymnasium. In fact, for a two or three years prior, the high school used [Lees College](/wiki/Lees_College "Lees College")'s Van Meter Gym for games. It housed, not only the gym, but the ROTC, classrooms, and a stage for use of theatre. In 2000, it would be renamed *[Fairce O. Woods Coliseum](/wiki/Fairce_O._Woods_Coliseum "Fairce O. Woods Coliseum")* There is no air conditioning in that building, rather oversized ceiling fans. * *Football field* \- built in 1977, a year after the first football team was organized at Breathitt County H.S. * *Baseball field* \- built around the 1960s. It would, eventually be flipped around due to the use of the field for football and the new football stadium. In 2006, a new baseball and softball complex was built behind LBJ Elementary School. * *Carl D. Perkins Vocational Building* \- Built around 1969 as a means to increase vocational education. A second building was built later on. Both buildings are known as the Breathitt County Area Technology Center * *Greenhouse* * *various small buildings* Soon, another entrance from Washington Avenue was built due to the oncoming of the new road. Kentucky State Highway 15\. Washington Avenue connected to Highway 15\. ### Time takes its toll: the third high school In the early 1980s, the administrators, staff, and community began to notice that age was beginning to take a toll on many buildings on the campus. Plus, Little Red Elementary had been consolidated with other schools to form L. B. J. Elementary and Sebastian Middle School that housed 7th and 8th grades. So it was decided to build a new high school. Many fought to keep the old brick high school because of its gleaming red beauty. It was even thought of moving the high school to another piece of property, but in the end, it was more convenient to keep the high school where it was at due to the domed gymnasium, vocational school, and recently built football field. In 1980, construction began as the building would be built connecting to the Fairce O. Woods Coliseum. From the gym, it would be built outward as little by little, building disappeared. The original brick high school would be last to go. It was torn down in the middle of the academic year which caused some classes to move to alternative locations. Finally, the last remnants of the brick building would be removed and the rest of the new high school would be built. Students moved into the new building during the spring semester of 1982\. The new high school contained approximately 1,200 students. It had many modern classrooms and was two stories high. It contained: * spacious classrooms * new science labs * a larger lunchroom with a full size kitchen * conference room * drafting room * a new P.E. gymnasium that could be used as a practice facility and would eventually house volleyball. Also, it contained a second floor for practices and expansion seating. It contained a stage for theater, and boys' and girls' shower facilities. * shop class * FFA (Agriculture) room * Chorus room (which would later be turned into the CAD and technology room. Chorus would be moved to the band room) * Band Room * home economics rooms * two\-level library * front office and lobby The new high school provided new things that many students had not seen before with the old high school. This would include a new, modern P.A. system, digital clocks in the hallways (which would be replaced in 2000\), an elevator, and much more. This building is still the building in use today with the exception of a few differences due to renovations and changes.
[ "History\n-------", "### Beginnings", "The high school was established in 1927 in [Quicksand, Kentucky](/wiki/Quicksand%2C_Kentucky \"Quicksand, Kentucky\"), just south of the county seat of [Jackson. Kentucky](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Kentucky \"Jackson, Kentucky\"). It came about when in the office of the superintendent of Breathitt County and the [Jackson City School](/wiki/Jackson_City_School \"Jackson City School\") board of education disagreed on ways of education and how it should be run. It was during that time that the county school children went to the city school (which is an independent school) since it was the only public high school in the county. Soon, the idea of building a county high school was born.", "In 1927, it was decided that the high school would be located in the growing logging town of Quicksand which was just {{convert\\|3\\|mi\\|km}} southeast of Jackson. The county would use the Quicksand Common Grade School building that was donated to the county school system, in 1917, by Mr. E. O. Robinson, and F. W. Mowbray, the heads of the Mowbray and Robinson Company that was a major logging company that was the major employer for the boomtown. It would be known as Breathitt County High School, but many locals would sometimes call it Quicksand High School (due to its location, since not many high schools back then were known by the county name) or Breathitt High School (due to many reasons, but mainly because many high schools in the area back then only had three initials and not many schools existed as a unified county school with 'county' in its name). It was used so often and was so common that when the second building was constructed, they carved over top of the entrance \"Breathitt High School\" instead of \"Breathitt County High School\". Hence, why the name \"Breathitt High School\" still sticks to many locals today.", "### The first high school in Quicksand", "The campus was located on a hill overlooking the town of Quicksand. It was set up much like a college campus with a boys' and girls' dormitory. These were needed during this time due to inefficient roads, lack of many motor vehicles, and the long travel it would take to go back and forth every day when most kids walked to school during this time. So, most kids would stay for the weekdays and go home for the weekends. There were five buildings on campus: \n* *The main building* \\- which housed the auditorium, the cafeteria, four classrooms, and the administrator's office.\n* *The boys' dormitory*\n* *The girls' dormitory*\n* *The gymnasium* \\- which was located just behind the main building\n* *classroom building*", "The first year of its existence, consisting of 24 students and two faculty members, was headed by L. K. Rice as principal. Within its first year, it housed a boys' and girls' basketball team that competed in the [KHSAA](/wiki/KHSAA \"KHSAA\"). There were 2 graduates for its first commencement. They were Roy Bach and Wayne Davis.", "Enrollment and faculty continued to grow through the end of the decade and up into the 1930s despite the effects of [The Great Depression](/wiki/The_Great_Depression \"The Great Depression\"). They gained many more extracurricular activities and classes over the years like music, boys' and girls' glee club, FFA, and much more.", "### The move to Jackson: the second high school", "By the mid\\-1930s, the board of education knew the buildings were becoming inefficient to contain the rapid growth of the student body and faculty. So, in 1936, an {{convert\\|8\\|acre\\|m2\\|adj\\=on}} property was bought on Court Street and next to the North Fork of the Kentucky River in the City of Jackson. Building began immediately and was completed to be opened in September 1938\\. It was a two\\-story red brick building that had about 40 classrooms and a separate gymnasium with an auditorium that housed around 200 people. There was still a huge field behind the high school that could be used for sporting activities of recreation. The building was dedicated in January 1938 by First Lady [Eleanor Roosevelt](/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt \"Eleanor Roosevelt\") during her visit to the county. All this was due to the efforts from current Superintendent Marie Roberts\\-Turner and her fighting for better education to the children of Breathitt County. There were 46 graduates from the graduating class of the new high school (Class of 1939\\).", "With a growing number of students due to the paving of many roads and bus transportation, more was added throughout the years. The high school added more buildings to its campus. These buildings included:\n* *Arts and Industrial Building* \\- Housed the art room, band room, chorus room, and the industrial arts.\n* *Library Building* \\- A two\\-story building that housed the Library and Study Hall\n* *Little Red School* \\- an elementary school (grades k\\-8\\) that was originally built for the purpose of giving high school students a chance to teach, but the enrollment soon grew and more buildings grew as well.\n* *Breathitt Coliseum* \\- Built in 1963 due to the overcrowding of the previous gymnasium. In fact, for a two or three years prior, the high school used [Lees College](/wiki/Lees_College \"Lees College\")'s Van Meter Gym for games. It housed, not only the gym, but the ROTC, classrooms, and a stage for use of theatre. In 2000, it would be renamed *[Fairce O. Woods Coliseum](/wiki/Fairce_O._Woods_Coliseum \"Fairce O. Woods Coliseum\")* There is no air conditioning in that building, rather oversized ceiling fans.\n* *Football field* \\- built in 1977, a year after the first football team was organized at Breathitt County H.S.\n* *Baseball field* \\- built around the 1960s. It would, eventually be flipped around due to the use of the field for football and the new football stadium. In 2006, a new baseball and softball complex was built behind LBJ Elementary School.\n* *Carl D. Perkins Vocational Building* \\- Built around 1969 as a means to increase vocational education. A second building was built later on. Both buildings are known as the Breathitt County Area Technology Center\n* *Greenhouse*\n* *various small buildings*", "Soon, another entrance from Washington Avenue was built due to the oncoming of the new road. Kentucky State Highway 15\\. Washington Avenue connected to Highway 15\\.", "### Time takes its toll: the third high school", "In the early 1980s, the administrators, staff, and community began to notice that age was beginning to take a toll on many buildings on the campus. Plus, Little Red Elementary had been consolidated with other schools to form L. B. J. Elementary and Sebastian Middle School that housed 7th and 8th grades. So it was decided to build a new high school. Many fought to keep the old brick high school because of its gleaming red beauty. It was even thought of moving the high school to another piece of property, but in the end, it was more convenient to keep the high school where it was at due to the domed gymnasium, vocational school, and recently built football field.", "In 1980, construction began as the building would be built connecting to the Fairce O. Woods Coliseum. From the gym, it would be built outward as little by little, building disappeared. The original brick high school would be last to go. It was torn down in the middle of the academic year which caused some classes to move to alternative locations. Finally, the last remnants of the brick building would be removed and the rest of the new high school would be built. Students moved into the new building during the spring semester of 1982\\.", "The new high school contained approximately 1,200 students. It had many modern classrooms and was two stories high. It contained:\n* spacious classrooms\n* new science labs\n* a larger lunchroom with a full size kitchen\n* conference room\n* drafting room\n* a new P.E. gymnasium that could be used as a practice facility and would eventually house volleyball. Also, it contained a second floor for practices and expansion seating. It contained a stage for theater, and boys' and girls' shower facilities.\n* shop class\n* FFA (Agriculture) room\n* Chorus room (which would later be turned into the CAD and technology room. Chorus would be moved to the band room)\n* Band Room\n* home economics rooms\n* two\\-level library\n* front office and lobby", "The new high school provided new things that many students had not seen before with the old high school. This would include a new, modern P.A. system, digital clocks in the hallways (which would be replaced in 2000\\), an elevator, and much more. This building is still the building in use today with the exception of a few differences due to renovations and changes.", "" ]
Early life and military career ------------------------------ Abe was born on November 24, 1875, in [Kanazawa](/wiki/Kanazawa%2C_Ishikawa "Kanazawa, Ishikawa"), [Ishikawa Prefecture](/wiki/Ishikawa_Prefecture "Ishikawa Prefecture"), the son of the former [samurai](/wiki/Samurai "Samurai") Abe Nobumitsu, who had served the [Kaga Domain](/wiki/Kaga_Domain "Kaga Domain").{{Cite book \|last\=Hata \|first\=Ikuhiko \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62748821 \|title\=Nihon Riku\-Kaigun sōgō jiten \|date\=2005 \|publisher\=Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai \|isbn\=4\-13\-030135\-7 \|edition\=Dai 2\-han \|pages\=4 \|oclc\=62748821}} His brother\-in\-law was [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy "Imperial Japanese Navy") [admiral](/wiki/Admiral "Admiral") [Shigeyoshi Inoue](/wiki/Shigeyoshi_Inoue "Shigeyoshi Inoue"). Abe attended Tokyo No.1 Middle School ([Tokyo Metropolitan Hibiya High School](/wiki/Hibiya_High_School "Hibiya High School")) followed by No.4 High School. While he was still a student, he volunteered for military service during the [First Sino\-Japanese War](/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War "First Sino-Japanese War"). After the war, Abe graduated from the [Imperial Japanese Army Academy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Academy "Imperial Japanese Army Academy") in November 1897\. Commissioned a second lieutenant the following 27 June, he was promoted to lieutenant in November 1900 and attended the Army Artillery School, graduating in December 1901\. Promoted to captain in November 1903, he enrolled in the 19th class of the [Army War College](/wiki/Army_War_College_%28Japan%29 "Army War College (Japan)"), graduating in November 1907\. The [ultranationalist](/wiki/Ultranationalist "Ultranationalist") General [Araki Sadao](/wiki/Araki_Sadao "Araki Sadao") was one of his classmates. Abe was promoted to major in December 1908, becoming an instructor at the Army War College in September 1909\. In November 1910, he was posted to the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire") as a military attaché at the Japanese embassy and became a supplementary attaché at the embassy in Vienna in February 1913\. Abe was promoted to lieutenant colonel in February 1915 and to colonel on 24 July 1918\. He served as the commander of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment from 1918 to 1921\. In August 1918, his regiment was sent to Siberia during Japan's [Siberian Intervention](/wiki/Siberian_Intervention "Siberian Intervention") but never saw combat. He became secretary of the Army War College on 3 June 1921, and was promoted to major general on 15 August 1922\. Appointed Director of the General Affairs Division of the Imperial General Staff on 6 August 1923, following the devastating earthquake of 1 September, he was placed in charge of overseeing martial law for the Kanto region on 3 September. He was appointed director of military service affairs in the Army Ministry on 28 July 1926 and was promoted to lieutenant general on 5 March 1927\. He later served as chief of the Military Affairs Bureau and as [Vice Minister of the Army](/wiki/Ministry_of_War_of_Japan "Ministry of War of Japan"), which he had been appointed as on 10 August 1928\. He commanded the [4th Infantry Division](/wiki/4th_Division_%28Imperial_Japanese_Army%29 "4th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)") from 22 December 1930\. In January 1932, Abe was appointed to command the [Japanese Taiwan Army](/wiki/Taiwan_Army_of_Japan "Taiwan Army of Japan") and was promoted to full [general](/wiki/General "General") on 19 June 1933\. After serving on the [Supreme War Council](/wiki/Supreme_War_Council_%28Japan%29 "Supreme War Council (Japan)"), he was placed on the reserve list on 10 March 1936\.
[ "Early life and military career\n------------------------------", "Abe was born on November 24, 1875, in [Kanazawa](/wiki/Kanazawa%2C_Ishikawa \"Kanazawa, Ishikawa\"), [Ishikawa Prefecture](/wiki/Ishikawa_Prefecture \"Ishikawa Prefecture\"), the son of the former [samurai](/wiki/Samurai \"Samurai\") Abe Nobumitsu, who had served the [Kaga Domain](/wiki/Kaga_Domain \"Kaga Domain\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Hata \\|first\\=Ikuhiko \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62748821 \\|title\\=Nihon Riku\\-Kaigun sōgō jiten \\|date\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai \\|isbn\\=4\\-13\\-030135\\-7 \\|edition\\=Dai 2\\-han \\|pages\\=4 \\|oclc\\=62748821}} His brother\\-in\\-law was [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy \"Imperial Japanese Navy\") [admiral](/wiki/Admiral \"Admiral\") [Shigeyoshi Inoue](/wiki/Shigeyoshi_Inoue \"Shigeyoshi Inoue\").", "Abe attended Tokyo No.1 Middle School ([Tokyo Metropolitan Hibiya High School](/wiki/Hibiya_High_School \"Hibiya High School\")) followed by No.4 High School. While he was still a student, he volunteered for military service during the [First Sino\\-Japanese War](/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War \"First Sino-Japanese War\").", "After the war, Abe graduated from the [Imperial Japanese Army Academy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Academy \"Imperial Japanese Army Academy\") in November 1897\\. Commissioned a second lieutenant the following 27 June, he was promoted to lieutenant in November 1900 and attended the Army Artillery School, graduating in December 1901\\. Promoted to captain in November 1903, he enrolled in the 19th class of the [Army War College](/wiki/Army_War_College_%28Japan%29 \"Army War College (Japan)\"), graduating in November 1907\\. The [ultranationalist](/wiki/Ultranationalist \"Ultranationalist\") General [Araki Sadao](/wiki/Araki_Sadao \"Araki Sadao\") was one of his classmates.", "Abe was promoted to major in December 1908, becoming an instructor at the Army War College in September 1909\\. In November 1910, he was posted to the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\") as a military attaché at the Japanese embassy and became a supplementary attaché at the embassy in Vienna in February 1913\\.", "Abe was promoted to lieutenant colonel in February 1915 and to colonel on 24 July 1918\\. He served as the commander of the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment from 1918 to 1921\\. In August 1918, his regiment was sent to Siberia during Japan's [Siberian Intervention](/wiki/Siberian_Intervention \"Siberian Intervention\") but never saw combat. He became secretary of the Army War College on 3 June 1921, and was promoted to major general on 15 August 1922\\. Appointed Director of the General Affairs Division of the Imperial General Staff on 6 August 1923, following the devastating earthquake of 1 September, he was placed in charge of overseeing martial law for the Kanto region on 3 September.", "He was appointed director of military service affairs in the Army Ministry on 28 July 1926 and was promoted to lieutenant general on 5 March 1927\\. He later served as chief of the Military Affairs Bureau and as [Vice Minister of the Army](/wiki/Ministry_of_War_of_Japan \"Ministry of War of Japan\"), which he had been appointed as on 10 August 1928\\. He commanded the [4th Infantry Division](/wiki/4th_Division_%28Imperial_Japanese_Army%29 \"4th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)\") from 22 December 1930\\.", "In January 1932, Abe was appointed to command the [Japanese Taiwan Army](/wiki/Taiwan_Army_of_Japan \"Taiwan Army of Japan\") and was promoted to full [general](/wiki/General \"General\") on 19 June 1933\\. After serving on the [Supreme War Council](/wiki/Supreme_War_Council_%28Japan%29 \"Supreme War Council (Japan)\"), he was placed on the reserve list on 10 March 1936\\.", "" ]
Geographical and historical background -------------------------------------- Tasmania is an island and since the time of European [colonisation](/wiki/Colonisation "Colonisation") by the British, the population had been entirely reliant upon the sea for all physical contact with the outside world, until the development of links by [air](/wiki/Aviation "Aviation"). Since European discovery in 1642 by the Dutch navigator [Abel Tasman](/wiki/Abel_Tasman "Abel Tasman"), many [explorers](/wiki/Exploration "Exploration") and many vessels visited Tasmania, or Tasmania's waters. Following the establishment of a British settlement in 1803 at [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart "Hobart"), a local boat\-building industry began almost immediately. Since that time Tasmania has had a very strong connection to the sea, and both commercial and recreational [sailing](/wiki/Sailing "Sailing") has been a constant feature of Tasmania's history. Tasmania's geographical position [latitude 42° south](/wiki/42nd_parallel_south "42nd parallel south"), [longitude 147° east](/wiki/147th_meridian_east "147th meridian east"), is along the line of [latitude](/wiki/Latitude "Latitude") that places it in the path of the powerful winds known as the [roaring forties](/wiki/Roaring_forties "Roaring forties"), a band of westerly winds which blow across the [Southern Ocean](/wiki/Southern_Ocean "Southern Ocean"). Mariners of the 18th and 19th centuries utilised these winds to shorten the time it took them to reach Australia after rounding the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope "Cape of Good Hope") on their way from Europe. However, these same winds also led to the destruction of many vessels in raging seas and fierce storms. Over 1,000 vessels are thought to have been wrecked in Tasmanian waters,{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021\-02\-01/tamar\-river\-wrecks\-ship\-graveyard\-burial\-ground/13088502\|title \= The 'burial ground' where 14 ships were deliberately sent to their watery graves\| newspaper\=ABC News \|date \= 31 January 2021\|access\-date\=19 February 2024}} including the eighth oldest known wreck in Australia, the ship [*Sydney Cove*](/wiki/Sydney_Cove_%281796_ship%29 "Sydney Cove (1796 ship)"). The Tasmanian coastline also posed several risks for mariners in the [age of sail](/wiki/Age_of_sail "Age of sail"). It is regularly interspersed with jagged cliffs and submerged off\-shore rocks. Also many of the inlets and bays which do provide shelter have dangerous entrances. The weather which affects Tasmania has also contributed to many wrecks. Tasmania can be susceptible to violent storms, such as the one which sank five boats competing in the 1998 [Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race](/wiki/Sydney_to_Hobart_Yacht_Race "Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race"). Many of the wrecks in Tasmanian waters have claimed lives, and the waters surrounding the island remain a watery grave for them. This list includes many vessels marked (X) that were lost with all hands in the so\-called [Bass Strait Triangle](/wiki/Bass_Strait_Triangle "Bass Strait Triangle").
[ "Geographical and historical background\n--------------------------------------", "Tasmania is an island and since the time of European [colonisation](/wiki/Colonisation \"Colonisation\") by the British, the population had been entirely reliant upon the sea for all physical contact with the outside world, until the development of links by [air](/wiki/Aviation \"Aviation\").", "Since European discovery in 1642 by the Dutch navigator [Abel Tasman](/wiki/Abel_Tasman \"Abel Tasman\"), many [explorers](/wiki/Exploration \"Exploration\") and many vessels visited Tasmania, or Tasmania's waters. Following the establishment of a British settlement in 1803 at [Hobart](/wiki/Hobart \"Hobart\"), a local boat\\-building industry began almost immediately. Since that time Tasmania has had a very strong connection to the sea, and both commercial and recreational [sailing](/wiki/Sailing \"Sailing\") has been a constant feature of Tasmania's history.", "Tasmania's geographical position [latitude 42° south](/wiki/42nd_parallel_south \"42nd parallel south\"), [longitude 147° east](/wiki/147th_meridian_east \"147th meridian east\"), is along the line of [latitude](/wiki/Latitude \"Latitude\") that places it in the path of the powerful winds known as the [roaring forties](/wiki/Roaring_forties \"Roaring forties\"), a band of westerly winds which blow across the [Southern Ocean](/wiki/Southern_Ocean \"Southern Ocean\"). Mariners of the 18th and 19th centuries utilised these winds to shorten the time it took them to reach Australia after rounding the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope \"Cape of Good Hope\") on their way from Europe. However, these same winds also led to the destruction of many vessels in raging seas and fierce storms. Over 1,000 vessels are thought to have been wrecked in Tasmanian waters,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021\\-02\\-01/tamar\\-river\\-wrecks\\-ship\\-graveyard\\-burial\\-ground/13088502\\|title \\= The 'burial ground' where 14 ships were deliberately sent to their watery graves\\| newspaper\\=ABC News \\|date \\= 31 January 2021\\|access\\-date\\=19 February 2024}} including the eighth oldest known wreck in Australia, the ship [*Sydney Cove*](/wiki/Sydney_Cove_%281796_ship%29 \"Sydney Cove (1796 ship)\").", "The Tasmanian coastline also posed several risks for mariners in the [age of sail](/wiki/Age_of_sail \"Age of sail\"). It is regularly interspersed with jagged cliffs and submerged off\\-shore rocks. Also many of the inlets and bays which do provide shelter have dangerous entrances. The weather which affects Tasmania has also contributed to many wrecks. Tasmania can be susceptible to violent storms, such as the one which sank five boats competing in the 1998 [Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race](/wiki/Sydney_to_Hobart_Yacht_Race \"Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race\").", "Many of the wrecks in Tasmanian waters have claimed lives, and the waters surrounding the island remain a watery grave for them. This list includes many vessels marked (X) that were lost with all hands in the so\\-called [Bass Strait Triangle](/wiki/Bass_Strait_Triangle \"Bass Strait Triangle\").", "" ]
Transportation -------------- {{mapframe\|frame\=yes\|type\=point\|zoom\=SWITCH:12, 9, 6\|switch\=zoomed in, zoomed mid, zoomed out}} ### Road Belgaum is connected by road via national highways 4 (connecting [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra") (now part of the Golden Quadrilateral), [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka"), [Telangana](/wiki/Telangana "Telangana"), [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh "Andhra Pradesh") and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu")) and 4A (connecting [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka") and [Goa](/wiki/Goa "Goa")). [North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation](/wiki/North_Western_Karnataka_Road_Transport_Corporation "North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation") (NWKRTC) run buses to all corners of Karnataka and to neighbouring states. There are many prominent private bus companies providing services to all major destinations in Karnataka and surrounding states. KSRTC services almost all villages in Karnataka. 92% villages are served by KSRTC (6,743 out of 7,298 Villages) and 44% in other areas. KSRTC operates 6463 schedules in a day covering an effective distance of 2374,000 km with a total fleet of 7599 buses. It transports, on an average, 2457,000 passengers per day. The North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation was established on 1 November 1997, under provision of the Road Transport Corporation Act 1950, on the auspicious day of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka") Rajyotsava upon bifurcation from [Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation](/wiki/Karnataka_State_Road_Transport_Corporation "Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation") to provide adequate, efficient, economic and properly coordinated transport services to the commuters of North Western part of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka"). The Corporation jurisdiction covers the districts of Belgaum, [Dharwad](/wiki/Dharwad "Dharwad"), [Karwar](/wiki/Karwar "Karwar"), [Bagalkot](/wiki/Bagalkot "Bagalkot"), [Gadag](/wiki/Gadag "Gadag") \& [Haveri](/wiki/Haveri "Haveri"). NWKRTC operates its services to all villages, which have motorable roads in its jurisdiction, and also covers intra\- and inter\- state transport operations. The Government of [Goa](/wiki/Goa "Goa") operates KADAMBA bus service from Goa to Belgaum city and some other parts of the Belgaum District. The Government of [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra") also operates [MSRTC](/wiki/MSRTC "MSRTC") buses from various parts of Maharashtra to Belgaum City and some other parts of the Belgaum District. ### Air [thumb\|[Belgaum Airport](/wiki/Belgaum_Airport "Belgaum Airport")](/wiki/File:Belagavi_Airport.jpg "Belagavi Airport.jpg") The city is served by [Belgaum Airport](/wiki/Belgaum_Airport "Belgaum Airport") at Sambra, which is the oldest airport in [North Karnataka](/wiki/North_Karnataka "North Karnataka") and lies {{convert\|10\|km}} from the city on [State Highway 20](/wiki/State_Highway_20_%28Karnataka%29 "State Highway 20 (Karnataka)"). Belgaum airport is included in UDAN 3 scheme. [Alliance Air](/wiki/Alliance_Air_%28India%29 "Alliance Air (India)"), [Spice Jet](/wiki/Spice_Jet "Spice Jet"), [Star Air](/wiki/Star_Air_%28India%29 "Star Air (India)"), [IndiGo](/wiki/IndiGo "IndiGo") and [TruJet](/wiki/TruJet "TruJet") have flights to [Bangalore](/wiki/Bangalore "Bangalore"), [Hyderabad](/wiki/Hyderabad "Hyderabad"), [Mysore](/wiki/Mysore "Mysore"), [Kadapa](/wiki/Kadapa "Kadapa"), [Tirupati](/wiki/Tirupati "Tirupati"), [Surat](/wiki/Surat "Surat"), [Ahmedabad](/wiki/Ahmedabad "Ahmedabad"), [Indore](/wiki/Indore "Indore"), [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai"), [Pune](/wiki/Pune "Pune"), [Nagpur](/wiki/Nagpur "Nagpur"), [Kolhapur](/wiki/Kolhapur "Kolhapur"), [Nashik](/wiki/Nashik "Nashik") and [Chennai](/wiki/Chennai "Chennai").{{Cite web\|title\=Profile of Belgaum airport\|url\=https://www.aai.aero/en/airports/belgaum \|website\=\[\[Airports Authority of India]]\|access\-date\=22 February 2022}} Flight connectivity to [Jodhpur](/wiki/Jodhpur "Jodhpur") will be soon started by [Star Air](/wiki/Star_Air_%28India%29 "Star Air (India)") in the future days.{{Cite news \|date\=17 February 2021\|title\=Now, Star Air flight connects Belagavi with Jodhpur\|language\=en\-IN\|work\=The Hindu\|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/now\-star\-air\-flight\-connects\-belagavi\-with\-jodhpur/article33855138\.ece\|access\-date\=22 February 2022\|issn\=0971\-751X}}{{Cite web\|date\=27 January 2022\|title\=Star Air celebrates 3 years of Connecting Real India\|url\=https://theprint.in/ani\-press\-releases/star\-air\-celebrates\-3\-years\-of\-connecting\-real\-india/813998/\|access\-date\=22 February 2022\|website\=ThePrint\|language\=en\-US}} ### Rail [thumb\|[Belgaum railway station](/wiki/Belgaum_railway_station "Belgaum railway station")](/wiki/File:Belgaum_Railway_Station_-_panoramio.jpg "Belgaum Railway Station - panoramio.jpg") [Belgaum railway station](/wiki/Belgaum_railway_station "Belgaum railway station") is on the [Indian Railways](/wiki/Indian_Railways "Indian Railways") grid, being part of the South Western railways, and is well connected by rail to major destinations.
[ "Transportation\n--------------", "{{mapframe\\|frame\\=yes\\|type\\=point\\|zoom\\=SWITCH:12, 9, 6\\|switch\\=zoomed in, zoomed mid, zoomed out}}", "### Road", "Belgaum is connected by road via national highways 4 (connecting [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra \"Maharashtra\") (now part of the Golden Quadrilateral), [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\"), [Telangana](/wiki/Telangana \"Telangana\"), [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh \"Andhra Pradesh\") and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\")) and 4A (connecting [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\") and [Goa](/wiki/Goa \"Goa\")). [North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation](/wiki/North_Western_Karnataka_Road_Transport_Corporation \"North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation\") (NWKRTC) run buses to all corners of Karnataka and to neighbouring states. There are many prominent private bus companies providing services to all major destinations in Karnataka and surrounding states. KSRTC services almost all villages in Karnataka. 92% villages are served by KSRTC (6,743 out of 7,298 Villages) and 44% in other areas. KSRTC operates 6463 schedules in a day covering an effective distance of 2374,000 km with a total fleet of 7599 buses. It transports, on an average, 2457,000 passengers per day.", "The North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation was established on 1 November 1997, under provision of the Road Transport Corporation Act 1950, on the auspicious day of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\") Rajyotsava upon bifurcation from [Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation](/wiki/Karnataka_State_Road_Transport_Corporation \"Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation\") to provide adequate, efficient, economic and properly coordinated transport services to the commuters of North Western part of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\"). The Corporation jurisdiction covers the districts of Belgaum, [Dharwad](/wiki/Dharwad \"Dharwad\"), [Karwar](/wiki/Karwar \"Karwar\"), [Bagalkot](/wiki/Bagalkot \"Bagalkot\"), [Gadag](/wiki/Gadag \"Gadag\") \\& [Haveri](/wiki/Haveri \"Haveri\").", "NWKRTC operates its services to all villages, which have motorable roads in its jurisdiction, and also covers intra\\- and inter\\- state transport operations.", "The Government of [Goa](/wiki/Goa \"Goa\") operates KADAMBA bus service from Goa to Belgaum city and some other parts of the Belgaum District.", "The Government of [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra \"Maharashtra\") also operates [MSRTC](/wiki/MSRTC \"MSRTC\") buses from various parts of Maharashtra to Belgaum City and some other parts of the Belgaum District.", "### Air", "[thumb\\|[Belgaum Airport](/wiki/Belgaum_Airport \"Belgaum Airport\")](/wiki/File:Belagavi_Airport.jpg \"Belagavi Airport.jpg\") \nThe city is served by [Belgaum Airport](/wiki/Belgaum_Airport \"Belgaum Airport\") at Sambra, which is the oldest airport in [North Karnataka](/wiki/North_Karnataka \"North Karnataka\") and lies {{convert\\|10\\|km}} from the city on [State Highway 20](/wiki/State_Highway_20_%28Karnataka%29 \"State Highway 20 (Karnataka)\"). Belgaum airport is included in UDAN 3 scheme. [Alliance Air](/wiki/Alliance_Air_%28India%29 \"Alliance Air (India)\"), [Spice Jet](/wiki/Spice_Jet \"Spice Jet\"), [Star Air](/wiki/Star_Air_%28India%29 \"Star Air (India)\"), [IndiGo](/wiki/IndiGo \"IndiGo\") and [TruJet](/wiki/TruJet \"TruJet\") have flights to [Bangalore](/wiki/Bangalore \"Bangalore\"), [Hyderabad](/wiki/Hyderabad \"Hyderabad\"), [Mysore](/wiki/Mysore \"Mysore\"), [Kadapa](/wiki/Kadapa \"Kadapa\"), [Tirupati](/wiki/Tirupati \"Tirupati\"), [Surat](/wiki/Surat \"Surat\"), [Ahmedabad](/wiki/Ahmedabad \"Ahmedabad\"), [Indore](/wiki/Indore \"Indore\"), [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai \"Mumbai\"), [Pune](/wiki/Pune \"Pune\"), [Nagpur](/wiki/Nagpur \"Nagpur\"), [Kolhapur](/wiki/Kolhapur \"Kolhapur\"), [Nashik](/wiki/Nashik \"Nashik\") and [Chennai](/wiki/Chennai \"Chennai\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Profile of Belgaum airport\\|url\\=https://www.aai.aero/en/airports/belgaum \\|website\\=\\[\\[Airports Authority of India]]\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2022}} Flight connectivity to [Jodhpur](/wiki/Jodhpur \"Jodhpur\") will be soon started by [Star Air](/wiki/Star_Air_%28India%29 \"Star Air (India)\") in the future days.{{Cite news \\|date\\=17 February 2021\\|title\\=Now, Star Air flight connects Belagavi with Jodhpur\\|language\\=en\\-IN\\|work\\=The Hindu\\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/now\\-star\\-air\\-flight\\-connects\\-belagavi\\-with\\-jodhpur/article33855138\\.ece\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2022\\|issn\\=0971\\-751X}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=27 January 2022\\|title\\=Star Air celebrates 3 years of Connecting Real India\\|url\\=https://theprint.in/ani\\-press\\-releases/star\\-air\\-celebrates\\-3\\-years\\-of\\-connecting\\-real\\-india/813998/\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2022\\|website\\=ThePrint\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "### Rail", "[thumb\\|[Belgaum railway station](/wiki/Belgaum_railway_station \"Belgaum railway station\")](/wiki/File:Belgaum_Railway_Station_-_panoramio.jpg \"Belgaum Railway Station - panoramio.jpg\")\n[Belgaum railway station](/wiki/Belgaum_railway_station \"Belgaum railway station\") is on the [Indian Railways](/wiki/Indian_Railways \"Indian Railways\") grid, being part of the South Western railways, and is well connected by rail to major destinations.", "" ]
### Road Belgaum is connected by road via national highways 4 (connecting [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra") (now part of the Golden Quadrilateral), [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka"), [Telangana](/wiki/Telangana "Telangana"), [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh "Andhra Pradesh") and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu "Tamil Nadu")) and 4A (connecting [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka") and [Goa](/wiki/Goa "Goa")). [North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation](/wiki/North_Western_Karnataka_Road_Transport_Corporation "North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation") (NWKRTC) run buses to all corners of Karnataka and to neighbouring states. There are many prominent private bus companies providing services to all major destinations in Karnataka and surrounding states. KSRTC services almost all villages in Karnataka. 92% villages are served by KSRTC (6,743 out of 7,298 Villages) and 44% in other areas. KSRTC operates 6463 schedules in a day covering an effective distance of 2374,000 km with a total fleet of 7599 buses. It transports, on an average, 2457,000 passengers per day. The North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation was established on 1 November 1997, under provision of the Road Transport Corporation Act 1950, on the auspicious day of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka") Rajyotsava upon bifurcation from [Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation](/wiki/Karnataka_State_Road_Transport_Corporation "Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation") to provide adequate, efficient, economic and properly coordinated transport services to the commuters of North Western part of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka "Karnataka"). The Corporation jurisdiction covers the districts of Belgaum, [Dharwad](/wiki/Dharwad "Dharwad"), [Karwar](/wiki/Karwar "Karwar"), [Bagalkot](/wiki/Bagalkot "Bagalkot"), [Gadag](/wiki/Gadag "Gadag") \& [Haveri](/wiki/Haveri "Haveri"). NWKRTC operates its services to all villages, which have motorable roads in its jurisdiction, and also covers intra\- and inter\- state transport operations. The Government of [Goa](/wiki/Goa "Goa") operates KADAMBA bus service from Goa to Belgaum city and some other parts of the Belgaum District. The Government of [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra "Maharashtra") also operates [MSRTC](/wiki/MSRTC "MSRTC") buses from various parts of Maharashtra to Belgaum City and some other parts of the Belgaum District.
[ "### Road", "Belgaum is connected by road via national highways 4 (connecting [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra \"Maharashtra\") (now part of the Golden Quadrilateral), [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\"), [Telangana](/wiki/Telangana \"Telangana\"), [Andhra Pradesh](/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh \"Andhra Pradesh\") and [Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Tamil_Nadu \"Tamil Nadu\")) and 4A (connecting [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\") and [Goa](/wiki/Goa \"Goa\")). [North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation](/wiki/North_Western_Karnataka_Road_Transport_Corporation \"North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation\") (NWKRTC) run buses to all corners of Karnataka and to neighbouring states. There are many prominent private bus companies providing services to all major destinations in Karnataka and surrounding states. KSRTC services almost all villages in Karnataka. 92% villages are served by KSRTC (6,743 out of 7,298 Villages) and 44% in other areas. KSRTC operates 6463 schedules in a day covering an effective distance of 2374,000 km with a total fleet of 7599 buses. It transports, on an average, 2457,000 passengers per day.", "The North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation was established on 1 November 1997, under provision of the Road Transport Corporation Act 1950, on the auspicious day of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\") Rajyotsava upon bifurcation from [Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation](/wiki/Karnataka_State_Road_Transport_Corporation \"Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation\") to provide adequate, efficient, economic and properly coordinated transport services to the commuters of North Western part of [Karnataka](/wiki/Karnataka \"Karnataka\"). The Corporation jurisdiction covers the districts of Belgaum, [Dharwad](/wiki/Dharwad \"Dharwad\"), [Karwar](/wiki/Karwar \"Karwar\"), [Bagalkot](/wiki/Bagalkot \"Bagalkot\"), [Gadag](/wiki/Gadag \"Gadag\") \\& [Haveri](/wiki/Haveri \"Haveri\").", "NWKRTC operates its services to all villages, which have motorable roads in its jurisdiction, and also covers intra\\- and inter\\- state transport operations.", "The Government of [Goa](/wiki/Goa \"Goa\") operates KADAMBA bus service from Goa to Belgaum city and some other parts of the Belgaum District.", "The Government of [Maharashtra](/wiki/Maharashtra \"Maharashtra\") also operates [MSRTC](/wiki/MSRTC \"MSRTC\") buses from various parts of Maharashtra to Belgaum City and some other parts of the Belgaum District.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|left\|150px\|A polar bear at the zoo](/wiki/Image:Ursus_maritimus_dive.jpg "Ursus maritimus dive.jpg") ### The original zoo The zoo was founded in 1960 through the initiative of Ghislain Gagnon and six others who opened it on an abandoned fox farm lent to them by Haldaige Laflamme. The zoo was set up as a traditional zoo that showcased exotic and [North American](/wiki/North_American "North American") [animals](/wiki/Animal "Animal"). On January 4, 1961, the Fondation de la Société zoologique de St\-Félicien inc ([English](/wiki/English_language "English language"): St\-Félicien Zoological Society Foundation inc.) was registered as a non\-profit society. One month later the foundation purchased [Île\-aux\-Bernard](/wiki/%C3%8Ele-aux-Bernard "Île-aux-Bernard") and {{Convert\|24\|acre}} of land from Paul E. Gagnon for $12,000, no interest, and payments of only $500 per year. By 1968, the zoo owned more than {{Convert\|44\|acre}}, and was home to 450 animals of 91 species. By this time, the zoo also included a restaurant, a kitchen, and a souvenir shop. Additional land was purchased in 1969, bringing the zoos holdings up to {{Convert\|200\|acre}}. Ghislain Gagnon began wondering if there was a better way to keep animals other than in cages, which resulted in the zoo being completely rethought. ### Nature Park Trails The zoo opened its Nature Park Trails on September 10, 1972\. The "new zoo" covered about {{Convert\|74\|acre}} and included a screened\-in "train" with about {{Convert\|4\|km\|mi}} of roadway, from which visitors could observe animals that are native to [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec "Quebec"), freeing the animals to larger enclosures and putting the visitors in the cages. An additional {{Convert\|4\|km2\|acre}} of land was purchased in 1974, and work began on expanding the Nature Park Trails. The expansion of the Nature Park Trails officially opened in 1978, with a new lake (Lac Montagnais) having been dug and Mount Keewatinook erected. There were now {{Convert\|7\|km\|mi}} of roadway in the Nature Park Trails, as well as reproductions of historic sites including the Colonist Farm, the Lumberjack Camp, the Trading Post, the Indian Campground, the Grand Trestle, and the Western Ranch. ### The St\-Félicien Zoological Society Foundation [thumb\|right\|A cougar at the zoo](/wiki/image:Couguar_st-felicien.jpg "Couguar st-felicien.jpg") In the early 1980s, the zoo was financially strong and received over 300,000 visitors to its park. It became obvious through visitor comments that the demand for more educational focus at the zoo was growing, and the zoo came up with a Zoo of the Year 2000 plan, and the St\-Félicien Zoological Society Foundation ([French](/wiki/French_language "French language"): Fondation de la Société zoologique de St\-Félicien) was created in 1981 to help implement such a transformation. In 1985, work began to create habitats adapted to each animals way of life and to remove the animals from their cages. In order to house carnivores such as their [big cats](/wiki/Big_cats "Big cats"), three large {{Convert\|24\|by\|30\|m\|ft\|adj\=on}} paddocks were built. In addition, the [chimpanzee](/wiki/Common_chimpanzee "Common chimpanzee") habitat was constructed so the animals were contained only by a fence surrounding the water basin, in order to keep people out. The zoo also constructed new homes for [giraffes](/wiki/Giraffes "Giraffes"), [elephants](/wiki/Elephants "Elephants"), and [hippopotamuses](/wiki/Hippopotamuses "Hippopotamuses") with walls and ditches replacing cages to separate visitors from the large animals. In 1986, a work conflict caused a zoo lockout for three months and threatened to close the zoo. A re\-launching committee was formed by Benoit Laprise, the [mayor](/wiki/Mayor "Mayor") of [St\-Félicien](/wiki/St-F%C3%A9licien%2C_Quebec "St-Félicien, Quebec"), and in early 1987 was able to raise $1,300,000 to save the zoo from closure. The committee received help from numerous employees, citizens, municipalities, corporations, and governments. That same year, the zoo made organizational changes both at the employee and administrative levels, and the St\-Félicien Zoological Society Foundation created their new mission statement with a focus on [education](/wiki/Education "Education"), [research](/wiki/Research "Research"), [natural](/wiki/Natural "Natural"), and [cultural](/wiki/Cultural "Cultural") patrimony, which was part of the Zoo of the Year 2000 plan. In the next two years, the zoo won many regional awards and changed its name to the **Zoo Sauvage de St\-Félicien** in 1989, to reflect its new focus. In the 1990s, the Wild Zoo won first prize in the Quebec Tourism Regional Awards and was awarded the National Grand Prize under the category 'Touristic Promotion,' although, the Wild Zoo would go through numerous changes during the early nineties. Ghislan Gagnon, the zoo's original founder retired on December 31, 1992, leaving Martin Laforge to manage the zoo. In September 1993, the Wild Zoo solved its problem with wastewater discharging into the [rivière\-aux\-saumons](/wiki/Rivi%C3%A8re-aux-saumons "Rivière-aux-saumons"). The Wild Zoo would use artificial swamps to treat the wastewater that came from the zoo and the campground before it entered into the rivière\-aux\-saumons. This ecological project was one of the first steps in sustainable development of the zoo. In order to finance the project, the zoo received subsidies, but needed to sell the campground to cover its portion of the cost. [thumb\|left\|200px\|A caribou at the zoo](/wiki/File:Renne_chargeant.jpg "Renne chargeant.jpg") ### The focus on Nordic animals During the same year, a committee was created to decide whether or not the Wild Zoo should abandon its exotic animal collection. The idea to make the decision came from considerations that the Wild Zoo needed its own niche to attract clients believing that visitors seeing exotic animals in other institutions needed to have an interest to come back to the Wild Zoo for its unique and specific style. Lastly, the Wild Zoo committee also believed that they were contradicting themselves between the traditional/exotic zoo (animals in cages) and the Nature Park Trails where free indigenous fauna roamed free. The committee decided that only a huge investment would be used to restructure the traditional part of the Wild Zoo and insure its survival, as well, to make it stand out from other zoos. Through this conclusion the committee decided to remove its exotic animal collection in 1993, and shifted its focus towards animals that live in [Nordic](/wiki/Nordic_countries "Nordic countries") environments. Through this decision, the Wild Zoo's finances were healthier due to the loss of exotic animal species that were more costly to maintain due to their nature and different environments they are accustomed to. In the following years, major renovations began that included the Île\-aux\-Bernard (1995\), the Valley Sector (1996\), and the new polar bear habitat (1997\), while new constructions such as the Great Aviary, the Kids Garden, the Ghislan Gagnon Interpretation Centre were being added. Buildings that were no longer needed were turned into veterinary clinics in order to meet Quebec government and Canadian Association of Zoos and Aquariums (CAZA) standards. Through these changes, the Wild Zoo animal cohabitation was no longer restricted to the Nature Park Trails and visitors could see animals roaming freely everywhere on the site when the Wild Zoo reopened its doors in the 1997 winter season, being accessible for all four seasons, which for most Canadian zoos is impossible to do. Through these changes and innovations the Wild Zoo led the way as being a model for other Zoological Parks in Quebec and followed through with Gagnon's original vision. ### The Centre for Conservation of Boreal Biodiversity In May 2001, the Wild Zoo decided to broaden its mission statement by modifying its focus again and became the Centre for Conservation of Boreal Biodiversity ([French](/wiki/French_language "French language"): La Fondation du Centre de conservation de la biodiversité boréale (CCBB)). The new CCBB wanted to increase the benefits of its organization on a local, regional and international level by following the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") [Convention on Biological Diversity](/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity "Convention on Biological Diversity") that was adopted at the 1992 [Earth Summit](/wiki/Earth_Summit "Earth Summit") in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro"). Through this change and model, the Wild Zoo shifted its efforts from Nordic towards protecting the biodiversity of the [boreal forests](/wiki/Boreal_forests "Boreal forests") through preservation, education, and research. Shortly, Phase I of the plan commenced with the construction of the Borealium, which is a Visitors' Centre, in addition, to being a research, documentation, and education facility. In recent years, the Wild Zoo built new exhibits and eventually re\-introduced exotic animal species to its collection that lived in the boreal environments of [Asia](/wiki/Asia "Asia"). In 2010, the Wild Zoo introduced exotic species that live in the boreal environments of [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia "Mongolia") through the remodeling of an island and opened the Mongolian habitat. At the same time, a family area with water games, and a small farm was also built. ### Polar bear cubs On December 4, 2009, the [polar bear](/wiki/Polar_bear "Polar bear"), Aisaqvak gave birth to two cubs. This was the first time a Canadian zoo experienced the birth of twin polar bears. The polar bear cubs at first were only viewed from a hidden camera inside the den and eventually at three months of age wandered outside with their mom away from public viewing. When the cubs were six months old, they made their first public appearance at the Wild Zoo in June 2010\.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|left\\|150px\\|A polar bear at the zoo](/wiki/Image:Ursus_maritimus_dive.jpg \"Ursus maritimus dive.jpg\")", "### The original zoo", "The zoo was founded in 1960 through the initiative of Ghislain Gagnon and six others who opened it on an abandoned fox farm lent to them by Haldaige Laflamme. The zoo was set up as a traditional zoo that showcased exotic and [North American](/wiki/North_American \"North American\") [animals](/wiki/Animal \"Animal\").", "On January 4, 1961, the Fondation de la Société zoologique de St\\-Félicien inc ([English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\"): St\\-Félicien Zoological Society Foundation inc.) was registered as a non\\-profit society. One month later the foundation purchased [Île\\-aux\\-Bernard](/wiki/%C3%8Ele-aux-Bernard \"Île-aux-Bernard\") and {{Convert\\|24\\|acre}} of land from Paul E. Gagnon for $12,000, no interest, and payments of only $500 per year.", "By 1968, the zoo owned more than {{Convert\\|44\\|acre}}, and was home to 450 animals of 91 species. By this time, the zoo also included a restaurant, a kitchen, and a souvenir shop. Additional land was purchased in 1969, bringing the zoos holdings up to {{Convert\\|200\\|acre}}. Ghislain Gagnon began wondering if there was a better way to keep animals other than in cages, which resulted in the zoo being completely rethought.", "### Nature Park Trails", "The zoo opened its Nature Park Trails on September 10, 1972\\. The \"new zoo\" covered about {{Convert\\|74\\|acre}} and included a screened\\-in \"train\" with about {{Convert\\|4\\|km\\|mi}} of roadway, from which visitors could observe animals that are native to [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\"), freeing the animals to larger enclosures and putting the visitors in the cages. An additional {{Convert\\|4\\|km2\\|acre}} of land was purchased in 1974, and work began on expanding the Nature Park Trails. The expansion of the Nature Park Trails officially opened in 1978, with a new lake (Lac Montagnais) having been dug and Mount Keewatinook erected. There were now {{Convert\\|7\\|km\\|mi}} of roadway in the Nature Park Trails, as well as reproductions of historic sites including the Colonist Farm, the Lumberjack Camp, the Trading Post, the Indian Campground, the Grand Trestle, and the Western Ranch.", "### The St\\-Félicien Zoological Society Foundation", "[thumb\\|right\\|A cougar at the zoo](/wiki/image:Couguar_st-felicien.jpg \"Couguar st-felicien.jpg\")\nIn the early 1980s, the zoo was financially strong and received over 300,000 visitors to its park. It became obvious through visitor comments that the demand for more educational focus at the zoo was growing, and the zoo came up with a Zoo of the Year 2000 plan, and the St\\-Félicien Zoological Society Foundation ([French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\"): Fondation de la Société zoologique de St\\-Félicien) was created in 1981 to help implement such a transformation. In 1985, work began to create habitats adapted to each animals way of life and to remove the animals from their cages. In order to house carnivores such as their [big cats](/wiki/Big_cats \"Big cats\"), three large {{Convert\\|24\\|by\\|30\\|m\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} paddocks were built. In addition, the [chimpanzee](/wiki/Common_chimpanzee \"Common chimpanzee\") habitat was constructed so the animals were contained only by a fence surrounding the water basin, in order to keep people out. The zoo also constructed new homes for [giraffes](/wiki/Giraffes \"Giraffes\"), [elephants](/wiki/Elephants \"Elephants\"), and [hippopotamuses](/wiki/Hippopotamuses \"Hippopotamuses\") with walls and ditches replacing cages to separate visitors from the large animals.", "In 1986, a work conflict caused a zoo lockout for three months and threatened to close the zoo. A re\\-launching committee was formed by Benoit Laprise, the [mayor](/wiki/Mayor \"Mayor\") of [St\\-Félicien](/wiki/St-F%C3%A9licien%2C_Quebec \"St-Félicien, Quebec\"), and in early 1987 was able to raise $1,300,000 to save the zoo from closure. The committee received help from numerous employees, citizens, municipalities, corporations, and governments. That same year, the zoo made organizational changes both at the employee and administrative levels, and the St\\-Félicien Zoological Society Foundation created their new mission statement with a focus on [education](/wiki/Education \"Education\"), [research](/wiki/Research \"Research\"), [natural](/wiki/Natural \"Natural\"), and [cultural](/wiki/Cultural \"Cultural\") patrimony, which was part of the Zoo of the Year 2000 plan. In the next two years, the zoo won many regional awards and changed its name to the **Zoo Sauvage de St\\-Félicien** in 1989, to reflect its new focus.", "In the 1990s, the Wild Zoo won first prize in the Quebec Tourism Regional Awards and was awarded the National Grand Prize under the category 'Touristic Promotion,' although, the Wild Zoo would go through numerous changes during the early nineties. Ghislan Gagnon, the zoo's original founder retired on December 31, 1992, leaving Martin Laforge to manage the zoo. In September 1993, the Wild Zoo solved its problem with wastewater discharging into the [rivière\\-aux\\-saumons](/wiki/Rivi%C3%A8re-aux-saumons \"Rivière-aux-saumons\"). The Wild Zoo would use artificial swamps to treat the wastewater that came from the zoo and the campground before it entered into the rivière\\-aux\\-saumons. This ecological project was one of the first steps in sustainable development of the zoo. In order to finance the project, the zoo received subsidies, but needed to sell the campground to cover its portion of the cost. \n[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|A caribou at the zoo](/wiki/File:Renne_chargeant.jpg \"Renne chargeant.jpg\")", "### The focus on Nordic animals", "During the same year, a committee was created to decide whether or not the Wild Zoo should abandon its exotic animal collection. The idea to make the decision came from considerations that the Wild Zoo needed its own niche to attract clients believing that visitors seeing exotic animals in other institutions needed to have an interest to come back to the Wild Zoo for its unique and specific style. Lastly, the Wild Zoo committee also believed that they were contradicting themselves between the traditional/exotic zoo (animals in cages) and the Nature Park Trails where free indigenous fauna roamed free.", "The committee decided that only a huge investment would be used to restructure the traditional part of the Wild Zoo and insure its survival, as well, to make it stand out from other zoos. Through this conclusion the committee decided to remove its exotic animal collection in 1993, and shifted its focus towards animals that live in [Nordic](/wiki/Nordic_countries \"Nordic countries\") environments. Through this decision, the Wild Zoo's finances were healthier due to the loss of exotic animal species that were more costly to maintain due to their nature and different environments they are accustomed to.", "In the following years, major renovations began that included the Île\\-aux\\-Bernard (1995\\), the Valley Sector (1996\\), and the new polar bear habitat (1997\\), while new constructions such as the Great Aviary, the Kids Garden, the Ghislan Gagnon Interpretation Centre were being added. Buildings that were no longer needed were turned into veterinary clinics in order to meet Quebec government and Canadian Association of Zoos and Aquariums (CAZA) standards. Through these changes, the Wild Zoo animal cohabitation was no longer restricted to the Nature Park Trails and visitors could see animals roaming freely everywhere on the site when the Wild Zoo reopened its doors in the 1997 winter season, being accessible for all four seasons, which for most Canadian zoos is impossible to do. Through these changes and innovations the Wild Zoo led the way as being a model for other Zoological Parks in Quebec and followed through with Gagnon's original vision.", "### The Centre for Conservation of Boreal Biodiversity", "In May 2001, the Wild Zoo decided to broaden its mission statement by modifying its focus again and became the Centre for Conservation of Boreal Biodiversity ([French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\"): La Fondation du Centre de conservation de la biodiversité boréale (CCBB)).", "The new CCBB wanted to increase the benefits of its organization on a local, regional and international level by following the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") [Convention on Biological Diversity](/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity \"Convention on Biological Diversity\") that was adopted at the 1992 [Earth Summit](/wiki/Earth_Summit \"Earth Summit\") in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\"). Through this change and model, the Wild Zoo shifted its efforts from Nordic towards protecting the biodiversity of the [boreal forests](/wiki/Boreal_forests \"Boreal forests\") through preservation, education, and research.", "Shortly, Phase I of the plan commenced with the construction of the Borealium, which is a Visitors' Centre, in addition, to being a research, documentation, and education facility. In recent years, the Wild Zoo built new exhibits and eventually re\\-introduced exotic animal species to its collection that lived in the boreal environments of [Asia](/wiki/Asia \"Asia\"). In 2010, the Wild Zoo introduced exotic species that live in the boreal environments of [Mongolia](/wiki/Mongolia \"Mongolia\") through the remodeling of an island and opened the Mongolian habitat. At the same time, a family area with water games, and a small farm was also built.", "### Polar bear cubs", "On December 4, 2009, the [polar bear](/wiki/Polar_bear \"Polar bear\"), Aisaqvak gave birth to two cubs. This was the first time a Canadian zoo experienced the birth of twin polar bears. The polar bear cubs at first were only viewed from a hidden camera inside the den and eventually at three months of age wandered outside with their mom away from public viewing. When the cubs were six months old, they made their first public appearance at the Wild Zoo in June 2010\\.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|The mural was originally planned for the exterior wall of [Lutz Tavern](/wiki/Lutz_Tavern "Lutz Tavern").](/wiki/File:Lutz_Tavern_%282014%29_-_1.jpg "Lutz Tavern (2014) - 1.jpg") The Woodstock Neighborhood Association (WNA) originally made plans to paint a community mural on the east exterior of [Lutz Tavern](/wiki/Lutz_Tavern "Lutz Tavern"). Following an outreach effort to locate an artist, WNA and Lawrence held a brainstorming session. Kenny Heggem, who served as the project manager of the mural committee,{{cite web\|title\=Outreach \& Communications\|url\=http://woodstockpdx.org/committees/communications/\|publisher\=Woodstock Neighborhood Association\|access\-date\=November 7, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015041817/http://woodstockpdx.org/committees/communications/\|archive\-date\=October 15, 2015\|url\-status\=live}} recalled, "We talked about our fantastic park and its leash\-free dog area, Woodstock Elementary's Mandarin Immersion Program, and our awesome library." The session resulted in the group's choosing the mural's three themes. In August 2012, RACC confirmed funding of $6,000 for the {{Convert\|60\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} x {{Convert\|15\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} painting. The mural's design was divided into three parts to accommodate the exterior wall's three sections. RACC published an image of Lawrence's proposed mural and said the goal of the project was to "highlight the best of the neighborhood and instill a sense of community pride".{{cite web\|title\=Portland will add six new public art murals to its collection this summer\|url\=https://racc.org/2012/08/10/portland\-will\-add\-six\-new\-public\-art\-murals\-to\-its\-collection\-this\-summer/\|publisher\=Regional Arts \& Culture Council\|access\-date\=November 7, 2015\|date\=August 10, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307075735/https://racc.org/2012/08/10/portland\-will\-add\-six\-new\-public\-art\-murals\-to\-its\-collection\-this\-summer/\|archive\-date\=March 7, 2016\|url\-status\=live}} The agency also said the project was still raising funds and hoped to start in the spring of 2013\. Efforts stalled, but WNA later proposed a mural with a different design for the east side of the Red Fox Vintage building, located at the intersection of Southeast 46th Avenue and Southeast Woodstock Boulevard. According to the *[Portland Tribune](/wiki/Portland_Tribune "Portland Tribune")*, the project was a collaboration between local businesses, institutions, and neighborhood residents. Beaver State Scaffolding and [Sherwin\-Williams](/wiki/Sherwin-Williams "Sherwin-Williams") both contributed resources to the project. RACC awarded partial grant funding through its Public Art Murals Program, which is funded by the City of Portland and "provides funding for community murals that reflect diversity in style and media and encourages artists from diverse backgrounds and range of experience to apply". WNA volunteers also assisted, led by Heggem and Becky Luening, head of the neighborhood association.{{cite news\|last\=Binder\|first\=Melissa\|title\=New Seasons in Woodstock: Neighborhood mural will be replicated, traffic guided by audible, visual signals (Q\&A)\|url\=http://www.oregonlive.com/portland/index.ssf/2014/03/new\_seasons\_in\_woodstock\_updat.html\|access\-date\=November 7, 2015\|work\=\[\[The Oregonian]]\|publisher\=\[\[Advance Publications]]\|issn\=8750\-1317\|date\=March 10, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117025547/http://www.oregonlive.com/portland/index.ssf/2014/03/new\_seasons\_in\_woodstock\_updat.html\|archive\-date\=November 17, 2015\|url\-status\=live}} Heidi Schultz of Schultz Art \& Design served as the project's production manager. She created a pattern against the wall using Lawrence's digital design, then mixed the paint, completed the mural, and added a clear coating for protection. Painting the mural took about six weeks, and it was mostly finished by November 2013\. Red Fox Vintage hosted a party to celebrate the work's completion on December 14\. The mural took nearly two years to plan and complete, which was longer than expected. ### Reproduction [thumb\|right\|The original mural covered by new construction](/wiki/File:Woodstock_Mural_%28covered%29%2C_2015.jpg "Woodstock Mural (covered), 2015.jpg") Not long after the mural's completion, New Seasons Market announced plans to build a new store immediately adjacent to the mural. In January 2014, the co\-owner of Red Fox Vintage, said, "We're going to have a sit\-down with New Seasons about the mural. To the best of my knowledge, New Seasons will make it right."{{cite news\|last1\=MacKinnon\|first1\=Merry\|title\=Finally official: New Seasons IS coming to Woodstock\|url\=http://pamplinmedia.com/sb/75\-features/209044\-66200\-finally\-official\-new\-seasons\-is\-coming\-to\-woodstock\|access\-date\=November 7, 2015\|work\=The Bee\|date\=January 31, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117031312/http://pamplinmedia.com/sb/75\-features/209044\-66200\-finally\-official\-new\-seasons\-is\-coming\-to\-woodstock\|archive\-date\=November 17, 2015\|url\-status\=live}} She shared three options to discuss with the company: repainting the mural on Red Fox's east wall, transferring it to the new store's exterior wall, or keeping the original mural in place and making it visible from the grocery store's interior. New Seasons met with WNA and offered to reproduce the painting, either on the east side of the Red Fox Vintage building or the west side of the planned grocery store.{{cite news\|last1\=Binder\|first1\=Melissa\|title\=New Seasons Woodstock\|url\=http://photos.oregonlive.com/oregonian/2014/03/new\_seasons\_woodstock.html\|access\-date\=November 7, 2015\|work\=The Oregonian\|date\=March 10, 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117021701/http://photos.oregonlive.com/oregonian/2014/03/new\_seasons\_woodstock.html\|archive\-date\=November 17, 2015\|url\-status\=live}} Luening said the latter option was more practical, because the artist could paint on panels in her studio instead of working outside. New Seasons hired Dan Cohen of Dan Cohen Creative Labs to duplicate the mural using a method similar to one he uses in his work as a "mega mural" painter. He said of the process: > I paint giant advertising murals all over the country. I do about one mural a month. We create the pattern using the original image, and paint on top of it. We use a special machine \[to create the underlying design] that works like an arc welder. During construction of the new building and the mural's transfer, New Seasons displayed a banner which read, "The mural will return".{{cite news\|last1\=Ashton\|first1\=David F.\|title\=Woodstock's New Seasons to open October 21\|url\=http://portlandtribune.com/sb/75\-features/275290\-150504\-woodstocks\-new\-seasons\-to\-open\-october\-21\|access\-date\=November 7, 2015\|work\=The Bee\|date\=October 2, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030234147/http://portlandtribune.com/sb/75\-features/275290\-150504\-woodstocks\-new\-seasons\-to\-open\-october\-21\|archive\-date\=October 30, 2015\|url\-status\=live}} Cohen and his assistant, Christo Wunderlich, transferred the design using a machine, then painted the art by hand. The duo also added bread and a fish to the mural to represent the local businesses [Grand Central Bakery](/wiki/Grand_Central_Bakery "Grand Central Bakery") and Portland Fish Market, respectively. The new store opened in 2015\.
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|The mural was originally planned for the exterior wall of [Lutz Tavern](/wiki/Lutz_Tavern \"Lutz Tavern\").](/wiki/File:Lutz_Tavern_%282014%29_-_1.jpg \"Lutz Tavern (2014) - 1.jpg\")", "The Woodstock Neighborhood Association (WNA) originally made plans to paint a community mural on the east exterior of [Lutz Tavern](/wiki/Lutz_Tavern \"Lutz Tavern\"). Following an outreach effort to locate an artist, WNA and Lawrence held a brainstorming session. Kenny Heggem, who served as the project manager of the mural committee,{{cite web\\|title\\=Outreach \\& Communications\\|url\\=http://woodstockpdx.org/committees/communications/\\|publisher\\=Woodstock Neighborhood Association\\|access\\-date\\=November 7, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015041817/http://woodstockpdx.org/committees/communications/\\|archive\\-date\\=October 15, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}} recalled, \"We talked about our fantastic park and its leash\\-free dog area, Woodstock Elementary's Mandarin Immersion Program, and our awesome library.\" The session resulted in the group's choosing the mural's three themes.", "In August 2012, RACC confirmed funding of $6,000 for the {{Convert\\|60\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} x {{Convert\\|15\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} painting. The mural's design was divided into three parts to accommodate the exterior wall's three sections. RACC published an image of Lawrence's proposed mural and said the goal of the project was to \"highlight the best of the neighborhood and instill a sense of community pride\".{{cite web\\|title\\=Portland will add six new public art murals to its collection this summer\\|url\\=https://racc.org/2012/08/10/portland\\-will\\-add\\-six\\-new\\-public\\-art\\-murals\\-to\\-its\\-collection\\-this\\-summer/\\|publisher\\=Regional Arts \\& Culture Council\\|access\\-date\\=November 7, 2015\\|date\\=August 10, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307075735/https://racc.org/2012/08/10/portland\\-will\\-add\\-six\\-new\\-public\\-art\\-murals\\-to\\-its\\-collection\\-this\\-summer/\\|archive\\-date\\=March 7, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The agency also said the project was still raising funds and hoped to start in the spring of 2013\\. Efforts stalled, but WNA later proposed a mural with a different design for the east side of the Red Fox Vintage building, located at the intersection of Southeast 46th Avenue and Southeast Woodstock Boulevard.", "According to the *[Portland Tribune](/wiki/Portland_Tribune \"Portland Tribune\")*, the project was a collaboration between local businesses, institutions, and neighborhood residents. Beaver State Scaffolding and [Sherwin\\-Williams](/wiki/Sherwin-Williams \"Sherwin-Williams\") both contributed resources to the project. RACC awarded partial grant funding through its Public Art Murals Program, which is funded by the City of Portland and \"provides funding for community murals that reflect diversity in style and media and encourages artists from diverse backgrounds and range of experience to apply\". WNA volunteers also assisted, led by Heggem and Becky Luening, head of the neighborhood association.{{cite news\\|last\\=Binder\\|first\\=Melissa\\|title\\=New Seasons in Woodstock: Neighborhood mural will be replicated, traffic guided by audible, visual signals (Q\\&A)\\|url\\=http://www.oregonlive.com/portland/index.ssf/2014/03/new\\_seasons\\_in\\_woodstock\\_updat.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 7, 2015\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Oregonian]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Advance Publications]]\\|issn\\=8750\\-1317\\|date\\=March 10, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117025547/http://www.oregonlive.com/portland/index.ssf/2014/03/new\\_seasons\\_in\\_woodstock\\_updat.html\\|archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Heidi Schultz of Schultz Art \\& Design served as the project's production manager. She created a pattern against the wall using Lawrence's digital design, then mixed the paint, completed the mural, and added a clear coating for protection. Painting the mural took about six weeks, and it was mostly finished by November 2013\\. Red Fox Vintage hosted a party to celebrate the work's completion on December 14\\. The mural took nearly two years to plan and complete, which was longer than expected.", "### Reproduction", "[thumb\\|right\\|The original mural covered by new construction](/wiki/File:Woodstock_Mural_%28covered%29%2C_2015.jpg \"Woodstock Mural (covered), 2015.jpg\")", "Not long after the mural's completion, New Seasons Market announced plans to build a new store immediately adjacent to the mural. In January 2014, the co\\-owner of Red Fox Vintage, said, \"We're going to have a sit\\-down with New Seasons about the mural. To the best of my knowledge, New Seasons will make it right.\"{{cite news\\|last1\\=MacKinnon\\|first1\\=Merry\\|title\\=Finally official: New Seasons IS coming to Woodstock\\|url\\=http://pamplinmedia.com/sb/75\\-features/209044\\-66200\\-finally\\-official\\-new\\-seasons\\-is\\-coming\\-to\\-woodstock\\|access\\-date\\=November 7, 2015\\|work\\=The Bee\\|date\\=January 31, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117031312/http://pamplinmedia.com/sb/75\\-features/209044\\-66200\\-finally\\-official\\-new\\-seasons\\-is\\-coming\\-to\\-woodstock\\|archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}} She shared three options to discuss with the company: repainting the mural on Red Fox's east wall, transferring it to the new store's exterior wall, or keeping the original mural in place and making it visible from the grocery store's interior.", "New Seasons met with WNA and offered to reproduce the painting, either on the east side of the Red Fox Vintage building or the west side of the planned grocery store.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Binder\\|first1\\=Melissa\\|title\\=New Seasons Woodstock\\|url\\=http://photos.oregonlive.com/oregonian/2014/03/new\\_seasons\\_woodstock.html\\|access\\-date\\=November 7, 2015\\|work\\=The Oregonian\\|date\\=March 10, 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117021701/http://photos.oregonlive.com/oregonian/2014/03/new\\_seasons\\_woodstock.html\\|archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Luening said the latter option was more practical, because the artist could paint on panels in her studio instead of working outside. New Seasons hired Dan Cohen of Dan Cohen Creative Labs to duplicate the mural using a method similar to one he uses in his work as a \"mega mural\" painter. He said of the process:\n> I paint giant advertising murals all over the country. I do about one mural a month. We create the pattern using the original image, and paint on top of it. We use a special machine \\[to create the underlying design] that works like an arc welder.", "", "During construction of the new building and the mural's transfer, New Seasons displayed a banner which read, \"The mural will return\".{{cite news\\|last1\\=Ashton\\|first1\\=David F.\\|title\\=Woodstock's New Seasons to open October 21\\|url\\=http://portlandtribune.com/sb/75\\-features/275290\\-150504\\-woodstocks\\-new\\-seasons\\-to\\-open\\-october\\-21\\|access\\-date\\=November 7, 2015\\|work\\=The Bee\\|date\\=October 2, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030234147/http://portlandtribune.com/sb/75\\-features/275290\\-150504\\-woodstocks\\-new\\-seasons\\-to\\-open\\-october\\-21\\|archive\\-date\\=October 30, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Cohen and his assistant, Christo Wunderlich, transferred the design using a machine, then painted the art by hand. The duo also added bread and a fish to the mural to represent the local businesses [Grand Central Bakery](/wiki/Grand_Central_Bakery \"Grand Central Bakery\") and Portland Fish Market, respectively. The new store opened in 2015\\.", "" ]
Life ---- Carlos Casares was born in [Ourense](/wiki/Ourense "Ourense") into a middle\-class family in 1941\. When he was three years old, his family moved to [Xinzo de Limia](/wiki/Xinzo_de_Limia "Xinzo de Limia"), where his father was a teacher, thus spending his early years in this Galician rural area. He got close to Galician language, the main language he would be in contact with in the area except for his mother, who spoke Spanish. His family had strong religious beliefs, and, in fact, some of his relatives were priests and one was an archbishop. Due to his family's religiosity, he was sent to the Seminary in Ourense, where he received humanistic education between 1952 and 1957\. During those years, he experienced enormous repression for being a speaker of Galician language. This stimulated a nonconformist spirit that led him to his first literary involvement, a clandestine magazine called El averno. Because of this, Carlos left the Seminary and self\-studied the last years of Secondary Education. He consequently had a lot of free time to begin his literary creation. Winning a literary prize in Ourense gave him the possibility of meeting Galician intellectual [Vicente Risco](/wiki/Vicente_Risco "Vicente Risco"). Afterwards, he started attending the talks Risco gave in "Café Parque". After finishing his studies, Casares established himself in [Santiago de Compostela](/wiki/Santiago_de_Compostela "Santiago de Compostela") and there he began his college studies in Philosophy and Languages. He did so between the years 1961 and 1967, specialising in Romanic philology. At University, he met Arcadio López\-Casanova and, thanks to him, Ramón Piñeiro, thus involving in the centre of the Galician cultural movement against [caudillo](/wiki/Caudillo "Caudillo") Francisco Franco. However, it was not all reduced to cultural activity. Carlos Casares became part of ADE (Asociación Democrática de Estudiantes, Democratic Student Association), and FELIPE (Frente de Liberación Popular, People's Liberation Front). This is where, in the writer's words, he "discovered Marxism and felt like a Marxist". During those university years, he did not forget his literary work either. In 1965, he published several tales in Grial magazine. In 1967, his first novel, Vento Ferido (Wounded Wind), came out, published by Galaxia in its Illa Nova collection. When he finished his university studies, he came back to Xinzo and started searching for a job as a teacher. He tried to achieve a position in Ourense, but he finally got it in [Viana do Bolo](/wiki/Viana_do_Bolo "Viana do Bolo"), as an assistant teacher in the school "Colegio Libre Asociado". There he underwent some conflicts with the school's principal because he organised certain activities the [Francoist State](/wiki/Francoist_State "Francoist State") did not approve of. Due to this fact, he was forbidden to teach in Galicia by the Vice\-chancellor of Santiago University. He emigrated to [Biscay](/wiki/Biscay "Biscay"), in the Basque Country, and taught there, but he returned after a short period of time because of external causes. When returning from this trip, he met Kristina Berg, a Swedish girl who would eventually become his wife. Carlos visited Sweden frequently and discovered there its open, democratic and advanced society. Sweden was also the place where his children (Hakan and Christian) were born. In 1974, public examinations were held in Galicia, and Carlos achieved a position as a Spanish language teacher in a school in [Cangas do Morrazo](/wiki/Cangas_do_Morrazo "Cangas do Morrazo"). However, he was reprimanded a short time after that, along with [Méndez Ferrín](/wiki/M%C3%A9ndez_Ferr%C3%ADn "Méndez Ferrín"), Alonso Montero and Francisco Rodríguez. A year later, Casares won the Galaxia literary prize, on the 25th anniversary of this publishing group. Due to this fact, he was acknowledged as one of the most innovative and significant emerging voices of Galician narrative prose. He also wrote essays studying Galician intellectuals, like [Otero Pedrayo](/wiki/Otero_Pedrayo "Otero Pedrayo"), [Vicente Risco](/wiki/Vicente_Risco "Vicente Risco") or [Curros Enríquez](/wiki/Curros_Enr%C3%ADquez "Curros Enríquez"), and became the youngest member of the [Real Academia Galega](/wiki/Real_Academia_Galega "Real Academia Galega") (Royal Galician Academy) in 1977\. Despite all the work he did as an essayist, Carlos Casares did not forget literature, and continued publishing some highly welcomed narrative works. He wrote *Os escuros soños de Clío* (1979\); *Ilustrísima* (1980\) and, after leaving his career as a member of parliament, also *Os mortos daquel verán* (1987\), *Deus sentado nun sillón azul* (1996\) and *O sol do verán* (2002\). ### Political involvement Carlos Casares was part of Galician political life during the years of the democratic transition to democracy after Franco's death. He was one of the instigators of a manifest called Realidade Galega (Galician reality), whose objective was achieving a Statute of Autonomy for Galicia similar to that of Catalonia and the Basque Country. Carlos Casares and his friend and partner Ramón Piñeiro were therefore at the forefront of Galician politics at the time. This is why both of them were included as independents in the [Spanish Socialist Workers' Party](/wiki/Spanish_Socialist_Workers%27_Party "Spanish Socialist Workers' Party")'s political candidatures and became members of the first Galician Parliament in 1981\. In the Parliament, both made a great effort to create a [language policy](/wiki/Language_policy "Language policy") for Galicia, with the Language Policy Act being passed in 1983\. A new institution called Consello da Cultura Galega (Galician Culture Council) was also created that year as a result of their work. However, his political involvement did not meet his expectations and he did not run again for election. He thus focused just in cultural work and he became chairman of Consello da Cultura Galega between 1996 and 2002\. He also directed Galaxia publishing group (1986–2002\) and *Grial* magazine. In the 90s, Carlos Casares travelled along the world and got involved in a large number of conferences and gatherings. He attended [PEN International](/wiki/PEN_International "PEN International") congresses held in Maastrich, Toronto and Santiago de Compostela, was part of the Literarisches Kolloquium in Berlin and taught Galician language around the world, in cities like New York. Carlos Casares died on 9 March 2002 due to a cardiac crisis.
[ "Life\n----", "Carlos Casares was born in [Ourense](/wiki/Ourense \"Ourense\") into a middle\\-class family in 1941\\. When he was three years old, his family moved to [Xinzo de Limia](/wiki/Xinzo_de_Limia \"Xinzo de Limia\"), where his father was a teacher, thus spending his early years in this Galician rural area. He got close to Galician language, the main language he would be in contact with in the area except for his mother, who spoke Spanish.", "His family had strong religious beliefs, and, in fact, some of his relatives were priests and one was an archbishop. Due to his family's religiosity, he was sent to the Seminary in Ourense, where he received humanistic education between 1952 and 1957\\. During those years, he experienced enormous repression for being a speaker of Galician language. This stimulated a nonconformist spirit that led him to his first literary involvement, a clandestine magazine called El averno. Because of this, Carlos left the Seminary and self\\-studied the last years of Secondary Education. He consequently had a lot of free time to begin his literary creation. Winning a literary prize in Ourense gave him the possibility of meeting Galician intellectual [Vicente Risco](/wiki/Vicente_Risco \"Vicente Risco\"). Afterwards, he started attending the talks Risco gave in \"Café Parque\".", "After finishing his studies, Casares established himself in [Santiago de Compostela](/wiki/Santiago_de_Compostela \"Santiago de Compostela\") and there he began his college studies in Philosophy and Languages. He did so between the years 1961 and 1967, specialising in Romanic philology. At University, he met Arcadio López\\-Casanova and, thanks to him, Ramón Piñeiro, thus involving in the centre of the Galician cultural movement against [caudillo](/wiki/Caudillo \"Caudillo\") Francisco Franco. However, it was not all reduced to cultural activity. Carlos Casares became part of ADE (Asociación Democrática de Estudiantes, Democratic Student Association), and FELIPE (Frente de Liberación Popular, People's Liberation Front). This is where, in the writer's words, he \"discovered Marxism and felt like a Marxist\". During those university years, he did not forget his literary work either. In 1965, he published several tales in Grial magazine. In 1967, his first novel, Vento Ferido (Wounded Wind), came out, published by Galaxia in its Illa Nova collection.", "When he finished his university studies, he came back to Xinzo and started searching for a job as a teacher. He tried to achieve a position in Ourense, but he finally got it in [Viana do Bolo](/wiki/Viana_do_Bolo \"Viana do Bolo\"), as an assistant teacher in the school \"Colegio Libre Asociado\". There he underwent some conflicts with the school's principal because he organised certain activities the [Francoist State](/wiki/Francoist_State \"Francoist State\") did not approve of. Due to this fact, he was forbidden to teach in Galicia by the Vice\\-chancellor of Santiago University. He emigrated to [Biscay](/wiki/Biscay \"Biscay\"), in the Basque Country, and taught there, but he returned after a short period of time because of external causes.", "When returning from this trip, he met Kristina Berg, a Swedish girl who would eventually become his wife. Carlos visited Sweden frequently and discovered there its open, democratic and advanced society. Sweden was also the place where his children (Hakan and Christian) were born.", "In 1974, public examinations were held in Galicia, and Carlos achieved a position as a Spanish language teacher in a school in [Cangas do Morrazo](/wiki/Cangas_do_Morrazo \"Cangas do Morrazo\"). However, he was reprimanded a short time after that, along with [Méndez Ferrín](/wiki/M%C3%A9ndez_Ferr%C3%ADn \"Méndez Ferrín\"), Alonso Montero and Francisco Rodríguez.", "A year later, Casares won the Galaxia literary prize, on the 25th anniversary of this publishing group. Due to this fact, he was acknowledged as one of the most innovative and significant emerging voices of Galician narrative prose. He also wrote essays studying Galician intellectuals, like [Otero Pedrayo](/wiki/Otero_Pedrayo \"Otero Pedrayo\"), [Vicente Risco](/wiki/Vicente_Risco \"Vicente Risco\") or [Curros Enríquez](/wiki/Curros_Enr%C3%ADquez \"Curros Enríquez\"), and became the youngest member of the [Real Academia Galega](/wiki/Real_Academia_Galega \"Real Academia Galega\") (Royal Galician Academy) in 1977\\.", "Despite all the work he did as an essayist, Carlos Casares did not forget literature, and continued publishing some highly welcomed narrative works. He wrote *Os escuros soños de Clío* (1979\\); *Ilustrísima* (1980\\) and, after leaving his career as a member of parliament, also *Os mortos daquel verán* (1987\\), *Deus sentado nun sillón azul* (1996\\) and *O sol do verán* (2002\\).", "### Political involvement", "Carlos Casares was part of Galician political life during the years of the democratic transition to democracy after Franco's death. He was one of the instigators of a manifest called Realidade Galega (Galician reality), whose objective was achieving a Statute of Autonomy for Galicia similar to that of Catalonia and the Basque Country. Carlos Casares and his friend and partner Ramón Piñeiro were therefore at the forefront of Galician politics at the time. This is why both of them were included as independents in the [Spanish Socialist Workers' Party](/wiki/Spanish_Socialist_Workers%27_Party \"Spanish Socialist Workers' Party\")'s political candidatures and became members of the first Galician Parliament in 1981\\.", "In the Parliament, both made a great effort to create a [language policy](/wiki/Language_policy \"Language policy\") for Galicia, with the Language Policy Act being passed in 1983\\. A new institution called Consello da Cultura Galega (Galician Culture Council) was also created that year as a result of their work. However, his political involvement did not meet his expectations and he did not run again for election. He thus focused just in cultural work and he became chairman of Consello da Cultura Galega between 1996 and 2002\\. He also directed Galaxia publishing group (1986–2002\\) and *Grial* magazine.", "In the 90s, Carlos Casares travelled along the world and got involved in a large number of conferences and gatherings. He attended [PEN International](/wiki/PEN_International \"PEN International\") congresses held in Maastrich, Toronto and Santiago de Compostela, was part of the Literarisches Kolloquium in Berlin and taught Galician language around the world, in cities like New York.", "Carlos Casares died on 9 March 2002 due to a cardiac crisis.", "" ]
History ------- [Allentown](/wiki/Allentown%2C_Pennsylvania "Allentown, Pennsylvania") was founded in 1762\. There are three historic districts in Allentown: Old Allentown, the Old Fairgrounds, and West Park neighborhoods. Old Allentown and Old Fairgrounds are [Center City](/wiki/Center_City_Allentown "Center City Allentown") neighborhoods that hold a joint house tour organized by Old Allentown Preservation Association annually in September. West Park neighborhood also offers a tour of this district's larger [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture "Victorian architecture") and [American Craftsman](/wiki/American_Craftsman "American Craftsman")\-style homes.{{cite web\|title\=Old Allentown Website\|url\=http://www.oldallentown.org/}} The oldest standing structure in Allentown is [Trout Hall](/wiki/Trout_Hall "Trout Hall"), built in 1770 by [James Hamilton](/wiki/James_Hamilton_%28Pennsylvania_politician%29 "James Hamilton (Pennsylvania politician)"), son\-in\-law of [William Allen](/wiki/William_Allen_%28loyalist%29 "William Allen (loyalist)"), the city's founder. Located at South 4th and Walnut streets, the home was later renamed several times. It was known as Livingston Mansion. In 1848, it became Allentown Seminary. In 1867, it housed the newly\-established [Muhlenberg College](/wiki/Muhlenberg_College "Muhlenberg College") prior to the college's move to its present location off [Cedar Crest Boulevard](/wiki/Cedar_Crest_Boulevard "Cedar Crest Boulevard"). In 1905, it was restored and is currently administered as Trout Hall by the [Lehigh County Historical Society](/wiki/Lehigh_County_Historical_Society "Lehigh County Historical Society"). [Miller Symphony Hall](/wiki/Miller_Symphony_Hall "Miller Symphony Hall"), at 23 North Sixth Street in Center City, was constructed in 1896\. [Zion's Reformed United Church of Christ](/wiki/High_German_Evangelical_Reformed_Church "High German Evangelical Reformed Church"), founded in 1762, is located at 620 West [Hamilton Street](/wiki/Hamilton_Street "Hamilton Street"). The church's original structure was a [log cabin](/wiki/Log_cabin "Log cabin") Union Church it shared with the congregation of St. Paul's Lutheran. Zion's current building, a neo\-gothic{{cite web\|title\=Zion's United Church of Christ, Allentown, PA\|url\=http://www.emporis.com/building/zionsreformedchurchofchrist\-allentown\-pa\-usa\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130410183859/http://www.emporis.com/building/zionsreformedchurchofchrist\-allentown\-pa\-usa\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=April 10, 2013\|work\=Emporis.com}} structure built in the 1880s, hosts a sanctuary representing a high point in 19th\-century church architecture, with stained glass art windows on all four walls interweaving biblical symbols with a floral motif, symbolizing the flowering of the new out of the old.{{cite web\|title\=Zion's Reformed UCC: Our Heritage\|url\=http://cp2\.enter.net/\~c73279x1/?page\_id\=118\|access\-date\=December 17, 2011\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406111919/http://cp2\.enter.net/\~c73279x1/?page\_id\=118\|archive\-date\=April 6, 2012\|df\=mdy\-all}} Until 2023, Zion's Church also hosted the [Liberty Bell Museum](/wiki/Liberty_Bell_Museum "Liberty Bell Museum"), due to the special role the church played in protecting the [Liberty Bell](/wiki/Liberty_Bell "Liberty Bell") from capture by [British](/wiki/British_Army_during_the_American_Revolutionary_War "British Army during the American Revolutionary War") during the [British occupation of Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia_campaign "Philadelphia campaign") in 1777\. The Liberty Bell was hidden under the floor boards in the church's basement. ### 20th century In the 20th century, [rowhouses](/wiki/Rowhouse "Rowhouse"), many built in the [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture "Victorian architecture") or [Federal](/wiki/Federal_architecture "Federal architecture") style, became popular in Allentown. The West End neighborhood, which runs roughly from 15th Street to [Cedar Crest Boulevard](/wiki/Cedar_Crest_Boulevard "Cedar Crest Boulevard"), is famous for both its brick twin styles closer to center city and large homes, including the Hess Mansion, which is located in the city's west\-end. The [PPL Building](/wiki/PPL_Building "PPL Building"), constructed between 1926 and 1928, is Allentown's tallest building at 322 feet (98 m). It is 23 stories high and is located at the northwest corner of 9th and [Hamilton streets](/wiki/Hamilton_Street "Hamilton Street"). A [Lehigh Valley](/wiki/Lehigh_Valley "Lehigh Valley") icon, the building's [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco "Art Deco") tower is visible throughout the Lehigh Valley; in clear weather, the building's tower is visible as far north as [Blue Mountain](/wiki/Blue_Mountain_%28Pennsylvania%29 "Blue Mountain (Pennsylvania)"). The building was designed by architect and skyscraper pioneer [Harvey Wiley Corbett](/wiki/Harvey_Wiley_Corbett "Harvey Wiley Corbett"), who later helped design [Rockefeller Center](/wiki/Rockefeller_Center "Rockefeller Center") in [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan") and was supervised by his assistant, [Wallace Harrison](/wiki/Wallace_Harrison "Wallace Harrison"), who later designed [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center"), [LaGuardia Airport](/wiki/LaGuardia_Airport "LaGuardia Airport"), and the [U.N. Headquarters Building](/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations "Headquarters of the United Nations") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). The building exterior features [bas reliefs](/wiki/Bas-relief "Bas-relief") by [Alexander Archipenko](/wiki/Alexander_Archipenko "Alexander Archipenko"). In 1930, the [PPL Building](/wiki/PPL_Building "PPL Building") was named the "best example of a modern office building" by *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica "Encyclopædia Britannica")* and was featured as having the world's fastest [elevator](/wiki/Elevator "Elevator"). Exterior shots of Allentown's [PPL Building](/wiki/PPL_Building "PPL Building") are featured in the 1954 movie *[Executive Suite](/wiki/Executive_Suite "Executive Suite")*.["M. Night Shyamalan's 'Glass' joins these 21 other films shot in the Lehigh Valley," Lehigh Valley Live, September 24, 2019](https://www.lehighvalleylive.com/life-and-culture/g66l-2019/01/16469ca35b7553/m-night-shyamalans-glass-joins-these-21-other-films-shot-in-the-lehigh-valley.html), retrieved February 15, 2022\. ### 21st century At the beginning of the 21st century, much of Allentown's office and retail space was vacant. In December 2011, J.B. Reilly,{{cite web\|last\=Assad\|first\=Matt\|title\=Developer unveils $50 million office complex\|url\=http://www.mcall.com/news/local/allentown/mc\-allentown\-arena\-reilly\-20111214,0,1003801\.story\|work\=The Morning Call\|publisher\=The Morning Call\|access\-date\=December 17, 2011}} Alvin H. Butz{{cite web\|last\=Zanki\|first\=Tom\|title\=Alvin H. Butz Inc. expanding corporate headquarters in downtown Allentown\|url\=http://www.lehighvalleylive.com/allentown/index.ssf/2011/12/alvin\_h\_butz\_inc\_plans\_to\_expa.html\|work\=Lehigh Valley Live\|access\-date\=December 17, 2011}} and other developers announced a series of new plans designed to bring service\-based companies and white\-collar workers back to the city while taking advantage of a special tax zone created for the construction of the new [PPL Center](/wiki/PPL_Center "PPL Center") at 7th and [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton_Street "Hamilton Street") streets. In the early 21st century, some historic industrial buildings have been converted to loft\-style rental apartments, including the Farr Lofts in [Center City](/wiki/Center_City_Allentown "Center City Allentown"), the P\&P Mill Building in the 1st Ward ,and Auburn Station near the Good Shepherd Rehabilitation Center.
[ "History\n-------", "[Allentown](/wiki/Allentown%2C_Pennsylvania \"Allentown, Pennsylvania\") was founded in 1762\\. There are three historic districts in Allentown: Old Allentown, the Old Fairgrounds, and West Park neighborhoods. Old Allentown and Old Fairgrounds are [Center City](/wiki/Center_City_Allentown \"Center City Allentown\") neighborhoods that hold a joint house tour organized by Old Allentown Preservation Association annually in September. West Park neighborhood also offers a tour of this district's larger [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture \"Victorian architecture\") and [American Craftsman](/wiki/American_Craftsman \"American Craftsman\")\\-style homes.{{cite web\\|title\\=Old Allentown Website\\|url\\=http://www.oldallentown.org/}}", "The oldest standing structure in Allentown is [Trout Hall](/wiki/Trout_Hall \"Trout Hall\"), built in 1770 by [James Hamilton](/wiki/James_Hamilton_%28Pennsylvania_politician%29 \"James Hamilton (Pennsylvania politician)\"), son\\-in\\-law of [William Allen](/wiki/William_Allen_%28loyalist%29 \"William Allen (loyalist)\"), the city's founder. Located at South 4th and Walnut streets, the home was later renamed several times. It was known as Livingston Mansion. In 1848, it became Allentown Seminary. In 1867, it housed the newly\\-established [Muhlenberg College](/wiki/Muhlenberg_College \"Muhlenberg College\") prior to the college's move to its present location off [Cedar Crest Boulevard](/wiki/Cedar_Crest_Boulevard \"Cedar Crest Boulevard\"). In 1905, it was restored and is currently administered as Trout Hall by the [Lehigh County Historical Society](/wiki/Lehigh_County_Historical_Society \"Lehigh County Historical Society\").", "[Miller Symphony Hall](/wiki/Miller_Symphony_Hall \"Miller Symphony Hall\"), at 23 North Sixth Street in Center City, was constructed in 1896\\.", "[Zion's Reformed United Church of Christ](/wiki/High_German_Evangelical_Reformed_Church \"High German Evangelical Reformed Church\"), founded in 1762, is located at 620 West [Hamilton Street](/wiki/Hamilton_Street \"Hamilton Street\"). The church's original structure was a [log cabin](/wiki/Log_cabin \"Log cabin\") Union Church it shared with the congregation of St. Paul's Lutheran. Zion's current building, a neo\\-gothic{{cite web\\|title\\=Zion's United Church of Christ, Allentown, PA\\|url\\=http://www.emporis.com/building/zionsreformedchurchofchrist\\-allentown\\-pa\\-usa\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130410183859/http://www.emporis.com/building/zionsreformedchurchofchrist\\-allentown\\-pa\\-usa\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=April 10, 2013\\|work\\=Emporis.com}} structure built in the 1880s, hosts a sanctuary representing a high point in 19th\\-century church architecture, with stained glass art windows on all four walls interweaving biblical symbols with a floral motif, symbolizing the flowering of the new out of the old.{{cite web\\|title\\=Zion's Reformed UCC: Our Heritage\\|url\\=http://cp2\\.enter.net/\\~c73279x1/?page\\_id\\=118\\|access\\-date\\=December 17, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406111919/http://cp2\\.enter.net/\\~c73279x1/?page\\_id\\=118\\|archive\\-date\\=April 6, 2012\\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}", "Until 2023, Zion's Church also hosted the [Liberty Bell Museum](/wiki/Liberty_Bell_Museum \"Liberty Bell Museum\"), due to the special role the church played in protecting the [Liberty Bell](/wiki/Liberty_Bell \"Liberty Bell\") from capture by [British](/wiki/British_Army_during_the_American_Revolutionary_War \"British Army during the American Revolutionary War\") during the [British occupation of Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia_campaign \"Philadelphia campaign\") in 1777\\. The Liberty Bell was hidden under the floor boards in the church's basement.", "### 20th century", "In the 20th century, [rowhouses](/wiki/Rowhouse \"Rowhouse\"), many built in the [Victorian](/wiki/Victorian_architecture \"Victorian architecture\") or [Federal](/wiki/Federal_architecture \"Federal architecture\") style, became popular in Allentown. The West End neighborhood, which runs roughly from 15th Street to [Cedar Crest Boulevard](/wiki/Cedar_Crest_Boulevard \"Cedar Crest Boulevard\"), is famous for both its brick twin styles closer to center city and large homes, including the Hess Mansion, which is located in the city's west\\-end.", "The [PPL Building](/wiki/PPL_Building \"PPL Building\"), constructed between 1926 and 1928, is Allentown's tallest building at 322 feet (98 m). It is 23 stories high and is located at the northwest corner of 9th and [Hamilton streets](/wiki/Hamilton_Street \"Hamilton Street\"). A [Lehigh Valley](/wiki/Lehigh_Valley \"Lehigh Valley\") icon, the building's [Art Deco](/wiki/Art_Deco \"Art Deco\") tower is visible throughout the Lehigh Valley; in clear weather, the building's tower is visible as far north as [Blue Mountain](/wiki/Blue_Mountain_%28Pennsylvania%29 \"Blue Mountain (Pennsylvania)\"). The building was designed by architect and skyscraper pioneer [Harvey Wiley Corbett](/wiki/Harvey_Wiley_Corbett \"Harvey Wiley Corbett\"), who later helped design [Rockefeller Center](/wiki/Rockefeller_Center \"Rockefeller Center\") in [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\") and was supervised by his assistant, [Wallace Harrison](/wiki/Wallace_Harrison \"Wallace Harrison\"), who later designed [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\"), [LaGuardia Airport](/wiki/LaGuardia_Airport \"LaGuardia Airport\"), and the [U.N. Headquarters Building](/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations \"Headquarters of the United Nations\") in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). The building exterior features [bas reliefs](/wiki/Bas-relief \"Bas-relief\") by [Alexander Archipenko](/wiki/Alexander_Archipenko \"Alexander Archipenko\").", "In 1930, the [PPL Building](/wiki/PPL_Building \"PPL Building\") was named the \"best example of a modern office building\" by *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica \"Encyclopædia Britannica\")* and was featured as having the world's fastest [elevator](/wiki/Elevator \"Elevator\"). Exterior shots of Allentown's [PPL Building](/wiki/PPL_Building \"PPL Building\") are featured in the 1954 movie *[Executive Suite](/wiki/Executive_Suite \"Executive Suite\")*.[\"M. Night Shyamalan's 'Glass' joins these 21 other films shot in the Lehigh Valley,\" Lehigh Valley Live, September 24, 2019](https://www.lehighvalleylive.com/life-and-culture/g66l-2019/01/16469ca35b7553/m-night-shyamalans-glass-joins-these-21-other-films-shot-in-the-lehigh-valley.html), retrieved February 15, 2022\\.", "### 21st century", "At the beginning of the 21st century, much of Allentown's office and retail space was vacant.", "In December 2011, J.B. Reilly,{{cite web\\|last\\=Assad\\|first\\=Matt\\|title\\=Developer unveils $50 million office complex\\|url\\=http://www.mcall.com/news/local/allentown/mc\\-allentown\\-arena\\-reilly\\-20111214,0,1003801\\.story\\|work\\=The Morning Call\\|publisher\\=The Morning Call\\|access\\-date\\=December 17, 2011}} Alvin H. Butz{{cite web\\|last\\=Zanki\\|first\\=Tom\\|title\\=Alvin H. Butz Inc. expanding corporate headquarters in downtown Allentown\\|url\\=http://www.lehighvalleylive.com/allentown/index.ssf/2011/12/alvin\\_h\\_butz\\_inc\\_plans\\_to\\_expa.html\\|work\\=Lehigh Valley Live\\|access\\-date\\=December 17, 2011}} and other developers announced a series of new plans designed to bring service\\-based companies and white\\-collar workers back to the city while taking advantage of a special tax zone created for the construction of the new [PPL Center](/wiki/PPL_Center \"PPL Center\") at 7th and [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton_Street \"Hamilton Street\") streets.", "In the early 21st century, some historic industrial buildings have been converted to loft\\-style rental apartments, including the Farr Lofts in [Center City](/wiki/Center_City_Allentown \"Center City Allentown\"), the P\\&P Mill Building in the 1st Ward ,and Auburn Station near the Good Shepherd Rehabilitation Center.", "" ]
Life and career --------------- Roslyn Louise Bygrave grew up in the small town of Willaura in the Western District of [Victoria](/wiki/Victoria%2C_Australia "Victoria, Australia") and later attended secondary school and art school in [Ballarat](/wiki/Ballarat "Ballarat") and [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), majoring in painting and printmaking. Her career as a professional musician began in 1974 when she began performing in Ballarat then circa 1977 on the Bellarine Peninsula (early band: The Salty Dogs; Blue Grass, Reggae, eclectic ). Bygrave later joined [the Goanna Band](/wiki/Goanna_%28band%29 "Goanna (band)"), rising to prominence as keyboardist, vocalist and songwriter alongside [Shane Howard](/wiki/Shane_Howard "Shane Howard") and [Marcia Howard](/wiki/Marcia_Howard_%28musician%29 "Marcia Howard (musician)") in the early 1980s. The band recorded three albums and toured extensively, performing in some of the remotest areas of Australia and forging strong bonds with Aboriginal people and their culture. Their debut album, *[Spirit of Place](/wiki/Spirit_of_Place_%28album%29 "Spirit of Place (album)")*, won the [Australian Recording Industry Association](/wiki/Australian_Recording_Industry_Association "Australian Recording Industry Association") (ARIA) Best Album of the Year award in 1982, with "Solid Rock" winning Best Single of the Year. They also won the Best new Band category. Her songwriting debut on that album was a haunting ballad called "On the Platform"; the 'B' side to the single "Solid Rock". In 1986 she was a session singer on Wayne Gillespie's [New Locations](https://www.discogs.com/release/3149421-Wayne-Gillespie-New-Locations)album and toured briefly playing reggae, jazz and blues with Australian singer Wendy Saddington with Mick Liber on guitar, Angelica Booth on bass, Javier Fredis on congas and Dezzy McKenna on drums. Bygrave issued a solo single, "Maybe Midnight", in June 1989 and commenced work on a solo album but nothing eventuated due to artist management difficulties. Bygrave began performing solo in 1991 and worked as a sought after session musician. Around early 1990 she worked with Yothu Yindi's Mandawuy and Gurrumal Yunupingu as vocal collaborator and coach and sang backing vocals on tracks from their first album, *Tribal Voice*, including the song "Treaty" (the first Aboriginal song to make it onto the Australian music charts and achieve international recognition). From the late 1990s she toured with Deb Byrne as keyboardist and backing vocalist on several of Byrne's tours around Australia promoting Byrne's foray into country music. Other musicians on that tour were Paul Gildea (Little River Band and Ice House) on guitar, Chris Bekker (James Reyne, Ross Wilson) on bass and backing vocals, Davy Porter on drums and James Uluave on percussion and backing vocals. From 1998 to 2000, Bygrave contributed several songs to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation television series *[SeaChange](/wiki/SeaChange "SeaChange")*. Goanna reprised with a third album, *Spirit Returns*, in 1998, to which Bygrave contributed three songs. The album was released at the Melbourne Concert Hall as part of the 1999 Melbourne International Festival Program. Between 1998 and 1999 Bygrave was involved as a mentor in the Aboriginal Song Lines program which fostered emerging indigenous musicians. In mid\-1999, Bygrave produced and released her first solo album *White Bird*. Four of the songs were added to compilation CDs and America's [Mollie O'Brien](/wiki/Mollie_O%27Brien "Mollie O'Brien") recorded one of the songs and two songs received extensive Radio AirPlay. Musicians featured were Kerryn Tolhurst Lap Steel ( The Dingoes and Country Radio), Paul Gildea; Guitars, Shane Howard; Acoustic Guitar and vocals plus co\-write on Big Blue Sky, Archie Cuthbertson; Drums, Dave Steel; Harmonica, Mandolin, Marcia Howard; Backing vocals, Michael Santamaria; Irish Whistles. In 2000 at the [Woodford Folk Festival](/wiki/Woodford_Folk_Festival "Woodford Folk Festival"), Bygrave was invited to be the soloist with the choir (directed by Kavisha Mazzella) during the famous fire event. This was broadcast live to 1\.5 billion people on a worldwide link via the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC"). In 2001 she released her second solo album, *Walking Home*. Musicians featured included Lyndsay Field (John Farnham) on backing vocals, Tony Hicks on soprano sax, Tony Floyd on drums, Chris Bekker on bass, Sam See (Stockley, See and Mason, John Farnham, Steve Vizard Show) on guitar and Marcia Howard on backing vocals. In 2002, Bygrave performed as the support act for [Luka Bloom](/wiki/Luka_Bloom "Luka Bloom") on his Australian National tour. In December that year she initiated a major Benefit Concert called 'Bridges to Bali' to raise money for the Balinese victims of the terrorist attack. She collaborated with Promoter Sandy Merrigan at Deacon University to produce the event which featured artists including Ross Wilson, Goanna, Dave Steel, Tiffany Eckhardt, Git, Paul Williamson's Hammond Combo, Marcia Howard and members of the Balinese community in Geelong. This concert was broadcast from Costa Hall to the Asia Pascific Region and Australia via Radio National and Local ABC and was hosted by Paul Petran and Derrek Guille. Substantial money raised from the event was distributed in Bali by Rotary Australia. From 2003 to 2004, she continued her work as a musical mentor/Artist in residence with troubled young people in regional Australia, where she tutored in songwriting, arranging, recording and the collaborative process. She supported [Dennis Locorriere](/wiki/Dennis_Locorriere "Dennis Locorriere") and [Paul Brady](/wiki/Paul_Brady "Paul Brady") on their respective National tours. In 2006 Bygrave initiated and worked with Victorian regional communities producing six free concerts in drought effected regions. Ten musicians including Dave Steel, Tiffany Eckhardt, Pete Denehy, Damian Howard, Tony O'Neill, John Emry, Marcia Howard, John Edgar, Allan O'Conner and others musicians from local communities played 5\-hour concerts to people experiencing extreme hardship due to drought. Some of Bygrave's songs have also selected for use on various soundtracks. In 2009 she released a third solo album, *North*, which was released at the [Port Fairy Folk Festival](/wiki/Port_Fairy_Folk_Festival "Port Fairy Folk Festival"). The songs on the acclaimed CD arose out of travels to Japan, Italy and India where she performed at The University of Calcutta and The Vishnu Bharati University of the Arts in West Bengal. Musicians on that CD included Chris Bekker; Bass, Tony O'Neill; Mandolin, Guitar and Fiddle; Hilton Winneki; Percussion, Dave Steel; mandolin and Slide Guitar. With cameo backing vocals on 'The Mission Yard' by Shane, Marcia and Damian Howard. In 2011, Rose collaborated with long\-time friend and Goanna member Marcia Howard, to produce a CD called *Pearl*. The CD was written and recorded by them at their respective home studios and once again launched at Port Fairy Folk Festival to capacity crowds. The Pigram Brothers and Damian Howard make a guest appearance on vocals ( Steve Pigram on Guitar ) on Rose's song 'Universe', and Lee Morgan contributes guitar on several tracks. Howard and Bygrave continued to work together with Jon Emry playing Drums, Isaac Barter\- Bass and Matiss Schubert on Mandolin and Fiddle. In 2014 Bygrave wrote and arranged the anthemic song Carry Memory, for a 60 piece Choir from the Geelong region. This project culminated in a performance of the song at Sunset, to a large audience in the YouYang Mountains near Geelong, Victoria. The song was commissioned by The City of Greater Geelong as part of the Mouth2Mountain Song Lines inaugural community arts program directed by [Meme McDonald](/wiki/Meme_McDonald "Meme McDonald"). The song was recorded with the Choir in 2014 as part of the sound \-track to that event. In 2015 Bygrave was invited by long time friend and legendary Aboriginal musician Bart Willoughby, to perform as part of his band on his 'We Still Live On' tour. The performance centred around Willoughby's exploration of his songs played by him on the Grand Organ. Rose contributed vocals and keyboards during this tour and backing vocals on the corresponding CD. Deline Brisco and Bart; Lead Vocals. Rose Bygrave has been playing music all her life; professionally for over 40 years. She is renowned for compassionate songwriting – reflecting on the land, love, and especially issues of indigenous and social justice – and her voice, songs and musicianship are regarded as among the best and most 'emotionally spiritual' in Australian contemporary music.( Her songs cross genres; Country, Contemporary Folk, Jazz, Blues, Rock and World....). Further to studying Art in the 1970s, she has designed all the CD art work and visuals associated with her music and continues to paint. Bygrave lives in [Queenscliff, Victoria](/wiki/Queenscliff%2C_Victoria "Queenscliff, Victoria") with her husband, multi award\-winning writer and poet [Barry Hill](/wiki/Barry_Hill_%28Australian_writer%29 "Barry Hill (Australian writer)").
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "Roslyn Louise Bygrave grew up in the small town of Willaura in the Western District of [Victoria](/wiki/Victoria%2C_Australia \"Victoria, Australia\") and later attended secondary school and art school in [Ballarat](/wiki/Ballarat \"Ballarat\") and [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), majoring in painting and printmaking.", "Her career as a professional musician began in 1974 when she began performing in Ballarat then circa 1977 on the Bellarine Peninsula (early band: The Salty Dogs; Blue Grass, Reggae, eclectic ). Bygrave later joined [the Goanna Band](/wiki/Goanna_%28band%29 \"Goanna (band)\"), rising to prominence as keyboardist, vocalist and songwriter alongside [Shane Howard](/wiki/Shane_Howard \"Shane Howard\") and [Marcia Howard](/wiki/Marcia_Howard_%28musician%29 \"Marcia Howard (musician)\") in the early 1980s. The band recorded three albums and toured extensively, performing in some of the remotest areas of Australia and forging strong bonds with Aboriginal people and their culture. Their debut album, *[Spirit of Place](/wiki/Spirit_of_Place_%28album%29 \"Spirit of Place (album)\")*, won the [Australian Recording Industry Association](/wiki/Australian_Recording_Industry_Association \"Australian Recording Industry Association\") (ARIA) Best Album of the Year award in 1982, with \"Solid Rock\" winning Best Single of the Year. They also won the Best new Band category. Her songwriting debut on that album was a haunting ballad called \"On the Platform\"; the 'B' side to the single \"Solid Rock\".", "In 1986 she was a session singer on Wayne Gillespie's [New Locations](https://www.discogs.com/release/3149421-Wayne-Gillespie-New-Locations)album and toured briefly playing reggae, jazz and blues with Australian singer Wendy Saddington with Mick Liber on guitar, Angelica Booth on bass, Javier Fredis on congas and Dezzy McKenna on drums.", "Bygrave issued a solo single, \"Maybe Midnight\", in June 1989 and commenced work on a solo album but nothing eventuated due to artist management difficulties. Bygrave began performing solo in 1991 and worked as a sought after session musician. Around early 1990 she worked with Yothu Yindi's Mandawuy and Gurrumal Yunupingu as vocal collaborator and coach and sang backing vocals on tracks from their first album, *Tribal Voice*, including the song \"Treaty\" (the first Aboriginal song to make it onto the Australian music charts and achieve international recognition). From the late 1990s she toured with Deb Byrne as keyboardist and backing vocalist on several of Byrne's tours around Australia promoting Byrne's foray into country music. Other musicians on that tour were Paul Gildea (Little River Band and Ice House) on guitar, Chris Bekker (James Reyne, Ross Wilson) on bass and backing vocals, Davy Porter on drums and James Uluave on percussion and backing vocals.", "From 1998 to 2000, Bygrave contributed several songs to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation television series *[SeaChange](/wiki/SeaChange \"SeaChange\")*.", "Goanna reprised with a third album, *Spirit Returns*, in 1998, to which Bygrave contributed three songs. The album was released at the Melbourne Concert Hall as part of the 1999 Melbourne International Festival Program.\nBetween 1998 and 1999 Bygrave was involved as a mentor in the Aboriginal Song Lines program which fostered emerging indigenous musicians.", "In mid\\-1999, Bygrave produced and released her first solo album *White Bird*. Four of the songs were added to compilation CDs and America's [Mollie O'Brien](/wiki/Mollie_O%27Brien \"Mollie O'Brien\") recorded one of the songs and two songs received extensive Radio AirPlay. Musicians featured were Kerryn Tolhurst Lap Steel ( The Dingoes and Country Radio), Paul Gildea; Guitars, Shane Howard; Acoustic Guitar and vocals plus co\\-write on Big Blue Sky, Archie Cuthbertson; Drums, Dave Steel; Harmonica, Mandolin, Marcia Howard; Backing vocals, Michael Santamaria; Irish Whistles.", "In 2000 at the [Woodford Folk Festival](/wiki/Woodford_Folk_Festival \"Woodford Folk Festival\"), Bygrave was invited to be the soloist with the choir (directed by Kavisha Mazzella) during the famous fire event. This was broadcast live to 1\\.5 billion people on a worldwide link via the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\").", "In 2001 she released her second solo album, *Walking Home*. Musicians featured included Lyndsay Field (John Farnham) on backing vocals, Tony Hicks on soprano sax, Tony Floyd on drums, Chris Bekker on bass, Sam See (Stockley, See and Mason, John Farnham, Steve Vizard Show) on guitar and Marcia Howard on backing vocals.", "In 2002, Bygrave performed as the support act for [Luka Bloom](/wiki/Luka_Bloom \"Luka Bloom\") on his Australian National tour.", "In December that year she initiated a major Benefit Concert called 'Bridges to Bali' to raise money for the Balinese victims of the terrorist attack. She collaborated with Promoter Sandy Merrigan at Deacon University to produce the event which featured artists including Ross Wilson, Goanna, Dave Steel, Tiffany Eckhardt, Git, Paul Williamson's Hammond Combo, Marcia Howard and members of the Balinese community in Geelong. This concert was broadcast from Costa Hall to the Asia Pascific Region and Australia via Radio National and Local ABC and was hosted by Paul Petran and Derrek Guille. Substantial money raised from the event was distributed in Bali by Rotary Australia.", "From 2003 to 2004, she continued her work as a musical mentor/Artist in residence with troubled young people in regional Australia, where she tutored in songwriting, arranging, recording and the collaborative process. She supported [Dennis Locorriere](/wiki/Dennis_Locorriere \"Dennis Locorriere\") and [Paul Brady](/wiki/Paul_Brady \"Paul Brady\") on their respective National tours.", "In 2006 Bygrave initiated and worked with Victorian regional communities producing six free concerts in drought effected regions. Ten musicians including Dave Steel, Tiffany Eckhardt, Pete Denehy, Damian Howard, Tony O'Neill, John Emry, Marcia Howard, John Edgar, Allan O'Conner and others musicians from local communities played 5\\-hour concerts to people experiencing extreme hardship due to drought.", "Some of Bygrave's songs have also selected for use on various soundtracks. In 2009 she released a third solo album, *North*, which was released at the [Port Fairy Folk Festival](/wiki/Port_Fairy_Folk_Festival \"Port Fairy Folk Festival\"). The songs on the acclaimed CD arose out of travels to Japan, Italy and India where she performed at The University of Calcutta and The Vishnu Bharati University of the Arts in West Bengal. Musicians on that CD included Chris Bekker; Bass, Tony O'Neill; Mandolin, Guitar and Fiddle; Hilton Winneki; Percussion, Dave Steel; mandolin and Slide Guitar. With cameo backing vocals on 'The Mission Yard' by Shane, Marcia and Damian Howard.", "In 2011, Rose collaborated with long\\-time friend and Goanna member Marcia Howard, to produce a CD called *Pearl*. The CD was written and recorded by them at their respective home studios and once again launched at Port Fairy Folk Festival to capacity crowds. The Pigram Brothers and Damian Howard make a guest appearance on vocals ( Steve Pigram on Guitar ) on Rose's song 'Universe', and Lee Morgan contributes guitar on several tracks. Howard and Bygrave continued to work together with Jon Emry playing Drums, Isaac Barter\\- Bass and Matiss Schubert on Mandolin and Fiddle.", "In 2014 Bygrave wrote and arranged the anthemic song Carry Memory, for a 60 piece Choir from the Geelong region. This project culminated in a performance of the song at Sunset, to a large audience in the YouYang Mountains near Geelong, Victoria. The song was commissioned by The City of Greater Geelong as part of the Mouth2Mountain Song Lines inaugural community arts program directed by [Meme McDonald](/wiki/Meme_McDonald \"Meme McDonald\"). The song was recorded with the Choir in 2014 as part of the sound \\-track to that event.", "In 2015 Bygrave was invited by long time friend and legendary Aboriginal musician Bart Willoughby, to perform as part of his band on his 'We Still Live On' tour. The performance centred around Willoughby's exploration of his songs played by him on the Grand Organ. Rose contributed vocals and keyboards during this tour and backing vocals on the corresponding CD. Deline Brisco and Bart; Lead Vocals.", "Rose Bygrave has been playing music all her life; professionally for over 40 years. She is renowned for compassionate songwriting – reflecting on the land, love, and especially issues of indigenous and social justice – and her voice, songs and musicianship are regarded as among the best and most 'emotionally spiritual' in Australian contemporary music.( Her songs cross genres; Country, Contemporary Folk, Jazz, Blues, Rock and World....).", "Further to studying Art in the 1970s, she has designed all the CD art work and visuals associated with her music and continues to paint.", "Bygrave lives in [Queenscliff, Victoria](/wiki/Queenscliff%2C_Victoria \"Queenscliff, Victoria\") with her husband, multi award\\-winning writer and poet [Barry Hill](/wiki/Barry_Hill_%28Australian_writer%29 \"Barry Hill (Australian writer)\").", "" ]
Plot ---- Mainwaring is preparing to march the platoon over to the recreation ground for a lecture on [fieldcraft](/wiki/Fieldcraft "Fieldcraft"). Wilson enters the office, informing him that Pike and Jones are ready for him to inspect their [rifles](/wiki/Rifle "Rifle"), and Frazer is ready with the [Lewis gun](/wiki/Lewis_gun "Lewis gun"). Mainwaring inspects Jones' rifle and reminds him not to leave sausage skins in the [magazine](/wiki/Magazine_%28firearms%29 "Magazine (firearms)") again. He also reminds Pike not to let his mother clean his rifle with a [bath brick](/wiki/Bath_brick "Bath brick"). Frazer is relieved to not have to clean the Lewis Gun again for three weeks, but Mainwaring notices that the butterfly spring is missing, and Frazer surmises that it is in his workshop. Mainwaring marches the platoon to Frazer's workshop and Frazer searches for the box where he keeps his tools, believing the spring is there, but it has gone. Mainwaring asks him what the box was like, and is shocked to learn that it is shaped like a [coffin](/wiki/Coffin "Coffin"). Frazer tells him that when he was young, he learnt how to make coffins and perform dentistry on the Isle of [Mingulay](/wiki/Mingulay "Mingulay"). He remembers that Mr Drury, an [undertaker](/wiki/Funeral_director "Funeral director"), would probably have taken it, so the platoon heads there. Mr Drury is in a hurry and does not stop to speak with Frazer and Jones. They instead speak with his secretary, Miss Baker, who confirms the use of the coffin. Frazer asks if it is still there, but Miss Baker reveals it is now occupied by a Mr Horace Bluett. Jones and Frazer are shocked, and are even more shocked to learn that his brother Sidney wanted him to repose on his dining room table. Jones and Frazer worm their way into Mr Bluett's house, and Jones distracts Mr Bluett while Frazer searches the coffin. Mr Bluett tells Jones that his brother came home after buying [best end of neck](/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton "Lamb and mutton") from Jones, looked at it, and cried: "Look at that! All bloody bone!" before collapsing and dying from the shock. Jones takes offence at the comment and claims Mr Bluett is accusing him of "doing in" his brother, and drags Frazer out of the house in indignation before he has had a chance to fully inspect the coffin. Mainwaring rings GHQ to enquire about spare springs, but none is in stock. Walker has a friend who is a [metal worker](/wiki/Metalworking "Metalworking"), but he cannot help them because he is currently in prison. So, Mainwaring decides that they should return to Mr Bluett's house that night and break in after Mr Bluett has gone to bed. However, when Jones and Frazer climb into the dining room via the kitchen window, they are shocked to find that the coffin lid is screwed down. They attempt to unscrew it with Pike's [scout knife](/wiki/Pocketknife "Pocketknife"), but they are interrupted by Mr Bluett coming down the stairs and quickly make their exit. The next morning, while Frazer is officiating Horace's funeral, the platoon arrives at the churchyard, just as the procession arrive at the grave. They stick a "Danger! Unexploded Bomb" sign in the ground and warn the vicar and the mourners that there is an [unexploded bomb](/wiki/Unexploded_bomb "Unexploded bomb") in the churchyard. However, it is just a ruse to clear the churchyard. Later, Jones' section arrives at the grave to retrieve the spring. Jones reluctantly climbs inside to check, but they are interrupted by the verger, who has come to fill in the grave. However, they are unable to remove Jones from the grave, so the verger is understandably surprised when the earth he digs into the grave is flung back at him. The verger confronts the platoon, who manage to cover up the event until he leaves. Mainwaring admits he must report Frazer to GHQ for [court\-martial](/wiki/Court-martial "Court-martial") but, just in the nick of time, Frazer discovers the butterfly spring in his trouser pocket.
[ "Plot\n----", "Mainwaring is preparing to march the platoon over to the recreation ground for a lecture on [fieldcraft](/wiki/Fieldcraft \"Fieldcraft\"). Wilson enters the office, informing him that Pike and Jones are ready for him to inspect their [rifles](/wiki/Rifle \"Rifle\"), and Frazer is ready with the [Lewis gun](/wiki/Lewis_gun \"Lewis gun\"). Mainwaring inspects Jones' rifle and reminds him not to leave sausage skins in the [magazine](/wiki/Magazine_%28firearms%29 \"Magazine (firearms)\") again. He also reminds Pike not to let his mother clean his rifle with a [bath brick](/wiki/Bath_brick \"Bath brick\"). Frazer is relieved to not have to clean the Lewis Gun again for three weeks, but Mainwaring notices that the butterfly spring is missing, and Frazer surmises that it is in his workshop.", "Mainwaring marches the platoon to Frazer's workshop and Frazer searches for the box where he keeps his tools, believing the spring is there, but it has gone. Mainwaring asks him what the box was like, and is shocked to learn that it is shaped like a [coffin](/wiki/Coffin \"Coffin\"). Frazer tells him that when he was young, he learnt how to make coffins and perform dentistry on the Isle of [Mingulay](/wiki/Mingulay \"Mingulay\"). He remembers that Mr Drury, an [undertaker](/wiki/Funeral_director \"Funeral director\"), would probably have taken it, so the platoon heads there.", "Mr Drury is in a hurry and does not stop to speak with Frazer and Jones. They instead speak with his secretary, Miss Baker, who confirms the use of the coffin. Frazer asks if it is still there, but Miss Baker reveals it is now occupied by a Mr Horace Bluett. Jones and Frazer are shocked, and are even more shocked to learn that his brother Sidney wanted him to repose on his dining room table.", "Jones and Frazer worm their way into Mr Bluett's house, and Jones distracts Mr Bluett while Frazer searches the coffin. Mr Bluett tells Jones that his brother came home after buying [best end of neck](/wiki/Lamb_and_mutton \"Lamb and mutton\") from Jones, looked at it, and cried: \"Look at that! All bloody bone!\" before collapsing and dying from the shock. Jones takes offence at the comment and claims Mr Bluett is accusing him of \"doing in\" his brother, and drags Frazer out of the house in indignation before he has had a chance to fully inspect the coffin.", "Mainwaring rings GHQ to enquire about spare springs, but none is in stock. Walker has a friend who is a [metal worker](/wiki/Metalworking \"Metalworking\"), but he cannot help them because he is currently in prison. So, Mainwaring decides that they should return to Mr Bluett's house that night and break in after Mr Bluett has gone to bed. However, when Jones and Frazer climb into the dining room via the kitchen window, they are shocked to find that the coffin lid is screwed down. They attempt to unscrew it with Pike's [scout knife](/wiki/Pocketknife \"Pocketknife\"), but they are interrupted by Mr Bluett coming down the stairs and quickly make their exit.", "The next morning, while Frazer is officiating Horace's funeral, the platoon arrives at the churchyard, just as the procession arrive at the grave. They stick a \"Danger! Unexploded Bomb\" sign in the ground and warn the vicar and the mourners that there is an [unexploded bomb](/wiki/Unexploded_bomb \"Unexploded bomb\") in the churchyard. However, it is just a ruse to clear the churchyard. Later, Jones' section arrives at the grave to retrieve the spring. Jones reluctantly climbs inside to check, but they are interrupted by the verger, who has come to fill in the grave. However, they are unable to remove Jones from the grave, so the verger is understandably surprised when the earth he digs into the grave is flung back at him.", "The verger confronts the platoon, who manage to cover up the event until he leaves. Mainwaring admits he must report Frazer to GHQ for [court\\-martial](/wiki/Court-martial \"Court-martial\") but, just in the nick of time, Frazer discovers the butterfly spring in his trouser pocket.", "" ]
Overview of the first principles -------------------------------- The BDSG contains seven first principles of data protection law:{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.datenschutzbeauftragter\-info.de/fachbeitraege/die\-sieben\-grundprinzipien\-im\-datenschutz/\|title\=Begriff und Geschichte des Datenschutzes\|date\=28 May 2014}} **1\. Prohibition with reservation of permission:** The collection, processing and use of personal data is strictly prohibited, unless it is permitted by the law or the person concerned gives consent (§ 4 I BDSG). **2\. Principle of immediacy:** The personal data has to be collected directly from the person concerned. An exception of this principle is a legal permission or a disproportionate effort (§ 4 III BDSG). **3\. Priority to special laws:** The BDSG supersedes any other federal law that relates to personal information and its publication (§ 1 III BDSG). **4\. Principle of proportionality:** The creation of standards restrict the fundamental rights of the affected person. Therefore, these laws and procedures must be appropriate and necessary. A balancing of interests must occur. **5\. Principle of data avoidance and data economy:** Through the use of data anonymization or pseudo\-anonymization, every data processing system should achieve the goal to use no (or as little as possible) personally identifiable data. **6\. Principle of transparency:** If personal data is collected, the responsible entity must inform the affected person of its identity and the purposes of the collection, processing or use (§ 4 III BDSG). **7\. Principle of earmarking:** If data is permitted to be collected for a particular purpose, use of the data is restricted to this purpose. A new consent or law is required, if the data will be used for another purpose.
[ "Overview of the first principles\n--------------------------------", "The BDSG contains seven first principles of data protection law:{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.datenschutzbeauftragter\\-info.de/fachbeitraege/die\\-sieben\\-grundprinzipien\\-im\\-datenschutz/\\|title\\=Begriff und Geschichte des Datenschutzes\\|date\\=28 May 2014}}", "**1\\. Prohibition with reservation of permission:**", "The collection, processing and use of personal data is strictly prohibited, unless it is permitted by the law or the person concerned gives consent (§ 4 I BDSG).", "**2\\. Principle of immediacy:**", "The personal data has to be collected directly from the person concerned. An exception of this principle is a legal permission or a disproportionate effort (§ 4 III BDSG).", "**3\\. Priority to special laws:**", "The BDSG supersedes any other federal law that relates to personal information and its publication (§ 1 III BDSG).", "**4\\. Principle of proportionality:**", "The creation of standards restrict the fundamental rights of the affected person. Therefore, these laws and procedures must be appropriate and necessary. A balancing of interests must occur.", "**5\\. Principle of data avoidance and data economy:**", "Through the use of data anonymization or pseudo\\-anonymization, every data processing system should achieve the goal to use no (or as little as possible) personally identifiable data.", "**6\\. Principle of transparency:**", "If personal data is collected, the responsible entity must inform the affected person of its identity and the purposes of the collection, processing or use (§ 4 III BDSG).", "**7\\. Principle of earmarking:**", "If data is permitted to be collected for a particular purpose, use of the data is restricted to this purpose. A new consent or law is required, if the data will be used for another purpose.", "" ]
Cross\-border data transmission ------------------------------- The following rules apply in accordance with the requirements of the [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission")'s [Data Protection Directive](/wiki/Data_Protection_Directive "Data Protection Directive") to companies domiciled in Germany and for companies based abroad. ### Companies domiciled in Germany For companies based in Germany, the Federal Data Protection Act regulates the transfer of data differently in another EU member country and to a third country. ### Transmission from Germany to another EU member country Through the implementation of the EU Data Protection Directive, a uniform level of data protection has emerged in EU member countries. A company domiciled in Germany is therefore entitled to transfer personal data in Europe under the same rules as if it were to transfer data within Germany. ### Transmission from Germany to a third country Transfers to third countries must comply with the requirements of the Federal Privacy Act (§ 4b II sentence 1 BDSG). The transmission must cease if the person has a legitimate interest in the prevention of transmission, especially if an adequate data protection in the third country is not guaranteed (§ 4b II sentence 2 BDSG). The adequacy of protection shall be assessed by taking all the circumstances into account that are of importance for data transmission (§ 4b III BDSG). These include the type of data, the purpose, duration of processing, professional rules and security measures. In the opinion of the European Commission, [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") and [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") have an adequate level of protection. A further decision by the European Commission affects data transmission into the United States. According to the decision, the [U.S. Department of Commerce](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Commerce "U.S. Department of Commerce") assured a reasonable level of data protection through the negotiated [Safe Harbor](/wiki/Safe_Harbor_Principles "Safe Harbor Principles") Agreement. Through the Safe Harbor Agreement (invalidated 6 October 2015 by Maximillian Schrems v. Data Protection Commissioner, and its successor, Privacy Shield, invalidated on 16 July 2020\), the recipient in the United States commits itself to comply with certain data protection principles by means of statements that to the relevant U.S. authorities. No transfer framework currently applies and transfers to and from the U.S., as all third countries, requires another approved mechanism under the GDPR (e.g. binding corporate rules, standard contractual clauses). For other third countries, it is hardly possible to determine the appropriate level of protection because of the complex criteria. For this reason certain exceptions (in § 4c I and II BDSG) under which a data transmission is allowed in third countries, even if an adequate level of data protection is not guaranteed, are important. § 4c I BDSG allows cross\-border data transfer with the person's consent and subject to the fulfillment of a contract between the person and the responsible party. In all other cases, the "subject to approval" solution (§ 4c II BDSG) allows the manufacturing site to transfer data in recipient countries where an adequate level of data protection is ensured. The contractual clauses or "binding corporate rules" must offer adequate guarantees regarding the protection of personal rights and must be approved in advance by the Competent Authority (§ 4c BDSG II set 1\). For international companies, it is advisable to obtain approval for standard contractual clauses. Even self\-regulation in corporate policies can enable the data flow within multinational corporations. The [codes of conduct](/wiki/Codes_of_conduct "Codes of conduct") must also give victims legal rights and certain guarantees, as is the case in contracts.Gola/Schomerus, BDSG Kommentar, page 151, München 2010, {{ISBN\|978\-3\-406\-59834\-0}}
[ "Cross\\-border data transmission\n-------------------------------", "The following rules apply in accordance with the requirements of the [European Commission](/wiki/European_Commission \"European Commission\")'s [Data Protection Directive](/wiki/Data_Protection_Directive \"Data Protection Directive\") to companies domiciled in Germany and for companies based abroad.", "### Companies domiciled in Germany", "For companies based in Germany, the Federal Data Protection Act regulates the transfer of data differently in another EU member country and to a third country.", "### Transmission from Germany to another EU member country", "Through the implementation of the EU Data Protection Directive, a uniform level of data protection has emerged in EU member countries. A company domiciled in Germany is therefore entitled to transfer personal data in Europe under the same rules as if it were to transfer data within Germany.", "### Transmission from Germany to a third country", "Transfers to third countries must comply with the requirements of the Federal Privacy Act (§ 4b II sentence 1 BDSG). The transmission must cease if the person has a legitimate interest in the prevention of transmission, especially if an adequate data protection in the third country is not guaranteed (§ 4b II sentence 2 BDSG). The adequacy of protection shall be assessed by taking all the circumstances into account that are of importance for data transmission (§ 4b III BDSG). These include the type of data, the purpose, duration of processing, professional rules and security measures. In the opinion of the European Commission, [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\") and [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") have an adequate level of protection.", "A further decision by the European Commission affects data transmission into the United States. According to the decision, the [U.S. Department of Commerce](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Commerce \"U.S. Department of Commerce\") assured a reasonable level of data protection through the negotiated [Safe Harbor](/wiki/Safe_Harbor_Principles \"Safe Harbor Principles\") Agreement. Through the Safe Harbor Agreement (invalidated 6 October 2015 by Maximillian Schrems v. Data Protection Commissioner, and its successor, Privacy Shield, invalidated on 16 July 2020\\), the recipient in the United States commits itself to comply with certain data protection principles by means of statements that to the relevant U.S. authorities. No transfer framework currently applies and transfers to and from the U.S., as all third countries, requires another approved mechanism under the GDPR (e.g. binding corporate rules, standard contractual clauses).", "For other third countries, it is hardly possible to determine the appropriate level of protection because of the complex criteria. For this reason certain exceptions (in § 4c I and II BDSG) under which a data transmission is allowed in third countries, even if an adequate level of data protection is not guaranteed, are important. § 4c I BDSG allows cross\\-border data transfer with the person's consent and subject to the fulfillment of a contract between the person and the responsible party.", "In all other cases, the \"subject to approval\" solution (§ 4c II BDSG) allows the manufacturing site to transfer data in recipient countries where an adequate level of data protection is ensured. The contractual clauses or \"binding corporate rules\" must offer adequate guarantees regarding the protection of personal rights and must be approved in advance by the Competent Authority (§ 4c BDSG II set 1\\). For international companies, it is advisable to obtain approval for standard contractual clauses. Even self\\-regulation in corporate policies can enable the data flow within multinational corporations. The [codes of conduct](/wiki/Codes_of_conduct \"Codes of conduct\") must also give victims legal rights and certain guarantees, as is the case in contracts.Gola/Schomerus, BDSG Kommentar, page 151, München 2010, {{ISBN\\|978\\-3\\-406\\-59834\\-0}}", "" ]
Plot ---- After participating in an extensive archaeological expedition in the Mongolian desert, Dr. John Benton is in San Francisco to hold a presentation of the findings to his colleagues. The film material shows how the archaeological team discovered the long sought ancient tomb of an Emperor of the Ming dynasty. In the tomb, the team found a scroll, telling of a secret Temple of Eternal Fire. The temple is believed to be hiding a previously unknown oil reserve, and would be of great financial importance to the Chinese people were it to be discovered. During the expedition, when the tomb was opened, a forceful hurricane took the life of Mason, the co\-pilot. The storm was predicted by an ancient curse guarding the tomb. Unfortunately, as Benton is about to reveal the contents of the scroll during the presentation, he starts choking and ultimately dies from suffocation. After the presentation, it turns out that the scroll is missing from Benton's safe in his office, and his secretary, Win Len, claims she has no knowledge of its whereabouts. One of Benton's students, James Lee Wong, does his own investigation into the death of his professor, and finds out that Benton must have been poisoned with what another man, Street, identifies as an oriental vegetable poison. James finds a pitcher and a glass cup containing traces of this poison. Another member of the expedition team, camera man Charles Fraser, is attacked in his home, and is found injured by James and Street. They also find Win Len tied up and gagged at the house, having been attacked after entering the house. They are both unaware that Mason faked his own death at the tomb, and that he and Benton's butler, Jonas, are planning to lay their hands on all artifacts found in the tomb. Street manages to trace Fraser's attacker to a hideout near the waterfront, where both Mason and Jonas are hiding. Mason escapes through a secret door, but James and Street find an artifact identifiable from the tomb. They also find Jonas' dead body in a coffin, and it turns out he has been poisoned, then stabbed. The two amateur sleuths manage to get an article published in the paper, saying Mason is sick with yellow fever in a hospital, to lure the killer there. James wears a wire and impersonates Mason at the hospital. Mason himself turns up at the hospital, and also Fraser. James and Mason fight each other, but Street and the police interrupt them. It turns out Fraser has worked together with Mason, but tried to double\-cross him and break into Benton's safe to steal the scroll. Fraser also killed Benton to keep the secret of the oil reserve to himself. He later killed Jonas. The original scroll has now been destroyed by Fraser, but there is still a photo of it left. After Fraser is arrested, the photo is given to the Chinese government so that they can try to find the oil reserve.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/17705/Phantom\-of\-Chinatown/\|title \= Phantom of Chinatown}}
[ "Plot\n----", "After participating in an extensive archaeological expedition in the Mongolian desert, Dr. John Benton is in San Francisco to hold a presentation of the findings to his colleagues. The film material shows how the archaeological team discovered the long sought ancient tomb of an Emperor of the Ming dynasty.", "In the tomb, the team found a scroll, telling of a secret Temple of Eternal Fire. The temple is believed to be hiding a previously unknown oil reserve, and would be of great financial importance to the Chinese people were it to be discovered.", "During the expedition, when the tomb was opened, a forceful hurricane took the life of Mason, the co\\-pilot. The storm was predicted by an ancient curse guarding the tomb. Unfortunately, as Benton is about to reveal the contents of the scroll during the presentation, he starts choking and ultimately dies from suffocation.", "After the presentation, it turns out that the scroll is missing from Benton's safe in his office, and his secretary, Win Len, claims she has no knowledge of its whereabouts. One of Benton's students, James Lee Wong, does his own investigation into the death of his professor, and finds out that Benton must have been poisoned with what another man, Street, identifies as an oriental vegetable poison. James finds a pitcher and a glass cup containing traces of this poison. \nAnother member of the expedition team, camera man Charles Fraser, is attacked in his home, and is found injured by James and Street. They also find Win Len tied up and gagged at the house, having been attacked after entering the house. They are both unaware that Mason faked his own death at the tomb, and that he and Benton's butler, Jonas, are planning to lay their hands on all artifacts found in the tomb.", "Street manages to trace Fraser's attacker to a hideout near the waterfront, where both Mason and Jonas are hiding. Mason escapes through a secret door, but James and Street find an artifact identifiable from the tomb. They also find Jonas' dead body in a coffin, and it turns out he has been poisoned, then stabbed.", "The two amateur sleuths manage to get an article published in the paper, saying Mason is sick with yellow fever in a hospital, to lure the killer there. James wears a wire and impersonates Mason at the hospital. Mason himself turns up at the hospital, and also Fraser. James and Mason fight each other, but Street and the police interrupt them.", "It turns out Fraser has worked together with Mason, but tried to double\\-cross him and break into Benton's safe to steal the scroll. Fraser also killed Benton to keep the secret of the oil reserve to himself. He later killed Jonas.", "The original scroll has now been destroyed by Fraser, but there is still a photo of it left. After Fraser is arrested, the photo is given to the Chinese government so that they can try to find the oil reserve.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/17705/Phantom\\-of\\-Chinatown/\\|title \\= Phantom of Chinatown}}", "" ]
Career ------ Raised in Jackson, Mississippi, Aldridge taught himself to play drums in the 1960s, building a kit piece by piece with money earned delivering newspapers and other [odd jobs](/wiki/Temporary_work "Temporary work"). He credits his unique style to learning without the benefit of a mentor or teacher. While his mother was supportive of his desire to play music, his father, apparently, was not. In the early 1970s, Aldridge began playing original music with Alley Keith in the [Florida Panhandle](/wiki/Florida_Panhandle "Florida Panhandle"). Inspired by drummers such as [Louis Bellson](/wiki/Louis_Bellson "Louis Bellson") and [Sam Woodyard](/wiki/Sam_Woodyard "Sam Woodyard"), he started using a double\-bass drum setup and became an early pioneer of the hard rock [double kick drum](/wiki/Double_bass_drumming%23Double_bass_drum "Double bass drumming#Double bass drum") style of drumming.{{Cite news \|title\=One from the Archives – Interview with Tommy Aldridge \|url\=http://mikedolbear.com/story.asp?StoryID\=1577 \|publisher\=mikedolbear.com \|access\-date\=May 16, 2013}} After playing for a short time with the [southern rock](/wiki/Southern_rock "Southern rock") band [David and the Giants](/wiki/David_and_the_Giants "David and the Giants") in 1972, Aldridge auditioned for [Black Oak Arkansas](/wiki/Black_Oak_Arkansas "Black Oak Arkansas") and was surprised to get the job. He made his recording debut in 1972 with Black Oak Arkansas' *[If an Angel Came to See You, Would You Make Her Feel at Home?](/wiki/If_an_Angel_Came_to_See_You%2C_Would_You_Make_Her_Feel_at_Home%3F "If an Angel Came to See You, Would You Make Her Feel at Home?")* album. He subsequently recorded several albums with the band between 1972 and 1976 and toured extensively. Aldridge has said that he wasn't particularly fond of Black Oak Arkansas' music and his intention when joining the band was to use the opportunity as a springboard to make a name for himself in the industry, something he says he's not particularly proud of in hindsight. Not happy with the band's heavy use of [hashish](/wiki/Hashish "Hashish"), Aldridge attempted to leave Black Oak Arkansas. As the band's management wasn't keen on giving him his contractual freedom, Aldridge was forced to sneak away in the middle of the night and subsequently "hide out in Chicago". During that period he played with a local band called "d'Thumbs". One and a half years of lawsuits ensued, after which he was contractually free to record again. Aldridge spent 1978 to 1981 with the [Pat Travers](/wiki/Pat_Travers "Pat Travers") Band, recording five albums over that time. Upon parting ways with Travers in 1981, Aldridge moved to [London, England](/wiki/London%2C_England "London, England") and began working with [Gary Moore](/wiki/Gary_Moore "Gary Moore"), recording the *[Dirty Fingers](/wiki/Dirty_Fingers "Dirty Fingers")* album. American guitarist [Randy Rhoads](/wiki/Randy_Rhoads "Randy Rhoads"), who had recently arrived in England to record with [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne "Ozzy Osbourne"), was a big fan of Moore's guitar playing, and one day he and [Bob Daisley](/wiki/Bob_Daisley "Bob Daisley") arrived to watch Moore's band rehearse. Aldridge and Rhoads became friends immediately. Aldridge had known Osbourne for several years, as Black Oak Arkansas had toured with Osbourne's previous band [Black Sabbath](/wiki/Black_Sabbath "Black Sabbath") extensively in the 1970s, and Aldridge's new friendship with Rhoads would lead him to join Osbourne's band a few months later. Although Aldridge is credited in the liner notes and pictured on the inner sleeve of Osbourne's 1981 album *[Diary of a Madman](/wiki/Diary_of_a_Madman_%28album%29 "Diary of a Madman (album)")*, [Lee Kerslake](/wiki/Lee_Kerslake "Lee Kerslake") actually performed all the drum parts on the original release. Aldridge has stated that working with Rhoads in Osbourne's band was one of the "musical highlights" of his life.Tommy Aldridge Interview by Travis Marc of UK Drummer [http://ukdrummer.com/2013/03/tommy\-aldridge\-interview/](http://ukdrummer.com/2013/03/tommy-aldridge-interview/) Rhoads stated of Aldridge in late 1981 that "he was always my favorite drummer", stating that he was "knocked out" by the drummer after seeing him perform with Black Oak Arkansas on television in the 1970s.{{Cite web \|date\=December 30, 1981 \|title\=12/30/1981 Interview at the Cow Palace San Francisco, CA \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=MfjDDDv0pH0 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/MfjDDDv0pH0 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-13 \|url\-status\=live\|publisher\=YouTube \|access\-date\=June 10, 2013}}{{cbignore}} Aldridge appeared on Osbourne's *[Bark at the Moon](/wiki/Bark_at_the_Moon "Bark at the Moon")* album in 1983 as well as a pair of live albums (*[Speak of the Devil](/wiki/Speak_of_the_Devil_%28Ozzy_Osbourne_album%29 "Speak of the Devil (Ozzy Osbourne album)")* and *[Tribute](/wiki/Tribute_%28Ozzy_Osbourne_album%29 "Tribute (Ozzy Osbourne album)")*) before leaving the band in 1984\. [thumb\|left\|270px\|Aldridge (2nd. from left) with Whitesnake in 1990](/wiki/file:Metal_revista_whitesnake.jpg "Metal revista whitesnake.jpg") Soon after, Aldridge, along with bassist and former Ozzy Osbourne\-bandmate [Rudy Sarzo](/wiki/Rudy_Sarzo "Rudy Sarzo"), joined forces with guitar/keyboard player [Tony MacAlpine](/wiki/Tony_MacAlpine "Tony MacAlpine") and vocalist [Rob Rock](/wiki/Rob_Rock "Rob Rock") to form a short\-lived project called [M.A.R.S.](/wiki/Project_Driver "Project Driver") Close friends, Aldridge and Sarzo both joined [Whitesnake](/wiki/Whitesnake "Whitesnake") in 1987 as the band prepared to tour in support of its multi\-platinum selling{{cite web \|url\=https://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?content\_selector\=gold\-platinum\-searchable\-database \|title\=RIAA Searchable Database: search for Whitesnake \|publisher\=\[\[Recording Industry Association of America]] \|access\-date\=16 March 2019 }} *[Whitesnake](/wiki/Whitesnake_%28album%29 "Whitesnake (album)")* album. Aldridge and Sarzo performed on the band's follow\-up album, *[Slip of the Tongue](/wiki/Slip_of_the_Tongue "Slip of the Tongue")*, released in 1989\. Announcing he was going to take a break from the music industry, Whitesnake frontman [David Coverdale](/wiki/David_Coverdale "David Coverdale") put the band on indefinite hiatus after the tour, and Aldridge moved on. Following his stint in Whitesnake, Aldridge played in the band [Manic Eden](/wiki/Manic_Eden "Manic Eden"), with his former Whitesnake bandmates [Adrian Vandenberg](/wiki/Adrian_Vandenberg "Adrian Vandenberg") and Sarzo. The line\-up also included former [Little Caesar](/wiki/Little_Caesar_%28band%29 "Little Caesar (band)") vocalist Ron Young. During the 1990s Aldridge recorded and toured with various acts including [Motörhead](/wiki/Mot%C3%B6rhead "Motörhead"), [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords_%28band%29 "House of Lords (band)"), [Yngwie Malmsteen](/wiki/Yngwie_Malmsteen "Yngwie Malmsteen"), [John Sykes](/wiki/John_Sykes "John Sykes"), and [Ted Nugent](/wiki/Ted_Nugent "Ted Nugent"). Aldridge has been an in\-demand drum clinician since the early 1980s, and much of his work involves drum clinics and festivals each year. From 2002 Aldridge toured with [Whitesnake](/wiki/Whitesnake "Whitesnake") alongside [David Coverdale](/wiki/David_Coverdale "David Coverdale") (vocals), [Doug Aldrich](/wiki/Doug_Aldrich "Doug Aldrich") (guitar), [Reb Beach](/wiki/Reb_Beach "Reb Beach") (guitar), [Marco Mendoza](/wiki/Marco_Mendoza "Marco Mendoza")/[Uriah Duffy](/wiki/Uriah_Duffy "Uriah Duffy") (bass) and [Timothy Drury](/wiki/Timothy_Drury "Timothy Drury") (keyboards). Aldridge left Whitesnake in 2007 to pursue alternate musical endeavours.[Chris Frazier interview](http://whitesnake.com/new/cfinterview/cfindex.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815074912/http://whitesnake.com/new/cfinterview/cfindex.html \|date\=August 15, 2009 }} – New drummer Chris Frazier interviewed on Whitesnake.com From 1997 to 2001 and again from 2007 to 2009, Aldridge was touring with the (former Whitesnake and [Tygers of Pan Tang](/wiki/Tygers_of_Pan_Tang "Tygers of Pan Tang") guitarist) [John Sykes](/wiki/John_Sykes "John Sykes")\-fronted version of [Thin Lizzy](/wiki/Thin_Lizzy "Thin Lizzy") alongside [Scott Gorham](/wiki/Scott_Gorham "Scott Gorham"), [Darren Wharton](/wiki/Darren_Wharton "Darren Wharton") and [Marco Mendoza](/wiki/Marco_Mendoza "Marco Mendoza"). Thin Lizzy, along with [The Answer](/wiki/The_Answer_%28band%29 "The Answer (band)"), were scheduled to support [AC/DC](/wiki/AC/DC "AC/DC") at stadium shows in England, Ireland and Scotland at the end of June 2009 but these appearances were canceled after Aldridge broke his collarbone in an accident. On June 30, it was announced that Sykes had left Thin Lizzy and all shows for the rest of 2009 were canceled or postponed. Gorham stated that he would announce the band's future plans shortly.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thinlizzyonline.com \|title\=Thin Lizzy official website \|publisher\=Thinlizzyonline.com \|access\-date\=2011\-10\-01}} In May 2010, Thin Lizzy did not include Aldridge in the new line\-up due to him still recovering from his injury. Original Thin Lizzy drummer [Brian Downey](/wiki/Brian_Downey_%28drummer%29 "Brian Downey (drummer)") returned to the band. On January 25, 2013, it was announced that Aldridge had rejoined [Whitesnake](/wiki/Whitesnake "Whitesnake") for the third time for the band's upcoming "Year of the Snake" tour. He has since recorded the albums *[Flesh \& Blood](/wiki/Flesh_%26_Blood_%28Whitesnake_album%29 "Flesh & Blood (Whitesnake album)")* and *[The Purple Album](/wiki/The_Purple_Album_%28Whitesnake_album%29 "The Purple Album (Whitesnake album)")* with the group and remains their drummer as of August 2023\.
[ "Career\n------", "Raised in Jackson, Mississippi, Aldridge taught himself to play drums in the 1960s, building a kit piece by piece with money earned delivering newspapers and other [odd jobs](/wiki/Temporary_work \"Temporary work\"). He credits his unique style to learning without the benefit of a mentor or teacher. While his mother was supportive of his desire to play music, his father, apparently, was not. In the early 1970s, Aldridge began playing original music with Alley Keith in the [Florida Panhandle](/wiki/Florida_Panhandle \"Florida Panhandle\"). Inspired by drummers such as [Louis Bellson](/wiki/Louis_Bellson \"Louis Bellson\") and [Sam Woodyard](/wiki/Sam_Woodyard \"Sam Woodyard\"), he started using a double\\-bass drum setup and became an early pioneer of the hard rock [double kick drum](/wiki/Double_bass_drumming%23Double_bass_drum \"Double bass drumming#Double bass drum\") style of drumming.{{Cite news \\|title\\=One from the Archives – Interview with Tommy Aldridge \\|url\\=http://mikedolbear.com/story.asp?StoryID\\=1577 \\|publisher\\=mikedolbear.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 16, 2013}}", "After playing for a short time with the [southern rock](/wiki/Southern_rock \"Southern rock\") band [David and the Giants](/wiki/David_and_the_Giants \"David and the Giants\") in 1972, Aldridge auditioned for [Black Oak Arkansas](/wiki/Black_Oak_Arkansas \"Black Oak Arkansas\") and was surprised to get the job. He made his recording debut in 1972 with Black Oak Arkansas' *[If an Angel Came to See You, Would You Make Her Feel at Home?](/wiki/If_an_Angel_Came_to_See_You%2C_Would_You_Make_Her_Feel_at_Home%3F \"If an Angel Came to See You, Would You Make Her Feel at Home?\")* album. He subsequently recorded several albums with the band between 1972 and 1976 and toured extensively. Aldridge has said that he wasn't particularly fond of Black Oak Arkansas' music and his intention when joining the band was to use the opportunity as a springboard to make a name for himself in the industry, something he says he's not particularly proud of in hindsight. Not happy with the band's heavy use of [hashish](/wiki/Hashish \"Hashish\"), Aldridge attempted to leave Black Oak Arkansas. As the band's management wasn't keen on giving him his contractual freedom, Aldridge was forced to sneak away in the middle of the night and subsequently \"hide out in Chicago\". During that period he played with a local band called \"d'Thumbs\". One and a half years of lawsuits ensued, after which he was contractually free to record again. Aldridge spent 1978 to 1981 with the [Pat Travers](/wiki/Pat_Travers \"Pat Travers\") Band, recording five albums over that time.", "Upon parting ways with Travers in 1981, Aldridge moved to [London, England](/wiki/London%2C_England \"London, England\") and began working with [Gary Moore](/wiki/Gary_Moore \"Gary Moore\"), recording the *[Dirty Fingers](/wiki/Dirty_Fingers \"Dirty Fingers\")* album. American guitarist [Randy Rhoads](/wiki/Randy_Rhoads \"Randy Rhoads\"), who had recently arrived in England to record with [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne \"Ozzy Osbourne\"), was a big fan of Moore's guitar playing, and one day he and [Bob Daisley](/wiki/Bob_Daisley \"Bob Daisley\") arrived to watch Moore's band rehearse. Aldridge and Rhoads became friends immediately. Aldridge had known Osbourne for several years, as Black Oak Arkansas had toured with Osbourne's previous band [Black Sabbath](/wiki/Black_Sabbath \"Black Sabbath\") extensively in the 1970s, and Aldridge's new friendship with Rhoads would lead him to join Osbourne's band a few months later. Although Aldridge is credited in the liner notes and pictured on the inner sleeve of Osbourne's 1981 album *[Diary of a Madman](/wiki/Diary_of_a_Madman_%28album%29 \"Diary of a Madman (album)\")*, [Lee Kerslake](/wiki/Lee_Kerslake \"Lee Kerslake\") actually performed all the drum parts on the original release. Aldridge has stated that working with Rhoads in Osbourne's band was one of the \"musical highlights\" of his life.Tommy Aldridge Interview by Travis Marc of UK Drummer [http://ukdrummer.com/2013/03/tommy\\-aldridge\\-interview/](http://ukdrummer.com/2013/03/tommy-aldridge-interview/) Rhoads stated of Aldridge in late 1981 that \"he was always my favorite drummer\", stating that he was \"knocked out\" by the drummer after seeing him perform with Black Oak Arkansas on television in the 1970s.{{Cite web \\|date\\=December 30, 1981 \\|title\\=12/30/1981 Interview at the Cow Palace San Francisco, CA \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=MfjDDDv0pH0 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/MfjDDDv0pH0 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-13 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|publisher\\=YouTube \\|access\\-date\\=June 10, 2013}}{{cbignore}} Aldridge appeared on Osbourne's *[Bark at the Moon](/wiki/Bark_at_the_Moon \"Bark at the Moon\")* album in 1983 as well as a pair of live albums (*[Speak of the Devil](/wiki/Speak_of_the_Devil_%28Ozzy_Osbourne_album%29 \"Speak of the Devil (Ozzy Osbourne album)\")* and *[Tribute](/wiki/Tribute_%28Ozzy_Osbourne_album%29 \"Tribute (Ozzy Osbourne album)\")*) before leaving the band in 1984\\.", "[thumb\\|left\\|270px\\|Aldridge (2nd. from left) with Whitesnake in 1990](/wiki/file:Metal_revista_whitesnake.jpg \"Metal revista whitesnake.jpg\")\nSoon after, Aldridge, along with bassist and former Ozzy Osbourne\\-bandmate [Rudy Sarzo](/wiki/Rudy_Sarzo \"Rudy Sarzo\"), joined forces with guitar/keyboard player [Tony MacAlpine](/wiki/Tony_MacAlpine \"Tony MacAlpine\") and vocalist [Rob Rock](/wiki/Rob_Rock \"Rob Rock\") to form a short\\-lived project called [M.A.R.S.](/wiki/Project_Driver \"Project Driver\") Close friends, Aldridge and Sarzo both joined [Whitesnake](/wiki/Whitesnake \"Whitesnake\") in 1987 as the band prepared to tour in support of its multi\\-platinum selling{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?content\\_selector\\=gold\\-platinum\\-searchable\\-database \\|title\\=RIAA Searchable Database: search for Whitesnake \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Recording Industry Association of America]] \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2019 }} *[Whitesnake](/wiki/Whitesnake_%28album%29 \"Whitesnake (album)\")* album. Aldridge and Sarzo performed on the band's follow\\-up album, *[Slip of the Tongue](/wiki/Slip_of_the_Tongue \"Slip of the Tongue\")*, released in 1989\\. Announcing he was going to take a break from the music industry, Whitesnake frontman [David Coverdale](/wiki/David_Coverdale \"David Coverdale\") put the band on indefinite hiatus after the tour, and Aldridge moved on.", "Following his stint in Whitesnake, Aldridge played in the band [Manic Eden](/wiki/Manic_Eden \"Manic Eden\"), with his former Whitesnake bandmates [Adrian Vandenberg](/wiki/Adrian_Vandenberg \"Adrian Vandenberg\") and Sarzo. The line\\-up also included former [Little Caesar](/wiki/Little_Caesar_%28band%29 \"Little Caesar (band)\") vocalist Ron Young.", "During the 1990s Aldridge recorded and toured with various acts including [Motörhead](/wiki/Mot%C3%B6rhead \"Motörhead\"), [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords_%28band%29 \"House of Lords (band)\"), [Yngwie Malmsteen](/wiki/Yngwie_Malmsteen \"Yngwie Malmsteen\"), [John Sykes](/wiki/John_Sykes \"John Sykes\"), and [Ted Nugent](/wiki/Ted_Nugent \"Ted Nugent\").", "Aldridge has been an in\\-demand drum clinician since the early 1980s, and much of his work involves drum clinics and festivals each year.", "From 2002 Aldridge toured with [Whitesnake](/wiki/Whitesnake \"Whitesnake\") alongside [David Coverdale](/wiki/David_Coverdale \"David Coverdale\") (vocals), [Doug Aldrich](/wiki/Doug_Aldrich \"Doug Aldrich\") (guitar), [Reb Beach](/wiki/Reb_Beach \"Reb Beach\") (guitar), [Marco Mendoza](/wiki/Marco_Mendoza \"Marco Mendoza\")/[Uriah Duffy](/wiki/Uriah_Duffy \"Uriah Duffy\") (bass) and [Timothy Drury](/wiki/Timothy_Drury \"Timothy Drury\") (keyboards). Aldridge left Whitesnake in 2007 to pursue alternate musical endeavours.[Chris Frazier interview](http://whitesnake.com/new/cfinterview/cfindex.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815074912/http://whitesnake.com/new/cfinterview/cfindex.html \\|date\\=August 15, 2009 }} – New drummer Chris Frazier interviewed on Whitesnake.com", "From 1997 to 2001 and again from 2007 to 2009, Aldridge was touring with the (former Whitesnake and [Tygers of Pan Tang](/wiki/Tygers_of_Pan_Tang \"Tygers of Pan Tang\") guitarist) [John Sykes](/wiki/John_Sykes \"John Sykes\")\\-fronted version of [Thin Lizzy](/wiki/Thin_Lizzy \"Thin Lizzy\") alongside [Scott Gorham](/wiki/Scott_Gorham \"Scott Gorham\"), [Darren Wharton](/wiki/Darren_Wharton \"Darren Wharton\") and [Marco Mendoza](/wiki/Marco_Mendoza \"Marco Mendoza\").", "Thin Lizzy, along with [The Answer](/wiki/The_Answer_%28band%29 \"The Answer (band)\"), were scheduled to support [AC/DC](/wiki/AC/DC \"AC/DC\") at stadium shows in England, Ireland and Scotland at the end of June 2009 but these appearances were canceled after Aldridge broke his collarbone in an accident. On June 30, it was announced that Sykes had left Thin Lizzy and all shows for the rest of 2009 were canceled or postponed. Gorham stated that he would announce the band's future plans shortly.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thinlizzyonline.com \\|title\\=Thin Lizzy official website \\|publisher\\=Thinlizzyonline.com \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-01}} In May 2010, Thin Lizzy did not include Aldridge in the new line\\-up due to him still recovering from his injury. Original Thin Lizzy drummer [Brian Downey](/wiki/Brian_Downey_%28drummer%29 \"Brian Downey (drummer)\") returned to the band.", "On January 25, 2013, it was announced that Aldridge had rejoined [Whitesnake](/wiki/Whitesnake \"Whitesnake\") for the third time for the band's upcoming \"Year of the Snake\" tour. He has since recorded the albums *[Flesh \\& Blood](/wiki/Flesh_%26_Blood_%28Whitesnake_album%29 \"Flesh & Blood (Whitesnake album)\")* and *[The Purple Album](/wiki/The_Purple_Album_%28Whitesnake_album%29 \"The Purple Album (Whitesnake album)\")* with the group and remains their drummer as of August 2023\\.", "" ]
Education --------- ### Primary and secondary schools #### Public schools The [Katy Independent School District](/wiki/Katy_Independent_School_District "Katy Independent School District") operates public schools. Schools listed are in Greater Katy only. Public high schools: * [Cinco Ranch High School](/wiki/Cinco_Ranch_High_School "Cinco Ranch High School") * [Katy High School](/wiki/Katy_High_School "Katy High School") * [Mayde Creek High School](/wiki/Mayde_Creek_High_School "Mayde Creek High School") * [Morton Ranch High School](/wiki/Morton_Ranch_High_School "Morton Ranch High School") * [Seven Lakes High School](/wiki/Seven_Lakes_High_School "Seven Lakes High School") * [James E. Taylor High School](/wiki/James_E._Taylor_High_School "James E. Taylor High School") * [Obra D. Tompkins High School](/wiki/Obra_D._Tompkins_High_School "Obra D. Tompkins High School") * [Patricia E. Paetow High School](/wiki/Patricia_E._Paetow_High_School "Patricia E. Paetow High School") [Aristoi Classical Academy](/wiki/Aristoi_Classical_Academy "Aristoi Classical Academy") (formerly West Houston Charter School), a state [charter school](/wiki/Charter_school "Charter school"), is in Katy. #### Private schools * [Faith West Academy](/wiki/Faith_West_Academy "Faith West Academy") \- Harris County"[Directions](http://www.faithwest.org/about-us/directions) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314051057/http://www.faithwest.org/about\-us/directions \|date\=2011\-03\-14 }}." [Faith West Academy](/wiki/Faith_West_Academy "Faith West Academy"). Retrieved November 6, 2010\."[Contact Us](http://www.faithwest.org/contact-us) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313083149/http://www.faithwest.org/contact\-us \|date\=2011\-03\-13 }}." [Faith West Academy](/wiki/Faith_West_Academy "Faith West Academy"). Retrieved November 6, 2010\. "Faith West 2225 Porter Road Katy, TX 77493\." * [Saint John XXIII High School](/wiki/Saint_John_XXIII_High_School_%28Harris_County%2C_Texas%29 "Saint John XXIII High School (Harris County, Texas)") \- Harris County"[Contact Us](http://www.pj23.org/index.cfm?load=page&page=150)." [Saint John XXIII High School](/wiki/Saint_John_XXIII_High_School_%28Harris_County%2C_Texas%29 "Saint John XXIII High School (Harris County, Texas)"). Retrieved November 6, 2010\. "1800 West Grand Parkway N Katy, Texas 77449\." \- Opened in 2004{{cite web\|author\=Herrera, Sebastian\|url\=https://www.chron.com/neighborhood/katy/news/article/Parish\-planning\-to\-build\-Katy\-s\-first\-Catholic\-7439324\.php\|title\=Parish planning to build Katy's first Catholic elementary and middle school\|publisher\=\[\[The Katy Rancher]] at the \[\[Houston Chronicle]]\|date\=2016\-05\-10\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-11}} * [British International School of Houston](/wiki/British_International_School_of_Houston "British International School of Houston") (BISH) \- Harris County + The current Greater Katy campus in September 2016\. The school selected the Katy area partly because many BISH students reside in Greater Katy.Kirk, Bryan. "[Katy\-area campus set to open in fall '16](http://www.houstonchronicle.com/neighborhood/katy/news/article/Katy-area-campus-set-to-open-in-fall-16-6316361.php#photo-8122390)." *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle "Houston Chronicle")*. June 9, 2015\. Retrieved on September 11, 2015\. * Epiphany of the Lord Catholic School \- Harris County"[Contact Us](https://epiphanycatholic.school/contact-us)." Epiphany of the Lord Catholic School. Retrieved on July 11, 2018\. "Epiphany of the Lord Catholic School 1530 Norwalk Drive Katy, Texas 77450" \- [K\-8 school](/wiki/K-8_school "K-8 school") + Sponsored by Epiphany of the Lord Church, this is the first Catholic grade school in Greater Katy. The {{convert\|74000\|sqft\|sqm\|adj\=on}} campus, a part of the church property, included {{convert\|26000\|sqft\|sqm}} of existing church property and {{convert\|48000\|sqft\|sqm}} of new footage. Its two\-story school building, with each grade level having three classrooms, had a cost of $12 million. The campus has a playground, a library, a cafeteria, and a music room. The proposed yearly tuition was $8,000\. The school administration used a $5 million capital campaign to raise funds for the construction. Construction began in June 2017\.{{cite web\|author\=Herrera, Sebastian\|url\=https://www.chron.com/neighborhood/katy/news/article/Construction\-to\-begin\-at\-first\-primary\-grades\-11216729\.php\|title\=Construction to begin at first primary\-grades Catholic school in Katy\|publisher\=\[\[The Katy Rancher]] at the \[\[Houston Chronicle]]\|date\=2017\-06\-13\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-11}} The school began accepting applications in March 2018 and planned to open in fall 2018\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.chron.com/neighborhood/katy/schools/article/Epiphany\-of\-the\-Lord\-Catholic\-School\-accepting\-12784626\.php\|title\=Epiphany of the Lord Catholic School accepting applications\|publisher\=\[\[The Katy Rancher]] at the \[\[Houston Chronicle]]\|date\=2018\-03\-27\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-11}} Prior to the opening of Epiphany of the Lord, the closest area Catholic grade school was [John Paul II Catholic School](/wiki/John_Paul_II_Catholic_School_%28Houston%29 "John Paul II Catholic School (Houston)") in the [Energy Corridor](/wiki/Energy_Corridor "Energy Corridor") area in [Houston](/wiki/Houston "Houston"). {{Asof\|2019}} [The Village School](/wiki/The_Village_School_%28Houston%29 "The Village School (Houston)") in the Energy Corridor area has two bus services to Greater Katy, with one to [Cinco Ranch](/wiki/Cinco_Ranch%2C_Texas "Cinco Ranch, Texas").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nordangliaeducation.com/our\-schools/houston/village\-school/our\-school/our\-students/student\-life/bus\-services\|title\=Bus Services\|publisher\=\[\[The Village School (Houston)\|The Village School]]\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-30}} \- [Village Bus Routes 2018\-2019](https://img.nordangliaeducation.com/resources/us/_filecache/c1e/4ca/29363-village-bus-routes-2018-2019.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328064157/https://img.nordangliaeducation.com/resources/us/\_filecache/c1e/4ca/29363\-village\-bus\-routes\-2018\-2019\.pdf \|date\=2019\-03\-28 }} and [Katy Bus Route](https://img.nordangliaeducation.com/resources/us/_filecache/261/31f/29359-katy.pdf) and [Cinco Ranch Bus Route](https://img.nordangliaeducation.com/resources/us/_filecache/978/37f/29357-cinco-ranch.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328064111/https://img.nordangliaeducation.com/resources/us/\_filecache/978/37f/29357\-cinco\-ranch.pdf \|date\=2019\-03\-28 }} In addition the [Awty International School](/wiki/Awty_International_School "Awty International School") in [Spring Branch](/wiki/Spring_Branch%2C_Houston "Spring Branch, Houston"), which has the Houston area's French international school, maintains a bus service to Greater Katy.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.awty.org/uploaded/news\_and\_events/parent\_eguide/parentguide1718/Bus\_Schedule\_2017\-2018\.pdf\|title\=Bus Schedule 2017\-2018\|publisher\=\[\[Awty International School]]\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-05}} ### Higher education Katy ISD is in the service area of the [Houston Community College System](/wiki/Houston_Community_College_System "Houston Community College System").[Sec. 130\.182\. HOUSTON COMMUNITY COLLEGE SYSTEM DISTRICT SERVICE AREA.](https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/ED/htm/ED.130.htm). HCC Northwest College operates the Katy Campus."[Northwest College](http://northwest.hccs.edu/portal/site/northwest/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225220707/http://northwest.hccs.edu/portal/site/northwest/ \|date\=2011\-12\-25 }}." *Houston Community College District*. Accessed September 5, 2008\. Additionally, areas in Waller County are in the service area for [Blinn College](/wiki/Blinn_College "Blinn College").[Texas Education Code, Sec. 130\.168\. BLINN JUNIOR COLLEGE DISTRICT SERVICE AREA.](https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/ED/htm/ED.130.htm). ### Public libraries [Harris County Public Library](/wiki/Harris_County_Public_Library "Harris County Public Library") operates the Katy Library in the City of Katy. Greater Katy is served by the [Fort Bend County Libraries](/wiki/Fort_Bend_County_Libraries "Fort Bend County Libraries") Cinco Ranch Branch Library is in [Cinco Ranch](/wiki/Cinco_Ranch%2C_Texas "Cinco Ranch, Texas"), south of Katy."[Cinco Ranch Branch Library Katy, Texas](http://www.fortbend.lib.tx.us/branches/cr.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103012721/http://www.fortbend.lib.tx.us/branches/cr.html \|date\=2012\-01\-03 }}." [Fort Bend County Libraries](/wiki/Fort_Bend_County_Libraries "Fort Bend County Libraries"). Retrieved November 6, 2010\. "2620 Commercial Center Blvd. Katy, Texas 77494\-6407" The HCPL Maud Smith Marks Branch Library is in unincorporated [Harris County](/wiki/Harris_County%2C_Texas "Harris County, Texas"), east of Katy."[Maud Smith Marks Branch Library](http://www.hcpl.lib.tx.us/location/maud-smith-marks-branch-library) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127073227/http://www.hcpl.lib.tx.us/location/maud\-smith\-marks\-branch\-library \|date\=2012\-01\-27 }}." [Harris County Public Library](/wiki/Harris_County_Public_Library "Harris County Public Library"). Retrieved November 6, 2010\.
[ "Education\n---------", "### Primary and secondary schools", "#### Public schools", "The [Katy Independent School District](/wiki/Katy_Independent_School_District \"Katy Independent School District\") operates public schools. Schools listed are in Greater Katy only.", "Public high schools:\n* [Cinco Ranch High School](/wiki/Cinco_Ranch_High_School \"Cinco Ranch High School\")\n* [Katy High School](/wiki/Katy_High_School \"Katy High School\")\n* [Mayde Creek High School](/wiki/Mayde_Creek_High_School \"Mayde Creek High School\")\n* [Morton Ranch High School](/wiki/Morton_Ranch_High_School \"Morton Ranch High School\")\n* [Seven Lakes High School](/wiki/Seven_Lakes_High_School \"Seven Lakes High School\")\n* [James E. Taylor High School](/wiki/James_E._Taylor_High_School \"James E. Taylor High School\")\n* [Obra D. Tompkins High School](/wiki/Obra_D._Tompkins_High_School \"Obra D. Tompkins High School\")\n* [Patricia E. Paetow High School](/wiki/Patricia_E._Paetow_High_School \"Patricia E. Paetow High School\")", "[Aristoi Classical Academy](/wiki/Aristoi_Classical_Academy \"Aristoi Classical Academy\") (formerly West Houston Charter School), a state [charter school](/wiki/Charter_school \"Charter school\"), is in Katy.", "#### Private schools", "* [Faith West Academy](/wiki/Faith_West_Academy \"Faith West Academy\") \\- Harris County\"[Directions](http://www.faithwest.org/about-us/directions) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314051057/http://www.faithwest.org/about\\-us/directions \\|date\\=2011\\-03\\-14 }}.\" [Faith West Academy](/wiki/Faith_West_Academy \"Faith West Academy\"). Retrieved November 6, 2010\\.\"[Contact Us](http://www.faithwest.org/contact-us) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313083149/http://www.faithwest.org/contact\\-us \\|date\\=2011\\-03\\-13 }}.\" [Faith West Academy](/wiki/Faith_West_Academy \"Faith West Academy\"). Retrieved November 6, 2010\\. \"Faith West 2225 Porter Road Katy, TX 77493\\.\"\n* [Saint John XXIII High School](/wiki/Saint_John_XXIII_High_School_%28Harris_County%2C_Texas%29 \"Saint John XXIII High School (Harris County, Texas)\") \\- Harris County\"[Contact Us](http://www.pj23.org/index.cfm?load=page&page=150).\" [Saint John XXIII High School](/wiki/Saint_John_XXIII_High_School_%28Harris_County%2C_Texas%29 \"Saint John XXIII High School (Harris County, Texas)\"). Retrieved November 6, 2010\\. \"1800 West Grand Parkway N Katy, Texas 77449\\.\" \\- Opened in 2004{{cite web\\|author\\=Herrera, Sebastian\\|url\\=https://www.chron.com/neighborhood/katy/news/article/Parish\\-planning\\-to\\-build\\-Katy\\-s\\-first\\-Catholic\\-7439324\\.php\\|title\\=Parish planning to build Katy's first Catholic elementary and middle school\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Katy Rancher]] at the \\[\\[Houston Chronicle]]\\|date\\=2016\\-05\\-10\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-11}}\n* [British International School of Houston](/wiki/British_International_School_of_Houston \"British International School of Houston\") (BISH) \\- Harris County\n\t+ The current Greater Katy campus in September 2016\\. The school selected the Katy area partly because many BISH students reside in Greater Katy.Kirk, Bryan. \"[Katy\\-area campus set to open in fall '16](http://www.houstonchronicle.com/neighborhood/katy/news/article/Katy-area-campus-set-to-open-in-fall-16-6316361.php#photo-8122390).\" *[Houston Chronicle](/wiki/Houston_Chronicle \"Houston Chronicle\")*. June 9, 2015\\. Retrieved on September 11, 2015\\.\n* Epiphany of the Lord Catholic School \\- Harris County\"[Contact Us](https://epiphanycatholic.school/contact-us).\" Epiphany of the Lord Catholic School. Retrieved on July 11, 2018\\. \"Epiphany of the Lord Catholic School 1530 Norwalk Drive Katy, Texas 77450\" \\- [K\\-8 school](/wiki/K-8_school \"K-8 school\")\n\t+ Sponsored by Epiphany of the Lord Church, this is the first Catholic grade school in Greater Katy. The {{convert\\|74000\\|sqft\\|sqm\\|adj\\=on}} campus, a part of the church property, included {{convert\\|26000\\|sqft\\|sqm}} of existing church property and {{convert\\|48000\\|sqft\\|sqm}} of new footage. Its two\\-story school building, with each grade level having three classrooms, had a cost of $12 million. The campus has a playground, a library, a cafeteria, and a music room. The proposed yearly tuition was $8,000\\. The school administration used a $5 million capital campaign to raise funds for the construction. Construction began in June 2017\\.{{cite web\\|author\\=Herrera, Sebastian\\|url\\=https://www.chron.com/neighborhood/katy/news/article/Construction\\-to\\-begin\\-at\\-first\\-primary\\-grades\\-11216729\\.php\\|title\\=Construction to begin at first primary\\-grades Catholic school in Katy\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Katy Rancher]] at the \\[\\[Houston Chronicle]]\\|date\\=2017\\-06\\-13\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-11}} The school began accepting applications in March 2018 and planned to open in fall 2018\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.chron.com/neighborhood/katy/schools/article/Epiphany\\-of\\-the\\-Lord\\-Catholic\\-School\\-accepting\\-12784626\\.php\\|title\\=Epiphany of the Lord Catholic School accepting applications\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Katy Rancher]] at the \\[\\[Houston Chronicle]]\\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-27\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-11}}", "Prior to the opening of Epiphany of the Lord, the closest area Catholic grade school was [John Paul II Catholic School](/wiki/John_Paul_II_Catholic_School_%28Houston%29 \"John Paul II Catholic School (Houston)\") in the [Energy Corridor](/wiki/Energy_Corridor \"Energy Corridor\") area in [Houston](/wiki/Houston \"Houston\").", "{{Asof\\|2019}} [The Village School](/wiki/The_Village_School_%28Houston%29 \"The Village School (Houston)\") in the Energy Corridor area has two bus services to Greater Katy, with one to [Cinco Ranch](/wiki/Cinco_Ranch%2C_Texas \"Cinco Ranch, Texas\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nordangliaeducation.com/our\\-schools/houston/village\\-school/our\\-school/our\\-students/student\\-life/bus\\-services\\|title\\=Bus Services\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Village School (Houston)\\|The Village School]]\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-30}} \\- [Village Bus Routes 2018\\-2019](https://img.nordangliaeducation.com/resources/us/_filecache/c1e/4ca/29363-village-bus-routes-2018-2019.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328064157/https://img.nordangliaeducation.com/resources/us/\\_filecache/c1e/4ca/29363\\-village\\-bus\\-routes\\-2018\\-2019\\.pdf \\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-28 }} and [Katy Bus Route](https://img.nordangliaeducation.com/resources/us/_filecache/261/31f/29359-katy.pdf) and [Cinco Ranch Bus Route](https://img.nordangliaeducation.com/resources/us/_filecache/978/37f/29357-cinco-ranch.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328064111/https://img.nordangliaeducation.com/resources/us/\\_filecache/978/37f/29357\\-cinco\\-ranch.pdf \\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-28 }} In addition the [Awty International School](/wiki/Awty_International_School \"Awty International School\") in [Spring Branch](/wiki/Spring_Branch%2C_Houston \"Spring Branch, Houston\"), which has the Houston area's French international school, maintains a bus service to Greater Katy.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.awty.org/uploaded/news\\_and\\_events/parent\\_eguide/parentguide1718/Bus\\_Schedule\\_2017\\-2018\\.pdf\\|title\\=Bus Schedule 2017\\-2018\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Awty International School]]\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-05}}", "### Higher education", "Katy ISD is in the service area of the [Houston Community College System](/wiki/Houston_Community_College_System \"Houston Community College System\").[Sec. 130\\.182\\. HOUSTON COMMUNITY COLLEGE SYSTEM DISTRICT SERVICE AREA.](https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/ED/htm/ED.130.htm). HCC Northwest College operates the Katy Campus.\"[Northwest College](http://northwest.hccs.edu/portal/site/northwest/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225220707/http://northwest.hccs.edu/portal/site/northwest/ \\|date\\=2011\\-12\\-25 }}.\" *Houston Community College District*. Accessed September 5, 2008\\.", "Additionally, areas in Waller County are in the service area for [Blinn College](/wiki/Blinn_College \"Blinn College\").[Texas Education Code, Sec. 130\\.168\\. BLINN JUNIOR COLLEGE DISTRICT SERVICE AREA.](https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/ED/htm/ED.130.htm).", "### Public libraries", "[Harris County Public Library](/wiki/Harris_County_Public_Library \"Harris County Public Library\") operates the Katy Library in the City of Katy.", "Greater Katy is served by the [Fort Bend County Libraries](/wiki/Fort_Bend_County_Libraries \"Fort Bend County Libraries\") Cinco Ranch Branch Library is in [Cinco Ranch](/wiki/Cinco_Ranch%2C_Texas \"Cinco Ranch, Texas\"), south of Katy.\"[Cinco Ranch Branch Library Katy, Texas](http://www.fortbend.lib.tx.us/branches/cr.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103012721/http://www.fortbend.lib.tx.us/branches/cr.html \\|date\\=2012\\-01\\-03 }}.\" [Fort Bend County Libraries](/wiki/Fort_Bend_County_Libraries \"Fort Bend County Libraries\"). Retrieved November 6, 2010\\. \"2620 Commercial Center Blvd. Katy, Texas 77494\\-6407\" The HCPL Maud Smith Marks Branch Library is in unincorporated [Harris County](/wiki/Harris_County%2C_Texas \"Harris County, Texas\"), east of Katy.\"[Maud Smith Marks Branch Library](http://www.hcpl.lib.tx.us/location/maud-smith-marks-branch-library) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127073227/http://www.hcpl.lib.tx.us/location/maud\\-smith\\-marks\\-branch\\-library \\|date\\=2012\\-01\\-27 }}.\" [Harris County Public Library](/wiki/Harris_County_Public_Library \"Harris County Public Library\"). Retrieved November 6, 2010\\.", "" ]
Career ------ ### Painter Following her graduation, she established herself in a studio on West [23rd Street](/wiki/23rd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 "23rd Street (Manhattan)"). Although primarily involved in the painting of portraits, she was also interested in everything affecting women. Not long after she arrived in New York, she became aware that living conditions for women could be vastly improved. There was no place for them but hotels and boarding houses. Apartment buildings did not exist. For a time, she lived in an apartment at Marlborough Arms, but, irked by the hotel life and utter absence of the home atmosphere, she began to open the subject of living quarters for women with other artists and salaried women. All were of one mind in that they felt the need of something better than existed, but nothing definite came of such discussions until the "bachelor girl" idea was conceived. ### "Bachelor girls" In the late 1890s, Lewis while Lewis was working from her home in West 23rd Street, the old residences along the street were being turned into business houses. The old Van Renssalaer home was the first of the [brownstone](/wiki/Brownstone "Brownstone") residences to be made over into studios and living apartments. The [Twelfth Night Club](/wiki/Twelfth_Night_Club "Twelfth Night Club")'s first home was in the building, and Lewis, with three other artist friends, of whom one was her sister, Minnie A. Lewis, joined together to live in one of the apartments. These pioneers brought public attention to the great need of apartment homes for cultured women, and their establishment may be said to have opened the way to the later growth of the apartment house movement in New York and other cities. "Bachelor girls" became the popular phrase of the era, and the four women on West 23rd Street received a great deal of attention from the newspapers. Lewis' apartment was beautiful, with a kitchen and a dining room. The furniture was mostly [Chippendale](/wiki/Thomas_Chippendale "Thomas Chippendale") with a few modern pieces. An ancient brass warming pan and fire irons were in evidence, along with a samovar and a tea set. In this studio was established the Pen and Brush Club, which became the most notable organization of women writers, painters, sculptors and crafters in the U.S. Lewis was first to suggest the idea, and she was honored as the Founder. While busy painting portraits, Lewis did not lose the greater idea which had come to her earlier in her New York life — the establishing of some central home for women, one large building, cut up into living apartments. Through the influence of [Elizabeth Bacon Custer](/wiki/Elizabeth_Bacon_Custer "Elizabeth Bacon Custer"), Lewis made the acquaintance of [Candace Wheeler](/wiki/Candace_Wheeler "Candace Wheeler"), in whom she found a kindred spirit. Their mutual interest resulted in a definite plan of action, to build an apartment house with money raised by subscription from women. Lewis became so absorbed in this work, that eventually, she gave up everything else to push it. After great efforts, the movement obtained funds and an option on a plot of ground. Plans were made, based on a definite cost, when the architect suddenly died. It was then found advisable to cancel this option, but later an option was obtained on another property, all the arrangements were made and the contracts almost let, when Lewis suffered a breakdown from overwork and was obliged to stop everything and go abroad for her health. When she returned, she found that several of the women who had subscribed had organized under the name of the Women's Hotel Club and had engineered matters in a direction quite unlike Lewis' original idea, and she abandoned the whole project. Their efforts resulted in the building of the [Martha Washington Hotel](/wiki/The_Redbury_New_York "The Redbury New York"), but Lewis was not interested in a hotel — it was the apartment house for which she was striving. ### Bookbinder Her work as a portrait painter had brought her into contact with many prominent New York women, among them Catherine Clinton Howland Hunt (Mrs. Richard Morris Hunt). When visiting the Hunt home one day, Lewis was invited to inspect the beautiful art work on some of the book bindings in the library. After her husband's death, Mrs. Hunt desired to get the vast collection of architectural books classified and catalogued for the use of her sons, but was so dismayed by the size of the task, she looked about for someone competent to assist her. This must be one who loved books, appreciated their value, and who could be trusted to handle them with care. She turned to Lewis, who knew nothing of library work, but that was no handicap because Mrs. Hunt had very pronounced ideas of her own, and desired nothing so much as someone to carry them out. Lewis joined in the task of classifying, cataloguing, and otherwise systematizing the Hunt Architectural and Art library. As she progressed with the work, Lewis was distressed to find many of the expensive bindings disintegrating and falling to pieces. Love for and sympathy with the inarticulate, as well as a desire to rescue objects of such priceless value, gave her the impetus toward inventing or discovering something that would prevent this decay and waste. She began to study the various forms of bindings, the style of printing and the different textures and materials which bookbinders have used throughout the centuries. Living as she did in this atmosphere of books, she came to know the various diseases which attack old volumes, and tried to find some compound which would arrest the destroying effects of age and worms. Rare books as they grow older, suffer from the infirmities of age. Old books require a special regimen. Those bought abroad and transported to the U.S. were peculiarly sensitive to the atmospheric change. Lewis discovered that books need air and light in order to remain healthy. She found that when books are confined in cases behind glass doors which shut out the air they rapidly disintegrate. She observed that packing books into a case without regard for the proper spacing was equivalent to stifling them. But she searched in vain for an antidote which should make old books as new. Fortunately, she became aware of the work of Professor William Pennington, a noted chemist, who was called as an expert to analyze the geological deposit created by the washing up of a school of fish on the rank vegetation bordering the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico "Gulf of Mexico"). This deposit, when properly retorted, produced a vegetable and animal oil, effectively assimilated by leather, which leather chemists claimed had a preservative quality. As Lewis gained experience in using these oils, she grew bolder and made experiments on her own account; so that when the library was completely catalogued and ready for the expert who came to appraise it, he exclaimed in surprise, declaring he had never seen old leather bindings in such excellent condition. [thumb\|1926](/wiki/File:Janet_Cook_Lewis_%28The_Brooklyn_Daily_Eagle%2C_1926%29.png "Janet Cook Lewis (The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 1926).png") Lewis knew she had found what she had so long been seeking. Having her remedy, she set out to prove it to a doubting world. Experienced librarians smiled at her statements. One or two, who were willing to be convinced, permitted her to try her compound on some of their less valuable works, and the changed aspect of the worn old volumes, which had been given up as doomed to disintegration, impressed them. [Belle da Costa Greene](/wiki/Belle_da_Costa_Greene "Belle da Costa Greene"), head librarian of the [J. P. Morgan](/wiki/J._P._Morgan "J. P. Morgan") collection of old volumes and early manuscripts, heard of the work being done by her fellow\-librarian. She came, looked upon the results obtained, and was convinced. Lewis was heartily recommended to Mr. Morgan as the ideal person to restore his library, in which thousands of priceless books were in danger from the countless perils which beset them. Lewis had opportunity here to test her process on every kind of binding, from the hardest old pigskin to those of unrivalled beauty and delicacy. The application of her lubricant required the hand of the trained expert; careless application would either soil, or do irreparable injury; it was essential to know how much of the oil the leather and other material would absorb, a knowledge gained only through experience. Her unique service attracted the attention of newspapers and magazines, and Lewis was called "Doctor of Books". Her fame was well established through her work in the Morgan library and she was sought after by libraries everywhere, in the U.S. and abroad. Among other things, she was called upon to deal with the effects of [bookworms](/wiki/Bookworm_%28insect%29 "Bookworm (insect)"). It was found that her solution not only restored leather bindings but contained antiseptic qualities, making it undesireable to insects and germs. While working in the [Boston Athenæum](/wiki/Boston_Athen%C3%A6um "Boston Athenæum") library, she found the bindings of a hundred volumes destroyed by bookworms. Lewis was often called upon to give lectures on her work, speaking before clubs and over the radio. These talks contained interesting facts and were replete with allusions to famous books and persons.
[ "Career\n------", "### Painter", "Following her graduation, she established herself in a studio on West [23rd Street](/wiki/23rd_Street_%28Manhattan%29 \"23rd Street (Manhattan)\"). Although primarily involved in the painting of portraits, she was also interested in everything affecting women. Not long after she arrived in New York, she became aware that living conditions for women could be vastly improved. There was no place for them but hotels and boarding houses. Apartment buildings did not exist. For a time, she lived in an apartment at Marlborough Arms, but, irked by the hotel life and utter absence of the home atmosphere, she began to open the subject of living quarters for women with other artists and salaried women. All were of one mind in that they felt the need of something better than existed, but nothing definite came of such discussions until the \"bachelor girl\" idea was conceived.", "### \"Bachelor girls\"", "In the late 1890s, Lewis while Lewis was working from her home in West 23rd Street, the old residences along the street were being turned into business houses. The old Van Renssalaer home was the first of the [brownstone](/wiki/Brownstone \"Brownstone\") residences to be made over into studios and living apartments. The [Twelfth Night Club](/wiki/Twelfth_Night_Club \"Twelfth Night Club\")'s first home was in the building, and Lewis, with three other artist friends, of whom one was her sister, Minnie A. Lewis, joined together to live in one of the apartments. These pioneers brought public attention to the great need of apartment homes for cultured women, and their establishment may be said to have opened the way to the later growth of the apartment house movement in New York and other cities. \"Bachelor girls\" became the popular phrase of the era, and the four women on West 23rd Street received a great deal of attention from the newspapers.", "Lewis' apartment was beautiful, with a kitchen and a dining room. The furniture was mostly [Chippendale](/wiki/Thomas_Chippendale \"Thomas Chippendale\") with a few modern pieces. An ancient brass warming pan and fire irons were in evidence, along with a samovar and a tea set. In this studio was established the Pen and Brush Club, which became the most notable organization of women writers, painters, sculptors and crafters in the U.S. Lewis was first to suggest the idea, and she was honored as the Founder.", "While busy painting portraits, Lewis did not lose the greater idea which had come to her earlier in her New York life — the establishing of some central home for women, one large building, cut up into living apartments. Through the influence of [Elizabeth Bacon Custer](/wiki/Elizabeth_Bacon_Custer \"Elizabeth Bacon Custer\"), Lewis made the acquaintance of [Candace Wheeler](/wiki/Candace_Wheeler \"Candace Wheeler\"), in whom she found a kindred spirit. Their mutual interest resulted in a definite plan of action, to build an apartment house with money raised by subscription from women. Lewis became so absorbed in this work, that eventually, she gave up everything else to push it. After great efforts, the movement obtained funds and an option on a plot of ground. Plans were made, based on a definite cost, when the architect suddenly died. It was then found advisable to cancel this option, but later an option was obtained on another property, all the arrangements were made and the contracts almost let, when Lewis suffered a breakdown from overwork and was obliged to stop everything and go abroad for her health. When she returned, she found that several of the women who had subscribed had organized under the name of the Women's Hotel Club and had engineered matters in a direction quite unlike Lewis' original idea, and she abandoned the whole project. Their efforts resulted in the building of the [Martha Washington Hotel](/wiki/The_Redbury_New_York \"The Redbury New York\"), but Lewis was not interested in a hotel — it was the apartment house for which she was striving.", "### Bookbinder", "Her work as a portrait painter had brought her into contact with many prominent New York women, among them Catherine Clinton Howland Hunt (Mrs. Richard Morris Hunt). When visiting the Hunt home one day, Lewis was invited to inspect the beautiful art work on some of the book bindings in the library. After her husband's death, Mrs. Hunt desired to get the vast collection of architectural books classified and catalogued for the use of her sons, but was so dismayed by the size of the task, she looked about for someone competent to assist her. This must be one who loved books, appreciated their value, and who could be trusted to handle them with care. She turned to Lewis, who knew nothing of library work, but that was no handicap because Mrs. Hunt had very pronounced ideas of her own, and desired nothing so much as someone to carry them out. Lewis joined in the task of classifying, cataloguing, and otherwise systematizing the Hunt Architectural and Art library.", "As she progressed with the work, Lewis was distressed to find many of the expensive bindings disintegrating and falling to pieces. Love for and sympathy with the inarticulate, as well as a desire to rescue objects of such priceless value, gave her the impetus toward inventing or discovering something that would prevent this decay and waste. She began to study the various forms of bindings, the style of printing and the different textures and materials which bookbinders have used throughout the centuries. Living as she did in this atmosphere of books, she came to know the various diseases which attack old volumes, and tried to find some compound which would arrest the destroying effects of age and worms. Rare books as they grow older, suffer from the infirmities of age. Old books require a special regimen. Those bought abroad and transported to the U.S. were peculiarly sensitive to the atmospheric change. Lewis discovered that books need air and light in order to remain healthy. She found that when books are confined in cases behind glass doors which shut out the air they rapidly disintegrate. She observed that packing books into a case without regard for the proper spacing was equivalent to stifling them. But she searched in vain for an antidote which should make old books as new.", "Fortunately, she became aware of the work of Professor William Pennington, a noted chemist, who was called as an expert to analyze the geological deposit created by the washing up of a school of fish on the rank vegetation bordering the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico \"Gulf of Mexico\"). This deposit, when properly retorted, produced a vegetable and animal oil, effectively assimilated by leather, which leather chemists claimed had a preservative quality. As Lewis gained experience in using these oils, she grew bolder and made experiments on her own account; so that when the library was completely catalogued and ready for the expert who came to appraise it, he exclaimed in surprise, declaring he had never seen old leather bindings in such excellent condition.\n[thumb\\|1926](/wiki/File:Janet_Cook_Lewis_%28The_Brooklyn_Daily_Eagle%2C_1926%29.png \"Janet Cook Lewis (The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 1926).png\")\nLewis knew she had found what she had so long been seeking. Having her remedy, she set out to prove it to a doubting world. Experienced librarians smiled at her statements. One or two, who were willing to be convinced, permitted her to try her compound on some of their less valuable works, and the changed aspect of the worn old volumes, which had been given up as doomed to disintegration, impressed them. [Belle da Costa Greene](/wiki/Belle_da_Costa_Greene \"Belle da Costa Greene\"), head librarian of the [J. P. Morgan](/wiki/J._P._Morgan \"J. P. Morgan\") collection of old volumes and early manuscripts, heard of the work being done by her fellow\\-librarian. She came, looked upon the results obtained, and was convinced. Lewis was heartily recommended to Mr. Morgan as the ideal person to restore his library, in which thousands of priceless books were in danger from the countless perils which beset them. Lewis had opportunity here to test her process on every kind of binding, from the hardest old pigskin to those of unrivalled beauty and delicacy. The application of her lubricant required the hand of the trained expert; careless application would either soil, or do irreparable injury; it was essential to know how much of the oil the leather and other material would absorb, a knowledge gained only through experience.", "Her unique service attracted the attention of newspapers and magazines, and Lewis was called \"Doctor of Books\". Her fame was well established through her work in the Morgan library and she was sought after by libraries everywhere, in the U.S. and abroad. Among other things, she was called upon to deal with the effects of [bookworms](/wiki/Bookworm_%28insect%29 \"Bookworm (insect)\"). It was found that her solution not only restored leather bindings but contained antiseptic qualities, making it undesireable to insects and germs. While working in the [Boston Athenæum](/wiki/Boston_Athen%C3%A6um \"Boston Athenæum\") library, she found the bindings of a hundred volumes destroyed by bookworms.", "Lewis was often called upon to give lectures on her work, speaking before clubs and over the radio. These talks contained interesting facts and were replete with allusions to famous books and persons.", "" ]
### Bookbinder Her work as a portrait painter had brought her into contact with many prominent New York women, among them Catherine Clinton Howland Hunt (Mrs. Richard Morris Hunt). When visiting the Hunt home one day, Lewis was invited to inspect the beautiful art work on some of the book bindings in the library. After her husband's death, Mrs. Hunt desired to get the vast collection of architectural books classified and catalogued for the use of her sons, but was so dismayed by the size of the task, she looked about for someone competent to assist her. This must be one who loved books, appreciated their value, and who could be trusted to handle them with care. She turned to Lewis, who knew nothing of library work, but that was no handicap because Mrs. Hunt had very pronounced ideas of her own, and desired nothing so much as someone to carry them out. Lewis joined in the task of classifying, cataloguing, and otherwise systematizing the Hunt Architectural and Art library. As she progressed with the work, Lewis was distressed to find many of the expensive bindings disintegrating and falling to pieces. Love for and sympathy with the inarticulate, as well as a desire to rescue objects of such priceless value, gave her the impetus toward inventing or discovering something that would prevent this decay and waste. She began to study the various forms of bindings, the style of printing and the different textures and materials which bookbinders have used throughout the centuries. Living as she did in this atmosphere of books, she came to know the various diseases which attack old volumes, and tried to find some compound which would arrest the destroying effects of age and worms. Rare books as they grow older, suffer from the infirmities of age. Old books require a special regimen. Those bought abroad and transported to the U.S. were peculiarly sensitive to the atmospheric change. Lewis discovered that books need air and light in order to remain healthy. She found that when books are confined in cases behind glass doors which shut out the air they rapidly disintegrate. She observed that packing books into a case without regard for the proper spacing was equivalent to stifling them. But she searched in vain for an antidote which should make old books as new. Fortunately, she became aware of the work of Professor William Pennington, a noted chemist, who was called as an expert to analyze the geological deposit created by the washing up of a school of fish on the rank vegetation bordering the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico "Gulf of Mexico"). This deposit, when properly retorted, produced a vegetable and animal oil, effectively assimilated by leather, which leather chemists claimed had a preservative quality. As Lewis gained experience in using these oils, she grew bolder and made experiments on her own account; so that when the library was completely catalogued and ready for the expert who came to appraise it, he exclaimed in surprise, declaring he had never seen old leather bindings in such excellent condition. [thumb\|1926](/wiki/File:Janet_Cook_Lewis_%28The_Brooklyn_Daily_Eagle%2C_1926%29.png "Janet Cook Lewis (The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 1926).png") Lewis knew she had found what she had so long been seeking. Having her remedy, she set out to prove it to a doubting world. Experienced librarians smiled at her statements. One or two, who were willing to be convinced, permitted her to try her compound on some of their less valuable works, and the changed aspect of the worn old volumes, which had been given up as doomed to disintegration, impressed them. [Belle da Costa Greene](/wiki/Belle_da_Costa_Greene "Belle da Costa Greene"), head librarian of the [J. P. Morgan](/wiki/J._P._Morgan "J. P. Morgan") collection of old volumes and early manuscripts, heard of the work being done by her fellow\-librarian. She came, looked upon the results obtained, and was convinced. Lewis was heartily recommended to Mr. Morgan as the ideal person to restore his library, in which thousands of priceless books were in danger from the countless perils which beset them. Lewis had opportunity here to test her process on every kind of binding, from the hardest old pigskin to those of unrivalled beauty and delicacy. The application of her lubricant required the hand of the trained expert; careless application would either soil, or do irreparable injury; it was essential to know how much of the oil the leather and other material would absorb, a knowledge gained only through experience. Her unique service attracted the attention of newspapers and magazines, and Lewis was called "Doctor of Books". Her fame was well established through her work in the Morgan library and she was sought after by libraries everywhere, in the U.S. and abroad. Among other things, she was called upon to deal with the effects of [bookworms](/wiki/Bookworm_%28insect%29 "Bookworm (insect)"). It was found that her solution not only restored leather bindings but contained antiseptic qualities, making it undesireable to insects and germs. While working in the [Boston Athenæum](/wiki/Boston_Athen%C3%A6um "Boston Athenæum") library, she found the bindings of a hundred volumes destroyed by bookworms. Lewis was often called upon to give lectures on her work, speaking before clubs and over the radio. These talks contained interesting facts and were replete with allusions to famous books and persons.
[ "### Bookbinder", "Her work as a portrait painter had brought her into contact with many prominent New York women, among them Catherine Clinton Howland Hunt (Mrs. Richard Morris Hunt). When visiting the Hunt home one day, Lewis was invited to inspect the beautiful art work on some of the book bindings in the library. After her husband's death, Mrs. Hunt desired to get the vast collection of architectural books classified and catalogued for the use of her sons, but was so dismayed by the size of the task, she looked about for someone competent to assist her. This must be one who loved books, appreciated their value, and who could be trusted to handle them with care. She turned to Lewis, who knew nothing of library work, but that was no handicap because Mrs. Hunt had very pronounced ideas of her own, and desired nothing so much as someone to carry them out. Lewis joined in the task of classifying, cataloguing, and otherwise systematizing the Hunt Architectural and Art library.", "As she progressed with the work, Lewis was distressed to find many of the expensive bindings disintegrating and falling to pieces. Love for and sympathy with the inarticulate, as well as a desire to rescue objects of such priceless value, gave her the impetus toward inventing or discovering something that would prevent this decay and waste. She began to study the various forms of bindings, the style of printing and the different textures and materials which bookbinders have used throughout the centuries. Living as she did in this atmosphere of books, she came to know the various diseases which attack old volumes, and tried to find some compound which would arrest the destroying effects of age and worms. Rare books as they grow older, suffer from the infirmities of age. Old books require a special regimen. Those bought abroad and transported to the U.S. were peculiarly sensitive to the atmospheric change. Lewis discovered that books need air and light in order to remain healthy. She found that when books are confined in cases behind glass doors which shut out the air they rapidly disintegrate. She observed that packing books into a case without regard for the proper spacing was equivalent to stifling them. But she searched in vain for an antidote which should make old books as new.", "Fortunately, she became aware of the work of Professor William Pennington, a noted chemist, who was called as an expert to analyze the geological deposit created by the washing up of a school of fish on the rank vegetation bordering the [Gulf of Mexico](/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico \"Gulf of Mexico\"). This deposit, when properly retorted, produced a vegetable and animal oil, effectively assimilated by leather, which leather chemists claimed had a preservative quality. As Lewis gained experience in using these oils, she grew bolder and made experiments on her own account; so that when the library was completely catalogued and ready for the expert who came to appraise it, he exclaimed in surprise, declaring he had never seen old leather bindings in such excellent condition.\n[thumb\\|1926](/wiki/File:Janet_Cook_Lewis_%28The_Brooklyn_Daily_Eagle%2C_1926%29.png \"Janet Cook Lewis (The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 1926).png\")\nLewis knew she had found what she had so long been seeking. Having her remedy, she set out to prove it to a doubting world. Experienced librarians smiled at her statements. One or two, who were willing to be convinced, permitted her to try her compound on some of their less valuable works, and the changed aspect of the worn old volumes, which had been given up as doomed to disintegration, impressed them. [Belle da Costa Greene](/wiki/Belle_da_Costa_Greene \"Belle da Costa Greene\"), head librarian of the [J. P. Morgan](/wiki/J._P._Morgan \"J. P. Morgan\") collection of old volumes and early manuscripts, heard of the work being done by her fellow\\-librarian. She came, looked upon the results obtained, and was convinced. Lewis was heartily recommended to Mr. Morgan as the ideal person to restore his library, in which thousands of priceless books were in danger from the countless perils which beset them. Lewis had opportunity here to test her process on every kind of binding, from the hardest old pigskin to those of unrivalled beauty and delicacy. The application of her lubricant required the hand of the trained expert; careless application would either soil, or do irreparable injury; it was essential to know how much of the oil the leather and other material would absorb, a knowledge gained only through experience.", "Her unique service attracted the attention of newspapers and magazines, and Lewis was called \"Doctor of Books\". Her fame was well established through her work in the Morgan library and she was sought after by libraries everywhere, in the U.S. and abroad. Among other things, she was called upon to deal with the effects of [bookworms](/wiki/Bookworm_%28insect%29 \"Bookworm (insect)\"). It was found that her solution not only restored leather bindings but contained antiseptic qualities, making it undesireable to insects and germs. While working in the [Boston Athenæum](/wiki/Boston_Athen%C3%A6um \"Boston Athenæum\") library, she found the bindings of a hundred volumes destroyed by bookworms.", "Lewis was often called upon to give lectures on her work, speaking before clubs and over the radio. These talks contained interesting facts and were replete with allusions to famous books and persons.", "" ]
Criminal punishment{{anchor\|Jurisdiction}} ------------------------------------------- {{Main\|Rape laws in the United States}} {{See also\|Sexual consent\#Legislation}} [thumb\|300px\|{{legend\|\#00AA00\|Coercion\-based law (all penetrative sex)}} {{legend\|\#008080\|Consent\-based law (anal and oral sex)}} {{legend\|\#0000FF\|Consent\-based law (vaginal, anal and oral sex)}} {{legend\|\#800080\|Mixed legislation; coerced sexual penetration treated as a separate, more severe crime}}](/wiki/File:Nonconsensual_penetrative_sex_laws_by_U.S._state_map.svg "Nonconsensual penetrative sex laws by U.S. state map.svg") [thumb\|300px\|{{legend\|\#00AA00\|Coercion\-based law (non\-penetrative sex)}} {{legend\|\#0000FF\|Consent\-based law (non\-penetrative sex)}}](/wiki/File:Nonconsensual_non-penetrative_sex_laws_by_U.S._state_map.svg "Nonconsensual non-penetrative sex laws by U.S. state map.svg") [thumb\|start\=10\|end\=88\|[Green River College](/wiki/Green_River_College "Green River College") explanation of [Washington state law](/wiki/Law_of_Washington_%28state%29 "Law of Washington (state)") on rape](/wiki/File:Video_1_-_Washington_Law.webm "Video 1 - Washington Law.webm") The United States is composed principally of fifty states, each with its own criminal code,{{cite web\|title\=Sexual Assault Statutes in the United States Chart\|url\=http://www.ndaa.org/pdf/sexual%20assault%20chart.pdf\|archive\-url\=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20170504104244/http://ndaa.org/pdf/sexual%20assault%20chart.pdf\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=2017\-05\-04\|website\=National District Attorneys Association\|access\-date\=9 October 2017\|date\=2016}} as well as the federal jurisdiction. Rape is prosecutable in all U.S. jurisdictions, as well as under the [Uniform Code of Military Justice](/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice "Uniform Code of Military Justice"),{{cite web\|title\=10 U.S. Code § 920 \- Art. 120\. Rape and sexual assault generally\|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10/920\|website\=Legal Information Institute\|publisher\=Cornell Law School\|access\-date\=9 October 2017\|archive\-date\=4 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104150831/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10/920\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|title\=10 U.S. Code § 920b \- Art. 120b. Rape and sexual assault of a child\|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10/920b\|website\=Legal Information Institute\|publisher\=Cornell Law School\|access\-date\=9 October 2017\|archive\-date\=10 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010010409/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10/920b\|url\-status\=live}} although the terminology used varies by jurisdiction. Among the alternate names that may be used to prosecute a rape charge, the offense may be categorized as sexual assault, sexual battery, or criminal sexual conduct. Some U.S. states (or other jurisdictions such as [American Samoa](/wiki/American_Samoa "American Samoa")) recognize penetrative sex without [consent](/wiki/Sexual_consent "Sexual consent") by the victim and without the use of force by the perpetrator as a crime (usually called 'rape'). Other states do not recognize this as a crime; their laws stipulate that the perpetrator must have used some kind of force or coercion (physical violence (that results in demonstrable physical injury), threats against the victim or a third party, or some other form of coercion) in order for such nonconsensual penetrative sex to amount to a crime.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.womenslawproject.org/wp\-content/uploads/2016/04/Rape\-and\-Sexual\-Assault\-in\-the\-Legal\-System\-FINAL.pdf \|title\=Rape and sexual assault in the legal system \|author\=Carol E. Tracy, Terry L. Fromson, Jennifer Gentile Long, Charlene Whitman \|publisher\=Women’s Law Project, AEquitas \|date\=5 June 2012 \|access\-date\=7 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=4 September 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904023900/https://www.womenslawproject.org/wp\-content/uploads/2016/04/Rape\-and\-Sexual\-Assault\-in\-the\-Legal\-System\-FINAL.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} Similarly, some states (or other jurisdictions such as the Military) recognize non\-penetrative sex acts (contact such as fondling or touching a person's intimate parts, or exposure of a body or sexual activity) without consent by the victim and without the use of force by the perpetrator as a crime, while other states do not. ### Jurisdiction In the United States, the principle of [dual sovereignty](/wiki/Dual_sovereignty_doctrine "Dual sovereignty doctrine") applies to rape, as to other crimes. If the rape is committed within the borders of a state, that state has [jurisdiction](/wiki/Jurisdiction "Jurisdiction"). If the victim is a federal official, an [ambassador](/wiki/Ambassador "Ambassador"), [consul](/wiki/Consul_%28representative%29 "Consul (representative)"), or other foreign official under the protection of the United States, or if the crime took place on federal property or involved crossing state borders, or in a manner that substantially affects [interstate commerce](/wiki/Interstate_commerce "Interstate commerce") or [national security](/wiki/National_security "National security"), then the federal government also has jurisdiction. If a crime is not committed within any state, such as in the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia "District of Columbia") or on a [naval](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") or U.S.\-[flagged](/wiki/Flag_state "Flag state") [merchant vessel](/wiki/Merchant_vessel "Merchant vessel") in [international waters](/wiki/International_waters "International waters"), then federal jurisdiction is exclusive. In cases where the rape involves both state and federal jurisdictions, the offender can be tried and punished separately for each crime without raising issues of [double jeopardy](/wiki/Double_jeopardy "Double jeopardy"). When a state has jurisdiction over a rape case, as a matter of policy, federal prosecution will not be pursued for a rape charge unless the case presents a matter of federal interest, that interest was not adequately addressed by a state\-level prosecution, and the government believes that a federal prosecution will be successful.{{cite web\|title\=Sec. 9\-2\.031 \- Dual and Successive Prosecution Policy ("Petite Policy")\|url\=https://www.justice.gov/usam/usam\-9\-2000\-authority\-us\-attorney\-criminal\-division\-mattersprior\-approvals\#9\-2\.031\|website\=U.S. Attorney's Manual\|publisher\=U.S. Department of Justice\|access\-date\=9 October 2017\|date\=October 2015\|archive\-date\=10 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010005740/https://www.justice.gov/usam/usam\-9\-2000\-authority\-us\-attorney\-criminal\-division\-mattersprior\-approvals\#9\-2\.031\|url\-status\=live}} Jurisdiction issues also complicate the handling of campus rape, due in part to overlapping jurisdiction of campus and local law enforcement, and differences in how various police agencies and prosecutors handle sex offenses.{{cite news\|url\=http://time.com/2905637/campus\-rape\-assault\-prosecution/\|title\=Why Victims of Rape in College Don't Report to the Police\|work\=TIME.com\|author\=Eliza Gray\|date\=23 June 2014\|access\-date\=9 October 2017\|archive\-date\=24 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024045818/http://time.com/2905637/campus\-rape\-assault\-prosecution/\|url\-status\=live}} ### Federal law Federal law does not use the term "rape". Rape is grouped with all forms of non\-consensual sexual acts under chapter 109a of the [United States Code](/wiki/United_States_Code "United States Code") ({{usc\|18\|2241\|2248}}). Under federal law, the punishment for rape can range from a fine to [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment "Life imprisonment"). The severity of the punishment is based on the use of violence, the age of the victim, and whether drugs or intoxicants were used to override consent. If the perpetrator is a repeat offender the law prescribes automatically doubling the maximum sentence. Whether the victim is an adult{{cite court\|litigants\=Coker v. Georgia\|vol\=433\|reporter\=U.S.\|opinion\=584\|date\=1997\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=13789703704209593383\|via\=Google Scholar\|access\-date\=2017\-10\-09}} or of a child,{{cite court\|litigants\=Kennedy v. Louisiana\|vol\=554\|reporter\=U.S.\|opinion\=407\|date\=2008\|url\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\_case?case\=11619441780737591071\|via\=Google Scholar\|access\-date\=9 October 2017}} the U.S. Supreme Court has held that the death penalty is not available as a possible penalty if the victim does not die and death was not intended by the defendant. Capital punishment remains available as a penalty where the victim dies, or where the defendant acts with intent to kill the victim but the victim survives. | \+ Different categorizations and maximum punishments for rape under federal law{{cite web\|title\=18 U.S. Code Chapter 109A \- Sexual Abuse\|url\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/part\-I/chapter\-109A\|website\=Legal Information Institute\|publisher\=Cornell Law School\|access\-date\=9 October 2017\|archive\-date\=10 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010010310/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/part\-I/chapter\-109A\|url\-status\=live}} | Description | Fine | Imprisonment (years) | Life imprisonment | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Rape using violence or the threat of violence to override consent | unlimited | 0 – unlimited | yes | | Rape by causing fear in the victim for themselves or for another person to override consent | unlimited | 0 – unlimited | yes | | Rape by giving a drug or intoxicant to a person that renders them unable to give consent | unlimited | 0–15 | no | | [Statutory rape](/wiki/Statutory_rape "Statutory rape") involving an adult perpetrator | unlimited | 0–15 | no | | Statutory rape involving an adult perpetrator with a previous conviction | unlimited | 0 – unlimited | yes | | Statutory rape involving a perpetrator who is a minor | unlimited | 0–15 | no | | When a person causes the rape by a third person | unlimited | 0–10 | no | | When a person causes the rape of a child under 12 by a third person | unlimited | 0 – unlimited | yes |
[ "Criminal punishment{{anchor\\|Jurisdiction}}\n-------------------------------------------", "{{Main\\|Rape laws in the United States}}\n{{See also\\|Sexual consent\\#Legislation}}\n[thumb\\|300px\\|{{legend\\|\\#00AA00\\|Coercion\\-based law (all penetrative sex)}}\n{{legend\\|\\#008080\\|Consent\\-based law (anal and oral sex)}}\n{{legend\\|\\#0000FF\\|Consent\\-based law (vaginal, anal and oral sex)}}\n{{legend\\|\\#800080\\|Mixed legislation; coerced sexual penetration treated as a separate, more severe crime}}](/wiki/File:Nonconsensual_penetrative_sex_laws_by_U.S._state_map.svg \"Nonconsensual penetrative sex laws by U.S. state map.svg\")\n[thumb\\|300px\\|{{legend\\|\\#00AA00\\|Coercion\\-based law (non\\-penetrative sex)}}\n{{legend\\|\\#0000FF\\|Consent\\-based law (non\\-penetrative sex)}}](/wiki/File:Nonconsensual_non-penetrative_sex_laws_by_U.S._state_map.svg \"Nonconsensual non-penetrative sex laws by U.S. state map.svg\")\n[thumb\\|start\\=10\\|end\\=88\\|[Green River College](/wiki/Green_River_College \"Green River College\") explanation of [Washington state law](/wiki/Law_of_Washington_%28state%29 \"Law of Washington (state)\") on rape](/wiki/File:Video_1_-_Washington_Law.webm \"Video 1 - Washington Law.webm\")\nThe United States is composed principally of fifty states, each with its own criminal code,{{cite web\\|title\\=Sexual Assault Statutes in the United States Chart\\|url\\=http://www.ndaa.org/pdf/sexual%20assault%20chart.pdf\\|archive\\-url\\=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20170504104244/http://ndaa.org/pdf/sexual%20assault%20chart.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-05\\-04\\|website\\=National District Attorneys Association\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2017\\|date\\=2016}} as well as the federal jurisdiction. Rape is prosecutable in all U.S. jurisdictions, as well as under the [Uniform Code of Military Justice](/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice \"Uniform Code of Military Justice\"),{{cite web\\|title\\=10 U.S. Code § 920 \\- Art. 120\\. Rape and sexual assault generally\\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10/920\\|website\\=Legal Information Institute\\|publisher\\=Cornell Law School\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=4 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104150831/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10/920\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|title\\=10 U.S. Code § 920b \\- Art. 120b. Rape and sexual assault of a child\\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10/920b\\|website\\=Legal Information Institute\\|publisher\\=Cornell Law School\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=10 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010010409/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/10/920b\\|url\\-status\\=live}} although the terminology used varies by jurisdiction. Among the alternate names that may be used to prosecute a rape charge, the offense may be categorized as sexual assault, sexual battery, or criminal sexual conduct.", "Some U.S. states (or other jurisdictions such as [American Samoa](/wiki/American_Samoa \"American Samoa\")) recognize penetrative sex without [consent](/wiki/Sexual_consent \"Sexual consent\") by the victim and without the use of force by the perpetrator as a crime (usually called 'rape'). Other states do not recognize this as a crime; their laws stipulate that the perpetrator must have used some kind of force or coercion (physical violence (that results in demonstrable physical injury), threats against the victim or a third party, or some other form of coercion) in order for such nonconsensual penetrative sex to amount to a crime.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.womenslawproject.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2016/04/Rape\\-and\\-Sexual\\-Assault\\-in\\-the\\-Legal\\-System\\-FINAL.pdf \\|title\\=Rape and sexual assault in the legal system \\|author\\=Carol E. Tracy, Terry L. Fromson, Jennifer Gentile Long, Charlene Whitman \\|publisher\\=Women’s Law Project, AEquitas \\|date\\=5 June 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=7 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 September 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904023900/https://www.womenslawproject.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2016/04/Rape\\-and\\-Sexual\\-Assault\\-in\\-the\\-Legal\\-System\\-FINAL.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Similarly, some states (or other jurisdictions such as the Military) recognize non\\-penetrative sex acts (contact such as fondling or touching a person's intimate parts, or exposure of a body or sexual activity) without consent by the victim and without the use of force by the perpetrator as a crime, while other states do not.", "### Jurisdiction", "In the United States, the principle of [dual sovereignty](/wiki/Dual_sovereignty_doctrine \"Dual sovereignty doctrine\") applies to rape, as to other crimes. If the rape is committed within the borders of a state, that state has [jurisdiction](/wiki/Jurisdiction \"Jurisdiction\"). If the victim is a federal official, an [ambassador](/wiki/Ambassador \"Ambassador\"), [consul](/wiki/Consul_%28representative%29 \"Consul (representative)\"), or other foreign official under the protection of the United States, or if the crime took place on federal property or involved crossing state borders, or in a manner that substantially affects [interstate commerce](/wiki/Interstate_commerce \"Interstate commerce\") or [national security](/wiki/National_security \"National security\"), then the federal government also has jurisdiction.", "If a crime is not committed within any state, such as in the [District of Columbia](/wiki/District_of_Columbia \"District of Columbia\") or on a [naval](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") or U.S.\\-[flagged](/wiki/Flag_state \"Flag state\") [merchant vessel](/wiki/Merchant_vessel \"Merchant vessel\") in [international waters](/wiki/International_waters \"International waters\"), then federal jurisdiction is exclusive. In cases where the rape involves both state and federal jurisdictions, the offender can be tried and punished separately for each crime without raising issues of [double jeopardy](/wiki/Double_jeopardy \"Double jeopardy\"). When a state has jurisdiction over a rape case, as a matter of policy, federal prosecution will not be pursued for a rape charge unless the case presents a matter of federal interest, that interest was not adequately addressed by a state\\-level prosecution, and the government believes that a federal prosecution will be successful.{{cite web\\|title\\=Sec. 9\\-2\\.031 \\- Dual and Successive Prosecution Policy (\"Petite Policy\")\\|url\\=https://www.justice.gov/usam/usam\\-9\\-2000\\-authority\\-us\\-attorney\\-criminal\\-division\\-mattersprior\\-approvals\\#9\\-2\\.031\\|website\\=U.S. Attorney's Manual\\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of Justice\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2017\\|date\\=October 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=10 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010005740/https://www.justice.gov/usam/usam\\-9\\-2000\\-authority\\-us\\-attorney\\-criminal\\-division\\-mattersprior\\-approvals\\#9\\-2\\.031\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Jurisdiction issues also complicate the handling of campus rape, due in part to overlapping jurisdiction of campus and local law enforcement, and differences in how various police agencies and prosecutors handle sex offenses.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://time.com/2905637/campus\\-rape\\-assault\\-prosecution/\\|title\\=Why Victims of Rape in College Don't Report to the Police\\|work\\=TIME.com\\|author\\=Eliza Gray\\|date\\=23 June 2014\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=24 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024045818/http://time.com/2905637/campus\\-rape\\-assault\\-prosecution/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Federal law", "Federal law does not use the term \"rape\". Rape is grouped with all forms of non\\-consensual sexual acts under chapter 109a of the [United States Code](/wiki/United_States_Code \"United States Code\") ({{usc\\|18\\|2241\\|2248}}).", "Under federal law, the punishment for rape can range from a fine to [life imprisonment](/wiki/Life_imprisonment \"Life imprisonment\"). The severity of the punishment is based on the use of violence, the age of the victim, and whether drugs or intoxicants were used to override consent. If the perpetrator is a repeat offender the law prescribes automatically doubling the maximum sentence.", "Whether the victim is an adult{{cite court\\|litigants\\=Coker v. Georgia\\|vol\\=433\\|reporter\\=U.S.\\|opinion\\=584\\|date\\=1997\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=13789703704209593383\\|via\\=Google Scholar\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-09}} or of a child,{{cite court\\|litigants\\=Kennedy v. Louisiana\\|vol\\=554\\|reporter\\=U.S.\\|opinion\\=407\\|date\\=2008\\|url\\=https://scholar.google.com/scholar\\_case?case\\=11619441780737591071\\|via\\=Google Scholar\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2017}} the U.S. Supreme Court has held that the death penalty is not available as a possible penalty if the victim does not die and death was not intended by the defendant. Capital punishment remains available as a penalty where the victim dies, or where the defendant acts with intent to kill the victim but the victim survives.", "", "| \\+ Different categorizations and maximum punishments for rape under federal law{{cite web\\|title\\=18 U.S. Code Chapter 109A \\- Sexual Abuse\\|url\\=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/part\\-I/chapter\\-109A\\|website\\=Legal Information Institute\\|publisher\\=Cornell Law School\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=10 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010010310/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/part\\-I/chapter\\-109A\\|url\\-status\\=live}} | Description | Fine | Imprisonment (years) | Life imprisonment |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| Rape using violence or the threat of violence to override consent | unlimited | 0 – unlimited | yes |\n| Rape by causing fear in the victim for themselves or for another person to override consent | unlimited | 0 – unlimited | yes |\n| Rape by giving a drug or intoxicant to a person that renders them unable to give consent | unlimited | 0–15 | no |\n| [Statutory rape](/wiki/Statutory_rape \"Statutory rape\") involving an adult perpetrator | unlimited | 0–15 | no |\n| Statutory rape involving an adult perpetrator with a previous conviction | unlimited | 0 – unlimited | yes |\n| Statutory rape involving a perpetrator who is a minor | unlimited | 0–15 | no |\n| When a person causes the rape by a third person | unlimited | 0–10 | no |\n| When a person causes the rape of a child under 12 by a third person | unlimited | 0 – unlimited | yes |", "" ]
Professional career ------------------- ### New York Giants On May 7, 2004, he was signed by the [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants "New York Giants") of the [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League") as an [undrafted free agent](/wiki/Undrafted_free_agent "Undrafted free agent").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.kffl.com/player/9110/nfl/news \|title\=Andrae Thurman \|publisher\=kffl.com \|access\-date\=November 30, 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141130200125/http://www.kffl.com/player/9110/nfl/news \|archive\-date\=November 30, 2014 }} On June 26, 2004, he was released. ### Houston Texans On July 2, 2004, he signed with the [Houston Texans](/wiki/Houston_Texans "Houston Texans"). On August 30, 2004, he was eventually released. ### Pittsburgh Steelers On September 7, 2004, he signed with the [Pittsburgh Steelers](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Steelers "Pittsburgh Steelers") to join their practice squad. ### Green Bay Packers On September 8, 2004, he signed with the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers"). He only played 2 games and recorded 2 receptions for 12 yards. ### Tennessee Titans On September 4, 2005, he signed with the [Tennessee Titans](/wiki/Tennessee_Titans "Tennessee Titans") and was on the practice squad. He only appeared in 5 games and he return 9 punts for 31 yards along with 2 kickoff returns for 42 yards. On October 25, 2005, he was released after violating team rules. ### Green Bay Packers On October 25, 2005, he signed with the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers "Green Bay Packers"). He appeared in 10 games and started just one game. He recorded 7 receptions for 92 yards. ### Winnipeg Blue Bombers On May 18, 2006, he signed with the [Winnipeg Blue Bombers](/wiki/Winnipeg_Blue_Bombers "Winnipeg Blue Bombers") of the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League "Canadian Football League"). He recorded 40 receptions for 426 yards and one touchdown.{{cite web\|title\=Blue Bombers sign WR Andrae Thurman \|url\=http://www.bluebombers.com/article/blue\_bombers\_sign\_wr\_andrae\_thurman \|publisher\=www.bluebombers.com \|author\=Unknown \|date\=May 18, 2006 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104211500/http://www.bluebombers.com/article/blue\_bombers\_sign\_wr\_andrae\_thurman \|archive\-date\=January 4, 2011 \|access\-date\=August 15, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }} {{cite web \| title \= Bombers add receiver Thurman \| work \= oursportscentral.com\| date \= May 18, 2006\| url \=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\=3312480\| access\-date \= August 16, 2012 }} ### Dallas Desperados In 2007, he signed with the [Dallas Desperados](/wiki/Dallas_Desperados "Dallas Desperados") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League "Arena Football League"). He played for 2 seasons where recorded 65 receptions for 839 yards and 19 touchdowns. ### Las Vegas Locomotives In 2009, he signed with the [Las Vegas Locomotives](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Locomotives "Las Vegas Locomotives") of the [United Football League](/wiki/United_Football_League_%282009-%29 "United Football League (2009-)"). In three seasons, he recorded 57 receptions for 796 yards and one touchdown. He is currently the UFL's All\-Time leading in Receptions and receiving yards. ### Arizona Rattlers He signed with the [Arizona Rattlers](/wiki/Arizona_Rattlers "Arizona Rattlers") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League "Arena Football League").{{cite web\|title\=WR Andrae Thurman Joins the Rattlers\|url\=http://azrattlers.com/wr\-andrae\-thurman\-joins\-the\-rattlers/\|work\=azrattlers.com\|author\=Unknown\|date\=March 2011\|access\-date\=August 15, 2012}}{{cite web \| title \= Arizona Rattlers sign WR Andrae Thurman \| work \= azcentral.com \| url \=http://www.azcentral.com/sports/rattlers/articles/2011/11/22/20111122arizona\-rattlers\-sign\-andrae\-thurman.html\| access\-date \= August 16, 2012 }} ### Milwaukee Mustangs He signed with [Milwaukee Mustangs](/wiki/Milwaukee_Mustangs_%282009%E2%80%9312%29 "Milwaukee Mustangs (2009–12)") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League "Arena Football League"). ### Philadelphia Soul He would next sign with the [Philadelphia Soul](/wiki/Philadelphia_Soul "Philadelphia Soul") and played in [ArenaBowl XXVI](/wiki/ArenaBowl_XXVI "ArenaBowl XXVI"). ### Portland Thunder On February 19, 2014, Thurman was traded to the [Portland Thunder](/wiki/Portland_Thunder "Portland Thunder") for future considerations, but was later released by the team. ### Jacksonville Sharks On April 16, 2014, Thurman was assigned to the [Jacksonville Sharks](/wiki/Jacksonville_Sharks "Jacksonville Sharks"). He was placed on reassignment on April 24, 2014\. ### Cleveland Gladiators On October 9, 2014, Thurman was assigned to the [Cleveland Gladiators](/wiki/Cleveland_Gladiators "Cleveland Gladiators"). On June 23, 2015, Thurman was placed on reassignment.
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "### New York Giants", "On May 7, 2004, he was signed by the [New York Giants](/wiki/New_York_Giants \"New York Giants\") of the [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") as an [undrafted free agent](/wiki/Undrafted_free_agent \"Undrafted free agent\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kffl.com/player/9110/nfl/news \\|title\\=Andrae Thurman \\|publisher\\=kffl.com \\|access\\-date\\=November 30, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141130200125/http://www.kffl.com/player/9110/nfl/news \\|archive\\-date\\=November 30, 2014 }} On June 26, 2004, he was released.", "### Houston Texans", "On July 2, 2004, he signed with the [Houston Texans](/wiki/Houston_Texans \"Houston Texans\"). On August 30, 2004, he was eventually released.", "### Pittsburgh Steelers", "On September 7, 2004, he signed with the [Pittsburgh Steelers](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Steelers \"Pittsburgh Steelers\") to join their practice squad.", "### Green Bay Packers", "On September 8, 2004, he signed with the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\"). He only played 2 games and recorded 2 receptions for 12 yards.", "### Tennessee Titans", "On September 4, 2005, he signed with the [Tennessee Titans](/wiki/Tennessee_Titans \"Tennessee Titans\") and was on the practice squad. He only appeared in 5 games and he return 9 punts for 31 yards along with 2 kickoff returns for 42 yards. On October 25, 2005, he was released after violating team rules.", "### Green Bay Packers", "On October 25, 2005, he signed with the [Green Bay Packers](/wiki/Green_Bay_Packers \"Green Bay Packers\"). He appeared in 10 games and started just one game. He recorded 7 receptions for 92 yards.", "### Winnipeg Blue Bombers", "On May 18, 2006, he signed with the [Winnipeg Blue Bombers](/wiki/Winnipeg_Blue_Bombers \"Winnipeg Blue Bombers\") of the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League \"Canadian Football League\"). He recorded 40 receptions for 426 yards and one touchdown.{{cite web\\|title\\=Blue Bombers sign WR Andrae Thurman \\|url\\=http://www.bluebombers.com/article/blue\\_bombers\\_sign\\_wr\\_andrae\\_thurman \\|publisher\\=www.bluebombers.com \\|author\\=Unknown \\|date\\=May 18, 2006 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104211500/http://www.bluebombers.com/article/blue\\_bombers\\_sign\\_wr\\_andrae\\_thurman \\|archive\\-date\\=January 4, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n{{cite web \\| title \\= Bombers add receiver Thurman \\| work \\= oursportscentral.com\\| date \\= May 18, 2006\\| url \\=http://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/?id\\=3312480\\| access\\-date \\= August 16, 2012 }}", "### Dallas Desperados", "In 2007, he signed with the [Dallas Desperados](/wiki/Dallas_Desperados \"Dallas Desperados\") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League \"Arena Football League\"). He played for 2 seasons where recorded 65 receptions for 839 yards and 19 touchdowns.", "### Las Vegas Locomotives", "In 2009, he signed with the [Las Vegas Locomotives](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Locomotives \"Las Vegas Locomotives\") of the [United Football League](/wiki/United_Football_League_%282009-%29 \"United Football League (2009-)\"). In three seasons, he recorded 57 receptions for 796 yards and one touchdown. He is currently the UFL's All\\-Time leading in Receptions and receiving yards.", "### Arizona Rattlers", "He signed with the [Arizona Rattlers](/wiki/Arizona_Rattlers \"Arizona Rattlers\") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League \"Arena Football League\").{{cite web\\|title\\=WR Andrae Thurman Joins the Rattlers\\|url\\=http://azrattlers.com/wr\\-andrae\\-thurman\\-joins\\-the\\-rattlers/\\|work\\=azrattlers.com\\|author\\=Unknown\\|date\\=March 2011\\|access\\-date\\=August 15, 2012}}{{cite web \\| title \\= Arizona Rattlers sign WR Andrae Thurman \\| work \\= azcentral.com \\| url \\=http://www.azcentral.com/sports/rattlers/articles/2011/11/22/20111122arizona\\-rattlers\\-sign\\-andrae\\-thurman.html\\| access\\-date \\= August 16, 2012 }}", "### Milwaukee Mustangs", "He signed with [Milwaukee Mustangs](/wiki/Milwaukee_Mustangs_%282009%E2%80%9312%29 \"Milwaukee Mustangs (2009–12)\") of the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League \"Arena Football League\").", "### Philadelphia Soul", "He would next sign with the [Philadelphia Soul](/wiki/Philadelphia_Soul \"Philadelphia Soul\") and played in [ArenaBowl XXVI](/wiki/ArenaBowl_XXVI \"ArenaBowl XXVI\").", "### Portland Thunder", "On February 19, 2014, Thurman was traded to the [Portland Thunder](/wiki/Portland_Thunder \"Portland Thunder\") for future considerations, but was later released by the team.", "### Jacksonville Sharks", "On April 16, 2014, Thurman was assigned to the [Jacksonville Sharks](/wiki/Jacksonville_Sharks \"Jacksonville Sharks\"). He was placed on reassignment on April 24, 2014\\.", "### Cleveland Gladiators", "On October 9, 2014, Thurman was assigned to the [Cleveland Gladiators](/wiki/Cleveland_Gladiators \"Cleveland Gladiators\"). On June 23, 2015, Thurman was placed on reassignment.", "" ]
Economic Growth --------------- During the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), jobs were slim. World War II brought on a need for various materials and commodities that allowed for many jobs to be created as a result.  The local and federal governments worked individually and collaboratively to provide different means of producing war time necessities such as **ammunition**, **aviation**, and various **aluminum, steel and oil plants**.{{Cite journal \|last\=Anthony \|first\=Thomis Cluff \|date\=1964 \|title\=The Role of the Federal Government in the Industrial Expansion of Utah During World War Two \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.26076/6ba2\-a3da \|journal\=All Graduate Theses and Dissertations}}  These efforts assisted the United States in their war\-efforts while simultaneously pulling Utah out of the economic crisis onset by the Great Depression and producing hundreds of thousands of jobs. **Ammunition** [Ammunition](/wiki/Ammunition "Ammunition") is a highly needed commodity during war time.  Salt Lake City was home of the “second largest in production cost” steel production plant named the Salt Lake City Utah Ordinance Plant (a.k.a. [Remington Arms](/wiki/Remington_Arms "Remington Arms")).{{Cite web \|last\=Mitchell \|first\=Jeff \|date\=2013\-03\-03 \|title\=Remington \|url\=https://riflebasix.com/blog/remington\-arms\-company\-history/ \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-09 \|website\=RIFLE BASIX \|language\=en\-US}} This branch of the Remington Arms Plant had a very significant effect on the economic state and potential of Utah at this time.  15,000 Utahans were trained in a variety of skills such as “assembly\-line procedures, industrial techniques, mechanical trades, and technological skills” in order to have the necessary knowledge and abilities to work in the plant.  These skills learned provided them with a sustainable job during the war, as well as left them with useful skills following the war.  Both the construction and operating phases of the plant led to a significant wage boost in the Salt Lake area as well.  As the war began to wind down and an eventual victory was in sight, the government felt it wise to pull funds from the Remington Arms Plant in Salt Lake City.  This led to its eventual closure in November 1943, though even at its termination it provided economic relief to the area.  Surplus war goods estimated around $200 million was sold as excess “to businessmen, veterans, local governments, and nonprofits organizations” producing a wonderful economic boost and leaving the state of Utah with a stockpile of goods and industrial plants to stay above the ruins of economic devastation. While the Salt Lake City Utah Ordinance Plant was the plant that had the largest impact on the state at this time, there were a few other small ammunition plants that had some weight in aiding the economic state of Utah at this time.  One example is the Ogden Arsenal and small ammunition plant.  During 1942 it employed a hefty “10 percent of all the persons engaged in non\-agricultural employment”.  This plant is an example of a smaller plant that provided jobs to its local community and greatly reduced the unemployed. **Aviation** [Aviation](/wiki/Aviation "Aviation") in the United States was greatly altered as a result of WWII and Utah was no exception to this.  In fact, due to a number of factors, Utah was able to take part in the changing world of aviation at a larger rate compared to many of its fellow states. This was as a result of its location and geographic qualities, as well as its state leaders taking an interest in evolving the state's involvement in aviation.{{Cite journal \|last\=LAUNIUS \|first\=ROGER D. \|last2\=EMBRY \|first2\=JESSIE L. \|date\=1995\-07\-01 \|title\=A Transforming Force: Military Aviation and Utah in World War II \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.2307/45062239 \|journal\=Utah Historical Quarterly \|volume\=63 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=222–240 \|doi\=10\.2307/45062239 \|issn\=0042\-143X}} Many air bases were built in the state of Utah during war time, as well as 6 military flying fields.  Utah also became home to other types of aviation aid at this time such as “logistical support facilities for air route and maintenance and material production”.  As a result of this massive influx of air bases, a slew of jobs were created numbering 40,000\.  These bases were also run on the federal government's dollar, meaning that thousands upon thousands of dollars were being poured into the state of Utah's economy from these thousands of paychecks being earned, greatly benefiting the state's economy. **Aluminum, Steel and Oil Plants** Due to the presence of many natural commodities, different necessary goods were retrieved or forged as a result of wartime need.  Because the United States had a need for things such as [aluminum](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium") and oil, the Senator of Utah at the time, [Abe Murdock](/wiki/Orrice_Abram_Murdock_Jr. "Orrice Abram Murdock Jr."), used this as an opportunity to employ government financial aid to expand these plants for a higher rate of production.  Some of these attempts were met with approval, while others never made it past the planning phases, but in all cases jobs were created and it improved the economic status of the state. In 1941, Utah emphasized its “alunite and potash deposits found near [Marysvale](/wiki/Marysvale%2C_Utah "Marysvale, Utah") in [Piute County](/wiki/Piute_County%2C_Utah "Piute County, Utah")” and it was estimated by the [United States Bureau of Mines](/wiki/United_States_Bureau_of_Mines "United States Bureau of Mines") that there was a significant amount of these minerals present in the state, enough, in fact, to warrant building a new plant.  This proved to be a highly debated topic, however, as after the plant was approved to be built in 1941, multiple changes to the original plans and location occurred, resulting in the original large aluminum plant in Marysvale was altered to become a smaller plant in Salt Lake City.  After its eventual construction, it was used for a few years, but was ultimately sold and turned into a “ phosphate fertilizer plant” in 1945\.  Although its original purpose was not realized for long, during its time as an aluminum plant and later a fertilizer plant, the building of this plant led to the creation of many jobs and an improvement in the state's economy. [thumb\|200x200px\|The Geneva Steel Plant was one of the most notable contributions to the Utah economy as a result of World War II.](/wiki/File:Geneva_Steel_Mill_1942_by_Andreas_Feininger.jpg "Geneva Steel Mill 1942 by Andreas Feininger.jpg") Steel plants were another notable type of plant that began to crop up during WWII and had a notable impact on post\-war Utah.  [Geneva Steel](/wiki/Geneva_Steel "Geneva Steel") being the largest and most prominent, running from November 1941 to December 1944\.  During its construction it employed upwards of 10,000 workers and provided jobs in this time of need that had great impact on the families in the Utah community.  Post\-war, it has continued to have an effect up until the present, providing many jobs and attracting many forms of industry to the area up until its closure in 2001\.{{Cite web \|last\=Roper \|first\=Roger \|date\=9 Apr 2023 \|title\=Geneva Steel Plant \|url\=https://www.uen.org/utah\_history\_encyclopedia/g/GENEVA\_STEEL.shtml \|access\-date\=9 Apr 2023 \|website\=Utah History Encyclopedia}} Oil refineries were another type of plant that were created and used as a wartime need that led to vast economic growth.  At the start of the war in November 1939, a pipeline was built from Wyoming to Utah for oil travel.  The pipeline cost $4,500,000 to erect and its construction led to the employment of “between 12,000 and 50,000” men.  The Salt Lake Oil Refinery also produced thousands of jobs. At the end of December 1943 , the construction of the plant was called the “No. 1 war job in this area” by the [Salt Lake Tribune](/wiki/The_Salt_Lake_Tribune "The Salt Lake Tribune").
[ "Economic Growth\n---------------", "During the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), jobs were slim. World War II brought on a need for various materials and commodities that allowed for many jobs to be created as a result.  The local and federal governments worked individually and collaboratively to provide different means of producing war time necessities such as **ammunition**, **aviation**, and various **aluminum, steel and oil plants**.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Anthony \\|first\\=Thomis Cluff \\|date\\=1964 \\|title\\=The Role of the Federal Government in the Industrial Expansion of Utah During World War Two \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.26076/6ba2\\-a3da \\|journal\\=All Graduate Theses and Dissertations}}  These efforts assisted the United States in their war\\-efforts while simultaneously pulling Utah out of the economic crisis onset by the Great Depression and producing hundreds of thousands of jobs.", "**Ammunition**", "[Ammunition](/wiki/Ammunition \"Ammunition\") is a highly needed commodity during war time.  Salt Lake City was home of the “second largest in production cost” steel production plant named the Salt Lake City Utah Ordinance Plant (a.k.a. [Remington Arms](/wiki/Remington_Arms \"Remington Arms\")).{{Cite web \\|last\\=Mitchell \\|first\\=Jeff \\|date\\=2013\\-03\\-03 \\|title\\=Remington \\|url\\=https://riflebasix.com/blog/remington\\-arms\\-company\\-history/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-09 \\|website\\=RIFLE BASIX \\|language\\=en\\-US}} This branch of the Remington Arms Plant had a very significant effect on the economic state and potential of Utah at this time.  15,000 Utahans were trained in a variety of skills such as “assembly\\-line procedures, industrial techniques, mechanical trades, and technological skills” in order to have the necessary knowledge and abilities to work in the plant.  These skills learned provided them with a sustainable job during the war, as well as left them with useful skills following the war.  Both the construction and operating phases of the plant led to a significant wage boost in the Salt Lake area as well.  As the war began to wind down and an eventual victory was in sight, the government felt it wise to pull funds from the Remington Arms Plant in Salt Lake City.  This led to its eventual closure in November 1943, though even at its termination it provided economic relief to the area.  Surplus war goods estimated around $200 million was sold as excess “to businessmen, veterans, local governments, and nonprofits organizations” producing a wonderful economic boost and leaving the state of Utah with a stockpile of goods and industrial plants to stay above the ruins of economic devastation.", "While the Salt Lake City Utah Ordinance Plant was the plant that had the largest impact on the state at this time, there were a few other small ammunition plants that had some weight in aiding the economic state of Utah at this time.  One example is the Ogden Arsenal and small ammunition plant.  During 1942 it employed a hefty “10 percent of all the persons engaged in non\\-agricultural employment”.  This plant is an example of a smaller plant that provided jobs to its local community and greatly reduced the unemployed.", "**Aviation**", "[Aviation](/wiki/Aviation \"Aviation\") in the United States was greatly altered as a result of WWII and Utah was no exception to this.  In fact, due to a number of factors, Utah was able to take part in the changing world of aviation at a larger rate compared to many of its fellow states. This was as a result of its location and geographic qualities, as well as its state leaders taking an interest in evolving the state's involvement in aviation.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=LAUNIUS \\|first\\=ROGER D. \\|last2\\=EMBRY \\|first2\\=JESSIE L. \\|date\\=1995\\-07\\-01 \\|title\\=A Transforming Force: Military Aviation and Utah in World War II \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.2307/45062239 \\|journal\\=Utah Historical Quarterly \\|volume\\=63 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=222–240 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/45062239 \\|issn\\=0042\\-143X}}", "Many air bases were built in the state of Utah during war time, as well as 6 military flying fields.  Utah also became home to other types of aviation aid at this time such as “logistical support facilities for air route and maintenance and material production”.  As a result of this massive influx of air bases, a slew of jobs were created numbering 40,000\\.  These bases were also run on the federal government's dollar, meaning that thousands upon thousands of dollars were being poured into the state of Utah's economy from these thousands of paychecks being earned, greatly benefiting the state's economy.", "**Aluminum, Steel and Oil Plants**", "Due to the presence of many natural commodities, different necessary goods were retrieved or forged as a result of wartime need.  Because the United States had a need for things such as [aluminum](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\") and oil, the Senator of Utah at the time, [Abe Murdock](/wiki/Orrice_Abram_Murdock_Jr. \"Orrice Abram Murdock Jr.\"), used this as an opportunity to employ government financial aid to expand these plants for a higher rate of production.  Some of these attempts were met with approval, while others never made it past the planning phases, but in all cases jobs were created and it improved the economic status of the state.", "In 1941, Utah emphasized its “alunite and potash deposits found near [Marysvale](/wiki/Marysvale%2C_Utah \"Marysvale, Utah\") in [Piute County](/wiki/Piute_County%2C_Utah \"Piute County, Utah\")” and it was estimated by the [United States Bureau of Mines](/wiki/United_States_Bureau_of_Mines \"United States Bureau of Mines\") that there was a significant amount of these minerals present in the state, enough, in fact, to warrant building a new plant.  This proved to be a highly debated topic, however, as after the plant was approved to be built in 1941, multiple changes to the original plans and location occurred, resulting in the original large aluminum plant in Marysvale was altered to become a smaller plant in Salt Lake City.  After its eventual construction, it was used for a few years, but was ultimately sold and turned into a “ phosphate fertilizer plant” in 1945\\.  Although its original purpose was not realized for long, during its time as an aluminum plant and later a fertilizer plant, the building of this plant led to the creation of many jobs and an improvement in the state's economy.\n[thumb\\|200x200px\\|The Geneva Steel Plant was one of the most notable contributions to the Utah economy as a result of World War II.](/wiki/File:Geneva_Steel_Mill_1942_by_Andreas_Feininger.jpg \"Geneva Steel Mill 1942 by Andreas Feininger.jpg\")\nSteel plants were another notable type of plant that began to crop up during WWII and had a notable impact on post\\-war Utah.  [Geneva Steel](/wiki/Geneva_Steel \"Geneva Steel\") being the largest and most prominent, running from November 1941 to December 1944\\.  During its construction it employed upwards of 10,000 workers and provided jobs in this time of need that had great impact on the families in the Utah community.  Post\\-war, it has continued to have an effect up until the present, providing many jobs and attracting many forms of industry to the area up until its closure in 2001\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Roper \\|first\\=Roger \\|date\\=9 Apr 2023 \\|title\\=Geneva Steel Plant \\|url\\=https://www.uen.org/utah\\_history\\_encyclopedia/g/GENEVA\\_STEEL.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=9 Apr 2023 \\|website\\=Utah History Encyclopedia}}", "Oil refineries were another type of plant that were created and used as a wartime need that led to vast economic growth.  At the start of the war in November 1939, a pipeline was built from Wyoming to Utah for oil travel.  The pipeline cost $4,500,000 to erect and its construction led to the employment of “between 12,000 and 50,000” men.  The Salt Lake Oil Refinery also produced thousands of jobs. At the end of December 1943 , the construction of the plant was called the “No. 1 war job in this area” by the [Salt Lake Tribune](/wiki/The_Salt_Lake_Tribune \"The Salt Lake Tribune\").", "" ]
History ------- The name of the travel reservation system is an abbreviation for "Semi\-automated Business Research Environment", and was originally styled in all\-capital letters as SABRE. It was developed to automate the way [American Airlines](/wiki/American_Airlines "American Airlines") booked reservations. In the 1950s, American Airlines was facing a serious challenge in its ability to quickly handle airline reservations in an era that witnessed high growth in passenger volumes in the airline industry. Before the introduction of SABRE, the airline's system for booking flights was entirely manual, having developed from the techniques originally developed at its [Little Rock, Arkansas](/wiki/Little_Rock%2C_Arkansas "Little Rock, Arkansas"), reservations center in the 1920s. In this manual system, a team of eight operators would sort through a rotating file with cards for every flight. When a seat was booked, the operators would place a mark on the side of the card, and knew visually whether it was full. This part of the process was not all that slow, at least when there were not that many planes, but the entire end\-to\-end task of looking for a flight, reserving a seat, and then writing up the ticket could take up to three hours in some cases, and 90 minutes on average. The system also had limited room to scale. It was limited to about eight operators because that was the maximum that could fit around the file. To handle more queries the only solution was to add more layers of hierarchy to filter down requests into batches.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2011}} American Airlines had already attacked the problem to some degree, and was in the process of introducing their new [Magnetronic Reservisor](/wiki/Reservisor%23Magnetronic_Reservisor "Reservisor#Magnetronic Reservisor"), an electromechanical computer, in 1952 to replace the card files. This computer consisted of a single [magnetic drum](/wiki/Magnetic_drum "Magnetic drum"), each memory location holding the number of seats left on a particular flight. Using this system, a large number of operators could access information simultaneously, so the ticket agents could be told via phone if a seat was available. On the downside, a staff member was needed at each end of the phone line, and handling the ticket took considerable effort and filing. Something much more highly automated was needed if American Airlines was going to enter the [jet age](/wiki/Jet_age "Jet age"), booking many times more seats.{{cite book \|author\=James McKenney \|display\-authors\=etal \|title\=Waves of Change: Business Evolution Through Information Technology \|publisher\=Harvard Business Press \|year\=1995 \|isbn\=0\-87584\-564\-9}}{{rp\|p.100}} During the testing phase of the Reservisor a high\-ranking [IBM](/wiki/IBM "IBM") salesman, Blair Smith, was flying on an American Airlines flight from [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") back to IBM in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") in 1953\.Different sources disagree on many of the dates. Some place the project starting in 1953, some 1957, some place the original system in Manhattan, others Briarcliff. For instance [this CNN story](http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9906/29/1960.idg/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926002159/http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9906/29/1960\.idg/ \|date\=2020\-09\-26 }} places the start date in 1960 and the cost at $150 million (about ${{inflation\|US\|150\|1960}} million today). The Serling book uses November 5, 1959, as the date of the announcement of the joint development and 1962 as the date of the first SABRE reservation taken at the Hartford Reservations office. He found himself sitting next to American Airlines president [C. R. Smith](/wiki/C._R._Smith "C. R. Smith").[Oral history interview with R. Blair Smith](http://purl.umn.edu/107637) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20120714081128/http://purl.umn.edu/107637 \|date\=2012\-07\-14 }}. [Charles Babbage Institute](/wiki/Charles_Babbage_Institute "Charles Babbage Institute"), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Smith discusses how a chance meeting with C. R. Smith, president of American Airlines, eventually led to the development of the SABRE system. Noting that they shared a family name, they began talking.The official corporate history of American Airlines, *Eagle*, by Robert Serling, published in 1985 by St. Martin's/Marek, recounts the story of the meeting on page 347, and indicates it was between C. R. Smith and IBM president [Thomas J. Watson](/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson "Thomas J. Watson"). Just prior to this chance meeting, IBM had been working with the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force") on their [Semi Automatic Ground Environment](/wiki/Semi_Automatic_Ground_Environment "Semi Automatic Ground Environment") (SAGE) project. SAGE used a series of large computers to coordinate the message flow from [radar](/wiki/Radar "Radar") sites to [interceptors](/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft "Interceptor aircraft"), dramatically reducing the time needed to direct an attack on an incoming bomber. The system used [teleprinter](/wiki/Teleprinter "Teleprinter") machines located around the world to feed information into the system, which then sent orders back to teleprinters located at the fighter bases. It was one of the first [online](/wiki/Online "Online") systems. Smith and Watson observed that the SAGE system's basic architecture was suitable for use in American Airlines' booking services. Teleprinters would be placed at American Airlines' ticketing offices to send in requests and receive responses directly, without the need for anyone on the other end of the phone. The number of available seats on the aircraft could be tracked automatically, and if a seat was available the ticket agent could be notified. Booking simply took one more command, updating the availability and, if desired, could be followed by printing a ticket.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2011}} Thirty days later IBM sent a research proposal to American Airlines, suggesting that they join forces to study the problem. A team was set up consisting of IBM engineers led by John Siegfried and a large number of American Airlines' staff led by Malcolm Perry, taken from booking, reservations, and ticket sales, calling the effort the *Semi\-Automated Business Research Environment*, or SABRE.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2020}} A formal development arrangement was signed in 1957\. The first experimental system went online in 1960, based on two [IBM 7090](/wiki/IBM_7090 "IBM 7090") mainframes in a new data center located in [Briarcliff Manor, New York](/wiki/Briarcliff_Manor%2C_New_York "Briarcliff Manor, New York"). The system was a success. Up to this point, it had cost $40 million to develop and install {{USDCY\|40000000\.00\|1960}}. The SABRE system by IBM in the 1960s was specified to process a very large number of transactions, such as handling 83,000 daily phone calls.Cf. Head, Robert V. 2002 The system took over all booking functions in 1964, when the name had changed to SABRE.{{cite news \|last\=Фокс\-Брюстер \|first\=Томас (Fox\-Brewster, Thomas) \|url\=https://www.forbes.ru/tehnologii/405373\-kak\-fbr\-ispolzuet\-turisticheskuyu\-kompaniyu\-stoimostyu\-2\-mlrd\-dlya\-slezhki\-za \|title\=Как ФБР использует туристическую компанию стоимостью $2 млрд для слежки за преступниками со всего мира, в том числе из России \|trans\-title\=How the FBI Uses a $2 Billion Travel Company to Spy on Criminals Around the World, Including Russia \|language\=ru \|work\=\[\[Forbes]] (forbes.ru) \|date\=20 July 2020 \|access\-date\=20 September 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728064307/https://www.forbes.ru/tehnologii/405373\-kak\-fbr\-ispolzuet\-turisticheskuyu\-kompaniyu\-stoimostyu\-2\-mlrd\-dlya\-slezhki\-za \|archive\-date\=28 July 2020}} [Alternate archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803233500/http://www.compromat.ru/page_41454.htm) as Турагенты ФБР: Спецслужбы США через систему бронирований Sabre следят за перемещениями людей по всему свету (FBI Travel Agents: U.S. intelligence agencies, through the Sabre reservation system, monitor the movement of people around the world) In 1972, SABRE was migrated to IBM [System/360](/wiki/System/360 "System/360") systems in a new underground location in [Tulsa, Oklahoma](/wiki/Tulsa%2C_Oklahoma "Tulsa, Oklahoma"). [Max Hopper](/wiki/Max_Hopper "Max Hopper") joined American Airlines in 1972 as director of SABRE, and pioneered its use.John Desmond. "[Max Hopper knows Sabre's 'software guts': American pushing limits of software at 2,000\+ TPS – transactions per second](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0SMG/is_n2_v9/ai_7349011/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20120711010225/findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_m0SMG/is\_n2\_v9/ai\_7349011/ \|date\=2012\-07\-11 }}". *Software Magazine*. February 1989\. Originally used only by American Airlines, the system was expanded to access by [travel agents](/wiki/Travel_agent "Travel agent") in 1976\. With SABRE up and running, IBM offered its expertise to other airlines, and soon developed Deltamatic for [Delta Air Lines](/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines "Delta Air Lines") on the [IBM 7074](/wiki/IBM_7074 "IBM 7074"), and PANAMAC for [Pan American World Airways](/wiki/Pan_American_World_Airways "Pan American World Airways") using an [IBM 7080](/wiki/IBM_7080 "IBM 7080"). In 1968, they generalized their work into the [PARS](/wiki/Programmed_Airline_Reservation_System "Programmed Airline Reservation System") (Programmed Airline Reservation System), which ran on any member of the IBM System/360 family and thus could support any sized airline. The operating system component of PARS evolved into [ACP](/wiki/IBM_Airline_Control_Program "IBM Airline Control Program") (*Airlines Control Program*), and later to [TPF](/wiki/Transaction_Processing_Facility "Transaction Processing Facility") (*Transaction Processing Facility*). Application programs were originally written in [assembly language](/wiki/Assembly_language "Assembly language"), later in [SabreTalk](/wiki/SabreTalk "SabreTalk"), a proprietary dialect of [PL/I](/wiki/PL/I "PL/I"), and now in [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 "C (programming language)") and C\+\+. By the 1980s, SABRE offered airline reservations through the [CompuServe Information Service](/wiki/CompuServe "CompuServe"), and General Electric's [GEnie](/wiki/GEnie "GEnie") under the Eaasy SABRE brand.{{Cite news\|url\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec\=travel\&res\=950DE0D6163AF930A15751C1A96F948260\|title\=More Trips Start at a Home Computer\|author\=Philip S. Gutis\|work\=New York Times\|date\=1989\-12\-23\|access\-date\=2017\-02\-18\|archive\-date\=2007\-12\-10\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210105738/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec\=travel\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9E0CE2D7163EF931A25752C0A964958260\&sec\=\&spon\=\&pagewanted\=all\|title\=Booking With a Computer\|author\=Peter H. Lewis\|work\=New York Times\|date\=1992\-01\-12\|access\-date\=2017\-02\-18\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-07\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307212652/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\=9E0CE2D7163EF931A25752C0A964958260\|url\-status\=live}} This service was extended to [America Online](/wiki/America_Online "America Online") (AOL) in the 1990s. American and Sabre separated on March 15, 2000\. Sabre had been a publicly traded corporation, [Sabre Holdings](/wiki/Sabre_Holdings "Sabre Holdings"), stock symbol TSG on the [New York Stock Exchange](/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange "New York Stock Exchange") until taken private in March 2007\. The corporation introduced the new logo and changed from the all\-caps acronym "SABRE" to the mixed\-case "Sabre Holdings", when the new corporation was formed. The [Travelocity](/wiki/Travelocity "Travelocity") website, introduced in 1996, was owned by Sabre Holdings.{{cite news \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/business/12deal.html \|title\=2 Firms Pay $4\.3 Billion for Sabre \|author\=Andrew Ross Sorkin \|date\=December 12, 2006 \|access\-date\=June 11, 2019 \|archive\-date\=June 10, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610150510/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/business/12deal.html \|url\-status\=live }} Travelocity was acquired by [Expedia](/wiki/Expedia "Expedia") in January 2015\.{{Cite news \|url\=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2015/01/23/expedia\-buys\-travelocity\-for\-280\-million\-in\-cash/?\_r\=1 \|title\=Expedia Buys Travelocity for $280 million in cash \|author\=Michael J. De La Merced \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=2015\-01\-23 \|access\-date\=2017\-03\-05 \|archive\-date\=2021\-05\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511185819/https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2015/01/23/expedia\-buys\-travelocity\-for\-280\-million\-in\-cash/?\_r\=1 \|url\-status\=live }} Sabre Holdings' three remaining business units, Sabre Travel Network, Sabre Airline Solutions and Sabre Hospitality, today serves as a global travel technology company.
[ "History\n-------", "The name of the travel reservation system is an abbreviation for \"Semi\\-automated Business Research Environment\", and was originally styled in all\\-capital letters as SABRE. It was developed to automate the way [American Airlines](/wiki/American_Airlines \"American Airlines\") booked reservations.", "In the 1950s, American Airlines was facing a serious challenge in its ability to quickly handle airline reservations in an era that witnessed high growth in passenger volumes in the airline industry. Before the introduction of SABRE, the airline's system for booking flights was entirely manual, having developed from the techniques originally developed at its [Little Rock, Arkansas](/wiki/Little_Rock%2C_Arkansas \"Little Rock, Arkansas\"), reservations center in the 1920s. In this manual system, a team of eight operators would sort through a rotating file with cards for every flight. When a seat was booked, the operators would place a mark on the side of the card, and knew visually whether it was full. This part of the process was not all that slow, at least when there were not that many planes, but the entire end\\-to\\-end task of looking for a flight, reserving a seat, and then writing up the ticket could take up to three hours in some cases, and 90 minutes on average. The system also had limited room to scale. It was limited to about eight operators because that was the maximum that could fit around the file. To handle more queries the only solution was to add more layers of hierarchy to filter down requests into batches.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2011}}", "American Airlines had already attacked the problem to some degree, and was in the process of introducing their new [Magnetronic Reservisor](/wiki/Reservisor%23Magnetronic_Reservisor \"Reservisor#Magnetronic Reservisor\"), an electromechanical computer, in 1952 to replace the card files. This computer consisted of a single [magnetic drum](/wiki/Magnetic_drum \"Magnetic drum\"), each memory location holding the number of seats left on a particular flight. Using this system, a large number of operators could access information simultaneously, so the ticket agents could be told via phone if a seat was available. On the downside, a staff member was needed at each end of the phone line, and handling the ticket took considerable effort and filing. Something much more highly automated was needed if American Airlines was going to enter the [jet age](/wiki/Jet_age \"Jet age\"), booking many times more seats.{{cite book\n \\|author\\=James McKenney\n \\|display\\-authors\\=etal\n \\|title\\=Waves of Change: Business Evolution Through Information Technology\n \\|publisher\\=Harvard Business Press \\|year\\=1995\n \\|isbn\\=0\\-87584\\-564\\-9}}{{rp\\|p.100}}", "During the testing phase of the Reservisor a high\\-ranking [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") salesman, Blair Smith, was flying on an American Airlines flight from [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") back to IBM in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") in 1953\\.Different sources disagree on many of the dates. Some place the project starting in 1953, some 1957, some place the original system in Manhattan, others Briarcliff. For instance [this CNN story](http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9906/29/1960.idg/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926002159/http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9906/29/1960\\.idg/ \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-26 }} places the start date in 1960 and the cost at $150 million (about ${{inflation\\|US\\|150\\|1960}} million today). The Serling book uses November 5, 1959, as the date of the announcement of the joint development and 1962 as the date of the first SABRE reservation taken at the Hartford Reservations office. He found himself sitting next to American Airlines president [C. R. Smith](/wiki/C._R._Smith \"C. R. Smith\").[Oral history interview with R. Blair Smith](http://purl.umn.edu/107637) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20120714081128/http://purl.umn.edu/107637 \\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-14 }}. [Charles Babbage Institute](/wiki/Charles_Babbage_Institute \"Charles Babbage Institute\"), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Smith discusses how a chance meeting with C. R. Smith, president of American Airlines, eventually led to the development of the SABRE system. Noting that they shared a family name, they began talking.The official corporate history of American Airlines, *Eagle*, by Robert Serling, published in 1985 by St. Martin's/Marek, recounts the story of the meeting on page 347, and indicates it was between C. R. Smith and IBM president [Thomas J. Watson](/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson \"Thomas J. Watson\").", "Just prior to this chance meeting, IBM had been working with the [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") on their [Semi Automatic Ground Environment](/wiki/Semi_Automatic_Ground_Environment \"Semi Automatic Ground Environment\") (SAGE) project. SAGE used a series of large computers to coordinate the message flow from [radar](/wiki/Radar \"Radar\") sites to [interceptors](/wiki/Interceptor_aircraft \"Interceptor aircraft\"), dramatically reducing the time needed to direct an attack on an incoming bomber. The system used [teleprinter](/wiki/Teleprinter \"Teleprinter\") machines located around the world to feed information into the system, which then sent orders back to teleprinters located at the fighter bases. It was one of the first [online](/wiki/Online \"Online\") systems.", "Smith and Watson observed that the SAGE system's basic architecture was suitable for use in American Airlines' booking services. Teleprinters would be placed at American Airlines' ticketing offices to send in requests and receive responses directly, without the need for anyone on the other end of the phone. The number of available seats on the aircraft could be tracked automatically, and if a seat was available the ticket agent could be notified. Booking simply took one more command, updating the availability and, if desired, could be followed by printing a ticket.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2011}}", "Thirty days later IBM sent a research proposal to American Airlines, suggesting that they join forces to study the problem. A team was set up consisting of IBM engineers led by John Siegfried and a large number of American Airlines' staff led by Malcolm Perry, taken from booking, reservations, and ticket sales, calling the effort the *Semi\\-Automated Business Research Environment*, or SABRE.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2020}}", "A formal development arrangement was signed in 1957\\. The first experimental system went online in 1960, based on two [IBM 7090](/wiki/IBM_7090 \"IBM 7090\") mainframes in a new data center located in [Briarcliff Manor, New York](/wiki/Briarcliff_Manor%2C_New_York \"Briarcliff Manor, New York\"). The system was a success. Up to this point, it had cost $40 million to develop and install {{USDCY\\|40000000\\.00\\|1960}}. The SABRE system by IBM in the 1960s was specified to process a very large number of transactions, such as handling 83,000 daily phone calls.Cf. Head, Robert V. 2002 The system took over all booking functions in 1964, when the name had changed to SABRE.{{cite news \\|last\\=Фокс\\-Брюстер \\|first\\=Томас (Fox\\-Brewster, Thomas) \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.ru/tehnologii/405373\\-kak\\-fbr\\-ispolzuet\\-turisticheskuyu\\-kompaniyu\\-stoimostyu\\-2\\-mlrd\\-dlya\\-slezhki\\-za \\|title\\=Как ФБР использует туристическую компанию стоимостью $2 млрд для слежки за преступниками со всего мира, в том числе из России \\|trans\\-title\\=How the FBI Uses a $2 Billion Travel Company to Spy on Criminals Around the World, Including Russia \\|language\\=ru \\|work\\=\\[\\[Forbes]] (forbes.ru) \\|date\\=20 July 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=20 September 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728064307/https://www.forbes.ru/tehnologii/405373\\-kak\\-fbr\\-ispolzuet\\-turisticheskuyu\\-kompaniyu\\-stoimostyu\\-2\\-mlrd\\-dlya\\-slezhki\\-za \\|archive\\-date\\=28 July 2020}} [Alternate archive](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803233500/http://www.compromat.ru/page_41454.htm) as Турагенты ФБР: Спецслужбы США через систему бронирований Sabre следят за перемещениями людей по всему свету (FBI Travel Agents: U.S. intelligence agencies, through the Sabre reservation system, monitor the movement of people around the world)", "In 1972, SABRE was migrated to IBM [System/360](/wiki/System/360 \"System/360\") systems in a new underground location in [Tulsa, Oklahoma](/wiki/Tulsa%2C_Oklahoma \"Tulsa, Oklahoma\"). [Max Hopper](/wiki/Max_Hopper \"Max Hopper\") joined American Airlines in 1972 as director of SABRE, and pioneered its use.John Desmond. \"[Max Hopper knows Sabre's 'software guts': American pushing limits of software at 2,000\\+ TPS – transactions per second](http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0SMG/is_n2_v9/ai_7349011/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20120711010225/findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_m0SMG/is\\_n2\\_v9/ai\\_7349011/ \\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-11 }}\". *Software Magazine*. February 1989\\. Originally used only by American Airlines, the system was expanded to access by [travel agents](/wiki/Travel_agent \"Travel agent\") in 1976\\.", "With SABRE up and running, IBM offered its expertise to other airlines, and soon developed Deltamatic for [Delta Air Lines](/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines \"Delta Air Lines\") on the [IBM 7074](/wiki/IBM_7074 \"IBM 7074\"), and PANAMAC for [Pan American World Airways](/wiki/Pan_American_World_Airways \"Pan American World Airways\") using an [IBM 7080](/wiki/IBM_7080 \"IBM 7080\"). In 1968, they generalized their work into the [PARS](/wiki/Programmed_Airline_Reservation_System \"Programmed Airline Reservation System\") (Programmed Airline Reservation System), which ran on any member of the IBM System/360 family and thus could support any sized airline. The operating system component of PARS evolved into [ACP](/wiki/IBM_Airline_Control_Program \"IBM Airline Control Program\") (*Airlines Control Program*), and later to [TPF](/wiki/Transaction_Processing_Facility \"Transaction Processing Facility\") (*Transaction Processing Facility*). Application programs were originally written in [assembly language](/wiki/Assembly_language \"Assembly language\"), later in [SabreTalk](/wiki/SabreTalk \"SabreTalk\"), a proprietary dialect of [PL/I](/wiki/PL/I \"PL/I\"), and now in [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") and C\\+\\+.", "By the 1980s, SABRE offered airline reservations through the [CompuServe Information Service](/wiki/CompuServe \"CompuServe\"), and General Electric's [GEnie](/wiki/GEnie \"GEnie\") under the Eaasy SABRE brand.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec\\=travel\\&res\\=950DE0D6163AF930A15751C1A96F948260\\|title\\=More Trips Start at a Home Computer\\|author\\=Philip S. Gutis\\|work\\=New York Times\\|date\\=1989\\-12\\-23\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-18\\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-12\\-10\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210105738/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec\\=travel\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9E0CE2D7163EF931A25752C0A964958260\\&sec\\=\\&spon\\=\\&pagewanted\\=all\\|title\\=Booking With a Computer\\|author\\=Peter H. Lewis\\|work\\=New York Times\\|date\\=1992\\-01\\-12\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-18\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-07\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307212652/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\\=9E0CE2D7163EF931A25752C0A964958260\\|url\\-status\\=live}} This service was extended to [America Online](/wiki/America_Online \"America Online\") (AOL) in the 1990s.", "American and Sabre separated on March 15, 2000\\. Sabre had been a publicly traded corporation, [Sabre Holdings](/wiki/Sabre_Holdings \"Sabre Holdings\"), stock symbol TSG on the [New York Stock Exchange](/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange \"New York Stock Exchange\") until taken private in March 2007\\. The corporation introduced the new logo and changed from the all\\-caps acronym \"SABRE\" to the mixed\\-case \"Sabre Holdings\", when the new corporation was formed. The [Travelocity](/wiki/Travelocity \"Travelocity\") website, introduced in 1996, was owned by Sabre Holdings.{{cite news\n \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\n \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/business/12deal.html\n \\|title\\=2 Firms Pay $4\\.3 Billion for Sabre\n \\|author\\=Andrew Ross Sorkin\n \\|date\\=December 12, 2006\n \\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2019\n \\|archive\\-date\\=June 10, 2021\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610150510/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/business/12deal.html\n \\|url\\-status\\=live\n }} Travelocity was acquired by [Expedia](/wiki/Expedia \"Expedia\") in January 2015\\.{{Cite news\n \\|url\\=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2015/01/23/expedia\\-buys\\-travelocity\\-for\\-280\\-million\\-in\\-cash/?\\_r\\=1\n \\|title\\=Expedia Buys Travelocity for $280 million in cash\n \\|author\\=Michael J. De La Merced\n \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\n \\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-23\n \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-05\n \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-11\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511185819/https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2015/01/23/expedia\\-buys\\-travelocity\\-for\\-280\\-million\\-in\\-cash/?\\_r\\=1\n \\|url\\-status\\=live\n }} Sabre Holdings' three remaining business units, Sabre Travel Network, Sabre Airline Solutions and Sabre Hospitality, today serves as a global travel technology company.", "" ]
Controversy ----------- A 1982 study"November Line of Sale Analysis", memo to R. E. Murray from S. D. Nason, American Airlines, Dec. 3, 1981\. by American Airlines found that travel agents selected the flight appearing on the first line more than half the time. Ninety\-two percent of the time, the selected flight was on the first screen. This provided a huge incentive for American to manipulate its ranking formula, or even corrupt the search algorithm outright, to favor American flights over its competitors in the results of flight search results, and the airline did not resist the temptation. At first this was limited to juggling the relative importance of factors such as the length of the flight, how close the actual departure time was to the desired time, and whether the flight had a connection, but with each success American became bolder. In late 1981, [New York Air](/wiki/New_York_Air "New York Air") added a flight from [La Guardia](/wiki/LaGuardia_Airport "LaGuardia Airport") to [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit "Detroit"), challenging American in an important market. Before long, the new flights suddenly started appearing at the bottom of the screen."Motion of the Justice Department for an Extension of Time", in *Re Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking – Airline Computer Reservations System*, Docket 41686, Civil Aeronautics Board, Oct. 5, 1983 Its reservations dried up, and it was forced to cut back from eight Detroit flights a day to none. On one occasion, Sabre deliberately withheld [Continental](/wiki/Continental_Airlines "Continental Airlines")'s discount fares on 49 routes where American competed.Memo from J. L. Ott to L. A. Iovinelli *et al.*, "Subject: Continental Fares", American Airlines, Dec. 1, 1981\. A Sabre staffer had been directed to work on a program that would automatically suppress any discount fares loaded into the system. Congress investigated these practices, and in 1983 [Bob Crandall](/wiki/Bob_Crandall "Bob Crandall"), president of American, vocally defended the airline's preferential treatment of its own offerings in the system. "The preferential display of our flights, and the corresponding increase in our market share, is the competitive *raison d'être* for having created the system in the first place," he told them. The U.S. government disagreed, and in 1984 it outlawed the biasing practices for the search results.{{cite book \|last1\=Truxal \|first1\=Steven \|title\=Competition and Regulation in the Airline Industry: Puppets in Chaos \|chapter\=Development of practical and strategic alliances \|location\=United Kingdom \|publisher\=Routledge \|date\=January 4, 2013 \|page\=49 }} The fairness rules were eliminated or allowed to expire in 2010\. By then, none of the major distribution systems was majority owned by the airlines.The original notice of rule making is available from the U.S. Department of Transportation at {{cite web \|url\=http://www.dot.gov/affairs/CRSrule.htm \|access\-date\=May 4, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070406033413/http://www.dot.gov/affairs/CRSrule.htm \|archive\-date\=April 6, 2007 \|title\=Computer Reservations System (CRS) Regulations (Part 255\); Statements of General Policy (Part 399\)}}, and a PDF document of the final rule is at {{cite web\|title\=Computer Reservations System (CRS) Regulations \|url\=http://www.travelweekly.com/specialreports/GDSrule.pdf \|access\-date\=May 4, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060702174342/http://www.travelweekly.com/specialreports/GDSrule.pdf \|archive\-date\=July 2, 2006 \|via\=Travel Weekly \|publisher\=\[\[U.S. Department of Transportation]]}}. In 1987 Sabre's success of selling to European travel agents was inhibited by the refusal of big European carriers led by [British Airways](/wiki/British_Airways "British Airways") to grant the system ticketing authority for their flights even though Sabre had obtained [IATA](/wiki/IATA "IATA") Billing and Settlement Plan (BSP) clearance for the [UK](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") in 1986\. American brought High Court action which alleged that after the arrival of Sabre on its doorstep British Airways immediately offered financial incentives to travel agents who continued to use [Travicom](/wiki/Travicom "Travicom") and would tie any override commissions to it.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1987/1987%20\-%201976\.html \|title\=Flight Global \|publisher\=Flight Global \|date\=October 10, 1987 \|access\-date\=2011\-11\-03 \|archive\-date\=2018\-05\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509080431/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1987/1987%20\-%201976\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Travicom was created by [Videcom](/wiki/Videcom_international "Videcom international"), British Airways and [British Caledonian](/wiki/British_Caledonian "British Caledonian") and launched in 1976 as the world's first multi\-access reservations system based on Videcom technology which eventually became part of [Galileo](/wiki/Galileo_%28computer_system%29 "Galileo (computer system)") UK. It connected 49 subscribing international airlines (including British Airways, British Caledonian, [TWA](/wiki/TWA "TWA"), [Pan American World Airways](/wiki/Pan_American_World_Airways "Pan American World Airways"), [Qantas](/wiki/Qantas "Qantas"), [Singapore Airlines](/wiki/Singapore_Airlines "Singapore Airlines"), [Air France](/wiki/Air_France "Air France"), [Lufthansa](/wiki/Lufthansa "Lufthansa"), [SAS](/wiki/Scandinavian_Airlines_System "Scandinavian Airlines System"), [Air Canada](/wiki/Air_Canada "Air Canada"), [KLM](/wiki/KLM "KLM"), [Alitalia](/wiki/Alitalia "Alitalia"), [Cathay Pacific](/wiki/Cathay_Pacific "Cathay Pacific") and [JAL](/wiki/Japan_Airlines "Japan Airlines")) to thousands of travel agents in the UK. It allowed agents and airlines to communicate via a common distribution language and network, handling 97% of UK airline business trade bookings by 1987\. British Airways eventually bought out the stakes in Travicom held by Videcom and British Caledonian, to become the sole owner. Although Sabre's vice\-president in London, David Schwarte, made representations to the U.S. Department of Transportation and the British Monopolies Commission, British Airways defended the use of Travicom as a truly non\-discriminatory system in flight selection because an agent had access to some 50 carriers worldwide, including Sabre, for flight information.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1988/1988%20\-%200486\.html \|title\=Flight Global \|publisher\=Flight Global \|date\=February 27, 1988 \|access\-date\=2011\-11\-03 \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305140155/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1988/1988%20\-%200486\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "Controversy\n-----------", "A 1982 study\"November Line of Sale Analysis\", memo to R. E. Murray from S. D. Nason, American Airlines, Dec. 3, 1981\\. by American Airlines found that travel agents selected the flight appearing on the first line more than half the time. Ninety\\-two percent of the time, the selected flight was on the first screen. This provided a huge incentive for American to manipulate its ranking formula, or even corrupt the search algorithm outright, to favor American flights over its competitors in the results of flight search results, and the airline did not resist the temptation.", "At first this was limited to juggling the relative importance of factors such as the length of the flight, how close the actual departure time was to the desired time, and whether the flight had a connection, but with each success American became bolder. In late 1981, [New York Air](/wiki/New_York_Air \"New York Air\") added a flight from [La Guardia](/wiki/LaGuardia_Airport \"LaGuardia Airport\") to [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit \"Detroit\"), challenging American in an important market. Before long, the new flights suddenly started appearing at the bottom of the screen.\"Motion of the Justice Department for an Extension of Time\", in *Re Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking – Airline Computer Reservations System*, Docket 41686, Civil Aeronautics Board, Oct. 5, 1983 Its reservations dried up, and it was forced to cut back from eight Detroit flights a day to none.", "On one occasion, Sabre deliberately withheld [Continental](/wiki/Continental_Airlines \"Continental Airlines\")'s discount fares on 49 routes where American competed.Memo from J. L. Ott to L. A. Iovinelli *et al.*, \"Subject: Continental Fares\", American Airlines, Dec. 1, 1981\\. A Sabre staffer had been directed to work on a program that would automatically suppress any discount fares loaded into the system.", "Congress investigated these practices, and in 1983 [Bob Crandall](/wiki/Bob_Crandall \"Bob Crandall\"), president of American, vocally defended the airline's preferential treatment of its own offerings in the system. \"The preferential display of our flights, and the corresponding increase in our market share, is the competitive *raison d'être* for having created the system in the first place,\" he told them. The U.S. government disagreed, and in 1984 it outlawed the biasing practices for the search results.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Truxal \\|first1\\=Steven \\|title\\=Competition and Regulation in the Airline Industry: Puppets in Chaos \\|chapter\\=Development of practical and strategic alliances \\|location\\=United Kingdom \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|date\\=January 4, 2013 \\|page\\=49 }}", "The fairness rules were eliminated or allowed to expire in 2010\\. By then, none of the major distribution systems was majority owned by the airlines.The original notice of rule making is available from the U.S. Department of Transportation at {{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.dot.gov/affairs/CRSrule.htm \\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070406033413/http://www.dot.gov/affairs/CRSrule.htm \n \\|archive\\-date\\=April 6, 2007 \\|title\\=Computer Reservations System (CRS) Regulations (Part 255\\); Statements of General Policy (Part 399\\)}}, and a PDF document of the final rule is at {{cite web\\|title\\=Computer Reservations System (CRS) Regulations \\|url\\=http://www.travelweekly.com/specialreports/GDSrule.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=May 4, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060702174342/http://www.travelweekly.com/specialreports/GDSrule.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=July 2, 2006 \\|via\\=Travel Weekly \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[U.S. Department of Transportation]]}}.", "In 1987 Sabre's success of selling to European travel agents was inhibited by the refusal of big European carriers led by [British Airways](/wiki/British_Airways \"British Airways\") to grant the system ticketing authority for their flights even though Sabre had obtained [IATA](/wiki/IATA \"IATA\") Billing and Settlement Plan (BSP) clearance for the [UK](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") in 1986\\. American brought High Court action which alleged that after the arrival of Sabre on its doorstep British Airways immediately offered financial incentives to travel agents who continued to use [Travicom](/wiki/Travicom \"Travicom\") and would tie any override commissions to it.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1987/1987%20\\-%201976\\.html \\|title\\=Flight Global \\|publisher\\=Flight Global \\|date\\=October 10, 1987 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-03 \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509080431/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1987/1987%20\\-%201976\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Travicom was created by [Videcom](/wiki/Videcom_international \"Videcom international\"), British Airways and [British Caledonian](/wiki/British_Caledonian \"British Caledonian\") and launched in 1976 as the world's first multi\\-access reservations system based on Videcom technology which eventually became part of [Galileo](/wiki/Galileo_%28computer_system%29 \"Galileo (computer system)\") UK. It connected 49 subscribing international airlines (including British Airways, British Caledonian, [TWA](/wiki/TWA \"TWA\"), [Pan American World Airways](/wiki/Pan_American_World_Airways \"Pan American World Airways\"), [Qantas](/wiki/Qantas \"Qantas\"), [Singapore Airlines](/wiki/Singapore_Airlines \"Singapore Airlines\"), [Air France](/wiki/Air_France \"Air France\"), [Lufthansa](/wiki/Lufthansa \"Lufthansa\"), [SAS](/wiki/Scandinavian_Airlines_System \"Scandinavian Airlines System\"), [Air Canada](/wiki/Air_Canada \"Air Canada\"), [KLM](/wiki/KLM \"KLM\"), [Alitalia](/wiki/Alitalia \"Alitalia\"), [Cathay Pacific](/wiki/Cathay_Pacific \"Cathay Pacific\") and [JAL](/wiki/Japan_Airlines \"Japan Airlines\")) to thousands of travel agents in the UK. It allowed agents and airlines to communicate via a common distribution language and network, handling 97% of UK airline business trade bookings by 1987\\.", "British Airways eventually bought out the stakes in Travicom held by Videcom and British Caledonian, to become the sole owner. Although Sabre's vice\\-president in London, David Schwarte, made representations to the U.S. Department of Transportation and the British Monopolies Commission, British Airways defended the use of Travicom as a truly non\\-discriminatory system in flight selection because an agent had access to some 50 carriers worldwide, including Sabre, for flight information.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1988/1988%20\\-%200486\\.html \\|title\\=Flight Global \\|publisher\\=Flight Global \\|date\\=February 27, 1988 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-11\\-03 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305140155/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1988/1988%20\\-%200486\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
The collision ------------- Having just completed her overhaul at the Gulf Tampa Drydock Company, which included overhaul of the main propulsion generators, *Blackthorn* was outward bound from Tampa Bay on the night of 28 January 1980\. Meanwhile, the tanker *Capricorn*, owned by Kingston Shipping Company and operated by Apex Marine Corporation of New York, was standing (traveling with right\-of\-way) into the bay. *Blackthorn*{{'}}s captain, Lieutenant Commander George Sepel, had departed the ship's bridge to investigate a problem with the newly installed propulsion shaft. Ensign John Ryan had the conn. Earlier the cutter had been overtaken by the Russian passenger ship *Kazakhstan*. When requested by *Kazakhstan* to pass, the *Blackthorn* navigated [starboard](/wiki/Starboard "Starboard") permitting *Kazakhstan* to complete the maneuver. The *Blackthorn* then navigated to almost mid\-channel and resumed course. (Some contend that the brightly lit passenger vessel obscured the ability of the crews of *Blackthorn* and *Capricorn* to see each other.) *Capricorn* began to turn left, but this course would not allow *Capricorn* and *Blackthorn* to pass [port](/wiki/Port_and_starboard "Port and starboard")\-to\-port, as the rules of navigation generally required. Unable to make radio contact with *Blackthorn*, *Capricorn*{{'}}s [pilot](/wiki/Maritime_pilot "Maritime pilot") blew two short whistle blasts to have the ships pass [starboard](/wiki/Port_and_starboard "Port and starboard")\-to\-starboard. With the *Blackthorn*{{'}}s [officer of the deck](/wiki/Officer_of_the_deck "Officer of the deck") (Ensign Ryan) confused in regard to the standard operating procedure and [rules of navigation](/wiki/International_Regulations_for_Preventing_Collisions_at_Sea "International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea"), *Blackthorn*{{'}}s captain issued orders for evasive action. Despite the *Blackthorn*{{'}}s evasive action, a collision occurred. Damage to the *Blackthorn* from the initial impact was not extensive. However, *Capricorn*{{'}}s anchor was ready to be let go. The anchor became embedded in the *Blackthorn*{{'}}s hull and ripped open the port side above the water line. Then as the two ships backed away from each other, the chain became taut. The force of the much larger ship pulling on it caused *Blackthorn* to tip on her side until she suddenly capsized. Six off\-duty personnel who had mustered when they heard the collision alarm were trapped inside the ship. Several crew members who had just reported aboard tried to escape and in the process trapped themselves in the engine room. Although 27 crewmen survived the collision, 23 perished. Primary responsibility for the collision was placed on the *Blackthorn*{{'}}s captain, Lt. Commander Sepel, as he had made an inexperienced junior officer (Ensign Ryan) officer of the deck and allowed him to navigate the ship through an unfamiliar waterway with heavy traffic. The Commandant of the United States Coast Guard, Admiral [John B. Hayes](/wiki/John_B._Hayes "John B. Hayes"), approved the report of the marine board of investigation on the collision between *Blackthorn* and *Capricorn*. The board determined that the cause of the collision was the failure of both vessels to keep well to the side of the channel which lay on each ship's starboard (right) sides. Concurring with the marine board's determination of the cause, the Commandant emphasized in his "Action" that the failure of the persons in charge of both vessels to ascertain the intentions of the other through the exchange of appropriate whistle signals was the primary contributing cause. Additionally, Admiral Hayes pointed out that attempts to establish a passing agreement by using only radiotelephone communications failed to be an adequate substitute for exchanging proper whistle signals. The marine board found evidence of violation of various navigation laws on the parts of *Capricorn*{{'}}s master and pilot. There were similar findings on the part of *Blackthorn*{{'}}s commanding officer and officer of the deck. These matters were referred to the commanders of the Seventh and Eighth Coast Guard Districts for further investigation and appropriate action. The Commandant also acted on various safety recommendations made by the marine board concerning training and equipment aboard Coast Guard vessels, and navigation considerations in Tampa Bay.
[ "The collision\n-------------", "Having just completed her overhaul at the Gulf Tampa Drydock Company, which included overhaul of the main propulsion generators, *Blackthorn* was outward bound from Tampa Bay on the night of 28 January 1980\\. Meanwhile, the tanker *Capricorn*, owned by Kingston Shipping Company and operated by Apex Marine Corporation of New York, was standing (traveling with right\\-of\\-way) into the bay. *Blackthorn*{{'}}s captain, Lieutenant Commander George Sepel, had departed the ship's bridge to investigate a problem with the newly installed propulsion shaft. Ensign John Ryan had the conn.", "Earlier the cutter had been overtaken by the Russian passenger ship *Kazakhstan*. When requested by *Kazakhstan* to pass, the *Blackthorn* navigated [starboard](/wiki/Starboard \"Starboard\") permitting *Kazakhstan* to complete the maneuver. The *Blackthorn* then navigated to almost mid\\-channel and resumed course. (Some contend that the brightly lit passenger vessel obscured the ability of the crews of *Blackthorn* and *Capricorn* to see each other.)", "*Capricorn* began to turn left, but this course would not allow *Capricorn* and *Blackthorn* to pass [port](/wiki/Port_and_starboard \"Port and starboard\")\\-to\\-port, as the rules of navigation generally required. Unable to make radio contact with *Blackthorn*, *Capricorn*{{'}}s [pilot](/wiki/Maritime_pilot \"Maritime pilot\") blew two short whistle blasts to have the ships pass [starboard](/wiki/Port_and_starboard \"Port and starboard\")\\-to\\-starboard. With the *Blackthorn*{{'}}s [officer of the deck](/wiki/Officer_of_the_deck \"Officer of the deck\") (Ensign Ryan) confused in regard to the standard operating procedure and [rules of navigation](/wiki/International_Regulations_for_Preventing_Collisions_at_Sea \"International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea\"), *Blackthorn*{{'}}s captain issued orders for evasive action. Despite the *Blackthorn*{{'}}s evasive action, a collision occurred.", "Damage to the *Blackthorn* from the initial impact was not extensive. However, *Capricorn*{{'}}s anchor was ready to be let go. The anchor became embedded in the *Blackthorn*{{'}}s hull and ripped open the port side above the water line. Then as the two ships backed away from each other, the chain became taut. The force of the much larger ship pulling on it caused *Blackthorn* to tip on her side until she suddenly capsized. Six off\\-duty personnel who had mustered when they heard the collision alarm were trapped inside the ship. Several crew members who had just reported aboard tried to escape and in the process trapped themselves in the engine room. Although 27 crewmen survived the collision, 23 perished.", "Primary responsibility for the collision was placed on the *Blackthorn*{{'}}s captain, Lt. Commander Sepel, as he had made an inexperienced junior officer (Ensign Ryan) officer of the deck and allowed him to navigate the ship through an unfamiliar waterway with heavy traffic.", "The Commandant of the United States Coast Guard, Admiral [John B. Hayes](/wiki/John_B._Hayes \"John B. Hayes\"), approved the report of the marine board of investigation on the collision between *Blackthorn* and *Capricorn*. The board determined that the cause of the collision was the failure of both vessels to keep well to the side of the channel which lay on each ship's starboard (right) sides. Concurring with the marine board's determination of the cause, the Commandant emphasized in his \"Action\" that the failure of the persons in charge of both vessels to ascertain the intentions of the other through the exchange of appropriate whistle signals was the primary contributing cause. Additionally, Admiral Hayes pointed out that attempts to establish a passing agreement by using only radiotelephone communications failed to be an adequate substitute for exchanging proper whistle signals.", "The marine board found evidence of violation of various navigation laws on the parts of *Capricorn*{{'}}s master and pilot. There were similar findings on the part of *Blackthorn*{{'}}s commanding officer and officer of the deck. These matters were referred to the commanders of the Seventh and Eighth Coast Guard Districts for further investigation and appropriate action.", "The Commandant also acted on various safety recommendations made by the marine board concerning training and equipment aboard Coast Guard vessels, and navigation considerations in Tampa Bay.", "" ]
Society and traditional culture ------------------------------- {{Main\|Romani society and culture}} [right\|thumb\|[Münster, Sebastian](/wiki/Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster "Sebastian Münster") (1552\), "A Gipsy Family", The [*Cosmographia*](/wiki/Cosmographia_%28Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster%29 "Cosmographia (Sebastian Münster)") (facsimile of a woodcut), Basle](/wiki/File:A_Gipsy_Family_Fac_simile_of_a_Woodcut_in_the_Cosmographie_Universelle_of_Munster_in_folio_Basle_1552_%28no_caption%29.png "A Gipsy Family Fac simile of a Woodcut in the Cosmographie Universelle of Munster in folio Basle 1552 (no caption).png") [thumb\|Nomadic Romani family travelling in [Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia "Moldavia"), 1837](/wiki/File:Auguste_Raffet%2C_Famille_tsigane_en_voyage_en_Moldavie%2C_1837.jpg "Auguste Raffet, Famille tsigane en voyage en Moldavie, 1837.jpg") The traditional Romanies place a high value on the [extended family](/wiki/Extended_family "Extended family"). Traditionally, [virginity](/wiki/Virginity "Virginity") is essential in unmarried women. However, Eastern European Roma are more likely to find it acceptable for girls to have sex before marriage compared to other Eastern Europeans.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Želinský \|first1\=Tomáš \|last2\=Gorard \|first2\=Stephen \|last3\=Siddiqui \|first3\=Nadia \|date\=2021\-05\-19 \|title\=Increasing understanding of the aspirations and expectations of Roma students \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1080/01425692\.2021\.1872366 \|journal\=British Journal of Sociology of Education \|volume\=42 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=588–606 \|doi\=10\.1080/01425692\.2021\.1872366 \|issn\=0142\-5692}} Both men and women often marry young; there has been controversy in several countries over the Romani practice of [child marriage](/wiki/Child_marriage "Child marriage").{{Cite news \|date\=2003\-10\-02 \|title\=Gypsy child couple separated \|language\=en\-GB \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3159818\.stm \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-08}} Romani law establishes that the man's family must pay a [bride price](/wiki/Bride_price "Bride price") to the bride's parents, but only traditional families still follow it. Once married, the woman joins the husband's family, where her main job is to tend to her husband's and her children's needs and take care of her in\-laws. The power structure in the traditional Romani household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather, and men, in general, have more authority than women. Women gain respect and power as they get older. Young wives begin gaining authority once they have children.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Surdu \|first1\=Laura \|last2\=Surdu \|first2\=Mihai \|date\=2006 \|title\=Family Life \|journal\=Broadening the Agenda \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep27094\.9 \|pages\=31–42}} Traditionally, as can be seen on paintings and photos, some Romani men wear shoulder\-length hair and a mustache, as well as an earring. Romani women generally have long hair, and Xoraxane Romani women often dye it blonde with henna.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=1niHEAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT87\|title\=Gypsies, Roma and Travellers: A Contemporary Analysis\|first\=Declan\|last\=Henry\|date\=7 September 2022\|publisher\=Critical Publishing\|isbn\=978\-1\-915080\-05\-9 \|via\=Google Books}} Romani [social behavior](/wiki/Social_behavior "Social behavior") has traditionally been regulated by Indian social customs{{Citation \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=FQT2Gp16j68C\&pg\=PA210 \|title\=Gypsy Law: Romani Legal Traditions and Culture \|page\=210 \|first\=Walter Otto \|last\=Weyrauch \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=University of California Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-520\-22186\-4\|quote\=Rom have preserved and modified Indian caste system}} ("[marime](/wiki/Marime "Marime")" or "marhime") which are still respected by most Roma (and by most older generations of [Sinti](/wiki/Sinti "Sinti")). This regulation affects many aspects of life and is applied to actions, people and things: parts of [the human body](/wiki/Human_anatomy "Human anatomy") are considered impure: the [genital organs](/wiki/Sex_organ "Sex organ") (because they produce emissions) and the rest of the lower body. Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of [menstruating](/wiki/Menstruation "Menstruation") women, are washed separately. Items used for eating are also washed in a different place. Childbirth is considered impure and must occur outside the dwelling place. The mother is deemed to be impure for forty days after giving birth.{{cite web\|url\=https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf\_docs/PNADM192\.pdf\|title\=INTRODUCTION TO ROMA CULTURE}} Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead, who remain impure for a period of time. In contrast to the practice of [cremating](/wiki/Cremation "Cremation") the dead, Romani dead must be buried.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/death.htm \|title\=Romani Customs and Traditions: Death Rituals and Customs \|publisher\=Patrin Web Journal \|access\-date\=26 August 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821022337/http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/death.htm \|archive\-date\=21 August 2007}} Cremation and burial are both known from the time of the [Rigveda](/wiki/Rigveda "Rigveda"), and both are widely practiced in [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") today (the general tendency is for Hindus to practice cremation, though some communities in modern\-day south India tend to bury their dead).{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hindugateway.com/library/rituals/ \|title\=The Journey of a Lifebody \|publisher\=hindugateway.com \|date\=1991 \|access\-date\=26 May 2008 \|first\=David M. \|last\=Knipe \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930232759/http://www.hindugateway.com/library/rituals/ \|archive\-date\=30 September 2008}} Animals that are considered to be having unclean habits are not eaten by the community.{{sfn\|Hancock\|2001\|p\=81}} ### Belonging and exclusion {{Main\|Romanipen\|Gadjo (non\-Romani)}} In Romani philosophy, *Romanipen* (also *romanypen*, *romanipe*, *romanype*, *romanimos*, *romaimos*, *romaniya*) is the totality of the Romani spirit, [Romani culture](/wiki/Romani_society_and_culture "Romani society and culture"), [Romani Law](/wiki/Kris_%28Romani_court%29 "Kris (Romani court)"), being a Romani, a set of Romani strains.{{cite book\|title\=Inward Looking: The Impact of Migration on Romanipe from the Romani Perspective\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Kl2jDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA38\|author\=Aleksandar G. Marinov\| date\=3 October 2019 \| publisher\=Berghahn Books \|isbn\=978\-1\-78920\-362\-2}} An ethnic Rom is considered a [gadjo](/wiki/Gadjo_%28non-Romani%29 "Gadjo (non-Romani)") in Romani society if they have no *Romanipen*. Sometimes a non\-Rom may be considered a Rom if they do have *Romanipen*. Usually this is an adopted child. It has been hypothesized that this owes more to a [framework of culture](/wiki/Cultural_framework "Cultural framework") than a simple adherence to historically received rules.{{cite book \|last1\=Saul \|first1\=Nicholas \|first2\=Susan \|last2\=Tebbut \|title\=The Role of the Romanies: Images and Counter\-Images of 'Gypsies'/Romanies in European Cultures \|editor1\-first\=Nicholas \|editor1\-last\=Saul \|editor2\-first\=Susan \|editor2\-last\=Tebbutt \|publisher\=Liverpool University Press \|year\=2005 \|pages\=218–219 \|isbn\=978\-0\-85323\-689\-4 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=AQw6qOCNj\-UC\&pg\=PA218}} ### Religion [thumb\|Christian Romanies during the pilgrimage to [Saintes\-Maries\-de\-la\-Mer](/wiki/Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer "Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer") in France, 1980s](/wiki/File:Tziganes_aux_Saintes-Maries_de_la_Mer.jpg "Tziganes aux Saintes-Maries de la Mer.jpg") [thumb\|Two Orthodox Christian Romanies in [Cluj\-Napoca](/wiki/Cluj-Napoca "Cluj-Napoca"), [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania")](/wiki/File:Two_Gypsies_in_Cluj-Napoka%2C_Romania.jpg "Two Gypsies in Cluj-Napoka, Romania.jpg") [thumb\|Rom and bear ([Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade "Belgrade"), Banovo brdo, 1980s)](/wiki/File:Gipsy_and_bear.jpg "Gipsy and bear.jpg") Most Roma are [Christian](/wiki/Christians "Christians"),{{Cite book\|title\=The Columbia Encyclopedia \|publisher\=Columbia University Press \|year\=2018 \|edition\=8th \|location\=New York, NY \|via\=Credo Reference}} but many are [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim_Romani_people "Muslim Romani people"); some retained their ancient faith of [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") from their original homeland of India, while others have their own religion and political organization.{{citation \|author\=G. L. Lewis \|contribution\=ČINGĀNE \|title\=The Encyclopaedia of Islam \|edition\=2nd \|volume\=2 \|publisher\=Brill \|year\=1991 \|pages\=40a–41b \|isbn\=978\-90\-04\-07026\-4 \|title\-link\=The Encyclopaedia of Islam}} In parts of [Southeast Europe](/wiki/Southeast_Europe "Southeast Europe"), particularly in Bulgaria, some Roma who are Muslim identify as ethnic Turks, and over generations have adopted the [Turkish language](/wiki/Turkish_language "Turkish language").{{Cite web \|last1\=Marushiakova \|first1\=Elena \|last2\=Popov \|first2\=Vesselin \|date\=2018 \|title\=Roma Communities on the Balkans: History and Identities \|url\=https://research\-repository.st\-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/15711/MarushiakovaPopov\_2018\_Balkania\_Roma\_ENG.pdf;jsessionid\=577200CD1437859B3389B0C9E020CD3E?sequence\=1 \|pages\=13–14}} [Theravada Buddhism](/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism "Theravada Buddhism") influenced by the [Dalit Buddhist movement](/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement "Dalit Buddhist movement") have become popular in recent times among Hungarian Roma. Some Roma practice [witchcraft](/wiki/Witchcraft "Witchcraft") and [palmistry](/wiki/Palmistry "Palmistry").{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GpfSDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA391\|title\=The Wiley\-Blackwell Companion to Religion and Social Justice\|isbn\=978\-1\-119\-57210\-7 \|last1\=Palmer \|first1\=Michael D. \|last2\=Burgess \|first2\=Stanley M. \|date\=13 April 2020 \|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons }} #### Beliefs The modern\-day Roma often adopted Christianity or Islam depending on which was the dominant religion in the regions through which they had migrated.{{cite web \|year\=2008–2012 \|title\=Restless Beings Project: Roma Engage \|url\=http://www.restlessbeings.org/projects/roma\-gypsies \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101021139/http://www.restlessbeings.org/projects/roma\-gypsies \|archive\-date\=1 January 2013 \|access\-date\=26 December 2012 \|publisher\=Restless Beings}} It is likely that the adherence to differing religions prevented families from engaging in intermarriage.{{cite book \|last1\=Boretzky \|first1\=Norbert \|title\=Romani in Contact: The History, Structure and Sociology of a Language \|date\=1995 \|publisher\=John Benjamins \|location\=Amsterdam, \[\[Netherlands\|NL]] \|page\=70}} In [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe "Eastern Europe"), most Roma are [Orthodox Christians](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy "Eastern Orthodoxy"), [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims "Muslims") or [Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church").{{Cite book \|last1\=Liégeois \|first1\=Jean\-Pierre \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=W7l\-fGIA2ZkC\&pg\=PA89 \|title\=Roma, Gypsies, Travellers \|date\=1 January 1994 \|publisher\=Council of Europe \|isbn\=978\-92\-871\-2349\-7}} In Bulgaria, Greece, Moldova, Romania and Serbia, the majority of Romani inhabitants are Orthodox Christians. In Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Kosovo, the majority are Muslims. In Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia, the majority are Catholics. In [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe "Western Europe"), the majority of Romani inhabitants are Catholic or [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism"). In [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea "Crimea") and [Middle Eastern](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East") countries such as Turkey, Egypt, [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") and Iran, the majority of Romani inhabitants are Muslim. In the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), the majority of Romani inhabitants adhere to some branch of Christianity.{{Cite book \|last\=Cortés \|first\=Carlos E. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=W2MWDAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA1850 \|title\=Multicultural America: A Multimedia Encyclopedia \|date\=2013\-08\-15 \|publisher\=SAGE Publications \|isbn\=978\-1\-5063\-3278\-9 \|page\=1850 \|language\=en}}[thumb\|Members of the [Cofradía de los Gitanos](/wiki/Cofrad%C3%ADa_de_los_Gitanos_%28M%C3%A1laga%29 "Cofradía de los Gitanos (Málaga)") parading the "throne" of Mary of the O during the [Holy Week in Malaga](/wiki/Holy_Week_in_Malaga "Holy Week in Malaga"), Spain](/wiki/File:Gitanos_-_Trono.jpg "Gitanos - Trono.jpg") #### Deities and saints [Blessed Ceferino Giménez Malla](/wiki/Ceferino_Gim%C3%A9nez_Malla "Ceferino Giménez Malla") is recently considered a patron saint of the Roma in Roman Catholicism.{{cite web \|title\=Blessed Ceferino Gimenez Malla 1861–1936 \|url\=http://www.savior.org/saints/malla.htm \|website\=Visit the Saviour \|publisher\=Voveo \|access\-date\=26 December 2012 \|date\=December 2012 \|archive\-date\=5 February 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205130932/http://www.savior.org/saints/malla.htm \|url\-status\=dead }} [Saint Sarah](/wiki/Saint_Sarah "Saint Sarah"), or Sara e Kali, has also been venerated as a patron saint in her shrine at [Saintes\-Maries\-de\-la\-Mer](/wiki/Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer "Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer"), France.{{cite book \|last1\=La Bas \|first1\=Damian \|title\=The Stopping Places: A journey through Gypsy Britain \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=\[\[Chatto \& Windus]] \|isbn\=9781784741037 \|pages\=179 \& 190}} Since the turn of the 21st century, [Sara e Kali](/wiki/Sara_e_Kali "Sara e Kali") is understood to have been [Kali](/wiki/Kali "Kali"), an Indian deity brought from India by the refugee ancestors of the Roma; as the Roma became Christianized, she was absorbed in a syncretic way and venerated as a saint. [thumb\|upright\=1\.15\|Gypsy [fortune\-teller](/wiki/Fortune-telling "Fortune-telling") in Poland, by [Antoni Kozakiewicz](/wiki/Antoni_Kozakiewicz "Antoni Kozakiewicz"), 1884](/wiki/File:Antoni_Kozakiewicz_-_Kartomantka.jpg "Antoni Kozakiewicz - Kartomantka.jpg") Saint Sarah is now increasingly being considered as "a Romani Goddess, the Protectress of the Roma" and an "indisputable link with Mother India".{{cite web \|title\=The Romani Goddess Kali Sara \|url\=http://kopachi.com/articles/the\-romani\-goddess\-kali\-sara\-ronald\-lee/ \|website\=Romano Kapachi \|access\-date\=26 December 2012 \|first\=Ronald \|last\=Lee \|year\=2002 }}{{cite book \|chapter\-url\=http://radoc.net/radoc.php?doc\=art\_b\_history\_romanireligion⟨\=en\&articles\=true \|author\=Ian Hancock \|date\=2001 \|chapter\=Romani ("Gypsy") Religion \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature \|editor1\=Jeff Kaplan \|editor2\=Bron Taylor \|editor3\=Samuel S. Hill \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925154755/http://radoc.net/radoc.php?doc\=art\_b\_history\_romanireligion⟨\=en\&articles\=true \|archive\-date\=25 September 2011 \|via\=Radoc \|access\-date\=12 October 2023 \|url\-status\=live}} #### The Balkans/Southeast Europe [thumb\|Costume of a Romani woman](/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Studio_Shot_of_European_in_Gypsy_Costume_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs.jpg "Brooklyn Museum - Studio Shot of European in Gypsy Costume One of 274 Vintage Photographs.jpg") [thumb\|*Gipsy Woman*, [Stanisław Masłowski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Mas%C5%82owski "Stanisław Masłowski"), [watercolour](/wiki/Watercolour "Watercolour"), [1877](/wiki/1877 "1877")](/wiki/File:Stanis%C5%82aw_Mas%C5%82owski_%281853-1926%29_Gypsy_Woman_Cyganka%2C_watercolour_akwarela_3%2C_twice_corrected.jpg "Stanisław Masłowski (1853-1926) Gypsy Woman Cyganka, watercolour akwarela 3, twice corrected.jpg") For the Romani communities that have resided in [Southeast Europe](/wiki/Southeast_Europe "Southeast Europe") for numerous centuries, the following apply with regard to religious beliefs: * Albania \- The majority of the Romani population in Albania is Muslim.{{Cite web \|last\=Koinova \|first\=Maria \|editor\-last\=Dimitras \|editor\-first\=Panayote \|title\=Roma of Albania \|url\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/131933442\.pdf \|website\=CORE \|publisher\=Center for Documentation and Information on Minorities in Europe \- Southeast Europe \|page\=3}} * Bosnia and Herzegovina – The majority of the Romani population in Bosnia and Herzegovina is Muslim. * Bulgaria – The majority of the Romani population in Bulgaria is Christian (mostly Orthodox). In northwestern Bulgaria, in addition to Sofia and Kyustendil, Christianity is the dominant faith among the Roma, and a major conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity among the Roma has occurred. In southeastern Bulgaria, Islam is the dominant religion among the Roma, with a smaller section of the Roma declaring themselves as "Turks", continuing to mix ethnicity with Islam.{{cite web \|title \=Roma Muslims in the Balkans \|url\=http://romafacts.uni\-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma\-muslims\-in\-the\-balkans \|website\=Education of Roma Children in Europe \|publisher\=Council of Europe \|access\-date\=26 December 2012 \|first1\=Elena \|last1\=Marushiakova \|first2\=Veselin \|last2\=Popov \|year\=2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413184328/http://romafacts.uni\-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma\-muslims\-in\-the\-balkans \|archive\-date\=13 April 2012}} [thumb\|right\|Margarita Cansino (later known as [Rita Hayworth](/wiki/Rita_Hayworth "Rita Hayworth")) with her father and dance partner [Eduardo Cansino](/wiki/Eduardo_Cansino "Eduardo Cansino"), 1933](/wiki/File:Dancing-Cansinos-1933.jpg "Dancing-Cansinos-1933.jpg") * Croatia – The majority of the Romani population in Croatia is Christian (mostly Catholic). After the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), a large number of Muslim Roma relocated to Croatia, the majority moving from Kosovo. Their language differs from those living in Međimurje and those who survived [Romani Holocaust](/wiki/Romani_Holocaust "Romani Holocaust"). * Greece – The majority of the Romani population in Greece is Christian.{{efn\|Muslim Romas were excluded from the \[\[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey\|Deportation of Muslims]] from Greece's new conquered territory following the \[\[First Balkan War]] and presently form the majority of Greece's native Muslim population.}} The descendants of groups, such as Sepečides or Sevljara, Kalpazaja, Filipidži and others, living in Athens, Thessaloniki, central Greece and [Greek Macedonia](/wiki/Macedonia_%28Greece%29 "Macedonia (Greece)") are mostly Orthodox Christians, with Islamic beliefs held by a minority of the population. Following the Peace Treaty of Lausanne of 1923, many Muslim Roma moved to Turkey in the subsequent population exchange between Turkey and Greece. * Hungary – The majority of the Romani population in Hungary is Christian.Kozubik M, Bobakova DF, Mojtova M, Tokovska M, van Dijk JP. Roma Religion: 1775 and 2018 Compared over Time. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Sep 15;19(18\):11645\. doi: 10\.3390/ijerph191811645\. PMID: 36141906; PMCID: PMC9517071\. The country experienced an influx of Muslim Roma during the [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") period in Hungary, who later converted to Catholicism.{{Cite thesis \|title\=Die Baranya in den Jahren 1686 bis 1713: Kontinuität und Wandel in einem ungarischen Komitat nach dem Abzug der Türken \|publisher\=Universitätsverlag \|date\=2005 \|place\=Göttingen \|isbn\=9783938616321 \|first\=Claus Heinrich \|last\=Gattermann \|pages\=87–88 \|language\=German}} [thumb\|upright\|Muslim Romanies in [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina") (around 1900\)](/wiki/File:Muslim_Gypsies_from_Bosnia%2C_illustration%2C_1901.jpg "Muslim Gypsies from Bosnia, illustration, 1901.jpg") * Kosovo – The majority of the Romani population in Kosovo are Muslim and Speak Albanian. Some Roma in Kosovo speak Serbian and are Orthodox Christians.{{Cite web \|last\=Visoka \|first\=Gezim \|title\=6\. Political Parties and Minority Participation: Case of Roma, Ashkalia and Egyptians in Kosovo \|url\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/147602422\.pdf \|website\=CORE \|page\=156}} * Montenegro – The majority of the Romani population in Montenegro is Muslim. * North Macedonia –The majority of the Romani population in North Macedonia is Muslim. * Romania – The majority of the Romani population in Romania is Christian (mostly Orthodox).[Census 2002, by religion](http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/RPL2002INS/vol1/tabele/t51a.pdf). (PDF). INS. Retrieved on 2024\-05\-29\. In [Dobruja](/wiki/Dobruja "Dobruja"), there is a small community that are Muslim and also speak Turkish.{{cite web \|last1\=Marushiakova \|first1\=Elena \|last2\=Popov \|first2\=Veselin \|year\=2012 \|title\=Roma Muslims in the Balkans \|url\=http://romafacts.uni\-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma\-muslims\-in\-the\-balkans \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413184328/http://romafacts.uni\-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma\-muslims\-in\-the\-balkans \|archive\-date\=13 April 2012 \|access\-date\=26 December 2012 \|website\=Education of Roma Children in Europe \|publisher\=Council of Europe}} * Serbia – The majority of the Romani population in Serbia is Christian (mostly Orthodox). There are some Muslim Roma in southern Serbia, who are mainly refugees from Kosovo. * Slovenia – The majority of the Romani population in Slovenia is Christian (mostly Catholic), although a sizeable proportion are Muslim.{{Cite web \|last\=Stropnik \|first\=Nada \|date\=2011 \|title\=Promoting Social Inclusion of Roma \|url\=https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId\=8971\&langId\=en \|website\=Peer Review Social Inclusion EU \|page\=6 \|format\=PDF}} #### Other regions In Ukraine and Russia, the Romani populations are also Muslim as the families of Balkan migrants continue to live in these locations. Their ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the 17th and 18th centuries, but some migrated to Ukraine, southern Russia and the Povolzhie (along the Volga River). Formally, Islam is the religion that these communities align with and the people are recognized for their staunch preservation of the Romani language and identity. In the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia, Romani populations are Roman Catholic, many times adopting and following local, cultural Catholicism as a [syncretic](/wiki/Religious_syncretism "Religious syncretism") system of belief that incorporates distinct Roma beliefs and cultural aspects. For example, many Polish Roma delay their Church wedding due to the belief that sacramental marriage is accompanied by divine ratification, creating a virtually indissoluble union until the couple consummate, after which the sacramental marriage is dissoluble only by the death of a spouse. Therefore, for Polish Roma, once married, one can't ever divorce. Another aspect of Polish Roma's Catholicism is a tradition of pilgrimage to the [Jasna Góra Monastery](/wiki/Jasna_G%C3%B3ra_Monastery "Jasna Góra Monastery").{{Cite web \|last\=Niedźwiecka \|first\=Dorota \|title\=Wiara po romsku \|url\=https://www.przewodnik\-katolicki.pl/Archiwum/2016/Przewodnik\-Katolicki\-40\-2016/Wiara\-i\-Kosciol/Wiara\-po\-romsku}} In southern Spain, many Romanies are [Pentecostal](/wiki/Pentecostalism "Pentecostalism"), but this is a small minority that has emerged in contemporary times. In Egypt, the Roma are split into Christian and Muslim populations.{{Citation \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=hUX4C0qrDmUC\&pg\=PA460 \|title\=Gypsy Council \|page\=460 \|first\=Nicholas C \|last\=Eliopoulos \|year\=2006 \|publisher\=Xlibris Corporation \|isbn\=978\-1\-4653\-3036\-9 }} ### Music {{Main\|Romani music}} [thumb\|27 June 2009: [Fanfare Ciocărlia](/wiki/Fanfare_Cioc%C4%83rlia "Fanfare Ciocărlia") live in [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens")](/wiki/File:20090627_Fanfare_Ciocarlia_group_live_in_Athens_at_Restistance_Festival_by_KOE_2.jpg "20090627 Fanfare Ciocarlia group live in Athens at Restistance Festival by KOE 2.jpg") [thumb\|right\|Street performance during the [Khamoro](/wiki/Khamoro "Khamoro") [World Roma Festival](/wiki/World_Roma_Festival "World Roma Festival") in Prague, 2007](/wiki/File:Khamoro_Roma_Festival_2007_Prague.jpg "Khamoro Roma Festival 2007 Prague.jpg") Romani music plays an important role in central and eastern European countries such as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania, and the style and performance practices of Romani musicians have influenced European [classical composers](/wiki/List_of_classical_music_composers "List of classical music composers") such as [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt "Franz Liszt") and [Johannes Brahms](/wiki/Johannes_Brahms "Johannes Brahms"). The *[lăutari](/wiki/L%C4%83utari "Lăutari")* who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Romani.{{cite book\|title\=Area Handbook for Romania – Volume 550, Issue 160\|page\=100}}{{cite book\|title\=Marketing in a Multicultural World: Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Cultural Identity}} Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the *lăutari* tradition are [Taraful Haiducilor](/wiki/Taraful_Haiducilor "Taraful Haiducilor").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348596804\|title\="Perverting the Taste of the People": Lăutari and the Balkan Question in Romania}} Bulgaria's popular "wedding music", too, is almost exclusively performed by Romani musicians such as [Ivo Papasov](/wiki/Ivo_Papasov "Ivo Papasov"), a virtuoso clarinetist closely associated with this genre and Bulgarian pop\-folk singer [Azis](/wiki/Azis "Azis"). Many famous classical musicians, such as the [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_people "Hungarian people") pianist [Georges Cziffra](/wiki/Georges_Cziffra "Georges Cziffra"), are Romani, as are many prominent performers of [manele](/wiki/Manele "Manele"). [Zdob și Zdub](/wiki/Zdob_%C8%99i_Zdub "Zdob și Zdub"), one of the most prominent rock bands in [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova "Moldova"), although not Romanies themselves, draw heavily on Romani music, as do [Spitalul de Urgență](/wiki/Spitalul_de_Urgen%C8%9B%C4%83 "Spitalul de Urgență") in Romania, [Shantel](/wiki/Shantel "Shantel") in Germany, [Goran Bregović](/wiki/Goran_Bregovi%C4%87 "Goran Bregović") in Serbia, [Darko Rundek](/wiki/Darko_Rundek "Darko Rundek") in Croatia, [Beirut](/wiki/Beirut_%28band%29 "Beirut (band)") and [Gogol Bordello](/wiki/Gogol_Bordello "Gogol Bordello") in the United States. Another tradition of Romani music is the genre of the Romani [brass band](/wiki/Brass_band "Brass band"), with such notable practitioners as [Boban Marković](/wiki/Boban_Markovi%C4%87 "Boban Marković") of Serbia, and the brass *lăutari* groups [Fanfare Ciocărlia](/wiki/Fanfare_Cioc%C4%83rlia "Fanfare Ciocărlia") and Fanfare din Cozmesti of Romania.{{cite book\|title\=Gypsy Music: The Balkans and Beyond\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RHRdDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT125\|author\=Alan Ashton\-Smith \|year\=2017 \|publisher\=Reaktion Books \|isbn\=978\-1\-78023\-865\-4}} The distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced [bolero](/wiki/Bolero "Bolero"), [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz"), and [flamenco](/wiki/Flamenco "Flamenco") (especially *[cante jondo](/wiki/Cante_jondo "Cante jondo")*) in Spain.{{cite book\|title\=Rethinking (In)Security in the European Union: The Migration\-Identity\-Security Nexus\|page\=148}} Dances such as the flamenco and bolero of Spain were influenced by the Roma.{{Citation \|last1\=Martinez \|first1\=Emma \|title\=Flamenco: All You Wanted to Know \|date\=24 February 2011 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Bzd1CTtnjS8C\&pg\=PA21 \|page\=21 \|publisher\=Mel Bay Publications \|format\=\[\[Google books]] \|isbn\=978\-1\-60974\-470\-0}} [Antonio Cansino](/wiki/Antonio_Cansino "Antonio Cansino") blended Romani and Spanish flamenco and is credited with creating modern\-day Spanish dance.{{sfn\|Hancock\|2002\|p\=129}} [The Dancing Cansinos](/wiki/The_Dancing_Cansinos "The Dancing Cansinos") popularized flamenco and bolero dancing in the United States. Famous dancer and actress, [Rita Hayworth](/wiki/Rita_Hayworth "Rita Hayworth"), is the granddaughter of Antonio Cansino. European\-style [gypsy jazz](/wiki/Gypsy_jazz "Gypsy jazz") ("jazz Manouche" or "Sinti jazz") is still widely practiced among the original creators (the Romanie People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist [Django Reinhardt](/wiki/Django_Reinhardt "Django Reinhardt").{{cite book\|title\=Gypsy Jazz: In Search of Django Reinhardt and the Soul of Gypsy Swing}} Contemporary artists in this tradition known internationally include [Stochelo Rosenberg](/wiki/Stochelo_Rosenberg "Stochelo Rosenberg"), [Biréli Lagrène](/wiki/Bir%C3%A9li_Lagr%C3%A8ne "Biréli Lagrène"), [Jimmy Rosenberg](/wiki/Jimmy_Rosenberg "Jimmy Rosenberg"), [Paulus Schäfer](/wiki/Paulus_Sch%C3%A4fer "Paulus Schäfer") and [Tchavolo Schmitt](/wiki/Tchavolo_Schmitt "Tchavolo Schmitt"). The [Roma in Turkey](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Turkey "Romani people in Turkey") have achieved musical acclaim from national and local audiences. Local performers usually perform for special holidays. Their music is usually performed on instruments such as the [darbuka](/wiki/Goblet_drum "Goblet drum"), [gırnata](/wiki/Clarinet "Clarinet") and [cümbüş](/wiki/C%C3%BCmb%C3%BC%C5%9F "Cümbüş").{{Citation \|title\=Cümbüş means fun, Birger Gesthuisen investigates the short history of a 20th\-century folk instrument \|url\=http://www.rootsworld.com/turkey/cumbus.html \|publisher\=RootsWorld}}
[ "Society and traditional culture\n-------------------------------", "{{Main\\|Romani society and culture}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|[Münster, Sebastian](/wiki/Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster \"Sebastian Münster\") (1552\\), \"A Gipsy Family\", The [*Cosmographia*](/wiki/Cosmographia_%28Sebastian_M%C3%BCnster%29 \"Cosmographia (Sebastian Münster)\") (facsimile of a woodcut), Basle](/wiki/File:A_Gipsy_Family_Fac_simile_of_a_Woodcut_in_the_Cosmographie_Universelle_of_Munster_in_folio_Basle_1552_%28no_caption%29.png \"A Gipsy Family Fac simile of a Woodcut in the Cosmographie Universelle of Munster in folio Basle 1552 (no caption).png\")\n[thumb\\|Nomadic Romani family travelling in [Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia \"Moldavia\"), 1837](/wiki/File:Auguste_Raffet%2C_Famille_tsigane_en_voyage_en_Moldavie%2C_1837.jpg \"Auguste Raffet, Famille tsigane en voyage en Moldavie, 1837.jpg\")\nThe traditional Romanies place a high value on the [extended family](/wiki/Extended_family \"Extended family\"). Traditionally, [virginity](/wiki/Virginity \"Virginity\") is essential in unmarried women. However, Eastern European Roma are more likely to find it acceptable for girls to have sex before marriage compared to other Eastern Europeans.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Želinský \\|first1\\=Tomáš \\|last2\\=Gorard \\|first2\\=Stephen \\|last3\\=Siddiqui \\|first3\\=Nadia \\|date\\=2021\\-05\\-19 \\|title\\=Increasing understanding of the aspirations and expectations of Roma students \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1080/01425692\\.2021\\.1872366 \\|journal\\=British Journal of Sociology of Education \\|volume\\=42 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=588–606 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/01425692\\.2021\\.1872366 \\|issn\\=0142\\-5692}} Both men and women often marry young; there has been controversy in several countries over the Romani practice of [child marriage](/wiki/Child_marriage \"Child marriage\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=2003\\-10\\-02 \\|title\\=Gypsy child couple separated \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3159818\\.stm \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-08}} Romani law establishes that the man's family must pay a [bride price](/wiki/Bride_price \"Bride price\") to the bride's parents, but only traditional families still follow it.", "Once married, the woman joins the husband's family, where her main job is to tend to her husband's and her children's needs and take care of her in\\-laws. The power structure in the traditional Romani household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather, and men, in general, have more authority than women. Women gain respect and power as they get older. Young wives begin gaining authority once they have children.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Surdu \\|first1\\=Laura \\|last2\\=Surdu \\|first2\\=Mihai \\|date\\=2006 \\|title\\=Family Life \\|journal\\=Broadening the Agenda \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep27094\\.9 \\|pages\\=31–42}}", "Traditionally, as can be seen on paintings and photos, some Romani men wear shoulder\\-length hair and a mustache, as well as an earring. Romani women generally have long hair, and Xoraxane Romani women often dye it blonde with henna.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1niHEAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT87\\|title\\=Gypsies, Roma and Travellers: A Contemporary Analysis\\|first\\=Declan\\|last\\=Henry\\|date\\=7 September 2022\\|publisher\\=Critical Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-915080\\-05\\-9 \\|via\\=Google Books}}", "Romani [social behavior](/wiki/Social_behavior \"Social behavior\") has traditionally been regulated by Indian social customs{{Citation \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=FQT2Gp16j68C\\&pg\\=PA210 \\|title\\=Gypsy Law: Romani Legal Traditions and Culture \\|page\\=210 \\|first\\=Walter Otto \\|last\\=Weyrauch \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=University of California Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-520\\-22186\\-4\\|quote\\=Rom have preserved and modified Indian caste system}} (\"[marime](/wiki/Marime \"Marime\")\" or \"marhime\") which are still respected by most Roma (and by most older generations of [Sinti](/wiki/Sinti \"Sinti\")). This regulation affects many aspects of life and is applied to actions, people and things: parts of [the human body](/wiki/Human_anatomy \"Human anatomy\") are considered impure: the [genital organs](/wiki/Sex_organ \"Sex organ\") (because they produce emissions) and the rest of the lower body. Clothes for the lower body, as well as the clothes of [menstruating](/wiki/Menstruation \"Menstruation\") women, are washed separately. Items used for eating are also washed in a different place. Childbirth is considered impure and must occur outside the dwelling place. The mother is deemed to be impure for forty days after giving birth.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf\\_docs/PNADM192\\.pdf\\|title\\=INTRODUCTION TO ROMA CULTURE}}", "Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead, who remain impure for a period of time. In contrast to the practice of [cremating](/wiki/Cremation \"Cremation\") the dead, Romani dead must be buried.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/death.htm \\|title\\=Romani Customs and Traditions: Death Rituals and Customs \\|publisher\\=Patrin Web Journal \\|access\\-date\\=26 August 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821022337/http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5121/death.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=21 August 2007}} Cremation and burial are both known from the time of the [Rigveda](/wiki/Rigveda \"Rigveda\"), and both are widely practiced in [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") today (the general tendency is for Hindus to practice cremation, though some communities in modern\\-day south India tend to bury their dead).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hindugateway.com/library/rituals/ \\|title\\=The Journey of a Lifebody \\|publisher\\=hindugateway.com \\|date\\=1991 \\|access\\-date\\=26 May 2008 \\|first\\=David M. \\|last\\=Knipe \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930232759/http://www.hindugateway.com/library/rituals/ \\|archive\\-date\\=30 September 2008}} Animals that are considered to be having unclean habits are not eaten by the community.{{sfn\\|Hancock\\|2001\\|p\\=81}}", "### Belonging and exclusion", "{{Main\\|Romanipen\\|Gadjo (non\\-Romani)}}\nIn Romani philosophy, *Romanipen* (also *romanypen*, *romanipe*, *romanype*, *romanimos*, *romaimos*, *romaniya*) is the totality of the Romani spirit, [Romani culture](/wiki/Romani_society_and_culture \"Romani society and culture\"), [Romani Law](/wiki/Kris_%28Romani_court%29 \"Kris (Romani court)\"), being a Romani, a set of Romani strains.{{cite book\\|title\\=Inward Looking: The Impact of Migration on Romanipe from the Romani Perspective\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Kl2jDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA38\\|author\\=Aleksandar G. Marinov\\| date\\=3 October 2019 \\| publisher\\=Berghahn Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78920\\-362\\-2}}", "An ethnic Rom is considered a [gadjo](/wiki/Gadjo_%28non-Romani%29 \"Gadjo (non-Romani)\") in Romani society if they have no *Romanipen*. Sometimes a non\\-Rom may be considered a Rom if they do have *Romanipen*. Usually this is an adopted child. It has been hypothesized that this owes more to a [framework of culture](/wiki/Cultural_framework \"Cultural framework\") than a simple adherence to historically received rules.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Saul \\|first1\\=Nicholas \\|first2\\=Susan \\|last2\\=Tebbut \\|title\\=The Role of the Romanies: Images and Counter\\-Images of 'Gypsies'/Romanies in European Cultures \\|editor1\\-first\\=Nicholas \\|editor1\\-last\\=Saul \\|editor2\\-first\\=Susan \\|editor2\\-last\\=Tebbutt \\|publisher\\=Liverpool University Press \\|year\\=2005 \\|pages\\=218–219 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-85323\\-689\\-4 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=AQw6qOCNj\\-UC\\&pg\\=PA218}}", "### Religion", "[thumb\\|Christian Romanies during the pilgrimage to [Saintes\\-Maries\\-de\\-la\\-Mer](/wiki/Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer \"Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer\") in France, 1980s](/wiki/File:Tziganes_aux_Saintes-Maries_de_la_Mer.jpg \"Tziganes aux Saintes-Maries de la Mer.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Two Orthodox Christian Romanies in [Cluj\\-Napoca](/wiki/Cluj-Napoca \"Cluj-Napoca\"), [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\")](/wiki/File:Two_Gypsies_in_Cluj-Napoka%2C_Romania.jpg \"Two Gypsies in Cluj-Napoka, Romania.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Rom and bear ([Belgrade](/wiki/Belgrade \"Belgrade\"), Banovo brdo, 1980s)](/wiki/File:Gipsy_and_bear.jpg \"Gipsy and bear.jpg\")\nMost Roma are [Christian](/wiki/Christians \"Christians\"),{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Columbia Encyclopedia \\|publisher\\=Columbia University Press \\|year\\=2018 \\|edition\\=8th \\|location\\=New York, NY \\|via\\=Credo Reference}} but many are [Muslims](/wiki/Muslim_Romani_people \"Muslim Romani people\"); some retained their ancient faith of [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") from their original homeland of India, while others have their own religion and political organization.{{citation \\|author\\=G. L. Lewis \\|contribution\\=ČINGĀNE \\|title\\=The Encyclopaedia of Islam \\|edition\\=2nd \\|volume\\=2 \\|publisher\\=Brill \\|year\\=1991 \\|pages\\=40a–41b \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-04\\-07026\\-4 \\|title\\-link\\=The Encyclopaedia of Islam}} In parts of [Southeast Europe](/wiki/Southeast_Europe \"Southeast Europe\"), particularly in Bulgaria, some Roma who are Muslim identify as ethnic Turks, and over generations have adopted the [Turkish language](/wiki/Turkish_language \"Turkish language\").{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Marushiakova \\|first1\\=Elena \\|last2\\=Popov \\|first2\\=Vesselin \\|date\\=2018 \\|title\\=Roma Communities on the Balkans: History and Identities \\|url\\=https://research\\-repository.st\\-andrews.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10023/15711/MarushiakovaPopov\\_2018\\_Balkania\\_Roma\\_ENG.pdf;jsessionid\\=577200CD1437859B3389B0C9E020CD3E?sequence\\=1 \\|pages\\=13–14}} [Theravada Buddhism](/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism \"Theravada Buddhism\") influenced by the [Dalit Buddhist movement](/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement \"Dalit Buddhist movement\") have become popular in recent times among Hungarian Roma.", "Some Roma practice [witchcraft](/wiki/Witchcraft \"Witchcraft\") and [palmistry](/wiki/Palmistry \"Palmistry\").{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GpfSDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA391\\|title\\=The Wiley\\-Blackwell Companion to Religion and Social Justice\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-119\\-57210\\-7 \\|last1\\=Palmer \\|first1\\=Michael D. \\|last2\\=Burgess \\|first2\\=Stanley M. \\|date\\=13 April 2020 \\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons }}", "#### Beliefs", "The modern\\-day Roma often adopted Christianity or Islam depending on which was the dominant religion in the regions through which they had migrated.{{cite web \\|year\\=2008–2012 \\|title\\=Restless Beings Project: Roma Engage \\|url\\=http://www.restlessbeings.org/projects/roma\\-gypsies \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101021139/http://www.restlessbeings.org/projects/roma\\-gypsies \\|archive\\-date\\=1 January 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2012 \\|publisher\\=Restless Beings}} It is likely that the adherence to differing religions prevented families from engaging in intermarriage.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Boretzky \\|first1\\=Norbert \\|title\\=Romani in Contact: The History, Structure and Sociology of a Language \\|date\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=John Benjamins \\|location\\=Amsterdam, \\[\\[Netherlands\\|NL]] \\|page\\=70}} In [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe \"Eastern Europe\"), most Roma are [Orthodox Christians](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy \"Eastern Orthodoxy\"), [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims \"Muslims\") or [Catholics](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\").{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Liégeois \\|first1\\=Jean\\-Pierre \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=W7l\\-fGIA2ZkC\\&pg\\=PA89 \\|title\\=Roma, Gypsies, Travellers \\|date\\=1 January 1994 \\|publisher\\=Council of Europe \\|isbn\\=978\\-92\\-871\\-2349\\-7}} In Bulgaria, Greece, Moldova, Romania and Serbia, the majority of Romani inhabitants are Orthodox Christians. In Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Kosovo, the majority are Muslims. In Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia, the majority are Catholics. In [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe \"Western Europe\"), the majority of Romani inhabitants are Catholic or [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\"). In [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\") and [Middle Eastern](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\") countries such as Turkey, Egypt, [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") and Iran, the majority of Romani inhabitants are Muslim. In the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), the majority of Romani inhabitants adhere to some branch of Christianity.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Cortés \\|first\\=Carlos E. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=W2MWDAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA1850 \\|title\\=Multicultural America: A Multimedia Encyclopedia \\|date\\=2013\\-08\\-15 \\|publisher\\=SAGE Publications \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-5063\\-3278\\-9 \\|page\\=1850 \\|language\\=en}}[thumb\\|Members of the [Cofradía de los Gitanos](/wiki/Cofrad%C3%ADa_de_los_Gitanos_%28M%C3%A1laga%29 \"Cofradía de los Gitanos (Málaga)\") parading the \"throne\" of Mary of the O during the [Holy Week in Malaga](/wiki/Holy_Week_in_Malaga \"Holy Week in Malaga\"), Spain](/wiki/File:Gitanos_-_Trono.jpg \"Gitanos - Trono.jpg\")", "#### Deities and saints", "[Blessed Ceferino Giménez Malla](/wiki/Ceferino_Gim%C3%A9nez_Malla \"Ceferino Giménez Malla\") is recently considered a patron saint of the Roma in Roman Catholicism.{{cite web \\|title\\=Blessed Ceferino Gimenez Malla 1861–1936 \\|url\\=http://www.savior.org/saints/malla.htm \\|website\\=Visit the Saviour \\|publisher\\=Voveo \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2012 \\|date\\=December 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 February 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205130932/http://www.savior.org/saints/malla.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} [Saint Sarah](/wiki/Saint_Sarah \"Saint Sarah\"), or Sara e Kali, has also been venerated as a patron saint in her shrine at [Saintes\\-Maries\\-de\\-la\\-Mer](/wiki/Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer \"Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer\"), France.{{cite book \\|last1\\=La Bas \\|first1\\=Damian \\|title\\=The Stopping Places: A journey through Gypsy Britain \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Chatto \\& Windus]] \\|isbn\\=9781784741037 \\|pages\\=179 \\& 190}} Since the turn of the 21st century, [Sara e Kali](/wiki/Sara_e_Kali \"Sara e Kali\") is understood to have been [Kali](/wiki/Kali \"Kali\"), an Indian deity brought from India by the refugee ancestors of the Roma; as the Roma became Christianized, she was absorbed in a syncretic way and venerated as a saint.", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.15\\|Gypsy [fortune\\-teller](/wiki/Fortune-telling \"Fortune-telling\") in Poland, by [Antoni Kozakiewicz](/wiki/Antoni_Kozakiewicz \"Antoni Kozakiewicz\"), 1884](/wiki/File:Antoni_Kozakiewicz_-_Kartomantka.jpg \"Antoni Kozakiewicz - Kartomantka.jpg\")\nSaint Sarah is now increasingly being considered as \"a Romani Goddess, the Protectress of the Roma\" and an \"indisputable link with Mother India\".{{cite web \\|title\\=The Romani Goddess Kali Sara \\|url\\=http://kopachi.com/articles/the\\-romani\\-goddess\\-kali\\-sara\\-ronald\\-lee/ \\|website\\=Romano Kapachi \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2012 \\|first\\=Ronald \\|last\\=Lee \\|year\\=2002 }}{{cite book \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://radoc.net/radoc.php?doc\\=art\\_b\\_history\\_romanireligion⟨\\=en\\&articles\\=true \\|author\\=Ian Hancock \\|date\\=2001 \\|chapter\\=Romani (\"Gypsy\") Religion \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature \\|editor1\\=Jeff Kaplan \\|editor2\\=Bron Taylor \\|editor3\\=Samuel S. Hill \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925154755/http://radoc.net/radoc.php?doc\\=art\\_b\\_history\\_romanireligion⟨\\=en\\&articles\\=true \\|archive\\-date\\=25 September 2011 \\|via\\=Radoc \\|access\\-date\\=12 October 2023 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "#### The Balkans/Southeast Europe", "[thumb\\|Costume of a Romani woman](/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Studio_Shot_of_European_in_Gypsy_Costume_One_of_274_Vintage_Photographs.jpg \"Brooklyn Museum - Studio Shot of European in Gypsy Costume One of 274 Vintage Photographs.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|*Gipsy Woman*, [Stanisław Masłowski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Mas%C5%82owski \"Stanisław Masłowski\"), [watercolour](/wiki/Watercolour \"Watercolour\"), [1877](/wiki/1877 \"1877\")](/wiki/File:Stanis%C5%82aw_Mas%C5%82owski_%281853-1926%29_Gypsy_Woman_Cyganka%2C_watercolour_akwarela_3%2C_twice_corrected.jpg \"Stanisław Masłowski (1853-1926) Gypsy Woman Cyganka, watercolour akwarela 3, twice corrected.jpg\")\nFor the Romani communities that have resided in [Southeast Europe](/wiki/Southeast_Europe \"Southeast Europe\") for numerous centuries, the following apply with regard to religious beliefs:\n* Albania \\- The majority of the Romani population in Albania is Muslim.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Koinova \\|first\\=Maria \\|editor\\-last\\=Dimitras \\|editor\\-first\\=Panayote \\|title\\=Roma of Albania \\|url\\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/131933442\\.pdf \\|website\\=CORE \\|publisher\\=Center for Documentation and Information on Minorities in Europe \\- Southeast Europe \\|page\\=3}}\n* Bosnia and Herzegovina – The majority of the Romani population in Bosnia and Herzegovina is Muslim.\n* Bulgaria – The majority of the Romani population in Bulgaria is Christian (mostly Orthodox). In northwestern Bulgaria, in addition to Sofia and Kyustendil, Christianity is the dominant faith among the Roma, and a major conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity among the Roma has occurred. In southeastern Bulgaria, Islam is the dominant religion among the Roma, with a smaller section of the Roma declaring themselves as \"Turks\", continuing to mix ethnicity with Islam.{{cite web \\|title \\=Roma Muslims in the Balkans \\|url\\=http://romafacts.uni\\-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma\\-muslims\\-in\\-the\\-balkans \\|website\\=Education of Roma Children in Europe \\|publisher\\=Council of Europe \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2012 \\|first1\\=Elena \\|last1\\=Marushiakova \\|first2\\=Veselin \\|last2\\=Popov \\|year\\=2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413184328/http://romafacts.uni\\-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma\\-muslims\\-in\\-the\\-balkans \\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2012}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Margarita Cansino (later known as [Rita Hayworth](/wiki/Rita_Hayworth \"Rita Hayworth\")) with her father and dance partner [Eduardo Cansino](/wiki/Eduardo_Cansino \"Eduardo Cansino\"), 1933](/wiki/File:Dancing-Cansinos-1933.jpg \"Dancing-Cansinos-1933.jpg\")\n* Croatia – The majority of the Romani population in Croatia is Christian (mostly Catholic). After the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), a large number of Muslim Roma relocated to Croatia, the majority moving from Kosovo. Their language differs from those living in Međimurje and those who survived [Romani Holocaust](/wiki/Romani_Holocaust \"Romani Holocaust\").\n* Greece – The majority of the Romani population in Greece is Christian.{{efn\\|Muslim Romas were excluded from the \\[\\[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey\\|Deportation of Muslims]] from Greece's new conquered territory following the \\[\\[First Balkan War]] and presently form the majority of Greece's native Muslim population.}} The descendants of groups, such as Sepečides or Sevljara, Kalpazaja, Filipidži and others, living in Athens, Thessaloniki, central Greece and [Greek Macedonia](/wiki/Macedonia_%28Greece%29 \"Macedonia (Greece)\") are mostly Orthodox Christians, with Islamic beliefs held by a minority of the population. Following the Peace Treaty of Lausanne of 1923, many Muslim Roma moved to Turkey in the subsequent population exchange between Turkey and Greece.\n* Hungary – The majority of the Romani population in Hungary is Christian.Kozubik M, Bobakova DF, Mojtova M, Tokovska M, van Dijk JP. Roma Religion: 1775 and 2018 Compared over Time. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Sep 15;19(18\\):11645\\. doi: 10\\.3390/ijerph191811645\\. PMID: 36141906; PMCID: PMC9517071\\. The country experienced an influx of Muslim Roma during the [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") period in Hungary, who later converted to Catholicism.{{Cite thesis \\|title\\=Die Baranya in den Jahren 1686 bis 1713: Kontinuität und Wandel in einem ungarischen Komitat nach dem Abzug der Türken \\|publisher\\=Universitätsverlag \\|date\\=2005 \\|place\\=Göttingen \\|isbn\\=9783938616321 \\|first\\=Claus Heinrich \\|last\\=Gattermann \\|pages\\=87–88 \\|language\\=German}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Muslim Romanies in [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina \"Bosnia and Herzegovina\") (around 1900\\)](/wiki/File:Muslim_Gypsies_from_Bosnia%2C_illustration%2C_1901.jpg \"Muslim Gypsies from Bosnia, illustration, 1901.jpg\")\n* Kosovo – The majority of the Romani population in Kosovo are Muslim and Speak Albanian. Some Roma in Kosovo speak Serbian and are Orthodox Christians.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Visoka \\|first\\=Gezim \\|title\\=6\\. Political Parties and Minority Participation: Case of Roma, Ashkalia and Egyptians in Kosovo \\|url\\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/147602422\\.pdf \\|website\\=CORE \\|page\\=156}}\n* Montenegro – The majority of the Romani population in Montenegro is Muslim.\n* North Macedonia –The majority of the Romani population in North Macedonia is Muslim.\n* Romania – The majority of the Romani population in Romania is Christian (mostly Orthodox).[Census 2002, by religion](http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/RPL2002INS/vol1/tabele/t51a.pdf). (PDF). INS. Retrieved on 2024\\-05\\-29\\. In [Dobruja](/wiki/Dobruja \"Dobruja\"), there is a small community that are Muslim and also speak Turkish.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Marushiakova \\|first1\\=Elena \\|last2\\=Popov \\|first2\\=Veselin \\|year\\=2012 \\|title\\=Roma Muslims in the Balkans \\|url\\=http://romafacts.uni\\-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma\\-muslims\\-in\\-the\\-balkans \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413184328/http://romafacts.uni\\-graz.at/index.php/culture/introduction/roma\\-muslims\\-in\\-the\\-balkans \\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=26 December 2012 \\|website\\=Education of Roma Children in Europe \\|publisher\\=Council of Europe}}\n* Serbia – The majority of the Romani population in Serbia is Christian (mostly Orthodox). There are some Muslim Roma in southern Serbia, who are mainly refugees from Kosovo.\n* Slovenia – The majority of the Romani population in Slovenia is Christian (mostly Catholic), although a sizeable proportion are Muslim.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Stropnik \\|first\\=Nada \\|date\\=2011 \\|title\\=Promoting Social Inclusion of Roma \\|url\\=https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId\\=8971\\&langId\\=en \\|website\\=Peer Review Social Inclusion EU \\|page\\=6 \\|format\\=PDF}}", "#### Other regions", "In Ukraine and Russia, the Romani populations are also Muslim as the families of Balkan migrants continue to live in these locations. Their ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the 17th and 18th centuries, but some migrated to Ukraine, southern Russia and the Povolzhie (along the Volga River). Formally, Islam is the religion that these communities align with and the people are recognized for their staunch preservation of the Romani language and identity.", "In the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia, Romani populations are Roman Catholic, many times adopting and following local, cultural Catholicism as a [syncretic](/wiki/Religious_syncretism \"Religious syncretism\") system of belief that incorporates distinct Roma beliefs and cultural aspects. For example, many Polish Roma delay their Church wedding due to the belief that sacramental marriage is accompanied by divine ratification, creating a virtually indissoluble union until the couple consummate, after which the sacramental marriage is dissoluble only by the death of a spouse. Therefore, for Polish Roma, once married, one can't ever divorce. Another aspect of Polish Roma's Catholicism is a tradition of pilgrimage to the [Jasna Góra Monastery](/wiki/Jasna_G%C3%B3ra_Monastery \"Jasna Góra Monastery\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Niedźwiecka \\|first\\=Dorota \\|title\\=Wiara po romsku \\|url\\=https://www.przewodnik\\-katolicki.pl/Archiwum/2016/Przewodnik\\-Katolicki\\-40\\-2016/Wiara\\-i\\-Kosciol/Wiara\\-po\\-romsku}}", "In southern Spain, many Romanies are [Pentecostal](/wiki/Pentecostalism \"Pentecostalism\"), but this is a small minority that has emerged in contemporary times.", "In Egypt, the Roma are split into Christian and Muslim populations.{{Citation \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hUX4C0qrDmUC\\&pg\\=PA460 \\|title\\=Gypsy Council \\|page\\=460 \\|first\\=Nicholas C \\|last\\=Eliopoulos \\|year\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Xlibris Corporation \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4653\\-3036\\-9 }}", "### Music", "{{Main\\|Romani music}} \n[thumb\\|27 June 2009: [Fanfare Ciocărlia](/wiki/Fanfare_Cioc%C4%83rlia \"Fanfare Ciocărlia\") live in [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\")](/wiki/File:20090627_Fanfare_Ciocarlia_group_live_in_Athens_at_Restistance_Festival_by_KOE_2.jpg \"20090627 Fanfare Ciocarlia group live in Athens at Restistance Festival by KOE 2.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Street performance during the [Khamoro](/wiki/Khamoro \"Khamoro\") [World Roma Festival](/wiki/World_Roma_Festival \"World Roma Festival\") in Prague, 2007](/wiki/File:Khamoro_Roma_Festival_2007_Prague.jpg \"Khamoro Roma Festival 2007 Prague.jpg\")\nRomani music plays an important role in central and eastern European countries such as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania, and the style and performance practices of Romani musicians have influenced European [classical composers](/wiki/List_of_classical_music_composers \"List of classical music composers\") such as [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt \"Franz Liszt\") and [Johannes Brahms](/wiki/Johannes_Brahms \"Johannes Brahms\"). The *[lăutari](/wiki/L%C4%83utari \"Lăutari\")* who perform at traditional Romanian weddings are virtually all Romani.{{cite book\\|title\\=Area Handbook for Romania – Volume 550, Issue 160\\|page\\=100}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Marketing in a Multicultural World: Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Cultural Identity}}", "Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the *lăutari* tradition are [Taraful Haiducilor](/wiki/Taraful_Haiducilor \"Taraful Haiducilor\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348596804\\|title\\=\"Perverting the Taste of the People\": Lăutari and the Balkan Question in Romania}} Bulgaria's popular \"wedding music\", too, is almost exclusively performed by Romani musicians such as [Ivo Papasov](/wiki/Ivo_Papasov \"Ivo Papasov\"), a virtuoso clarinetist closely associated with this genre and Bulgarian pop\\-folk singer [Azis](/wiki/Azis \"Azis\").", "Many famous classical musicians, such as the [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_people \"Hungarian people\") pianist [Georges Cziffra](/wiki/Georges_Cziffra \"Georges Cziffra\"), are Romani, as are many prominent performers of [manele](/wiki/Manele \"Manele\"). [Zdob și Zdub](/wiki/Zdob_%C8%99i_Zdub \"Zdob și Zdub\"), one of the most prominent rock bands in [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova \"Moldova\"), although not Romanies themselves, draw heavily on Romani music, as do [Spitalul de Urgență](/wiki/Spitalul_de_Urgen%C8%9B%C4%83 \"Spitalul de Urgență\") in Romania, [Shantel](/wiki/Shantel \"Shantel\") in Germany, [Goran Bregović](/wiki/Goran_Bregovi%C4%87 \"Goran Bregović\") in Serbia, [Darko Rundek](/wiki/Darko_Rundek \"Darko Rundek\") in Croatia, [Beirut](/wiki/Beirut_%28band%29 \"Beirut (band)\") and [Gogol Bordello](/wiki/Gogol_Bordello \"Gogol Bordello\") in the United States.", "Another tradition of Romani music is the genre of the Romani [brass band](/wiki/Brass_band \"Brass band\"), with such notable practitioners as [Boban Marković](/wiki/Boban_Markovi%C4%87 \"Boban Marković\") of Serbia, and the brass *lăutari* groups [Fanfare Ciocărlia](/wiki/Fanfare_Cioc%C4%83rlia \"Fanfare Ciocărlia\") and Fanfare din Cozmesti of Romania.{{cite book\\|title\\=Gypsy Music: The Balkans and Beyond\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RHRdDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT125\\|author\\=Alan Ashton\\-Smith \\|year\\=2017 \\|publisher\\=Reaktion Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-78023\\-865\\-4}}", "The distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced [bolero](/wiki/Bolero \"Bolero\"), [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\"), and [flamenco](/wiki/Flamenco \"Flamenco\") (especially *[cante jondo](/wiki/Cante_jondo \"Cante jondo\")*) in Spain.{{cite book\\|title\\=Rethinking (In)Security in the European Union: The Migration\\-Identity\\-Security Nexus\\|page\\=148}}", "Dances such as the flamenco and bolero of Spain were influenced by the Roma.{{Citation \\|last1\\=Martinez \\|first1\\=Emma \\|title\\=Flamenco: All You Wanted to Know \\|date\\=24 February 2011 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Bzd1CTtnjS8C\\&pg\\=PA21 \\|page\\=21 \\|publisher\\=Mel Bay Publications \\|format\\=\\[\\[Google books]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-60974\\-470\\-0}} [Antonio Cansino](/wiki/Antonio_Cansino \"Antonio Cansino\") blended Romani and Spanish flamenco and is credited with creating modern\\-day Spanish dance.{{sfn\\|Hancock\\|2002\\|p\\=129}} [The Dancing Cansinos](/wiki/The_Dancing_Cansinos \"The Dancing Cansinos\") popularized flamenco and bolero dancing in the United States. Famous dancer and actress, [Rita Hayworth](/wiki/Rita_Hayworth \"Rita Hayworth\"), is the granddaughter of Antonio Cansino.", "European\\-style [gypsy jazz](/wiki/Gypsy_jazz \"Gypsy jazz\") (\"jazz Manouche\" or \"Sinti jazz\") is still widely practiced among the original creators (the Romanie People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist [Django Reinhardt](/wiki/Django_Reinhardt \"Django Reinhardt\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Gypsy Jazz: In Search of Django Reinhardt and the Soul of Gypsy Swing}} Contemporary artists in this tradition known internationally include [Stochelo Rosenberg](/wiki/Stochelo_Rosenberg \"Stochelo Rosenberg\"), [Biréli Lagrène](/wiki/Bir%C3%A9li_Lagr%C3%A8ne \"Biréli Lagrène\"), [Jimmy Rosenberg](/wiki/Jimmy_Rosenberg \"Jimmy Rosenberg\"), [Paulus Schäfer](/wiki/Paulus_Sch%C3%A4fer \"Paulus Schäfer\") and [Tchavolo Schmitt](/wiki/Tchavolo_Schmitt \"Tchavolo Schmitt\").", "The [Roma in Turkey](/wiki/Romani_people_in_Turkey \"Romani people in Turkey\") have achieved musical acclaim from national and local audiences. Local performers usually perform for special holidays. Their music is usually performed on instruments such as the [darbuka](/wiki/Goblet_drum \"Goblet drum\"), [gırnata](/wiki/Clarinet \"Clarinet\") and [cümbüş](/wiki/C%C3%BCmb%C3%BC%C5%9F \"Cümbüş\").{{Citation \\|title\\=Cümbüş means fun, Birger Gesthuisen investigates the short history of a 20th\\-century folk instrument \\|url\\=http://www.rootsworld.com/turkey/cumbus.html \\|publisher\\=RootsWorld}}", "" ]
Political career ---------------- In 1990, Bounkoulou returned to Congo as Director\-General of the Congolese Maritime Transport Company (*Socotram*) and remained in that post for two years. [Pascal Lissouba](/wiki/Pascal_Lissouba "Pascal Lissouba") won the [August 1992 presidential election](/wiki/1992_Republic_of_the_Congo_presidential_election "1992 Republic of the Congo presidential election"), and after taking office he appointed Bounkoulou to the government as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Cooperation, and Hydrocarbons in September 1992\.[*Africa Research Bulletin: Political Series*, volumes 28–29](https://books.google.com/books?id=IWm4AAAAIAAJ&q=benjamin) (1992\), page 10,707\.[*West Africa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=_QVzAAAAMAAJ&q=benjamin+bunkulu+september) (1992\), page 1,632\. Bounkoulou left the government in 1995\. When the Union for the Republic (UR) was founded in March 1995, Bounkoulou became its President, and he has led the party since then."Michel Bidimbou Pouela, secrétaire général de l'Union pour la République : «J'invite les militants à se mobiliser pour prendre en main les destinées de notre grand parti, car le salut est à ce prix.»", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 27 December 2006 {{in lang\|fr}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=14222\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=0\&select\_year\=0 \|title\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \|accessdate\=8 July 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708093759/http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=14222\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=0\&select\_year\=0 \|archivedate\=8 July 2011 }} The UR was established by members of parliament from [Bouenza Region](/wiki/Bouenza_Region "Bouenza Region") who left the ruling [Pan\-African Union for Social Democracy](/wiki/Pan-African_Union_for_Social_Democracy "Pan-African Union for Social Democracy") (UPADS)John F. Clark, "Congo: Transition and the Struggle to Consolidate", in *Political Reform in Francophone Africa* (1997\), ed. John F. Clark and David E. Gardinier, pages 70–75\.Joachim Emmanuel Goma\-Thethet, "Alliances in the political and electoral process in the Republic of Congo 1991–97", in *Liberal Democracy and Its Critics in Africa: Political Dysfunction and the Struggle for Social Progress* (2005\), ed. Tukumbi Lumumba\-Kasongo, Zed Books, page 117\. and another party in January 1995, complaining of government favoritism towards people from [Niari Region](/wiki/Niari_Region "Niari Region"), [Lékoumou Region](/wiki/L%C3%A9koumou_Region "Lékoumou Region"), and another part of Bouenza Region. In the short\-lived government of Prime Minister [Bernard Kolelas](/wiki/Bernard_Kolelas "Bernard Kolelas"), appointed in September 1997 during the [1997 civil war](/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_Civil_War_%281997-99%29 "Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997-99)"), Bounkoulou was appointed Minister of Privatisation, in charge of the *Inspection générale d'Etat*. That government lasted only one month; rebels loyal to [Denis Sassou Nguesso](/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso "Denis Sassou Nguesso") captured [Brazzaville](/wiki/Brazzaville "Brazzaville") and [Pointe\-Noire](/wiki/Pointe-Noire "Pointe-Noire") on 14–15 October 1997, thereby ousting Lissouba and Kolelas.Howard W. French, ["Rebels, backed by Angola, take Brazzaville and oil port"](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E05E2DA153FF935A25753C1A961958260), *The New York Times*, 16 October 1997\.Rémy Bazenguissa\-Ganga, "The Spread of Political Violence in Congo\-Brazzaville", in *African Affairs*, volume 98, number 390, January 1999, pages 389–411\. Bounkoulou was subsequently included as one of the 75 members of the National Transitional Council (CNT), which served as a transitional legislature from 1998 to 2002, and he was designated as Second Vice\-President of the CNT.Calixte Baniafouna, *La bataille de Brazzaville, 5 juin–15 octobre 1997* (2008\), L'Harmattan, pages 196–197 {{in lang\|fr}}. Standing as a UR candidate, Bounkoulou was elected as a Senator from Bouenza Region in the [2002 Senate election](/wiki/2002_Republic_of_the_Congo_Senate_election "2002 Republic of the Congo Senate election"), at the end of the transitional period."Elections sénatoriales : les résultats officiels rendus publics à Brazzaville", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 13 July 2002 {{in lang\|fr}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=1180\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=1\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=0\&select\_year\=0 \|title\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \|accessdate\=8 July 2011 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209085833/http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=1180\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=1\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=0\&select\_year\=0 \|archivedate\=9 February 2012 }} Subsequently, he was elected as First Vice\-President of the Senate on 10 August 2002\."Ambroise\-Edouard Noumazalaye élu président du Sénat", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 12 August 2002 {{in lang\|fr}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=1390\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=0\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=20\&select\_month\=0\&select\_year\=0 \|title\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \|accessdate\=3 September 2008 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209085929/http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=1390\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=0\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=20\&select\_month\=0\&select\_year\=0 \|archivedate\=9 February 2012 }} Bounkoulou was additionally designated as the head of the Senate's Congo–[Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") friendship group on 13 December 2004\."Ambroise Edouard Noumazalay préside la clôture de la 7e session ordinaire du Sénat", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 14 December 2004 {{in lang\|fr}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=7554\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=0\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=0\&select\_year\=0 \|title\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \|accessdate\=4 June 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604191007/http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=7554\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=0\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=0\&select\_year\=0 \|archivedate\=4 June 2012 }} In the October 2005 Senate election, Bounkoulou was re\-elected to the Senate as a UR candidate in Bouenza Region. He received the votes of 64 electors and was tied for the highest total of any of the candidates in Bouenza."Départements par départements, tous les résultats des élections sénatoriales", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 3 October 2005 {{in lang\|fr}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=10194\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=0\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=10\&select\_year\=2005 \|title\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \|accessdate\=11 March 2012 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311082235/http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=10194\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=0\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=10\&select\_year\=2005 \|archivedate\=11 March 2012 }} At an extraordinary general assembly of the UR, held in [Nkayi](/wiki/Nkayi%2C_Republic_of_the_Congo "Nkayi, Republic of the Congo") on 18 December 2006, Bounkoulou was unanimously re\-elected as President of the UR.Pascal\-Azad Doko, "Les militants ont renouvelé leur confiance à Benjamin Bounkoulou", *La Semaine Africaine*, number 2,656, 22 December 2006, page 3 {{in lang\|fr}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lasemaineafricaine.com/pdf/2656\.pdf \|title\=伟德Bv国际体育(中国)官方网站 \|accessdate\=10 February 2010 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303084906/http://www.lasemaineafricaine.com/pdf/2656\.pdf \|archivedate\=3 March 2012 }} He was re\-elected as First Vice\-President of the Senate on 12 August 2008\."Renouvellement du bureau du Sénat : Vincent Ganga et Dominique Lekoyi montent au perchoir", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 12 August 2008 {{in lang\|fr}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=23517\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=0\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=0\&select\_year\=0 \|title\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \|accessdate\=2 September 2008 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215083158/http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=23517\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=0\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=0\&select\_year\=0 \|archivedate\=15 February 2012 }} He headed the [African Union](/wiki/African_Union "African Union")'s electoral observer mission for [Angola](/wiki/Angola "Angola")'s [September 2008 parliamentary election](/wiki/2008_Angolan_legislative_election "2008 Angolan legislative election"); according to Bounkoulou, the vote was "transparent, free and ... in line with the African Union's standards", and he called for the results to be respected.["AU calls for respect for Angola's poll results"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131119182350/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-09/09/content_9866053.htm), Xinhua, 9 September 2008\. Shortly before the [July 2009 presidential election](/wiki/2009_Republic_of_the_Congo_presidential_election "2009 Republic of the Congo presidential election"), Bounkoulou stressed the importance of having a peaceful election and urged the people to behave in a responsible and civic manner so that the election would be an example to Africa and the world."Election présidentielle – Le Sénat souhaite que le Congo donne un bel exemple de civisme et de discipline citoyenne au monde", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 2 July 2009 {{in lang\|fr}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=30823\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=1\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=20\&select\_month\=07\&select\_year\=2009 \|title\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \|accessdate\=7 July 2009 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311083039/http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=30823\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=1\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=20\&select\_month\=07\&select\_year\=2009 \|archivedate\=11 March 2012 }} He headed the African Union's observer mission for the [October 2009 Tunisian election](/wiki/2009_Tunisian_general_election "2009 Tunisian general election") and expressed approval of the election, saying that voters were not pressured to vote for President [Zine El Abidine Ben Ali](/wiki/Zine_El_Abidine_Ben_Ali "Zine El Abidine Ben Ali").Alfred de Montesquiou, ["Tunisians set to elect Ben Ali president, again"](https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5iz-9w-ptzM3C9qETWnUcReBV7QugD9BIDDO80){{dead link\|date\=June 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}}, Associated Press, 25 October 2009\. Seeking another term in the Senate in the [October 2011 Senate election](/wiki/2011_Republic_of_the_Congo_Senate_election "2011 Republic of the Congo Senate election"), Bounkoulou failed to win a seat.["Congo – Sénatoriales: écrasante victoire sans surprise de la majorité"](http://www.afreekelection.com/journal/item/8578-article7849.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425061829/http://www.afreekelection.com/journal/item/8578\-article7849\.html \|date\=25 April 2012 }}, Agence France\-Presse, 10 October 2011 {{in lang\|fr}}.Gankama N'Siah, "Le fait du jour – La chambre haute se vide et se renfloue", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 17 October 2011 {{in lang\|fr}}.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=53663\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=1\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=10\&select\_year\=2011 \|title\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \|accessdate\=18 October 2011 \|url\-status\=bot: unknown \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614223940/http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=53663\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=1\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=10\&select\_year\=2011 \|archivedate\=14 June 2012 }} His defeat was deemed "the only real surprise" in the results, which saw Sassou Nguesso's [Congolese Labour Party](/wiki/Congolese_Labour_Party "Congolese Labour Party") (PCT) and other pro\-government parties retaining an overwhelming majority in the Senate. Less than a year after losing his Senate seat, Bounkoulou sought election to the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Congo-Brazzaville "National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville") instead, standing as the UR candidate in Boko\-Songho constituency, located in Bouenza Region, in the [July–August 2012 parliamentary election](/wiki/2012_Republic_of_the_Congo_parliamentary_election "2012 Republic of the Congo parliamentary election").["Élections législatives – PCT 89 sièges, Indépendants 12, Upads 7, MCDDI 7, autres partis 20"](http://www.brazzaville-adiac.com/index.php?action=depeche&dep_id=62040&oldaction=liste&regpay_id=0&them_id=0&cat_id=1&ss_cat_id=0&LISTE_FROM=0&select_month=08&select_year=2012) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20130102063151/http://www.brazzaville\-adiac.com/index.php?action\=depeche\&dep\_id\=62040\&oldaction\=liste\&regpay\_id\=0\&them\_id\=0\&cat\_id\=1\&ss\_cat\_id\=0\&LISTE\_FROM\=0\&select\_month\=08\&select\_year\=2012 \|date\=2 January 2013 }}, *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 9 August 2012 {{in lang\|fr}}.Pascal Azad Doko, ["Benjamin Bounkoulou, élu député à Boko\-Songho : «Nous avons remporté une victoire complète, sans tricherie»"](http://www.lasemaineafricaine.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4369:benjamin-bounkoulou-elu-depute-a-boko-songho--lnous-avons-remporte-une-victoire-complete-sans-tricherier-&catid=4:national&Itemid=3), *La Semaine Africaine*, 14 August 2012 {{in lang\|fr}}. In the first round, he placed second with 28\.45% of the vote, slightly behind [Joseph Dadhié Yedikissa](/wiki/Joseph_Dadhi%C3%A9_Yedikissa "Joseph Dadhié Yedikissa") of the opposition UPADS, who received 30\.13%.["Résultats du premier tour des élections législatives 2012"](http://lasemaineafricaine.net/index.php/national/4244-resultats-du-premier-tour-des-elections-legislatives-2012), *La Semaine Africaine*, 24 July 2012 {{in lang\|fr}}. However, Bounkoulou won the seat in a second round of voting against Yedikissa, receiving 55\.10% of the vote; he described the outcome as "a complete victory, without cheating", although Yedikissa subsequently alleged fraud.Anatole Bazebidinga, ["Circonscription unique de Boko\-Songho (Département de la Bouenza) : Joseph Yedikissa\-Dhadié accuse le candidat de la majorité de lui avoir volé sa «victoire»"](http://lasemaineafricaine.net/index.php/national/5665-circonscription-unique-de-boko-songho-departement-de-la-bouenza-joseph-yedikissa-dhadie-accuse-le-candidat-de-la-majorite-de-lui-avoir-vole-sa-lvictoirer), *La Semaine Africaine*, 15 January 2013 {{in lang\|fr}}. Bounkoulou was the only UR candidate to win a seat in the National Assembly; the party had held two seats in the previous legislature.Cyr Armel Yabbat\-Ngo, ["Elections législatives de 2012 : La treizième législature largement dominée par le P.c.t!"](http://www.lasemaineafricaine.net/index.php/national/4351-elections-legislatives-de-2012-la-treizieme-legislature-largement-dominee-par-le-pct) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331035352/http://www.lasemaineafricaine.net/index.php/national/4351\-elections\-legislatives\-de\-2012\-la\-treizieme\-legislature\-largement\-dominee\-par\-le\-pct \|date\=31 March 2014 }}, *La Semaine Africaine*, 11 August 2012 {{in lang\|fr}}. On 19 September 2012, Bounkoulou was designated as President of the National Assembly's Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Commission.Roger Ngombé, ["Assemblée nationale – Sept commissions permanentes sont mises en place"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170909095354/http://www.brazzaville-adiac.com/medias/dossiertele/PDF1580.pdf), *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, number 1,580, 20 September 2012, page 2 {{in lang\|fr}}.
[ "Political career\n----------------", "In 1990, Bounkoulou returned to Congo as Director\\-General of the Congolese Maritime Transport Company (*Socotram*) and remained in that post for two years. [Pascal Lissouba](/wiki/Pascal_Lissouba \"Pascal Lissouba\") won the [August 1992 presidential election](/wiki/1992_Republic_of_the_Congo_presidential_election \"1992 Republic of the Congo presidential election\"), and after taking office he appointed Bounkoulou to the government as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Cooperation, and Hydrocarbons in September 1992\\.[*Africa Research Bulletin: Political Series*, volumes 28–29](https://books.google.com/books?id=IWm4AAAAIAAJ&q=benjamin) (1992\\), page 10,707\\.[*West Africa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=_QVzAAAAMAAJ&q=benjamin+bunkulu+september) (1992\\), page 1,632\\. Bounkoulou left the government in 1995\\.", "When the Union for the Republic (UR) was founded in March 1995, Bounkoulou became its President, and he has led the party since then.\"Michel Bidimbou Pouela, secrétaire général de l'Union pour la République : «J'invite les militants à se mobiliser pour prendre en main les destinées de notre grand parti, car le salut est à ce prix.»\", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 27 December 2006 {{in lang\\|fr}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=14222\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=0\\&select\\_year\\=0 \\|title\\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \\|accessdate\\=8 July 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708093759/http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=14222\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=0\\&select\\_year\\=0 \\|archivedate\\=8 July 2011 }} The UR was established by members of parliament from [Bouenza Region](/wiki/Bouenza_Region \"Bouenza Region\") who left the ruling [Pan\\-African Union for Social Democracy](/wiki/Pan-African_Union_for_Social_Democracy \"Pan-African Union for Social Democracy\") (UPADS)John F. Clark, \"Congo: Transition and the Struggle to Consolidate\", in *Political Reform in Francophone Africa* (1997\\), ed. John F. Clark and David E. Gardinier, pages 70–75\\.Joachim Emmanuel Goma\\-Thethet, \"Alliances in the political and electoral process in the Republic of Congo 1991–97\", in *Liberal Democracy and Its Critics in Africa: Political Dysfunction and the Struggle for Social Progress* (2005\\), ed. Tukumbi Lumumba\\-Kasongo, Zed Books, page 117\\. and another party in January 1995, complaining of government favoritism towards people from [Niari Region](/wiki/Niari_Region \"Niari Region\"), [Lékoumou Region](/wiki/L%C3%A9koumou_Region \"Lékoumou Region\"), and another part of Bouenza Region.", "In the short\\-lived government of Prime Minister [Bernard Kolelas](/wiki/Bernard_Kolelas \"Bernard Kolelas\"), appointed in September 1997 during the [1997 civil war](/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_Civil_War_%281997-99%29 \"Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997-99)\"), Bounkoulou was appointed Minister of Privatisation, in charge of the *Inspection générale d'Etat*. That government lasted only one month; rebels loyal to [Denis Sassou Nguesso](/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso \"Denis Sassou Nguesso\") captured [Brazzaville](/wiki/Brazzaville \"Brazzaville\") and [Pointe\\-Noire](/wiki/Pointe-Noire \"Pointe-Noire\") on 14–15 October 1997, thereby ousting Lissouba and Kolelas.Howard W. French, [\"Rebels, backed by Angola, take Brazzaville and oil port\"](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E05E2DA153FF935A25753C1A961958260), *The New York Times*, 16 October 1997\\.Rémy Bazenguissa\\-Ganga, \"The Spread of Political Violence in Congo\\-Brazzaville\", in *African Affairs*, volume 98, number 390, January 1999, pages 389–411\\.", "Bounkoulou was subsequently included as one of the 75 members of the National Transitional Council (CNT), which served as a transitional legislature from 1998 to 2002, and he was designated as Second Vice\\-President of the CNT.Calixte Baniafouna, *La bataille de Brazzaville, 5 juin–15 octobre 1997* (2008\\), L'Harmattan, pages 196–197 {{in lang\\|fr}}. Standing as a UR candidate, Bounkoulou was elected as a Senator from Bouenza Region in the [2002 Senate election](/wiki/2002_Republic_of_the_Congo_Senate_election \"2002 Republic of the Congo Senate election\"), at the end of the transitional period.\"Elections sénatoriales : les résultats officiels rendus publics à Brazzaville\", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 13 July 2002 {{in lang\\|fr}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=1180\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=1\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=0\\&select\\_year\\=0 \\|title\\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \\|accessdate\\=8 July 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209085833/http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=1180\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=1\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=0\\&select\\_year\\=0 \\|archivedate\\=9 February 2012 }} Subsequently, he was elected as First Vice\\-President of the Senate on 10 August 2002\\.\"Ambroise\\-Edouard Noumazalaye élu président du Sénat\", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 12 August 2002 {{in lang\\|fr}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=1390\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=0\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=20\\&select\\_month\\=0\\&select\\_year\\=0 \\|title\\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \\|accessdate\\=3 September 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209085929/http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=1390\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=0\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=20\\&select\\_month\\=0\\&select\\_year\\=0 \\|archivedate\\=9 February 2012 }} Bounkoulou was additionally designated as the head of the Senate's Congo–[Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") friendship group on 13 December 2004\\.\"Ambroise Edouard Noumazalay préside la clôture de la 7e session ordinaire du Sénat\", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 14 December 2004 {{in lang\\|fr}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=7554\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=0\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=0\\&select\\_year\\=0 \\|title\\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \\|accessdate\\=4 June 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604191007/http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=7554\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=0\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=0\\&select\\_year\\=0 \\|archivedate\\=4 June 2012 }}", "In the October 2005 Senate election, Bounkoulou was re\\-elected to the Senate as a UR candidate in Bouenza Region. He received the votes of 64 electors and was tied for the highest total of any of the candidates in Bouenza.\"Départements par départements, tous les résultats des élections sénatoriales\", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 3 October 2005 {{in lang\\|fr}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=10194\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=0\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=10\\&select\\_year\\=2005 \\|title\\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \\|accessdate\\=11 March 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311082235/http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=10194\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=0\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=10\\&select\\_year\\=2005 \\|archivedate\\=11 March 2012 }}", "At an extraordinary general assembly of the UR, held in [Nkayi](/wiki/Nkayi%2C_Republic_of_the_Congo \"Nkayi, Republic of the Congo\") on 18 December 2006, Bounkoulou was unanimously re\\-elected as President of the UR.Pascal\\-Azad Doko, \"Les militants ont renouvelé leur confiance à Benjamin Bounkoulou\", *La Semaine Africaine*, number 2,656, 22 December 2006, page 3 {{in lang\\|fr}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lasemaineafricaine.com/pdf/2656\\.pdf \\|title\\=伟德Bv国际体育(中国)官方网站 \\|accessdate\\=10 February 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303084906/http://www.lasemaineafricaine.com/pdf/2656\\.pdf \\|archivedate\\=3 March 2012 }} He was re\\-elected as First Vice\\-President of the Senate on 12 August 2008\\.\"Renouvellement du bureau du Sénat : Vincent Ganga et Dominique Lekoyi montent au perchoir\", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 12 August 2008 {{in lang\\|fr}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=23517\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=0\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=0\\&select\\_year\\=0 \\|title\\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \\|accessdate\\=2 September 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215083158/http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=23517\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=0\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=0\\&select\\_year\\=0 \\|archivedate\\=15 February 2012 }} He headed the [African Union](/wiki/African_Union \"African Union\")'s electoral observer mission for [Angola](/wiki/Angola \"Angola\")'s [September 2008 parliamentary election](/wiki/2008_Angolan_legislative_election \"2008 Angolan legislative election\"); according to Bounkoulou, the vote was \"transparent, free and ... in line with the African Union's standards\", and he called for the results to be respected.[\"AU calls for respect for Angola's poll results\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131119182350/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-09/09/content_9866053.htm), Xinhua, 9 September 2008\\.", "Shortly before the [July 2009 presidential election](/wiki/2009_Republic_of_the_Congo_presidential_election \"2009 Republic of the Congo presidential election\"), Bounkoulou stressed the importance of having a peaceful election and urged the people to behave in a responsible and civic manner so that the election would be an example to Africa and the world.\"Election présidentielle – Le Sénat souhaite que le Congo donne un bel exemple de civisme et de discipline citoyenne au monde\", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 2 July 2009 {{in lang\\|fr}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=30823\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=1\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=20\\&select\\_month\\=07\\&select\\_year\\=2009 \\|title\\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \\|accessdate\\=7 July 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311083039/http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=30823\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=1\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=20\\&select\\_month\\=07\\&select\\_year\\=2009 \\|archivedate\\=11 March 2012 }} He headed the African Union's observer mission for the [October 2009 Tunisian election](/wiki/2009_Tunisian_general_election \"2009 Tunisian general election\") and expressed approval of the election, saying that voters were not pressured to vote for President [Zine El Abidine Ben Ali](/wiki/Zine_El_Abidine_Ben_Ali \"Zine El Abidine Ben Ali\").Alfred de Montesquiou, [\"Tunisians set to elect Ben Ali president, again\"](https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5iz-9w-ptzM3C9qETWnUcReBV7QugD9BIDDO80){{dead link\\|date\\=June 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}, Associated Press, 25 October 2009\\.", "Seeking another term in the Senate in the [October 2011 Senate election](/wiki/2011_Republic_of_the_Congo_Senate_election \"2011 Republic of the Congo Senate election\"), Bounkoulou failed to win a seat.[\"Congo – Sénatoriales: écrasante victoire sans surprise de la majorité\"](http://www.afreekelection.com/journal/item/8578-article7849.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425061829/http://www.afreekelection.com/journal/item/8578\\-article7849\\.html \\|date\\=25 April 2012 }}, Agence France\\-Presse, 10 October 2011 {{in lang\\|fr}}.Gankama N'Siah, \"Le fait du jour – La chambre haute se vide et se renfloue\", *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 17 October 2011 {{in lang\\|fr}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=53663\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=1\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=10\\&select\\_year\\=2011 \\|title\\=Les Dépêches de Brazzaville \\|accessdate\\=18 October 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614223940/http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=53663\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=1\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=10\\&select\\_year\\=2011 \\|archivedate\\=14 June 2012 }} His defeat was deemed \"the only real surprise\" in the results, which saw Sassou Nguesso's [Congolese Labour Party](/wiki/Congolese_Labour_Party \"Congolese Labour Party\") (PCT) and other pro\\-government parties retaining an overwhelming majority in the Senate.", "Less than a year after losing his Senate seat, Bounkoulou sought election to the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Congo-Brazzaville \"National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville\") instead, standing as the UR candidate in Boko\\-Songho constituency, located in Bouenza Region, in the [July–August 2012 parliamentary election](/wiki/2012_Republic_of_the_Congo_parliamentary_election \"2012 Republic of the Congo parliamentary election\").[\"Élections législatives – PCT 89 sièges, Indépendants 12, Upads 7, MCDDI 7, autres partis 20\"](http://www.brazzaville-adiac.com/index.php?action=depeche&dep_id=62040&oldaction=liste&regpay_id=0&them_id=0&cat_id=1&ss_cat_id=0&LISTE_FROM=0&select_month=08&select_year=2012) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20130102063151/http://www.brazzaville\\-adiac.com/index.php?action\\=depeche\\&dep\\_id\\=62040\\&oldaction\\=liste\\&regpay\\_id\\=0\\&them\\_id\\=0\\&cat\\_id\\=1\\&ss\\_cat\\_id\\=0\\&LISTE\\_FROM\\=0\\&select\\_month\\=08\\&select\\_year\\=2012 \\|date\\=2 January 2013 }}, *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, 9 August 2012 {{in lang\\|fr}}.Pascal Azad Doko, [\"Benjamin Bounkoulou, élu député à Boko\\-Songho : «Nous avons remporté une victoire complète, sans tricherie»\"](http://www.lasemaineafricaine.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4369:benjamin-bounkoulou-elu-depute-a-boko-songho--lnous-avons-remporte-une-victoire-complete-sans-tricherier-&catid=4:national&Itemid=3), *La Semaine Africaine*, 14 August 2012 {{in lang\\|fr}}. In the first round, he placed second with 28\\.45% of the vote, slightly behind [Joseph Dadhié Yedikissa](/wiki/Joseph_Dadhi%C3%A9_Yedikissa \"Joseph Dadhié Yedikissa\") of the opposition UPADS, who received 30\\.13%.[\"Résultats du premier tour des élections législatives 2012\"](http://lasemaineafricaine.net/index.php/national/4244-resultats-du-premier-tour-des-elections-legislatives-2012), *La Semaine Africaine*, 24 July 2012 {{in lang\\|fr}}. However, Bounkoulou won the seat in a second round of voting against Yedikissa, receiving 55\\.10% of the vote; he described the outcome as \"a complete victory, without cheating\", although Yedikissa subsequently alleged fraud.Anatole Bazebidinga, [\"Circonscription unique de Boko\\-Songho (Département de la Bouenza) : Joseph Yedikissa\\-Dhadié accuse le candidat de la majorité de lui avoir volé sa «victoire»\"](http://lasemaineafricaine.net/index.php/national/5665-circonscription-unique-de-boko-songho-departement-de-la-bouenza-joseph-yedikissa-dhadie-accuse-le-candidat-de-la-majorite-de-lui-avoir-vole-sa-lvictoirer), *La Semaine Africaine*, 15 January 2013 {{in lang\\|fr}}. Bounkoulou was the only UR candidate to win a seat in the National Assembly; the party had held two seats in the previous legislature.Cyr Armel Yabbat\\-Ngo, [\"Elections législatives de 2012 : La treizième législature largement dominée par le P.c.t!\"](http://www.lasemaineafricaine.net/index.php/national/4351-elections-legislatives-de-2012-la-treizieme-legislature-largement-dominee-par-le-pct) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331035352/http://www.lasemaineafricaine.net/index.php/national/4351\\-elections\\-legislatives\\-de\\-2012\\-la\\-treizieme\\-legislature\\-largement\\-dominee\\-par\\-le\\-pct \\|date\\=31 March 2014 }}, *La Semaine Africaine*, 11 August 2012 {{in lang\\|fr}}. On 19 September 2012, Bounkoulou was designated as President of the National Assembly's Foreign Affairs and Cooperation Commission.Roger Ngombé, [\"Assemblée nationale – Sept commissions permanentes sont mises en place\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170909095354/http://www.brazzaville-adiac.com/medias/dossiertele/PDF1580.pdf), *Les Dépêches de Brazzaville*, number 1,580, 20 September 2012, page 2 {{in lang\\|fr}}.", "" ]
Background ---------- The first attempts of a centralised economic policy in the Austrian lands arose immediately after the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War "Thirty Years' War"). The Bohemian towns had petitioned [Ferdinand III](/wiki/Ferdinand_III%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor") to refine their own raw materials into more finished goods for export, and [Johann Joachim Becher](/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Becher "Johann Joachim Becher"), the most original and influential of the Austrian [cameralists](/wiki/Cameralism "Cameralism"), became the leading force in attempting this conversion. Emperor [Leopold I](/wiki/Leopold_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor") sent Becher on a mission to the Netherlands, where he was made councillor of commerce ({{lang\|de\|Commerzienrat}}) at Vienna in 1666 and he inspired the creation of a Commerce Commission ({{lang\|de\|Kommerzkollegium}}) in the same city. Becher led the reestablishment of the first postwar silk plantation on the [Lower Austrian](/wiki/Lower_Austria "Lower Austria") estates of Hofkammer President Sinzendorf. He then subsequently helped create a {{lang\|de\|Kunst\- und Werkhaus}} in which foreign masters trained non\-guild artisans in the production of finished goods. By 1672 he had promoted the construction of a wool factory in [Linz](/wiki/Linz "Linz"). Four years later he established a textile workhouse for vagabonds in the Bohemian town of Tabor that eventually employed 186 spinners under his own directorship. An edict by Leopold I in 1689 had granted the government the right to monitor and control the number of masters and cut down on the monopoly effect of guild operations.Charles W. Ingrao, *The Habsburg Monarchy: 1618–1815*, New York: Cambridge University Press, Second edition. {{ISBN\|0\-521\-78505\-7}}; p. 92\-93\. Even previous to this, Becher, who was against all forms of monopoly, surmised that a third of the Austrian lands’ 150,000 artisans were "{{lang\|de\|Schwarzarbeiter}}" who were not in a guild. Becher sought to balance between the need to reinstate postwar levels of population and production both in the countryside and the towns. Yet, by leaning more seriously on trade and commerce, Austrian cameralism helped to transfer attention to the troubles of the monarchy’s urban economies. Before his death, Ferdinand III had already taken some corrective steps by attempting to ease the debts of the Bohemian towns and to put limits on some of the land\-holding nobility’s commercial rights. Austrian markets had to be opened to world commerce. One of the big obstacles for the implementation of these policies was the Venetian monopoly on the Adriatic which effectively prevented ships form other countries to fare freely on this closed sea at the time known also as the “Gulf of Venice”. Success was achieved under [Charles VI](/wiki/Charles_VI%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor"). In 1717, after [another victorious campaign](/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_%281716%E2%80%931718%29 "Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)") against the Ottomans (but this time with Venice as its ally), the Adriatic Sea was promptly declared free for trade, with Venice no longer opposing it. In 1718, the [Peace of Passarowitz](/wiki/Peace_of_Passarowitz "Peace of Passarowitz") was concluded with the Ottoman Empire, and a commercial treaty brought important commercial liberties to the Ottoman and Habsburg subjects. On March 18, 1719, [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste "Trieste") and [Fiume](/wiki/Fiume "Fiume") were declared [free ports](/wiki/Free_ports "Free ports") (punti franchi) of the Empire of the Habsburgs, with the *Freihafenpatent*. The Oriental Company moved its headquarters from [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp") to Trieste in the same year.
[ "Background\n----------", "The first attempts of a centralised economic policy in the Austrian lands arose immediately after the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War \"Thirty Years' War\"). The Bohemian towns had petitioned [Ferdinand III](/wiki/Ferdinand_III%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor\") to refine their own raw materials into more finished goods for export, and [Johann Joachim Becher](/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Becher \"Johann Joachim Becher\"), the most original and influential of the Austrian [cameralists](/wiki/Cameralism \"Cameralism\"), became the leading force in attempting this conversion.", "Emperor [Leopold I](/wiki/Leopold_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor\") sent Becher on a mission to the Netherlands, where he was made councillor of commerce ({{lang\\|de\\|Commerzienrat}}) at Vienna in 1666 and he inspired the creation of a Commerce Commission ({{lang\\|de\\|Kommerzkollegium}}) in the same city. Becher led the reestablishment of the first postwar silk plantation on the [Lower Austrian](/wiki/Lower_Austria \"Lower Austria\") estates of Hofkammer President Sinzendorf. He then subsequently helped create a {{lang\\|de\\|Kunst\\- und Werkhaus}} in which foreign masters trained non\\-guild artisans in the production of finished goods.", "By 1672 he had promoted the construction of a wool factory in [Linz](/wiki/Linz \"Linz\"). Four years later he established a textile workhouse for vagabonds in the Bohemian town of Tabor that eventually employed 186 spinners under his own directorship.", "An edict by Leopold I in 1689 had granted the government the right to monitor and control the number of masters and cut down on the monopoly effect of guild operations.Charles W. Ingrao, *The Habsburg Monarchy: 1618–1815*, New York: Cambridge University Press, Second edition. {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-78505\\-7}}; p. 92\\-93\\.", "Even previous to this, Becher, who was against all forms of monopoly, surmised that a third of the Austrian lands’ 150,000 artisans were \"{{lang\\|de\\|Schwarzarbeiter}}\" who were not in a guild. Becher sought to balance between the need to reinstate postwar levels of population and production both in the countryside and the towns. Yet, by leaning more seriously on trade and commerce, Austrian cameralism helped to transfer attention to the troubles of the monarchy’s urban economies.", "Before his death, Ferdinand III had already taken some corrective steps by attempting to ease the debts of the Bohemian towns and to put limits on some of the land\\-holding nobility’s commercial rights. Austrian markets had to be opened to world commerce. One of the big obstacles for the implementation of these policies was the Venetian monopoly on the Adriatic which effectively prevented ships form other countries to fare freely on this closed sea at the time known also as the “Gulf of Venice”.", "Success was achieved under [Charles VI](/wiki/Charles_VI%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor\"). In 1717, after [another victorious campaign](/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_%281716%E2%80%931718%29 \"Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)\") against the Ottomans (but this time with Venice as its ally), the Adriatic Sea was promptly declared free for trade, with Venice no longer opposing it. In 1718, the [Peace of Passarowitz](/wiki/Peace_of_Passarowitz \"Peace of Passarowitz\") was concluded with the Ottoman Empire, and a commercial treaty brought important commercial liberties to the Ottoman and Habsburg subjects.", "On March 18, 1719, [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste \"Trieste\") and [Fiume](/wiki/Fiume \"Fiume\") were declared [free ports](/wiki/Free_ports \"Free ports\") (punti franchi) of the Empire of the Habsburgs, with the *Freihafenpatent*. The Oriental Company moved its headquarters from [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\") to Trieste in the same year.", "" ]
Legacy ------ Nevertheless, the company fostered the development of the first manufactures in Austria, as many of its suppliers survived its bankruptcy. The new empress [Maria Theresia](/wiki/Maria_Theresia "Maria Theresia") did not give up and in a profoundly changed environment founded in Vienna a new Commercien Ober\-Directorium in 1749, upon which all the commercial affairs of the empire is centred. In 1745 she united the administrations of all the ports within an Oberste Commerz\-Intendenza (High Commercial Intendancy), which was originally established by her father in 1731\. The Kommerzial\-Intendanz was the first provincial imperial institution that ruled the City from 1748 until 1776\. In 1749 Maria Theresa issued the „Haupt\-Resolution" by which the civil and military Capitan of Trieste is put under the control of the Comercien Ober Directorium seated in Vienna. All the region of the Littoral in fact becomes a territorial dependency of this new institution, specifically oriented to the development of commerce and thus very different from the other (still feudal) provinces.{{cite book \|title\= Josephinismus als Aufgeklärter Absolutismus\|last\= Reinalter\|first\= Helmut \|year\= 2008\|publisher\= Böhlau Verlag \|isbn\= 9783205777779\|page\= 201\|access\-date\=August 28, 2012 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Im\_omTU6x6YC\&q\=Commercien\+Ober\-Directorium\+in\+1746}} In 1759 the Compagnie privilégiée de Temesvár (called by the Kommerzial\-Intendanz in Trieste also Jánosháza company) aimed at the export of Hungarian and Banat agricultural products (salted meat, tobacco, candles, tallow).{{cite book \|title\= Das Verkehrssystem als Modernisierungsfaktor: Straßen, Post, Fuhrwesen und Reisen nach Triest und Fiume vom Beginn des 18\. Jahrhunderts bis zum Eisenbahnzeitalter\|last\= Helmedach\|first\= Andreas\|year\= 2002\|publisher\= Oldenbourg Verlag\|isbn\= 9783486565249\|pages\= 122–123\|access\-date\=August 28, 2012 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fD1cNhwhz7kC\&q\=Privilegierte\+Societe\+de\+Temesvar\&pg\=PA121}} The Temesvár company operated from 1759 until 1769 before it went bankrupt by 1771\. Its greatest success came during the Seven Years' War (reaching its peak in 1763 – 65\) when it supplied France through [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa "Genoa") of the goods she had previously imported from its American possessions. The sugar refinery built in Fiume in 1750 was perhaps the biggest success. The plant obtained the privilege as the only sugar producing plant in the Empire and in 1755 an act prohibited the imports of sugar from other countries. The turn happened when Charles Proli from [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp") together with the Triestine commercial house Urban Arnold \& Cie company provided the plant with Dutch personnel and equipment. At its peak the Company employed more than 1000 workers and employees in a time when Fiume had little more than 5000 inhabitants. Apart from sugar the company produced salted meat that was exported principally to France from where Haitian sugar cane was obtained. The company induced many spin\-offs (such as candle and rope factories, etc.). Industrial production in the city rose rapidly: according to the Ragusan diplomat Luka Sorkočević who in 1782 stayed in Fiume in his private diary estimated the value of the exported goods from Fiume at 2,5 million guldens. The next step was marked by the [Austrian East India Company](/wiki/Austrian_East_India_Company "Austrian East India Company") (Société impériale asiatique de Trieste et Anvers, or Société asiatique de Trieste), based in [Ostend](/wiki/Ostend "Ostend") and [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste "Trieste"), founded 1775 by [William Bolts](/wiki/William_Bolts "William Bolts") and wound up in 1785\.Walter Markov, "La Compagnia Asiatica di Trieste", *Studi Storici,* vol.2, no.1, 1961\. The Imperial Company of Trieste and Antwerp flourished despite the opposition of its rivals, the English and Dutch East India Companies, during the period when Britain found itself at war with the Dutch Republic and France as a development of the American War of Independence. The Imperial Company benefited from Austria’s neutrality during this conflict by being able to send its ships to Canton while its rival companies were prevented from doing so. When the war ended, the Dutch and English companies returned in a rush to Canton, which raised the price of Chinese tea and other goods there and caused a glut of them when the ships returned to Europe.Ernest van Bruyssel, *Histoire du Commerce et de la Marine en Belgique,* Bruxelles, 1851, tome III, p.299; see also Giorgio Gilibert, “Il mercante, il banchiere e l’imperatrice: l’avventura coloniale della Compagnia Asiatica di Trieste”, *La città de traffici, 1779–1918,* Roberto Finzi, Loredana Panariti e Giovanni Panjek (eds), *Storia economica e sociale di Trieste,* Volume II, Trieste, LINT, 2003, pp.3–20\. The trade from the Austrian Netherlands to India which had been recommenced by Bolts and the Imperial East India Company was continued after the collapse of that company in February 1785 by a group of Belgian and English merchants headed by the Vicomte [Edouard de Walckiers](/wiki/Edouard_de_Walckiers "Edouard de Walckiers"), whose family had played a part in the story of the Ostend Company which traded to India earlier in the eighteenth century and who, together with the Marseilles banker Kick, had been one of the biggest shareholders in the Imperial Company.Helma Houtman\-De Smedt, “The ambitions of the Austrian Empire with reference to East India during the last quarter of the eighteenth century”, Chaudhury Sushil (ed.), *Merchants, Companies and Trade: Europe and Asia in the Early Modern Era,* Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p.225\-239, p.235\.
[ "Legacy\n------", "Nevertheless, the company fostered the development of the first manufactures in Austria, as many of its suppliers survived its bankruptcy. The new empress [Maria Theresia](/wiki/Maria_Theresia \"Maria Theresia\") did not give up and in a profoundly changed environment founded in Vienna a new Commercien Ober\\-Directorium in 1749, upon which all the commercial affairs of the empire is centred. In 1745 she united the administrations of all the ports within an Oberste Commerz\\-Intendenza (High Commercial Intendancy), which was originally established by her father in 1731\\. The Kommerzial\\-Intendanz was the first provincial imperial institution that ruled the City from 1748 until 1776\\. In 1749 Maria Theresa issued the „Haupt\\-Resolution\" by which the civil and military Capitan of Trieste is put under the control of the Comercien Ober Directorium seated in Vienna.", "All the region of the Littoral in fact becomes a territorial dependency of this new institution, specifically oriented to the development of commerce and thus very different from the other (still feudal) provinces.{{cite book \\|title\\= Josephinismus als Aufgeklärter Absolutismus\\|last\\= Reinalter\\|first\\= Helmut \\|year\\= 2008\\|publisher\\= Böhlau Verlag \\|isbn\\= 9783205777779\\|page\\= 201\\|access\\-date\\=August 28, 2012 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Im\\_omTU6x6YC\\&q\\=Commercien\\+Ober\\-Directorium\\+in\\+1746}} In 1759 the Compagnie privilégiée de Temesvár (called by the Kommerzial\\-Intendanz in Trieste also Jánosháza company) aimed at the export of Hungarian and Banat agricultural products (salted meat, tobacco, candles, tallow).{{cite book \\|title\\= Das Verkehrssystem als Modernisierungsfaktor: Straßen, Post, Fuhrwesen und Reisen nach Triest und Fiume vom Beginn des 18\\. Jahrhunderts bis zum Eisenbahnzeitalter\\|last\\= Helmedach\\|first\\= Andreas\\|year\\= 2002\\|publisher\\= Oldenbourg Verlag\\|isbn\\= 9783486565249\\|pages\\= 122–123\\|access\\-date\\=August 28, 2012 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fD1cNhwhz7kC\\&q\\=Privilegierte\\+Societe\\+de\\+Temesvar\\&pg\\=PA121}}", "The Temesvár company operated from 1759 until 1769 before it went bankrupt by 1771\\. Its greatest success came during the Seven Years' War (reaching its peak in 1763 – 65\\) when it supplied France through [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa \"Genoa\") of the goods she had previously imported from its American possessions. The sugar refinery built in Fiume in 1750 was perhaps the biggest success. The plant obtained the privilege as the only sugar producing plant in the Empire and in 1755 an act prohibited the imports of sugar from other countries. The turn happened when Charles Proli from [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\") together with the Triestine commercial house Urban Arnold \\& Cie company provided the plant with Dutch personnel and equipment. At its peak the Company employed more than 1000 workers and employees in a time when Fiume had little more than 5000 inhabitants. Apart from sugar the company produced salted meat that was exported principally to France from where Haitian sugar cane was obtained. The company induced many spin\\-offs (such as candle and rope factories, etc.).", "Industrial production in the city rose rapidly: according to the Ragusan diplomat Luka Sorkočević who in 1782 stayed in Fiume in his private diary estimated the value of the exported goods from Fiume at 2,5 million guldens. The next step was marked by the [Austrian East India Company](/wiki/Austrian_East_India_Company \"Austrian East India Company\") (Société impériale asiatique de Trieste et Anvers, or Société asiatique de Trieste), based in [Ostend](/wiki/Ostend \"Ostend\") and [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste \"Trieste\"), founded 1775 by [William Bolts](/wiki/William_Bolts \"William Bolts\") and wound up in 1785\\.Walter Markov, \"La Compagnia Asiatica di Trieste\", *Studi Storici,* vol.2, no.1, 1961\\.", "The Imperial Company of Trieste and Antwerp flourished despite the opposition of its rivals, the English and Dutch East India Companies, during the period when Britain found itself at war with the Dutch Republic and France as a development of the American War of Independence. The Imperial Company benefited from Austria’s neutrality during this conflict by being able to send its ships to Canton while its rival companies were prevented from doing so. When the war ended, the Dutch and English companies returned in a rush to Canton, which raised the price of Chinese tea and other goods there and caused a glut of them when the ships returned to Europe.Ernest van Bruyssel, *Histoire du Commerce et de la Marine en Belgique,* Bruxelles, 1851, tome III, p.299; see also Giorgio Gilibert, “Il mercante, il banchiere e l’imperatrice: l’avventura coloniale della Compagnia Asiatica di Trieste”, *La città de traffici, 1779–1918,* Roberto Finzi, Loredana Panariti e Giovanni Panjek (eds), *Storia economica e sociale di Trieste,* Volume II, Trieste, LINT, 2003, pp.3–20\\.", "The trade from the Austrian Netherlands to India which had been recommenced by Bolts and the Imperial East India Company was continued after the collapse of that company in February 1785 by a group of Belgian and English merchants headed by the Vicomte [Edouard de Walckiers](/wiki/Edouard_de_Walckiers \"Edouard de Walckiers\"), whose family had played a part in the story of the Ostend Company which traded to India earlier in the eighteenth century and who, together with the Marseilles banker Kick, had been one of the biggest shareholders in the Imperial Company.Helma Houtman\\-De Smedt, “The ambitions of the Austrian Empire with reference to East India during the last quarter of the eighteenth century”, Chaudhury Sushil (ed.), *Merchants, Companies and Trade: Europe and Asia in the Early Modern Era,* Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p.225\\-239, p.235\\.", "" ]
History ------- The pistol that would eventually be named the Colt Commander was [Colt's Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Colt%27s_Manufacturing_Company "Colt's Manufacturing Company")'s candidate in a U.S. government post–[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") trial to find a lighter replacement for the [M1911 pistol](/wiki/M1911_pistol "M1911 pistol") that would be issued to officers. Requirements were issued in 1949 that the pistol had to be chambered for 9 mm Parabellum and could not exceed 7 inches in length or weigh more than 25 ounces.{{cite book \|last\=Ayoob \|first\=Massad \|title\=Massad Ayoob's Greatest Handguns of the World \|authorlink\=Massad Ayoob \|publisher\=Gun Digest Books\|year\= 2010 \|ISBN\=978\-1\-4402\-0825\-6 \|pages\=33–44}} Candidates included [Browning Hi\-Power](/wiki/Browning_Hi-Power "Browning Hi-Power") variants by Canada's [Inglis](/wiki/John_Inglis_and_Company "John Inglis and Company") and Belgium's [Fabrique Nationale](/wiki/Fabrique_Nationale "Fabrique Nationale"), and [Smith \& Wesson](/wiki/Smith_%26_Wesson "Smith & Wesson")'s [S\&W Model 39](/wiki/Smith_%26_Wesson_Model_39 "Smith & Wesson Model 39"). Colt entered a modified version of their [M1911 pistol](/wiki/M1911_pistol "M1911 pistol") that was chambered for 9 mm Parabellum, had an aluminum alloy frame, a short 4\.25\-inch barrel, and a 9\-round magazine. In 1950, Colt moved their candidate into regular production. It was the first aluminum\-framed large frame pistol in major production and the first Colt pistol to be originally chambered in 9 mm Parabellum. The first year's production included .45 ACP and .38 Super chamberings. In 1970, Colt introduced the all\-steel "Colt Combat Commander", with an optional model in satin nickel. To differentiate between the two models, the aluminum\-framed model was renamed the "Lightweight Commander". ### Variants The .45 ACP "Colt Commander Gold Cup" was designed to offer competition\-ready out\-of\-the\-box performance in National Match competition. It came with one 8\-round magazine plus a separate recoil spring and one 7\-round magazine for wadcutter ammunition.{{cite book\|last \=Malloy\|first \=John\|title\=Gun Digest 2011\|editor\= Dan Shiedler\|publisher \= Krause\|year\= 2011 \|chapter\= The Colt 1911: The First Century\|ISBN \= 978\-1\-4402\-1337\-3\|pages\=108–117}} The "Colt Combat Elite" was specialized for combat\-style match shooters. The .45 ACP model comes with two 8\-round magazines and the .38 Super model with two 9\-round magazines. The "C.C.O." or "Concealed Carry Officer's" pistol mated the slide and barrel assembly of the stainless\-steel Commander with the shorter frame of the blued Lightweight [Officer's ACP](/wiki/Colt_Officer%27s_ACP "Colt Officer's ACP"). [thumb\|The XSE variation of the Colt Combat Commander](/wiki/File:Commander_XSE.jpg "Commander XSE.jpg") A limited run of the Colt Commander in [7\.65mm Luger](/wiki/7.65%C3%9721mm_Parabellum "7.65×21mm Parabellum") was made for export in the early 1970s.
[ "History\n-------", "The pistol that would eventually be named the Colt Commander was [Colt's Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Colt%27s_Manufacturing_Company \"Colt's Manufacturing Company\")'s candidate in a U.S. government post–[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") trial to find a lighter replacement for the [M1911 pistol](/wiki/M1911_pistol \"M1911 pistol\") that would be issued to officers. Requirements were issued in 1949 that the pistol had to be chambered for 9 mm Parabellum and could not exceed 7 inches in length or weigh more than 25 ounces.{{cite book \\|last\\=Ayoob \\|first\\=Massad \\|title\\=Massad Ayoob's Greatest Handguns of the World \\|authorlink\\=Massad Ayoob \\|publisher\\=Gun Digest Books\\|year\\= 2010 \\|ISBN\\=978\\-1\\-4402\\-0825\\-6 \\|pages\\=33–44}}", "Candidates included [Browning Hi\\-Power](/wiki/Browning_Hi-Power \"Browning Hi-Power\") variants by Canada's [Inglis](/wiki/John_Inglis_and_Company \"John Inglis and Company\") and Belgium's [Fabrique Nationale](/wiki/Fabrique_Nationale \"Fabrique Nationale\"), and [Smith \\& Wesson](/wiki/Smith_%26_Wesson \"Smith & Wesson\")'s [S\\&W Model 39](/wiki/Smith_%26_Wesson_Model_39 \"Smith & Wesson Model 39\"). Colt entered a modified version of their [M1911 pistol](/wiki/M1911_pistol \"M1911 pistol\") that was chambered for 9 mm Parabellum, had an aluminum alloy frame, a short 4\\.25\\-inch barrel, and a 9\\-round magazine. In 1950, Colt moved their candidate into regular production. It was the first aluminum\\-framed large frame pistol in major production and the first Colt pistol to be originally chambered in 9 mm Parabellum. The first year's production included .45 ACP and .38 Super chamberings.", "In 1970, Colt introduced the all\\-steel \"Colt Combat Commander\", with an optional model in satin nickel. To differentiate between the two models, the aluminum\\-framed model was renamed the \"Lightweight Commander\".", "### Variants", "The .45 ACP \"Colt Commander Gold Cup\" was designed to offer competition\\-ready out\\-of\\-the\\-box performance in National Match competition. It came with one 8\\-round magazine plus a separate recoil spring and one 7\\-round magazine for wadcutter ammunition.{{cite book\\|last \\=Malloy\\|first \\=John\\|title\\=Gun Digest 2011\\|editor\\= Dan Shiedler\\|publisher \\= Krause\\|year\\= 2011 \\|chapter\\= The Colt 1911: The First Century\\|ISBN \\= 978\\-1\\-4402\\-1337\\-3\\|pages\\=108–117}}", "The \"Colt Combat Elite\" was specialized for combat\\-style match shooters. The .45 ACP model comes with two 8\\-round magazines and the .38 Super model with two 9\\-round magazines.", "The \"C.C.O.\" or \"Concealed Carry Officer's\" pistol mated the slide and barrel assembly of the stainless\\-steel Commander with the shorter frame of the blued Lightweight [Officer's ACP](/wiki/Colt_Officer%27s_ACP \"Colt Officer's ACP\").", "[thumb\\|The XSE variation of the Colt Combat Commander](/wiki/File:Commander_XSE.jpg \"Commander XSE.jpg\")", "A limited run of the Colt Commander in [7\\.65mm Luger](/wiki/7.65%C3%9721mm_Parabellum \"7.65×21mm Parabellum\") was made for export in the early 1970s.", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Personal life Solomon Snyder was born on December 26, 1938, in [Washington D.C.](/wiki/Washington_D.C. "Washington D.C.") He is one of five children. Snyder and his wife Elaine, who died in 2016, have two daughters and three grandchildren. He lives in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore"), [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland "Maryland"). ### Education and early career Snyder attended [Georgetown University](/wiki/Georgetown_University "Georgetown University") from 1955 to 1958 and received his M.D. degree from [Georgetown University School of Medicine](/wiki/Georgetown_University_School_of_Medicine "Georgetown University School of Medicine") in 1962\. After a [medical residency](/wiki/Residency_%28medicine%29 "Residency (medicine)") at the [Kaiser Hospital](/wiki/Kaiser_Foundation_Hospital_%E2%80%93_Fontana "Kaiser Foundation Hospital – Fontana") in San Francisco, he served as a research associate from 1963 to 1965 at the [National Institutes of Health](/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health "National Institutes of Health"), where he studied under [Julius Axelrod](/wiki/Julius_Axelrod "Julius Axelrod"). Snyder moved to the [Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine](/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_School_of_Medicine "Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine") to complete his residency in [psychiatry](/wiki/Psychiatry "Psychiatry") from 1965 to 1968\. He was appointed to the faculty there in 1966 as Assistant [Professor](/wiki/Professor "Professor") of Pharmacology. In 1968 he was promoted to associate professor of Pharmacology and Psychiatry and in 1970 to full professor in both departments. His laboratory is noted for the use of [receptor binding](/wiki/Receptor_%28biochemistry%29%23Binding_and_activation "Receptor (biochemistry)#Binding and activation") studies to characterize the actions of neurotransmitters and [psychoactive drugs](/wiki/Psychoactive_drug "Psychoactive drug"). He is also known for his work identifying [receptors](/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor "Cell surface receptor") for the major neurotransmitters in the [brain](/wiki/Brain "Brain"), and in the process explaining the actions of psychoactive drugs, such as the blockade of dopamine receptors by [antipsychotic](/wiki/Antipsychotic "Antipsychotic") medications. He has described novel neurotransmitters, such as the gases [nitric oxide](/wiki/Nitric_oxide "Nitric oxide") and [carbon monoxide](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide "Carbon monoxide") and the D\-isomers of [amino acids](/wiki/Amino_acids "Amino acids"), including [D\-serine](/wiki/D-serine "D-serine"). ### Later career Snyder was University Distinguished Service Professor of [Neuroscience](/wiki/Neuroscience "Neuroscience"), [Pharmacology](/wiki/Pharmacology "Pharmacology"), and [Psychiatry](/wiki/Psychiatry "Psychiatry") at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. In 1980, he founded the Department of Neuroscience, and served as its first director from 1980 to 2006\. In 2006, the department was renamed as The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience in his honor. Snyder retired from Johns Hopkins in December 2022\.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-12\-08 \|title\=Solomon Snyder, JHU distinguished professor emeritus and noted neurologist and psychologist, retires \|url\=https://neuroscience.jhu.edu/news/247 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-16 \|website\=Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience}} Snyder is also the Director of Drug Discovery at the Lieber Institute for Brain Development in Baltimore, MD.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.libd.org\|title\=The Lieber Institute for Brain Development \- Research \& Discovery\|website\=www.libd.org\|access\-date\=7 April 2018}} In 1980, he served as the president of the [Society for Neuroscience](/wiki/Society_for_Neuroscience "Society for Neuroscience"). He is also associate editor, *[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America](/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America")*. He helped start the companies Nova Pharmaceuticals and Guilford Pharmaceuticals, and has been an active philanthropist.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2020}} He is listed by the [Institute for Scientific Information](/wiki/Institute_for_Scientific_Information "Institute for Scientific Information") as one of the 10 most\-often cited [biologists](/wiki/Biologist "Biologist") and he also has the highest [*h*\-index](/wiki/H-index "H-index") of any living biologist.
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Personal life", "Solomon Snyder was born on December 26, 1938, in [Washington D.C.](/wiki/Washington_D.C. \"Washington D.C.\") He is one of five children. Snyder and his wife Elaine, who died in 2016, have two daughters and three grandchildren. He lives in [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\"), [Maryland](/wiki/Maryland \"Maryland\").", "### Education and early career", "Snyder attended [Georgetown University](/wiki/Georgetown_University \"Georgetown University\") from 1955 to 1958 and received his M.D. degree from [Georgetown University School of Medicine](/wiki/Georgetown_University_School_of_Medicine \"Georgetown University School of Medicine\") in 1962\\. After a [medical residency](/wiki/Residency_%28medicine%29 \"Residency (medicine)\") at the [Kaiser Hospital](/wiki/Kaiser_Foundation_Hospital_%E2%80%93_Fontana \"Kaiser Foundation Hospital – Fontana\") in San Francisco, he served as a research associate from 1963 to 1965 at the [National Institutes of Health](/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health \"National Institutes of Health\"), where he studied under [Julius Axelrod](/wiki/Julius_Axelrod \"Julius Axelrod\"). Snyder moved to the [Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine](/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_School_of_Medicine \"Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine\") to complete his residency in [psychiatry](/wiki/Psychiatry \"Psychiatry\") from 1965 to 1968\\. He was appointed to the faculty there in 1966 as Assistant [Professor](/wiki/Professor \"Professor\") of Pharmacology. In 1968 he was promoted to associate professor of Pharmacology and Psychiatry and in 1970 to full professor in both departments.", "His laboratory is noted for the use of [receptor binding](/wiki/Receptor_%28biochemistry%29%23Binding_and_activation \"Receptor (biochemistry)#Binding and activation\") studies to characterize the actions of neurotransmitters and [psychoactive drugs](/wiki/Psychoactive_drug \"Psychoactive drug\").", "He is also known for his work identifying [receptors](/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor \"Cell surface receptor\") for the major neurotransmitters in the [brain](/wiki/Brain \"Brain\"), and in the process explaining the actions of psychoactive drugs, such as the blockade of dopamine receptors by [antipsychotic](/wiki/Antipsychotic \"Antipsychotic\") medications. He has described novel neurotransmitters, such as the gases [nitric oxide](/wiki/Nitric_oxide \"Nitric oxide\") and [carbon monoxide](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide \"Carbon monoxide\") and the D\\-isomers of [amino acids](/wiki/Amino_acids \"Amino acids\"), including [D\\-serine](/wiki/D-serine \"D-serine\").", "### Later career", "Snyder was University Distinguished Service Professor of [Neuroscience](/wiki/Neuroscience \"Neuroscience\"), [Pharmacology](/wiki/Pharmacology \"Pharmacology\"), and [Psychiatry](/wiki/Psychiatry \"Psychiatry\") at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. In 1980, he founded the Department of Neuroscience, and served as its first director from 1980 to 2006\\. In 2006, the department was renamed as The Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience in his honor. Snyder retired from Johns Hopkins in December 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-08 \\|title\\=Solomon Snyder, JHU distinguished professor emeritus and noted neurologist and psychologist, retires \\|url\\=https://neuroscience.jhu.edu/news/247 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-16 \\|website\\=Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience}}", "Snyder is also the Director of Drug Discovery at the Lieber Institute for Brain Development in Baltimore, MD.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.libd.org\\|title\\=The Lieber Institute for Brain Development \\- Research \\& Discovery\\|website\\=www.libd.org\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2018}}", "In 1980, he served as the president of the [Society for Neuroscience](/wiki/Society_for_Neuroscience \"Society for Neuroscience\"). He is also associate editor, *[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America](/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\")*. He helped start the companies Nova Pharmaceuticals and Guilford Pharmaceuticals, and has been an active philanthropist.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2020}}", "He is listed by the [Institute for Scientific Information](/wiki/Institute_for_Scientific_Information \"Institute for Scientific Information\") as one of the 10 most\\-often cited [biologists](/wiki/Biologist \"Biologist\") and he also has the highest [*h*\\-index](/wiki/H-index \"H-index\") of any living biologist.", "" ]
History ------- Under relaxed OFCOM requirements for local content on commercial radio, Heart South is permitted to share all programmes between seven licences located in the [ITV Meridian](/wiki/ITV_Meridian "ITV Meridian") broadcast region.[Heart Bournemouth \- format change request](https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0027/137907/heart-bournemouth-format-change-request.pdf), OFCOM, 4 December 2018 Previously, these licences broadcast as separate stations: * [Radio 210](/wiki/Heart_Berkshire "Heart Berkshire") began broadcasting from [Reading](/wiki/Reading%2C_Berkshire "Reading, Berkshire") in March 1976, serving [Berkshire](/wiki/Berkshire "Berkshire") and north [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire "Hampshire"). * [2CR \- Two Counties Radio](/wiki/Heart_Dorset_%26_New_Forest "Heart Dorset & New Forest") began broadcasting from [Bournemouth](/wiki/Bournemouth "Bournemouth") in September 1980, serving east [Dorset](/wiki/Dorset "Dorset") and west [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire "Hampshire"). * [Southern Sound](/wiki/Heart_Sussex "Heart Sussex") began broadcasting from [Portslade](/wiki/Portslade "Portslade"), near [Brighton](/wiki/Brighton "Brighton"), in August 1983, serving [East Sussex](/wiki/East_Sussex "East Sussex") and parts of [West Sussex](/wiki/West_Sussex "West Sussex"). * [Invicta Radio](/wiki/Heart_Kent "Heart Kent") began broadcasting to [Kent](/wiki/Kent "Kent") in October 1984, initially from studios in [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury "Canterbury") and [Maidstone](/wiki/Maidstone "Maidstone"), before moving to [Whitstable](/wiki/Whitstable "Whitstable") in 1991\. Over the years, the station provided opt\-out programming for the East and West of the county \- at one point, extending to separate breakfast shows for [Ashford](/wiki/Ashford%2C_Kent "Ashford, Kent") and [Thanet](/wiki/Isle_of_Thanet "Isle of Thanet"). * [Radio Mercury](/wiki/Mercury_FM "Mercury FM") began broadcasting from [Crawley](/wiki/Crawley "Crawley") in October 1984, serving east [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey "Surrey") and north Sussex. * [Ocean Sound](/wiki/Heart_Hampshire "Heart Hampshire") began broadcasting to south [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire "Hampshire"), [West Sussex](/wiki/West_Sussex "West Sussex") and the [Isle of Wight](/wiki/Isle_of_Wight "Isle of Wight") in October 1986, after taking over the licence previously held by [Radio Victory](/wiki/Radio_Victory "Radio Victory"). Initially providing separate programming for the East and West of the area, it also ran a split service for the [Winchester](/wiki/Winchester "Winchester") area called *The Light FM*. * [Fox FM](/wiki/Heart_Oxfordshire "Heart Oxfordshire") began broadcasting to [Oxfordshire](/wiki/Oxfordshire "Oxfordshire") in September 1989\. Ocean Sound's West service was split off into Power FM in December 1988 \- with the parent service, later known was Ocean FM continuing for the East and North areas. In 1992, Ocean merged with Southern Sound (latterly Southern FM) to form the [Southern Radio Group](/wiki/Southern_Radio_Group "Southern Radio Group") with the two stations largely sharing output. The company went onto purchase Invicta Radio in 1992, before being brought by Capital Radio plc in 1994\. By 2005, all seven stations entered common ownership when GWR Group merged with Capital to form [GCap Media](/wiki/GCap_Media "GCap Media"), which in turn was taken over by Global in 2008\. In 2009, six of the stations were rebranded as part of a rollout of the Heart network across 29 local radio stations owned by Global. Fox FM and 2\-Ten FM relaunched in March, followed by 2CR, Invicta, Ocean FM, Southern FM. By this point, local programming had been reduced to ten hours on weekdays and four hours at weekends. During the summer of 2010, Global merged six of the stations into three \- with [Mercury FM](/wiki/Mercury_FM "Mercury FM") joining the Heart network as a result: * [Heart Solent](/wiki/Heart_Solent "Heart Solent") \- formed from the Dorset and Hampshire stations, broadcasting from [Fareham](/wiki/Fareham "Fareham") * [Heart Sussex and Surrey](/wiki/Heart_Sussex_and_Surrey "Heart Sussex and Surrey") \- formed from [Mercury FM](/wiki/Mercury_FM "Mercury FM") and Heart's Sussex station, broadcasting from [Portslade](/wiki/Portslade "Portslade") * [Heart Thames Valley](/wiki/Heart_Thames_Valley "Heart Thames Valley") \- formed from the Berkshire and Oxfordshire stations, broadcasting from [Reading](/wiki/Reading%2C_Berkshire "Reading, Berkshire") [Heart Kent](/wiki/Heart_Kent "Heart Kent") retained its local programming \- but across all stations, local output was further cut to seven hours on weekdays. Localised news bulletins, traffic updates and advertising continued to air as opt\-outs. On 26 February 2019, following OFCOM's decision to relax local content obligations from commercial radio, Global announced it would merge the four stations in the South and South East into one.[Global to network Capital, Heart and Smooth breakfast shows](https://radiotoday.co.uk/2019/02/global-to-network-capital-heart-and-smooth-breakfast-shows/), RadioToday, 26 February 2019 As of 3 June 2019, regional programming consists of three hours on weekdays, alongside localised news bulletins, traffic updates and advertising.[Amanda Holden to join Jamie Theakston for Heart UK Breakfast](https://radiotoday.co.uk/2019/04/amanda-holden-to-join-jamie-theakston-for-heart-uk-breakfast/), Radio Today, 29 April 2019 Local breakfast and weekend shows were replaced with network programming from London. Global's studio centres in [Portslade](/wiki/Portslade "Portslade"), [Reading](/wiki/Reading%2C_Berkshire "Reading, Berkshire") and [Whitstable](/wiki/Whitstable "Whitstable") were closed, although local newsgathering and sales staff were retained. Across the four stations, fourteen local presenters left the Heart network.[Heart Drivetime show presenters announced by Global](https://radiotoday.co.uk/2019/05/heart-drivetime-show-presenters-announced-by-global/), Radio Today, 20 May 2019
[ "History\n-------", "Under relaxed OFCOM requirements for local content on commercial radio, Heart South is permitted to share all programmes between seven licences located in the [ITV Meridian](/wiki/ITV_Meridian \"ITV Meridian\") broadcast region.[Heart Bournemouth \\- format change request](https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0027/137907/heart-bournemouth-format-change-request.pdf), OFCOM, 4 December 2018", "Previously, these licences broadcast as separate stations:\n* [Radio 210](/wiki/Heart_Berkshire \"Heart Berkshire\") began broadcasting from [Reading](/wiki/Reading%2C_Berkshire \"Reading, Berkshire\") in March 1976, serving [Berkshire](/wiki/Berkshire \"Berkshire\") and north [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire \"Hampshire\").\n* [2CR \\- Two Counties Radio](/wiki/Heart_Dorset_%26_New_Forest \"Heart Dorset & New Forest\") began broadcasting from [Bournemouth](/wiki/Bournemouth \"Bournemouth\") in September 1980, serving east [Dorset](/wiki/Dorset \"Dorset\") and west [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire \"Hampshire\").\n* [Southern Sound](/wiki/Heart_Sussex \"Heart Sussex\") began broadcasting from [Portslade](/wiki/Portslade \"Portslade\"), near [Brighton](/wiki/Brighton \"Brighton\"), in August 1983, serving [East Sussex](/wiki/East_Sussex \"East Sussex\") and parts of [West Sussex](/wiki/West_Sussex \"West Sussex\").\n* [Invicta Radio](/wiki/Heart_Kent \"Heart Kent\") began broadcasting to [Kent](/wiki/Kent \"Kent\") in October 1984, initially from studios in [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury \"Canterbury\") and [Maidstone](/wiki/Maidstone \"Maidstone\"), before moving to [Whitstable](/wiki/Whitstable \"Whitstable\") in 1991\\. Over the years, the station provided opt\\-out programming for the East and West of the county \\- at one point, extending to separate breakfast shows for [Ashford](/wiki/Ashford%2C_Kent \"Ashford, Kent\") and [Thanet](/wiki/Isle_of_Thanet \"Isle of Thanet\").\n* [Radio Mercury](/wiki/Mercury_FM \"Mercury FM\") began broadcasting from [Crawley](/wiki/Crawley \"Crawley\") in October 1984, serving east [Surrey](/wiki/Surrey \"Surrey\") and north Sussex.\n* [Ocean Sound](/wiki/Heart_Hampshire \"Heart Hampshire\") began broadcasting to south [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire \"Hampshire\"), [West Sussex](/wiki/West_Sussex \"West Sussex\") and the [Isle of Wight](/wiki/Isle_of_Wight \"Isle of Wight\") in October 1986, after taking over the licence previously held by [Radio Victory](/wiki/Radio_Victory \"Radio Victory\"). Initially providing separate programming for the East and West of the area, it also ran a split service for the [Winchester](/wiki/Winchester \"Winchester\") area called *The Light FM*.\n* [Fox FM](/wiki/Heart_Oxfordshire \"Heart Oxfordshire\") began broadcasting to [Oxfordshire](/wiki/Oxfordshire \"Oxfordshire\") in September 1989\\.", "Ocean Sound's West service was split off into Power FM in December 1988 \\- with the parent service, later known was Ocean FM continuing for the East and North areas.", "In 1992, Ocean merged with Southern Sound (latterly Southern FM) to form the [Southern Radio Group](/wiki/Southern_Radio_Group \"Southern Radio Group\") with the two stations largely sharing output. The company went onto purchase Invicta Radio in 1992, before being brought by Capital Radio plc in 1994\\.", "By 2005, all seven stations entered common ownership when GWR Group merged with Capital to form [GCap Media](/wiki/GCap_Media \"GCap Media\"), which in turn was taken over by Global in 2008\\.", "In 2009, six of the stations were rebranded as part of a rollout of the Heart network across 29 local radio stations owned by Global. Fox FM and 2\\-Ten FM relaunched in March, followed by 2CR, Invicta, Ocean FM, Southern FM. By this point, local programming had been reduced to ten hours on weekdays and four hours at weekends.", "During the summer of 2010, Global merged six of the stations into three \\- with [Mercury FM](/wiki/Mercury_FM \"Mercury FM\") joining the Heart network as a result:\n* [Heart Solent](/wiki/Heart_Solent \"Heart Solent\") \\- formed from the Dorset and Hampshire stations, broadcasting from [Fareham](/wiki/Fareham \"Fareham\")\n* [Heart Sussex and Surrey](/wiki/Heart_Sussex_and_Surrey \"Heart Sussex and Surrey\") \\- formed from [Mercury FM](/wiki/Mercury_FM \"Mercury FM\") and Heart's Sussex station, broadcasting from [Portslade](/wiki/Portslade \"Portslade\")\n* [Heart Thames Valley](/wiki/Heart_Thames_Valley \"Heart Thames Valley\") \\- formed from the Berkshire and Oxfordshire stations, broadcasting from [Reading](/wiki/Reading%2C_Berkshire \"Reading, Berkshire\")", "[Heart Kent](/wiki/Heart_Kent \"Heart Kent\") retained its local programming \\- but across all stations, local output was further cut to seven hours on weekdays. Localised news bulletins, traffic updates and advertising continued to air as opt\\-outs.", "On 26 February 2019, following OFCOM's decision to relax local content obligations from commercial radio, Global announced it would merge the four stations in the South and South East into one.[Global to network Capital, Heart and Smooth breakfast shows](https://radiotoday.co.uk/2019/02/global-to-network-capital-heart-and-smooth-breakfast-shows/), RadioToday, 26 February 2019", "As of 3 June 2019, regional programming consists of three hours on weekdays, alongside localised news bulletins, traffic updates and advertising.[Amanda Holden to join Jamie Theakston for Heart UK Breakfast](https://radiotoday.co.uk/2019/04/amanda-holden-to-join-jamie-theakston-for-heart-uk-breakfast/), Radio Today, 29 April 2019 Local breakfast and weekend shows were replaced with network programming from London.", "Global's studio centres in [Portslade](/wiki/Portslade \"Portslade\"), [Reading](/wiki/Reading%2C_Berkshire \"Reading, Berkshire\") and [Whitstable](/wiki/Whitstable \"Whitstable\") were closed, although local newsgathering and sales staff were retained. Across the four stations, fourteen local presenters left the Heart network.[Heart Drivetime show presenters announced by Global](https://radiotoday.co.uk/2019/05/heart-drivetime-show-presenters-announced-by-global/), Radio Today, 20 May 2019", "" ]
Features -------- In the superior part of the rhomboid fossa it corresponds with the lateral limit of the fossa and presents a bluish\-gray area, the [locus coeruleus](/wiki/Locus_coeruleus "Locus coeruleus"), which owes its color to an underlying patch of deeply pigmented nerve cells, termed the [substantia ferruginea](/wiki/Substantia_ferruginea "Substantia ferruginea"). At the level of the [facial colliculus](/wiki/Facial_colliculus "Facial colliculus") the sulcus limitans widens into a flattened depression, the superior fovea, and in the inferior part of the fossa appears as a distinct dimple, the [inferior fovea](/wiki/Inferior_fovea "Inferior fovea"). Lateral to the foveae is a rounded elevation named the area acustica, which extends into the lateral recess and there forms a feebly marked swelling, the tuberculum acusticum. Winding around the inferior peduncle and crossing the area acustica and the medial eminence are a number of white strands, the striæ medullares, which form a portion of the cochlear division of the acoustic nerve and disappear into the median sulcus. Below the inferior fovea, and between the [hypoglossal trigone](/wiki/Hypoglossal_trigone "Hypoglossal trigone") and the lower part of the area acustica is a triangular dark field, the [vagal trigone](/wiki/Vagal_trigone "Vagal trigone"), which corresponds to the [sensory nucleus of the vagus](/wiki/Sensory_nucleus_of_the_vagus "Sensory nucleus of the vagus") and [glossopharyngeal nerves](/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerves "Glossopharyngeal nerves"). The lower end of the vagal trigone is crossed by a narrow translucent ridge, the [funiculus separans](/wiki/Funiculus_separans "Funiculus separans"), and between this [funiculus](/wiki/Funiculus_%28neuroanatomy%29 "Funiculus (neuroanatomy)") and the [gracile nucleus](/wiki/Gracile_nucleus "Gracile nucleus"), is a small tongue\-shaped area, the [area postrema](/wiki/Area_postrema "Area postrema"). On section it is seen that the funiculus separans is formed by a strip of thickened ependyma, and the area postrema by loose, highly vascular, neuroglial tissue containing nerve cells of moderate size.
[ "Features\n--------", "In the superior part of the rhomboid fossa it corresponds with the lateral limit of the fossa and presents a bluish\\-gray area, the [locus coeruleus](/wiki/Locus_coeruleus \"Locus coeruleus\"), which owes its color to an underlying patch of deeply pigmented nerve cells, termed the [substantia ferruginea](/wiki/Substantia_ferruginea \"Substantia ferruginea\").", "At the level of the [facial colliculus](/wiki/Facial_colliculus \"Facial colliculus\") the sulcus limitans widens into a flattened depression, the superior fovea, and in the inferior part of the fossa appears as a distinct dimple, the [inferior fovea](/wiki/Inferior_fovea \"Inferior fovea\").", "Lateral to the foveae is a rounded elevation named the area acustica, which extends into the lateral recess and there forms a feebly marked swelling, the tuberculum acusticum.", "Winding around the inferior peduncle and crossing the area acustica and the medial eminence are a number of white strands, the striæ medullares, which form a portion of the cochlear division of the acoustic nerve and disappear into the median sulcus.", "Below the inferior fovea, and between the [hypoglossal trigone](/wiki/Hypoglossal_trigone \"Hypoglossal trigone\") and the lower part of the area acustica is a triangular dark field, the [vagal trigone](/wiki/Vagal_trigone \"Vagal trigone\"), which corresponds to the [sensory nucleus of the vagus](/wiki/Sensory_nucleus_of_the_vagus \"Sensory nucleus of the vagus\") and [glossopharyngeal nerves](/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerves \"Glossopharyngeal nerves\").", "The lower end of the vagal trigone is crossed by a narrow translucent ridge, the [funiculus separans](/wiki/Funiculus_separans \"Funiculus separans\"), and between this [funiculus](/wiki/Funiculus_%28neuroanatomy%29 \"Funiculus (neuroanatomy)\") and the [gracile nucleus](/wiki/Gracile_nucleus \"Gracile nucleus\"), is a small tongue\\-shaped area, the [area postrema](/wiki/Area_postrema \"Area postrema\").", "On section it is seen that the funiculus separans is formed by a strip of thickened ependyma, and the area postrema by loose, highly vascular, neuroglial tissue containing nerve cells of moderate size.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- *Stranger with a Camera* explores the conditions that fueled the killing of Canadian filmmaker Hugh O'Connor as well as the implications his death has had for filmmakers. The film begins by chronicling the details of the incident. In 1967, O'Connor and his crew were working on a film called *US* that sought to depict the variety of people and daily lifestyles across the United States. In eastern Kentucky, they filmed coal miners and their families. One afternoon, they stopped on the side of the road to film a family living in a rental house in [Jeremiah, Kentucky](/wiki/Jeremiah%2C_Kentucky "Jeremiah, Kentucky"). Although the filmmakers received permission of the family to film, they failed to receive it from the landowner, Hobart Ison. As the filmmakers were leaving, Ison drove up and fired three shots, killing Hugh O'Connor. The killing of Hugh O'Connor by Ison had a lasting impact on the surrounding community, including the filmmaker herself. [Elizabeth Barret](/wiki/Elizabeth_Barret "Elizabeth Barret") grew up in [Letcher County](/wiki/Letcher_County "Letcher County"). She explains that while she grew up knowing what had happened the day of O'Connor's death, she now desires to find out why it happened. She wonders what brought these two men, one with a camera and one with a gun, face to face back in 1967\. She poses several questions in the beginning of the film. What is the difference between how people see their own place and how others represent it? Who gets to tell the community's story? What are the storytellers' responsibilities? And what do these questions have to do with the murder of Hugh O'Connor? Barret sets out on her journey to understand both sides of the story surrounding the death of Hugh O'Connor. She delves into background of both Ison and O'Connor through interviews of their respective friends and family. Through the film she explores the impact of the images generated by mass media of rural [Appalachia](/wiki/Appalachia "Appalachia") during the [War on Poverty](/wiki/War_on_Poverty "War on Poverty"): images of coal mining disasters, coal strikes, and poor people. As a native of Letcher County she can understand Ison's fear of outsiders portraying his home in a negative way. As a filmmaker, she can understand the goal of O'Connor to capture the story on film. Ison's trial for murder in 1968 resulted in a hung jury, 11 to 1 for conviction. Ison then pled guilty to involuntary manslaughter as the second trial was set to begin. He was sentenced to ten years in prison and paroled after one year. With this result, Elizabeth Barret concludes, "the ties that bind communities together are not always positive. Suspicion of those who are different \- defining yourself in opposition to others \- these can tie a community together, but can also lead to violence." Although Barret admits to having found no resolution to her questions about what happened that day in 1967, she understands that as a filmmaker she has a responsibility to see her community for what it is and to tell the story no matter how difficult. She ends, posing the question, "What are the responsibilities of any of us who take the images of other people and put them to our own uses?"{{Cite web \|url\=http://archive.itvs.org/strangerwithacamera/story.html \|title\=Stranger with a Camera \|access\-date\=2013\-12\-03 \|archive\-date\=2015\-05\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508001237/http://archive.itvs.org/strangerwithacamera/story.html \|url\-status\=dead }}
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "*Stranger with a Camera* explores the conditions that fueled the killing of Canadian filmmaker Hugh O'Connor as well as the implications his death has had for filmmakers.", "The film begins by chronicling the details of the incident. In 1967, O'Connor and his crew were working on a film called *US* that sought to depict the variety of people and daily lifestyles across the United States. In eastern Kentucky, they filmed coal miners and their families. One afternoon, they stopped on the side of the road to film a family living in a rental house in [Jeremiah, Kentucky](/wiki/Jeremiah%2C_Kentucky \"Jeremiah, Kentucky\"). Although the filmmakers received permission of the family to film, they failed to receive it from the landowner, Hobart Ison. As the filmmakers were leaving, Ison drove up and fired three shots, killing Hugh O'Connor.", "The killing of Hugh O'Connor by Ison had a lasting impact on the surrounding community, including the filmmaker herself. [Elizabeth Barret](/wiki/Elizabeth_Barret \"Elizabeth Barret\") grew up in [Letcher County](/wiki/Letcher_County \"Letcher County\"). She explains that while she grew up knowing what had happened the day of O'Connor's death, she now desires to find out why it happened. She wonders what brought these two men, one with a camera and one with a gun, face to face back in 1967\\.", "She poses several questions in the beginning of the film. What is the difference between how people see their own place and how others represent it? Who gets to tell the community's story? What are the storytellers' responsibilities? And what do these questions have to do with the murder of Hugh O'Connor?", "Barret sets out on her journey to understand both sides of the story surrounding the death of Hugh O'Connor. She delves into background of both Ison and O'Connor through interviews of their respective friends and family. Through the film she explores the impact of the images generated by mass media of rural [Appalachia](/wiki/Appalachia \"Appalachia\") during the [War on Poverty](/wiki/War_on_Poverty \"War on Poverty\"): images of coal mining disasters, coal strikes, and poor people. As a native of Letcher County she can understand Ison's fear of outsiders portraying his home in a negative way. As a filmmaker, she can understand the goal of O'Connor to capture the story on film.", "Ison's trial for murder in 1968 resulted in a hung jury, 11 to 1 for conviction. Ison then pled guilty to involuntary manslaughter as the second trial was set to begin. He was sentenced to ten years in prison and paroled after one year.", "With this result, Elizabeth Barret concludes, \"the ties that bind communities together are not always positive. Suspicion of those who are different \\- defining yourself in opposition to others \\- these can tie a community together, but can also lead to violence.\" Although Barret admits to having found no resolution to her questions about what happened that day in 1967, she understands that as a filmmaker she has a responsibility to see her community for what it is and to tell the story no matter how difficult. She ends, posing the question, \"What are the responsibilities of any of us who take the images of other people and put them to our own uses?\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://archive.itvs.org/strangerwithacamera/story.html \\|title\\=Stranger with a Camera \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-03 \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-05\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508001237/http://archive.itvs.org/strangerwithacamera/story.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "" ]
Diagnosis --------- ### [Hematuria](/wiki/Hematuria "Hematuria") in patients presenting after trauma Blood in the urine after abdominal trauma suggests a urinary tract injury. Renal injuries are suggested by lower [rib fractures](/wiki/Rib_fracture "Rib fracture"). Bladder and urethral injuries are suggested by pelvic fractures. #### Foley catheter The [urethral meatus](/wiki/Urethral_meatus "Urethral meatus") should be examined after trauma. Blood at the [urethral](/wiki/Urethra "Urethra") meatus precludes insertion of a [foley catheter](/wiki/Foley_catheter "Foley catheter") into the bladder. Erroneously placing a foley in this situation can result in infections of [periprostatic](/wiki/Periprostatic "Periprostatic") and [perivesical](/wiki/Perivesical "Perivesical") [hematomas](/wiki/Hematoma "Hematoma") or conversion of a partial transection to a complete urethral transections. Blood at the urethral meatus suggests an injury to the urethra. Otherwise a foley catheter can be placed into the bladder and hematuria can be assessed for. #### Abdominal imaging [Hemodynamically](/wiki/Hemodynamics "Hemodynamics") stable individuals should undergo further [radiographic](/wiki/Radiography "Radiography") assessment. Abdominal [computed tomography](/wiki/CT_scan "CT scan") (CT) with contrast can detect retroperitoneal hematomas, renal lacerations, urinary extravasation, and renal arterial and venous injuries. A repeat scan ten minutes after the first is recommended. #### [Retrograde urethrography](/wiki/Retrograde_urethrogram "Retrograde urethrogram") (RUG) The purpose of this study is to identify and characterize injuries to the urethra. The tip of a small (12F) foley catheter is placed in the urethral meatus. The catheter remains fixed after 3 mL of water are instilled into the foley catheter's balloon. Radiographic films are taken as 20 mL of water\-soluble contrast material are injected This outlines the urethra from the [urethral meatus](/wiki/Urinary_meatus "Urinary meatus") to the [bladder neck](/wiki/Bladder_neck "Bladder neck"). If injuries exist, the location can be determined. #### Retrograde [cystography](/wiki/Cystography "Cystography") The purpose of this study is to identify bladder perforations. The bladder needs to be adequately distended with contrast medium. 300 mL or more are generally recommended. The study has two films. One film is taken when the bladder is adequately distended and filled with contrast. The next film is taken after the bladder is emptied without the assistance of a foley catheter. #### [Angiography](/wiki/Angiography "Angiography") Helpful in identifying injuries to the kidney's [parenchyma](/wiki/Parenchyma "Parenchyma") and vasculature.
[ "Diagnosis\n---------", "### [Hematuria](/wiki/Hematuria \"Hematuria\") in patients presenting after trauma", "Blood in the urine after abdominal trauma suggests a urinary tract injury. Renal injuries are suggested by lower [rib fractures](/wiki/Rib_fracture \"Rib fracture\"). Bladder and urethral injuries are suggested by pelvic fractures.", "#### Foley catheter", "The [urethral meatus](/wiki/Urethral_meatus \"Urethral meatus\") should be examined after trauma. Blood at the [urethral](/wiki/Urethra \"Urethra\") meatus precludes insertion of a [foley catheter](/wiki/Foley_catheter \"Foley catheter\") into the bladder. Erroneously placing a foley in this situation can result in infections of [periprostatic](/wiki/Periprostatic \"Periprostatic\") and [perivesical](/wiki/Perivesical \"Perivesical\") [hematomas](/wiki/Hematoma \"Hematoma\") or conversion of a partial transection to a complete urethral transections. Blood at the urethral meatus suggests an injury to the urethra. Otherwise a foley catheter can be placed into the bladder and hematuria can be assessed for.", "#### Abdominal imaging", "[Hemodynamically](/wiki/Hemodynamics \"Hemodynamics\") stable individuals should undergo further [radiographic](/wiki/Radiography \"Radiography\") assessment. Abdominal [computed tomography](/wiki/CT_scan \"CT scan\") (CT) with contrast can detect retroperitoneal hematomas, renal lacerations, urinary extravasation, and renal arterial and venous injuries. A repeat scan ten minutes after the first is recommended.", "#### [Retrograde urethrography](/wiki/Retrograde_urethrogram \"Retrograde urethrogram\") (RUG)", "The purpose of this study is to identify and characterize injuries to the urethra. The tip of a small (12F) foley catheter is placed in the urethral meatus. The catheter remains fixed after 3 mL of water are instilled into the foley catheter's balloon. Radiographic films are taken as 20 mL of water\\-soluble contrast material are injected This outlines the urethra from the [urethral meatus](/wiki/Urinary_meatus \"Urinary meatus\") to the [bladder neck](/wiki/Bladder_neck \"Bladder neck\"). If injuries exist, the location can be determined.", "#### Retrograde [cystography](/wiki/Cystography \"Cystography\")", "The purpose of this study is to identify bladder perforations. The bladder needs to be adequately distended with contrast medium. 300 mL or more are generally recommended. The study has two films. One film is taken when the bladder is adequately distended and filled with contrast. The next film is taken after the bladder is emptied without the assistance of a foley catheter.", "#### [Angiography](/wiki/Angiography \"Angiography\")", "Helpful in identifying injuries to the kidney's [parenchyma](/wiki/Parenchyma \"Parenchyma\") and vasculature.", "" ]
### [Hematuria](/wiki/Hematuria "Hematuria") in patients presenting after trauma Blood in the urine after abdominal trauma suggests a urinary tract injury. Renal injuries are suggested by lower [rib fractures](/wiki/Rib_fracture "Rib fracture"). Bladder and urethral injuries are suggested by pelvic fractures. #### Foley catheter The [urethral meatus](/wiki/Urethral_meatus "Urethral meatus") should be examined after trauma. Blood at the [urethral](/wiki/Urethra "Urethra") meatus precludes insertion of a [foley catheter](/wiki/Foley_catheter "Foley catheter") into the bladder. Erroneously placing a foley in this situation can result in infections of [periprostatic](/wiki/Periprostatic "Periprostatic") and [perivesical](/wiki/Perivesical "Perivesical") [hematomas](/wiki/Hematoma "Hematoma") or conversion of a partial transection to a complete urethral transections. Blood at the urethral meatus suggests an injury to the urethra. Otherwise a foley catheter can be placed into the bladder and hematuria can be assessed for. #### Abdominal imaging [Hemodynamically](/wiki/Hemodynamics "Hemodynamics") stable individuals should undergo further [radiographic](/wiki/Radiography "Radiography") assessment. Abdominal [computed tomography](/wiki/CT_scan "CT scan") (CT) with contrast can detect retroperitoneal hematomas, renal lacerations, urinary extravasation, and renal arterial and venous injuries. A repeat scan ten minutes after the first is recommended. #### [Retrograde urethrography](/wiki/Retrograde_urethrogram "Retrograde urethrogram") (RUG) The purpose of this study is to identify and characterize injuries to the urethra. The tip of a small (12F) foley catheter is placed in the urethral meatus. The catheter remains fixed after 3 mL of water are instilled into the foley catheter's balloon. Radiographic films are taken as 20 mL of water\-soluble contrast material are injected This outlines the urethra from the [urethral meatus](/wiki/Urinary_meatus "Urinary meatus") to the [bladder neck](/wiki/Bladder_neck "Bladder neck"). If injuries exist, the location can be determined. #### Retrograde [cystography](/wiki/Cystography "Cystography") The purpose of this study is to identify bladder perforations. The bladder needs to be adequately distended with contrast medium. 300 mL or more are generally recommended. The study has two films. One film is taken when the bladder is adequately distended and filled with contrast. The next film is taken after the bladder is emptied without the assistance of a foley catheter. #### [Angiography](/wiki/Angiography "Angiography") Helpful in identifying injuries to the kidney's [parenchyma](/wiki/Parenchyma "Parenchyma") and vasculature.
[ "### [Hematuria](/wiki/Hematuria \"Hematuria\") in patients presenting after trauma", "Blood in the urine after abdominal trauma suggests a urinary tract injury. Renal injuries are suggested by lower [rib fractures](/wiki/Rib_fracture \"Rib fracture\"). Bladder and urethral injuries are suggested by pelvic fractures.", "#### Foley catheter", "The [urethral meatus](/wiki/Urethral_meatus \"Urethral meatus\") should be examined after trauma. Blood at the [urethral](/wiki/Urethra \"Urethra\") meatus precludes insertion of a [foley catheter](/wiki/Foley_catheter \"Foley catheter\") into the bladder. Erroneously placing a foley in this situation can result in infections of [periprostatic](/wiki/Periprostatic \"Periprostatic\") and [perivesical](/wiki/Perivesical \"Perivesical\") [hematomas](/wiki/Hematoma \"Hematoma\") or conversion of a partial transection to a complete urethral transections. Blood at the urethral meatus suggests an injury to the urethra. Otherwise a foley catheter can be placed into the bladder and hematuria can be assessed for.", "#### Abdominal imaging", "[Hemodynamically](/wiki/Hemodynamics \"Hemodynamics\") stable individuals should undergo further [radiographic](/wiki/Radiography \"Radiography\") assessment. Abdominal [computed tomography](/wiki/CT_scan \"CT scan\") (CT) with contrast can detect retroperitoneal hematomas, renal lacerations, urinary extravasation, and renal arterial and venous injuries. A repeat scan ten minutes after the first is recommended.", "#### [Retrograde urethrography](/wiki/Retrograde_urethrogram \"Retrograde urethrogram\") (RUG)", "The purpose of this study is to identify and characterize injuries to the urethra. The tip of a small (12F) foley catheter is placed in the urethral meatus. The catheter remains fixed after 3 mL of water are instilled into the foley catheter's balloon. Radiographic films are taken as 20 mL of water\\-soluble contrast material are injected This outlines the urethra from the [urethral meatus](/wiki/Urinary_meatus \"Urinary meatus\") to the [bladder neck](/wiki/Bladder_neck \"Bladder neck\"). If injuries exist, the location can be determined.", "#### Retrograde [cystography](/wiki/Cystography \"Cystography\")", "The purpose of this study is to identify bladder perforations. The bladder needs to be adequately distended with contrast medium. 300 mL or more are generally recommended. The study has two films. One film is taken when the bladder is adequately distended and filled with contrast. The next film is taken after the bladder is emptied without the assistance of a foley catheter.", "#### [Angiography](/wiki/Angiography \"Angiography\")", "Helpful in identifying injuries to the kidney's [parenchyma](/wiki/Parenchyma \"Parenchyma\") and vasculature.", "" ]
History ------- In 1848, John Eglington, a local surveyor, valued the estate at £160,000\. In the 1860s, E. A. Foden first mooted the idea of turning the estate into a park and in 1871, the Walsall Arboretum and Lake Company was formed and issued a prospectus for shareholders describing the principal features. In 1873, a lease was drawn up for the creating of a park and the flooding of more land. The Arboretum was officially opened on 4 May 1874 by Lady Hatherton. The park consisted of two lakes, two lodges, a boathouse, bandstand, several summerhouses, a tree lined promenade, space for dancing, a flagpole, croquet lawns and a cricket ground. On 20 May 1875, severe weather caused extensive damage to the lake area.{{cite web\| url\=http://www.walsall.gov.uk/index/leisure\_and\_culture/arboretum/arboretum\_through\_time.htm \|title\=Arboretum through time \|publisher\=Walsall Council \|date\=21 January 2008 \|accessdate\=27 March 2008 \|format\=pdf}} Visitor numbers started to fall as a result of complaints over the lack of provision for children's activities. A cycle track was opened in 1876 as an attempt at boosting visitor numbers, however, in 1877, the company went into liquidation and the lease was surrendered to [Lord Hatherton](/wiki/Edward_Littleton%2C_2nd_Baron_Hatherton "Edward Littleton, 2nd Baron Hatherton") and a management committee of local businessmen took over. On 4 September 1877, an Article of Agreement stated that the land should only be used as a park. In the following year, a steam boat named "Lady of the Lake" was launched. In 1880, Thomas Everton was appointed the first park keeper and he moved into the main lodge. Heavy rain caused flooding and damage to the cycle track on 27 October 1880\. Due to public demand, the town council took over the Arboretum in 1881 on a three\-year lease. Admissions became free. The park was officially re\-opened on 21 July 1884 as the council's first "people's park". In 1885, bathing, boating, fishing and skating were banned from the lake, although fishing was allowed by permit. In January 1886, skating and curling were allowed. In May 1886, heavy rain caused more flooding and this caused the "Lady of the Lake" to sink. In 1889, the park received a cash injection which was used to improve the cycle path, greenhouse, lodges and flower beds. In 1890, talks began between the town's clerk and Lord Hatherton to extend the Arboretum by another {{convert\|13\|acre\|ha}}. A brick bridge was constructed over the Hoar Brook, replacing a timber one. The extension of the park was approved in 1891, although a proposed swimming baths was rejected. The extension was officially opened in 1892 and consisted of an outdoor gym for young people. Boating was reinstated on Hatherton Lake. In 1899, the bandstand was reconstructed. [right\|thumb\|upright\|A [Bundy Clock](/wiki/Bundy_Clock "Bundy Clock") used by [Birmingham City Transport](/wiki/Birmingham_City_Transport "Birmingham City Transport") to ensure that bus drivers did not depart from outlying termini before the due time; now preserved at the Arboretum.](/wiki/File:Bundy_Clock%2C_Birmingham_City_Transport.jpg "Bundy Clock, Birmingham City Transport.jpg") In 1900, H. E. Lavender was selected in a competition to design a pavilion to include refreshment room accommodation. The pavilion was completed and opened in May 1902\. In 1904, [stocks](/wiki/Stocks "Stocks") were moved from the High Street to the lake area. In 1908, significant maintenance work was carried out on the park which included the laying of new turf, reparation of the stocks and the concreting of part of the course of Hoar Brook. Construction commenced in 1912 on new outdoor swimming pools beside the brook. During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), the park was used to grow potatoes and timber which was supplied to the Walsall War Agricultural Committee. The Women's Volunteer Reserve helped with park maintenance. Construction of the new outdoor swimming pools was put on hold until 1919\. In 1922, a further {{convert\|20\|acre\|ha}} were added to the park, mostly by Featherstone\-Dilke, on the condition that its development should provide work for the unemployed. In 1923, the park was visited by the [Prince of Wales](/wiki/Prince_of_Wales "Prince of Wales") to pay tribute to ex\-servicemen. In April 1924, a new bandstand was opened in the park. Two tubular swings, two giant strides and a merry\-go\-round were acquired from Johnson Bros and Co Ltd. in 1924 and added to the park, which was also extended by a further {{convert\|5\|acre\|ha}} following the purchase of land from Mr Mellish. It was extended again in 1930 with the donation of {{convert\|20\|acre\|ha}} of land by Featherstone\-Dilke. In 1931, the Pavilion Refreshment Room closed and was reopened in 1936 as the *Joseph Leckie Sons of Rest*, a [social club for elderly men](/wiki/The_Sons_of_Rest "The Sons of Rest"). In 1935, {{convert\|50\|acre\|ha}} of land were purchased from Fred Smith. During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), 100 allotment plots were provided. The water level in Hatherton Lake was raised in preparation for fire fighting following bombing raids. In 1952, {{convert\|15\|acre\|ha}} of land were purchased to connect the park to the canal. The open air baths were closed and filled in around 1956\. A garden for the blind by the Lichfield Street lodge, on a former bowling green, was opened in 1958\. In 1965, exploration began for tunnels connecting the Littleton Street mine workings, however none were found. In 1967, proposals for a new roundabout and flyover scheme that would have demolished the Clock Tower and lodge were rejected due to public pressure. In 1972, a proposal by Featherstone\-Dilke to construct housing on the northern edge of the park was rejected following a public enquiry. On 19 April 1989, 31\.32[ha](/wiki/Hectare "Hectare") of land consisting of the original Arboretum and surrounding housing was designated a [conservation area](/wiki/Conservation_area "Conservation area"). In 1995, a Charter Mark was awarded to the Arboretum for excellence and diversity in the services it offered. It was re\-awarded in 1999 and in the same year, a rare species of white\-clawed crayfish was discovered in Hatherton Lake. ### Walsall Illuminations From 1951 to 2008 the Arboretum hosted the Walsall Illuminations each autumn{{cite web \|url\=http://www.walsall\-lights.com \|title\=Walsall Illuminations official site \|publisher\=Walsall Illuminations \|accessdate\=27 March 2008}} for six weeks. The first show was held in 1951 by the Festival Committee, although illuminations have taken place at the park since 1875 when candles were placed in coloured jars.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.thisiswalsall.co.uk/walsall/page9\.html \|title\=Walsall Arboretum \|publisher\=This is Walsall \|accessdate\=27 March 2008 \|archive\-date\=17 August 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817225122/http://www.thisiswalsall.co.uk/walsall/page9\.html \|url\-status\=dead }} In February 2009 it was announced that the Illuminations would be suspended due to financial constraints, the event having run at a loss for a number of years. In March 2011 it was confirmed that the Illuminations would be scrapped permanently. The last Illuminations was held in 2008 with a record low attendance, making a loss of £167,000\.{{cite web\|title\=Walsall Illuminations – closed\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blackcountry/content/articles/2008/09/25/walsall\_illuminations\_2008\_feature.shtml\|website\=bbc.co.uk\|publisher\=BBC\|accessdate\=25 August 2014}}{{cite web\|title\=Walsall Illuminations axed after 50 years\|url\=https://www.expressandstar.com/news/2011/03/03/walsall\-illuminations\-axed\-after\-50\-years/\|website\=expressandstar.com\|publisher\=Express and Star\|accessdate\=25 August 2014}}
[ "History\n-------", "In 1848, John Eglington, a local surveyor, valued the estate at £160,000\\. In the 1860s, E. A. Foden first mooted the idea of turning the estate into a park and in 1871, the Walsall Arboretum and Lake Company was formed and issued a prospectus for shareholders describing the principal features. In 1873, a lease was drawn up for the creating of a park and the flooding of more land. The Arboretum was officially opened on 4 May 1874 by Lady Hatherton. The park consisted of two lakes, two lodges, a boathouse, bandstand, several summerhouses, a tree lined promenade, space for dancing, a flagpole, croquet lawns and a cricket ground. On 20 May 1875, severe weather caused extensive damage to the lake area.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.walsall.gov.uk/index/leisure\\_and\\_culture/arboretum/arboretum\\_through\\_time.htm \\|title\\=Arboretum through time \\|publisher\\=Walsall Council \\|date\\=21 January 2008 \\|accessdate\\=27 March 2008 \\|format\\=pdf}}", "Visitor numbers started to fall as a result of complaints over the lack of provision for children's activities. A cycle track was opened in 1876 as an attempt at boosting visitor numbers, however, in 1877, the company went into liquidation and the lease was surrendered to [Lord Hatherton](/wiki/Edward_Littleton%2C_2nd_Baron_Hatherton \"Edward Littleton, 2nd Baron Hatherton\") and a management committee of local businessmen took over. On 4 September 1877, an Article of Agreement stated that the land should only be used as a park. In the following year, a steam boat named \"Lady of the Lake\" was launched. In 1880, Thomas Everton was appointed the first park keeper and he moved into the main lodge. Heavy rain caused flooding and damage to the cycle track on 27 October 1880\\.", "Due to public demand, the town council took over the Arboretum in 1881 on a three\\-year lease. Admissions became free. The park was officially re\\-opened on 21 July 1884 as the council's first \"people's park\". In 1885, bathing, boating, fishing and skating were banned from the lake, although fishing was allowed by permit. In January 1886, skating and curling were allowed. In May 1886, heavy rain caused more flooding and this caused the \"Lady of the Lake\" to sink. In 1889, the park received a cash injection which was used to improve the cycle path, greenhouse, lodges and flower beds.", "In 1890, talks began between the town's clerk and Lord Hatherton to extend the Arboretum by another {{convert\\|13\\|acre\\|ha}}. A brick bridge was constructed over the Hoar Brook, replacing a timber one. The extension of the park was approved in 1891, although a proposed swimming baths was rejected. The extension was officially opened in 1892 and consisted of an outdoor gym for young people. Boating was reinstated on Hatherton Lake. In 1899, the bandstand was reconstructed.", "[right\\|thumb\\|upright\\|A [Bundy Clock](/wiki/Bundy_Clock \"Bundy Clock\") used by [Birmingham City Transport](/wiki/Birmingham_City_Transport \"Birmingham City Transport\") to ensure that bus drivers did not depart from outlying termini before the due time; now preserved at the Arboretum.](/wiki/File:Bundy_Clock%2C_Birmingham_City_Transport.jpg \"Bundy Clock, Birmingham City Transport.jpg\")", "In 1900, H. E. Lavender was selected in a competition to design a pavilion to include refreshment room accommodation. The pavilion was completed and opened in May 1902\\. In 1904, [stocks](/wiki/Stocks \"Stocks\") were moved from the High Street to the lake area. In 1908, significant maintenance work was carried out on the park which included the laying of new turf, reparation of the stocks and the concreting of part of the course of Hoar Brook. Construction commenced in 1912 on new outdoor swimming pools beside the brook.", "During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), the park was used to grow potatoes and timber which was supplied to the Walsall War Agricultural Committee. The Women's Volunteer Reserve helped with park maintenance. Construction of the new outdoor swimming pools was put on hold until 1919\\.", "In 1922, a further {{convert\\|20\\|acre\\|ha}} were added to the park, mostly by Featherstone\\-Dilke, on the condition that its development should provide work for the unemployed. In 1923, the park was visited by the [Prince of Wales](/wiki/Prince_of_Wales \"Prince of Wales\") to pay tribute to ex\\-servicemen. In April 1924, a new bandstand was opened in the park. Two tubular swings, two giant strides and a merry\\-go\\-round were acquired from Johnson Bros and Co Ltd. in 1924 and added to the park, which was also extended by a further {{convert\\|5\\|acre\\|ha}} following the purchase of land from Mr Mellish. It was extended again in 1930 with the donation of {{convert\\|20\\|acre\\|ha}} of land by Featherstone\\-Dilke. In 1931, the Pavilion Refreshment Room closed and was reopened in 1936 as the *Joseph Leckie Sons of Rest*, a [social club for elderly men](/wiki/The_Sons_of_Rest \"The Sons of Rest\"). In 1935, {{convert\\|50\\|acre\\|ha}} of land were purchased from Fred Smith.", "During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), 100 allotment plots were provided. The water level in Hatherton Lake was raised in preparation for fire fighting following bombing raids. In 1952, {{convert\\|15\\|acre\\|ha}} of land were purchased to connect the park to the canal. The open air baths were closed and filled in around 1956\\. A garden for the blind by the Lichfield Street lodge, on a former bowling green, was opened in 1958\\.", "In 1965, exploration began for tunnels connecting the Littleton Street mine workings, however none were found. In 1967, proposals for a new roundabout and flyover scheme that would have demolished the Clock Tower and lodge were rejected due to public pressure. In 1972, a proposal by Featherstone\\-Dilke to construct housing on the northern edge of the park was rejected following a public enquiry. On 19 April 1989, 31\\.32[ha](/wiki/Hectare \"Hectare\") of land consisting of the original Arboretum and surrounding housing was designated a [conservation area](/wiki/Conservation_area \"Conservation area\").", "In 1995, a Charter Mark was awarded to the Arboretum for excellence and diversity in the services it offered. It was re\\-awarded in 1999 and in the same year, a rare species of white\\-clawed crayfish was discovered in Hatherton Lake.", "### Walsall Illuminations", "From 1951 to 2008 the Arboretum hosted the Walsall Illuminations each autumn{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.walsall\\-lights.com \\|title\\=Walsall Illuminations official site \\|publisher\\=Walsall Illuminations \\|accessdate\\=27 March 2008}} for six weeks. The first show was held in 1951 by the Festival Committee, although illuminations have taken place at the park since 1875 when candles were placed in coloured jars.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.thisiswalsall.co.uk/walsall/page9\\.html \\|title\\=Walsall Arboretum \\|publisher\\=This is Walsall \\|accessdate\\=27 March 2008 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 August 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817225122/http://www.thisiswalsall.co.uk/walsall/page9\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "In February 2009 it was announced that the Illuminations would be suspended due to financial constraints, the event having run at a loss for a number of years. In March 2011 it was confirmed that the Illuminations would be scrapped permanently. The last Illuminations was held in 2008 with a record low attendance, making a loss of £167,000\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Walsall Illuminations – closed\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blackcountry/content/articles/2008/09/25/walsall\\_illuminations\\_2008\\_feature.shtml\\|website\\=bbc.co.uk\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|accessdate\\=25 August 2014}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Walsall Illuminations axed after 50 years\\|url\\=https://www.expressandstar.com/news/2011/03/03/walsall\\-illuminations\\-axed\\-after\\-50\\-years/\\|website\\=expressandstar.com\\|publisher\\=Express and Star\\|accessdate\\=25 August 2014}}", "" ]
Format ------ ### Season 1 Six different contestants appear in each show. They are separated into three preliminary rounds of two contestants, and each have approximately 90 seconds to sing their song. Contestants are introduced to the audience and told their challenge. Before every challenge, [Steve\-O](/wiki/Steve-O "Steve-O") tells the contestant: "No matter what happens, do not stop singing." The winner for each round is picked by the live studio audience via popular vote and is automatically advanced into the Killer Karaoke Final Showdown. ### Season 2 #### Round 1 Six contestants take turns singing portions of one song, occasionally being given electric shocks or sprayed with water from their microphones to distract them. They are scored on a combination of audience response and accuracy of pitch and lyrics, and these scores are used to assign rankings to the players for further rounds. The lowest\-ranked player is immediately eliminated. #### Round 2 The second through fifth\-ranked players go through two battle rounds, with the \#2 seed facing the \#5 seed, and the \#3 seed facing the \#4 seed. In each battle round, the higher\-ranked player's choices determine who plays which challenge. Winners are determined by the same method as in Round 1\. In the \#3/\#4 round, \#3 is presented with a choice of two objects, each of which corresponds to a different challenge. The challenges themselves are revealed only after he/she has chosen one object, and \#4 takes the challenge for the other one. \#3 takes his/her turn first. In the \#2/\#5 round, \#2 is shown one challenge and can either take it or pass it to \#5 in favor of an unknown one. The known challenge is always played first, regardless of who receives it. A third battle round is then played, in which \#1 takes a challenge. The audience then selects one of the two losing players from the previous battle rounds, and that player takes a different challenge that incorporates an object/element chosen by \#1 from two options. After this round, two of the three winners are selected by audience vote to continue in the game.
[ "Format\n------", "### Season 1", "Six different contestants appear in each show. They are separated into three preliminary rounds of two contestants, and each have approximately 90 seconds to sing their song. Contestants are introduced to the audience and told their challenge. Before every challenge, [Steve\\-O](/wiki/Steve-O \"Steve-O\") tells the contestant: \"No matter what happens, do not stop singing.\" The winner for each round is picked by the live studio audience via popular vote and is automatically advanced into the Killer Karaoke Final Showdown.", "### Season 2", "#### Round 1", "Six contestants take turns singing portions of one song, occasionally being given electric shocks or sprayed with water from their microphones to distract them. They are scored on a combination of audience response and accuracy of pitch and lyrics, and these scores are used to assign rankings to the players for further rounds. The lowest\\-ranked player is immediately eliminated.", "#### Round 2", "The second through fifth\\-ranked players go through two battle rounds, with the \\#2 seed facing the \\#5 seed, and the \\#3 seed facing the \\#4 seed. In each battle round, the higher\\-ranked player's choices determine who plays which challenge. Winners are determined by the same method as in Round 1\\.", "In the \\#3/\\#4 round, \\#3 is presented with a choice of two objects, each of which corresponds to a different challenge. The challenges themselves are revealed only after he/she has chosen one object, and \\#4 takes the challenge for the other one. \\#3 takes his/her turn first.", "In the \\#2/\\#5 round, \\#2 is shown one challenge and can either take it or pass it to \\#5 in favor of an unknown one. The known challenge is always played first, regardless of who receives it.", "A third battle round is then played, in which \\#1 takes a challenge. The audience then selects one of the two losing players from the previous battle rounds, and that player takes a different challenge that incorporates an object/element chosen by \\#1 from two options.", "After this round, two of the three winners are selected by audience vote to continue in the game.", "" ]
### Season 2 #### Round 1 Six contestants take turns singing portions of one song, occasionally being given electric shocks or sprayed with water from their microphones to distract them. They are scored on a combination of audience response and accuracy of pitch and lyrics, and these scores are used to assign rankings to the players for further rounds. The lowest\-ranked player is immediately eliminated. #### Round 2 The second through fifth\-ranked players go through two battle rounds, with the \#2 seed facing the \#5 seed, and the \#3 seed facing the \#4 seed. In each battle round, the higher\-ranked player's choices determine who plays which challenge. Winners are determined by the same method as in Round 1\. In the \#3/\#4 round, \#3 is presented with a choice of two objects, each of which corresponds to a different challenge. The challenges themselves are revealed only after he/she has chosen one object, and \#4 takes the challenge for the other one. \#3 takes his/her turn first. In the \#2/\#5 round, \#2 is shown one challenge and can either take it or pass it to \#5 in favor of an unknown one. The known challenge is always played first, regardless of who receives it. A third battle round is then played, in which \#1 takes a challenge. The audience then selects one of the two losing players from the previous battle rounds, and that player takes a different challenge that incorporates an object/element chosen by \#1 from two options. After this round, two of the three winners are selected by audience vote to continue in the game.
[ "### Season 2", "#### Round 1", "Six contestants take turns singing portions of one song, occasionally being given electric shocks or sprayed with water from their microphones to distract them. They are scored on a combination of audience response and accuracy of pitch and lyrics, and these scores are used to assign rankings to the players for further rounds. The lowest\\-ranked player is immediately eliminated.", "#### Round 2", "The second through fifth\\-ranked players go through two battle rounds, with the \\#2 seed facing the \\#5 seed, and the \\#3 seed facing the \\#4 seed. In each battle round, the higher\\-ranked player's choices determine who plays which challenge. Winners are determined by the same method as in Round 1\\.", "In the \\#3/\\#4 round, \\#3 is presented with a choice of two objects, each of which corresponds to a different challenge. The challenges themselves are revealed only after he/she has chosen one object, and \\#4 takes the challenge for the other one. \\#3 takes his/her turn first.", "In the \\#2/\\#5 round, \\#2 is shown one challenge and can either take it or pass it to \\#5 in favor of an unknown one. The known challenge is always played first, regardless of who receives it.", "A third battle round is then played, in which \\#1 takes a challenge. The audience then selects one of the two losing players from the previous battle rounds, and that player takes a different challenge that incorporates an object/element chosen by \\#1 from two options.", "After this round, two of the three winners are selected by audience vote to continue in the game.", "" ]
CFL news in 1995 ---------------- ### Expansion, relocation, folding and realignment Two more United States–based teams were admitted, the [Birmingham Barracudas](/wiki/Birmingham_Barracudas "Birmingham Barracudas") and the [Memphis Mad Dogs](/wiki/Memphis_Mad_Dogs "Memphis Mad Dogs"). In the off\-season the [Sacramento Gold Miners](/wiki/Sacramento_Gold_Miners "Sacramento Gold Miners") moved to [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio "San Antonio") to become the [San Antonio Texans](/wiki/San_Antonio_Texans "San Antonio Texans"). The Texans would play their home games at the [Alamodome](/wiki/Alamodome "Alamodome"), which is the only American stadium designed and built to accommodate a regulation Canadian football field. The Baltimore Football Club the only team in the Northeast US finally found themselves a new nickname and christened themselves the [Stallions](/wiki/Baltimore_Stallions "Baltimore Stallions") at the beginning of the second week of the season. In April 1995, the [Las Vegas Posse](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Posse "Las Vegas Posse"), after a disastrous 1994 season, were slated to move to [Jackson, Mississippi](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Mississippi "Jackson, Mississippi"), and were included in draft schedules for the league that year;{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs\-xpm\-1995\-04\-14\-1995104066\-story.html\|title\=Posse gets another deadline\|website\=Baltimore Sun\|date\=April 14, 1995 }} squabbles with the Posse's board of directors and an inability for potential new owners to come up with the funds to cover the team's operations prompted the CFL to suspend the team and disperse its roster instead. With the admittance of the Barracudas and Mad Dogs, and in hopes of securing a television contract,{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/1995/04/05/cfl\-suspends\-posse\-wont\-move\-it\-to\-miss/ \|title\=CFL suspends Posse, won't move it to Miss. \- tribunedigital\-baltimoresun \|access\-date\=2017\-02\-17 \|archive\-date\=2017\-08\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822013636/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1995\-04\-05/sports/1995095047\_1\_posse\-las\-vegas\-speros \|url\-status\=live }} the CFL undertook a realignment. The longstanding alignment of [East](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League_East_Division "Canadian Football League East Division") and [West](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League_West_Division "Canadian Football League West Division") was discontinued. All five U.S.\-based teams would play in the South Division, while all eight Canadian teams would compete in the North Division. Five teams from the North and three from the South would qualify for the playoffs. To make up for the disparity, the lowest\-seeded North Division playoff team played in the South Division playoffs against the top South Division team. This was a precursor to the CFL's current crossover playoff rule that would be instituted in 1997 although unlike the current rule, in 1995 the fifth place North Division team automatically "crossed over" regardless of how its record compared to those of the South Division teams. This meant that Winnipeg, which finished in fifth place in the North at 7–11, made the playoffs instead while Memphis, which finished fourth place in the South Division with a record of 9–9, was nevertheless denied a place in the postseason. ### Uniform changes The [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts "Toronto Argonauts") revealed an all\-new logo and colour scheme. Their new colours were dark blue, [slate green](/wiki/Cyan "Cyan") and metallic silver. The new logo design was based on the *"Jason and the Argonauts"* [premise](/wiki/Premise "Premise") featuring a side profile of a helmeted warrior facing one side and holding up a round shield with an "A" on it. The Birmingham Barracudas released the design of their logo and uniforms prior to the season. Their team colours were black, blue, teal and [burnt orange](/wiki/Burnt_orange "Burnt orange"). The Memphis Mad Dogs unveiled their new team colours as [forest green](/wiki/Forest_green "Forest green"), burgundy, black and gold. All three teams got new jerseys with an unusual template. The jerseys had the team's primary logo printed super large on the lower part of one side of the jersey while player numbers', which were much smaller in size, on the opposite side of the player's upper [torso](/wiki/Trunk_%28anatomy%29 "Trunk (anatomy)"). Similar jerseys were being used by teams of the [World League of American Football](/wiki/NFL_Europe_League "NFL Europe League"). As the [Sacramento Gold Miners](/wiki/Sacramento_Gold_Miners "Sacramento Gold Miners") became the San Antonio Texans, they changed their logo from a pick axe striking gold to a logo of a head of a cowboy with a black hat and a red bandana scarf imposed on a large star. They also added [burgundy](/wiki/Burgundy_%28color%29 "Burgundy (color)") to teal, old gold and black as their team colours. The [Ottawa Rough Riders](/wiki/Ottawa_Rough_Riders "Ottawa Rough Riders") reverted their team colour of light navy to black. They kept the colours metallic gold and red. The logo that was unveiled [last season](/wiki/1994_CFL_season "1994 CFL season") was retained with black substituting over from light navy. Also after the 1995 season, in time for the 1996 (and what would be their last season) the Rough Riders also returned to using a black helmet from a metallic gold one and back to black jerseys as they had worn from at least 1976 to 1993 inclusive instead of the red ones they wore in 1994 and 1995\. ### Game ball supplier The [Wilson](/wiki/Wilson_Sporting_Goods "Wilson Sporting Goods") company, which has supplied the NFL with their game balls since 1941, began supplying the game balls to the CFL this season, and has done so since then. Prior to this, the league used the [Spalding](/wiki/Spalding_%28company%29 "Spalding (company)") J5V ball as their game ball.{{Cite web\|url\=https://cfldb.ca/faq/equipment/\|title \= FAQ about Equipment on CFLDB}} ### The Grey Cup The city of [Regina](/wiki/Regina%2C_Saskatchewan "Regina, Saskatchewan") played host to the [Grey Cup](/wiki/83rd_Grey_Cup "83rd Grey Cup") game for the first time. In the game, viewers at home and at [Taylor Field](/wiki/Mosaic_Stadium_at_Taylor_Field "Mosaic Stadium at Taylor Field") witnessed the [Baltimore Stallions](/wiki/Baltimore_Stallions "Baltimore Stallions") defeat the [Calgary Stampeders](/wiki/Calgary_Stampeders "Calgary Stampeders"), 37–20, becoming the first (and only) U.S.\-based team to win the Grey Cup.
[ "CFL news in 1995\n----------------", "### Expansion, relocation, folding and realignment", "Two more United States–based teams were admitted, the [Birmingham Barracudas](/wiki/Birmingham_Barracudas \"Birmingham Barracudas\") and the [Memphis Mad Dogs](/wiki/Memphis_Mad_Dogs \"Memphis Mad Dogs\"). In the off\\-season the [Sacramento Gold Miners](/wiki/Sacramento_Gold_Miners \"Sacramento Gold Miners\") moved to [San Antonio](/wiki/San_Antonio \"San Antonio\") to become the [San Antonio Texans](/wiki/San_Antonio_Texans \"San Antonio Texans\"). The Texans would play their home games at the [Alamodome](/wiki/Alamodome \"Alamodome\"), which is the only American stadium designed and built to accommodate a regulation Canadian football field. The Baltimore Football Club the only team in the Northeast US finally found themselves a new nickname and christened themselves the [Stallions](/wiki/Baltimore_Stallions \"Baltimore Stallions\") at the beginning of the second week of the season. In April 1995, the [Las Vegas Posse](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Posse \"Las Vegas Posse\"), after a disastrous 1994 season, were slated to move to [Jackson, Mississippi](/wiki/Jackson%2C_Mississippi \"Jackson, Mississippi\"), and were included in draft schedules for the league that year;{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs\\-xpm\\-1995\\-04\\-14\\-1995104066\\-story.html\\|title\\=Posse gets another deadline\\|website\\=Baltimore Sun\\|date\\=April 14, 1995 }} squabbles with the Posse's board of directors and an inability for potential new owners to come up with the funds to cover the team's operations prompted the CFL to suspend the team and disperse its roster instead.", "With the admittance of the Barracudas and Mad Dogs, and in hopes of securing a television contract,{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.baltimoresun.com/1995/04/05/cfl\\-suspends\\-posse\\-wont\\-move\\-it\\-to\\-miss/ \\|title\\=CFL suspends Posse, won't move it to Miss. \\- tribunedigital\\-baltimoresun \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-17 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822013636/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1995\\-04\\-05/sports/1995095047\\_1\\_posse\\-las\\-vegas\\-speros \\|url\\-status\\=live }} the CFL undertook a realignment. The longstanding alignment of [East](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League_East_Division \"Canadian Football League East Division\") and [West](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League_West_Division \"Canadian Football League West Division\") was discontinued. All five U.S.\\-based teams would play in the South Division, while all eight Canadian teams would compete in the North Division. Five teams from the North and three from the South would qualify for the playoffs. To make up for the disparity, the lowest\\-seeded North Division playoff team played in the South Division playoffs against the top South Division team. This was a precursor to the CFL's current crossover playoff rule that would be instituted in 1997 although unlike the current rule, in 1995 the fifth place North Division team automatically \"crossed over\" regardless of how its record compared to those of the South Division teams. This meant that Winnipeg, which finished in fifth place in the North at 7–11, made the playoffs instead while Memphis, which finished fourth place in the South Division with a record of 9–9, was nevertheless denied a place in the postseason.", "### Uniform changes", "The [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts \"Toronto Argonauts\") revealed an all\\-new logo and colour scheme. Their new colours were dark blue, [slate green](/wiki/Cyan \"Cyan\") and metallic silver. The new logo design was based on the *\"Jason and the Argonauts\"* [premise](/wiki/Premise \"Premise\") featuring a side profile of a helmeted warrior facing one side and holding up a round shield with an \"A\" on it.", "The Birmingham Barracudas released the design of their logo and uniforms prior to the season. Their team colours were black, blue, teal and [burnt orange](/wiki/Burnt_orange \"Burnt orange\").", "The Memphis Mad Dogs unveiled their new team colours as [forest green](/wiki/Forest_green \"Forest green\"), burgundy, black and gold.", "All three teams got new jerseys with an unusual template. The jerseys had the team's primary logo printed super large on the lower part of one side of the jersey while player numbers', which were much smaller in size, on the opposite side of the player's upper [torso](/wiki/Trunk_%28anatomy%29 \"Trunk (anatomy)\"). Similar jerseys were being used by teams of the [World League of American Football](/wiki/NFL_Europe_League \"NFL Europe League\").", "As the [Sacramento Gold Miners](/wiki/Sacramento_Gold_Miners \"Sacramento Gold Miners\") became the San Antonio Texans, they changed their logo from a pick axe striking gold to a logo of a head of a cowboy with a black hat and a red bandana scarf imposed on a large star. They also added [burgundy](/wiki/Burgundy_%28color%29 \"Burgundy (color)\") to teal, old gold and black as their team colours.", "The [Ottawa Rough Riders](/wiki/Ottawa_Rough_Riders \"Ottawa Rough Riders\") reverted their team colour of light navy to black. They kept the colours metallic gold and red. The logo that was unveiled [last season](/wiki/1994_CFL_season \"1994 CFL season\") was retained with black substituting over from light navy. Also after the 1995 season, in time for the 1996 (and what would be their last season) the Rough Riders also returned to using a black helmet from a metallic gold one and back to black jerseys as they had worn from at least 1976 to 1993 inclusive instead of the red ones they wore in 1994 and 1995\\.", "### Game ball supplier", "The [Wilson](/wiki/Wilson_Sporting_Goods \"Wilson Sporting Goods\") company, which has supplied the NFL with their game balls since 1941, began supplying the game balls to the CFL this season, and has done so since then. Prior to this, the league used the [Spalding](/wiki/Spalding_%28company%29 \"Spalding (company)\") J5V ball as their game ball.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://cfldb.ca/faq/equipment/\\|title \\= FAQ about Equipment on CFLDB}}", "### The Grey Cup", "The city of [Regina](/wiki/Regina%2C_Saskatchewan \"Regina, Saskatchewan\") played host to the [Grey Cup](/wiki/83rd_Grey_Cup \"83rd Grey Cup\") game for the first time. In the game, viewers at home and at [Taylor Field](/wiki/Mosaic_Stadium_at_Taylor_Field \"Mosaic Stadium at Taylor Field\") witnessed the [Baltimore Stallions](/wiki/Baltimore_Stallions \"Baltimore Stallions\") defeat the [Calgary Stampeders](/wiki/Calgary_Stampeders \"Calgary Stampeders\"), 37–20, becoming the first (and only) U.S.\\-based team to win the Grey Cup.", "" ]
### Uniform changes The [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts "Toronto Argonauts") revealed an all\-new logo and colour scheme. Their new colours were dark blue, [slate green](/wiki/Cyan "Cyan") and metallic silver. The new logo design was based on the *"Jason and the Argonauts"* [premise](/wiki/Premise "Premise") featuring a side profile of a helmeted warrior facing one side and holding up a round shield with an "A" on it. The Birmingham Barracudas released the design of their logo and uniforms prior to the season. Their team colours were black, blue, teal and [burnt orange](/wiki/Burnt_orange "Burnt orange"). The Memphis Mad Dogs unveiled their new team colours as [forest green](/wiki/Forest_green "Forest green"), burgundy, black and gold. All three teams got new jerseys with an unusual template. The jerseys had the team's primary logo printed super large on the lower part of one side of the jersey while player numbers', which were much smaller in size, on the opposite side of the player's upper [torso](/wiki/Trunk_%28anatomy%29 "Trunk (anatomy)"). Similar jerseys were being used by teams of the [World League of American Football](/wiki/NFL_Europe_League "NFL Europe League"). As the [Sacramento Gold Miners](/wiki/Sacramento_Gold_Miners "Sacramento Gold Miners") became the San Antonio Texans, they changed their logo from a pick axe striking gold to a logo of a head of a cowboy with a black hat and a red bandana scarf imposed on a large star. They also added [burgundy](/wiki/Burgundy_%28color%29 "Burgundy (color)") to teal, old gold and black as their team colours. The [Ottawa Rough Riders](/wiki/Ottawa_Rough_Riders "Ottawa Rough Riders") reverted their team colour of light navy to black. They kept the colours metallic gold and red. The logo that was unveiled [last season](/wiki/1994_CFL_season "1994 CFL season") was retained with black substituting over from light navy. Also after the 1995 season, in time for the 1996 (and what would be their last season) the Rough Riders also returned to using a black helmet from a metallic gold one and back to black jerseys as they had worn from at least 1976 to 1993 inclusive instead of the red ones they wore in 1994 and 1995\.
[ "### Uniform changes", "The [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts \"Toronto Argonauts\") revealed an all\\-new logo and colour scheme. Their new colours were dark blue, [slate green](/wiki/Cyan \"Cyan\") and metallic silver. The new logo design was based on the *\"Jason and the Argonauts\"* [premise](/wiki/Premise \"Premise\") featuring a side profile of a helmeted warrior facing one side and holding up a round shield with an \"A\" on it.", "The Birmingham Barracudas released the design of their logo and uniforms prior to the season. Their team colours were black, blue, teal and [burnt orange](/wiki/Burnt_orange \"Burnt orange\").", "The Memphis Mad Dogs unveiled their new team colours as [forest green](/wiki/Forest_green \"Forest green\"), burgundy, black and gold.", "All three teams got new jerseys with an unusual template. The jerseys had the team's primary logo printed super large on the lower part of one side of the jersey while player numbers', which were much smaller in size, on the opposite side of the player's upper [torso](/wiki/Trunk_%28anatomy%29 \"Trunk (anatomy)\"). Similar jerseys were being used by teams of the [World League of American Football](/wiki/NFL_Europe_League \"NFL Europe League\").", "As the [Sacramento Gold Miners](/wiki/Sacramento_Gold_Miners \"Sacramento Gold Miners\") became the San Antonio Texans, they changed their logo from a pick axe striking gold to a logo of a head of a cowboy with a black hat and a red bandana scarf imposed on a large star. They also added [burgundy](/wiki/Burgundy_%28color%29 \"Burgundy (color)\") to teal, old gold and black as their team colours.", "The [Ottawa Rough Riders](/wiki/Ottawa_Rough_Riders \"Ottawa Rough Riders\") reverted their team colour of light navy to black. They kept the colours metallic gold and red. The logo that was unveiled [last season](/wiki/1994_CFL_season \"1994 CFL season\") was retained with black substituting over from light navy. Also after the 1995 season, in time for the 1996 (and what would be their last season) the Rough Riders also returned to using a black helmet from a metallic gold one and back to black jerseys as they had worn from at least 1976 to 1993 inclusive instead of the red ones they wore in 1994 and 1995\\.", "" ]
History ------- ### WHLF\-FM and WJLC WQOK is considered a "move in" station, having begun its history in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), about {{convert\|40\|mi\|km}} north of Raleigh, before it moved into the [Research Triangle](/wiki/Research_Triangle "Research Triangle") of [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina"). On October 1, 1960, the station [signed on](/wiki/Sign-on "Sign-on") as WHLF\-FM in [South Boston, Virginia](/wiki/South_Boston%2C_Virginia "South Boston, Virginia").[Broadcasting Yearbook 1961\-1962 page B\-180](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1961-62/Section%20B%202%20Radio%20%20Broadcasting%20Yearbook%201961-1962-10.pdf) It was the FM counterpart to WHLF (1400 AM; now [WAJL](/wiki/WAJL "WAJL")), with the two stations [simulcasting](/wiki/Simulcast "Simulcast") their programming. WHLF\-FM effective radiated power was 2,400 [watts](/wiki/Watt "Watt"), limiting its coverage to just South Boston and adjacent communities. In the 1970s, it changed its [call sign](/wiki/Call_sign "Call sign") to WJLC\-FM, airing an [automated](/wiki/Automation "Automation") [Top 40](/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio "Contemporary hit radio") format separate from the co\-owned AM station. The power was increased to 29,000 watts but only using a {{convert\|250\|ft\|m\|adj\=on\|sp\=us}} tower, so it still did not cover the Raleigh\-Durham market. In the 1980s, it switched to a [soft adult contemporary](/wiki/Soft_adult_contemporary "Soft adult contemporary")/[MOR](/wiki/Middle_of_the_road_%28music%29 "Middle of the road (music)") format, but the power and antenna height remained the same. ### Moving to Raleigh In 1987, radio entrepreneur and syndicated morning radio host [Tom Joyner](/wiki/Tom_Joyner "Tom Joyner") purchased the station, under the corporate name "Power Broadcasting".[Broadcasting \& Cable Yearbook 1988 page B\-207](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1988/B-Radio-Neb-Terr-1988-YB.pdf) The format was switched to urban contemporary, using the call letters WQOK, and rebranded as "K\-Power 97\.5". Joyner moved the transmitter tower closer to Raleigh, boosting it to {{convert\|1020\|ft\|m}} in [height above average terrain](/wiki/Height_above_average_terrain "Height above average terrain") (HAAT). He also upgraded WQOK's [effective radiated power](/wiki/Effective_radiated_power "Effective radiated power") to 100,000 watts, the maximum power permitted by the [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission "Federal Communications Commission") (FCC), although the [city of license](/wiki/City_of_license "City of license") remained as South Boston. The new tower and coverage area gave WQOK a "city grade" signal over South Boston as required by the FCC, and also put a strong signal around the Triangle as well. Closing down the original South Boston studios, the station signed on from brand new facilities in Raleigh. By winter 1991, WQOK claimed the number one spot in the [Arbitron ratings](/wiki/Nielsen_ratings "Nielsen ratings").Bob Langford, "AM stations, WQOK\-FM make big gains," *The News \& Observer*, May 4, 1991\. ### Sale to Clear Channel In 1989, Joyner sold the station to Four Chiefs, Inc., owned by noted African\-American broadcast executive Ragan Henry.[Broadcasting \& Cable Yearbook 1990 page B\-229](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1990/B-Radio-NE-Terr-BC-YB-1990.pdf) Henry owned the station for seven years and sold it to [Clear Channel Communications](/wiki/Clear_Channel_Communications "Clear Channel Communications") in May 1996\.[Broadcasting \& Cable Yearbook 1997 page B\-330](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1997/B-Radio-NE-Ter-BC-YB-1997.pdf) In 2000, as a result of a merger between Clear Channel and another owner of radio stations, AMFM, the new larger company wanted to spin off some of its stations. WQOK was sold to Radio One (now called [Urban One](/wiki/Urban_One "Urban One")), along with current [sister stations](/wiki/Sister_station "Sister station") 107\.1 [WFXC](/wiki/WFXC "WFXC"), 104\.3 [WFXK](/wiki/WFXK "WFXK"), and 103\.9 [WNNL](/wiki/WNNL "WNNL").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.bizjournals.com/triangle/stories/2000/03/13/daily2\.html\|title\=Clear Channel to sell 4 Triangle stations\|work\=\[\[Triangle Business Journal]]\|date\=March 13, 2000\|access\-date\=November 3, 2011}} The sale meant that once again, the station is under African\-American ownership. ### Changing the city of license [thumb\|Former logo](/wiki/File:WQOK-FM_2009.PNG "WQOK-FM 2009.PNG") In 2007, WQOK asked the FCC to move its city of license to Carrboro, put the transmitter on a tower in Durham and decrease from [Class C1](/wiki/List_of_North_American_broadcast_station_classes "List of North American broadcast station classes") to C2\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vartv.com/archives07a.htm\|title\=More radio station proposed moves\|publisher\=VARTV.com\|date\=January 28, 2007\|access\-date\=September 29, 2016}} This dropped the power from 100,000 watts to 50,000 watts and all but eliminated coverage of Virginia. It reduced a short\-spacing issue with [WWWV](/wiki/WWWV "WWWV") in [Charlottesville, Virginia](/wiki/Charlottesville%2C_Virginia "Charlottesville, Virginia"), which also broadcasts on 97\.5 MHz.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2009}} The station's new tower is shared with WFXC.[http://fjallfoss.fcc.gov/prod/cdbs/forms/prod/getattachment\_exh.cgi?exhibit\_id\=750311\&formid\=301\&q\_num\=5310{{dead link\|date\=November 2011}}](http://fjallfoss.fcc.gov/prod/cdbs/forms/prod/getattachment_exh.cgi?exhibit_id=750311&formid=301&q_num=5310{{dead link|date=November 2011}}) WQOK had carried the syndicated [Russ Parr](/wiki/Russ_Parr "Russ Parr") Morning Show. In January 2016, Parr was replaced by The [Rickey Smiley](/wiki/Rickey_Smiley "Rickey Smiley") Morning Show, which is syndicated by parent company Urban One.
[ "History\n-------", "### WHLF\\-FM and WJLC", "WQOK is considered a \"move in\" station, having begun its history in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), about {{convert\\|40\\|mi\\|km}} north of Raleigh, before it moved into the [Research Triangle](/wiki/Research_Triangle \"Research Triangle\") of [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\"). On October 1, 1960, the station [signed on](/wiki/Sign-on \"Sign-on\") as WHLF\\-FM in [South Boston, Virginia](/wiki/South_Boston%2C_Virginia \"South Boston, Virginia\").[Broadcasting Yearbook 1961\\-1962 page B\\-180](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1961-62/Section%20B%202%20Radio%20%20Broadcasting%20Yearbook%201961-1962-10.pdf) It was the FM counterpart to WHLF (1400 AM; now [WAJL](/wiki/WAJL \"WAJL\")), with the two stations [simulcasting](/wiki/Simulcast \"Simulcast\") their programming. WHLF\\-FM effective radiated power was 2,400 [watts](/wiki/Watt \"Watt\"), limiting its coverage to just South Boston and adjacent communities.", "In the 1970s, it changed its [call sign](/wiki/Call_sign \"Call sign\") to WJLC\\-FM, airing an [automated](/wiki/Automation \"Automation\") [Top 40](/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio \"Contemporary hit radio\") format separate from the co\\-owned AM station. The power was increased to 29,000 watts but only using a {{convert\\|250\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on\\|sp\\=us}} tower, so it still did not cover the Raleigh\\-Durham market. In the 1980s, it switched to a [soft adult contemporary](/wiki/Soft_adult_contemporary \"Soft adult contemporary\")/[MOR](/wiki/Middle_of_the_road_%28music%29 \"Middle of the road (music)\") format, but the power and antenna height remained the same.", "### Moving to Raleigh", "In 1987, radio entrepreneur and syndicated morning radio host [Tom Joyner](/wiki/Tom_Joyner \"Tom Joyner\") purchased the station, under the corporate name \"Power Broadcasting\".[Broadcasting \\& Cable Yearbook 1988 page B\\-207](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1988/B-Radio-Neb-Terr-1988-YB.pdf) The format was switched to urban contemporary, using the call letters WQOK, and rebranded as \"K\\-Power 97\\.5\". Joyner moved the transmitter tower closer to Raleigh, boosting it to {{convert\\|1020\\|ft\\|m}} in [height above average terrain](/wiki/Height_above_average_terrain \"Height above average terrain\") (HAAT). He also upgraded WQOK's [effective radiated power](/wiki/Effective_radiated_power \"Effective radiated power\") to 100,000 watts, the maximum power permitted by the [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission \"Federal Communications Commission\") (FCC), although the [city of license](/wiki/City_of_license \"City of license\") remained as South Boston.", "The new tower and coverage area gave WQOK a \"city grade\" signal over South Boston as required by the FCC, and also put a strong signal around the Triangle as well. Closing down the original South Boston studios, the station signed on from brand new facilities in Raleigh. By winter 1991, WQOK claimed the number one spot in the [Arbitron ratings](/wiki/Nielsen_ratings \"Nielsen ratings\").Bob Langford, \"AM stations, WQOK\\-FM make big gains,\" *The News \\& Observer*, May 4, 1991\\.", "### Sale to Clear Channel", "In 1989, Joyner sold the station to Four Chiefs, Inc., owned by noted African\\-American broadcast executive Ragan Henry.[Broadcasting \\& Cable Yearbook 1990 page B\\-229](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1990/B-Radio-NE-Terr-BC-YB-1990.pdf) Henry owned the station for seven years and sold it to [Clear Channel Communications](/wiki/Clear_Channel_Communications \"Clear Channel Communications\") in May 1996\\.[Broadcasting \\& Cable Yearbook 1997 page B\\-330](https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-BC-YB/1997/B-Radio-NE-Ter-BC-YB-1997.pdf)", "In 2000, as a result of a merger between Clear Channel and another owner of radio stations, AMFM, the new larger company wanted to spin off some of its stations. WQOK was sold to Radio One (now called [Urban One](/wiki/Urban_One \"Urban One\")), along with current [sister stations](/wiki/Sister_station \"Sister station\") 107\\.1 [WFXC](/wiki/WFXC \"WFXC\"), 104\\.3 [WFXK](/wiki/WFXK \"WFXK\"), and 103\\.9 [WNNL](/wiki/WNNL \"WNNL\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.bizjournals.com/triangle/stories/2000/03/13/daily2\\.html\\|title\\=Clear Channel to sell 4 Triangle stations\\|work\\=\\[\\[Triangle Business Journal]]\\|date\\=March 13, 2000\\|access\\-date\\=November 3, 2011}} The sale meant that once again, the station is under African\\-American ownership.", "### Changing the city of license", "[thumb\\|Former logo](/wiki/File:WQOK-FM_2009.PNG \"WQOK-FM 2009.PNG\")", "In 2007, WQOK asked the FCC to move its city of license to Carrboro, put the transmitter on a tower in Durham and decrease from [Class C1](/wiki/List_of_North_American_broadcast_station_classes \"List of North American broadcast station classes\") to C2\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vartv.com/archives07a.htm\\|title\\=More radio station proposed moves\\|publisher\\=VARTV.com\\|date\\=January 28, 2007\\|access\\-date\\=September 29, 2016}} This dropped the power from 100,000 watts to 50,000 watts and all but eliminated coverage of Virginia. It reduced a short\\-spacing issue with [WWWV](/wiki/WWWV \"WWWV\") in [Charlottesville, Virginia](/wiki/Charlottesville%2C_Virginia \"Charlottesville, Virginia\"), which also broadcasts on 97\\.5 MHz.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2009}} The station's new tower is shared with WFXC.[http://fjallfoss.fcc.gov/prod/cdbs/forms/prod/getattachment\\_exh.cgi?exhibit\\_id\\=750311\\&formid\\=301\\&q\\_num\\=5310{{dead link\\|date\\=November 2011}}](http://fjallfoss.fcc.gov/prod/cdbs/forms/prod/getattachment_exh.cgi?exhibit_id=750311&formid=301&q_num=5310{{dead link|date=November 2011}})", "WQOK had carried the syndicated [Russ Parr](/wiki/Russ_Parr \"Russ Parr\") Morning Show. In January 2016, Parr was replaced by The [Rickey Smiley](/wiki/Rickey_Smiley \"Rickey Smiley\") Morning Show, which is syndicated by parent company Urban One.", "" ]
Career in the recording industry -------------------------------- Maynard Solomon founded [Vanguard Records](/wiki/Vanguard_Records "Vanguard Records") jointly with his brother [Seymour Solomon](/wiki/Seymour_Solomon "Seymour Solomon") in 1950\. They started the business with a $10,000 loan from their father, Seymour becoming company president and Maynard, the younger brother, vice president.["Seymour Solomon, 80, Record Label Founder"](https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/19/arts/seymour-solomon-80-record-label-founder.html) by [Ari L. Goldman](/wiki/Ari_L._Goldman "Ari L. Goldman"), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, July 19, 2002]. Retrieved 10 April 2014 The label was one of the prime movers in the folk and blues boom for the next fifteen years. As well as producing many albums, Solomon was a prolific writer of [liner notes](/wiki/Liner_notes "Liner notes"). His nascent venture's first disc was of J.S. Bach's 21st cantata, "[Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis, BWV 21](/wiki/Ich_hatte_viel_Bek%C3%BCmmernis%2C_BWV_21 "Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis, BWV 21")" ("I had much grief"), with [Jonathan Sternberg](/wiki/Jonathan_Sternberg "Jonathan Sternberg") conducting [Hugues Cuénod](/wiki/Hugues_Cu%C3%A9nod "Hugues Cuénod") and other soloists, chorus and orchestra. "What speaks for the Solomons' steadfastness in their taste and their task", wrote a *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)")* journalist in November 1966, "is that this record is still alive in the catalogue (SC\-501\). As Seymour says, it was a good performance, not easy to top. Of the whole Vanguard/Bach Guild catalogue, numbering about 480 issues, 30 are Bach records..." Vanguard's first non\-classical signing was [The Weavers](/wiki/The_Weavers "The Weavers"). They generated the first major commercial success for the label with that group's 1955 [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall "Carnegie Hall") concert. Solomon also acquired the rights to record and release material from the [Newport Folk Festival](/wiki/Newport_Folk_Festival "Newport Folk Festival"), which meant he could issue recordings by artists who had not actually signed with Vanguard. In this period, [Elektra](/wiki/Elektra_Records "Elektra Records") was the main competitor for folk artists. Their singers, [Phil Ochs](/wiki/Phil_Ochs "Phil Ochs") and [Judy Collins](/wiki/Judy_Collins "Judy Collins"), were recorded at Newport, as was dynamic young Columbia artist [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan"). The Solomons continued to work with folk artists up until the 1980s. In 1959, the company signed [Joan Baez](/wiki/Joan_Baez "Joan Baez"), who would remain with the Vanguard label for the next twelve years. Two years later, they recorded *[Odetta at Town Hall](/wiki/Odetta_at_Town_Hall "Odetta at Town Hall")* (New York). [The Rooftop Singers](/wiki/The_Rooftop_Singers "The Rooftop Singers") recorded "[Walk Right In](/wiki/Walk_Right_In "Walk Right In")" in 1963, a hit on both sides of the Atlantic produced by Solomon along with some of their other songs. Their next single, "Tom Cat", was banned for being slightly suggestive, though tame by modern standards. It was probably Solomon's influence that induced Baez to record "[Bachianas Brasileiras No. 5](/wiki/Bachianas_Brasileiras "Bachianas Brasileiras")" by [Villa\-Lobos](/wiki/Heitor_Villa-Lobos "Heitor Villa-Lobos"). Solomon insisted on a clean appearance on stage, and clear diction, views in accord with majority public opinion at the time. More bravely, he signed [Paul Robeson](/wiki/Paul_Robeson "Paul Robeson") for Vanguard at the height of the [McCarthy era](/wiki/McCarthy_era "McCarthy era"). Solomon's belief in [Marxism](/wiki/Marxism "Marxism") was a driving force in these early years, but it was not until 1973 that his writings explicitly reflected this. His book *Marxism and Art* from that year has been continuously in print since then. In the late 1960s Vanguard had some success with rock artists, most notably "[Country Joe and the Fish](/wiki/Country_Joe_and_the_Fish "Country Joe and the Fish")" (today usually called [Country Joe McDonald](/wiki/Country_Joe_McDonald "Country Joe McDonald")), along with some jazz, blues or disco records that have not stood the test of time. One of the most surprising signings he made, in 1969, was Michael Szajkowski, an electronic composer. Szajkowski's material was borrowed from [Handel](/wiki/Georg_Frideric_Handel "Georg Frideric Handel"), but the sound, on a synthesizer, was far from classical. Maynard's brother Seymour, however, had previously signed humorous electronic music artists [Jean\-Jacques Perrey](/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Perrey "Jean-Jacques Perrey") and [Gershon Kingsley](/wiki/Gershon_Kingsley "Gershon Kingsley") ([Perrey and Kingsley](/wiki/Perrey_and_Kingsley "Perrey and Kingsley")) in 1965\. That team's work has stood the test of time: their Vanguard music is still used on commercials, children's television, and elsewhere.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2020}} The multiplicity of popular [classical music](/wiki/Classical_music "Classical music") series released by the Solomons on Vanguard and [Bach Guild](/wiki/Bach_Guild "Bach Guild") between 1950 and 1966 include, in addition to 22 [Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach") [cantatas](/wiki/Cantata "Cantata"), pieces from the [English Madrigal School](/wiki/English_Madrigal_School "English Madrigal School") performed by the [Deller Consort](/wiki/Deller_Consort "Deller Consort"), Italian and French [madrigal](/wiki/Madrigal "Madrigal") masterpieces, Elizabethan and Jacobean music, [Henry Purcell](/wiki/Henry_Purcell "Henry Purcell") and the virtuoso trumpet, virtuoso flute and virtuoso oboe, along with German University Songs with [Erich Kunz](/wiki/Erich_Kunz "Erich Kunz"), songs of the Auvergne, Viennese dances with [Willi Boskovsky](/wiki/Willi_Boskovsky "Willi Boskovsky"), traditional songs by [Roland Hayes](/wiki/Roland_Hayes "Roland Hayes"), [Vivaldi's](/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi "Antonio Vivaldi") [Four Seasons](/wiki/The_Four_Seasons_%28Vivaldi%29 "The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)") and other concertos from [I Solisti di Zagreb](/wiki/I_Solisti_di_Zagreb "I Solisti di Zagreb"), music by [Ralph Vaughan Williams](/wiki/Ralph_Vaughan_Williams "Ralph Vaughan Williams"), numerous [Haydn](/wiki/Joseph_Haydn "Joseph Haydn") symphonies performed by the Esterhazy Orchestra, a double [LP](/wiki/LP_record "LP record") of [Gluck's](/wiki/Gluck "Gluck") opera *[Orfeo ed Euridice](/wiki/Orfeo_ed_Euridice "Orfeo ed Euridice")* sung in Italian with the [Vienna State Opera Orchestra](/wiki/Vienna_State_Opera_Orchestra "Vienna State Opera Orchestra") led by [Charles Mackerras](/wiki/Charles_Mackerras "Charles Mackerras"), and an influential [Mahler](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler "Gustav Mahler") cycle with the [Utah Symphony](/wiki/Utah_Symphony "Utah Symphony") conducted by [Maurice Abravanel](/wiki/Maurice_Abravanel "Maurice Abravanel").
[ "Career in the recording industry\n--------------------------------", "Maynard Solomon founded [Vanguard Records](/wiki/Vanguard_Records \"Vanguard Records\") jointly with his brother [Seymour Solomon](/wiki/Seymour_Solomon \"Seymour Solomon\") in 1950\\. They started the business with a $10,000 loan from their father, Seymour becoming company president and Maynard, the younger brother, vice president.[\"Seymour Solomon, 80, Record Label Founder\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/19/arts/seymour-solomon-80-record-label-founder.html) by [Ari L. Goldman](/wiki/Ari_L._Goldman \"Ari L. Goldman\"), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, July 19, 2002]. Retrieved 10 April 2014 The label was one of the prime movers in the folk and blues boom for the next fifteen years. As well as producing many albums, Solomon was a prolific writer of [liner notes](/wiki/Liner_notes \"Liner notes\").", "His nascent venture's first disc was of J.S. Bach's 21st cantata, \"[Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis, BWV 21](/wiki/Ich_hatte_viel_Bek%C3%BCmmernis%2C_BWV_21 \"Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis, BWV 21\")\" (\"I had much grief\"), with [Jonathan Sternberg](/wiki/Jonathan_Sternberg \"Jonathan Sternberg\") conducting [Hugues Cuénod](/wiki/Hugues_Cu%C3%A9nod \"Hugues Cuénod\") and other soloists, chorus and orchestra. \"What speaks for the Solomons' steadfastness in their taste and their task\", wrote a *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* journalist in November 1966, \"is that this record is still alive in the catalogue (SC\\-501\\). As Seymour says, it was a good performance, not easy to top. Of the whole Vanguard/Bach Guild catalogue, numbering about 480 issues, 30 are Bach records...\"", "Vanguard's first non\\-classical signing was [The Weavers](/wiki/The_Weavers \"The Weavers\"). They generated the first major commercial success for the label with that group's 1955 [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall \"Carnegie Hall\") concert. Solomon also acquired the rights to record and release material from the [Newport Folk Festival](/wiki/Newport_Folk_Festival \"Newport Folk Festival\"), which meant he could issue recordings by artists who had not actually signed with Vanguard. In this period, [Elektra](/wiki/Elektra_Records \"Elektra Records\") was the main competitor for folk artists. Their singers, [Phil Ochs](/wiki/Phil_Ochs \"Phil Ochs\") and [Judy Collins](/wiki/Judy_Collins \"Judy Collins\"), were recorded at Newport, as was dynamic young Columbia artist [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\"). The Solomons continued to work with folk artists up until the 1980s.", "In 1959, the company signed [Joan Baez](/wiki/Joan_Baez \"Joan Baez\"), who would remain with the Vanguard label for the next twelve years. Two years later, they recorded *[Odetta at Town Hall](/wiki/Odetta_at_Town_Hall \"Odetta at Town Hall\")* (New York). [The Rooftop Singers](/wiki/The_Rooftop_Singers \"The Rooftop Singers\") recorded \"[Walk Right In](/wiki/Walk_Right_In \"Walk Right In\")\" in 1963, a hit on both sides of the Atlantic produced by Solomon along with some of their other songs. Their next single, \"Tom Cat\", was banned for being slightly suggestive, though tame by modern standards. It was probably Solomon's influence that induced Baez to record \"[Bachianas Brasileiras No. 5](/wiki/Bachianas_Brasileiras \"Bachianas Brasileiras\")\" by [Villa\\-Lobos](/wiki/Heitor_Villa-Lobos \"Heitor Villa-Lobos\").", "Solomon insisted on a clean appearance on stage, and clear diction, views in accord with majority public opinion at the time. More bravely, he signed [Paul Robeson](/wiki/Paul_Robeson \"Paul Robeson\") for Vanguard at the height of the [McCarthy era](/wiki/McCarthy_era \"McCarthy era\").", "Solomon's belief in [Marxism](/wiki/Marxism \"Marxism\") was a driving force in these early years, but it was not until 1973 that his writings explicitly reflected this. His book *Marxism and Art* from that year has been continuously in print since then.", "In the late 1960s Vanguard had some success with rock artists, most notably \"[Country Joe and the Fish](/wiki/Country_Joe_and_the_Fish \"Country Joe and the Fish\")\" (today usually called [Country Joe McDonald](/wiki/Country_Joe_McDonald \"Country Joe McDonald\")), along with some jazz, blues or disco records that have not stood the test of time. One of the most surprising signings he made, in 1969, was Michael Szajkowski, an electronic composer. Szajkowski's material was borrowed from [Handel](/wiki/Georg_Frideric_Handel \"Georg Frideric Handel\"), but the sound, on a synthesizer, was far from classical. Maynard's brother Seymour, however, had previously signed humorous electronic music artists [Jean\\-Jacques Perrey](/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Perrey \"Jean-Jacques Perrey\") and [Gershon Kingsley](/wiki/Gershon_Kingsley \"Gershon Kingsley\") ([Perrey and Kingsley](/wiki/Perrey_and_Kingsley \"Perrey and Kingsley\")) in 1965\\. That team's work has stood the test of time: their Vanguard music is still used on commercials, children's television, and elsewhere.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2020}}", "The multiplicity of popular [classical music](/wiki/Classical_music \"Classical music\") series released by the Solomons on Vanguard and [Bach Guild](/wiki/Bach_Guild \"Bach Guild\") between 1950 and 1966 include, in addition to 22 [Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\") [cantatas](/wiki/Cantata \"Cantata\"), pieces from the [English Madrigal School](/wiki/English_Madrigal_School \"English Madrigal School\") performed by the [Deller Consort](/wiki/Deller_Consort \"Deller Consort\"), Italian and French [madrigal](/wiki/Madrigal \"Madrigal\") masterpieces, Elizabethan and Jacobean music, [Henry Purcell](/wiki/Henry_Purcell \"Henry Purcell\") and the virtuoso trumpet, virtuoso flute and virtuoso oboe, along with German University Songs with [Erich Kunz](/wiki/Erich_Kunz \"Erich Kunz\"), songs of the Auvergne, Viennese dances with [Willi Boskovsky](/wiki/Willi_Boskovsky \"Willi Boskovsky\"), traditional songs by [Roland Hayes](/wiki/Roland_Hayes \"Roland Hayes\"), [Vivaldi's](/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi \"Antonio Vivaldi\") [Four Seasons](/wiki/The_Four_Seasons_%28Vivaldi%29 \"The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)\") and other concertos from [I Solisti di Zagreb](/wiki/I_Solisti_di_Zagreb \"I Solisti di Zagreb\"), music by [Ralph Vaughan Williams](/wiki/Ralph_Vaughan_Williams \"Ralph Vaughan Williams\"), numerous [Haydn](/wiki/Joseph_Haydn \"Joseph Haydn\") symphonies performed by the Esterhazy Orchestra, a double [LP](/wiki/LP_record \"LP record\") of [Gluck's](/wiki/Gluck \"Gluck\") opera *[Orfeo ed Euridice](/wiki/Orfeo_ed_Euridice \"Orfeo ed Euridice\")* sung in Italian with the [Vienna State Opera Orchestra](/wiki/Vienna_State_Opera_Orchestra \"Vienna State Opera Orchestra\") led by [Charles Mackerras](/wiki/Charles_Mackerras \"Charles Mackerras\"), and an influential [Mahler](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler \"Gustav Mahler\") cycle with the [Utah Symphony](/wiki/Utah_Symphony \"Utah Symphony\") conducted by [Maurice Abravanel](/wiki/Maurice_Abravanel \"Maurice Abravanel\").", "" ]
Country differences ------------------- ### Canada The Canadian inter\-bank network, [Interac](/wiki/Interac "Interac"), holds a monopoly on bank\-to\-bank transfers for individual customers in Canada. It has banned standing / banker's orders, along with direct debit and any type of recurring payments between bank accounts. Instead, it permits transfer of funds only via its own “Interac e\-Transfer”, an electronic transfer system similar to a cheque, which may be sent manually to a recipient's email or phone number. As of 2022, one Canadian bank ([CIBC](/wiki/Canadian_Imperial_Bank_of_Commerce "Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce")) has attempted to work within the system by facilitating automated (recurring or pre\-scheduled) e\-Transfers.{{Cite web \|last\=CIBC \|title\=CIBC introduces new recurring and future\-dated Interac e\-Transfer payments \|url\=https://www.newswire.ca/news\-releases/cibc\-introduces\-new\-recurring\-and\-future\-dated\-interac\-e\-transfer\-payments\-893801054\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-27 \|website\=www.newswire.ca \|language\=en}} It remains the only bank to attempt any degree of challenge to Interac's system. That said, exceptions are typically made for corporate clients, who are permitted to bypass the Interac scheme in exchange for substantially higher fees.Bank of Nova Scotia (Scotiabank), Statement by Assistant Manager of National Capital Main Branch (28 April 2023\). ### Germany A standing order (*Dauerauftrag*) can run for a set number of payments, a set period of time, or until cancelled. ### The Netherlands Standing orders *(periodieke overschrijvingen)* are available for a set period of time or until cancelled, to any recipient in the [SEPA](/wiki/Single_Euro_Payments_Area "Single Euro Payments Area"). They should not be confused with *doorlopende machtigingen* (periodic [direct debits](/wiki/Direct_debit "Direct debit")). ### Japan A standing order *(口座自動振替)* runs until cancelled. They can be cancelled at the account holder's request. ### New Zealand Commonly known as "Automatic Payment" and can be set up via a bank teller at a branch of the bank, or via the internet banking service of most major banks. ### South Korea A standing order *(납부자자동이체)* runs until cancelled. They can be cancelled at the account holder's request. The bank charges fees (average 3000KRW) per transfer. ### Spain With most Spanish banks a standing order (*transferencia periódica*) can be set up to run for a set period of time, for a number of occurrences or indefinitely. They can be cancelled at any time at the account holder's request. There are typically no fees for such transactions. ### Switzerland In Switzerland standing orders are available for a set period of time or until cancelled. They can be made to any recipient in the SEPA space. ### UK A standing order can be set up to run for a set period of time, or indefinitely, and can be cancelled at the account holder's request. Standing orders are standardized by the trade body [UK Payments Administration](/wiki/UK_Payments_Administration "UK Payments Administration"). In 2008 a number of banks began to introduce [Faster Payments](/wiki/Faster_Payments "Faster Payments") as the method of transfer for standing orders when available, in place of the slower [BACS](/wiki/BACS "BACS") system; with this method payments reach the receiving account the same day, rather than after a delay of three days or more.{{cite web \|title\=UK Payments Administration \- Standing Orders \|url\=http://www.ukpayments.org.uk/payment\_options/automated\_payments/standing\_orders/}}, [UK Payments](/wiki/UK_Payments "UK Payments")
[ "Country differences\n-------------------", "### Canada", "The Canadian inter\\-bank network, [Interac](/wiki/Interac \"Interac\"), holds a monopoly on bank\\-to\\-bank transfers for individual customers in Canada. It has banned standing / banker's orders, along with direct debit and any type of recurring payments between bank accounts. Instead, it permits transfer of funds only via its own “Interac e\\-Transfer”, an electronic transfer system similar to a cheque, which may be sent manually to a recipient's email or phone number.", "As of 2022, one Canadian bank ([CIBC](/wiki/Canadian_Imperial_Bank_of_Commerce \"Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce\")) has attempted to work within the system by facilitating automated (recurring or pre\\-scheduled) e\\-Transfers.{{Cite web \\|last\\=CIBC \\|title\\=CIBC introduces new recurring and future\\-dated Interac e\\-Transfer payments \\|url\\=https://www.newswire.ca/news\\-releases/cibc\\-introduces\\-new\\-recurring\\-and\\-future\\-dated\\-interac\\-e\\-transfer\\-payments\\-893801054\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-27 \\|website\\=www.newswire.ca \\|language\\=en}} It remains the only bank to attempt any degree of challenge to Interac's system. That said, exceptions are typically made for corporate clients, who are permitted to bypass the Interac scheme in exchange for substantially higher fees.Bank of Nova Scotia (Scotiabank), Statement by Assistant Manager of National Capital Main Branch (28 April 2023\\).", "### Germany", "A standing order (*Dauerauftrag*) can run for a set number of payments, a set period of time, or until cancelled.", "### The Netherlands", "Standing orders *(periodieke overschrijvingen)* are available for a set period of time or until cancelled, to any recipient in the [SEPA](/wiki/Single_Euro_Payments_Area \"Single Euro Payments Area\"). They should not be confused with *doorlopende machtigingen* (periodic [direct debits](/wiki/Direct_debit \"Direct debit\")).", "### Japan", "A standing order *(口座自動振替)* runs until cancelled. They can be cancelled at the account holder's request.", "### New Zealand", "Commonly known as \"Automatic Payment\" and can be set up via a bank teller at a branch of the bank, or via the internet banking service of most major banks.", "### South Korea", "A standing order *(납부자자동이체)* runs until cancelled. They can be cancelled at the account holder's request. The bank charges fees (average 3000KRW) per transfer.", "### Spain", "With most Spanish banks a standing order (*transferencia periódica*) can be set up to run for a set period of time, for a number of occurrences or indefinitely. They can be cancelled at any time at the account holder's request. There are typically no fees for such transactions.", "### Switzerland", "In Switzerland standing orders are available for a set period of time or until cancelled. They can be made to any recipient in the SEPA space.", "### UK", "A standing order can be set up to run for a set period of time, or indefinitely, and can be cancelled at the account holder's request. Standing orders are standardized by the trade body [UK Payments Administration](/wiki/UK_Payments_Administration \"UK Payments Administration\"). In 2008 a number of banks began to introduce [Faster Payments](/wiki/Faster_Payments \"Faster Payments\") as the method of transfer for standing orders when available, in place of the slower [BACS](/wiki/BACS \"BACS\") system; with this method payments reach the receiving account the same day, rather than after a delay of three days or more.{{cite web \\|title\\=UK Payments Administration \\- Standing Orders \\|url\\=http://www.ukpayments.org.uk/payment\\_options/automated\\_payments/standing\\_orders/}}, [UK Payments](/wiki/UK_Payments \"UK Payments\")", "" ]
Background ---------- Prior to winning the 1876 Melbourne Cup, St Albans had an earlier important victory aboard Briseis when the 11\-year\-old rode her to win the 1876 Doncaster when the then two\-year\-old filly was only allowed to carry an even smaller weight of 5 stone 7 pounds (34 kilos). Before going to [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney") as a strapper with Briseis, St Albans had won his first race, a maiden plate at [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong "Geelong"), and on Briseis, but due to his inexperience he wasn't booked to ride the filly in the Doncaster at [Randwick](/wiki/Randwick_Racecourse "Randwick Racecourse"). However, as her jockey Tom Hales was over the weight that she was allowed to carry, he recommended the young strapper \- St Albans \- as showing great ability as a horseman, and having a special bond with the filly. Many ardent racegoers questioned the running of Briseis as a two\-year\-old in the demanding Doncaster, particularly with an 11\-year\-old in the saddle. However, they made a great team. Altogether they won three Sydney races at Randwick that autumn. By the age of seventeen Peter St Albans had also added the Sires' Produce Stakes and the Geelong Cup to his winnings. St. Albans, however, only had a limited career in the saddle. Following a fall in Sydney he became a [horse trainer](/wiki/Horse_trainer "Horse trainer") at 19 under the name of Peter Bowden. He went on to become a successful trainer and trained Forest King who was runner\-up in the 1891 Caulfield Cup. He died in 1898 at the age of 35, and it is said that he had one of the biggest [funerals](/wiki/Funeral "Funeral") ever seen at Geelong. The Geelong Racing Club each year award the Peter St Albans Trophy to the champion jockey at Geelong (most wins at that circuit). Peter St Albans had been born in Geelong on 15 November 1864 as Michael Bowden, named after his father, but he soon became known as Peter. He then, for in his racing career, took as a surname the name of the stud where he had been born, and where he worked. It has been said, and has become racing legend, that Peter St Albans was [Aboriginal](/wiki/Indigenous_Australian "Indigenous Australian"), and the first Aboriginal jockey to win the Melbourne Cup. The legend arose as, not yet being 13\-years\-old St. Albans was too young to ride in the 1876 Melbourne Cup. Thus, to allow him to race Briseis in the Cup, it was argued his birthdate and parents were unknown, and from this the legend of him being Aboriginal grew. That he changed his surname is supposed to be the proof that his mother was Aboriginal; and that the owner of the stud [James Wilson](/wiki/James_Wilson_%28trainer%29 "James Wilson (trainer)") was devoted to St Albans is supposed to be the proof that either he or his son is St Albans' father. The tale also contends St Albans was left as a baby on the doorstep of one of the stud grooms, Michael Bowden, and raised by him and his wife. This is all strongly denied by his family and his descendants, who say that Michael Bowden and his wife were Peter's true parents. They even hold a copy of Peter's birth certificate. A colour painting by Frederick Woodhouse featuring St Albans, youthful, and very white, standing alongside Briseis with stable jockey [Tom Hales](/wiki/Tom_Hales_%28jockey%29 "Tom Hales (jockey)") in the saddle also confirms the family's story; as does a wood engraving of Briseis with St Albans in the saddle held by the State Library of [Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29 "Victoria (Australia)").[Briseis, the triple winner of The Derby, The Melbourne Cup, and The Oaks](http://www.slv.vic.gov.au/pictoria/b/5/0/doc/b50275.shtml)
[ "Background\n----------", "Prior to winning the 1876 Melbourne Cup, St Albans had an earlier important victory aboard Briseis when the 11\\-year\\-old rode her to win the 1876 Doncaster when the then two\\-year\\-old filly was only allowed to carry an even smaller weight of 5 stone 7 pounds (34 kilos). Before going to [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") as a strapper with Briseis, St Albans had won his first race, a maiden plate at [Geelong](/wiki/Geelong \"Geelong\"), and on Briseis, but due to his inexperience he wasn't booked to ride the filly in the Doncaster at [Randwick](/wiki/Randwick_Racecourse \"Randwick Racecourse\"). However, as her jockey Tom Hales was over the weight that she was allowed to carry, he recommended the young strapper \\- St Albans \\- as showing great ability as a horseman, and having a special bond with the filly. Many ardent racegoers questioned the running of Briseis as a two\\-year\\-old in the demanding Doncaster, particularly with an 11\\-year\\-old in the saddle. However, they made a great team. Altogether they won three Sydney races at Randwick that autumn.", "By the age of seventeen Peter St Albans had also added the Sires' Produce Stakes and the Geelong Cup to his winnings.", "St. Albans, however, only had a limited career in the saddle. Following a fall in Sydney he became a [horse trainer](/wiki/Horse_trainer \"Horse trainer\") at 19 under the name of Peter Bowden. He went on to become a successful trainer and trained Forest King who was runner\\-up in the 1891 Caulfield Cup.", "He died in 1898 at the age of 35, and it is said that he had one of the biggest [funerals](/wiki/Funeral \"Funeral\") ever seen at Geelong. The Geelong Racing Club each year award the Peter St Albans Trophy to the champion jockey at Geelong (most wins at that circuit).", "Peter St Albans had been born in Geelong on 15 November 1864 as Michael Bowden, named after his father, but he soon became known as Peter. He then, for in his racing career, took as a surname the name of the stud where he had been born, and where he worked.", "It has been said, and has become racing legend, that Peter St Albans was [Aboriginal](/wiki/Indigenous_Australian \"Indigenous Australian\"), and the first Aboriginal jockey to win the Melbourne Cup. The legend arose as, not yet being 13\\-years\\-old St. Albans was too young to ride in the 1876 Melbourne Cup. Thus, to allow him to race Briseis in the Cup, it was argued his birthdate and parents were unknown, and from this the legend of him being Aboriginal grew. That he changed his surname is supposed to be the proof that his mother was Aboriginal; and that the owner of the stud [James Wilson](/wiki/James_Wilson_%28trainer%29 \"James Wilson (trainer)\") was devoted to St Albans is supposed to be the proof that either he or his son is St Albans' father. The tale also contends St Albans was left as a baby on the doorstep of one of the stud grooms, Michael Bowden, and raised by him and his wife. This is all strongly denied by his family and his descendants, who say that Michael Bowden and his wife were Peter's true parents. They even hold a copy of Peter's birth certificate. A colour painting by Frederick Woodhouse featuring St Albans, youthful, and very white, standing alongside Briseis with stable jockey [Tom Hales](/wiki/Tom_Hales_%28jockey%29 \"Tom Hales (jockey)\") in the saddle also confirms the family's story; as does a wood engraving of Briseis with St Albans in the saddle held by the State Library of [Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_%28Australia%29 \"Victoria (Australia)\").[Briseis, the triple winner of The Derby, The Melbourne Cup, and The Oaks](http://www.slv.vic.gov.au/pictoria/b/5/0/doc/b50275.shtml)", "" ]
Career ------ ### A.C. Milan Born in [Monselice](/wiki/Monselice "Monselice"), [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto "Veneto"), Matteo Deinite started his career at [A.C. Milan](/wiki/A.C._Milan "A.C. Milan") at [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy "Lombardy"). In the 2002–03 season, he left the youth team and joined [Trento Calcio 1921](/wiki/Trento_Calcio_1921 "Trento Calcio 1921"), on loan, where he played 23 [Serie C2](/wiki/Serie_C2 "Serie C2") matches. ### Inter \& Pizzighettone In summer 2003, he was involved a swap deal with [F.C. Internazionale Milano](/wiki/F.C._Internazionale_Milano "F.C. Internazionale Milano"), where [Matteo Giordano](/wiki/Matteo_Giordano "Matteo Giordano"), [Ronny Diuk Toma](/wiki/Ronny_Diuk_Toma "Ronny Diuk Toma"), [Simone Brunelli](/wiki/Simone_Brunelli_%28footballer_born_1983%29 "Simone Brunelli (footballer born 1983)") and Deinite moved to Internazionale, and [Salvatore Ferraro](/wiki/Salvatore_Ferraro "Salvatore Ferraro"), [Alessandro Livi](/wiki/Alessandro_Livi "Alessandro Livi"), [Giuseppe Ticli](/wiki/Giuseppe_Ticli "Giuseppe Ticli") and [Marco Varaldi](/wiki/Marco_Varaldi "Marco Varaldi") moved to [A.C. Milan](/wiki/A.C._Milan "A.C. Milan"). Later, the deal was criticized by the press as making false profit (and [intangible asset](/wiki/Intangible_asset "Intangible asset")) on the [balance sheet](/wiki/Balance_sheet "Balance sheet"), as the transfer fees was paid via player exchange, but in the balance sheet, the [nominal value](/wiki/Nominal_value "Nominal value") could be adjusted by two clubs. The tactic is commonly used to make the transfer fees larger in Italian football.{{cite news\|url\=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id\=400330\&cc\=3888\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604030742/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id\=400330\&cc\=3888\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=4 June 2011\|title\=Inter and AC Milan chiefs face new probe\|date\=17 January 2007\|accessdate\=2010\-01\-25\|publisher\=ESPN Soccernet\|agency\=\[\[Reuters]]}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.gazzetta.it/Calcio/Primo\_Piano/2007/01\_Gennaio/20/plusvalenze.shtml\|title\=L'insulto: "Sei una plusvalenza"\|date\=20 January 2007\|accessdate\=2010\-01\-25\|publisher\=La Gazzetta dello Sport\|language\=Italian}} He then left on loan to [Pizzighettone](/wiki/A.S._Pizzighettone "A.S. Pizzighettone") of [Serie C2](/wiki/Serie_C2 "Serie C2"), and later the deal was extended.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.inter.it/aas/news/reader?L\=en\&N\=14622\|title\= YOUTH SECTOR TRANSFERS \|date\=10 July 2004\|accessdate\=2010\-01\-25\|publisher\=inter.it}} He won promotion playoffs in 2005 and the loan deal was extended again, and Inter team\-mate [Alberto Quadri](/wiki/Alberto_Quadri "Alberto Quadri") joined him on loan.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.inter.it/aas/news/reader?N\=28274\&L\=it\|title\= MERCATO: TRE PRESTITI AL PIZZIGHETTONE \|date\=12 July 2005\|accessdate\=21 September 2010\|work\=FC Internazionale Milano\|publisher\=inter.it\|language\=Italian}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.inter.it/aas/news/reader?L\=en\&N\=19864\|title\= INTER'S SUMMER TRANSFERS: 62 DEALS DONE \|date\=31 August 2005\|accessdate\=2010\-01\-25\|publisher\=inter.it}} Pizzighettone survived from relegation, and he remained at [Pizzighettone](/wiki/Pizzighettone "Pizzighettone") for another season.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.inter.it/aas/news/reader?L\=en\&N\=23308\|title\= FIVE PLAYERS OUT ON LOAN \|date\=7 July 2006\|accessdate\=2010\-01\-25\|publisher\=inter.it}} But 2006–07 season, Deinite suffered his first relegation with team. ### Portogruaro Summaga In June 2007, the co\-ownership agreement ended with Inter fully contracted with Deinite,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.inter.it/aas/news/reader?L\=en\&N\=26755\|title\= Transfer market: co\-ownership deals \|date\=20 June 2007\|accessdate\=2010\-01\-25\|publisher\=Inter.it}} but he was then transferred to [Portogruaro Summaga](/wiki/Calcio_Portogruaro_Summaga "Calcio Portogruaro Summaga") of [Serie C2](/wiki/Serie_C2 "Serie C2"), returned to Veneto. He won promotion playoffs again, but he was sent to [Sangiovannese](/wiki/A.S.D._Sangiovannese_1927 "A.S.D. Sangiovannese 1927") of [Lega Pro Seconda Divisione](/wiki/Lega_Pro_Seconda_Divisione "Lega Pro Seconda Divisione") on loan. In 2009–10 season, he returned to [Portogruaro](/wiki/Portogruaro "Portogruaro"), but played nil at [Lega Pro Prima Divisione](/wiki/Lega_Pro_Prima_Divisione "Lega Pro Prima Divisione"). However, he played in [Supercoppa di Lega di Prima Divisione](/wiki/Supercoppa_di_Lega_di_Prima_Divisione "Supercoppa di Lega di Prima Divisione"). ### International career He played at [2000 UEFA European Under\-16 Football Championship](/wiki/2000_UEFA_European_Under-16_Football_Championship "2000 UEFA European Under-16 Football Championship") qualification.
[ "Career\n------", "### A.C. Milan", "Born in [Monselice](/wiki/Monselice \"Monselice\"), [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto \"Veneto\"), Matteo Deinite started his career at [A.C. Milan](/wiki/A.C._Milan \"A.C. Milan\") at [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy \"Lombardy\"). In the 2002–03 season, he left the youth team and joined [Trento Calcio 1921](/wiki/Trento_Calcio_1921 \"Trento Calcio 1921\"), on loan, where he played 23 [Serie C2](/wiki/Serie_C2 \"Serie C2\") matches.", "### Inter \\& Pizzighettone", "In summer 2003, he was involved a swap deal with [F.C. Internazionale Milano](/wiki/F.C._Internazionale_Milano \"F.C. Internazionale Milano\"), where [Matteo Giordano](/wiki/Matteo_Giordano \"Matteo Giordano\"), [Ronny Diuk Toma](/wiki/Ronny_Diuk_Toma \"Ronny Diuk Toma\"), [Simone Brunelli](/wiki/Simone_Brunelli_%28footballer_born_1983%29 \"Simone Brunelli (footballer born 1983)\") and Deinite moved to Internazionale, and [Salvatore Ferraro](/wiki/Salvatore_Ferraro \"Salvatore Ferraro\"), [Alessandro Livi](/wiki/Alessandro_Livi \"Alessandro Livi\"), [Giuseppe Ticli](/wiki/Giuseppe_Ticli \"Giuseppe Ticli\") and [Marco Varaldi](/wiki/Marco_Varaldi \"Marco Varaldi\") moved to [A.C. Milan](/wiki/A.C._Milan \"A.C. Milan\"). Later, the deal was criticized by the press as making false profit (and [intangible asset](/wiki/Intangible_asset \"Intangible asset\")) on the [balance sheet](/wiki/Balance_sheet \"Balance sheet\"), as the transfer fees was paid via player exchange, but in the balance sheet, the [nominal value](/wiki/Nominal_value \"Nominal value\") could be adjusted by two clubs. The tactic is commonly used to make the transfer fees larger in Italian football.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id\\=400330\\&cc\\=3888\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604030742/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story?id\\=400330\\&cc\\=3888\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=4 June 2011\\|title\\=Inter and AC Milan chiefs face new probe\\|date\\=17 January 2007\\|accessdate\\=2010\\-01\\-25\\|publisher\\=ESPN Soccernet\\|agency\\=\\[\\[Reuters]]}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.gazzetta.it/Calcio/Primo\\_Piano/2007/01\\_Gennaio/20/plusvalenze.shtml\\|title\\=L'insulto: \"Sei una plusvalenza\"\\|date\\=20 January 2007\\|accessdate\\=2010\\-01\\-25\\|publisher\\=La Gazzetta dello Sport\\|language\\=Italian}}", "He then left on loan to [Pizzighettone](/wiki/A.S._Pizzighettone \"A.S. Pizzighettone\") of [Serie C2](/wiki/Serie_C2 \"Serie C2\"), and later the deal was extended.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.inter.it/aas/news/reader?L\\=en\\&N\\=14622\\|title\\= YOUTH SECTOR TRANSFERS \\|date\\=10 July 2004\\|accessdate\\=2010\\-01\\-25\\|publisher\\=inter.it}} He won promotion playoffs in 2005 and the loan deal was extended again, and Inter team\\-mate [Alberto Quadri](/wiki/Alberto_Quadri \"Alberto Quadri\") joined him on loan.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.inter.it/aas/news/reader?N\\=28274\\&L\\=it\\|title\\= MERCATO: TRE PRESTITI AL PIZZIGHETTONE \\|date\\=12 July 2005\\|accessdate\\=21 September 2010\\|work\\=FC Internazionale Milano\\|publisher\\=inter.it\\|language\\=Italian}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.inter.it/aas/news/reader?L\\=en\\&N\\=19864\\|title\\= INTER'S SUMMER TRANSFERS: 62 DEALS DONE \\|date\\=31 August 2005\\|accessdate\\=2010\\-01\\-25\\|publisher\\=inter.it}}", "Pizzighettone survived from relegation, and he remained at [Pizzighettone](/wiki/Pizzighettone \"Pizzighettone\") for another season.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.inter.it/aas/news/reader?L\\=en\\&N\\=23308\\|title\\= FIVE PLAYERS OUT ON LOAN \\|date\\=7 July 2006\\|accessdate\\=2010\\-01\\-25\\|publisher\\=inter.it}} But 2006–07 season, Deinite suffered his first relegation with team.", "### Portogruaro Summaga", "In June 2007, the co\\-ownership agreement ended with Inter fully contracted with Deinite,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.inter.it/aas/news/reader?L\\=en\\&N\\=26755\\|title\\= Transfer market: co\\-ownership deals \\|date\\=20 June 2007\\|accessdate\\=2010\\-01\\-25\\|publisher\\=Inter.it}} but he was then transferred to [Portogruaro Summaga](/wiki/Calcio_Portogruaro_Summaga \"Calcio Portogruaro Summaga\") of [Serie C2](/wiki/Serie_C2 \"Serie C2\"), returned to Veneto. He won promotion playoffs again, but he was sent to [Sangiovannese](/wiki/A.S.D._Sangiovannese_1927 \"A.S.D. Sangiovannese 1927\") of [Lega Pro Seconda Divisione](/wiki/Lega_Pro_Seconda_Divisione \"Lega Pro Seconda Divisione\") on loan.", "In 2009–10 season, he returned to [Portogruaro](/wiki/Portogruaro \"Portogruaro\"), but played nil at [Lega Pro Prima Divisione](/wiki/Lega_Pro_Prima_Divisione \"Lega Pro Prima Divisione\"). However, he played in [Supercoppa di Lega di Prima Divisione](/wiki/Supercoppa_di_Lega_di_Prima_Divisione \"Supercoppa di Lega di Prima Divisione\").", "### International career", "He played at [2000 UEFA European Under\\-16 Football Championship](/wiki/2000_UEFA_European_Under-16_Football_Championship \"2000 UEFA European Under-16 Football Championship\") qualification.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|right\|upright\|A USSR stamp, 1987: Tokamak thermonuclear system](/wiki/File:1987_CPA_5891.jpg "1987 CPA 5891.jpg") ### First steps In 1934, [Mark Oliphant](/wiki/Mark_Oliphant "Mark Oliphant"), [Paul Harteck](/wiki/Paul_Harteck "Paul Harteck") and [Ernest Rutherford](/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford "Ernest Rutherford") were the first to achieve fusion on Earth, using a [particle accelerator](/wiki/Particle_accelerator "Particle accelerator") to shoot [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium "Deuterium") nuclei into metal foil containing deuterium or other atoms.{{cite journal \|url\=http://www.chemteam.info/Chem\-History/Rutherford\-1934b/Rutherford\-1934b.html \|title\= Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen \|first1\=Mark \|last1\= Oliphant \|first2\=Paul \|last2\=Harteck \|first3\= Ernest \|last3\= Rutherford \|journal\= Proceedings of the Royal Society \|volume\=144 \|issue\= 853 \|pages\=692–703 \|date\=1934 \|doi\=10\.1098/rspa.1934\.0077 \|doi\-access\=free \|bibcode\= 1934RSPSA.144\..692O }} This allowed them to measure the [nuclear cross section](/wiki/Nuclear_cross_section "Nuclear cross section") of various fusion reactions, and determined that the deuterium–deuterium reaction occurred at a lower energy than other reactions, peaking at about 100,000 [electronvolts](/wiki/Electronvolt "Electronvolt") (100 keV).{{sfn\|McCracken\|Stott\|2012\|p\=35}}{{efn\|D–T fusion occurs at even lower energies, but \[\[tritium]] was unknown at the time. Their work created tritium, but they did not separate it chemically to demonstrate its existence. This was performed by \[\[Luis Walter Alvarez\|Luis Alvarez]] and \[\[Robert Cornog]] in 1939\.{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRev.56\.613\|title\=Helium and Hydrogen of Mass 3\|date\=1939\|last1\=Alvarez\|first1\=Luis\|last2\=Cornog\|first2\=Robert\|journal\=Physical Review\|volume\=56\|issue\=6\|page\=613\|bibcode \= 1939PhRv...56\..613A }}}} Accelerator\-based fusion is not practical because the reactor [cross section](/wiki/Cross_section_%28physics%29 "Cross section (physics)") is tiny; most of the particles in the accelerator will scatter off the fuel, not fuse with it. These scatterings cause the particles to lose energy to the point where they can no longer undergo fusion. The energy put into these particles is thus lost, and it is easy to demonstrate this is much more energy than the resulting fusion reactions can release.{{sfn\|McCracken\|Stott\|2012\|pp\=36–38}} To maintain fusion and produce net energy output, the bulk of the fuel must be raised to high temperatures so its atoms are constantly colliding at high speed; this gives rise to the name *[thermonuclear](/wiki/Nuclear_fusion "Nuclear fusion")* due to the high temperatures needed to bring it about. In 1944, [Enrico Fermi](/wiki/Enrico_Fermi "Enrico Fermi") calculated the reaction would be self\-sustaining at about 50,000,000 K; at that temperature, the rate that energy is given off by the reactions is high enough that they heat the surrounding fuel rapidly enough to maintain the temperature against losses to the environment, continuing the reaction.{{sfn\|McCracken\|Stott\|2012\|pp\=36–38}} During the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project "Manhattan Project"), the first practical way to reach these temperatures was created, using an [atomic bomb](/wiki/Atomic_bomb "Atomic bomb"). In 1944, Fermi gave a talk on the physics of fusion in the context of a then\-hypothetical [hydrogen bomb](/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb "Hydrogen bomb"). However, some thought had already been given to a *controlled* fusion device, and [James L. Tuck](/wiki/James_L._Tuck "James L. Tuck") and [Stanislaw Ulam](/wiki/Stanislaw_Ulam "Stanislaw Ulam") had attempted such using [shaped charges](/wiki/Shaped_charge "Shaped charge") driving a metal foil infused with deuterium, although without success.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=18}} The first attempts to build a practical fusion machine took place in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), where [George Paget Thomson](/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson "George Paget Thomson") had selected the [pinch effect](/wiki/Pinch_effect "Pinch effect") as a promising technique in 1945\. After several failed attempts to gain funding, he gave up and asked two graduate students, Stanley (Stan) W. Cousins and Alan Alfred Ware (1924–2010{{cite web \| url\=https://web2\.ph.utexas.edu/utphysicshistory/AlanAWare.html \| title\=UTPhysicsHistorySite \| access\-date\=29 May 2022 \| archive\-date\=29 May 2022 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529211017/https://web2\.ph.utexas.edu/utphysicshistory/AlanAWare.html }}), to build a device out of surplus [radar](/wiki/Radar "Radar") equipment. This was successfully operated in 1948, but showed no clear evidence of fusion and failed to gain the interest of the [Atomic Energy Research Establishment](/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Research_Establishment "Atomic Energy Research Establishment").{{sfn\|Herman\|1990\|p\=\[https://archive.org/details/fusionsearchfore00herm/page/40 40]}} ### Lavrentiev's letter In 1950, [Oleg Lavrentiev](/wiki/Oleg_Lavrentiev "Oleg Lavrentiev"), then a [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") sergeant stationed on [Sakhalin](/wiki/Sakhalin "Sakhalin"), wrote a letter to the [Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union "Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union"). The letter outlined the idea of using an [atomic bomb](/wiki/Atomic_bomb "Atomic bomb") to ignite a fusion fuel, and then went on to describe a system that used [electrostatic](/wiki/Electrostatic "Electrostatic") fields to contain a hot plasma in a steady state for energy production.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=873}}{{cite journal \|last\= Bondarenko \|first\=B.D. \|title\= Role played by O. A. Lavrent'ev in the formulation of the problem and the initiation of research into controlled nuclear fusion in the USSR \|journal\= Phys. Usp. \|volume\=44 \|issue\=8 \|page\= 844 \|date\=2001 \|url\= http://ufn.ru/ufn01/ufn01\_8/Russian/r018m.pdf\|doi\=10\.1070/PU2001v044n08ABEH000910 \|s2cid\=250885028 }}{{efn\|The system Lavrentiev described is very similar to the concept now known as the \[\[fusor]].}} The letter was sent to [Andrei Sakharov](/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov "Andrei Sakharov") for comment. Sakharov noted that "the author formulates a very important and not necessarily hopeless problem", and found his main concern in the arrangement was that the plasma would hit the electrode wires, and that "wide meshes and a thin current\-carrying part which will have to reflect almost all incident nuclei back into the reactor. In all likelihood, this requirement is incompatible with the mechanical strength of the device."{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=873}} Some indication of the importance given to Lavrentiev's letter can be seen in the speed with which it was processed; the letter was received by the Central Committee on 29 July, Sakharov sent his review in on 18 August, by October, Sakharov and [Igor Tamm](/wiki/Igor_Tamm "Igor Tamm") had completed the first detailed study of a fusion reactor, and they had asked for funding to build it in January 1951\.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=837}} ### Magnetic confinement When heated to fusion temperatures, the [electrons](/wiki/Electron "Electron") in atoms dissociate, resulting in a fluid of nuclei and electrons known as [plasma](/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29 "Plasma (physics)"). Unlike electrically neutral atoms, a plasma is electrically conductive, and can, therefore, be manipulated by electrical or magnetic fields.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=15}} Sakharov's concern about the electrodes led him to consider using magnetic confinement instead of electrostatic. In the case of a magnetic field, the particles will circle around the [lines of force](/wiki/Lines_of_force "Lines of force").{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=15}} As the particles are moving at high speed, their resulting paths look like a helix. If one arranges a magnetic field so lines of force are parallel and close together, the particles orbiting adjacent lines may collide, and fuse.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=838}} Such a field can be created in a [solenoid](/wiki/Solenoid "Solenoid"), a cylinder with magnets wrapped around the outside. The combined fields of the magnets create a set of parallel magnetic lines running down the length of the cylinder. This arrangement prevents the particles from moving sideways to the wall of the cylinder, but it does not prevent them from running out the end. The obvious solution to this problem is to bend the cylinder around into a donut shape, or torus, so that the lines form a series of continual rings. In this arrangement, the particles circle endlessly.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=838}} Sakharov discussed the concept with [Igor Tamm](/wiki/Igor_Tamm "Igor Tamm"), and by the end of October 1950 the two had written a proposal and sent it to [Igor Kurchatov](/wiki/Igor_Kurchatov "Igor Kurchatov"), the director of the atomic bomb project within the USSR, and his deputy, [Igor Golovin](/wiki/Igor_Golovin "Igor Golovin").{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=838}} However, this initial proposal ignored a fundamental problem; when arranged along a straight solenoid, the external magnets are evenly spaced, but when bent around into a torus, they are closer together on the inside of the ring than the outside. This leads to uneven forces that cause the particles to drift away from their magnetic lines.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=839}}{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=16}} During visits to the [Laboratory of Measuring Instruments of the USSR Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Laboratory_of_Measuring_Instruments_of_the_USSR_Academy_of_Sciences "Laboratory of Measuring Instruments of the USSR Academy of Sciences") (LIPAN), the Soviet [nuclear research](/wiki/Nuclear_physics "Nuclear physics") centre, Sakharov suggested two possible solutions to this problem. One was to suspend a current\-carrying ring in the centre of the torus. The current in the ring would produce a magnetic field that would mix with the one from the magnets on the outside. The resulting field would be twisted into a helix, so that any given particle would find itself repeatedly on the outside, then inside, of the torus. The drifts caused by the uneven fields are in opposite directions on the inside and outside, so over the course of multiple [orbits](/wiki/Orbit "Orbit") around the long axis of the [torus](/wiki/Torus "Torus"), the opposite drifts would cancel out. Alternately, he suggested using an external magnet to induce a current in the [plasma](/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29 "Plasma (physics)") itself, instead of a separate metal ring, which would have the same effect.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=839}} In January 1951, Kurchatov arranged a meeting at LIPAN to consider Sakharov's concepts. They found widespread interest and support, and in February a report on the topic was forwarded to [Lavrentiy Beria](/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria "Lavrentiy Beria"), who oversaw the atomic efforts in the USSR. For a time, nothing was heard back.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=839}} ### Richter and the birth of fusion research [thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|Ronald Richter (left) with [Juan Domingo Perón](/wiki/Juan_Domingo_Per%C3%B3n "Juan Domingo Perón") (right). Richter's claims sparked off fusion research around the world.](/wiki/File:Ronald_Richter_y_Per%C3%B3n.jpg "Ronald Richter y Perón.jpg") On 25 March 1951, Argentine President [Juan Perón](/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n "Juan Perón") announced that a former German scientist, [Ronald Richter](/wiki/Ronald_Richter "Ronald Richter"), had succeeded in producing fusion at a laboratory scale as part of what is now known as the [Huemul Project](/wiki/Huemul_Project "Huemul Project"). Scientists around the world were excited by the announcement, but soon concluded it was not true; simple calculations showed that his experimental setup could not produce enough energy to heat the fusion fuel to the needed temperatures.{{cite news \|first\=Robert \|last\=Arnoux \|title\='Proyecto Huemul': the prank that started it all \|url\=https://www.iter.org/newsline/196/930 \|website\=iter \|date\=26 October 2011}} Although dismissed by nuclear researchers, the widespread news coverage meant politicians were suddenly aware of, and receptive to, fusion research. In the UK, Thomson was suddenly granted considerable funding. Over the next months, two projects based on the pinch system were up and running.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=75}} In the US, [Lyman Spitzer](/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer "Lyman Spitzer") read the Huemul story, realized it was false, and set about designing a machine that would work.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=14}} In May he was awarded $50,000 to begin research on his [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator "Stellarator") concept.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=21}} Jim Tuck had returned to the UK briefly and saw Thomson's pinch machines. When he returned to Los Alamos he also received $50,000 directly from the Los Alamos budget.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=25}} Similar events occurred in the [USSR](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"). In mid\-April, [Dmitri Efremov](/wiki/Dmitry_Yefremov_%28footballer%2C_born_1995%29 "Dmitry Yefremov (footballer, born 1995)") of the Scientific Research Institute of Electrophysical Apparatus stormed into Kurchatov's study with a magazine containing a story about Richter's work, demanding to know why they were beaten by the Argentines. [Kurchatov](/wiki/Kurchatov_Institute "Kurchatov Institute") immediately contacted Beria with a proposal to set up a separate fusion research laboratory with [Lev Artsimovich](/wiki/Lev_Artsimovich "Lev Artsimovich") as director. Only days later, on 5 May, the proposal had been signed by [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin").{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=839}} ### New ideas [thumb\|Red plasma in [EAST](/wiki/Experimental_Advanced_Superconducting_Tokamak "Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak"), with visible light radiation dominated by the [hydrogen alpha](/wiki/Hydrogen_alpha "Hydrogen alpha") line emitting 656 nm light.](/wiki/File:EAST_Tokamak_plasma_image3.jpg "EAST Tokamak plasma image3.jpg") By October, Sakharov and Tamm had completed a much more detailed consideration of their original proposal, calling for a device with a major radius (of the torus as a whole) of {{convert\|12\|m}} and a minor radius (the interior of the cylinder) of {{convert\|2\|m}}. The proposal suggested the system could produce {{convert\|100\|g}} of [tritium](/wiki/Tritium "Tritium") a day, or breed {{convert\|10\|kg}} of U233 a day.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=839}} As the idea was further developed, it was realized that a current in the plasma could create a field that was strong enough to confine the plasma as well, removing the need for the external coils.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=840}} At this point, the Soviet researchers had re\-invented the pinch system being developed in the UK,{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=18}} although they had come to this design from a very different starting point. Once the idea of using the pinch effect for confinement had been proposed, a much simpler solution became evident. Instead of a large toroid, one could simply induce the current into a linear tube, which could cause the plasma within to collapse down into a filament. This had a huge advantage; the current in the plasma would heat it through normal [resistive heating](/wiki/Resistive_heating "Resistive heating"), but this would not heat the plasma to fusion temperatures. However, as the plasma collapsed, the [adiabatic process](/wiki/Adiabatic_process "Adiabatic process") would result in the temperature rising dramatically, more than enough for fusion. With this development, only Golovin and [Natan Yavlinsky](/wiki/Natan_Yavlinsky "Natan Yavlinsky") continued considering the more static toroidal arrangement.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=840}} ### Instability On 4 July 1952, Nikolai Filippov's group measured [neutrons](/wiki/Neutron "Neutron") being released from a linear pinch machine. [Lev Artsimovich](/wiki/Lev_Artsimovich "Lev Artsimovich") demanded that they check everything before concluding fusion had occurred, and during these checks, they found that the neutrons were not from fusion at all.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=840}} This same linear arrangement had also occurred to researchers in the UK and US, and their machines showed the same behaviour. But the great secrecy surrounding the type of research meant that none of the groups were aware that others were also working on it, let alone having the identical problem.{{cite magazine \|first\=John \|last\=Adams \|title\=Can we master the thermonuclear plasma? \|date\=31 January 1963 \|magazine\=New Scientist \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=TF7wQYDRIXAC\&pg\=PA222 \|pages\=222–225 }}{{Dead link\|date\=May 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} After much study, it was found that some of the released neutrons were produced by instabilities in the plasma. There were two common types of instability, the *sausage* that was seen primarily in linear machines, and the *kink* which was most common in the toroidal machines. Groups in all three countries began studying the formation of these instabilities and potential ways to address them.{{cite web \|url\=http://home.physics.ucla.edu/calendar/conferences/cmpd/talks/cowley.pdf \|title\=Introduction to Kink Modes – the Kruskal\- Shafranov Limit \|first\=Steve \|last\=Cowley \|website\=UCLA \|access\-date\=9 April 2018 \|archive\-date\=28 January 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180128001629/http://home.physics.ucla.edu/calendar/conferences/cmpd/talks/cowley.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} Important contributions to the field were made by [Martin David Kruskal](/wiki/Martin_David_Kruskal "Martin David Kruskal") and [Martin Schwarzschild](/wiki/Martin_Schwarzschild "Martin Schwarzschild") in the US, and Shafranov in the USSR.{{sfn\|Kadomtsev\|1966}} One idea that came from these studies became known as the "stabilized pinch". This concept added additional coils to the outside of the chamber, which created a magnetic field that would be present in the plasma before the pinch discharge. In most concepts, the externally induced field was relatively weak, and because a plasma is [diamagnetic](/wiki/Diamagnetic "Diamagnetic"), it penetrated only the outer areas of the plasma. When the pinch discharge occurred and the plasma quickly contracted, this field became "frozen in" to the resulting filament, creating a strong field in its outer layers. In the US, this was known as "giving the plasma a backbone".{{sfn\|Clery\|2014\|p\=48}} Sakharov revisited his original toroidal concepts and came to a slightly different conclusion about how to stabilize the plasma. The layout would be the same as the stabilized pinch concept, but the role of the two fields would be reversed. Instead of weak externally induced magnetic fields providing stabilization and a strong pinch current responsible for confinement, in the new layout, the external field would be much more powerful in order to provide the majority of confinement, while the current would be much smaller and responsible for the stabilizing effect.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=840}} ### Steps toward declassification [thumb\|Khrushchev (roughly centred, bald), Kurchatov (to the right, bearded), and Bulganin (to the right, white\-haired) visited Harwell on 26 April 1956\. Cockcroft stands across from them (in glasses), while a presenter points to mockups of various materials being tested in the newly opened [DIDO reactor](/wiki/DIDO_%28nuclear_reactor%29 "DIDO (nuclear reactor)").](/wiki/File:Kurchatov_at_Harwell_on_26_April_1956.jpg "Kurchatov at Harwell on 26 April 1956.jpg") In 1955, with the linear approaches still subject to instability, the first toroidal device was built in the USSR. TMP was a classic pinch machine, similar to models in the UK and US of the same era. The vacuum chamber was made of ceramic, and the spectra of the discharges showed silica, meaning the plasma was not perfectly confined by magnetic field and hitting the walls of the chamber.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=840}} Two smaller machines followed, using copper shells.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.iter.org/newsline/55/1194 \|title\=Which was the first 'tokamak' – or was it 'tokomag'? \|first\=Robert \|last\=Arnoux \|date\=27 October 2008 \|website\=ITER }} The conductive shells were intended to help stabilize the plasma, but were not completely successful in any of the machines that tried it.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=70}} With progress apparently stalled, in 1955, Kurchatov called an All Union conference of Soviet researchers with the ultimate aim of opening up fusion research within the USSR.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=240}} In April 1956, Kurchatov travelled to the UK as part of a widely publicized visit by [Nikita Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev "Nikita Khrushchev") and [Nikolai Bulganin](/wiki/Nikolai_Bulganin "Nikolai Bulganin"). He offered to give a talk at Atomic Energy Research Establishment, at the former [RAF Harwell](/wiki/RAF_Harwell "RAF Harwell"), where he shocked the hosts by presenting a detailed historical overview of the Soviet fusion efforts.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=841}} He took time to note, in particular, the neutrons seen in early machines and warned that neutrons did not mean fusion.{{cite speech \|title\=The possibility of producing thermonuclear reactions in a gaseous discharge \|url\=https://www.iter.org/doc/www/content/com/Lists/Mag%20Stories/Attachments/64/kurchatov\_1956\.pdf \|date\=26 April 1956 \|first\=Igor \|last\=Kurchatov \|location\=UKAEA Harwell}} Unknown to Kurchatov, the British [ZETA](/wiki/ZETA_%28fusion_reactor%29 "ZETA (fusion reactor)") stabilized pinch machine was being built at the far end of the former runway. ZETA was, by far, the largest and most powerful fusion machine to date. Supported by experiments on earlier designs that had been modified to include stabilization, ZETA intended to produce low levels of fusion reactions. This was apparently a great success, and in January 1958, they announced the fusion had been achieved in ZETA based on the release of neutrons and measurements of the plasma temperature.{{sfn\|McCracken\|Stott\|2012\|p\=5}} [Vitaly Shafranov](/wiki/Vitaly_Shafranov "Vitaly Shafranov") and Stanislav Braginskii examined the news reports and attempted to figure out how it worked. One possibility they considered was the use of weak "frozen in" fields, but rejected this, believing the fields would not last long enough. They then concluded ZETA was essentially identical to the devices they had been studying, with strong external fields.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=841}} ### First tokamaks By this time, Soviet researchers had decided to build a larger toroidal machine along the lines suggested by Sakharov. In particular, their design considered one important point found in Kruskal's and Shafranov's works; if the helical path of the particles made them circulate around the plasma's circumference more rapidly than they circulated the long axis of the torus, the kink instability would be strongly suppressed. (To be clear, Electrical current in coils wrapping around the torus produces a toroidal magnetic field inside the torus; a pulsed magnetic field through the hole in the torus induces the axial current in the torus which has a poloidal magnetic field surrounding it; there may also be rings of current above and below the torus that create additional poloidal magnetic field. The combined magnetic fields form a helical magnetic structure inside the torus.) Today this basic concept is known as the *[safety factor](/wiki/Safety_factor_%28plasma_physics%29 "Safety factor (plasma physics)")*. The ratio of the number of times the particle orbits the major axis compared to the minor axis is denoted *q*, and the *Kruskal\-Shafranov Limit* stated that the kink will be suppressed as long as *q* \> 1\. This path is controlled by the relative strengths of the externally induced magnetic field compared to the field created by the internal current. To have *q* \> 1, the external magnets must be much more powerful, or alternatively, the internal current has to be reduced. Following this criterion, design began on a new reactor, T\-1, which today is known as the first real tokamak. T\-1 used both stronger external magnetic fields and a reduced current compared to stabilized pinch machines like ZETA. The success of the T\-1 resulted in its recognition as the first working tokamak.{{cite web \|last1\=Arnoux \|first1\=Robert \|title\=Which was the first 'tokamak' – or was it 'tokomag'? \|url\=https://www.iter.org/newsline/55/1194 \|website\=ITER \|access\-date\=6 November 2018}}{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001}}{{cite web\| url \= http://vant.iterru.ru/vant\_2012\_1/naj.pdf\| title \= К столетию со дня рождения Н. А. Явлинского}}{{cite journal\| url \= http://ufn.ru/ufn01/ufn01\_8/Russian/r018l.pdf\| title \= В. Д. Шафранов "К истории исследований по управляемому термоядерному синтезу"\| journal \= Успехи Физических Наук\| date \= August 2001\| volume \= 171\| issue \= 8\| page \= 877}} For his work on "powerful impulse discharges in a gas, to obtain unusually high temperatures needed for thermonuclear processes", Yavlinskii was awarded the [Lenin Prize](/wiki/Lenin_Prize "Lenin Prize") and the [Stalin Prize](/wiki/State_Stalin_Prize "State Stalin Prize") in 1958\. Yavlinskii was already preparing the design of an even larger model, later built as T\-3\. With the apparently successful ZETA announcement, Yavlinskii's concept was viewed very favourably.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=841}}{{cite web \|title\=ОТЦЫ И ДЕДЫ ТЕРМОЯДЕРНОЙ ЭПОХИ \|url\=http://www.ras.ru/digest/showdnews.aspx?id\=578d7525\-c224\-4f92\-9a57\-ed7113cb2c75\&print\=1 \|access\-date\=6 November 2018}} Details of ZETA became public in a series of articles in *Nature* later in January. To Shafranov's surprise, the system did use the "frozen in" field concept.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=841}} He remained sceptical, but a team at the [Ioffe Institute](/wiki/Ioffe_Institute "Ioffe Institute") in [St. Petersberg](/wiki/St._Petersberg "St. Petersberg") began plans to build a similar machine known as Alpha. Only a few months later, in May, the ZETA team issued a release stating they had not achieved fusion, and that they had been misled by erroneous measures of the plasma temperature.{{sfn\|Herman\|1990\|p\=53}} T\-1 began operation at the end of 1958\.{{sfn\|Smirnov\|2009\|p\=2}}{{efn\|Although one source says "late 1957".}} It demonstrated very high energy losses through radiation. This was traced to impurities in the plasma due to the vacuum system causing outgassing from the container materials. In order to explore solutions to this problem, another small device was constructed, T\-2\. This used an internal liner of corrugated metal that was baked at {{convert\|550\|C}} to cook off trapped gasses.{{sfn\|Smirnov\|2009\|p\=2}} ### Atoms for Peace and the doldrums As part of the second [Atoms for Peace](/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace "Atoms for Peace") meeting in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva "Geneva") in September 1958, the Soviet delegation released many papers covering their fusion research. Among them was a set of initial results on their toroidal machines, which at that point had shown nothing of note.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=842}} The "star" of the show was a large model of Spitzer's stellarator, which immediately caught the attention of the Soviets. In contrast to their designs, the stellarator produced the required twisted paths in the plasma without driving a current through it, using a series of external coils (producing internal magnetic fields) that could operate in the steady state rather than the pulses of the induction system that produced the axial current. Kurchatov began asking Yavlinskii to change their T\-3 design to a stellarator, but they convinced him that the current provided a useful second role in heating, something the stellarator lacked.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=842}} At the time of the show, the stellarator had suffered a long string of minor problems that were just being solved. Solving these revealed that the diffusion rate of the plasma was much faster than theory predicted. Similar problems were seen in all the contemporary designs, for one reason or another. The stellarator, various pinch concepts and the [magnetic mirror](/wiki/Magnetic_mirror "Magnetic mirror") machines in both the US and USSR all demonstrated problems that limited their confinement times.{{sfn \|Smirnov\|2009\|p\=2}} From the first studies of controlled fusion, there was a problem lurking in the background. During the Manhattan Project, [David Bohm](/wiki/David_Bohm "David Bohm") had been part of the team working on isotopic separation of [uranium](/wiki/Uranium "Uranium"). In the post\-war era he continued working with plasmas in magnetic fields. Using basic theory, one would expect the plasma to diffuse across the lines of force at a rate inversely proportional to the square of the strength of the field, meaning that small increases in force would greatly improve confinement. But based on their experiments, Bohm developed an empirical formula, now known as [Bohm diffusion](/wiki/Bohm_diffusion "Bohm diffusion"), that suggested the rate was linear with the magnetic force, not its square.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=66}} If Bohm's formula was correct, there was no hope one could build a fusion reactor based on magnetic confinement. To confine the plasma at the temperatures needed for fusion, the magnetic field would have to be orders of magnitude greater than any known magnet. Spitzer ascribed the difference between the Bohm and classical diffusion rates to turbulence in the plasma,{{Cite journal \| last1 \= Spitzer \| first1 \= L. \| title \= Particle Diffusion across a Magnetic Field \| doi \= 10\.1063/1\.1706104 \| journal \= Physics of Fluids \| volume \= 3 \| issue \= 4 \| page \= 659\| year \= 1960 \|bibcode \= 1960PhFl....3\..659S }} and believed the steady fields of the stellarator would not suffer from this problem. Various experiments at that time suggested the Bohm rate did not apply, and that the classical formula was correct.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=66}} But by the early 1960s, with all of the various designs leaking plasma at a prodigious rate, Spitzer himself concluded that the Bohm scaling was an inherent quality of plasmas, and that magnetic confinement would not work.{{sfn\|Smirnov\|2009\|p\=2}} The entire field descended into what became known as "the doldrums",{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=130}} a period of intense pessimism.{{sfn\|Shafranov\|2001\|p\=840}} ### Progress in the 1960s In contrast to the other designs, the experimental tokamaks appeared to be progressing well, so well that a minor theoretical problem was now a real concern. In the presence of gravity, there is a small pressure gradient in the plasma, formerly small enough to ignore but now becoming something that had to be addressed. This led to the addition of yet another set of coils in 1962, which produced a vertical magnetic field that offset these effects. These were a success, and by the mid\-1960s the machines began to show signs that they were beating the [Bohm limit](/wiki/Bohm_diffusion "Bohm diffusion").{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=153}} At the 1965 Second [International Atomic Energy Agency](/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency "International Atomic Energy Agency") Conference on fusion at the UK's newly opened [Culham Centre for Fusion Energy](/wiki/Culham_Centre_for_Fusion_Energy "Culham Centre for Fusion Energy"), Artsimovich reported that their systems were surpassing the Bohm limit by 10 times. Spitzer, reviewing the presentations, suggested that the Bohm limit may still apply; the results were within the range of experimental error of results seen on the stellarators, and the temperature measurements, based on the magnetic fields, were simply not trustworthy.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=153}} The next major international fusion meeting was held in August 1968 in [Novosibirsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk "Novosibirsk"). By this time two additional tokamak designs had been completed, TM\-2 in 1965, and T\-4 in 1968\. Results from T\-3 had continued to improve, and similar results were coming from early tests of the new reactors. At the meeting, the Soviet delegation announced that T\-3 was producing electron temperatures of 1000 eV (equivalent to 10 million degrees Celsius) and that confinement time was at least 50 times the Bohm limit.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=151}} These results were at least 10 times that of any other machine. If correct, they represented an enormous leap for the fusion community. Spitzer remained skeptical, noting that the temperature measurements were still based on the indirect calculations from the magnetic properties of the plasma. Many concluded they were due to an effect known as [runaway electrons](/wiki/Runaway_electrons "Runaway electrons"), and that the Soviets were measuring only those extremely energetic electrons and not the bulk temperature. The Soviets countered with several arguments suggesting the temperature they were measuring was [Maxwellian](/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution "Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution"), and the debate raged.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=166}} #### Culham Five In the aftermath of ZETA, the UK teams began the development of new plasma diagnostic tools to provide more accurate measurements. Among these was the use of a [laser](/wiki/Laser "Laser") to directly measure the temperature of the bulk electrons using [Thomson scattering](/wiki/Thomson_scattering "Thomson scattering"). This technique was well known and respected in the fusion community;{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=172}} Artsimovich had publicly called it "brilliant". Artsimovich invited [Bas Pease](/wiki/Bas_Pease "Bas Pease"), the head of Culham, to use their devices on the Soviet reactors. At the height of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), in what is still considered a major political manoeuvre on Artsimovich's part, British physicists were allowed to visit the Kurchatov Institute, the heart of the Soviet nuclear bomb effort.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales\-news/valleys\-boy\-who\-broached\-iron\-1794244 \|title\= The Valleys boy who broached the Iron Curtain to convince the USA that Russian Cold War nuclear fusion claims were true \|date\=3 November 2011 \|website\=WalesOnline}} The British team, nicknamed "The Culham Five",{{cite magazine \|first\=Robert \|last\=Arnoux \|url\=http://www.iter.org/newsline/102/1401 \|title\=Off to Russia with a thermometer \|magazine\=ITER Newsline \|issue\=102 \|date\=9 October 2009}} arrived late in 1968\. After a lengthy installation and calibration process, the team measured the temperatures over a period of many experimental runs. Initial results were available by August 1969; the Soviets were correct, their results were accurate. The team phoned the results home to Culham, who then passed them along in a confidential phone call to Washington.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=167}} The final results were published in *Nature* in November 1969\.{{cite journal \|first1\=N. J. \|last1\=Peacock \|first2\=D. C. \|last2\=Robinson \|first3\=M. J. \|last3\=Forrest \|first4\=P. D. \|last4\=Wilcock \|first5\=V. V. \|last5\=Sannikov \|s2cid\=4290094 \|title\=Measurement of the Electron Temperature by Thomson Scattering in Tokamak T3 \|journal\=\[\[Nature (journal)\|Nature]] \|volume\=224 \|issue\=5218 \|pages\=488–490 \|year\=1969 \|doi\=10\.1038/224488a0 \|bibcode\=1969Natur.224\..488P }} The results of this announcement have been described as a "veritable stampede" of tokamak construction around the world.{{cite magazine \|magazine\=New Scientist \|title\=Fusion research \- the temperature rises \|first\=Michael \|last\=Kenward \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=tbhTdnZsqMUC\&pg\=PA626 \|date\=24 May 1979 }}{{Dead link\|date\=May 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} One serious problem remained. Because the electrical current in the plasma was much lower and produced much less compression than a pinch machine, this meant the temperature of the plasma was limited to the resistive heating rate of the current. First proposed in 1950, [Spitzer resistivity](/wiki/Spitzer_resistivity "Spitzer resistivity") stated that the [electrical resistance](/wiki/Electrical_resistance "Electrical resistance") of a plasma was reduced as the temperature increased,{{cite journal \|last1\=Cohen \|first1\=Robert S. \|last2\=Spitzer \|first2\=Lyman Jr. \|last3\=McR. Routly \|first3\=Paul \|title\=The Electrical Conductivity of an Ionized Gas \|date\=October 1950 \|journal\=Physical Review \|volume\=80 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=230–238 \|url\=http://ayuba.fr/pdf/spitzer1950\.pdf \|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRev.80\.230 \|bibcode\=1950PhRv...80\..230C}} meaning the heating rate of the plasma would slow as the devices improved and temperatures were pressed higher. Calculations demonstrated that the resulting maximum temperatures while staying within *q* \> 1 would be limited to the low millions of degrees. Artsimovich had been quick to point this out in Novosibirsk, stating that future progress would require new heating methods to be developed.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=161}} #### US turmoil One of the people attending the Novosibirsk meeting in 1968 was [Amasa Stone Bishop](/wiki/Amasa_Stone_Bishop "Amasa Stone Bishop"), one of the leaders of the US fusion program. One of the few other devices to show clear evidence of beating the Bohm limit at that time was the [multipole](/wiki/Multipole_%28fusion_reactor%29 "Multipole (fusion reactor)") concept. Both [Lawrence Livermore](/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory "Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory") and the [Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory](/wiki/Princeton_Plasma_Physics_Laboratory "Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory") (PPPL), home of Spitzer's stellarator, were building variations on the multipole design. While moderately successful on their own, T\-3 greatly outperformed either machine. Bishop was concerned that the multipoles were redundant and thought the US should consider a tokamak of its own.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=152}} When he raised the issue at a December 1968 meeting, directors of the labs refused to consider it. [Melvin B. Gottlieb](/wiki/Melvin_B._Gottlieb "Melvin B. Gottlieb") of Princeton was exasperated, asking "Do you think that this committee can out\-think the scientists?"{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=154}} With the major labs demanding they control their own research, one lab found itself left out. [Oak Ridge](/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory "Oak Ridge National Laboratory") had originally entered the fusion field with studies for reactor fueling systems, but branched out into a mirror program of their own. By the mid\-1960s, their DCX designs were running out of ideas, offering nothing that the similar program at the more prestigious and politically powerful Livermore did not. This made them highly receptive to new concepts.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=158}} After a considerable internal debate, [Herman Postma](/wiki/Herman_Postma "Herman Postma") formed a small group in early 1969 to consider the tokamak.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=158}} They came up with a new design, later christened [Ormak](/wiki/Ormak_%28fusion_reactor%29 "Ormak (fusion reactor)"), that had several novel features. Primary among them was the way the external field was created in a single large copper block, fed power from a large [transformer](/wiki/Transformer "Transformer") below the torus. This was as opposed to traditional designs that used electric current windings on the outside. They felt the single block would produce a much more uniform field. It would also have the advantage of allowing the torus to have a smaller major radius, lacking the need to route cables through the donut hole, leading to a lower *[aspect ratio](/wiki/Aspect_ratio "Aspect ratio")*, which the Soviets had already suggested would produce better results.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=159}} #### Tokamak race in the US In early 1969, Artsimovich visited [MIT](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology "Massachusetts Institute of Technology"), where he was hounded by those interested in fusion. He finally agreed to give several lectures in April{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=161}} and then allowed lengthy question\-and\-answer sessions. As these went on, MIT itself grew interested in the tokamak, having previously stayed out of the fusion field for a variety of reasons. [Bruno Coppi](/wiki/Bruno_Coppi "Bruno Coppi") was at MIT at the time, and following the same concepts as Postma's team, came up with his own low\-aspect\-ratio concept, [Alcator](/wiki/Alcator "Alcator"). Instead of Ormak's toroidal transformer, Alcator used traditional ring\-shaped magnetic field coils but required them to be much smaller than existing designs. MIT's [Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory](/wiki/Francis_Bitter_Magnet_Laboratory "Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory") was the world leader in magnet design and they were confident they could build them.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=161}} During 1969, two additional groups entered the field. At [General Atomics](/wiki/General_Atomics "General Atomics"), [Tihiro Ohkawa](/wiki/Tihiro_Ohkawa "Tihiro Ohkawa") had been developing multipole reactors, and submitted a concept based on these ideas. This was a tokamak that would have a non\-circular plasma cross\-section; the same math that suggested a lower aspect\-ratio would improve performance also suggested that a C or D\-shaped plasma would do the same. He called the new design [Doublet](/wiki/Doublet_%28fusion_reactor%29 "Doublet (fusion reactor)").{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=164}} Meanwhile, a group at [University of Texas at Austin](/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin "University of Texas at Austin") was proposing a relatively simple tokamak to explore heating the plasma through deliberately induced turbulence, the [Texas Turbulent Tokamak](/wiki/Texas_Turbulent_Tokamak "Texas Turbulent Tokamak").{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=165}} When the members of the Atomic Energy Commissions' Fusion Steering Committee met again in June 1969, they had "tokamak proposals coming out of our ears".{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=165}} The only major lab working on a toroidal design that was not proposing a tokamak was Princeton, who refused to consider it in spite of their Model C stellarator being just about perfect for such a conversion. They continued to offer a long list of reasons why the Model C should not be converted. When these were questioned, a furious debate broke out about whether the Soviet results were reliable.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=165}} Watching the debate take place, Gottlieb had a change of heart. There was no point moving forward with the tokamak if the Soviet electron temperature measurements were not accurate, so he formulated a plan to either prove or disprove their results. While swimming in the pool during the lunch break, he told [Harold Furth](/wiki/Harold_Furth "Harold Furth") his plan, to which Furth replied: "well, maybe you're right."{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=167}} After lunch, the various teams presented their designs, at which point Gottlieb presented his idea for a "stellarator\-tokamak" based on the Model C.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=167}} The Standing Committee noted that this system could be complete in six months, while Ormak would take a year.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=167}} It was only a short time later that the confidential results from the Culham Five were released. When they met again in October, the Standing Committee released funding for all of these proposals. The Model C's new configuration, soon named [Symmetrical Tokamak](/wiki/Symmetrical_Tokamak "Symmetrical Tokamak"), intended to simply verify the Soviet results, while the others would explore ways to go well beyond T\-3\.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=168}} ### Heating: US takes the lead [thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|Overhead view of the Princeton Large Torus in 1975\. PLT set numerous records and demonstrated that the temperatures needed for fusion were possible.](/wiki/File:Princeton_Large_Torus_1975.jpg "Princeton Large Torus 1975.jpg") Experiments on the Symmetric Tokamak began in May 1970, and by early the next year they had confirmed the Soviet results and then surpassed them. The stellarator was abandoned, and PPPL turned its considerable expertise to the problem of heating the plasma. Two concepts seemed to hold promise. PPPL proposed using magnetic compression, a pinch\-like technique to compress a warm plasma to raise its temperature, but providing that compression through magnets rather than current.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=169}} Oak Ridge suggested [neutral beam injection](/wiki/Neutral_beam_injection "Neutral beam injection"), small particle accelerators that would shoot fuel atoms through the surrounding magnetic field where they would collide with the plasma and heat it.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=171}} PPPL's [Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor](/wiki/Adiabatic_Toroidal_Compressor "Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor") (ATC) began operation in May 1972, followed shortly thereafter by a neutral\-beam equipped Ormak. Both demonstrated significant problems, but PPPL leapt past Oak Ridge by fitting beam injectors to ATC and provided clear evidence of successful heating in 1973\. This success "scooped" Oak Ridge, who fell from favour within the Washington Steering Committee.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=212}} By this time a much larger design based on beam heating was under construction, the [Princeton Large Torus](/wiki/Princeton_Large_Torus "Princeton Large Torus"), or PLT. PLT was designed specifically to "give a clear indication whether the tokamak concept plus auxiliary heating can form a basis for a future fusion reactor".{{cite web \|title\=Timeline \|website\=PPPL \|url\=https://www.pppl.gov/about/history/timeline}} PLT was an enormous success, continually raising its internal temperature until it hit 60 million Celsius (8,000 eV, eight times T\-3's record) in 1978\. This is a key point in the development of the tokamak; fusion reactions become self\-sustaining at temperatures between 50 and 100 million Celsius, PLT demonstrated that this was technically achievable. These experiments, especially PLT, put the US far in the lead in tokamak research. This is due largely to budget; a tokamak cost about $500,000 and the US annual fusion budget was around $25 million at that time.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=151}} They could afford to explore all of the promising methods of heating, ultimately discovering neutral beams to be among the most effective.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=173}} During this period, [Robert Hirsch](/wiki/Robert_L._Hirsch "Robert L. Hirsch") took over the Directorate of fusion development in the [U.S. Atomic Energy Commission](/wiki/U.S._Atomic_Energy_Commission "U.S. Atomic Energy Commission"). Hirsch felt that the program could not be sustained at its current funding levels without demonstrating tangible results. He began to reformulate the entire program. What had once been a lab\-led effort of mostly scientific exploration was now a Washington\-led effort to build a working power\-producing reactor.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=173}} This was given a boost by the [1973 oil crisis](/wiki/1973_oil_crisis "1973 oil crisis"), which led to greatly increased research into [alternative energy](/wiki/Alternative_energy "Alternative energy") systems.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=175}} ### 1980s: great hope, great disappointment [thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|[Joint European Torus](/wiki/Joint_European_Torus "Joint European Torus") (JET), in operation from 1983 to 2023](/wiki/File:The_JET_magnetic_fusion_experiment_in_1991.jpg "The JET magnetic fusion experiment in 1991.jpg") By the late\-1970s, tokamaks had reached all the conditions needed for a practical fusion reactor; in 1978 PLT had demonstrated ignition temperatures, the next year the Soviet T\-7 successfully used [superconducting](/wiki/Superconducting "Superconducting") magnets for the first time,{{sfn\|Smirnov\|2009\|p\=5}} Doublet proved to be a success and led to almost all future designs adopting this "shaped plasma" approach. It appeared all that was needed to build a power\-producing reactor was to put all of these design concepts into a single machine, one that would be capable of running with the radioactive [tritium](/wiki/Tritium "Tritium") in its fuel mix.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=10}} During the 1970s, four major second\-generation proposals were funded worldwide. The Soviets continued their development lineage with the T\-15,{{sfn\|Smirnov\|2009\|p\=5}} while a pan\-European effort was developing the [Joint European Torus](/wiki/Joint_European_Torus "Joint European Torus") (JET) and Japan began the [JT\-60](/wiki/JT-60 "JT-60") effort (originally known as the "Breakeven Plasma Test Facility"). In the US, Hirsch began formulating plans for a similar design, skipping over proposals for another stepping\-stone design directly to a tritium\-burning one. This emerged as the [Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor](/wiki/Tokamak_Fusion_Test_Reactor "Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor") (TFTR), run directly from Washington and not linked to any specific lab.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=10}} Originally favouring Oak Ridge as the host, Hirsch moved it to PPPL after others convinced him they would work the hardest on it because they had the most to lose.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=215}} The excitement was so widespread that several commercial ventures to produce commercial tokamaks began around this time. Best known among these, in 1978, [Bob Guccione](/wiki/Bob_Guccione "Bob Guccione"), publisher of [Penthouse Magazine](/wiki/Penthouse_Magazine "Penthouse Magazine"), met [Robert Bussard](/wiki/Robert_Bussard "Robert Bussard") and became the world's biggest and most committed private investor in fusion technology, ultimately putting $20 million of his own money into Bussard's Compact Tokamak. Funding by the [Riggs Bank](/wiki/Riggs_Bank "Riggs Bank") led to this effort being known as the [Riggatron](/wiki/Riggatron "Riggatron").{{cite web \|first\=Robert \|last\=Arnoux \|url\=https://www.iter.org/newsline/151/468 \|title\=Penthouse founder had invested his fortune in fusion \|website\=ITER \|date\=25 October 2010}} TFTR won the construction race and began operation in 1982, followed shortly by JET in 1983 and JT\-60 in 1985\. JET quickly took the lead in critical experiments, moving from test gases to deuterium and increasingly powerful "shots". But it soon became clear that none of the new systems were working as expected. A host of new instabilities appeared, along with a number of more practical problems that continued to interfere with their performance. On top of this, dangerous "excursions" of the plasma hitting with the walls of the reactor were evident in both TFTR and JET. Even when working perfectly, plasma confinement at fusion temperatures, the so\-called "[fusion triple product](/wiki/Fusion_triple_product "Fusion triple product")", continued to be far below what would be needed for a practical reactor design. Through the mid\-1980s the reasons for many of these problems became clear, and various solutions were offered. However, these would significantly increase the size and complexity of the machines. A follow\-on design incorporating these changes would be both enormous and vastly more expensive than either JET or TFTR. A new period of pessimism descended on the fusion field. ### ITER {{Main\|ITER}} [thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|Cutaway diagram of the [International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor](/wiki/International_Thermonuclear_Experimental_Reactor "International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor") (ITER) the largest tokamak in the world, which began construction in 2013 and is projected to begin full operation in 2035\. It is intended as a demonstration that a practical [fusion reactor](/wiki/Fusion_reactor "Fusion reactor") is possible, and will produce 500 megawatts of power. Blue human figure at bottom shows scale.](/wiki/File:U.S._Department_of_Energy_-_Science_-_425_003_001_%289786811206%29.jpg "U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 425 003 001 (9786811206).jpg") At the same time these experiments were demonstrating problems, much of the impetus for the US's massive funding disappeared; in 1986 [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan "Ronald Reagan") declared the [1970s energy crisis](/wiki/1970s_energy_crisis "1970s energy crisis") was over,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid\=37156 \|title\=Radio Address to the Nation on Oil Prices \|first\=Ronald \|last\=Reagan \|date\=19 April 1986 \|website\=The American Presidency Project}} and funding for advanced energy sources had been slashed in the early 1980s. Some thought of an international reactor design had been ongoing since June 1973 under the name INTOR, for INternational TOkamak Reactor. This was originally started through an agreement between [Richard Nixon](/wiki/Richard_Nixon "Richard Nixon") and [Leonid Brezhnev](/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev "Leonid Brezhnev"), but had been moving slowly since its first real meeting on 23 November 1978\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.iter.org/newsline/62/146 \|title\=INTOR: The international fusion reactor that never was \|date\=15 December 2008 \|first\=Robert \|last\=Arnoux \|website\=ITER}} During the [Geneva Summit](/wiki/Geneva_Summit_%281985%29 "Geneva Summit (1985)") in November 1985, Reagan raised the issue with [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev "Mikhail Gorbachev") and proposed reforming the organization. "... The two leaders emphasized the potential importance of the work aimed at utilizing controlled thermonuclear fusion for peaceful purposes and, in this connection, advocated the widest practicable development of international cooperation in obtaining this source of energy, which is essentially inexhaustible, for the benefit for all mankind."[Joint Soviet\-United States Statement on the Summit Meeting in Geneva](http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1985/112185a.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307091345/https://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1985/112185a.htm \|date\=7 March 2016 }} Ronald Reagan. 21 November 1985 The next year, an agreement was signed between the US, Soviet Union, European Union and Japan, creating the [International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor](/wiki/International_Thermonuclear_Experimental_Reactor "International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor") organization.{{cite journal\|author\=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. \|title\=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists \|journal\=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: Science and Public Affairs \|url\=https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_wQwAAAAAMBAJ \|date\=October 1992 \|publisher\=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_wQwAAAAAMBAJ/page/n10 9]– \|issn\=0096\-3402}}{{sfn\|Braams\|Stott\|2002\|pp\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=Zj4vx9O0T0YC\&pg\=PA250 250–]}} Design work began in 1988, and since that time the ITER reactor has been the primary tokamak design effort worldwide. ### High Field Tokamaks It has been known for a long time that stronger field magnets would enable high energy gain in a much smaller tokamak, with concepts such as [FIRE, IGNITOR](https://fire.pppl.gov/snowmass02.html), and the [Compact Ignition Tokamak (CIT)](/wiki/Compact_Ignition_Tokamak "Compact Ignition Tokamak") being proposed decades ago. The commercial availability of [high temperature superconductors (HTS)](/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity "High-temperature superconductivity") in the 2010s opened a promising pathway to building the higher field magnets required to achieve ITER\-like levels of energy gain in a compact device. To leverage this new technology, the [MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center (PSFC)](/wiki/MIT_Plasma_Science_and_Fusion_Center "MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center") and MIT spinout [Commonwealth Fusion Systems (CFS)](/wiki/Commonwealth_Fusion_Systems "Commonwealth Fusion Systems") successfully built and tested the [Toroidal Field Model Coil (TFMC)](https://news.mit.edu/2021/MIT-CFS-major-advance-toward-fusion-energy-0908) in 2021 to demonstrate the necessary 20 Tesla magnetic field needed to build [SPARC](/wiki/SPARC_%28tokamak%29 "SPARC (tokamak)"), a device designed to achieve a similar [fusion gain](/wiki/Fusion_energy_gain_factor "Fusion energy gain factor") as ITER but with only \~1/40th ITER's plasma volume. British startup [Tokamak Energy](/wiki/Tokamak_Energy "Tokamak Energy") is also planning on building a net\-energy tokamak using HTS magnets, but with the spherical tokamak variant. The joint EU/Japan JT\-60SA reactor achieved first plasma on October 23, 2023, after a two\-year delay caused by an electrical short.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-10\-24 \|title\=Inauguration \|url\=https://www.jt60sa.org/wp/category/uncategorized/ \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-01 \|language\=en\-GB}}{{Cite web \|last\=Szondy \|first\=David \|date\=2023\-12\-05 \|title\=World's largest tokamak fusion reactor powers up \|url\=https://newatlas.com/energy/worlds\-largest\-tokamak\-fusion\-reactor\-powers\-up/ \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-01 \|website\=New Atlas \|language\=en\-US}}
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|A USSR stamp, 1987: Tokamak thermonuclear system](/wiki/File:1987_CPA_5891.jpg \"1987 CPA 5891.jpg\")", "### First steps", "In 1934, [Mark Oliphant](/wiki/Mark_Oliphant \"Mark Oliphant\"), [Paul Harteck](/wiki/Paul_Harteck \"Paul Harteck\") and [Ernest Rutherford](/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford \"Ernest Rutherford\") were the first to achieve fusion on Earth, using a [particle accelerator](/wiki/Particle_accelerator \"Particle accelerator\") to shoot [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium \"Deuterium\") nuclei into metal foil containing deuterium or other atoms.{{cite journal \\|url\\=http://www.chemteam.info/Chem\\-History/Rutherford\\-1934b/Rutherford\\-1934b.html \\|title\\= Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen \\|first1\\=Mark \\|last1\\= Oliphant \\|first2\\=Paul \\|last2\\=Harteck \\|first3\\= Ernest \\|last3\\= Rutherford \\|journal\\= Proceedings of the Royal Society \\|volume\\=144 \\|issue\\= 853 \\|pages\\=692–703 \\|date\\=1934 \\|doi\\=10\\.1098/rspa.1934\\.0077 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\= 1934RSPSA.144\\..692O }} This allowed them to measure the [nuclear cross section](/wiki/Nuclear_cross_section \"Nuclear cross section\") of various fusion reactions, and determined that the deuterium–deuterium reaction occurred at a lower energy than other reactions, peaking at about 100,000 [electronvolts](/wiki/Electronvolt \"Electronvolt\") (100 keV).{{sfn\\|McCracken\\|Stott\\|2012\\|p\\=35}}{{efn\\|D–T fusion occurs at even lower energies, but \\[\\[tritium]] was unknown at the time. Their work created tritium, but they did not separate it chemically to demonstrate its existence. This was performed by \\[\\[Luis Walter Alvarez\\|Luis Alvarez]] and \\[\\[Robert Cornog]] in 1939\\.{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRev.56\\.613\\|title\\=Helium and Hydrogen of Mass 3\\|date\\=1939\\|last1\\=Alvarez\\|first1\\=Luis\\|last2\\=Cornog\\|first2\\=Robert\\|journal\\=Physical Review\\|volume\\=56\\|issue\\=6\\|page\\=613\\|bibcode \\= 1939PhRv...56\\..613A }}}}", "Accelerator\\-based fusion is not practical because the reactor [cross section](/wiki/Cross_section_%28physics%29 \"Cross section (physics)\") is tiny; most of the particles in the accelerator will scatter off the fuel, not fuse with it. These scatterings cause the particles to lose energy to the point where they can no longer undergo fusion. The energy put into these particles is thus lost, and it is easy to demonstrate this is much more energy than the resulting fusion reactions can release.{{sfn\\|McCracken\\|Stott\\|2012\\|pp\\=36–38}}", "To maintain fusion and produce net energy output, the bulk of the fuel must be raised to high temperatures so its atoms are constantly colliding at high speed; this gives rise to the name *[thermonuclear](/wiki/Nuclear_fusion \"Nuclear fusion\")* due to the high temperatures needed to bring it about. In 1944, [Enrico Fermi](/wiki/Enrico_Fermi \"Enrico Fermi\") calculated the reaction would be self\\-sustaining at about 50,000,000 K; at that temperature, the rate that energy is given off by the reactions is high enough that they heat the surrounding fuel rapidly enough to maintain the temperature against losses to the environment, continuing the reaction.{{sfn\\|McCracken\\|Stott\\|2012\\|pp\\=36–38}}", "During the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project \"Manhattan Project\"), the first practical way to reach these temperatures was created, using an [atomic bomb](/wiki/Atomic_bomb \"Atomic bomb\"). In 1944, Fermi gave a talk on the physics of fusion in the context of a then\\-hypothetical [hydrogen bomb](/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb \"Hydrogen bomb\"). However, some thought had already been given to a *controlled* fusion device, and [James L. Tuck](/wiki/James_L._Tuck \"James L. Tuck\") and [Stanislaw Ulam](/wiki/Stanislaw_Ulam \"Stanislaw Ulam\") had attempted such using [shaped charges](/wiki/Shaped_charge \"Shaped charge\") driving a metal foil infused with deuterium, although without success.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=18}}", "The first attempts to build a practical fusion machine took place in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), where [George Paget Thomson](/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson \"George Paget Thomson\") had selected the [pinch effect](/wiki/Pinch_effect \"Pinch effect\") as a promising technique in 1945\\. After several failed attempts to gain funding, he gave up and asked two graduate students, Stanley (Stan) W. Cousins and Alan Alfred Ware (1924–2010{{cite web \\| url\\=https://web2\\.ph.utexas.edu/utphysicshistory/AlanAWare.html \\| title\\=UTPhysicsHistorySite \\| access\\-date\\=29 May 2022 \\| archive\\-date\\=29 May 2022 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529211017/https://web2\\.ph.utexas.edu/utphysicshistory/AlanAWare.html }}), to build a device out of surplus [radar](/wiki/Radar \"Radar\") equipment. This was successfully operated in 1948, but showed no clear evidence of fusion and failed to gain the interest of the [Atomic Energy Research Establishment](/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Research_Establishment \"Atomic Energy Research Establishment\").{{sfn\\|Herman\\|1990\\|p\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/fusionsearchfore00herm/page/40 40]}}", "### Lavrentiev's letter", "In 1950, [Oleg Lavrentiev](/wiki/Oleg_Lavrentiev \"Oleg Lavrentiev\"), then a [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") sergeant stationed on [Sakhalin](/wiki/Sakhalin \"Sakhalin\"), wrote a letter to the [Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\"). The letter outlined the idea of using an [atomic bomb](/wiki/Atomic_bomb \"Atomic bomb\") to ignite a fusion fuel, and then went on to describe a system that used [electrostatic](/wiki/Electrostatic \"Electrostatic\") fields to contain a hot plasma in a steady state for energy production.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=873}}{{cite journal \\|last\\= Bondarenko \\|first\\=B.D. \\|title\\= Role played by O. A. Lavrent'ev in the formulation of the problem and the initiation of research into controlled nuclear fusion in the USSR \\|journal\\= Phys. Usp. \\|volume\\=44 \\|issue\\=8 \\|page\\= 844 \\|date\\=2001 \\|url\\= http://ufn.ru/ufn01/ufn01\\_8/Russian/r018m.pdf\\|doi\\=10\\.1070/PU2001v044n08ABEH000910 \\|s2cid\\=250885028 }}{{efn\\|The system Lavrentiev described is very similar to the concept now known as the \\[\\[fusor]].}}", "The letter was sent to [Andrei Sakharov](/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov \"Andrei Sakharov\") for comment. Sakharov noted that \"the author formulates a very important and not necessarily hopeless problem\", and found his main concern in the arrangement was that the plasma would hit the electrode wires, and that \"wide meshes and a thin current\\-carrying part which will have to reflect almost all incident nuclei back into the reactor. In all likelihood, this requirement is incompatible with the mechanical strength of the device.\"{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=873}}", "Some indication of the importance given to Lavrentiev's letter can be seen in the speed with which it was processed; the letter was received by the Central Committee on 29 July, Sakharov sent his review in on 18 August, by October, Sakharov and [Igor Tamm](/wiki/Igor_Tamm \"Igor Tamm\") had completed the first detailed study of a fusion reactor, and they had asked for funding to build it in January 1951\\.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=837}}", "### Magnetic confinement", "When heated to fusion temperatures, the [electrons](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") in atoms dissociate, resulting in a fluid of nuclei and electrons known as [plasma](/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29 \"Plasma (physics)\"). Unlike electrically neutral atoms, a plasma is electrically conductive, and can, therefore, be manipulated by electrical or magnetic fields.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=15}}", "Sakharov's concern about the electrodes led him to consider using magnetic confinement instead of electrostatic. In the case of a magnetic field, the particles will circle around the [lines of force](/wiki/Lines_of_force \"Lines of force\").{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=15}} As the particles are moving at high speed, their resulting paths look like a helix. If one arranges a magnetic field so lines of force are parallel and close together, the particles orbiting adjacent lines may collide, and fuse.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=838}}", "Such a field can be created in a [solenoid](/wiki/Solenoid \"Solenoid\"), a cylinder with magnets wrapped around the outside. The combined fields of the magnets create a set of parallel magnetic lines running down the length of the cylinder. This arrangement prevents the particles from moving sideways to the wall of the cylinder, but it does not prevent them from running out the end. The obvious solution to this problem is to bend the cylinder around into a donut shape, or torus, so that the lines form a series of continual rings. In this arrangement, the particles circle endlessly.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=838}}", "Sakharov discussed the concept with [Igor Tamm](/wiki/Igor_Tamm \"Igor Tamm\"), and by the end of October 1950 the two had written a proposal and sent it to [Igor Kurchatov](/wiki/Igor_Kurchatov \"Igor Kurchatov\"), the director of the atomic bomb project within the USSR, and his deputy, [Igor Golovin](/wiki/Igor_Golovin \"Igor Golovin\").{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=838}} However, this initial proposal ignored a fundamental problem; when arranged along a straight solenoid, the external magnets are evenly spaced, but when bent around into a torus, they are closer together on the inside of the ring than the outside. This leads to uneven forces that cause the particles to drift away from their magnetic lines.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=839}}{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=16}}", "During visits to the [Laboratory of Measuring Instruments of the USSR Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Laboratory_of_Measuring_Instruments_of_the_USSR_Academy_of_Sciences \"Laboratory of Measuring Instruments of the USSR Academy of Sciences\") (LIPAN), the Soviet [nuclear research](/wiki/Nuclear_physics \"Nuclear physics\") centre, Sakharov suggested two possible solutions to this problem. One was to suspend a current\\-carrying ring in the centre of the torus. The current in the ring would produce a magnetic field that would mix with the one from the magnets on the outside. The resulting field would be twisted into a helix, so that any given particle would find itself repeatedly on the outside, then inside, of the torus. The drifts caused by the uneven fields are in opposite directions on the inside and outside, so over the course of multiple [orbits](/wiki/Orbit \"Orbit\") around the long axis of the [torus](/wiki/Torus \"Torus\"), the opposite drifts would cancel out. Alternately, he suggested using an external magnet to induce a current in the [plasma](/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29 \"Plasma (physics)\") itself, instead of a separate metal ring, which would have the same effect.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=839}}", "In January 1951, Kurchatov arranged a meeting at LIPAN to consider Sakharov's concepts. They found widespread interest and support, and in February a report on the topic was forwarded to [Lavrentiy Beria](/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria \"Lavrentiy Beria\"), who oversaw the atomic efforts in the USSR. For a time, nothing was heard back.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=839}}", "### Richter and the birth of fusion research", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|Ronald Richter (left) with [Juan Domingo Perón](/wiki/Juan_Domingo_Per%C3%B3n \"Juan Domingo Perón\") (right). Richter's claims sparked off fusion research around the world.](/wiki/File:Ronald_Richter_y_Per%C3%B3n.jpg \"Ronald Richter y Perón.jpg\")", "On 25 March 1951, Argentine President [Juan Perón](/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n \"Juan Perón\") announced that a former German scientist, [Ronald Richter](/wiki/Ronald_Richter \"Ronald Richter\"), had succeeded in producing fusion at a laboratory scale as part of what is now known as the [Huemul Project](/wiki/Huemul_Project \"Huemul Project\"). Scientists around the world were excited by the announcement, but soon concluded it was not true; simple calculations showed that his experimental setup could not produce enough energy to heat the fusion fuel to the needed temperatures.{{cite news \\|first\\=Robert \\|last\\=Arnoux \\|title\\='Proyecto Huemul': the prank that started it all \\|url\\=https://www.iter.org/newsline/196/930 \\|website\\=iter \\|date\\=26 October 2011}}", "Although dismissed by nuclear researchers, the widespread news coverage meant politicians were suddenly aware of, and receptive to, fusion research. In the UK, Thomson was suddenly granted considerable funding. Over the next months, two projects based on the pinch system were up and running.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=75}} In the US, [Lyman Spitzer](/wiki/Lyman_Spitzer \"Lyman Spitzer\") read the Huemul story, realized it was false, and set about designing a machine that would work.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=14}} In May he was awarded $50,000 to begin research on his [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator \"Stellarator\") concept.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=21}} Jim Tuck had returned to the UK briefly and saw Thomson's pinch machines. When he returned to Los Alamos he also received $50,000 directly from the Los Alamos budget.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=25}}", "Similar events occurred in the [USSR](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"). In mid\\-April, [Dmitri Efremov](/wiki/Dmitry_Yefremov_%28footballer%2C_born_1995%29 \"Dmitry Yefremov (footballer, born 1995)\") of the Scientific Research Institute of Electrophysical Apparatus stormed into Kurchatov's study with a magazine containing a story about Richter's work, demanding to know why they were beaten by the Argentines. [Kurchatov](/wiki/Kurchatov_Institute \"Kurchatov Institute\") immediately contacted Beria with a proposal to set up a separate fusion research laboratory with [Lev Artsimovich](/wiki/Lev_Artsimovich \"Lev Artsimovich\") as director. Only days later, on 5 May, the proposal had been signed by [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\").{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=839}}", "### New ideas", "[thumb\\|Red plasma in [EAST](/wiki/Experimental_Advanced_Superconducting_Tokamak \"Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak\"), with visible light radiation dominated by the [hydrogen alpha](/wiki/Hydrogen_alpha \"Hydrogen alpha\") line emitting 656 nm light.](/wiki/File:EAST_Tokamak_plasma_image3.jpg \"EAST Tokamak plasma image3.jpg\")\nBy October, Sakharov and Tamm had completed a much more detailed consideration of their original proposal, calling for a device with a major radius (of the torus as a whole) of {{convert\\|12\\|m}} and a minor radius (the interior of the cylinder) of {{convert\\|2\\|m}}. The proposal suggested the system could produce {{convert\\|100\\|g}} of [tritium](/wiki/Tritium \"Tritium\") a day, or breed {{convert\\|10\\|kg}} of U233 a day.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=839}}", "As the idea was further developed, it was realized that a current in the plasma could create a field that was strong enough to confine the plasma as well, removing the need for the external coils.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=840}} At this point, the Soviet researchers had re\\-invented the pinch system being developed in the UK,{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=18}} although they had come to this design from a very different starting point.", "Once the idea of using the pinch effect for confinement had been proposed, a much simpler solution became evident. Instead of a large toroid, one could simply induce the current into a linear tube, which could cause the plasma within to collapse down into a filament. This had a huge advantage; the current in the plasma would heat it through normal [resistive heating](/wiki/Resistive_heating \"Resistive heating\"), but this would not heat the plasma to fusion temperatures. However, as the plasma collapsed, the [adiabatic process](/wiki/Adiabatic_process \"Adiabatic process\") would result in the temperature rising dramatically, more than enough for fusion. With this development, only Golovin and [Natan Yavlinsky](/wiki/Natan_Yavlinsky \"Natan Yavlinsky\") continued considering the more static toroidal arrangement.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=840}}", "### Instability", "On 4 July 1952, Nikolai Filippov's group measured [neutrons](/wiki/Neutron \"Neutron\") being released from a linear pinch machine. [Lev Artsimovich](/wiki/Lev_Artsimovich \"Lev Artsimovich\") demanded that they check everything before concluding fusion had occurred, and during these checks, they found that the neutrons were not from fusion at all.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=840}} This same linear arrangement had also occurred to researchers in the UK and US, and their machines showed the same behaviour. But the great secrecy surrounding the type of research meant that none of the groups were aware that others were also working on it, let alone having the identical problem.{{cite magazine \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Adams \\|title\\=Can we master the thermonuclear plasma? \\|date\\=31 January 1963 \\|magazine\\=New Scientist \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=TF7wQYDRIXAC\\&pg\\=PA222 \\|pages\\=222–225 }}{{Dead link\\|date\\=May 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}", "After much study, it was found that some of the released neutrons were produced by instabilities in the plasma. There were two common types of instability, the *sausage* that was seen primarily in linear machines, and the *kink* which was most common in the toroidal machines. Groups in all three countries began studying the formation of these instabilities and potential ways to address them.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://home.physics.ucla.edu/calendar/conferences/cmpd/talks/cowley.pdf \\|title\\=Introduction to Kink Modes – the Kruskal\\- Shafranov Limit \\|first\\=Steve \\|last\\=Cowley \\|website\\=UCLA \\|access\\-date\\=9 April 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180128001629/http://home.physics.ucla.edu/calendar/conferences/cmpd/talks/cowley.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Important contributions to the field were made by [Martin David Kruskal](/wiki/Martin_David_Kruskal \"Martin David Kruskal\") and [Martin Schwarzschild](/wiki/Martin_Schwarzschild \"Martin Schwarzschild\") in the US, and Shafranov in the USSR.{{sfn\\|Kadomtsev\\|1966}}", "One idea that came from these studies became known as the \"stabilized pinch\". This concept added additional coils to the outside of the chamber, which created a magnetic field that would be present in the plasma before the pinch discharge. In most concepts, the externally induced field was relatively weak, and because a plasma is [diamagnetic](/wiki/Diamagnetic \"Diamagnetic\"), it penetrated only the outer areas of the plasma. When the pinch discharge occurred and the plasma quickly contracted, this field became \"frozen in\" to the resulting filament, creating a strong field in its outer layers. In the US, this was known as \"giving the plasma a backbone\".{{sfn\\|Clery\\|2014\\|p\\=48}}", "Sakharov revisited his original toroidal concepts and came to a slightly different conclusion about how to stabilize the plasma. The layout would be the same as the stabilized pinch concept, but the role of the two fields would be reversed. Instead of weak externally induced magnetic fields providing stabilization and a strong pinch current responsible for confinement, in the new layout, the external field would be much more powerful in order to provide the majority of confinement, while the current would be much smaller and responsible for the stabilizing effect.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=840}}", "### Steps toward declassification", "[thumb\\|Khrushchev (roughly centred, bald), Kurchatov (to the right, bearded), and Bulganin (to the right, white\\-haired) visited Harwell on 26 April 1956\\. Cockcroft stands across from them (in glasses), while a presenter points to mockups of various materials being tested in the newly opened [DIDO reactor](/wiki/DIDO_%28nuclear_reactor%29 \"DIDO (nuclear reactor)\").](/wiki/File:Kurchatov_at_Harwell_on_26_April_1956.jpg \"Kurchatov at Harwell on 26 April 1956.jpg\")", "In 1955, with the linear approaches still subject to instability, the first toroidal device was built in the USSR. TMP was a classic pinch machine, similar to models in the UK and US of the same era. The vacuum chamber was made of ceramic, and the spectra of the discharges showed silica, meaning the plasma was not perfectly confined by magnetic field and hitting the walls of the chamber.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=840}} Two smaller machines followed, using copper shells.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.iter.org/newsline/55/1194 \\|title\\=Which was the first 'tokamak' – or was it 'tokomag'? \\|first\\=Robert \\|last\\=Arnoux \\|date\\=27 October 2008 \\|website\\=ITER }} The conductive shells were intended to help stabilize the plasma, but were not completely successful in any of the machines that tried it.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=70}}", "With progress apparently stalled, in 1955, Kurchatov called an All Union conference of Soviet researchers with the ultimate aim of opening up fusion research within the USSR.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=240}} In April 1956, Kurchatov travelled to the UK as part of a widely publicized visit by [Nikita Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev \"Nikita Khrushchev\") and [Nikolai Bulganin](/wiki/Nikolai_Bulganin \"Nikolai Bulganin\"). He offered to give a talk at Atomic Energy Research Establishment, at the former [RAF Harwell](/wiki/RAF_Harwell \"RAF Harwell\"), where he shocked the hosts by presenting a detailed historical overview of the Soviet fusion efforts.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=841}} He took time to note, in particular, the neutrons seen in early machines and warned that neutrons did not mean fusion.{{cite speech \\|title\\=The possibility of producing thermonuclear reactions in a gaseous discharge \\|url\\=https://www.iter.org/doc/www/content/com/Lists/Mag%20Stories/Attachments/64/kurchatov\\_1956\\.pdf \\|date\\=26 April 1956 \\|first\\=Igor \\|last\\=Kurchatov \\|location\\=UKAEA Harwell}}", "Unknown to Kurchatov, the British [ZETA](/wiki/ZETA_%28fusion_reactor%29 \"ZETA (fusion reactor)\") stabilized pinch machine was being built at the far end of the former runway. ZETA was, by far, the largest and most powerful fusion machine to date. Supported by experiments on earlier designs that had been modified to include stabilization, ZETA intended to produce low levels of fusion reactions. This was apparently a great success, and in January 1958, they announced the fusion had been achieved in ZETA based on the release of neutrons and measurements of the plasma temperature.{{sfn\\|McCracken\\|Stott\\|2012\\|p\\=5}}", "[Vitaly Shafranov](/wiki/Vitaly_Shafranov \"Vitaly Shafranov\") and Stanislav Braginskii examined the news reports and attempted to figure out how it worked. One possibility they considered was the use of weak \"frozen in\" fields, but rejected this, believing the fields would not last long enough. They then concluded ZETA was essentially identical to the devices they had been studying, with strong external fields.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=841}}", "### First tokamaks", "By this time, Soviet researchers had decided to build a larger toroidal machine along the lines suggested by Sakharov. In particular, their design considered one important point found in Kruskal's and Shafranov's works; if the helical path of the particles made them circulate around the plasma's circumference more rapidly than they circulated the long axis of the torus, the kink instability would be strongly suppressed.", "(To be clear, Electrical current in coils wrapping around the torus produces a toroidal magnetic field inside the torus; a pulsed magnetic field through the hole in the torus induces the axial current in the torus which has a poloidal magnetic field surrounding it; there may also be rings of current above and below the torus that create additional poloidal magnetic field. The combined magnetic fields form a helical magnetic structure inside the torus.)", "Today this basic concept is known as the *[safety factor](/wiki/Safety_factor_%28plasma_physics%29 \"Safety factor (plasma physics)\")*. The ratio of the number of times the particle orbits the major axis compared to the minor axis is denoted *q*, and the *Kruskal\\-Shafranov Limit* stated that the kink will be suppressed as long as *q* \\> 1\\. This path is controlled by the relative strengths of the externally induced magnetic field compared to the field created by the internal current. To have *q* \\> 1, the external magnets must be much more powerful, or alternatively, the internal current has to be reduced.", "Following this criterion, design began on a new reactor, T\\-1, which today is known as the first real tokamak. T\\-1 used both stronger external magnetic fields and a reduced current compared to stabilized pinch machines like ZETA. The success of the T\\-1 resulted in its recognition as the first working tokamak.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Arnoux \\|first1\\=Robert \\|title\\=Which was the first 'tokamak' – or was it 'tokomag'? \\|url\\=https://www.iter.org/newsline/55/1194 \\|website\\=ITER \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2018}}{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001}}{{cite web\\| url \\= http://vant.iterru.ru/vant\\_2012\\_1/naj.pdf\\| title \\= К столетию со дня рождения Н. А. Явлинского}}{{cite journal\\| url \\= http://ufn.ru/ufn01/ufn01\\_8/Russian/r018l.pdf\\| title \\= В. Д. Шафранов \"К истории исследований по управляемому термоядерному синтезу\"\\| journal \\= Успехи Физических Наук\\| date \\= August 2001\\| volume \\= 171\\| issue \\= 8\\| page \\= 877}}\nFor his work on \"powerful impulse discharges in a gas, to obtain unusually high temperatures needed for thermonuclear processes\", Yavlinskii was awarded the [Lenin Prize](/wiki/Lenin_Prize \"Lenin Prize\") and the [Stalin Prize](/wiki/State_Stalin_Prize \"State Stalin Prize\") in 1958\\. Yavlinskii was already preparing the design of an even larger model, later built as T\\-3\\. With the apparently successful ZETA announcement, Yavlinskii's concept was viewed very favourably.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=841}}{{cite web \\|title\\=ОТЦЫ И ДЕДЫ ТЕРМОЯДЕРНОЙ ЭПОХИ \\|url\\=http://www.ras.ru/digest/showdnews.aspx?id\\=578d7525\\-c224\\-4f92\\-9a57\\-ed7113cb2c75\\&print\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2018}}", "Details of ZETA became public in a series of articles in *Nature* later in January. To Shafranov's surprise, the system did use the \"frozen in\" field concept.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=841}} He remained sceptical, but a team at the [Ioffe Institute](/wiki/Ioffe_Institute \"Ioffe Institute\") in [St. Petersberg](/wiki/St._Petersberg \"St. Petersberg\") began plans to build a similar machine known as Alpha. Only a few months later, in May, the ZETA team issued a release stating they had not achieved fusion, and that they had been misled by erroneous measures of the plasma temperature.{{sfn\\|Herman\\|1990\\|p\\=53}}", "T\\-1 began operation at the end of 1958\\.{{sfn\\|Smirnov\\|2009\\|p\\=2}}{{efn\\|Although one source says \"late 1957\".}} It demonstrated very high energy losses through radiation. This was traced to impurities in the plasma due to the vacuum system causing outgassing from the container materials. In order to explore solutions to this problem, another small device was constructed, T\\-2\\. This used an internal liner of corrugated metal that was baked at {{convert\\|550\\|C}} to cook off trapped gasses.{{sfn\\|Smirnov\\|2009\\|p\\=2}}", "### Atoms for Peace and the doldrums", "As part of the second [Atoms for Peace](/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace \"Atoms for Peace\") meeting in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\") in September 1958, the Soviet delegation released many papers covering their fusion research. Among them was a set of initial results on their toroidal machines, which at that point had shown nothing of note.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=842}}", "The \"star\" of the show was a large model of Spitzer's stellarator, which immediately caught the attention of the Soviets. In contrast to their designs, the stellarator produced the required twisted paths in the plasma without driving a current through it, using a series of external coils (producing internal magnetic fields) that could operate in the steady state rather than the pulses of the induction system that produced the axial current. Kurchatov began asking Yavlinskii to change their T\\-3 design to a stellarator, but they convinced him that the current provided a useful second role in heating, something the stellarator lacked.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=842}}", "At the time of the show, the stellarator had suffered a long string of minor problems that were just being solved. Solving these revealed that the diffusion rate of the plasma was much faster than theory predicted. Similar problems were seen in all the contemporary designs, for one reason or another. The stellarator, various pinch concepts and the [magnetic mirror](/wiki/Magnetic_mirror \"Magnetic mirror\") machines in both the US and USSR all demonstrated problems that limited their confinement times.{{sfn \\|Smirnov\\|2009\\|p\\=2}}", "From the first studies of controlled fusion, there was a problem lurking in the background. During the Manhattan Project, [David Bohm](/wiki/David_Bohm \"David Bohm\") had been part of the team working on isotopic separation of [uranium](/wiki/Uranium \"Uranium\"). In the post\\-war era he continued working with plasmas in magnetic fields. Using basic theory, one would expect the plasma to diffuse across the lines of force at a rate inversely proportional to the square of the strength of the field, meaning that small increases in force would greatly improve confinement. But based on their experiments, Bohm developed an empirical formula, now known as [Bohm diffusion](/wiki/Bohm_diffusion \"Bohm diffusion\"), that suggested the rate was linear with the magnetic force, not its square.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=66}}", "If Bohm's formula was correct, there was no hope one could build a fusion reactor based on magnetic confinement. To confine the plasma at the temperatures needed for fusion, the magnetic field would have to be orders of magnitude greater than any known magnet. Spitzer ascribed the difference between the Bohm and classical diffusion rates to turbulence in the plasma,{{Cite journal \\| last1 \\= Spitzer \\| first1 \\= L. \\| title \\= Particle Diffusion across a Magnetic Field \\| doi \\= 10\\.1063/1\\.1706104 \\| journal \\= Physics of Fluids \\| volume \\= 3 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| page \\= 659\\| year \\= 1960 \\|bibcode \\= 1960PhFl....3\\..659S }} and believed the steady fields of the stellarator would not suffer from this problem. Various experiments at that time suggested the Bohm rate did not apply, and that the classical formula was correct.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=66}}", "But by the early 1960s, with all of the various designs leaking plasma at a prodigious rate, Spitzer himself concluded that the Bohm scaling was an inherent quality of plasmas, and that magnetic confinement would not work.{{sfn\\|Smirnov\\|2009\\|p\\=2}} The entire field descended into what became known as \"the doldrums\",{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=130}} a period of intense pessimism.{{sfn\\|Shafranov\\|2001\\|p\\=840}}", "### Progress in the 1960s", "In contrast to the other designs, the experimental tokamaks appeared to be progressing well, so well that a minor theoretical problem was now a real concern. In the presence of gravity, there is a small pressure gradient in the plasma, formerly small enough to ignore but now becoming something that had to be addressed. This led to the addition of yet another set of coils in 1962, which produced a vertical magnetic field that offset these effects. These were a success, and by the mid\\-1960s the machines began to show signs that they were beating the [Bohm limit](/wiki/Bohm_diffusion \"Bohm diffusion\").{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=153}}", "At the 1965 Second [International Atomic Energy Agency](/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency \"International Atomic Energy Agency\") Conference on fusion at the UK's newly opened [Culham Centre for Fusion Energy](/wiki/Culham_Centre_for_Fusion_Energy \"Culham Centre for Fusion Energy\"), Artsimovich reported that their systems were surpassing the Bohm limit by 10 times. Spitzer, reviewing the presentations, suggested that the Bohm limit may still apply; the results were within the range of experimental error of results seen on the stellarators, and the temperature measurements, based on the magnetic fields, were simply not trustworthy.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=153}}", "The next major international fusion meeting was held in August 1968 in [Novosibirsk](/wiki/Novosibirsk \"Novosibirsk\"). By this time two additional tokamak designs had been completed, TM\\-2 in 1965, and T\\-4 in 1968\\. Results from T\\-3 had continued to improve, and similar results were coming from early tests of the new reactors. At the meeting, the Soviet delegation announced that T\\-3 was producing electron temperatures of 1000 eV (equivalent to 10 million degrees Celsius) and that confinement time was at least 50 times the Bohm limit.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=151}}", "These results were at least 10 times that of any other machine. If correct, they represented an enormous leap for the fusion community. Spitzer remained skeptical, noting that the temperature measurements were still based on the indirect calculations from the magnetic properties of the plasma. Many concluded they were due to an effect known as [runaway electrons](/wiki/Runaway_electrons \"Runaway electrons\"), and that the Soviets were measuring only those extremely energetic electrons and not the bulk temperature. The Soviets countered with several arguments suggesting the temperature they were measuring was [Maxwellian](/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution \"Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution\"), and the debate raged.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=166}}", "#### Culham Five", "In the aftermath of ZETA, the UK teams began the development of new plasma diagnostic tools to provide more accurate measurements. Among these was the use of a [laser](/wiki/Laser \"Laser\") to directly measure the temperature of the bulk electrons using [Thomson scattering](/wiki/Thomson_scattering \"Thomson scattering\"). This technique was well known and respected in the fusion community;{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=172}} Artsimovich had publicly called it \"brilliant\". Artsimovich invited [Bas Pease](/wiki/Bas_Pease \"Bas Pease\"), the head of Culham, to use their devices on the Soviet reactors. At the height of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), in what is still considered a major political manoeuvre on Artsimovich's part, British physicists were allowed to visit the Kurchatov Institute, the heart of the Soviet nuclear bomb effort.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales\\-news/valleys\\-boy\\-who\\-broached\\-iron\\-1794244 \\|title\\= The Valleys boy who broached the Iron Curtain to convince the USA that Russian Cold War nuclear fusion claims were true \\|date\\=3 November 2011 \\|website\\=WalesOnline}}", "The British team, nicknamed \"The Culham Five\",{{cite magazine \\|first\\=Robert \\|last\\=Arnoux \\|url\\=http://www.iter.org/newsline/102/1401 \\|title\\=Off to Russia with a thermometer \\|magazine\\=ITER Newsline \\|issue\\=102 \\|date\\=9 October 2009}} arrived late in 1968\\. After a lengthy installation and calibration process, the team measured the temperatures over a period of many experimental runs. Initial results were available by August 1969; the Soviets were correct, their results were accurate. The team phoned the results home to Culham, who then passed them along in a confidential phone call to Washington.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=167}} The final results were published in *Nature* in November 1969\\.{{cite journal \\|first1\\=N. J. \\|last1\\=Peacock \\|first2\\=D. C. \\|last2\\=Robinson \\|first3\\=M. J. \\|last3\\=Forrest \\|first4\\=P. D. \\|last4\\=Wilcock \\|first5\\=V. V. \\|last5\\=Sannikov \\|s2cid\\=4290094 \\|title\\=Measurement of the Electron Temperature by Thomson Scattering in Tokamak T3 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Nature (journal)\\|Nature]] \\|volume\\=224 \\|issue\\=5218 \\|pages\\=488–490 \\|year\\=1969 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/224488a0 \\|bibcode\\=1969Natur.224\\..488P }} The results of this announcement have been described as a \"veritable stampede\" of tokamak construction around the world.{{cite magazine \\|magazine\\=New Scientist \\|title\\=Fusion research \\- the temperature rises \\|first\\=Michael \\|last\\=Kenward \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=tbhTdnZsqMUC\\&pg\\=PA626 \\|date\\=24 May 1979 }}{{Dead link\\|date\\=May 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}", "One serious problem remained. Because the electrical current in the plasma was much lower and produced much less compression than a pinch machine, this meant the temperature of the plasma was limited to the resistive heating rate of the current. First proposed in 1950, [Spitzer resistivity](/wiki/Spitzer_resistivity \"Spitzer resistivity\") stated that the [electrical resistance](/wiki/Electrical_resistance \"Electrical resistance\") of a plasma was reduced as the temperature increased,{{cite journal\n \\|last1\\=Cohen \\|first1\\=Robert S.\n \\|last2\\=Spitzer \\|first2\\=Lyman Jr.\n \\|last3\\=McR. Routly \\|first3\\=Paul\n \\|title\\=The Electrical Conductivity of an Ionized Gas\n \\|date\\=October 1950\n \\|journal\\=Physical Review \n \\|volume\\=80\n \\|issue\\=2\n \\|pages\\=230–238\n \\|url\\=http://ayuba.fr/pdf/spitzer1950\\.pdf\n \\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRev.80\\.230\n\\|bibcode\\=1950PhRv...80\\..230C}} meaning the heating rate of the plasma would slow as the devices improved and temperatures were pressed higher. Calculations demonstrated that the resulting maximum temperatures while staying within *q* \\> 1 would be limited to the low millions of degrees. Artsimovich had been quick to point this out in Novosibirsk, stating that future progress would require new heating methods to be developed.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=161}}", "#### US turmoil", "One of the people attending the Novosibirsk meeting in 1968 was [Amasa Stone Bishop](/wiki/Amasa_Stone_Bishop \"Amasa Stone Bishop\"), one of the leaders of the US fusion program. One of the few other devices to show clear evidence of beating the Bohm limit at that time was the [multipole](/wiki/Multipole_%28fusion_reactor%29 \"Multipole (fusion reactor)\") concept. Both [Lawrence Livermore](/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory \"Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory\") and the [Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory](/wiki/Princeton_Plasma_Physics_Laboratory \"Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory\") (PPPL), home of Spitzer's stellarator, were building variations on the multipole design. While moderately successful on their own, T\\-3 greatly outperformed either machine. Bishop was concerned that the multipoles were redundant and thought the US should consider a tokamak of its own.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=152}}", "When he raised the issue at a December 1968 meeting, directors of the labs refused to consider it. [Melvin B. Gottlieb](/wiki/Melvin_B._Gottlieb \"Melvin B. Gottlieb\") of Princeton was exasperated, asking \"Do you think that this committee can out\\-think the scientists?\"{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=154}} With the major labs demanding they control their own research, one lab found itself left out. [Oak Ridge](/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory \"Oak Ridge National Laboratory\") had originally entered the fusion field with studies for reactor fueling systems, but branched out into a mirror program of their own. By the mid\\-1960s, their DCX designs were running out of ideas, offering nothing that the similar program at the more prestigious and politically powerful Livermore did not. This made them highly receptive to new concepts.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=158}}", "After a considerable internal debate, [Herman Postma](/wiki/Herman_Postma \"Herman Postma\") formed a small group in early 1969 to consider the tokamak.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=158}} They came up with a new design, later christened [Ormak](/wiki/Ormak_%28fusion_reactor%29 \"Ormak (fusion reactor)\"), that had several novel features. Primary among them was the way the external field was created in a single large copper block, fed power from a large [transformer](/wiki/Transformer \"Transformer\") below the torus. This was as opposed to traditional designs that used electric current windings on the outside. They felt the single block would produce a much more uniform field. It would also have the advantage of allowing the torus to have a smaller major radius, lacking the need to route cables through the donut hole, leading to a lower *[aspect ratio](/wiki/Aspect_ratio \"Aspect ratio\")*, which the Soviets had already suggested would produce better results.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=159}}", "#### Tokamak race in the US", "In early 1969, Artsimovich visited [MIT](/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology \"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\"), where he was hounded by those interested in fusion. He finally agreed to give several lectures in April{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=161}} and then allowed lengthy question\\-and\\-answer sessions. As these went on, MIT itself grew interested in the tokamak, having previously stayed out of the fusion field for a variety of reasons. [Bruno Coppi](/wiki/Bruno_Coppi \"Bruno Coppi\") was at MIT at the time, and following the same concepts as Postma's team, came up with his own low\\-aspect\\-ratio concept, [Alcator](/wiki/Alcator \"Alcator\"). Instead of Ormak's toroidal transformer, Alcator used traditional ring\\-shaped magnetic field coils but required them to be much smaller than existing designs. MIT's [Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory](/wiki/Francis_Bitter_Magnet_Laboratory \"Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory\") was the world leader in magnet design and they were confident they could build them.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=161}}", "During 1969, two additional groups entered the field. At [General Atomics](/wiki/General_Atomics \"General Atomics\"), [Tihiro Ohkawa](/wiki/Tihiro_Ohkawa \"Tihiro Ohkawa\") had been developing multipole reactors, and submitted a concept based on these ideas. This was a tokamak that would have a non\\-circular plasma cross\\-section; the same math that suggested a lower aspect\\-ratio would improve performance also suggested that a C or D\\-shaped plasma would do the same. He called the new design [Doublet](/wiki/Doublet_%28fusion_reactor%29 \"Doublet (fusion reactor)\").{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=164}} Meanwhile, a group at [University of Texas at Austin](/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin \"University of Texas at Austin\") was proposing a relatively simple tokamak to explore heating the plasma through deliberately induced turbulence, the [Texas Turbulent Tokamak](/wiki/Texas_Turbulent_Tokamak \"Texas Turbulent Tokamak\").{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=165}}", "When the members of the Atomic Energy Commissions' Fusion Steering Committee met again in June 1969, they had \"tokamak proposals coming out of our ears\".{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=165}} The only major lab working on a toroidal design that was not proposing a tokamak was Princeton, who refused to consider it in spite of their Model C stellarator being just about perfect for such a conversion. They continued to offer a long list of reasons why the Model C should not be converted. When these were questioned, a furious debate broke out about whether the Soviet results were reliable.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=165}}", "Watching the debate take place, Gottlieb had a change of heart. There was no point moving forward with the tokamak if the Soviet electron temperature measurements were not accurate, so he formulated a plan to either prove or disprove their results. While swimming in the pool during the lunch break, he told [Harold Furth](/wiki/Harold_Furth \"Harold Furth\") his plan, to which Furth replied: \"well, maybe you're right.\"{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=167}} After lunch, the various teams presented their designs, at which point Gottlieb presented his idea for a \"stellarator\\-tokamak\" based on the Model C.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=167}}", "The Standing Committee noted that this system could be complete in six months, while Ormak would take a year.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=167}} It was only a short time later that the confidential results from the Culham Five were released. When they met again in October, the Standing Committee released funding for all of these proposals. The Model C's new configuration, soon named [Symmetrical Tokamak](/wiki/Symmetrical_Tokamak \"Symmetrical Tokamak\"), intended to simply verify the Soviet results, while the others would explore ways to go well beyond T\\-3\\.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=168}}", "### Heating: US takes the lead", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|Overhead view of the Princeton Large Torus in 1975\\. PLT set numerous records and demonstrated that the temperatures needed for fusion were possible.](/wiki/File:Princeton_Large_Torus_1975.jpg \"Princeton Large Torus 1975.jpg\")", "Experiments on the Symmetric Tokamak began in May 1970, and by early the next year they had confirmed the Soviet results and then surpassed them. The stellarator was abandoned, and PPPL turned its considerable expertise to the problem of heating the plasma. Two concepts seemed to hold promise. PPPL proposed using magnetic compression, a pinch\\-like technique to compress a warm plasma to raise its temperature, but providing that compression through magnets rather than current.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=169}} Oak Ridge suggested [neutral beam injection](/wiki/Neutral_beam_injection \"Neutral beam injection\"), small particle accelerators that would shoot fuel atoms through the surrounding magnetic field where they would collide with the plasma and heat it.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=171}}", "PPPL's [Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor](/wiki/Adiabatic_Toroidal_Compressor \"Adiabatic Toroidal Compressor\") (ATC) began operation in May 1972, followed shortly thereafter by a neutral\\-beam equipped Ormak. Both demonstrated significant problems, but PPPL leapt past Oak Ridge by fitting beam injectors to ATC and provided clear evidence of successful heating in 1973\\. This success \"scooped\" Oak Ridge, who fell from favour within the Washington Steering Committee.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=212}}", "By this time a much larger design based on beam heating was under construction, the [Princeton Large Torus](/wiki/Princeton_Large_Torus \"Princeton Large Torus\"), or PLT. PLT was designed specifically to \"give a clear indication whether the tokamak concept plus auxiliary heating can form a basis for a future fusion reactor\".{{cite web \\|title\\=Timeline \\|website\\=PPPL \\|url\\=https://www.pppl.gov/about/history/timeline}} PLT was an enormous success, continually raising its internal temperature until it hit 60 million Celsius (8,000 eV, eight times T\\-3's record) in 1978\\. This is a key point in the development of the tokamak; fusion reactions become self\\-sustaining at temperatures between 50 and 100 million Celsius, PLT demonstrated that this was technically achievable.", "These experiments, especially PLT, put the US far in the lead in tokamak research. This is due largely to budget; a tokamak cost about $500,000 and the US annual fusion budget was around $25 million at that time.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=151}} They could afford to explore all of the promising methods of heating, ultimately discovering neutral beams to be among the most effective.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=173}}", "During this period, [Robert Hirsch](/wiki/Robert_L._Hirsch \"Robert L. Hirsch\") took over the Directorate of fusion development in the [U.S. Atomic Energy Commission](/wiki/U.S._Atomic_Energy_Commission \"U.S. Atomic Energy Commission\"). Hirsch felt that the program could not be sustained at its current funding levels without demonstrating tangible results. He began to reformulate the entire program. What had once been a lab\\-led effort of mostly scientific exploration was now a Washington\\-led effort to build a working power\\-producing reactor.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=173}} This was given a boost by the [1973 oil crisis](/wiki/1973_oil_crisis \"1973 oil crisis\"), which led to greatly increased research into [alternative energy](/wiki/Alternative_energy \"Alternative energy\") systems.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=175}}", "### 1980s: great hope, great disappointment", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|[Joint European Torus](/wiki/Joint_European_Torus \"Joint European Torus\") (JET), in operation from 1983 to 2023](/wiki/File:The_JET_magnetic_fusion_experiment_in_1991.jpg \"The JET magnetic fusion experiment in 1991.jpg\")", "By the late\\-1970s, tokamaks had reached all the conditions needed for a practical fusion reactor; in 1978 PLT had demonstrated ignition temperatures, the next year the Soviet T\\-7 successfully used [superconducting](/wiki/Superconducting \"Superconducting\") magnets for the first time,{{sfn\\|Smirnov\\|2009\\|p\\=5}} Doublet proved to be a success and led to almost all future designs adopting this \"shaped plasma\" approach. It appeared all that was needed to build a power\\-producing reactor was to put all of these design concepts into a single machine, one that would be capable of running with the radioactive [tritium](/wiki/Tritium \"Tritium\") in its fuel mix.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=10}}", "During the 1970s, four major second\\-generation proposals were funded worldwide. The Soviets continued their development lineage with the T\\-15,{{sfn\\|Smirnov\\|2009\\|p\\=5}} while a pan\\-European effort was developing the [Joint European Torus](/wiki/Joint_European_Torus \"Joint European Torus\") (JET) and Japan began the [JT\\-60](/wiki/JT-60 \"JT-60\") effort (originally known as the \"Breakeven Plasma Test Facility\"). In the US, Hirsch began formulating plans for a similar design, skipping over proposals for another stepping\\-stone design directly to a tritium\\-burning one. This emerged as the [Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor](/wiki/Tokamak_Fusion_Test_Reactor \"Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor\") (TFTR), run directly from Washington and not linked to any specific lab.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=10}} Originally favouring Oak Ridge as the host, Hirsch moved it to PPPL after others convinced him they would work the hardest on it because they had the most to lose.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=215}}", "The excitement was so widespread that several commercial ventures to produce commercial tokamaks began around this time. Best known among these, in 1978, [Bob Guccione](/wiki/Bob_Guccione \"Bob Guccione\"), publisher of [Penthouse Magazine](/wiki/Penthouse_Magazine \"Penthouse Magazine\"), met [Robert Bussard](/wiki/Robert_Bussard \"Robert Bussard\") and became the world's biggest and most committed private investor in fusion technology, ultimately putting $20 million of his own money into Bussard's Compact Tokamak. Funding by the [Riggs Bank](/wiki/Riggs_Bank \"Riggs Bank\") led to this effort being known as the [Riggatron](/wiki/Riggatron \"Riggatron\").{{cite web \\|first\\=Robert \\|last\\=Arnoux \\|url\\=https://www.iter.org/newsline/151/468 \\|title\\=Penthouse founder had invested his fortune in fusion \\|website\\=ITER \\|date\\=25 October 2010}}", "TFTR won the construction race and began operation in 1982, followed shortly by JET in 1983 and JT\\-60 in 1985\\. JET quickly took the lead in critical experiments, moving from test gases to deuterium and increasingly powerful \"shots\". But it soon became clear that none of the new systems were working as expected. A host of new instabilities appeared, along with a number of more practical problems that continued to interfere with their performance. On top of this, dangerous \"excursions\" of the plasma hitting with the walls of the reactor were evident in both TFTR and JET. Even when working perfectly, plasma confinement at fusion temperatures, the so\\-called \"[fusion triple product](/wiki/Fusion_triple_product \"Fusion triple product\")\", continued to be far below what would be needed for a practical reactor design.", "Through the mid\\-1980s the reasons for many of these problems became clear, and various solutions were offered. However, these would significantly increase the size and complexity of the machines. A follow\\-on design incorporating these changes would be both enormous and vastly more expensive than either JET or TFTR. A new period of pessimism descended on the fusion field.", "### ITER", "{{Main\\|ITER}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|Cutaway diagram of the [International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor](/wiki/International_Thermonuclear_Experimental_Reactor \"International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor\") (ITER) the largest tokamak in the world, which began construction in 2013 and is projected to begin full operation in 2035\\. It is intended as a demonstration that a practical [fusion reactor](/wiki/Fusion_reactor \"Fusion reactor\") is possible, and will produce 500 megawatts of power. Blue human figure at bottom shows scale.](/wiki/File:U.S._Department_of_Energy_-_Science_-_425_003_001_%289786811206%29.jpg \"U.S. Department of Energy - Science - 425 003 001 (9786811206).jpg\")", "At the same time these experiments were demonstrating problems, much of the impetus for the US's massive funding disappeared; in 1986 [Ronald Reagan](/wiki/Ronald_Reagan \"Ronald Reagan\") declared the [1970s energy crisis](/wiki/1970s_energy_crisis \"1970s energy crisis\") was over,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid\\=37156 \\|title\\=Radio Address to the Nation on Oil Prices \\|first\\=Ronald \\|last\\=Reagan \\|date\\=19 April 1986 \\|website\\=The American Presidency Project}} and funding for advanced energy sources had been slashed in the early 1980s.", "Some thought of an international reactor design had been ongoing since June 1973 under the name INTOR, for INternational TOkamak Reactor. This was originally started through an agreement between [Richard Nixon](/wiki/Richard_Nixon \"Richard Nixon\") and [Leonid Brezhnev](/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev \"Leonid Brezhnev\"), but had been moving slowly since its first real meeting on 23 November 1978\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.iter.org/newsline/62/146 \\|title\\=INTOR: The international fusion reactor that never was \\|date\\=15 December 2008 \\|first\\=Robert \\|last\\=Arnoux \\|website\\=ITER}}", "During the [Geneva Summit](/wiki/Geneva_Summit_%281985%29 \"Geneva Summit (1985)\") in November 1985, Reagan raised the issue with [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev \"Mikhail Gorbachev\") and proposed reforming the organization. \"... The two leaders emphasized the potential importance of the work aimed at utilizing controlled thermonuclear fusion for peaceful purposes and, in this connection, advocated the widest practicable development of international cooperation in obtaining this source of energy, which is essentially inexhaustible, for the benefit for all mankind.\"[Joint Soviet\\-United States Statement on the Summit Meeting in Geneva](http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1985/112185a.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307091345/https://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1985/112185a.htm \\|date\\=7 March 2016 }} Ronald Reagan. 21 November 1985", "The next year, an agreement was signed between the US, Soviet Union, European Union and Japan, creating the [International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor](/wiki/International_Thermonuclear_Experimental_Reactor \"International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor\") organization.{{cite journal\\|author\\=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. \\|title\\=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists \\|journal\\=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: Science and Public Affairs \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_wQwAAAAAMBAJ \\|date\\=October 1992 \\|publisher\\=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_wQwAAAAAMBAJ/page/n10 9]– \\|issn\\=0096\\-3402}}{{sfn\\|Braams\\|Stott\\|2002\\|pp\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Zj4vx9O0T0YC\\&pg\\=PA250 250–]}}", "Design work began in 1988, and since that time the ITER reactor has been the primary tokamak design effort worldwide.", "### High Field Tokamaks", "It has been known for a long time that stronger field magnets would enable high energy gain in a much smaller tokamak, with concepts such as [FIRE, IGNITOR](https://fire.pppl.gov/snowmass02.html), and the [Compact Ignition Tokamak (CIT)](/wiki/Compact_Ignition_Tokamak \"Compact Ignition Tokamak\") being proposed decades ago.", "The commercial availability of [high temperature superconductors (HTS)](/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity \"High-temperature superconductivity\") in the 2010s opened a promising pathway to building the higher field magnets required to achieve ITER\\-like levels of energy gain in a compact device. To leverage this new technology, the [MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center (PSFC)](/wiki/MIT_Plasma_Science_and_Fusion_Center \"MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center\") and MIT spinout [Commonwealth Fusion Systems (CFS)](/wiki/Commonwealth_Fusion_Systems \"Commonwealth Fusion Systems\") successfully built and tested the [Toroidal Field Model Coil (TFMC)](https://news.mit.edu/2021/MIT-CFS-major-advance-toward-fusion-energy-0908) in 2021 to demonstrate the necessary 20 Tesla magnetic field needed to build [SPARC](/wiki/SPARC_%28tokamak%29 \"SPARC (tokamak)\"), a device designed to achieve a similar [fusion gain](/wiki/Fusion_energy_gain_factor \"Fusion energy gain factor\") as ITER but with only \\~1/40th ITER's plasma volume.", "British startup [Tokamak Energy](/wiki/Tokamak_Energy \"Tokamak Energy\") is also planning on building a net\\-energy tokamak using HTS magnets, but with the spherical tokamak variant.", "The joint EU/Japan JT\\-60SA reactor achieved first plasma on October 23, 2023, after a two\\-year delay caused by an electrical short.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-24 \\|title\\=Inauguration \\|url\\=https://www.jt60sa.org/wp/category/uncategorized/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-01 \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Szondy \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-05 \\|title\\=World's largest tokamak fusion reactor powers up \\|url\\=https://newatlas.com/energy/worlds\\-largest\\-tokamak\\-fusion\\-reactor\\-powers\\-up/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-01 \\|website\\=New Atlas \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "" ]
Design ------ [thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|Magnetic fields in a tokamak](/wiki/File:Schematic-of-a-tokamak-chamber-and-magnetic-profile.jpg "Schematic-of-a-tokamak-chamber-and-magnetic-profile.jpg") [thumb\|upright\|Tokamak magnetic field and current. Shown is the toroidal field and the coils (blue) that produce it, the plasma current (red) and the poloidal field created by it, and the resulting twisted field when these are overlaid.](/wiki/File:Tokamak_fields_lg.png "Tokamak fields lg.png") ### Basic problem Positively charged [ions](/wiki/Ion "Ion") and negatively charged [electrons](/wiki/Electron "Electron") in a fusion plasma are at very high temperatures, and have correspondingly large velocities. In order to maintain the fusion process, particles from the hot plasma must be confined in the central region, or the plasma will rapidly cool. Magnetic confinement fusion devices exploit the fact that charged particles in a magnetic field experience a [Lorentz force](/wiki/Lorentz_force "Lorentz force") and follow helical paths along the field lines.{{sfn\|Wesson\|1999\|p\=13}} The simplest magnetic confinement system is a [solenoid](/wiki/Solenoid "Solenoid"). A plasma in a solenoid will spiral about the lines of field running down its center, preventing motion towards the sides. However, this does not prevent motion towards the ends. The obvious solution is to bend the solenoid around into a circle, forming a torus. However, it was demonstrated that such an arrangement is not uniform; for purely geometric reasons, the field on the outside edge of the torus is lower than on the inside edge. This asymmetry causes the electrons and ions to [drift across the field](/wiki/Guiding_center "Guiding center"), and eventually hit the walls of the torus.{{sfn\|Bromberg\|1982\|p\=16}} The solution is to shape the lines so they do not simply run around the torus, but twist around like the stripes on a [barber pole](/wiki/Barber_pole "Barber pole") or [candycane](/wiki/Candycane "Candycane"). In such a field any single particle will find itself at the outside edge where it will drift one way, say up, and then as it follows its magnetic line around the torus it will find itself on the inside edge, where it will drift the other way. This cancellation is not perfect, but calculations showed it was enough to allow the fuel to remain in the reactor for a useful time.{{sfn\|Wesson\|1999\|p\=13}} ### Tokamak solution The two first solutions to making a design with the required twist were the [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator "Stellarator") which did so through a mechanical arrangement, twisting the entire torus, and the [z\-pinch](/wiki/Z-pinch "Z-pinch") design which ran an electrical current through the plasma to create a second magnetic field to the same end. Both demonstrated improved confinement times compared to a simple torus, but both also demonstrated a variety of effects that caused the plasma to be lost from the reactors at rates that were not sustainable. The tokamak is essentially identical to the z\-pinch concept in its physical layout.{{sfn\|Kenward\|1979b\|p\=627}} Its key innovation was the realization that the instabilities that were causing the pinch to lose its plasma could be controlled. The issue was how "twisty" the fields were; fields that caused the particles to transit inside and out more than once per orbit around the long axis torus were much more stable than devices that had less twist. This ratio of twists to orbits became known as the *[safety factor](/wiki/Safety_factor_%28plasma_physics%29 "Safety factor (plasma physics)")*, denoted *q*. Previous devices operated at *q* about {{frac\|1\|3}}, while the tokamak operates at {{nowrap\|''q'' ≫ 1}}. This increases stability by orders of magnitude. When the problem is considered even more closely, the need for a vertical (parallel to the axis of rotation) component of the magnetic field arises. The Lorentz force of the toroidal plasma current in the vertical field provides the inward force that holds the plasma torus in equilibrium. ### Other issues While the tokamak addresses the issue of plasma stability in a gross sense, plasmas are also subject to a number of dynamic instabilities. One of these, the [kink instability](/wiki/Kink_instability "Kink instability"), is strongly suppressed by the tokamak layout, a side\-effect of the high safety factors of tokamaks. The lack of kinks allowed the tokamak to operate at much higher temperatures than previous machines, and this allowed a host of new phenomena to appear. One of these, the [banana orbits](/wiki/Neoclassical_transport "Neoclassical transport"), is caused by the wide range of particle energies in a tokamak – much of the fuel is hot, but a certain percentage is much cooler. Due to the high twist of the fields in the tokamak, particles following their lines of force rapidly move towards the inner edge and then outer. As they move inward they are subject to increasing magnetic fields due to the smaller radius concentrating the field. The low\-energy particles in the fuel will [reflect](/wiki/Magnetic_mirror "Magnetic mirror") off this increasing field and begin to travel backwards through the fuel, colliding with the higher energy nuclei and scattering them out of the plasma. This process causes fuel to be lost from the reactor, although this process is slow enough that a practical reactor is still well within reach.{{sfn\|Wesson\|1999\|pp\=15–18}} Another instability is tearing instability. In 2024 researchers used [reinforcement learning](/wiki/Reinforcement_learning "Reinforcement learning") against a multimodal dynamic model to measure and forecast such instabilities based on signals from multiple diagnostics and actuators at 25 millisecond intervals. This forecast was used to reduce tearing instabilities in [DIII\-D6](/wiki/DIII-D_%28tokamak%29 "DIII-D (tokamak)"), in the US. The reward function balanced the conflicting objectives of maximum plasma pressure and instability risks. In particular, the plasma actively tracked the stable path while maintaining H\-mode performance.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Seo \|first1\=Jaemin \|last2\=Kim \|first2\=SangKyeun \|last3\=Jalalvand \|first3\=Azarakhsh \|last4\=Conlin \|first4\=Rory \|last5\=Rothstein \|first5\=Andrew \|last6\=Abbate \|first6\=Joseph \|last7\=Erickson \|first7\=Keith \|last8\=Wai \|first8\=Josiah \|last9\=Shousha \|first9\=Ricardo \|last10\=Kolemen \|first10\=Egemen \|date\=February 2024 \|title\=Avoiding fusion plasma tearing instability with deep reinforcement learning \|journal\=Nature \|language\=en \|volume\=626 \|issue\=8000 \|pages\=746–751 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41586\-024\-07024\-9 \|pmid\=38383624 \|issn\=1476\-4687\|pmc\=10881383 \|bibcode\=2024Natur.626\..746S }}{{Cite web \|last\=Ate\-a\-Pi \|date\=February 26, 2024 \|title\=Deep learning fusion breakthrough \|url\=https://x.com/8teAPi/status/1762190250355658885?s\=20 \|website\=X}} ### Breakeven, *Q*, and ignition One of the first goals for any controlled fusion device is to reach *[breakeven](/wiki/Fusion_energy_gain_factor "Fusion energy gain factor")*, the point where the energy being released by the fusion reactions is equal to the amount of energy being used to maintain the reaction. The ratio of output to input energy is denoted *Q*, and breakeven corresponds to a *Q* of 1\. A *Q* of more than one is needed for the reactor to generate net energy, but for practical reasons, it is desirable for it to be much higher. Once breakeven is reached, further improvements in confinement generally lead to a rapidly increasing *Q*. That is because some of the energy being given off by the fusion reactions of the most common fusion fuel, a 50\-50 mix of [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium "Deuterium") and [tritium](/wiki/Tritium "Tritium"), is in the form of [alpha particles](/wiki/Alpha_particle "Alpha particle"). These can collide with the fuel nuclei in the plasma and heat it, reducing the amount of external heat needed. At some point, known as *ignition*, this internal self\-heating is enough to keep the reaction going without any external heating, corresponding to an infinite *Q*. In the case of the tokamak, this self\-heating process is maximized if the alpha particles remain in the fuel long enough to guarantee they will collide with the fuel. As the alphas are electrically charged, they are subject to the same fields that are confining the fuel plasma. The amount of time they spend in the fuel can be maximized by ensuring their orbit in the field remains within the plasma. It can be demonstrated that this occurs when the electrical current in the plasma is about 3 MA.{{sfn\|Wesson\|1999\|p\=20}} ### Advanced tokamaks In the early 1970s, studies at Princeton into the use of high\-power superconducting magnets in future tokamak designs examined the layout of the magnets. They noticed that the arrangement of the main toroidal coils meant that there was significantly more tension between the magnets on the inside of the curvature where they were closer together. Considering this, they noted that the tensional forces within the magnets would be evened out if they were shaped like a D, rather than an O. This became known as the "Princeton D\-coil".{{cite tech report \|url\=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/5233082 \|first1\=W.H. \|last1\=Gray \|first2\=W.C.T. \|last2\=Stoddart \|first3\=J.E. \|last3\=Akin \|publisher\=Oak Ridge National Laboratory \|date\=1977 \|title\=Bending free toroidal shells for tokamak fusion reactors}} This was not the first time this sort of arrangement had been considered, although for entirely different reasons. The safety factor varies across the axis of the machine; for purely geometrical reasons, it is always smaller at the inside edge of the plasma closest to the machine's center because the long axis is shorter there. That means that a machine with an average *q* \= 2 might still be less than 1 in certain areas. In the 1970s, it was suggested that one way to counteract this and produce a design with a higher average *q* would be to shape the magnetic fields so that the plasma only filled the outer half of the torus, shaped like a D or C when viewed end\-on, instead of the normal circular cross section. One of the first machines to incorporate a D\-shaped plasma was the [JET](/wiki/Joint_European_Torus "Joint European Torus"), which began its design work in 1973\. This decision was made both for theoretical reasons as well as practical; because the force is larger on the inside edge of the torus, there is a large net force pressing inward on the entire reactor. The D\-shape also had the advantage of reducing the net force, as well as making the supported inside edge flatter so it was easier to support.{{sfn\|Wesson\|1999\|p\=22}} Code exploring the general layout noticed that a non\-circular shape would slowly drift vertically, which led to the addition of an active feedback system to hold it in the center.{{sfn\|Wesson\|1999\|p\=26}} Once JET had selected this layout, the [General Atomics](/wiki/General_Atomics "General Atomics") Doublet III team redesigned that machine into the D\-IIID with a D\-shaped cross\-section, and it was selected for the Japanese [JT\-60](/wiki/JT-60 "JT-60") design as well. This layout has been largely universal since then. One problem seen in all fusion reactors is that the presence of heavier elements causes energy to be lost at an increased rate, cooling the plasma. During the very earliest development of fusion power, a solution to this problem was found, the *[divertor](/wiki/Divertor "Divertor")*, essentially a large [mass spectrometer](/wiki/Mass_spectrometer "Mass spectrometer") that would cause the heavier elements to be flung out of the reactor. This was initially part of the [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator "Stellarator") designs, where it is easy to integrate into the magnetic windings. However, designing a divertor for a tokamak proved to be a very difficult design problem. Another problem seen in all fusion designs is the heat load that the plasma places on the wall of the confinement vessel. There are materials that can handle this load, but they are generally undesirable and expensive [heavy metals](/wiki/Heavy_metals "Heavy metals"). When such materials are sputtered in collisions with hot ions, their atoms mix with the fuel and rapidly cool it. A solution used on most tokamak designs is the *limiter*, a small ring of light metal that projected into the chamber so that the plasma would hit it before hitting the walls. This eroded the limiter and caused its atoms to mix with the fuel, but these lighter materials cause less disruption than the wall materials. When reactors moved to the D\-shaped plasmas it was quickly noted that the escaping particle flux of the plasma could be shaped as well. Over time, this led to the idea of using the fields to create an internal divertor that flings the heavier elements out of the fuel, typically towards the bottom of the reactor. There, a pool of liquid [lithium](/wiki/Lithium "Lithium") metal is used as a sort of limiter; the particles hit it and are rapidly cooled, remaining in the lithium. This internal pool is much easier to cool, due to its location, and although some lithium atoms are released into the plasma, its very low mass makes it a much smaller problem than even the lightest metals used previously. As machines began to explore this newly [shaped plasma](/wiki/Plasma_shaping "Plasma shaping"), they noticed that certain arrangements of the fields and plasma parameters would sometimes enter what is now known as the [high\-confinement mode](/wiki/High-confinement_mode "High-confinement mode"), or H\-mode, which operated stably at higher temperatures and pressures. Operating in the H\-mode, which can also be seen in stellarators, is now a major design goal of the tokamak design. Finally, it was noted that when the plasma had a non\-uniform density it would give rise to internal electrical currents. This is known as the *[bootstrap current](/wiki/Bootstrap_current "Bootstrap current")*. This allows a properly designed reactor to generate some of the internal current needed to twist the magnetic field lines without having to supply it from an external source. This has a number of advantages, and modern designs all attempt to generate as much of their total current through the bootstrap process as possible. By the early 1990s, the combination of these features and others collectively gave rise to the "advanced tokamak" concept. This forms the basis of modern research, including ITER. ### Plasma disruptions Tokamaks are subject to events known as "disruptions" that cause confinement to be lost in [milliseconds](/wiki/Millisecond "Millisecond"). There are two primary mechanisms. In one, the "vertical displacement event" (VDE), the entire plasma moves vertically until it touches the upper or lower section of the vacuum chamber. In the other, the "major disruption", long wavelength, non\-axisymmetric [magnetohydrodynamical](/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics "Magnetohydrodynamics") instabilities cause the plasma to be forced into non\-symmetrical shapes, often squeezed into the top and bottom of the chamber.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Kruger \| first1 \= S. E. \| last2 \= Schnack \| first2 \= D. D. \| last3 \= Sovinec \| first3 \= C. R. \| year \= 2005 \| title \= Dynamics of the Major Disruption of a DIII\-D Plasma \| url \= http://www.scidac.gov/FES/FES\_FusionGrid/pubs/kruger\-phys\-plasma\-2005\.pdf \| journal \= Phys. Plasmas \| volume \= 12 \| issue \= 5 \| page \= 056113 \| doi \= 10\.1063/1\.1873872 \| bibcode \= 2005PhPl...12e6113K \| access\-date \= 5 January 2012 \| archive\-date \= 27 February 2013 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20130227121923/http://www.scidac.gov/FES/FES\_FusionGrid/pubs/kruger\-phys\-plasma\-2005\.pdf }} When the plasma touches the vessel walls it undergoes rapid cooling, or "thermal quenching". In the major disruption case, this is normally accompanied by a brief increase in plasma current as the plasma concentrates. Quenching ultimately causes the plasma confinement to break up. In the case of the major disruption the current drops again, the "current quench". The initial increase in current is not seen in the VDE, and the thermal and current quench occurs at the same time. In both cases, the thermal and electrical load of the plasma is rapidly deposited on the reactor vessel, which has to be able to handle these loads. ITER is designed to handle 2600 of these events over its lifetime.[Runaway Electrons in Tokamaks and Their Mitigation in ITER](http://w3fusion.ph.utexas.edu/ifs/iaeaep/talks/s11-i11-putvinski-sergei-ep-talk.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308000033/http://w3fusion.ph.utexas.edu/ifs/iaeaep/talks/s11\-i11\-putvinski\-sergei\-ep\-talk.pdf \|date\=8 March 2021 }}, S. Putvinski, ITER Organization For modern high\-energy devices, where plasma currents are on the order of 15 mega[amperes](/wiki/Ampere "Ampere") in [ITER](/wiki/ITER "ITER"), it is possible the brief increase in current during a major disruption will cross a critical threshold. This occurs when the current produces a force on the electrons that is higher than the frictional forces of the collisions between particles in the plasma. In this event, electrons can be rapidly accelerated to relativistic velocities, creating so\-called "runaway electrons" in the [relativistic runaway electron avalanche](/wiki/Relativistic_runaway_electron_avalanche "Relativistic runaway electron avalanche"). These retain their energy even as the current quench is occurring on the bulk of the plasma. When confinement finally breaks down, these runaway electrons follow the path of least resistance and impact the side of the reactor. These can reach 12 megaamps of current deposited in a small area, well beyond the capabilities of any mechanical solution. In one famous case, the [Tokamak de Fontenay aux Roses](/wiki/Tokamak_de_Fontenay_aux_Roses "Tokamak de Fontenay aux Roses") had a major disruption where the runaway electrons burned a hole through the vacuum chamber. The occurrence of major disruptions in running tokamaks has always been rather high, of the order of a few percent of the total numbers of the shots. In currently operated tokamaks, the damage is often large but rarely dramatic. In the ITER tokamak, it is expected that the occurrence of a limited number of major disruptions will definitively damage the chamber with no possibility to restore the device.{{Cite conference\|conference\=MFE Roadmapping in the ITER Era \|last\=Wurden\|first\=G. A.\|date\=9 September 2011 \|url\=http://advprojects.pppl.gov/ROADMAPPING/presentations/MFE\_POSTERS/WURDEN\_Disruption\_RiskPOSTER.pdf \|title\=Dealing with the Risk and Consequences of Disruptions in Large Tokamaks \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105232903/http://advprojects.pppl.gov/ROADMAPPING/presentations/MFE\_POSTERS/WURDEN\_Disruption\_RiskPOSTER.pdf\|archive\-date\=5 November 2015}}{{cite journal \|display\-authors\=4 \| last1 \= Baylor \| first1 \= L. R. \| last2 \= Combs \| first2 \= S. K. \| last3 \= Foust \| first3 \= C. R. \| last4 \= Jernigan \| first4 \= T.C. \| last5 \= Meitner \| first5 \= S. J. \| last6 \= Parks \| first6 \= P. B. \| last7 \= Caughman \| first7 \= J. B. \| last8 \= Fehling \| first8 \= D. T. \| last9 \= Maruyama \| first9 \= S. \| last10 \= Qualls \| first10 \= A. L. \| last11 \= Rasmussen \| first11 \= D. A. \| last12 \= Thomas \| first12 \= C. E. \| year \= 2009 \| title \= Pellet Fuelling, ELM Pacing and Disruption Mitigation Technology Development for ITER \| url \= http://www\-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Meetings/FEC2008/it\_p6\-19\.pdf \| journal \= Nucl. Fusion \| volume \= 49 \| issue \= 8\| page \= 085013 \| doi \= 10\.1088/0029\-5515/49/8/085013 \| bibcode \= 2009NucFu..49h5013B \| s2cid \= 17071617 }}{{cite journal \|display\-authors\=4 \| last1 \= Thornton \| first1 \= A. J. \| last2 \= Gibsonb \| first2 \= K. J. \| last3 \= Harrisona \| first3 \= J. R. \| last4 \= Kirka \| first4 \= A. \| last5 \= Lisgoc \| first5 \= S. W. \| last6 \= Lehnend \| first6 \= M. \| last7 \= Martina \| first7 \= R. \| last8 \= Naylora \| first8 \= G. \| last9 \= Scannella \| first9 \= R. \| last10 \= Cullena \| first10 \= A. \| last11 \= Mast Team \| first11 \= Thornton \| year \= 2011 \| title \= Disruption mitigation studies on the Mega Amp Spherical Tokamak (MAST) \| journal \= J. Nucl. Mater. \| volume \= 415 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= S836–S840 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.jnucmat.2010\.10\.029 \| bibcode \= 2011JNuM..415S.836M }} The development of systems to counter the effects of runaway electrons is considered a must\-have piece of technology for the operational level ITER. A large amplitude of the central current density can also result in [internal disruptions](/wiki/Tokamak_sawtooth "Tokamak sawtooth"), or sawteeth, which do not generally result in termination of the discharge.{{cite journal \| last1 \= von Goeler \| first1 \= S. \| last2 \= Stodiek \| first2 \= W. \| last3 \= Sauthoff \| first3 \= N. \| year \= 1974 \| title \= Studies of internal disruptions and m\= 1 oscillations in tokamak discharges with soft – x\-ray techniques \| doi \= 10\.1103/physrevlett.33\.1201 \| journal \= Physical Review Letters \| volume \= 33 \| issue \= 20\| page \= 1201 \| bibcode \= 1974PhRvL..33\.1201V }} Densities over the Greenwald limit, a bound depending on the plasma current and the minor radius, typically leads to disruptions.{{Cite journal \|last\=Greenwald \|first\=Martin \|date\=2002\-08\-01 \|title\=Density limits in toroidal plasmas \|url\=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10\.1088/0741\-3335/44/8/201 \|journal\=Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion \|volume\=44 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=R27–R53 \|doi\=10\.1088/0741\-3335/44/8/201}}{{Cite web \|title\=Greenwald limit \|url\=https://wiki.fusion.ciemat.es/wiki/Greenwald\_limit \|website\=FusionWiki}} It has been exceeded up to factors of 10,{{Cite journal \|last\=Hurst \|first\=N. C. \|last2\=Chapman \|first2\=B. E. \|last3\=Sarff \|first3\=J. S. \|last4\=Almagri \|first4\=A. F. \|last5\=McCollam \|first5\=K. J. \|last6\=Den Hartog \|first6\=D. J. \|last7\=Flahavan \|first7\=J. B. \|last8\=Forest \|first8\=C. B. \|date\=2024\-07\-29 \|title\=Tokamak Plasmas with Density up to 10 Times the Greenwald Limit \|url\=https://link.aps.org/doi/10\.1103/PhysRevLett.133\.055101 \|journal\=Physical Review Letters \|volume\=133 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=055101 \|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevLett.133\.055101}} but it remains an important concept describing the phenomenology of the transition of the plasma flow, which still needs to be understood.{{Cite journal \|last\=Gates \|first\=D. A. \|last2\=Delgado\-Aparicio \|first2\=L. \|date\=2012\-04\-20 \|title\=Origin of Tokamak Density Limit Scalings \|url\=https://link.aps.org/doi/10\.1103/PhysRevLett.108\.165004 \|journal\=Physical Review Letters \|language\=en \|volume\=108 \|issue\=16 \|doi\=10\.1103/PhysRevLett.108\.165004 \|issn\=0031\-9007}}
[ "Design\n------", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|Magnetic fields in a tokamak](/wiki/File:Schematic-of-a-tokamak-chamber-and-magnetic-profile.jpg \"Schematic-of-a-tokamak-chamber-and-magnetic-profile.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Tokamak magnetic field and current. Shown is the toroidal field and the coils (blue) that produce it, the plasma current (red) and the poloidal field created by it, and the resulting twisted field when these are overlaid.](/wiki/File:Tokamak_fields_lg.png \"Tokamak fields lg.png\")", "### Basic problem", "Positively charged [ions](/wiki/Ion \"Ion\") and negatively charged [electrons](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\") in a fusion plasma are at very high temperatures, and have correspondingly large velocities. In order to maintain the fusion process, particles from the hot plasma must be confined in the central region, or the plasma will rapidly cool. Magnetic confinement fusion devices exploit the fact that charged particles in a magnetic field experience a [Lorentz force](/wiki/Lorentz_force \"Lorentz force\") and follow helical paths along the field lines.{{sfn\\|Wesson\\|1999\\|p\\=13}}", "The simplest magnetic confinement system is a [solenoid](/wiki/Solenoid \"Solenoid\"). A plasma in a solenoid will spiral about the lines of field running down its center, preventing motion towards the sides. However, this does not prevent motion towards the ends. The obvious solution is to bend the solenoid around into a circle, forming a torus. However, it was demonstrated that such an arrangement is not uniform; for purely geometric reasons, the field on the outside edge of the torus is lower than on the inside edge. This asymmetry causes the electrons and ions to [drift across the field](/wiki/Guiding_center \"Guiding center\"), and eventually hit the walls of the torus.{{sfn\\|Bromberg\\|1982\\|p\\=16}}", "The solution is to shape the lines so they do not simply run around the torus, but twist around like the stripes on a [barber pole](/wiki/Barber_pole \"Barber pole\") or [candycane](/wiki/Candycane \"Candycane\"). In such a field any single particle will find itself at the outside edge where it will drift one way, say up, and then as it follows its magnetic line around the torus it will find itself on the inside edge, where it will drift the other way. This cancellation is not perfect, but calculations showed it was enough to allow the fuel to remain in the reactor for a useful time.{{sfn\\|Wesson\\|1999\\|p\\=13}}", "### Tokamak solution", "The two first solutions to making a design with the required twist were the [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator \"Stellarator\") which did so through a mechanical arrangement, twisting the entire torus, and the [z\\-pinch](/wiki/Z-pinch \"Z-pinch\") design which ran an electrical current through the plasma to create a second magnetic field to the same end. Both demonstrated improved confinement times compared to a simple torus, but both also demonstrated a variety of effects that caused the plasma to be lost from the reactors at rates that were not sustainable.", "The tokamak is essentially identical to the z\\-pinch concept in its physical layout.{{sfn\\|Kenward\\|1979b\\|p\\=627}} Its key innovation was the realization that the instabilities that were causing the pinch to lose its plasma could be controlled. The issue was how \"twisty\" the fields were; fields that caused the particles to transit inside and out more than once per orbit around the long axis torus were much more stable than devices that had less twist. This ratio of twists to orbits became known as the *[safety factor](/wiki/Safety_factor_%28plasma_physics%29 \"Safety factor (plasma physics)\")*, denoted *q*. Previous devices operated at *q* about {{frac\\|1\\|3}}, while the tokamak operates at {{nowrap\\|''q'' ≫ 1}}. This increases stability by orders of magnitude.", "When the problem is considered even more closely, the need for a vertical (parallel to the axis of rotation) component of the magnetic field arises. The Lorentz force of the toroidal plasma current in the vertical field provides the inward force that holds the plasma torus in equilibrium.", "### Other issues", "While the tokamak addresses the issue of plasma stability in a gross sense, plasmas are also subject to a number of dynamic instabilities. One of these, the [kink instability](/wiki/Kink_instability \"Kink instability\"), is strongly suppressed by the tokamak layout, a side\\-effect of the high safety factors of tokamaks. The lack of kinks allowed the tokamak to operate at much higher temperatures than previous machines, and this allowed a host of new phenomena to appear.", "One of these, the [banana orbits](/wiki/Neoclassical_transport \"Neoclassical transport\"), is caused by the wide range of particle energies in a tokamak – much of the fuel is hot, but a certain percentage is much cooler. Due to the high twist of the fields in the tokamak, particles following their lines of force rapidly move towards the inner edge and then outer. As they move inward they are subject to increasing magnetic fields due to the smaller radius concentrating the field. The low\\-energy particles in the fuel will [reflect](/wiki/Magnetic_mirror \"Magnetic mirror\") off this increasing field and begin to travel backwards through the fuel, colliding with the higher energy nuclei and scattering them out of the plasma. This process causes fuel to be lost from the reactor, although this process is slow enough that a practical reactor is still well within reach.{{sfn\\|Wesson\\|1999\\|pp\\=15–18}}", "Another instability is tearing instability. In 2024 researchers used [reinforcement learning](/wiki/Reinforcement_learning \"Reinforcement learning\") against a multimodal dynamic model to measure and forecast such instabilities based on signals from multiple diagnostics and actuators at 25 millisecond intervals. This forecast was used to reduce tearing instabilities in [DIII\\-D6](/wiki/DIII-D_%28tokamak%29 \"DIII-D (tokamak)\"), in the US. The reward function balanced the conflicting objectives of maximum plasma pressure and instability risks. In particular, the plasma actively tracked the stable path while maintaining H\\-mode performance.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Seo \\|first1\\=Jaemin \\|last2\\=Kim \\|first2\\=SangKyeun \\|last3\\=Jalalvand \\|first3\\=Azarakhsh \\|last4\\=Conlin \\|first4\\=Rory \\|last5\\=Rothstein \\|first5\\=Andrew \\|last6\\=Abbate \\|first6\\=Joseph \\|last7\\=Erickson \\|first7\\=Keith \\|last8\\=Wai \\|first8\\=Josiah \\|last9\\=Shousha \\|first9\\=Ricardo \\|last10\\=Kolemen \\|first10\\=Egemen \\|date\\=February 2024 \\|title\\=Avoiding fusion plasma tearing instability with deep reinforcement learning \\|journal\\=Nature \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=626 \\|issue\\=8000 \\|pages\\=746–751 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41586\\-024\\-07024\\-9 \\|pmid\\=38383624 \\|issn\\=1476\\-4687\\|pmc\\=10881383 \\|bibcode\\=2024Natur.626\\..746S }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ate\\-a\\-Pi \\|date\\=February 26, 2024 \\|title\\=Deep learning fusion breakthrough \\|url\\=https://x.com/8teAPi/status/1762190250355658885?s\\=20 \\|website\\=X}}", "### Breakeven, *Q*, and ignition", "One of the first goals for any controlled fusion device is to reach *[breakeven](/wiki/Fusion_energy_gain_factor \"Fusion energy gain factor\")*, the point where the energy being released by the fusion reactions is equal to the amount of energy being used to maintain the reaction. The ratio of output to input energy is denoted *Q*, and breakeven corresponds to a *Q* of 1\\. A *Q* of more than one is needed for the reactor to generate net energy, but for practical reasons, it is desirable for it to be much higher.", "Once breakeven is reached, further improvements in confinement generally lead to a rapidly increasing *Q*. That is because some of the energy being given off by the fusion reactions of the most common fusion fuel, a 50\\-50 mix of [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium \"Deuterium\") and [tritium](/wiki/Tritium \"Tritium\"), is in the form of [alpha particles](/wiki/Alpha_particle \"Alpha particle\"). These can collide with the fuel nuclei in the plasma and heat it, reducing the amount of external heat needed. At some point, known as *ignition*, this internal self\\-heating is enough to keep the reaction going without any external heating, corresponding to an infinite *Q*.", "In the case of the tokamak, this self\\-heating process is maximized if the alpha particles remain in the fuel long enough to guarantee they will collide with the fuel. As the alphas are electrically charged, they are subject to the same fields that are confining the fuel plasma. The amount of time they spend in the fuel can be maximized by ensuring their orbit in the field remains within the plasma. It can be demonstrated that this occurs when the electrical current in the plasma is about 3 MA.{{sfn\\|Wesson\\|1999\\|p\\=20}}", "### Advanced tokamaks", "In the early 1970s, studies at Princeton into the use of high\\-power superconducting magnets in future tokamak designs examined the layout of the magnets. They noticed that the arrangement of the main toroidal coils meant that there was significantly more tension between the magnets on the inside of the curvature where they were closer together. Considering this, they noted that the tensional forces within the magnets would be evened out if they were shaped like a D, rather than an O. This became known as the \"Princeton D\\-coil\".{{cite tech report \\|url\\=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/5233082 \\|first1\\=W.H. \\|last1\\=Gray \\|first2\\=W.C.T. \\|last2\\=Stoddart \\|first3\\=J.E. \\|last3\\=Akin \\|publisher\\=Oak Ridge National Laboratory \\|date\\=1977 \\|title\\=Bending free toroidal shells for tokamak fusion reactors}}", "This was not the first time this sort of arrangement had been considered, although for entirely different reasons. The safety factor varies across the axis of the machine; for purely geometrical reasons, it is always smaller at the inside edge of the plasma closest to the machine's center because the long axis is shorter there. That means that a machine with an average *q* \\= 2 might still be less than 1 in certain areas. In the 1970s, it was suggested that one way to counteract this and produce a design with a higher average *q* would be to shape the magnetic fields so that the plasma only filled the outer half of the torus, shaped like a D or C when viewed end\\-on, instead of the normal circular cross section.", "One of the first machines to incorporate a D\\-shaped plasma was the [JET](/wiki/Joint_European_Torus \"Joint European Torus\"), which began its design work in 1973\\. This decision was made both for theoretical reasons as well as practical; because the force is larger on the inside edge of the torus, there is a large net force pressing inward on the entire reactor. The D\\-shape also had the advantage of reducing the net force, as well as making the supported inside edge flatter so it was easier to support.{{sfn\\|Wesson\\|1999\\|p\\=22}} Code exploring the general layout noticed that a non\\-circular shape would slowly drift vertically, which led to the addition of an active feedback system to hold it in the center.{{sfn\\|Wesson\\|1999\\|p\\=26}} Once JET had selected this layout, the [General Atomics](/wiki/General_Atomics \"General Atomics\") Doublet III team redesigned that machine into the D\\-IIID with a D\\-shaped cross\\-section, and it was selected for the Japanese [JT\\-60](/wiki/JT-60 \"JT-60\") design as well. This layout has been largely universal since then.", "One problem seen in all fusion reactors is that the presence of heavier elements causes energy to be lost at an increased rate, cooling the plasma. During the very earliest development of fusion power, a solution to this problem was found, the *[divertor](/wiki/Divertor \"Divertor\")*, essentially a large [mass spectrometer](/wiki/Mass_spectrometer \"Mass spectrometer\") that would cause the heavier elements to be flung out of the reactor. This was initially part of the [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator \"Stellarator\") designs, where it is easy to integrate into the magnetic windings. However, designing a divertor for a tokamak proved to be a very difficult design problem.", "Another problem seen in all fusion designs is the heat load that the plasma places on the wall of the confinement vessel. There are materials that can handle this load, but they are generally undesirable and expensive [heavy metals](/wiki/Heavy_metals \"Heavy metals\"). When such materials are sputtered in collisions with hot ions, their atoms mix with the fuel and rapidly cool it. A solution used on most tokamak designs is the *limiter*, a small ring of light metal that projected into the chamber so that the plasma would hit it before hitting the walls. This eroded the limiter and caused its atoms to mix with the fuel, but these lighter materials cause less disruption than the wall materials.", "When reactors moved to the D\\-shaped plasmas it was quickly noted that the escaping particle flux of the plasma could be shaped as well. Over time, this led to the idea of using the fields to create an internal divertor that flings the heavier elements out of the fuel, typically towards the bottom of the reactor. There, a pool of liquid [lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") metal is used as a sort of limiter; the particles hit it and are rapidly cooled, remaining in the lithium. This internal pool is much easier to cool, due to its location, and although some lithium atoms are released into the plasma, its very low mass makes it a much smaller problem than even the lightest metals used previously.", "As machines began to explore this newly [shaped plasma](/wiki/Plasma_shaping \"Plasma shaping\"), they noticed that certain arrangements of the fields and plasma parameters would sometimes enter what is now known as the [high\\-confinement mode](/wiki/High-confinement_mode \"High-confinement mode\"), or H\\-mode, which operated stably at higher temperatures and pressures. Operating in the H\\-mode, which can also be seen in stellarators, is now a major design goal of the tokamak design.", "Finally, it was noted that when the plasma had a non\\-uniform density it would give rise to internal electrical currents. This is known as the *[bootstrap current](/wiki/Bootstrap_current \"Bootstrap current\")*. This allows a properly designed reactor to generate some of the internal current needed to twist the magnetic field lines without having to supply it from an external source. This has a number of advantages, and modern designs all attempt to generate as much of their total current through the bootstrap process as possible.", "By the early 1990s, the combination of these features and others collectively gave rise to the \"advanced tokamak\" concept. This forms the basis of modern research, including ITER.", "### Plasma disruptions", "Tokamaks are subject to events known as \"disruptions\" that cause confinement to be lost in [milliseconds](/wiki/Millisecond \"Millisecond\"). There are two primary mechanisms. In one, the \"vertical displacement event\" (VDE), the entire plasma moves vertically until it touches the upper or lower section of the vacuum chamber. In the other, the \"major disruption\", long wavelength, non\\-axisymmetric [magnetohydrodynamical](/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics \"Magnetohydrodynamics\") instabilities cause the plasma to be forced into non\\-symmetrical shapes, often squeezed into the top and bottom of the chamber.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Kruger \\| first1 \\= S. E. \\| last2 \\= Schnack \\| first2 \\= D. D. \\| last3 \\= Sovinec \\| first3 \\= C. R. \\| year \\= 2005 \\| title \\= Dynamics of the Major Disruption of a DIII\\-D Plasma \\| url \\= http://www.scidac.gov/FES/FES\\_FusionGrid/pubs/kruger\\-phys\\-plasma\\-2005\\.pdf \\| journal \\= Phys. Plasmas \\| volume \\= 12 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| page \\= 056113 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1063/1\\.1873872 \\| bibcode \\= 2005PhPl...12e6113K \\| access\\-date \\= 5 January 2012 \\| archive\\-date \\= 27 February 2013 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130227121923/http://www.scidac.gov/FES/FES\\_FusionGrid/pubs/kruger\\-phys\\-plasma\\-2005\\.pdf }}", "When the plasma touches the vessel walls it undergoes rapid cooling, or \"thermal quenching\". In the major disruption case, this is normally accompanied by a brief increase in plasma current as the plasma concentrates. Quenching ultimately causes the plasma confinement to break up. In the case of the major disruption the current drops again, the \"current quench\". The initial increase in current is not seen in the VDE, and the thermal and current quench occurs at the same time. In both cases, the thermal and electrical load of the plasma is rapidly deposited on the reactor vessel, which has to be able to handle these loads. ITER is designed to handle 2600 of these events over its lifetime.[Runaway Electrons in Tokamaks and Their Mitigation in ITER](http://w3fusion.ph.utexas.edu/ifs/iaeaep/talks/s11-i11-putvinski-sergei-ep-talk.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308000033/http://w3fusion.ph.utexas.edu/ifs/iaeaep/talks/s11\\-i11\\-putvinski\\-sergei\\-ep\\-talk.pdf \\|date\\=8 March 2021 }}, S. Putvinski, ITER Organization", "For modern high\\-energy devices, where plasma currents are on the order of 15 mega[amperes](/wiki/Ampere \"Ampere\") in [ITER](/wiki/ITER \"ITER\"), it is possible the brief increase in current during a major disruption will cross a critical threshold. This occurs when the current produces a force on the electrons that is higher than the frictional forces of the collisions between particles in the plasma. In this event, electrons can be rapidly accelerated to relativistic velocities, creating so\\-called \"runaway electrons\" in the [relativistic runaway electron avalanche](/wiki/Relativistic_runaway_electron_avalanche \"Relativistic runaway electron avalanche\"). These retain their energy even as the current quench is occurring on the bulk of the plasma.", "When confinement finally breaks down, these runaway electrons follow the path of least resistance and impact the side of the reactor. These can reach 12 megaamps of current deposited in a small area, well beyond the capabilities of any mechanical solution. In one famous case, the [Tokamak de Fontenay aux Roses](/wiki/Tokamak_de_Fontenay_aux_Roses \"Tokamak de Fontenay aux Roses\") had a major disruption where the runaway electrons burned a hole through the vacuum chamber.", "The occurrence of major disruptions in running tokamaks has always been rather high, of the order of a few percent of the total numbers of the shots. In currently operated tokamaks, the damage is often large but rarely dramatic. In the ITER tokamak, it is expected that the occurrence of a limited number of major disruptions will definitively damage the chamber with no possibility to restore the device.{{Cite conference\\|conference\\=MFE Roadmapping in the ITER Era \\|last\\=Wurden\\|first\\=G. A.\\|date\\=9 September 2011 \\|url\\=http://advprojects.pppl.gov/ROADMAPPING/presentations/MFE\\_POSTERS/WURDEN\\_Disruption\\_RiskPOSTER.pdf \\|title\\=Dealing with the Risk and Consequences of Disruptions in Large Tokamaks \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105232903/http://advprojects.pppl.gov/ROADMAPPING/presentations/MFE\\_POSTERS/WURDEN\\_Disruption\\_RiskPOSTER.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=5 November 2015}}{{cite journal \\|display\\-authors\\=4 \\| last1 \\= Baylor \\| first1 \\= L. R. \\| last2 \\= Combs \\| first2 \\= S. K. \\| last3 \\= Foust \\| first3 \\= C. R. \\| last4 \\= Jernigan \\| first4 \\= T.C. \\| last5 \\= Meitner \\| first5 \\= S. J. \\| last6 \\= Parks \\| first6 \\= P. B. \\| last7 \\= Caughman \\| first7 \\= J. B. \\| last8 \\= Fehling \\| first8 \\= D. T. \\| last9 \\= Maruyama \\| first9 \\= S. \\| last10 \\= Qualls \\| first10 \\= A. L. \\| last11 \\= Rasmussen \\| first11 \\= D. A. \\| last12 \\= Thomas \\| first12 \\= C. E. \\| year \\= 2009 \\| title \\= Pellet Fuelling, ELM Pacing and Disruption Mitigation Technology Development for ITER \\| url \\= http://www\\-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Meetings/FEC2008/it\\_p6\\-19\\.pdf \\| journal \\= Nucl. Fusion \\| volume \\= 49 \\| issue \\= 8\\| page \\= 085013 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1088/0029\\-5515/49/8/085013 \\| bibcode \\= 2009NucFu..49h5013B \\| s2cid \\= 17071617 }}{{cite journal \\|display\\-authors\\=4 \\| last1 \\= Thornton \\| first1 \\= A. J. \\| last2 \\= Gibsonb \\| first2 \\= K. J. \\| last3 \\= Harrisona \\| first3 \\= J. R. \\| last4 \\= Kirka \\| first4 \\= A. \\| last5 \\= Lisgoc \\| first5 \\= S. W. \\| last6 \\= Lehnend \\| first6 \\= M. \\| last7 \\= Martina \\| first7 \\= R. \\| last8 \\= Naylora \\| first8 \\= G. \\| last9 \\= Scannella \\| first9 \\= R. \\| last10 \\= Cullena \\| first10 \\= A. \\| last11 \\= Mast Team \\| first11 \\= Thornton \\| year \\= 2011 \\| title \\= Disruption mitigation studies on the Mega Amp Spherical Tokamak (MAST) \\| journal \\= J. Nucl. Mater. \\| volume \\= 415 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= S836–S840 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.jnucmat.2010\\.10\\.029 \\| bibcode \\= 2011JNuM..415S.836M }} The development of systems to counter the effects of runaway electrons is considered a must\\-have piece of technology for the operational level ITER.", "A large amplitude of the central current density can also result in [internal disruptions](/wiki/Tokamak_sawtooth \"Tokamak sawtooth\"), or sawteeth, which do not generally result in termination of the discharge.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= von Goeler \\| first1 \\= S. \\| last2 \\= Stodiek \\| first2 \\= W. \\| last3 \\= Sauthoff \\| first3 \\= N. \\| year \\= 1974 \\| title \\= Studies of internal disruptions and m\\= 1 oscillations in tokamak discharges with soft – x\\-ray techniques \\| doi \\= 10\\.1103/physrevlett.33\\.1201 \\| journal \\= Physical Review Letters \\| volume \\= 33 \\| issue \\= 20\\| page \\= 1201 \\| bibcode \\= 1974PhRvL..33\\.1201V }}", "Densities over the Greenwald limit, a bound depending on the plasma current and the minor radius, typically leads to disruptions.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Greenwald \\|first\\=Martin \\|date\\=2002\\-08\\-01 \\|title\\=Density limits in toroidal plasmas \\|url\\=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10\\.1088/0741\\-3335/44/8/201 \\|journal\\=Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion \\|volume\\=44 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=R27–R53 \\|doi\\=10\\.1088/0741\\-3335/44/8/201}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Greenwald limit \\|url\\=https://wiki.fusion.ciemat.es/wiki/Greenwald\\_limit \\|website\\=FusionWiki}} It has been exceeded up to factors of 10,{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Hurst \\|first\\=N. C. \\|last2\\=Chapman \\|first2\\=B. E. \\|last3\\=Sarff \\|first3\\=J. S. \\|last4\\=Almagri \\|first4\\=A. F. \\|last5\\=McCollam \\|first5\\=K. J. \\|last6\\=Den Hartog \\|first6\\=D. J. \\|last7\\=Flahavan \\|first7\\=J. B. \\|last8\\=Forest \\|first8\\=C. B. \\|date\\=2024\\-07\\-29 \\|title\\=Tokamak Plasmas with Density up to 10 Times the Greenwald Limit \\|url\\=https://link.aps.org/doi/10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.133\\.055101 \\|journal\\=Physical Review Letters \\|volume\\=133 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=055101 \\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.133\\.055101}} but it remains an important concept describing the phenomenology of the transition of the plasma flow, which still needs to be understood.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Gates \\|first\\=D. A. \\|last2\\=Delgado\\-Aparicio \\|first2\\=L. \\|date\\=2012\\-04\\-20 \\|title\\=Origin of Tokamak Density Limit Scalings \\|url\\=https://link.aps.org/doi/10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.108\\.165004 \\|journal\\=Physical Review Letters \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=108 \\|issue\\=16 \\|doi\\=10\\.1103/PhysRevLett.108\\.165004 \\|issn\\=0031\\-9007}}", "" ]
### Advanced tokamaks In the early 1970s, studies at Princeton into the use of high\-power superconducting magnets in future tokamak designs examined the layout of the magnets. They noticed that the arrangement of the main toroidal coils meant that there was significantly more tension between the magnets on the inside of the curvature where they were closer together. Considering this, they noted that the tensional forces within the magnets would be evened out if they were shaped like a D, rather than an O. This became known as the "Princeton D\-coil".{{cite tech report \|url\=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/5233082 \|first1\=W.H. \|last1\=Gray \|first2\=W.C.T. \|last2\=Stoddart \|first3\=J.E. \|last3\=Akin \|publisher\=Oak Ridge National Laboratory \|date\=1977 \|title\=Bending free toroidal shells for tokamak fusion reactors}} This was not the first time this sort of arrangement had been considered, although for entirely different reasons. The safety factor varies across the axis of the machine; for purely geometrical reasons, it is always smaller at the inside edge of the plasma closest to the machine's center because the long axis is shorter there. That means that a machine with an average *q* \= 2 might still be less than 1 in certain areas. In the 1970s, it was suggested that one way to counteract this and produce a design with a higher average *q* would be to shape the magnetic fields so that the plasma only filled the outer half of the torus, shaped like a D or C when viewed end\-on, instead of the normal circular cross section. One of the first machines to incorporate a D\-shaped plasma was the [JET](/wiki/Joint_European_Torus "Joint European Torus"), which began its design work in 1973\. This decision was made both for theoretical reasons as well as practical; because the force is larger on the inside edge of the torus, there is a large net force pressing inward on the entire reactor. The D\-shape also had the advantage of reducing the net force, as well as making the supported inside edge flatter so it was easier to support.{{sfn\|Wesson\|1999\|p\=22}} Code exploring the general layout noticed that a non\-circular shape would slowly drift vertically, which led to the addition of an active feedback system to hold it in the center.{{sfn\|Wesson\|1999\|p\=26}} Once JET had selected this layout, the [General Atomics](/wiki/General_Atomics "General Atomics") Doublet III team redesigned that machine into the D\-IIID with a D\-shaped cross\-section, and it was selected for the Japanese [JT\-60](/wiki/JT-60 "JT-60") design as well. This layout has been largely universal since then. One problem seen in all fusion reactors is that the presence of heavier elements causes energy to be lost at an increased rate, cooling the plasma. During the very earliest development of fusion power, a solution to this problem was found, the *[divertor](/wiki/Divertor "Divertor")*, essentially a large [mass spectrometer](/wiki/Mass_spectrometer "Mass spectrometer") that would cause the heavier elements to be flung out of the reactor. This was initially part of the [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator "Stellarator") designs, where it is easy to integrate into the magnetic windings. However, designing a divertor for a tokamak proved to be a very difficult design problem. Another problem seen in all fusion designs is the heat load that the plasma places on the wall of the confinement vessel. There are materials that can handle this load, but they are generally undesirable and expensive [heavy metals](/wiki/Heavy_metals "Heavy metals"). When such materials are sputtered in collisions with hot ions, their atoms mix with the fuel and rapidly cool it. A solution used on most tokamak designs is the *limiter*, a small ring of light metal that projected into the chamber so that the plasma would hit it before hitting the walls. This eroded the limiter and caused its atoms to mix with the fuel, but these lighter materials cause less disruption than the wall materials. When reactors moved to the D\-shaped plasmas it was quickly noted that the escaping particle flux of the plasma could be shaped as well. Over time, this led to the idea of using the fields to create an internal divertor that flings the heavier elements out of the fuel, typically towards the bottom of the reactor. There, a pool of liquid [lithium](/wiki/Lithium "Lithium") metal is used as a sort of limiter; the particles hit it and are rapidly cooled, remaining in the lithium. This internal pool is much easier to cool, due to its location, and although some lithium atoms are released into the plasma, its very low mass makes it a much smaller problem than even the lightest metals used previously. As machines began to explore this newly [shaped plasma](/wiki/Plasma_shaping "Plasma shaping"), they noticed that certain arrangements of the fields and plasma parameters would sometimes enter what is now known as the [high\-confinement mode](/wiki/High-confinement_mode "High-confinement mode"), or H\-mode, which operated stably at higher temperatures and pressures. Operating in the H\-mode, which can also be seen in stellarators, is now a major design goal of the tokamak design. Finally, it was noted that when the plasma had a non\-uniform density it would give rise to internal electrical currents. This is known as the *[bootstrap current](/wiki/Bootstrap_current "Bootstrap current")*. This allows a properly designed reactor to generate some of the internal current needed to twist the magnetic field lines without having to supply it from an external source. This has a number of advantages, and modern designs all attempt to generate as much of their total current through the bootstrap process as possible. By the early 1990s, the combination of these features and others collectively gave rise to the "advanced tokamak" concept. This forms the basis of modern research, including ITER.
[ "### Advanced tokamaks", "In the early 1970s, studies at Princeton into the use of high\\-power superconducting magnets in future tokamak designs examined the layout of the magnets. They noticed that the arrangement of the main toroidal coils meant that there was significantly more tension between the magnets on the inside of the curvature where they were closer together. Considering this, they noted that the tensional forces within the magnets would be evened out if they were shaped like a D, rather than an O. This became known as the \"Princeton D\\-coil\".{{cite tech report \\|url\\=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/5233082 \\|first1\\=W.H. \\|last1\\=Gray \\|first2\\=W.C.T. \\|last2\\=Stoddart \\|first3\\=J.E. \\|last3\\=Akin \\|publisher\\=Oak Ridge National Laboratory \\|date\\=1977 \\|title\\=Bending free toroidal shells for tokamak fusion reactors}}", "This was not the first time this sort of arrangement had been considered, although for entirely different reasons. The safety factor varies across the axis of the machine; for purely geometrical reasons, it is always smaller at the inside edge of the plasma closest to the machine's center because the long axis is shorter there. That means that a machine with an average *q* \\= 2 might still be less than 1 in certain areas. In the 1970s, it was suggested that one way to counteract this and produce a design with a higher average *q* would be to shape the magnetic fields so that the plasma only filled the outer half of the torus, shaped like a D or C when viewed end\\-on, instead of the normal circular cross section.", "One of the first machines to incorporate a D\\-shaped plasma was the [JET](/wiki/Joint_European_Torus \"Joint European Torus\"), which began its design work in 1973\\. This decision was made both for theoretical reasons as well as practical; because the force is larger on the inside edge of the torus, there is a large net force pressing inward on the entire reactor. The D\\-shape also had the advantage of reducing the net force, as well as making the supported inside edge flatter so it was easier to support.{{sfn\\|Wesson\\|1999\\|p\\=22}} Code exploring the general layout noticed that a non\\-circular shape would slowly drift vertically, which led to the addition of an active feedback system to hold it in the center.{{sfn\\|Wesson\\|1999\\|p\\=26}} Once JET had selected this layout, the [General Atomics](/wiki/General_Atomics \"General Atomics\") Doublet III team redesigned that machine into the D\\-IIID with a D\\-shaped cross\\-section, and it was selected for the Japanese [JT\\-60](/wiki/JT-60 \"JT-60\") design as well. This layout has been largely universal since then.", "One problem seen in all fusion reactors is that the presence of heavier elements causes energy to be lost at an increased rate, cooling the plasma. During the very earliest development of fusion power, a solution to this problem was found, the *[divertor](/wiki/Divertor \"Divertor\")*, essentially a large [mass spectrometer](/wiki/Mass_spectrometer \"Mass spectrometer\") that would cause the heavier elements to be flung out of the reactor. This was initially part of the [stellarator](/wiki/Stellarator \"Stellarator\") designs, where it is easy to integrate into the magnetic windings. However, designing a divertor for a tokamak proved to be a very difficult design problem.", "Another problem seen in all fusion designs is the heat load that the plasma places on the wall of the confinement vessel. There are materials that can handle this load, but they are generally undesirable and expensive [heavy metals](/wiki/Heavy_metals \"Heavy metals\"). When such materials are sputtered in collisions with hot ions, their atoms mix with the fuel and rapidly cool it. A solution used on most tokamak designs is the *limiter*, a small ring of light metal that projected into the chamber so that the plasma would hit it before hitting the walls. This eroded the limiter and caused its atoms to mix with the fuel, but these lighter materials cause less disruption than the wall materials.", "When reactors moved to the D\\-shaped plasmas it was quickly noted that the escaping particle flux of the plasma could be shaped as well. Over time, this led to the idea of using the fields to create an internal divertor that flings the heavier elements out of the fuel, typically towards the bottom of the reactor. There, a pool of liquid [lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") metal is used as a sort of limiter; the particles hit it and are rapidly cooled, remaining in the lithium. This internal pool is much easier to cool, due to its location, and although some lithium atoms are released into the plasma, its very low mass makes it a much smaller problem than even the lightest metals used previously.", "As machines began to explore this newly [shaped plasma](/wiki/Plasma_shaping \"Plasma shaping\"), they noticed that certain arrangements of the fields and plasma parameters would sometimes enter what is now known as the [high\\-confinement mode](/wiki/High-confinement_mode \"High-confinement mode\"), or H\\-mode, which operated stably at higher temperatures and pressures. Operating in the H\\-mode, which can also be seen in stellarators, is now a major design goal of the tokamak design.", "Finally, it was noted that when the plasma had a non\\-uniform density it would give rise to internal electrical currents. This is known as the *[bootstrap current](/wiki/Bootstrap_current \"Bootstrap current\")*. This allows a properly designed reactor to generate some of the internal current needed to twist the magnetic field lines without having to supply it from an external source. This has a number of advantages, and modern designs all attempt to generate as much of their total current through the bootstrap process as possible.", "By the early 1990s, the combination of these features and others collectively gave rise to the \"advanced tokamak\" concept. This forms the basis of modern research, including ITER.", "" ]
Plasma heating -------------- In an operating fusion reactor, part of the energy generated will serve to maintain the plasma temperature as fresh [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium "Deuterium") and [tritium](/wiki/Tritium "Tritium") are introduced. However, in the startup of a reactor, either initially or after a temporary shutdown, the plasma will have to be heated to its [operating temperature](/wiki/Operating_temperature "Operating temperature") of greater than 10 keV (over 100 million degrees Celsius). In current tokamak (and other) magnetic fusion experiments, insufficient fusion energy is produced to maintain the plasma temperature, and constant external heating must be supplied. Chinese researchers set up the [Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak](/wiki/Experimental_Advanced_Superconducting_Tokamak "Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak") (EAST) in 2006, which can supposedly sustain a plasma temperature of 100 million degree Celsius for initiating fusion between hydrogen atoms, according to a November 2018 test. ### Ohmic heating \~ inductive mode Since the plasma is an electrical conductor, it is possible to heat the plasma by inducing a current through it; the induced current that provides most of the poloidal field is also a major source of initial heating. The heating caused by the induced current is called ohmic (or resistive) heating; it is the same kind of heating that occurs in an electric light bulb or in an electric heater. The heat generated depends on the resistance of the plasma and the amount of electric current running through it. But as the temperature of heated plasma rises, the resistance decreases and ohmic heating becomes less effective. It appears that the maximum plasma temperature attainable by ohmic heating in a tokamak is 20–30 million degrees Celsius. To obtain still higher temperatures, additional heating methods must be used. The current is induced by continually increasing the current through an electromagnetic winding linked with the plasma torus: the plasma can be viewed as the secondary winding of a transformer. This is inherently a pulsed process because there is a limit to the current through the primary (there are also other limitations on long pulses). Tokamaks must therefore either operate for short periods or rely on other means of heating and current drive. ### Magnetic compression A gas can be heated by sudden compression. In the same way, the temperature of a plasma is increased if it is compressed rapidly by increasing the confining magnetic field. In a tokamak, this compression is achieved simply by moving the plasma into a region of higher magnetic field (i.e., radially inward). Since plasma compression brings the ions closer together, the process has the additional benefit of facilitating attainment of the required density for a fusion reactor. Magnetic compression was an area of research in the early "tokamak stampede", and was the purpose of one major design, the ATC. The concept has not been widely used since then, although a somewhat similar concept is part of the [General Fusion](/wiki/General_Fusion "General Fusion") design. ### Neutral\-beam injection {{see also\|Neutral beam injection}} Neutral\-beam injection involves the introduction of high energy (rapidly moving) atoms or molecules into an ohmically heated, magnetically confined plasma within the tokamak. The high energy atoms originate as ions in an arc chamber before being extracted through a high voltage grid set. The term "ion source" is used to generally mean the assembly consisting of a set of electron emitting filaments, an arc chamber volume, and a set of extraction grids. A second device, similar in concept, is used to separately accelerate electrons to the same energy. The much lighter mass of the electrons makes this device much smaller than its ion counterpart. The two beams then intersect, where the ions and electrons recombine into neutral atoms, allowing them to travel through the magnetic fields. Once the neutral beam enters the tokamak, interactions with the main plasma ions occur. This has two effects. One is that the injected atoms re\-ionize and become charged, thereby becoming trapped inside the reactor and adding to the fuel mass. The other is that the process of being ionized occurs through impacts with the rest of the fuel, and these impacts deposit energy in that fuel, heating it. This form of heating has no inherent energy (temperature) limitation, in contrast to the ohmic method, but its rate is limited to the current in the injectors. Ion source extraction voltages are typically on the order of 50–100 kV, and high voltage, negative ion sources (\-1 MV) are being developed for ITER. The ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility in Padova will be the first ITER facility to start operation.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.igi.cnr.it/www/sites/default/files/home201511/SchedaNBTF\_MIUR\_EN.pdf\|title\=Neutral Beam Test Facility\|access\-date\=9 October 2016\|archive\-date\=10 October 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010212050/https://www.igi.cnr.it/www/sites/default/files/home201511/SchedaNBTF\_MIUR\_EN.pdf}} While neutral beam injection is used primarily for plasma heating, it can also be used as a diagnostic tool and in feedback control by making a pulsed beam consisting of a string of brief 2–10 ms beam blips. Deuterium is a primary fuel for neutral beam heating systems and hydrogen and helium are sometimes used for selected experiments. ### Radio\-frequency heating [thumb\|Set of hyperfrequency tubes (84 GHz and 118 GHz) for plasma heating by electron cyclotron waves on the [Tokamak à Configuration Variable](/wiki/Tokamak_%C3%A0_configuration_variable "Tokamak à configuration variable") (TCV). Courtesy of SPC\-EPFL.](/wiki/Image:Gyrotron_plateforme.jpg "Gyrotron plateforme.jpg") {{see also\|Radio frequency heating\|Dielectric heating}} High\-frequency electromagnetic waves are generated by oscillators (often by [gyrotrons](/wiki/Gyrotron "Gyrotron") or [klystrons](/wiki/Klystron "Klystron")) outside the torus. If the waves have the correct frequency (or wavelength) and polarization, their energy can be transferred to the charged particles in the plasma, which in turn collide with other plasma particles, thus increasing the temperature of the bulk plasma. Various techniques exist including [electron cyclotron resonance](/wiki/Electron_cyclotron_resonance "Electron cyclotron resonance") heating (ECRH) and [ion cyclotron resonance](/wiki/Ion_cyclotron_resonance "Ion cyclotron resonance") heating. This energy is usually transferred by microwaves.
[ "Plasma heating\n--------------", "In an operating fusion reactor, part of the energy generated will serve to maintain the plasma temperature as fresh [deuterium](/wiki/Deuterium \"Deuterium\") and [tritium](/wiki/Tritium \"Tritium\") are introduced. However, in the startup of a reactor, either initially or after a temporary shutdown, the plasma will have to be heated to its [operating temperature](/wiki/Operating_temperature \"Operating temperature\") of greater than 10 keV (over 100 million degrees Celsius). In current tokamak (and other) magnetic fusion experiments, insufficient fusion energy is produced to maintain the plasma temperature, and constant external heating must be supplied. Chinese researchers set up the [Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak](/wiki/Experimental_Advanced_Superconducting_Tokamak \"Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak\") (EAST) in 2006, which can supposedly sustain a plasma temperature of 100 million degree Celsius for initiating fusion between hydrogen atoms, according to a November 2018 test.", "### Ohmic heating \\~ inductive mode", "Since the plasma is an electrical conductor, it is possible to heat the plasma by inducing a current through it; the induced current that provides most of the poloidal field is also a major source of initial heating.", "The heating caused by the induced current is called ohmic (or resistive) heating; it is the same kind of heating that occurs in an electric light bulb or in an electric heater. The heat generated depends on the resistance of the plasma and the amount of electric current running through it. But as the temperature of heated plasma rises, the resistance decreases and ohmic heating becomes less effective. It appears that the maximum plasma temperature attainable by ohmic heating in a tokamak is 20–30 million degrees Celsius. To obtain still higher temperatures, additional heating methods must be used.", "The current is induced by continually increasing the current through an electromagnetic winding linked with the plasma torus: the plasma can be viewed as the secondary winding of a transformer. This is inherently a pulsed process because there is a limit to the current through the primary (there are also other limitations on long pulses). Tokamaks must therefore either operate for short periods or rely on other means of heating and current drive.", "### Magnetic compression", "A gas can be heated by sudden compression. In the same way, the temperature of a plasma is increased if it is compressed rapidly by increasing the confining magnetic field. In a tokamak, this compression is achieved simply by moving the plasma into a region of higher magnetic field (i.e., radially inward). Since plasma compression brings the ions closer together, the process has the additional benefit of facilitating attainment of the required density for a fusion reactor.", "Magnetic compression was an area of research in the early \"tokamak stampede\", and was the purpose of one major design, the ATC. The concept has not been widely used since then, although a somewhat similar concept is part of the [General Fusion](/wiki/General_Fusion \"General Fusion\") design.", "### Neutral\\-beam injection", "{{see also\\|Neutral beam injection}}\nNeutral\\-beam injection involves the introduction of high energy (rapidly moving) atoms or molecules into an ohmically heated, magnetically confined plasma within the tokamak.", "The high energy atoms originate as ions in an arc chamber before being extracted through a high voltage grid set. The term \"ion source\" is used to generally mean the assembly consisting of a set of electron emitting filaments, an arc chamber volume, and a set of extraction grids. A second device, similar in concept, is used to separately accelerate electrons to the same energy. The much lighter mass of the electrons makes this device much smaller than its ion counterpart. The two beams then intersect, where the ions and electrons recombine into neutral atoms, allowing them to travel through the magnetic fields.", "Once the neutral beam enters the tokamak, interactions with the main plasma ions occur. This has two effects. One is that the injected atoms re\\-ionize and become charged, thereby becoming trapped inside the reactor and adding to the fuel mass. The other is that the process of being ionized occurs through impacts with the rest of the fuel, and these impacts deposit energy in that fuel, heating it.", "This form of heating has no inherent energy (temperature) limitation, in contrast to the ohmic method, but its rate is limited to the current in the injectors. Ion source extraction voltages are typically on the order of 50–100 kV, and high voltage, negative ion sources (\\-1 MV) are being developed for ITER. The ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility in Padova will be the first ITER facility to start operation.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.igi.cnr.it/www/sites/default/files/home201511/SchedaNBTF\\_MIUR\\_EN.pdf\\|title\\=Neutral Beam Test Facility\\|access\\-date\\=9 October 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=10 October 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010212050/https://www.igi.cnr.it/www/sites/default/files/home201511/SchedaNBTF\\_MIUR\\_EN.pdf}}", "While neutral beam injection is used primarily for plasma heating, it can also be used as a diagnostic tool and in feedback control by making a pulsed beam consisting of a string of brief 2–10 ms beam blips. Deuterium is a primary fuel for neutral beam heating systems and hydrogen and helium are sometimes used for selected experiments.", "### Radio\\-frequency heating", "[thumb\\|Set of hyperfrequency tubes (84 GHz and 118 GHz) for plasma heating by electron cyclotron waves on the [Tokamak à Configuration Variable](/wiki/Tokamak_%C3%A0_configuration_variable \"Tokamak à configuration variable\") (TCV). Courtesy of SPC\\-EPFL.](/wiki/Image:Gyrotron_plateforme.jpg \"Gyrotron plateforme.jpg\")", "{{see also\\|Radio frequency heating\\|Dielectric heating}}\nHigh\\-frequency electromagnetic waves are generated by oscillators (often by [gyrotrons](/wiki/Gyrotron \"Gyrotron\") or [klystrons](/wiki/Klystron \"Klystron\")) outside the torus. If the waves have the correct frequency (or wavelength) and polarization, their energy can be transferred to the charged particles in the plasma, which in turn collide with other plasma particles, thus increasing the temperature of the bulk plasma. Various techniques exist including [electron cyclotron resonance](/wiki/Electron_cyclotron_resonance \"Electron cyclotron resonance\") heating (ECRH) and [ion cyclotron resonance](/wiki/Ion_cyclotron_resonance \"Ion cyclotron resonance\") heating. This energy is usually transferred by microwaves.", "" ]
History ------- ### The birth of WAAN AM 1480 Wayne County's first radio station went on the air in January 1970, with studios located upstairs above Helton's Drug Store. "[Orange Blossom Special](/wiki/Orange_Blossom_Special_%28song%29 "Orange Blossom Special (song)")" was the first song played on what was then the new 1480 **WAAN** radio. That first record was played by beloved former announcer and singer Neal "Tywhop" Jones. In the mid\-1970s the station changed hands and [Grand Ole Opry](/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry "Grand Ole Opry") members [Ernie Ashworth](/wiki/Ernie_Ashworth "Ernie Ashworth") and Ralph Davis became the owners for a brief period, along with Carl Swafford. In between the call letters WAAN and WTNR was the call letters WNBG. ### Frequency move and callsign change In the late 1980s, the station was moved to its present location in the old bank building on the Public Square in downtown Waynesboro. After years of paperwork the station changed frequency and call letters, and AM 930 **WTNR** was born. The call letters stood for Waynesboro, Tennessee Radio. Aside from past owner [Ernie Ashworth](/wiki/Ernie_Ashworth "Ernie Ashworth") of [Grand Ole Opry](/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry "Grand Ole Opry") fame, country singer, actor, writer, and Waynesboro native [Mark Collie](/wiki/Mark_Collie "Mark Collie") also got his start on AM 930\. Mark became a popular [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music") star. Also in the 1980s and early 1990s country singer [Jacky Ward](/wiki/Jacky_Ward "Jacky Ward") was an announcer. "Wile Willie" as he was called on the air, had success on the country charts with his hit "[Big Blue Diamond](/wiki/Big_Blue_Diamonds "Big Blue Diamonds")". ("Wile" as in [Wile E. Coyote](/wiki/Wile_E._Coyote "Wile E. Coyote") of the "Roadrunner" cartoons.) In July 1991, a new chapter in broadcasting began when [WTNR\-FM](/wiki/WMSR-FM "WMSR-FM") went on the air featuring hot new country music. AM 930 even simulcast the FM station until going [all talk](/wiki/Talk_radio "Talk radio") with syndicated talk shows. In 1994 the stations were sold to Ohio Broadcasting, and in 1998 the FM license was moved to [Florence, Alabama](/wiki/Florence%2C_Alabama "Florence, Alabama"). This left AM 930 in Waynesboro, as WTNR\-FM became Froggy 94, and then The River 94\. Subsequently, all of Wayne County's other FM stations moved to Florence, leaving AM 930 as the only Wayne County radio station. ### As WWON: the first time around WTNR continued as a talk station until August 3, 2000 when the station was sold again and changed its call letters and format to WWON (W1\) "[Familiar Favorites](/wiki/Oldies "Oldies")." The station continued a great tradition of ["Hometown Radio"](/wiki/Variety_%28radio_format%29 "Variety (radio format)") providing Wayne County with local news, weather, and sports broadcasts. Due to these circumstances beyond their control, the owners were forced out of business. AM 930 WWON went [dark](/wiki/Dark_%28broadcasting%29 "Dark (broadcasting)") in August 2005\. ### Rebirth after silence #### Legends 930 Six months after WWON went silent, [Huntingdon, Tennessee](/wiki/Huntingdon%2C_Tennessee "Huntingdon, Tennessee"), residents Chris and Karen Lash returned WWON to the air, purchasing the station in February 2006\. The Lashes quickly returned AM 930 to its country roots when **Legends 930 W\-WON** was born. The station featured [classic country](/wiki/Classic_country "Classic country") music, with local, national and statewide news every hour. An interactive, and updated website with local news headlines was restarted, and coverage of Wayne County Wildcat sports, and [Tennessee Titans](/wiki/Tennessee_Titans "Tennessee Titans") football was added to the programming line\-up. Also new to the radio station and county was a monthly newspaper, direct\-mailed to homes in Waynesboro. *The Advisor*, Waynesboro's Hometown News and Shopper began, giving Waynesboro and the county positive stories of the people, places and things relative to the local community. ### AM 930 The Farm On January 8, 2007, the station changed its name and added current country songs to its rotation, in response to a web\-based poll of its listeners. The station was then known as **"AM 930 The Farm".** The station was an affiliate of the Tennessee Titans radio network.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.titansradio.com/stationstn.html\|title\=Titans Radio in Tennessee\|work\=Titans Radio}} ### Kickin Country On April 20, 2008 WWON was sold to Small Potatoes Broadcasting, LLC based in Nashville, Tennessee. The new owners kept a country format and changed to a new name: Kickin Country, KICKN.
[ "History\n-------", "### The birth of WAAN AM 1480", "Wayne County's first radio station went on the air in January 1970, with studios located upstairs above Helton's Drug Store. \"[Orange Blossom Special](/wiki/Orange_Blossom_Special_%28song%29 \"Orange Blossom Special (song)\")\" was the first song played on what was then the new 1480 **WAAN** radio. That first record was played by beloved former announcer and singer Neal \"Tywhop\" Jones.", "In the mid\\-1970s the station changed hands and [Grand Ole Opry](/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry \"Grand Ole Opry\") members [Ernie Ashworth](/wiki/Ernie_Ashworth \"Ernie Ashworth\") and Ralph Davis became the owners for a brief period, along with Carl Swafford. In between the call letters WAAN and WTNR was the call letters WNBG.", "### Frequency move and callsign change", "In the late 1980s, the station was moved to its present location in the old bank building on the Public Square in downtown Waynesboro. After years of paperwork the station changed frequency and call letters, and AM 930 **WTNR** was born. The call letters stood for Waynesboro, Tennessee Radio.", "Aside from past owner [Ernie Ashworth](/wiki/Ernie_Ashworth \"Ernie Ashworth\") of [Grand Ole Opry](/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry \"Grand Ole Opry\") fame, country singer, actor, writer, and Waynesboro native [Mark Collie](/wiki/Mark_Collie \"Mark Collie\") also got his start on AM 930\\. Mark became a popular [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") star. Also in the 1980s and early 1990s country singer [Jacky Ward](/wiki/Jacky_Ward \"Jacky Ward\") was an announcer. \"Wile Willie\" as he was called on the air, had success on the country charts with his hit \"[Big Blue Diamond](/wiki/Big_Blue_Diamonds \"Big Blue Diamonds\")\". (\"Wile\" as in [Wile E. Coyote](/wiki/Wile_E._Coyote \"Wile E. Coyote\") of the \"Roadrunner\" cartoons.)", "In July 1991, a new chapter in broadcasting began when [WTNR\\-FM](/wiki/WMSR-FM \"WMSR-FM\") went on the air featuring hot new country music. AM 930 even simulcast the FM station until going [all talk](/wiki/Talk_radio \"Talk radio\") with syndicated talk shows. In 1994 the stations were sold to Ohio Broadcasting, and in 1998 the FM license was moved to [Florence, Alabama](/wiki/Florence%2C_Alabama \"Florence, Alabama\"). This left AM 930 in Waynesboro, as WTNR\\-FM became Froggy 94, and then The River 94\\.", "Subsequently, all of Wayne County's other FM stations moved to Florence, leaving AM 930 as the only Wayne County radio station.", "### As WWON: the first time around", "WTNR continued as a talk station until August 3, 2000 when the station was sold again and changed its call letters and format to WWON (W1\\) \"[Familiar Favorites](/wiki/Oldies \"Oldies\").\" The station continued a great tradition of [\"Hometown Radio\"](/wiki/Variety_%28radio_format%29 \"Variety (radio format)\") providing Wayne County with local news, weather, and sports broadcasts. Due to these circumstances beyond their control, the owners were forced out of business. AM 930 WWON went [dark](/wiki/Dark_%28broadcasting%29 \"Dark (broadcasting)\") in August 2005\\.", "### Rebirth after silence", "#### Legends 930", "Six months after WWON went silent, [Huntingdon, Tennessee](/wiki/Huntingdon%2C_Tennessee \"Huntingdon, Tennessee\"), residents Chris and Karen Lash returned WWON to the air, purchasing the station in February 2006\\. The Lashes quickly returned AM 930 to its country roots when **Legends 930 W\\-WON** was born. The station featured [classic country](/wiki/Classic_country \"Classic country\") music, with local, national and statewide news every hour. An interactive, and updated website with local news headlines was restarted, and coverage of Wayne County Wildcat sports, and [Tennessee Titans](/wiki/Tennessee_Titans \"Tennessee Titans\") football was added to the programming line\\-up.", "Also new to the radio station and county was a monthly newspaper, direct\\-mailed to homes in Waynesboro. *The Advisor*, Waynesboro's Hometown News and Shopper began, giving Waynesboro and the county positive stories of the people, places and things relative to the local community.", "### AM 930 The Farm", "On January 8, 2007, the station changed its name and added current country songs to its rotation, in response to a web\\-based poll of its listeners. The station was then known as **\"AM 930 The Farm\".** The station was an affiliate of the Tennessee Titans radio network.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.titansradio.com/stationstn.html\\|title\\=Titans Radio in Tennessee\\|work\\=Titans Radio}}", "### Kickin Country", "On April 20, 2008 WWON was sold to Small Potatoes Broadcasting, LLC based in Nashville, Tennessee. The new owners kept a country format and changed to a new name: Kickin Country, KICKN.", "" ]
History ------- ### Early history In approximately 500 [CE](/wiki/Common_Era "Common Era"), [Tongva Indians](/wiki/Tongva_people "Tongva people"),[Gabrieleno/Tongva of San Gabriel](http://tongva.com/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010923234724/http://tongva.com/ \|date\=September 23, 2001 }} the native people migrated from the [Mojave](/wiki/Mojave%2C_California "Mojave, California") area to what would become [Los Angeles County](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County "Los Angeles County") (including the [San Gabriel Valley](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Valley "San Gabriel Valley")). Their name means "People of the Earth". Their primary language was Uto\-Aztecan Shoshonean. In the 16th century, there were about 25 Tongva villages, with a population of approximately 400 people.{{cite web\|url\=http://cityofsierramadre.com/departments/library/106\-headline\-history\-of\-sierra\-madre\|title\=City of Sierra Madre: Headline History}} By 1769, the first Spanish settlers arrived in the region, finding an estimated 5,000 Tongva living in 31 villages. Sierra Madre was the site of a settlement named *Sonayna*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lapl.org/collections\-resources/visual\-collections/kirkman\-harriman\-pictorial\-and\-historical\-map\-los\-angeles\|title\=Kirkman\-Harriman Pictorial and Historical Map {{!}} Los Angeles Public Library\|website\=www.lapl.org\|language\=en\|access\-date\=November 24, 2017}} Two years later, [Mission San Gabriel Arcangel](/wiki/Mission_San_Gabriel_Arcangel "Mission San Gabriel Arcangel") was founded in present\-day [Montebello](/wiki/Montebello%2C_California "Montebello, California"). The mission was later moved to [San Gabriel](/wiki/San_Gabriel%2C_California "San Gabriel, California") because of severe flooding from the [Rio Hondo](/wiki/Rio_Hondo_%28California%29 "Rio Hondo (California)") River, which ruined their crops. The original mission site is now marked by a [California Historical Landmark](/wiki/California_Historical_Landmark "California Historical Landmark").{{cite web \| title \=Los Angeles \| work \=California Historical Landmarks \| publisher \=California Department of Parks \& Recreation Office of Historic Preservation \| year \=2004 \| url \=http://ohp.parks.ca.gov/default.asp?page\_id\=21427 \| access\-date \=July 30, 2007}} Tongvas were integrated into the culture of the mission, and the tribe were renamed [Gabrielino Indians](/wiki/Gabrielino_Indians "Gabrielino Indians") by the Spaniards. The first Mount Wilson trail was carved by the Gabrielino Indians, who used it when they carried timber down from the mountains for the construction of the San Gabriel Mission in 1771\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sierramadrenews.net/?page\_id\=331\|title\=Trail Race – Sierra Madre News Net}} Using Mexican and Chinese laborers, [Benjamin "Don Benito" Wilson](/wiki/Benjamin_Davis_Wilson "Benjamin Davis Wilson") expanded the [Mount Wilson](/wiki/Mount_Wilson_%28California%29 "Mount Wilson (California)") Trail in 1864\. Nathaniel Carter purchased the original {{convert\|1103\|acre\|km2}} that comprise Sierra Madre in 1881: {{convert\|845\|acre\|km2}} from "[Lucky Baldwin](/wiki/Lucky_Baldwin "Lucky Baldwin")", {{convert\|108\|acre\|km2}} from the [Southern Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Southern_Pacific_Railroad "Southern Pacific Railroad") Company, and {{convert\|150\|acre\|km2}} from John Richardson (1811–August 9, 1884\).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.smhps.org/archivedpdfs/2016\_summer.pdf\|title\=Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society, September 2016 Newsletter}} In 1888, the [Santa Anita](/wiki/Santa_Anita%2C_California "Santa Anita, California") railroad station was built. The first of the year brought [Pacific Electric Railway](/wiki/Pacific_Electric_Railway "Pacific Electric Railway") Red Car passenger service to Sierra Madre. Later that year the first electric lights were installed by the Edison Electric Company. In December 1906, the first telephones were installed (250 of them) by the Home Telephone Company of Monrovia. On February 2, 1907, the first citywide election was held and 96 citizens voted 71–25 to officially incorporate Sierra Madre; the population was about 500\. In February 1907, eighteen days after the election, Sierra Madre became incorporated as a California city. Charles Worthington Jones was the first mayor. [thumb\|left\|250px\|The Sierra Madre Villa Hotel, 1884](/wiki/File:Sierra_Madre_Villa_Hotel-1884.jpg "Sierra Madre Villa Hotel-1884.jpg") ### The new century Sierra Madre is historically linked to the old mountain resorts of the San Gabriel Mountains and Valley. The Sierra Madre Villa Hotel was a pioneer of summer resorts that populated the [San Gabriel Valley](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Valley "San Gabriel Valley") in the late 19th century.[The Official Site of the City of Sierra Madre: Headline History of Sierra Madre](http://cityofsierramadre.com/index.php?mod=headline_history) The municipality also operated and maintained the landmark "Lizzie's Trail" inn at the head of Old Mount Wilson Trail. [Harvard College](/wiki/Harvard_College "Harvard College") established the first [Mount Wilson Observatory](/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory "Mount Wilson Observatory") in 1889\. The installation of the Harvard telescope in 1889, which brought its own problems of transporting the instrument up the old Wilson trail, caused an interest in a Mt. Wilson roadway, something more than a trail. The Harvard telescope was removed and in July the new toll road was officially opened to the public. The toll was set by the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors at 25 cents for hikers and 50 cents for horseback. The new road was called the "New Mt. Wilson Trail" and it was more popular at the time than the old Sierra Madre trail. Foot and pack animal traffic became so heavy that in June 1893 the trail was widened to {{convert\|6\|ft\|m\|spell\=in}}. The [Pacific Electric](/wiki/Pacific_Electric "Pacific Electric") "Red Cars" established their [route to Sierra Madre](/wiki/Sierra_Madre_Line "Sierra Madre Line") from 1906 until 1950\. Thousands of people rode the cars to Sierra Madre to hike the original Mt. Wilson Trail. [thumb\|right\|Horse and buggy passage on the Mount Wilson Trail](/wiki/File:Old_Mount_Wilson_Toll_Road.jpg "Old Mount Wilson Toll Road.jpg") [left\|thumb\|The ruins of Orchard Camp can still be visited on the Mt. Wilson Trail.](/wiki/File:Ruins_of_Orchard_Camp_on_Mount_Wilson_Trail.jpg "Ruins of Orchard Camp on Mount Wilson Trail.jpg") In 1908, the first Mt. Wilson Trail Race was run. This annual race was discontinued during WWII and reestablished in 1966\. The 102nd anniversary of the first running of the Mount Wilson Trail Race and the 44th annual race was run in May 2010\. Because of rain, mudslides, falling trees, soil erosion and rockslides, the regularly monitored trail course changes almost every year, and no official records of running times are kept. The {{convert\|8\.6\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} course starts and ends on pavement, but most of the race is run on a dirt path about {{convert\|3\|ft\|m\|spell\=in}} wide, and the Mt. Wilson Trail has occasional steep vertical drops of hundreds of feet. Due to the trail's narrowness and steepness, the race is limited to 300 male and 300 female runners. The path gains elevation to more than {{convert\|2100\|ft\|m}}; at {{convert\|4\.3\|mi\|km}} from the start of the race is Orchard Camp, the turnaround point. Scout troops hike up to provide water at two locations, at the {{convert\|2\.3\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} point and at the Orchard Camp turnaround. The Sierra Madre Search and Rescue Team provides emergency support on race day. The Mt. Wilson Trail Race has traditional and historical value to the community. A year after the city's incorporation, Catholic families contacted a priest from Chicago, Father M. W. Barth, who had moved west for his health, to ask if he could celebrate Mass for them.{{cite web\|url\=http://st\-rita.org/parish\-history/\|title\=Parish History \- Saint Rita Catholic Church}} The construction of the first, very small, church of St. Rita's parish, founded by Barth in 1908, was completed in 1910\. In 1922, St. Rita's Catholic Church parochial school opened. During the first 100 years of St. Rita's Parish, it has on record 4,075 baptisms, 3,590 confirmations, 1,334 marriages and 1,469 funerals.{{cite web\|url\=http://st\-rita.org/about\-st\-rita/parish\-history \|title\=Parish History \| Saint Rita Catholic Church \|publisher\=St\-rita.org \|access\-date\=December 22, 2018}} The scattering of families that began with Barth in 1908 has grown to more than 1,200 Catholic parish homes today, in a city whose population is now approximately 10,917\. In 1914, after a long legal battle, the city acquired title to all water rights, lands, and distribution systems of the Baldwin Estate and the Sierra Madre Water Company. [thumb\|right\|Sierra Madre {{circa\|1908}} with PE line Depot and the Hotel Shirley in background](/wiki/File:Sierra_Madre_1908_PE_line_and_Hotel_Shirley.jpg "Sierra Madre 1908 PE line and Hotel Shirley.jpg") #### 1920s and 1930s In 1921, a disastrous bakery fire at Windsor Lane and Montecito Court prompted the official organization of the Sierra Madre Volunteer Fire Department. Sierra Madre had the last remaining [volunteer fire department](/wiki/Volunteer_fire_department "Volunteer fire department") in [greater Los Angeles](/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_area "Greater Los Angeles area") before transitioning to a paid department in 2017\. On January 1, 1922, Bethany Temple was dedicated. The now historic domed cobblestone church was designed and built by the nearly blind Louis D. Corneulle. The new [Congregational Church structure](/wiki/Old_North_Church_%28Sierra_Madre%2C_California%29 "Old North Church (Sierra Madre, California)") was completed on Sierra Madre Ave; the Romanesque Revival building was designed by Marsh, Smith, \& Powell. In July 1927, the Sierra Madre Kiwanis Club was formed. On April 21, 1931, the first meeting of the Sierra Madre Historical Society took place, in conjunction with the city's 50th anniversary celebration. In 1936, a city ordinance officially changed the name of Central Avenue to Sierra Madre Blvd. In March 1938, a disastrous storm and the resulting flood destroyed many resorts in the local mountains, and also ravaged the (John) Muir Lodge in Big [Santa Anita Canyon](/wiki/Santa_Anita_Canyon "Santa Anita Canyon") above Sierra Madre. No trace remains of it today.{{cite web \|url\=http://angeles.sierraclub.org/about/MuirLodge.asp \|title\=About Us: Muir Lodge \[Angeles Chapter Sierra Club] \|access\-date\=October 9, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515153942/http://angeles.sierraclub.org/about/MuirLodge.asp \|archive\-date\=May 15, 2008 }} In 1940, the city purchased {{convert\|760\|acre\|km2}} of land in the San Gabriel Mountains near Orchard Camp to avoid contamination of the water supply. A six\-week Wisteria event took place in the 1930s. The crowds that traveled to see the giant Wisteria vine were estimated at over 100,000\. With so many visitors, extra "Red Cars" were put on the Pacific Electric route to Sierra Madre.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sierramadrenews.net/?page\_id\=259\|title\=Wistaria Festival – Sierra Madre News Net}} #### 1940s [thumb\|right\|Sierra Madre one\-room school house in 1881, at the corner of Hermosa and Grove Grove. Grove Grove was called Live Oak in 1881](/wiki/File:School_house_SM_Ca_1881.jpg "School house SM Ca 1881.jpg") On May 14, 1942, Sierra Madre's Japanese population was required to depart for the detention facility in [Tulare, California](/wiki/Tulare%2C_California "Tulare, California"). During this decade, Sierra Madre Civic Club and the Sierra Madre Lions Club were organized. The Sierra Madre Community Nursery School also opened. In May 1947, the first Pioneer Days Parade was held. The heaviest recorded snow in Sierra Madre occurred in 1949, blanketing the town with {{convert\|3\|to\|4\|in\|cm}} of snow overnight. In 1948, the [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States"), in the case of *[Shelley v. Kraemer](/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer "Shelley v. Kraemer")*, ended racially restrictive covenants that had prevented black people from owning homes in Sierra Madre and some neighboring cities. However, residential segregation patterns had already become established and persisted up until 1968 when realtors began to routinely show homes to black people.{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XqgYRg8DMaIC\&pg\=RA7\-PA110\|title\=Records and Briefs of the United States Supreme Court\|date\=October 1975\|chapter\=Pasadena School Board of Education v. Spangler\|language\=en}} #### Mid\-century On October 6, 1950, the last Pacific Electric train left from Sierra Madre. In 1951, Sierra Madre Search and Rescue Team was established by Larry Shepherd and Fred LaLone. Sierra Madre joined the [Pasadena Unified School District](/wiki/Pasadena_Unified_School_District "Pasadena Unified School District") in 1961\. In 1967, [Princess Margaret](/wiki/Princess_Margaret "Princess Margaret") visited the British Home in Sierra Madre. The Cultural Heritage Committee was established in 1969 by the Sierra Madre City Council with the intent of "defining cultural and aesthetic landmarks throughout the City of Sierra Madre and to recommend how such landmarks be preserved." In 1969, the city purchased the Women's Clubhouse, to be demolished and become the site of a new City Hall building. The Sierra Madre Historical Wilderness Area was established by declaration of the City Council on January 24, 1967\. When it was dedicated on January 27, 1968, Sierra Madre was the first city in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") to own a wilderness preserve. The Sierra Madre City Council added the Mt. Wilson Trail to the Sierra Madre Register of Historic Cultural Landmarks on October 12, 1993\. #### 1970s In January 1971, the Sierra Madre Environmental Action Council was formed. In 1974, the Bell Tower in Kersting Court was dedicated; it houses the original school bell from the 1885 schoolhouse. In 1976, *Sierra Madre Vistas* was published by the Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society.{{Cite web\|title\=SMHPS History\|url\=http://www.smhps.org/home/our\-history.html\|access\-date\=August 13, 2021\|website\=Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society}} On March 19, 1976, the Bicentennial time capsule was buried beneath the flagpole at the new Fire and Police Department Facility, then dedicated in May. The New City Hall building was dedicated on Sierra Madre Boulevard in 1977\. #### 1980s and 1990s In 1981, Sierra Madre celebrated the centennial of its founding, complete with a Centennial Royal Court and dance, a special Historical Society dinner, and rides on a Pacific Electric red car brought back to town on Independence Day weekend. #### Recent history In 2003, the groundbreaking ceremony for the Senior Housing Project on Esperanza Avenue was held. The affordable housing project includes 46 units designed by PBWS Architects and developed by the Foundation for Quality Housing. Later that year, the Veterans' Photo Wall, spearheaded by John Grijalva, was dedicated in Memorial Park. In 2007, Sierra Madre celebrated the centennial of its incorporation as a California city. Sierra Madre also won the [All\-America City Award](/wiki/All-America_City_Award "All-America City Award") given by the [National Civic League](/wiki/National_Civic_League "National Civic League"). That same year, the refurbished World War I cannon in Memorial Park was dedicated. In March 2008, the Milton \& Harriet Goldberg Recreation Area was dedicated, as the city's first such pocket park in over 30 years. In 2009, the Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society published *Southern California Story: Seeking the Better Life in Sierra Madre* by Michele Zack. In 2023, the city asked the [California Department of Fish and Wildlife](/wiki/California_Department_of_Fish_and_Wildlife "California Department of Fish and Wildlife") to change its approach to dealing with bears in the city.{{Cite web \|last\=Solis \|first\=Nathan \|date\=April 13, 2023 \|title\='I've had bears eat my chickens': Bear sightings on the rise in Sierra Madre \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2023\-04\-12/bears\-sierra\-madre\-california\-department\-of\-fish\-and\-wildlife \|access\-date\=April 13, 2023 \|website\=Los Angeles Times \|language\=en\-US}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Early history", "In approximately 500 [CE](/wiki/Common_Era \"Common Era\"), [Tongva Indians](/wiki/Tongva_people \"Tongva people\"),[Gabrieleno/Tongva of San Gabriel](http://tongva.com/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010923234724/http://tongva.com/ \\|date\\=September 23, 2001 }} the native people migrated from the [Mojave](/wiki/Mojave%2C_California \"Mojave, California\") area to what would become [Los Angeles County](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County \"Los Angeles County\") (including the [San Gabriel Valley](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Valley \"San Gabriel Valley\")). Their name means \"People of the Earth\". Their primary language was Uto\\-Aztecan Shoshonean. In the 16th century, there were about 25 Tongva villages, with a population of approximately 400 people.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cityofsierramadre.com/departments/library/106\\-headline\\-history\\-of\\-sierra\\-madre\\|title\\=City of Sierra Madre: Headline History}} By 1769, the first Spanish settlers arrived in the region, finding an estimated 5,000 Tongva living in 31 villages. Sierra Madre was the site of a settlement named *Sonayna*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lapl.org/collections\\-resources/visual\\-collections/kirkman\\-harriman\\-pictorial\\-and\\-historical\\-map\\-los\\-angeles\\|title\\=Kirkman\\-Harriman Pictorial and Historical Map {{!}} Los Angeles Public Library\\|website\\=www.lapl.org\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=November 24, 2017}} Two years later, [Mission San Gabriel Arcangel](/wiki/Mission_San_Gabriel_Arcangel \"Mission San Gabriel Arcangel\") was founded in present\\-day [Montebello](/wiki/Montebello%2C_California \"Montebello, California\"). The mission was later moved to [San Gabriel](/wiki/San_Gabriel%2C_California \"San Gabriel, California\") because of severe flooding from the [Rio Hondo](/wiki/Rio_Hondo_%28California%29 \"Rio Hondo (California)\") River, which ruined their crops. The original mission site is now marked by a [California Historical Landmark](/wiki/California_Historical_Landmark \"California Historical Landmark\").{{cite web \\| title \\=Los Angeles \\| work \\=California Historical Landmarks \\| publisher \\=California Department of Parks \\& Recreation Office of Historic Preservation \\| year \\=2004 \\| url \\=http://ohp.parks.ca.gov/default.asp?page\\_id\\=21427 \\| access\\-date \\=July 30, 2007}} Tongvas were integrated into the culture of the mission, and the tribe were renamed [Gabrielino Indians](/wiki/Gabrielino_Indians \"Gabrielino Indians\") by the Spaniards. The first Mount Wilson trail was carved by the Gabrielino Indians, who used it when they carried timber down from the mountains for the construction of the San Gabriel Mission in 1771\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sierramadrenews.net/?page\\_id\\=331\\|title\\=Trail Race – Sierra Madre News Net}}", "Using Mexican and Chinese laborers, [Benjamin \"Don Benito\" Wilson](/wiki/Benjamin_Davis_Wilson \"Benjamin Davis Wilson\") expanded the [Mount Wilson](/wiki/Mount_Wilson_%28California%29 \"Mount Wilson (California)\") Trail in 1864\\. Nathaniel Carter purchased the original {{convert\\|1103\\|acre\\|km2}} that comprise Sierra Madre in 1881: {{convert\\|845\\|acre\\|km2}} from \"[Lucky Baldwin](/wiki/Lucky_Baldwin \"Lucky Baldwin\")\", {{convert\\|108\\|acre\\|km2}} from the [Southern Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Southern_Pacific_Railroad \"Southern Pacific Railroad\") Company, and {{convert\\|150\\|acre\\|km2}} from John Richardson (1811–August 9, 1884\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.smhps.org/archivedpdfs/2016\\_summer.pdf\\|title\\=Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society, September 2016 Newsletter}} In 1888, the [Santa Anita](/wiki/Santa_Anita%2C_California \"Santa Anita, California\") railroad station was built. The first of the year brought [Pacific Electric Railway](/wiki/Pacific_Electric_Railway \"Pacific Electric Railway\") Red Car passenger service to Sierra Madre. Later that year the first electric lights were installed by the Edison Electric Company. In December 1906, the first telephones were installed (250 of them) by the Home Telephone Company of Monrovia.", "On February 2, 1907, the first citywide election was held and 96 citizens voted 71–25 to officially incorporate Sierra Madre; the population was about 500\\. In February 1907, eighteen days after the election, Sierra Madre became incorporated as a California city. Charles Worthington Jones was the first mayor.\n[thumb\\|left\\|250px\\|The Sierra Madre Villa Hotel, 1884](/wiki/File:Sierra_Madre_Villa_Hotel-1884.jpg \"Sierra Madre Villa Hotel-1884.jpg\")", "### The new century", "Sierra Madre is historically linked to the old mountain resorts of the San Gabriel Mountains and Valley. The Sierra Madre Villa Hotel was a pioneer of summer resorts that populated the [San Gabriel Valley](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Valley \"San Gabriel Valley\") in the late 19th century.[The Official Site of the City of Sierra Madre: Headline History of Sierra Madre](http://cityofsierramadre.com/index.php?mod=headline_history) The municipality also operated and maintained the landmark \"Lizzie's Trail\" inn at the head of Old Mount Wilson Trail.", "[Harvard College](/wiki/Harvard_College \"Harvard College\") established the first [Mount Wilson Observatory](/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory \"Mount Wilson Observatory\") in 1889\\. The installation of the Harvard telescope in 1889, which brought its own problems of transporting the instrument up the old Wilson trail, caused an interest in a Mt. Wilson roadway, something more than a trail. The Harvard telescope was removed and in July the new toll road was officially opened to the public. The toll was set by the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors at 25 cents for hikers and 50 cents for horseback. The new road was called the \"New Mt. Wilson Trail\" and it was more popular at the time than the old Sierra Madre trail. Foot and pack animal traffic became so heavy that in June 1893 the trail was widened to {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|m\\|spell\\=in}}. The [Pacific Electric](/wiki/Pacific_Electric \"Pacific Electric\") \"Red Cars\" established their [route to Sierra Madre](/wiki/Sierra_Madre_Line \"Sierra Madre Line\") from 1906 until 1950\\. Thousands of people rode the cars to Sierra Madre to hike the original Mt. Wilson Trail.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Horse and buggy passage on the Mount Wilson Trail](/wiki/File:Old_Mount_Wilson_Toll_Road.jpg \"Old Mount Wilson Toll Road.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|The ruins of Orchard Camp can still be visited on the Mt. Wilson Trail.](/wiki/File:Ruins_of_Orchard_Camp_on_Mount_Wilson_Trail.jpg \"Ruins of Orchard Camp on Mount Wilson Trail.jpg\")\nIn 1908, the first Mt. Wilson Trail Race was run. This annual race was discontinued during WWII and reestablished in 1966\\. The 102nd anniversary of the first running of the Mount Wilson Trail Race and the 44th annual race was run in May 2010\\. Because of rain, mudslides, falling trees, soil erosion and rockslides, the regularly monitored trail course changes almost every year, and no official records of running times are kept. The {{convert\\|8\\.6\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} course starts and ends on pavement, but most of the race is run on a dirt path about {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|m\\|spell\\=in}} wide, and the Mt. Wilson Trail has occasional steep vertical drops of hundreds of feet. Due to the trail's narrowness and steepness, the race is limited to 300 male and 300 female runners. The path gains elevation to more than {{convert\\|2100\\|ft\\|m}}; at {{convert\\|4\\.3\\|mi\\|km}} from the start of the race is Orchard Camp, the turnaround point. Scout troops hike up to provide water at two locations, at the {{convert\\|2\\.3\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} point and at the Orchard Camp turnaround. The Sierra Madre Search and Rescue Team provides emergency support on race day. The Mt. Wilson Trail Race has traditional and historical value to the community.", "A year after the city's incorporation, Catholic families contacted a priest from Chicago, Father M. W. Barth, who had moved west for his health, to ask if he could celebrate Mass for them.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://st\\-rita.org/parish\\-history/\\|title\\=Parish History \\- Saint Rita Catholic Church}} The construction of the first, very small, church of St. Rita's parish, founded by Barth in 1908, was completed in 1910\\. In 1922, St. Rita's Catholic Church parochial school opened. During the first 100 years of St. Rita's Parish, it has on record 4,075 baptisms, 3,590 confirmations, 1,334 marriages and 1,469 funerals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://st\\-rita.org/about\\-st\\-rita/parish\\-history \\|title\\=Parish History \\| Saint Rita Catholic Church \\|publisher\\=St\\-rita.org \\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2018}} The scattering of families that began with Barth in 1908 has grown to more than 1,200 Catholic parish homes today, in a city whose population is now approximately 10,917\\.", "In 1914, after a long legal battle, the city acquired title to all water rights, lands, and distribution systems of the Baldwin Estate and the Sierra Madre Water Company.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Sierra Madre {{circa\\|1908}} with PE line Depot and the Hotel Shirley in background](/wiki/File:Sierra_Madre_1908_PE_line_and_Hotel_Shirley.jpg \"Sierra Madre 1908 PE line and Hotel Shirley.jpg\")", "#### 1920s and 1930s", "In 1921, a disastrous bakery fire at Windsor Lane and Montecito Court prompted the official organization of the Sierra Madre Volunteer Fire Department. Sierra Madre had the last remaining [volunteer fire department](/wiki/Volunteer_fire_department \"Volunteer fire department\") in [greater Los Angeles](/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_area \"Greater Los Angeles area\") before transitioning to a paid department in 2017\\.", "On January 1, 1922, Bethany Temple was dedicated. The now historic domed cobblestone church was designed and built by the nearly blind Louis D. Corneulle. The new [Congregational Church structure](/wiki/Old_North_Church_%28Sierra_Madre%2C_California%29 \"Old North Church (Sierra Madre, California)\") was completed on Sierra Madre Ave; the Romanesque Revival building was designed by Marsh, Smith, \\& Powell. In July 1927, the Sierra Madre Kiwanis Club was formed. On April 21, 1931, the first meeting of the Sierra Madre Historical Society took place, in conjunction with the city's 50th anniversary celebration. In 1936, a city ordinance officially changed the name of Central Avenue to Sierra Madre Blvd. In March 1938, a disastrous storm and the resulting flood destroyed many resorts in the local mountains, and also ravaged the (John) Muir Lodge in Big [Santa Anita Canyon](/wiki/Santa_Anita_Canyon \"Santa Anita Canyon\") above Sierra Madre. No trace remains of it today.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://angeles.sierraclub.org/about/MuirLodge.asp \\|title\\=About Us: Muir Lodge \\[Angeles Chapter Sierra Club] \\|access\\-date\\=October 9, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515153942/http://angeles.sierraclub.org/about/MuirLodge.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=May 15, 2008 }} In 1940, the city purchased {{convert\\|760\\|acre\\|km2}} of land in the San Gabriel Mountains near Orchard Camp to avoid contamination of the water supply.", "A six\\-week Wisteria event took place in the 1930s. The crowds that traveled to see the giant Wisteria vine were estimated at over 100,000\\. With so many visitors, extra \"Red Cars\" were put on the Pacific Electric route to Sierra Madre.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sierramadrenews.net/?page\\_id\\=259\\|title\\=Wistaria Festival – Sierra Madre News Net}}", "#### 1940s", "[thumb\\|right\\|Sierra Madre one\\-room school house in 1881, at the corner of Hermosa and Grove Grove. Grove Grove was called Live Oak in 1881](/wiki/File:School_house_SM_Ca_1881.jpg \"School house SM Ca 1881.jpg\") \nOn May 14, 1942, Sierra Madre's Japanese population was required to depart for the detention facility in [Tulare, California](/wiki/Tulare%2C_California \"Tulare, California\"). During this decade, Sierra Madre Civic Club and the Sierra Madre Lions Club were organized. The Sierra Madre Community Nursery School also opened. In May 1947, the first Pioneer Days Parade was held. The heaviest recorded snow in Sierra Madre occurred in 1949, blanketing the town with {{convert\\|3\\|to\\|4\\|in\\|cm}} of snow overnight.", "In 1948, the [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\"), in the case of *[Shelley v. Kraemer](/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer \"Shelley v. Kraemer\")*, ended racially restrictive covenants that had prevented black people from owning homes in Sierra Madre and some neighboring cities. However, residential segregation patterns had already become established and persisted up until 1968 when realtors began to routinely show homes to black people.{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XqgYRg8DMaIC\\&pg\\=RA7\\-PA110\\|title\\=Records and Briefs of the United States Supreme Court\\|date\\=October 1975\\|chapter\\=Pasadena School Board of Education v. Spangler\\|language\\=en}}", "#### Mid\\-century", "On October 6, 1950, the last Pacific Electric train left from Sierra Madre. In 1951, Sierra Madre Search and Rescue Team was established by Larry Shepherd and Fred LaLone. Sierra Madre joined the [Pasadena Unified School District](/wiki/Pasadena_Unified_School_District \"Pasadena Unified School District\") in 1961\\. In 1967, [Princess Margaret](/wiki/Princess_Margaret \"Princess Margaret\") visited the British Home in Sierra Madre. The Cultural Heritage Committee was established in 1969 by the Sierra Madre City Council with the intent of \"defining cultural and aesthetic landmarks throughout the City of Sierra Madre and to recommend how such landmarks be preserved.\" In 1969, the city purchased the Women's Clubhouse, to be demolished and become the site of a new City Hall building.", "The Sierra Madre Historical Wilderness Area was established by declaration of the City Council on January 24, 1967\\. When it was dedicated on January 27, 1968, Sierra Madre was the first city in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") to own a wilderness preserve. The Sierra Madre City Council added the Mt. Wilson Trail to the Sierra Madre Register of Historic Cultural Landmarks on October 12, 1993\\.", "#### 1970s", "In January 1971, the Sierra Madre Environmental Action Council was formed. In 1974, the Bell Tower in Kersting Court was dedicated; it houses the original school bell from the 1885 schoolhouse. In 1976, *Sierra Madre Vistas* was published by the Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society.{{Cite web\\|title\\=SMHPS History\\|url\\=http://www.smhps.org/home/our\\-history.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 13, 2021\\|website\\=Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society}} On March 19, 1976, the Bicentennial time capsule was buried beneath the flagpole at the new Fire and Police Department Facility, then dedicated in May. The New City Hall building was dedicated on Sierra Madre Boulevard in 1977\\.", "#### 1980s and 1990s", "In 1981, Sierra Madre celebrated the centennial of its founding, complete with a Centennial Royal Court and dance, a special Historical Society dinner, and rides on a Pacific Electric red car brought back to town on Independence Day weekend.", "#### Recent history", "In 2003, the groundbreaking ceremony for the Senior Housing Project on Esperanza Avenue was held. The affordable housing project includes 46 units designed by PBWS Architects and developed by the Foundation for Quality Housing. Later that year, the Veterans' Photo Wall, spearheaded by John Grijalva, was dedicated in Memorial Park. In 2007, Sierra Madre celebrated the centennial of its incorporation as a California city. Sierra Madre also won the [All\\-America City Award](/wiki/All-America_City_Award \"All-America City Award\") given by the [National Civic League](/wiki/National_Civic_League \"National Civic League\"). That same year, the refurbished World War I cannon in Memorial Park was dedicated.", "In March 2008, the Milton \\& Harriet Goldberg Recreation Area was dedicated, as the city's first such pocket park in over 30 years. In 2009, the Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society published *Southern California Story: Seeking the Better Life in Sierra Madre* by Michele Zack.", "In 2023, the city asked the [California Department of Fish and Wildlife](/wiki/California_Department_of_Fish_and_Wildlife \"California Department of Fish and Wildlife\") to change its approach to dealing with bears in the city.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Solis \\|first\\=Nathan \\|date\\=April 13, 2023 \\|title\\='I've had bears eat my chickens': Bear sightings on the rise in Sierra Madre \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2023\\-04\\-12/bears\\-sierra\\-madre\\-california\\-department\\-of\\-fish\\-and\\-wildlife \\|access\\-date\\=April 13, 2023 \\|website\\=Los Angeles Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "" ]
### The new century Sierra Madre is historically linked to the old mountain resorts of the San Gabriel Mountains and Valley. The Sierra Madre Villa Hotel was a pioneer of summer resorts that populated the [San Gabriel Valley](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Valley "San Gabriel Valley") in the late 19th century.[The Official Site of the City of Sierra Madre: Headline History of Sierra Madre](http://cityofsierramadre.com/index.php?mod=headline_history) The municipality also operated and maintained the landmark "Lizzie's Trail" inn at the head of Old Mount Wilson Trail. [Harvard College](/wiki/Harvard_College "Harvard College") established the first [Mount Wilson Observatory](/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory "Mount Wilson Observatory") in 1889\. The installation of the Harvard telescope in 1889, which brought its own problems of transporting the instrument up the old Wilson trail, caused an interest in a Mt. Wilson roadway, something more than a trail. The Harvard telescope was removed and in July the new toll road was officially opened to the public. The toll was set by the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors at 25 cents for hikers and 50 cents for horseback. The new road was called the "New Mt. Wilson Trail" and it was more popular at the time than the old Sierra Madre trail. Foot and pack animal traffic became so heavy that in June 1893 the trail was widened to {{convert\|6\|ft\|m\|spell\=in}}. The [Pacific Electric](/wiki/Pacific_Electric "Pacific Electric") "Red Cars" established their [route to Sierra Madre](/wiki/Sierra_Madre_Line "Sierra Madre Line") from 1906 until 1950\. Thousands of people rode the cars to Sierra Madre to hike the original Mt. Wilson Trail. [thumb\|right\|Horse and buggy passage on the Mount Wilson Trail](/wiki/File:Old_Mount_Wilson_Toll_Road.jpg "Old Mount Wilson Toll Road.jpg") [left\|thumb\|The ruins of Orchard Camp can still be visited on the Mt. Wilson Trail.](/wiki/File:Ruins_of_Orchard_Camp_on_Mount_Wilson_Trail.jpg "Ruins of Orchard Camp on Mount Wilson Trail.jpg") In 1908, the first Mt. Wilson Trail Race was run. This annual race was discontinued during WWII and reestablished in 1966\. The 102nd anniversary of the first running of the Mount Wilson Trail Race and the 44th annual race was run in May 2010\. Because of rain, mudslides, falling trees, soil erosion and rockslides, the regularly monitored trail course changes almost every year, and no official records of running times are kept. The {{convert\|8\.6\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} course starts and ends on pavement, but most of the race is run on a dirt path about {{convert\|3\|ft\|m\|spell\=in}} wide, and the Mt. Wilson Trail has occasional steep vertical drops of hundreds of feet. Due to the trail's narrowness and steepness, the race is limited to 300 male and 300 female runners. The path gains elevation to more than {{convert\|2100\|ft\|m}}; at {{convert\|4\.3\|mi\|km}} from the start of the race is Orchard Camp, the turnaround point. Scout troops hike up to provide water at two locations, at the {{convert\|2\.3\|mi\|km\|adj\=on}} point and at the Orchard Camp turnaround. The Sierra Madre Search and Rescue Team provides emergency support on race day. The Mt. Wilson Trail Race has traditional and historical value to the community. A year after the city's incorporation, Catholic families contacted a priest from Chicago, Father M. W. Barth, who had moved west for his health, to ask if he could celebrate Mass for them.{{cite web\|url\=http://st\-rita.org/parish\-history/\|title\=Parish History \- Saint Rita Catholic Church}} The construction of the first, very small, church of St. Rita's parish, founded by Barth in 1908, was completed in 1910\. In 1922, St. Rita's Catholic Church parochial school opened. During the first 100 years of St. Rita's Parish, it has on record 4,075 baptisms, 3,590 confirmations, 1,334 marriages and 1,469 funerals.{{cite web\|url\=http://st\-rita.org/about\-st\-rita/parish\-history \|title\=Parish History \| Saint Rita Catholic Church \|publisher\=St\-rita.org \|access\-date\=December 22, 2018}} The scattering of families that began with Barth in 1908 has grown to more than 1,200 Catholic parish homes today, in a city whose population is now approximately 10,917\. In 1914, after a long legal battle, the city acquired title to all water rights, lands, and distribution systems of the Baldwin Estate and the Sierra Madre Water Company. [thumb\|right\|Sierra Madre {{circa\|1908}} with PE line Depot and the Hotel Shirley in background](/wiki/File:Sierra_Madre_1908_PE_line_and_Hotel_Shirley.jpg "Sierra Madre 1908 PE line and Hotel Shirley.jpg") #### 1920s and 1930s In 1921, a disastrous bakery fire at Windsor Lane and Montecito Court prompted the official organization of the Sierra Madre Volunteer Fire Department. Sierra Madre had the last remaining [volunteer fire department](/wiki/Volunteer_fire_department "Volunteer fire department") in [greater Los Angeles](/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_area "Greater Los Angeles area") before transitioning to a paid department in 2017\. On January 1, 1922, Bethany Temple was dedicated. The now historic domed cobblestone church was designed and built by the nearly blind Louis D. Corneulle. The new [Congregational Church structure](/wiki/Old_North_Church_%28Sierra_Madre%2C_California%29 "Old North Church (Sierra Madre, California)") was completed on Sierra Madre Ave; the Romanesque Revival building was designed by Marsh, Smith, \& Powell. In July 1927, the Sierra Madre Kiwanis Club was formed. On April 21, 1931, the first meeting of the Sierra Madre Historical Society took place, in conjunction with the city's 50th anniversary celebration. In 1936, a city ordinance officially changed the name of Central Avenue to Sierra Madre Blvd. In March 1938, a disastrous storm and the resulting flood destroyed many resorts in the local mountains, and also ravaged the (John) Muir Lodge in Big [Santa Anita Canyon](/wiki/Santa_Anita_Canyon "Santa Anita Canyon") above Sierra Madre. No trace remains of it today.{{cite web \|url\=http://angeles.sierraclub.org/about/MuirLodge.asp \|title\=About Us: Muir Lodge \[Angeles Chapter Sierra Club] \|access\-date\=October 9, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515153942/http://angeles.sierraclub.org/about/MuirLodge.asp \|archive\-date\=May 15, 2008 }} In 1940, the city purchased {{convert\|760\|acre\|km2}} of land in the San Gabriel Mountains near Orchard Camp to avoid contamination of the water supply. A six\-week Wisteria event took place in the 1930s. The crowds that traveled to see the giant Wisteria vine were estimated at over 100,000\. With so many visitors, extra "Red Cars" were put on the Pacific Electric route to Sierra Madre.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sierramadrenews.net/?page\_id\=259\|title\=Wistaria Festival – Sierra Madre News Net}} #### 1940s [thumb\|right\|Sierra Madre one\-room school house in 1881, at the corner of Hermosa and Grove Grove. Grove Grove was called Live Oak in 1881](/wiki/File:School_house_SM_Ca_1881.jpg "School house SM Ca 1881.jpg") On May 14, 1942, Sierra Madre's Japanese population was required to depart for the detention facility in [Tulare, California](/wiki/Tulare%2C_California "Tulare, California"). During this decade, Sierra Madre Civic Club and the Sierra Madre Lions Club were organized. The Sierra Madre Community Nursery School also opened. In May 1947, the first Pioneer Days Parade was held. The heaviest recorded snow in Sierra Madre occurred in 1949, blanketing the town with {{convert\|3\|to\|4\|in\|cm}} of snow overnight. In 1948, the [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States"), in the case of *[Shelley v. Kraemer](/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer "Shelley v. Kraemer")*, ended racially restrictive covenants that had prevented black people from owning homes in Sierra Madre and some neighboring cities. However, residential segregation patterns had already become established and persisted up until 1968 when realtors began to routinely show homes to black people.{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XqgYRg8DMaIC\&pg\=RA7\-PA110\|title\=Records and Briefs of the United States Supreme Court\|date\=October 1975\|chapter\=Pasadena School Board of Education v. Spangler\|language\=en}} #### Mid\-century On October 6, 1950, the last Pacific Electric train left from Sierra Madre. In 1951, Sierra Madre Search and Rescue Team was established by Larry Shepherd and Fred LaLone. Sierra Madre joined the [Pasadena Unified School District](/wiki/Pasadena_Unified_School_District "Pasadena Unified School District") in 1961\. In 1967, [Princess Margaret](/wiki/Princess_Margaret "Princess Margaret") visited the British Home in Sierra Madre. The Cultural Heritage Committee was established in 1969 by the Sierra Madre City Council with the intent of "defining cultural and aesthetic landmarks throughout the City of Sierra Madre and to recommend how such landmarks be preserved." In 1969, the city purchased the Women's Clubhouse, to be demolished and become the site of a new City Hall building. The Sierra Madre Historical Wilderness Area was established by declaration of the City Council on January 24, 1967\. When it was dedicated on January 27, 1968, Sierra Madre was the first city in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") to own a wilderness preserve. The Sierra Madre City Council added the Mt. Wilson Trail to the Sierra Madre Register of Historic Cultural Landmarks on October 12, 1993\. #### 1970s In January 1971, the Sierra Madre Environmental Action Council was formed. In 1974, the Bell Tower in Kersting Court was dedicated; it houses the original school bell from the 1885 schoolhouse. In 1976, *Sierra Madre Vistas* was published by the Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society.{{Cite web\|title\=SMHPS History\|url\=http://www.smhps.org/home/our\-history.html\|access\-date\=August 13, 2021\|website\=Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society}} On March 19, 1976, the Bicentennial time capsule was buried beneath the flagpole at the new Fire and Police Department Facility, then dedicated in May. The New City Hall building was dedicated on Sierra Madre Boulevard in 1977\. #### 1980s and 1990s In 1981, Sierra Madre celebrated the centennial of its founding, complete with a Centennial Royal Court and dance, a special Historical Society dinner, and rides on a Pacific Electric red car brought back to town on Independence Day weekend. #### Recent history In 2003, the groundbreaking ceremony for the Senior Housing Project on Esperanza Avenue was held. The affordable housing project includes 46 units designed by PBWS Architects and developed by the Foundation for Quality Housing. Later that year, the Veterans' Photo Wall, spearheaded by John Grijalva, was dedicated in Memorial Park. In 2007, Sierra Madre celebrated the centennial of its incorporation as a California city. Sierra Madre also won the [All\-America City Award](/wiki/All-America_City_Award "All-America City Award") given by the [National Civic League](/wiki/National_Civic_League "National Civic League"). That same year, the refurbished World War I cannon in Memorial Park was dedicated. In March 2008, the Milton \& Harriet Goldberg Recreation Area was dedicated, as the city's first such pocket park in over 30 years. In 2009, the Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society published *Southern California Story: Seeking the Better Life in Sierra Madre* by Michele Zack. In 2023, the city asked the [California Department of Fish and Wildlife](/wiki/California_Department_of_Fish_and_Wildlife "California Department of Fish and Wildlife") to change its approach to dealing with bears in the city.{{Cite web \|last\=Solis \|first\=Nathan \|date\=April 13, 2023 \|title\='I've had bears eat my chickens': Bear sightings on the rise in Sierra Madre \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2023\-04\-12/bears\-sierra\-madre\-california\-department\-of\-fish\-and\-wildlife \|access\-date\=April 13, 2023 \|website\=Los Angeles Times \|language\=en\-US}}
[ "### The new century", "Sierra Madre is historically linked to the old mountain resorts of the San Gabriel Mountains and Valley. The Sierra Madre Villa Hotel was a pioneer of summer resorts that populated the [San Gabriel Valley](/wiki/San_Gabriel_Valley \"San Gabriel Valley\") in the late 19th century.[The Official Site of the City of Sierra Madre: Headline History of Sierra Madre](http://cityofsierramadre.com/index.php?mod=headline_history) The municipality also operated and maintained the landmark \"Lizzie's Trail\" inn at the head of Old Mount Wilson Trail.", "[Harvard College](/wiki/Harvard_College \"Harvard College\") established the first [Mount Wilson Observatory](/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory \"Mount Wilson Observatory\") in 1889\\. The installation of the Harvard telescope in 1889, which brought its own problems of transporting the instrument up the old Wilson trail, caused an interest in a Mt. Wilson roadway, something more than a trail. The Harvard telescope was removed and in July the new toll road was officially opened to the public. The toll was set by the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors at 25 cents for hikers and 50 cents for horseback. The new road was called the \"New Mt. Wilson Trail\" and it was more popular at the time than the old Sierra Madre trail. Foot and pack animal traffic became so heavy that in June 1893 the trail was widened to {{convert\\|6\\|ft\\|m\\|spell\\=in}}. The [Pacific Electric](/wiki/Pacific_Electric \"Pacific Electric\") \"Red Cars\" established their [route to Sierra Madre](/wiki/Sierra_Madre_Line \"Sierra Madre Line\") from 1906 until 1950\\. Thousands of people rode the cars to Sierra Madre to hike the original Mt. Wilson Trail.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Horse and buggy passage on the Mount Wilson Trail](/wiki/File:Old_Mount_Wilson_Toll_Road.jpg \"Old Mount Wilson Toll Road.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|The ruins of Orchard Camp can still be visited on the Mt. Wilson Trail.](/wiki/File:Ruins_of_Orchard_Camp_on_Mount_Wilson_Trail.jpg \"Ruins of Orchard Camp on Mount Wilson Trail.jpg\")\nIn 1908, the first Mt. Wilson Trail Race was run. This annual race was discontinued during WWII and reestablished in 1966\\. The 102nd anniversary of the first running of the Mount Wilson Trail Race and the 44th annual race was run in May 2010\\. Because of rain, mudslides, falling trees, soil erosion and rockslides, the regularly monitored trail course changes almost every year, and no official records of running times are kept. The {{convert\\|8\\.6\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} course starts and ends on pavement, but most of the race is run on a dirt path about {{convert\\|3\\|ft\\|m\\|spell\\=in}} wide, and the Mt. Wilson Trail has occasional steep vertical drops of hundreds of feet. Due to the trail's narrowness and steepness, the race is limited to 300 male and 300 female runners. The path gains elevation to more than {{convert\\|2100\\|ft\\|m}}; at {{convert\\|4\\.3\\|mi\\|km}} from the start of the race is Orchard Camp, the turnaround point. Scout troops hike up to provide water at two locations, at the {{convert\\|2\\.3\\|mi\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} point and at the Orchard Camp turnaround. The Sierra Madre Search and Rescue Team provides emergency support on race day. The Mt. Wilson Trail Race has traditional and historical value to the community.", "A year after the city's incorporation, Catholic families contacted a priest from Chicago, Father M. W. Barth, who had moved west for his health, to ask if he could celebrate Mass for them.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://st\\-rita.org/parish\\-history/\\|title\\=Parish History \\- Saint Rita Catholic Church}} The construction of the first, very small, church of St. Rita's parish, founded by Barth in 1908, was completed in 1910\\. In 1922, St. Rita's Catholic Church parochial school opened. During the first 100 years of St. Rita's Parish, it has on record 4,075 baptisms, 3,590 confirmations, 1,334 marriages and 1,469 funerals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://st\\-rita.org/about\\-st\\-rita/parish\\-history \\|title\\=Parish History \\| Saint Rita Catholic Church \\|publisher\\=St\\-rita.org \\|access\\-date\\=December 22, 2018}} The scattering of families that began with Barth in 1908 has grown to more than 1,200 Catholic parish homes today, in a city whose population is now approximately 10,917\\.", "In 1914, after a long legal battle, the city acquired title to all water rights, lands, and distribution systems of the Baldwin Estate and the Sierra Madre Water Company.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Sierra Madre {{circa\\|1908}} with PE line Depot and the Hotel Shirley in background](/wiki/File:Sierra_Madre_1908_PE_line_and_Hotel_Shirley.jpg \"Sierra Madre 1908 PE line and Hotel Shirley.jpg\")", "#### 1920s and 1930s", "In 1921, a disastrous bakery fire at Windsor Lane and Montecito Court prompted the official organization of the Sierra Madre Volunteer Fire Department. Sierra Madre had the last remaining [volunteer fire department](/wiki/Volunteer_fire_department \"Volunteer fire department\") in [greater Los Angeles](/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles_area \"Greater Los Angeles area\") before transitioning to a paid department in 2017\\.", "On January 1, 1922, Bethany Temple was dedicated. The now historic domed cobblestone church was designed and built by the nearly blind Louis D. Corneulle. The new [Congregational Church structure](/wiki/Old_North_Church_%28Sierra_Madre%2C_California%29 \"Old North Church (Sierra Madre, California)\") was completed on Sierra Madre Ave; the Romanesque Revival building was designed by Marsh, Smith, \\& Powell. In July 1927, the Sierra Madre Kiwanis Club was formed. On April 21, 1931, the first meeting of the Sierra Madre Historical Society took place, in conjunction with the city's 50th anniversary celebration. In 1936, a city ordinance officially changed the name of Central Avenue to Sierra Madre Blvd. In March 1938, a disastrous storm and the resulting flood destroyed many resorts in the local mountains, and also ravaged the (John) Muir Lodge in Big [Santa Anita Canyon](/wiki/Santa_Anita_Canyon \"Santa Anita Canyon\") above Sierra Madre. No trace remains of it today.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://angeles.sierraclub.org/about/MuirLodge.asp \\|title\\=About Us: Muir Lodge \\[Angeles Chapter Sierra Club] \\|access\\-date\\=October 9, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515153942/http://angeles.sierraclub.org/about/MuirLodge.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=May 15, 2008 }} In 1940, the city purchased {{convert\\|760\\|acre\\|km2}} of land in the San Gabriel Mountains near Orchard Camp to avoid contamination of the water supply.", "A six\\-week Wisteria event took place in the 1930s. The crowds that traveled to see the giant Wisteria vine were estimated at over 100,000\\. With so many visitors, extra \"Red Cars\" were put on the Pacific Electric route to Sierra Madre.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sierramadrenews.net/?page\\_id\\=259\\|title\\=Wistaria Festival – Sierra Madre News Net}}", "#### 1940s", "[thumb\\|right\\|Sierra Madre one\\-room school house in 1881, at the corner of Hermosa and Grove Grove. Grove Grove was called Live Oak in 1881](/wiki/File:School_house_SM_Ca_1881.jpg \"School house SM Ca 1881.jpg\") \nOn May 14, 1942, Sierra Madre's Japanese population was required to depart for the detention facility in [Tulare, California](/wiki/Tulare%2C_California \"Tulare, California\"). During this decade, Sierra Madre Civic Club and the Sierra Madre Lions Club were organized. The Sierra Madre Community Nursery School also opened. In May 1947, the first Pioneer Days Parade was held. The heaviest recorded snow in Sierra Madre occurred in 1949, blanketing the town with {{convert\\|3\\|to\\|4\\|in\\|cm}} of snow overnight.", "In 1948, the [U.S. Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\"), in the case of *[Shelley v. Kraemer](/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer \"Shelley v. Kraemer\")*, ended racially restrictive covenants that had prevented black people from owning homes in Sierra Madre and some neighboring cities. However, residential segregation patterns had already become established and persisted up until 1968 when realtors began to routinely show homes to black people.{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XqgYRg8DMaIC\\&pg\\=RA7\\-PA110\\|title\\=Records and Briefs of the United States Supreme Court\\|date\\=October 1975\\|chapter\\=Pasadena School Board of Education v. Spangler\\|language\\=en}}", "#### Mid\\-century", "On October 6, 1950, the last Pacific Electric train left from Sierra Madre. In 1951, Sierra Madre Search and Rescue Team was established by Larry Shepherd and Fred LaLone. Sierra Madre joined the [Pasadena Unified School District](/wiki/Pasadena_Unified_School_District \"Pasadena Unified School District\") in 1961\\. In 1967, [Princess Margaret](/wiki/Princess_Margaret \"Princess Margaret\") visited the British Home in Sierra Madre. The Cultural Heritage Committee was established in 1969 by the Sierra Madre City Council with the intent of \"defining cultural and aesthetic landmarks throughout the City of Sierra Madre and to recommend how such landmarks be preserved.\" In 1969, the city purchased the Women's Clubhouse, to be demolished and become the site of a new City Hall building.", "The Sierra Madre Historical Wilderness Area was established by declaration of the City Council on January 24, 1967\\. When it was dedicated on January 27, 1968, Sierra Madre was the first city in [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") to own a wilderness preserve. The Sierra Madre City Council added the Mt. Wilson Trail to the Sierra Madre Register of Historic Cultural Landmarks on October 12, 1993\\.", "#### 1970s", "In January 1971, the Sierra Madre Environmental Action Council was formed. In 1974, the Bell Tower in Kersting Court was dedicated; it houses the original school bell from the 1885 schoolhouse. In 1976, *Sierra Madre Vistas* was published by the Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society.{{Cite web\\|title\\=SMHPS History\\|url\\=http://www.smhps.org/home/our\\-history.html\\|access\\-date\\=August 13, 2021\\|website\\=Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society}} On March 19, 1976, the Bicentennial time capsule was buried beneath the flagpole at the new Fire and Police Department Facility, then dedicated in May. The New City Hall building was dedicated on Sierra Madre Boulevard in 1977\\.", "#### 1980s and 1990s", "In 1981, Sierra Madre celebrated the centennial of its founding, complete with a Centennial Royal Court and dance, a special Historical Society dinner, and rides on a Pacific Electric red car brought back to town on Independence Day weekend.", "#### Recent history", "In 2003, the groundbreaking ceremony for the Senior Housing Project on Esperanza Avenue was held. The affordable housing project includes 46 units designed by PBWS Architects and developed by the Foundation for Quality Housing. Later that year, the Veterans' Photo Wall, spearheaded by John Grijalva, was dedicated in Memorial Park. In 2007, Sierra Madre celebrated the centennial of its incorporation as a California city. Sierra Madre also won the [All\\-America City Award](/wiki/All-America_City_Award \"All-America City Award\") given by the [National Civic League](/wiki/National_Civic_League \"National Civic League\"). That same year, the refurbished World War I cannon in Memorial Park was dedicated.", "In March 2008, the Milton \\& Harriet Goldberg Recreation Area was dedicated, as the city's first such pocket park in over 30 years. In 2009, the Sierra Madre Historical Preservation Society published *Southern California Story: Seeking the Better Life in Sierra Madre* by Michele Zack.", "In 2023, the city asked the [California Department of Fish and Wildlife](/wiki/California_Department_of_Fish_and_Wildlife \"California Department of Fish and Wildlife\") to change its approach to dealing with bears in the city.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Solis \\|first\\=Nathan \\|date\\=April 13, 2023 \\|title\\='I've had bears eat my chickens': Bear sightings on the rise in Sierra Madre \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2023\\-04\\-12/bears\\-sierra\\-madre\\-california\\-department\\-of\\-fish\\-and\\-wildlife \\|access\\-date\\=April 13, 2023 \\|website\\=Los Angeles Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1910\= 1303 \|1920\= 2026 \|1930\= 3550 \|1940\= 4581 \|1950\= 7273 \|1960\= 9732 \|1970\= 12140 \|1980\= 10837 \|1990\= 10762 \|2000\= 10578 \|2010\= 10917 \|estyear\=2019 \|estimate\=10793 \|estref\={{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/popest/data/tables.2019\.html\|date\=May 24, 2020\|title\=Population and Housing Unit Estimates\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|access\-date\=May 27, 2020}} \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 The [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0671806\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140715033215/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0671806\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2014\|title\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA – Sierra Madre city\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=July 12, 2014}} reported that Sierra Madre had a population of 10,917\. The population density was {{convert\|3,692\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of Sierra Madre was 8,967 (82\.1%) [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (72\.3% Non\-Hispanic White), 201 (1\.8%) [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 44 (0\.4%) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 835 (7\.6%) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 9 (0\.1%) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 390 (3\.6%) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 471 (4\.3%) from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1,628 persons (14\.9%). The Census reported that 10,916 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 1 (0%) lived in non\-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized. There were 4,837 households, out of which 1,205 (24\.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 2,291 (47\.4%) were [opposite\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 442 (9\.1%) had a female householder with no husband present, 139 (2\.9%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 217 (4\.5%) [unmarried opposite\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ "POSSLQ"), and 54 (1\.1%) [same\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships "Same-sex partnerships"). 1,596 households (33\.0%) were made up of individuals, and 588 (12\.2%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.26\. There were 2,872 [families](/wiki/Family_%28U.S._Census%29 "Family (U.S. Census)") (59\.4% of all households); the average family size was 2\.89\. The population was spread out, with 2,095 people (19\.2%) under the age of 18, 539 people (4\.9%) aged 18 to 24, 2,524 people (23\.1%) aged 25 to 44, 3,864 people (35\.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,895 people (17\.4%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46\.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86\.3 males. There were 5,113 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1,729\.1\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|units \|units\|}}, of which 2,988 (61\.8%) were owner\-occupied, and 1,849 (38\.2%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1\.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 5\.0%. 7,390 people (67\.7% of the population) lived in owner\-occupied housing units and 3,526 people (32\.3%) lived in rental housing units. During 2009–2013, Sierra Madre had a median household income of $88,837, with 8\.3% of the population living below the federal poverty line. ### 2000 As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 10,578 people, 4,756 households, and 2,739 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|3,522\.9\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 4,923 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1,639\.5\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|units \|units\|}}. The racial makeup of the town was 85\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 5\.6% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 3\.0% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 4\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 6\.0% of the population. There were 4,756 households, out of which 23\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\.4% were married couples living together, 7\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42\.4% were non\-families. 35\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.20 and the average family size was 2\.87\. In the town, the population was spread out, with 18\.9% under the age of 18, 4\.9% from 18 to 24, 30\.8% from 25 to 44, 29\.7% from 45 to 64, and 15\.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86\.5 males. The median income for a household in the town was $65,900, and the median income for a family was $79,588\. Males had a median income of $61,635 versus $42,527 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $41,104\. About 1\.9% of families and 3\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 2\.2% of those under age 18 and 1\.7% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1910\\= 1303\n\\|1920\\= 2026\n\\|1930\\= 3550\n\\|1940\\= 4581\n\\|1950\\= 7273\n\\|1960\\= 9732\n\\|1970\\= 12140\n\\|1980\\= 10837\n\\|1990\\= 10762\n\\|2000\\= 10578\n\\|2010\\= 10917\n\\|estyear\\=2019\n\\|estimate\\=10793\n\\|estref\\={{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/popest/data/tables.2019\\.html\\|date\\=May 24, 2020\\|title\\=Population and Housing Unit Estimates\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=May 27, 2020}}\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010", "The [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0671806\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140715033215/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0671806\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2014\\|title\\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA – Sierra Madre city\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2014}} reported that Sierra Madre had a population of 10,917\\. The population density was {{convert\\|3,692\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of Sierra Madre was 8,967 (82\\.1%) [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (72\\.3% Non\\-Hispanic White), 201 (1\\.8%) [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 44 (0\\.4%) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 835 (7\\.6%) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 9 (0\\.1%) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 390 (3\\.6%) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 471 (4\\.3%) from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1,628 persons (14\\.9%).", "The Census reported that 10,916 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 1 (0%) lived in non\\-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.", "There were 4,837 households, out of which 1,205 (24\\.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 2,291 (47\\.4%) were [opposite\\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 442 (9\\.1%) had a female householder with no husband present, 139 (2\\.9%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 217 (4\\.5%) [unmarried opposite\\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ \"POSSLQ\"), and 54 (1\\.1%) [same\\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships \"Same-sex partnerships\"). 1,596 households (33\\.0%) were made up of individuals, and 588 (12\\.2%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.26\\. There were 2,872 [families](/wiki/Family_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Family (U.S. Census)\") (59\\.4% of all households); the average family size was 2\\.89\\.", "The population was spread out, with 2,095 people (19\\.2%) under the age of 18, 539 people (4\\.9%) aged 18 to 24, 2,524 people (23\\.1%) aged 25 to 44, 3,864 people (35\\.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,895 people (17\\.4%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46\\.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86\\.3 males.", "There were 5,113 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1,729\\.1\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|units \\|units\\|}}, of which 2,988 (61\\.8%) were owner\\-occupied, and 1,849 (38\\.2%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1\\.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 5\\.0%. 7,390 people (67\\.7% of the population) lived in owner\\-occupied housing units and 3,526 people (32\\.3%) lived in rental housing units.", "During 2009–2013, Sierra Madre had a median household income of $88,837, with 8\\.3% of the population living below the federal poverty line.", "### 2000", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 10,578 people, 4,756 households, and 2,739 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|3,522\\.9\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 4,923 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1,639\\.5\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|units \\|units\\|}}. The racial makeup of the town was 85\\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 5\\.6% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.0% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 4\\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 6\\.0% of the population.", "There were 4,756 households, out of which 23\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\\.4% were married couples living together, 7\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42\\.4% were non\\-families. 35\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.20 and the average family size was 2\\.87\\.", "In the town, the population was spread out, with 18\\.9% under the age of 18, 4\\.9% from 18 to 24, 30\\.8% from 25 to 44, 29\\.7% from 45 to 64, and 15\\.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86\\.5 males.", "The median income for a household in the town was $65,900, and the median income for a family was $79,588\\. Males had a median income of $61,635 versus $42,527 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $41,104\\. About 1\\.9% of families and 3\\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 2\\.2% of those under age 18 and 1\\.7% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
### 2010 The [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0671806\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140715033215/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\=06:0671806\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=July 15, 2014\|title\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA – Sierra Madre city\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=July 12, 2014}} reported that Sierra Madre had a population of 10,917\. The population density was {{convert\|3,692\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of Sierra Madre was 8,967 (82\.1%) [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (72\.3% Non\-Hispanic White), 201 (1\.8%) [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 44 (0\.4%) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 835 (7\.6%) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 9 (0\.1%) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 390 (3\.6%) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 471 (4\.3%) from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1,628 persons (14\.9%). The Census reported that 10,916 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 1 (0%) lived in non\-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized. There were 4,837 households, out of which 1,205 (24\.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 2,291 (47\.4%) were [opposite\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 442 (9\.1%) had a female householder with no husband present, 139 (2\.9%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 217 (4\.5%) [unmarried opposite\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ "POSSLQ"), and 54 (1\.1%) [same\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships "Same-sex partnerships"). 1,596 households (33\.0%) were made up of individuals, and 588 (12\.2%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.26\. There were 2,872 [families](/wiki/Family_%28U.S._Census%29 "Family (U.S. Census)") (59\.4% of all households); the average family size was 2\.89\. The population was spread out, with 2,095 people (19\.2%) under the age of 18, 539 people (4\.9%) aged 18 to 24, 2,524 people (23\.1%) aged 25 to 44, 3,864 people (35\.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,895 people (17\.4%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46\.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86\.3 males. There were 5,113 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1,729\.1\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|units \|units\|}}, of which 2,988 (61\.8%) were owner\-occupied, and 1,849 (38\.2%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1\.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 5\.0%. 7,390 people (67\.7% of the population) lived in owner\-occupied housing units and 3,526 people (32\.3%) lived in rental housing units. During 2009–2013, Sierra Madre had a median household income of $88,837, with 8\.3% of the population living below the federal poverty line.
[ "### 2010", "The [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0671806\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140715033215/http://www.census.gov/2010census/popmap/ipmtext.php?fl\\=06:0671806\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2014\\|title\\=2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA – Sierra Madre city\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2014}} reported that Sierra Madre had a population of 10,917\\. The population density was {{convert\\|3,692\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of Sierra Madre was 8,967 (82\\.1%) [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (72\\.3% Non\\-Hispanic White), 201 (1\\.8%) [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 44 (0\\.4%) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 835 (7\\.6%) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 9 (0\\.1%) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 390 (3\\.6%) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 471 (4\\.3%) from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1,628 persons (14\\.9%).", "The Census reported that 10,916 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 1 (0%) lived in non\\-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.", "There were 4,837 households, out of which 1,205 (24\\.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 2,291 (47\\.4%) were [opposite\\-sex married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 442 (9\\.1%) had a female householder with no husband present, 139 (2\\.9%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 217 (4\\.5%) [unmarried opposite\\-sex partnerships](/wiki/POSSLQ \"POSSLQ\"), and 54 (1\\.1%) [same\\-sex married couples or partnerships](/wiki/Same-sex_partnerships \"Same-sex partnerships\"). 1,596 households (33\\.0%) were made up of individuals, and 588 (12\\.2%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.26\\. There were 2,872 [families](/wiki/Family_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Family (U.S. Census)\") (59\\.4% of all households); the average family size was 2\\.89\\.", "The population was spread out, with 2,095 people (19\\.2%) under the age of 18, 539 people (4\\.9%) aged 18 to 24, 2,524 people (23\\.1%) aged 25 to 44, 3,864 people (35\\.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,895 people (17\\.4%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46\\.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86\\.3 males.", "There were 5,113 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1,729\\.1\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|units \\|units\\|}}, of which 2,988 (61\\.8%) were owner\\-occupied, and 1,849 (38\\.2%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1\\.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 5\\.0%. 7,390 people (67\\.7% of the population) lived in owner\\-occupied housing units and 3,526 people (32\\.3%) lived in rental housing units.", "During 2009–2013, Sierra Madre had a median household income of $88,837, with 8\\.3% of the population living below the federal poverty line.", "" ]
Life and career --------------- McCrum was born at [Alverstoke](/wiki/Alverstoke "Alverstoke") in [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire "Hampshire"), England.John E. Lewis. "McCrum, Michael William (1924–2005\)", *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, Oxford University Press, 2009\. The son of a naval Captain, he grew up at naval bases where his father was stationed. He was educated at [Horris Hill School](/wiki/Horris_Hill_School "Horris Hill School"), Newbury and [Sherborne School](/wiki/Sherborne_School "Sherborne School") before Second World War service as an [able seaman](/wiki/Able_seaman "Able seaman") and then [sub\-lieutenant](/wiki/Sub-lieutenant "Sub-lieutenant") in the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy"). He then won a scholarship to read [classics](/wiki/Classics "Classics") at [Corpus Christi College, Cambridge](/wiki/Corpus_Christi_College%2C_Cambridge "Corpus Christi College, Cambridge"). He graduated in 1948 with a [Double First](/wiki/British_undergraduate_degree_classification "British undergraduate degree classification").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cam.ac.uk/news/michael\-mccrum\-1924\-2005\|title\=Michael McCrum 1924\-2005\|website\=University of Cambridge\|date\=23 February 2005\|access\-date\=8 October 2023}} After graduation, McCrum became a master at [Rugby School](/wiki/Rugby_School "Rugby School"). He married the daughter of the headmaster, Sir [Arthur fforde](/wiki/Arthur_fforde "Arthur fforde"), in 1952\. McCrum was appointed Fellow of Corpus Christi in 1950 and was an (innovative) Tutor there under the Master, [Sir George Thomson](/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson "George Paget Thomson"), and was also Director of Classical Studies. ### Tonbridge School McCrum left Cambridge in 1962 to become headmaster of [Tonbridge School](/wiki/Tonbridge_School "Tonbridge School"), where he earned a good reputation and transformed the school, emphasising academic standards and implementing sweeping reforms, including the abolition of the old traditions of [fagging](/wiki/Fagging "Fagging") and [caning](/wiki/Caning "Caning") of junior boys by "praepostors" (senior boys).Bourne, Richard. "Eton's topper", *[The Observer](/wiki/The_Observer "The Observer")*, London, 2 December 1969\. He also made the [Cadet Corps](/wiki/Cadet_Corps "Cadet Corps") voluntary. *The Tonbridgian* (the school magazine) wrote in 1967 that "Never have there been so many changes in so short a time". Through a clever strategy, he ensured that straw boater hats ("barges") remained, despite a clear majority in a poll among the boys that favored abolishing them. His imposing stature and remarkable ability to memorize the names and faces of every boy (and master) in the school within the first week of the autumn term earned him respect and command. He later described part of his task at Tonbridge as having been "the reduction of stupid anachronisms" and "giving boys more liberties, provided they do not take them"; [corporal punishment](/wiki/School_corporal_punishment "School corporal punishment"), he said, was "often the lesser of two evils".Rogers, Byron. "Eton's new head: a man for freedom". *The Times*, London, 2 December 1969, p. 1\. While at Tonbridge, McCrum was an early supporter of the idea of [education vouchers](/wiki/School_voucher "School voucher"), and he opposed Labour Party proposals for school reform."An educational 'toothless wonder'", *The Times*, London, 14 September 1964, p. 6\. He criticised the reduction of the age of majority and the voting age to 18, saying that while they might be outwardly more mature than formerly, 18\-year\-olds "were still searching for guidance and authority" and "were less aware than formerly of the framework of tradition and the concept of the family community" under the increasing influence of the press and media."Votes at 18 was 'hasty'", *The Guardian*, London, 18 February 1970, p. 5\. ### Eton College In 1970, he became Head Master of Eton College, ostensibly a more prestigious position but perhaps one that allowed less initiative or authority than at Tonbridge. He raised standards at Eton after the era of [Anthony Chenevix\-Trench](/wiki/Anthony_Chenevix-Trench "Anthony Chenevix-Trench"), whose weaknesses differentiated him from the self\-disciplined McCrum. The curriculum was modernised and academic standards improved.Berthoud, Roger. "The good discipline of aiming at excellence", *The Times*, London, 14 July 1980, p. 12\. Just before leaving Eton he oversaw the final abolition of fagging, as he had at Tonbridge earlier.[Pallister, David](/wiki/David_Pallister "David Pallister"). "Etonians end the era of fagging", *The Guardian*, London, 25 April 1980, p. 22\. As Chairman of the [Headmasters' Conference](/wiki/Headmasters%27_Conference "Headmasters' Conference") in 1974, McCrum called for greater co\-operation between the independent and maintained sectors of education, a co\-operation which Eton has maintained under its present Provost.Devlin, Tim. "Heads see big demand for more independent schools despite Labour threat to end benefits", *The Times*, London, 1 October 1974, p. 2\. McCrum banned Nigerian writer [Dillibe Onyeama](/wiki/Dillibe_Onyeama "Dillibe Onyeama") from visiting Eton after the latter alleged having experienced racism at the college. This decision was overturned in approximately 2010\.Bakare, Lanre, ["Nigerian ex\-Eton pupil says he will return to accept racism apology"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/23/nigerian-ex-eton-pupil-says-he-will-return-to-accept-racism-apology), *The Guardian*, London, 23 June 2020\. ### Corpus Christi College In 1980, McCrum returned to Corpus Christi, Cambridge, as Master,"University News", *The Times*, London, 17 November 1979\. introducing women to the college in 1982\.Chorlton, Penny. "Corpus Christi to admit women", *The Guardian*, London, 26 October 1981, p. 3\. In 1987 he became the last of the [University of Cambridge](/wiki/University_of_Cambridge "University of Cambridge")'s part\-time Vice\-Chancellors. He was president of the Cambridge Society from 1989 to 1996\. He chaired the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board from 1981 to 1987, and the School Governing Bodies Association from 1989 to 1994\. In his farewell speech as Vice\-Chancellor, he called for university lecturers to be better paid.Gow, David. "Exam warning in vice\-chancellor's parting shot", *The Guardian*, London, 3 October 1989, p. 2\. An [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican "Anglican"), he was chairman of the Cathedrals Fabric Commission for England (from 1991\) and was a member of the BBC/IBA religious affairs committee (while headmaster of Tonbridge; despite his reforming zeal in other respects, formal daily chapel services remained part of the fabric of school life while he was there; he did make attendance voluntary at Eton).{{citation needed\|date\=December 2021}}
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "McCrum was born at [Alverstoke](/wiki/Alverstoke \"Alverstoke\") in [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire \"Hampshire\"), England.John E. Lewis. \"McCrum, Michael William (1924–2005\\)\", *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography*, Oxford University Press, 2009\\. The son of a naval Captain, he grew up at naval bases where his father was stationed. He was educated at [Horris Hill School](/wiki/Horris_Hill_School \"Horris Hill School\"), Newbury and [Sherborne School](/wiki/Sherborne_School \"Sherborne School\") before Second World War service as an [able seaman](/wiki/Able_seaman \"Able seaman\") and then [sub\\-lieutenant](/wiki/Sub-lieutenant \"Sub-lieutenant\") in the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\"). He then won a scholarship to read [classics](/wiki/Classics \"Classics\") at [Corpus Christi College, Cambridge](/wiki/Corpus_Christi_College%2C_Cambridge \"Corpus Christi College, Cambridge\"). He graduated in 1948 with a [Double First](/wiki/British_undergraduate_degree_classification \"British undergraduate degree classification\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cam.ac.uk/news/michael\\-mccrum\\-1924\\-2005\\|title\\=Michael McCrum 1924\\-2005\\|website\\=University of Cambridge\\|date\\=23 February 2005\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2023}}", "After graduation, McCrum became a master at [Rugby School](/wiki/Rugby_School \"Rugby School\"). He married the daughter of the headmaster, Sir [Arthur fforde](/wiki/Arthur_fforde \"Arthur fforde\"), in 1952\\. McCrum was appointed Fellow of Corpus Christi in 1950 and was an (innovative) Tutor there under the Master, [Sir George Thomson](/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson \"George Paget Thomson\"), and was also Director of Classical Studies.", "### Tonbridge School", "McCrum left Cambridge in 1962 to become headmaster of [Tonbridge School](/wiki/Tonbridge_School \"Tonbridge School\"), where he earned a good reputation and transformed the school, emphasising academic standards and implementing sweeping reforms, including the abolition of the old traditions of [fagging](/wiki/Fagging \"Fagging\") and [caning](/wiki/Caning \"Caning\") of junior boys by \"praepostors\" (senior boys).Bourne, Richard. \"Eton's topper\", *[The Observer](/wiki/The_Observer \"The Observer\")*, London, 2 December 1969\\. He also made the [Cadet Corps](/wiki/Cadet_Corps \"Cadet Corps\") voluntary. *The Tonbridgian* (the school magazine) wrote in 1967 that \"Never have there been so many changes in so short a time\".", "Through a clever strategy, he ensured that straw boater hats (\"barges\") remained, despite a clear majority in a poll among the boys that favored abolishing them. His imposing stature and remarkable ability to memorize the names and faces of every boy (and master) in the school within the first week of the autumn term earned him respect and command. He later described part of his task at Tonbridge as having been \"the reduction of stupid anachronisms\" and \"giving boys more liberties, provided they do not take them\"; [corporal punishment](/wiki/School_corporal_punishment \"School corporal punishment\"), he said, was \"often the lesser of two evils\".Rogers, Byron. \"Eton's new head: a man for freedom\". *The Times*, London, 2 December 1969, p. 1\\.", "While at Tonbridge, McCrum was an early supporter of the idea of [education vouchers](/wiki/School_voucher \"School voucher\"), and he opposed Labour Party proposals for school reform.\"An educational 'toothless wonder'\", *The Times*, London, 14 September 1964, p. 6\\.", "He criticised the reduction of the age of majority and the voting age to 18, saying that while they might be outwardly more mature than formerly, 18\\-year\\-olds \"were still searching for guidance and authority\" and \"were less aware than formerly of the framework of tradition and the concept of the family community\" under the increasing influence of the press and media.\"Votes at 18 was 'hasty'\", *The Guardian*, London, 18 February 1970, p. 5\\.", "### Eton College", "In 1970, he became Head Master of Eton College, ostensibly a more prestigious position but perhaps one that allowed less initiative or authority than at Tonbridge. He raised standards at Eton after the era of [Anthony Chenevix\\-Trench](/wiki/Anthony_Chenevix-Trench \"Anthony Chenevix-Trench\"), whose weaknesses differentiated him from the self\\-disciplined McCrum. The curriculum was modernised and academic standards improved.Berthoud, Roger. \"The good discipline of aiming at excellence\", *The Times*, London, 14 July 1980, p. 12\\. Just before leaving Eton he oversaw the final abolition of fagging, as he had at Tonbridge earlier.[Pallister, David](/wiki/David_Pallister \"David Pallister\"). \"Etonians end the era of fagging\", *The Guardian*, London, 25 April 1980, p. 22\\.", "As Chairman of the [Headmasters' Conference](/wiki/Headmasters%27_Conference \"Headmasters' Conference\") in 1974, McCrum called for greater co\\-operation between the independent and maintained sectors of education, a co\\-operation which Eton has maintained under its present Provost.Devlin, Tim. \"Heads see big demand for more independent schools despite Labour threat to end benefits\", *The Times*, London, 1 October 1974, p. 2\\.", "McCrum banned Nigerian writer [Dillibe Onyeama](/wiki/Dillibe_Onyeama \"Dillibe Onyeama\") from visiting Eton after the latter alleged having experienced racism at the college. This decision was overturned in approximately 2010\\.Bakare, Lanre, [\"Nigerian ex\\-Eton pupil says he will return to accept racism apology\"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/23/nigerian-ex-eton-pupil-says-he-will-return-to-accept-racism-apology), *The Guardian*, London, 23 June 2020\\.", "### Corpus Christi College", "In 1980, McCrum returned to Corpus Christi, Cambridge, as Master,\"University News\", *The Times*, London, 17 November 1979\\. introducing women to the college in 1982\\.Chorlton, Penny. \"Corpus Christi to admit women\", *The Guardian*, London, 26 October 1981, p. 3\\. In 1987 he became the last of the [University of Cambridge](/wiki/University_of_Cambridge \"University of Cambridge\")'s part\\-time Vice\\-Chancellors. He was president of the Cambridge Society from 1989 to 1996\\.", "He chaired the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board from 1981 to 1987, and the School Governing Bodies Association from 1989 to 1994\\.", "In his farewell speech as Vice\\-Chancellor, he called for university lecturers to be better paid.Gow, David. \"Exam warning in vice\\-chancellor's parting shot\", *The Guardian*, London, 3 October 1989, p. 2\\.", "An [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican \"Anglican\"), he was chairman of the Cathedrals Fabric Commission for England (from 1991\\) and was a member of the BBC/IBA religious affairs committee (while headmaster of Tonbridge; despite his reforming zeal in other respects, formal daily chapel services remained part of the fabric of school life while he was there; he did make attendance voluntary at Eton).{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2021}}", "" ]
Life ---- Forner was born in [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires "Buenos Aires") in 1902\.{{cite book\|title\=Artists from Latin American Cultures: A Biographical Dictionary\|pages\=78–80\|author1\=Kristin G. Congdon \|author2\=Kara Kelley Hallmark \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|publisher\=Greenwood Press\|year\=2002 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=h1oeV7vkPQIC \|accessdate\=2009\-05\-09 \| isbn\=978\-0\-313\-31544\-2}}{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00fost\|url\-access\=registration\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00fost/page/150 150]–151\|title\=Culture and customs of Argentina\|year\=1998\|author1\=David William Foster \|author2\=Melissa Fitch Lockhart \|author3\=Darrell B. Lockhart \|publisher\=Greenwood Publishing Group\|accessdate\=2009\-05\-10 \| isbn\=978\-0\-313\-30319\-7}} Her father was [Spanish](/wiki/Spain "Spain") by nationality and her mother was an Argentine of Spanish descent. As a result of frequent family travel to Europe, Forner spent part of her childhood in Spain, and later developed an artistic interest in the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War"). Forner completed studies at the National Academy of Fine Arts (today part of the [National University Art Institute](/wiki/National_University_Art_Institute "National University Art Institute")) in Buenos Aires in 1923\.{{cite book\|title\=Encyclopedia of Latin American and Caribbean Art\|pages\=278\|editor\=Jane Turner\|publisher\=Macmillan Reference Limited\|year\=2000}} A year before graduation she received an appointment to teach drawing at the same academy. In 1924 she received a third place award from the Argentine National Salon of Fine arts, and in 1928 she had her first solo exhibition in Buenos Aires. Afterward she relocated to Paris and studied with [Othon Friesz](/wiki/Othon_Friesz "Othon Friesz"). In 1936 she married the Argentine sculptor [Alfredo Bigatti](/wiki/Alfredo_Bigatti "Alfredo Bigatti"). ### Artistic themes Forner's work demonstrated an interest in current events, and from the beginning of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 this took a dramatic and tragic tone. She borrowed ideas from [surrealism](/wiki/Surrealism "Surrealism") during the 1940s, adapting its esthetic of distortion without seeking to reproduce a dream state. In 1942 she took first place at the Argentine National Salon competition. During the 1940s through most of the 1950s she produced several series on similar tragic themes in a primarily [expressionist](/wiki/Expressionist "Expressionist") mode. Forner often portrayed strong female figures, but not as specific explorations into gender norms. Beginning in 1957, coinciding with the [space race](/wiki/Space_race "Space race"), Forner's attention turned to imagined scenes of interplanetary travel. With her *Space Series*, which exhibited in Europe and earned recognition, she became one of the earliest fine artists to portray scenes of outer space. This period is characterized by a more vibrant use of color and a personal cosmic mythology of her own creation. Forner's artistic portrayals of space travel continued until the 1970s. The United States [National Air and Space Museum](/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Museum "National Air and Space Museum"), [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution "Smithsonian Institution") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") has several examples of her late period work in its collection including *Return of the Astronaut,* 1969\.{{Cite book\|title\=Latin American women artists, Kahlo and look who else: a selective, annotated bibliography\|last\=Cecilia\|first\=Puerto\|date\=1996\|publisher\=Greenwood Press\|isbn\=0313289344\|location\=Westport, Conn.\|oclc\=34282732}} Her work was exhibited widely throughout Argentina, and she was given two [Konex Awards](/wiki/Konex_Award "Konex Award") (the highest in the Argentine cultural realm) in 1982\. Forner died in Buenos Aires in 1988\. That year, the [Buenos Aires Museum of Modern Art](/wiki/Buenos_Aires_Museum_of_Modern_Art "Buenos Aires Museum of Modern Art") organized a retrospective in her honor.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.fundacionkonex.org/\|title\=Página no encontrada \| Fundación Konex\|first\=Troop Software\|last\=Factory\|website\=www.fundacionkonex.org}} Her work is included in the collection of the [Musée national des beaux\-arts du Québec](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_national_des_beaux-arts_du_Qu%C3%A9bec "Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec"),{{Cite web \| url\=https://collections.mnbaq.org/fr/artiste/600002655 \|title \= Forner, Raquel}} the [Art Museum of the Americas](/wiki/Art_Museum_of_the_Americas "Art Museum of the Americas"), the Museum of Modern Art and others.
[ "Life\n----", "Forner was born in [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\") in 1902\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=Artists from Latin American Cultures: A Biographical Dictionary\\|pages\\=78–80\\|author1\\=Kristin G. Congdon \\|author2\\=Kara Kelley Hallmark \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press\\|year\\=2002 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=h1oeV7vkPQIC \\|accessdate\\=2009\\-05\\-09 \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-31544\\-2}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00fost\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00fost/page/150 150]–151\\|title\\=Culture and customs of Argentina\\|year\\=1998\\|author1\\=David William Foster \\|author2\\=Melissa Fitch Lockhart \\|author3\\=Darrell B. Lockhart \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Publishing Group\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-05\\-10 \\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-30319\\-7}} Her father was [Spanish](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") by nationality and her mother was an Argentine of Spanish descent. As a result of frequent family travel to Europe, Forner spent part of her childhood in Spain, and later developed an artistic interest in the [Spanish Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\").", "Forner completed studies at the National Academy of Fine Arts (today part of the [National University Art Institute](/wiki/National_University_Art_Institute \"National University Art Institute\")) in Buenos Aires in 1923\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Latin American and Caribbean Art\\|pages\\=278\\|editor\\=Jane Turner\\|publisher\\=Macmillan Reference Limited\\|year\\=2000}} A year before graduation she received an appointment to teach drawing at the same academy. In 1924 she received a third place award from the Argentine National Salon of Fine arts, and in 1928 she had her first solo exhibition in Buenos Aires. Afterward she relocated to Paris and studied with [Othon Friesz](/wiki/Othon_Friesz \"Othon Friesz\").", "In 1936 she married the Argentine sculptor [Alfredo Bigatti](/wiki/Alfredo_Bigatti \"Alfredo Bigatti\").", "### Artistic themes", "Forner's work demonstrated an interest in current events, and from the beginning of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 this took a dramatic and tragic tone. She borrowed ideas from [surrealism](/wiki/Surrealism \"Surrealism\") during the 1940s, adapting its esthetic of distortion without seeking to reproduce a dream state. In 1942 she took first place at the Argentine National Salon competition. During the 1940s through most of the 1950s she produced several series on similar tragic themes in a primarily [expressionist](/wiki/Expressionist \"Expressionist\") mode. Forner often portrayed strong female figures, but not as specific explorations into gender norms.", "Beginning in 1957, coinciding with the [space race](/wiki/Space_race \"Space race\"), Forner's attention turned to imagined scenes of interplanetary travel. With her *Space Series*, which exhibited in Europe and earned recognition, she became one of the earliest fine artists to portray scenes of outer space. This period is characterized by a more vibrant use of color and a personal cosmic mythology of her own creation. Forner's artistic portrayals of space travel continued until the 1970s. The United States [National Air and Space Museum](/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Museum \"National Air and Space Museum\"), [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") has several examples of her late period work in its collection including *Return of the Astronaut,* 1969\\.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Latin American women artists, Kahlo and look who else: a selective, annotated bibliography\\|last\\=Cecilia\\|first\\=Puerto\\|date\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press\\|isbn\\=0313289344\\|location\\=Westport, Conn.\\|oclc\\=34282732}}", "Her work was exhibited widely throughout Argentina, and she was given two [Konex Awards](/wiki/Konex_Award \"Konex Award\") (the highest in the Argentine cultural realm) in 1982\\. Forner died in Buenos Aires in 1988\\. That year, the [Buenos Aires Museum of Modern Art](/wiki/Buenos_Aires_Museum_of_Modern_Art \"Buenos Aires Museum of Modern Art\") organized a retrospective in her honor.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fundacionkonex.org/\\|title\\=Página no encontrada \\| Fundación Konex\\|first\\=Troop Software\\|last\\=Factory\\|website\\=www.fundacionkonex.org}}", "Her work is included in the collection of the [Musée national des beaux\\-arts du Québec](/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_national_des_beaux-arts_du_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec\"),{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://collections.mnbaq.org/fr/artiste/600002655 \\|title \\= Forner, Raquel}} the [Art Museum of the Americas](/wiki/Art_Museum_of_the_Americas \"Art Museum of the Americas\"), the Museum of Modern Art and others.", "" ]
Event ----- | \+ **Other on\-screen personnel** | Role: | Name: | |English commentators [Michael Cole](/wiki/Michael_Cole_%28wrestling%29 "Michael Cole (wrestling)") | | [Corey Graves](/wiki/Corey_Graves "Corey Graves") | |Spanish commentators [Marcelo Rodriguez](/wiki/Marcelo_Rodriguez "Marcelo Rodriguez") | | [Jerry Soto](/wiki/Jerry_Soto "Jerry Soto") | |[Ring announcers](/wiki/Ring_announcer "Ring announcer") [Mike Rome](/wiki/Mike_Rome "Mike Rome") {{small\|(Raw/Men's Elimination Chamber Match)}} | | [Samantha Irvin](/wiki/Samantha_Irvin "Samantha Irvin") {{small\|(SmackDown/Women's Elimination Chamber Match)}} | |[Referees](/wiki/Referee_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Referee (professional wrestling)") Danilo Anfibio | | [Jason Ayers](/wiki/Jason_Ayers "Jason Ayers") | | [Jessika Carr](/wiki/Jessika_Carr "Jessika Carr") | | [Dan Engler](/wiki/Dan_Engler "Dan Engler") | | [Daphanie LaShaunn](/wiki/Daphanie_LaShaunn "Daphanie LaShaunn") | | Eddie Orengo | | Chad Patton | | Ryan Tran | | Rod Zapata | | Pre\-show panel | [Kayla Braxton](/wiki/Kayla_Braxton "Kayla Braxton") | | [Kevin Patrick](/wiki/Kevin_Patrick_%28commentator%29 "Kevin Patrick (commentator)") | | [Peter Rosenberg](/wiki/Peter_Rosenberg "Peter Rosenberg") | | [Wade Barrett](/wiki/Wade_Barrett "Wade Barrett") | | [Ariel Helwani](/wiki/Ariel_Helwani "Ariel Helwani") | ### Preliminary matches The pay\-per\-view opened with the women's Elimination Chamber match for a Raw Women's Championship match at WrestleMania 39\. Liv Morgan and Natalya began the match. Morgan threw Natalya face first into the chamber walls. Natalya threw Morgan into a chamber pod. Raquel Rodriguez entered third and dominated Natalya and Morgan. After Nikki Cross entered fourth, Cross dominated Morgan, Natalya, and Rodriguez and performed a Crossbody from the top of a chamber pod onto the three. Carmella entered fifth and attempted to pin Morgan and Natalya, but both were nearfalls. Carmella then locked herself inside a chamber pod to escape Cross, however, Rodriguez drove Cross through the pod, destroying it in the process. Carmella then locked herself into a second chamber pod while Rodriguez brought Cross back in the ring, and pinned her to eliminate Cross. Morgan climbed the chamber wall and performed a Sunset Bomb off the top of a pod on Rodriguez. Carmella took advantage and tried to pin Rodriguez for a nearfall. Asuka entered last and dominated Carmella, driving her into the chamber walls. As Morgan attempted to perform an Ob\-Liv\-ion on Natalya, Carmella intercepted with a kick on Morgan. Natalya applied the Sharpshooter on Morgan and then Asuka simultaneously applied an Asuka Lock on Morgan, who passed out, resulting in Morgan's elimination. Carmella performed a Princess Kick on Natalya to eliminate her. Asuka and Carmella teamed up on Rodriguez, performing a double pin on Rodriguez to eliminate her. In the end, Asuka forced Carmella to submit to the Asuka Lock to win the match and earn a Raw Women's Championship match against Bianca Belair at WrestleMania 39\. This win also made Asuka the first woman to win the Royal Rumble, [Money in the Bank](/wiki/Money_in_the_Bank_ladder_match "Money in the Bank ladder match"), and Elimination Chamber matches. Next, Bobby Lashley took on Brock Lesnar. Lesnar performed a Spear on Lashley and clotheslined him out of the ring. As Lesnar brought Lashley back in the ring, Lashley performed a Spear on Lesnar for a nearfall. Lashley performed a second Spear on Lesnar and attempted the Hurt Lock, however Lesnar escaped and performed an F\-5 on Lashley for a nearfall. Lesnar performed a second F\-5 on Lashley for a nearfall. In the closing moments, Lashley performed a third Spear on Lesnar and applied the Hurt Lock on him, however, in an attempt to break the hold, Lesnar inadvertently attacked Lashley with a low blow, thus Lashley won via disqualification. Following the match, an angered Lesnar performed an F\-5 on the referee and on Lashley. Lesnar then performed an F\-5 on Lashley through an announce table and delivered another F\-5 to the referee. Next, Edge and Beth Phoenix faced The Judgment Day (Finn Bálor and Rhea Ripley, accompanied by Dominik Mysterio) in a mixed tag team match. During the match, as Phoenix attempted a Splash on Ripley, Mysterio tripped Phoenix. Edge chased after Mysterio, who ran to the backstage area, knocking over Bálor in the process, however, Mysterio later returned at ringside. Phoenix performed a DDT on Ripley and attempted to tag to Edge, only for Bálor to crawl under the ring to reach Edge and knock him off the apron. As Edge and Phoenix simultaneously applied the Edgecator on Bálor and Ripley, respectively, Mysterio tried to intervene only for the referee to prevent him from doing so. Ripley performed a headbutt on Phoenix and struck Edge with [brass knuckles](/wiki/Brass_knuckles "Brass knuckles"). Ripley placed Bálor onto Edge for a pin only for Phoenix to break up the pin attempt. In a further attempt to taunt Edge, Ripley placed Phoenix on the steel stairs and attempted a con\-chair\-to, however, Phoenix escaped and performed a Glam Slam on Ripley at ringside. Back in the ring, Bálor performed a Sling Blade on Edge and went for the Shotgun Dropkick, but Edge intercepted him with a Spear. Edge and Phoenix then performed the Shatter Machine on Bálor to win the match. In the penultimate match, Austin Theory defended the United States Championship against Bronson Reed, Damian Priest, Johnny Gargano, Montez Ford, and Seth "Freakin" Rollins in an Elimination Chamber match. Gargano and Rollins began the match. Theory entered third and began to target Gargano and Rollins, after which, Theory sent Gargano into the wall of a chamber pod. Theory attempted to rekindle his alliance with Gargano, dating back to [NXT](/wiki/NXT_%28WWE_brand%29 "NXT (WWE brand)"), however, Gargano turned on Theory. Theory locked himself in a chamber pod, however, Rollins opened the pod and both Gargano and Rollins attacked Theory while inside the pod. Priest entered fourth and dominated Gargano and Rollins. Theory cheered Priest on, however, Priest attacked him with a kick. Rollins performed a Superplex and a Falcon Arrow on Priest for a nearfall. Reed entered fifth and dominated the other competitors. Reed then performed a double Samoan Drop on Gargano and Rollins. Reed tried to pin Rollins which resulted in a nearfall. Reed performed a splash on Priest into the pod. Priest then performed a Shoulder Tackle on Theory off the turnbuckle, after which, Reed sent Theory into the pod. The last to enter was Ford. Paying homage to [The Rock](/wiki/Dwayne_Johnson "Dwayne Johnson"), Ford attempted his own People's Elbow on Theory only for Reed to intercept Ford. Theory then lifted Reed on his shoulders, only for Reed to counter into a Powerslam. Rollins took out Gargano, who was atop Reed's shoulders: Gargano in turn performed a Hurricanrana on Reed and Ford tried to pin Reed for a nearfall. Ford performed a Crossbody off the roof of the chamber onto Gargano, Rollins, Theory, Reed, and Priest. Gargano, Ford, and Rollins performed superkicks on Reed, after which, Gargano performed Final Beat on Reed followed by Rollins performing a Stomp on Reed. Ford performed From The Heavens on Reed to eliminate him. Gargano and Rollins knocked off Theory and Priest off the chamber wall, after which, Gargano and Rollins brawled atop a chamber pod. Rollins attempted a Powerbomb on Gargano, however, Gargano countered into a Hurricanrana sending Rollins off the chamber pod onto the other competitors. Priest performed the Razor's Edge on Gargano to eliminate him. As Rollins lifted Priest, Ford performed a Blockbuster on Priest to eliminate him. Ford performed Suicide Dives on Rollins and Theory. As Ford performed From The Heavens on Theory, Theory raised his knees to block the impact. Rollins performed the Stomp by Ford outside the ring and Theory pinned Ford to eliminate him. Following his elimination, referees tended to Ford and helped him to the backstage area. In the closing moments, Rollins performed a Pedigree on Theory, however, [Logan Paul](/wiki/Logan_Paul "Logan Paul"), who eliminated Rollins in the men's Royal Rumble match, appeared as Ford was leaving. Paul performed The Stomp on Rollins and Theory then performed A\-Town Down on Rollins to retain the title. ### Main event [thumb\|left\|upright\|[Sami Zayn](/wiki/Sami_Zayn "Sami Zayn") received enormous favorable crowd reaction and praise for his performance in the main event.{{cite web\|first\=Nick\|last\=Tylwalk\|url\=https://wrestlingjunkie.usatoday.com/2023/02/18/wwe\-elimination\-chamber\-results\-sami\-zayn\-roman\-reigns/\|title\=WWE Elimination Chamber results: Roman Reigns shuts down Sami Zayn's underdog tale\|date\=February 18, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219041118/https://wrestlingjunkie.usatoday.com/2023/02/18/wwe\-elimination\-chamber\-results\-sami\-zayn\-roman\-reigns/\|archive\-date\=February 19, 2023\|access\-date\=May 10, 2023\|url\-status\=live\|work\=\[\[USA Today]]}}](/wiki/File:Sami_Zayn_NXT_TakeOver_Dallas_2016.jpg "Sami Zayn NXT TakeOver Dallas 2016.jpg") In the main event, Roman Reigns (accompanied by [Paul Heyman](/wiki/Paul_Heyman "Paul Heyman")) defended the Undisputed WWE Universal Championship against Sami Zayn. As soon as the match started, the hometown crowd cheered for Zayn, while viciously booing and hurling insults towards Reigns. Reigns withstood an offensive flurry by Zayn before taunting the crowd, including Zayn's wife, who was seated in the front row. Zayn performed a Sunset Bomb on Reigns for a nearfall. Reigns performed a Uranage on Zayn for a nearfall. Zayn countered a Superman Punch into an Exploder Suplex. Reigns countered a Helluva Kick into a Superman Punch for a nearfall. As Reigns attempted a Spear, Zayn leapt over and rolled up Reigns for a nearfall. Zayn performed another Exploder Suplex on Reigns and followed up with his own Superman Punch and the Helluva Kick for a nearfall. Outside the ring, Reigns attempted a Spear, however, Zayn stepped out of the way, causing him to crash into the barricade. Back in the ring, Zayn performed a Blue Thunderbomb on Reigns for a nearfall. As Zayn attempted a second Blue Thunderbomb, Reigns countered and sent Zayn into the referee, incapacitating him. Zayn then performed a Helluva Kick, however, the referee was unable to count the pin. Jimmy Uso, who was told by Heyman to stay home a week prior, appeared and performed an Uso Splash on Zayn. Jimmy placed Reigns onto Zayn and a new referee came out to count the pin which resulted in a nearfall. Reigns performed a second Spear on Zayn for a nearfall. As Reigns attempted another Superman Punch, he accidentally incapacitated the new referee. Heyman obtained a chair from under the ring and passed it to Reigns. Jey Uso then appeared and Reigns lambasted Jey for siding with Zayn. Reigns then handed the chair to Jey, however, a conflicted Jey refused to strike Zayn. Zayn then attempted a Spear on Reigns, however, Reigns moved out of the way and Zayn accidentally struck Jey instead. Reigns then attacked Zayn with the chair, and performed a third Spear on Zayn to retain the titles. Following the match, Reigns and Jimmy attacked Zayn until Kevin Owens appeared and attacked Jimmy. Owens then attacked Reigns and performed [Stunners](/wiki/Stunner_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Stunner (professional wrestling)") on both Reigns and Jimmy. Owens then performed a Pop\-up Powerbomb on Jimmy through the announce table. Owens then retrieved a chair, only for Heyman to attack Owens to no avail. Owens then performed a Stunner on Heyman. Zayn performed a Helluva Kick on Reigns, and had a staredown with Owens, who left the ring. Zayn then received a standing ovation from the hometown crowd as the event came to an end.
[ "Event\n-----", "", "| \\+ **Other on\\-screen personnel** | Role: | Name: |", "|English commentators", "[Michael Cole](/wiki/Michael_Cole_%28wrestling%29 \"Michael Cole (wrestling)\") |\n| [Corey Graves](/wiki/Corey_Graves \"Corey Graves\") |\n|Spanish commentators", "[Marcelo Rodriguez](/wiki/Marcelo_Rodriguez \"Marcelo Rodriguez\") |\n| [Jerry Soto](/wiki/Jerry_Soto \"Jerry Soto\") |\n|[Ring announcers](/wiki/Ring_announcer \"Ring announcer\")", "[Mike Rome](/wiki/Mike_Rome \"Mike Rome\") {{small\\|(Raw/Men's Elimination Chamber Match)}} |\n| [Samantha Irvin](/wiki/Samantha_Irvin \"Samantha Irvin\") {{small\\|(SmackDown/Women's Elimination Chamber Match)}} |\n|[Referees](/wiki/Referee_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Referee (professional wrestling)\")", "Danilo Anfibio |\n| [Jason Ayers](/wiki/Jason_Ayers \"Jason Ayers\") |\n| [Jessika Carr](/wiki/Jessika_Carr \"Jessika Carr\") |\n| [Dan Engler](/wiki/Dan_Engler \"Dan Engler\") |\n| [Daphanie LaShaunn](/wiki/Daphanie_LaShaunn \"Daphanie LaShaunn\") |\n| Eddie Orengo |\n| Chad Patton |\n| Ryan Tran |\n| Rod Zapata |\n| Pre\\-show panel | [Kayla Braxton](/wiki/Kayla_Braxton \"Kayla Braxton\") |\n| [Kevin Patrick](/wiki/Kevin_Patrick_%28commentator%29 \"Kevin Patrick (commentator)\") |\n| [Peter Rosenberg](/wiki/Peter_Rosenberg \"Peter Rosenberg\") |\n| [Wade Barrett](/wiki/Wade_Barrett \"Wade Barrett\") |\n| [Ariel Helwani](/wiki/Ariel_Helwani \"Ariel Helwani\") |", "### Preliminary matches", "The pay\\-per\\-view opened with the women's Elimination Chamber match for a Raw Women's Championship match at WrestleMania 39\\. Liv Morgan and Natalya began the match. Morgan threw Natalya face first into the chamber walls. Natalya threw Morgan into a chamber pod. Raquel Rodriguez entered third and dominated Natalya and Morgan. After Nikki Cross entered fourth, Cross dominated Morgan, Natalya, and Rodriguez and performed a Crossbody from the top of a chamber pod onto the three. Carmella entered fifth and attempted to pin Morgan and Natalya, but both were nearfalls. Carmella then locked herself inside a chamber pod to escape Cross, however, Rodriguez drove Cross through the pod, destroying it in the process. Carmella then locked herself into a second chamber pod while Rodriguez brought Cross back in the ring, and pinned her to eliminate Cross. Morgan climbed the chamber wall and performed a Sunset Bomb off the top of a pod on Rodriguez. Carmella took advantage and tried to pin Rodriguez for a nearfall. Asuka entered last and dominated Carmella, driving her into the chamber walls. As Morgan attempted to perform an Ob\\-Liv\\-ion on Natalya, Carmella intercepted with a kick on Morgan. Natalya applied the Sharpshooter on Morgan and then Asuka simultaneously applied an Asuka Lock on Morgan, who passed out, resulting in Morgan's elimination. Carmella performed a Princess Kick on Natalya to eliminate her. Asuka and Carmella teamed up on Rodriguez, performing a double pin on Rodriguez to eliminate her. In the end, Asuka forced Carmella to submit to the Asuka Lock to win the match and earn a Raw Women's Championship match against Bianca Belair at WrestleMania 39\\. This win also made Asuka the first woman to win the Royal Rumble, [Money in the Bank](/wiki/Money_in_the_Bank_ladder_match \"Money in the Bank ladder match\"), and Elimination Chamber matches.", "Next, Bobby Lashley took on Brock Lesnar. Lesnar performed a Spear on Lashley and clotheslined him out of the ring. As Lesnar brought Lashley back in the ring, Lashley performed a Spear on Lesnar for a nearfall. Lashley performed a second Spear on Lesnar and attempted the Hurt Lock, however Lesnar escaped and performed an F\\-5 on Lashley for a nearfall. Lesnar performed a second F\\-5 on Lashley for a nearfall. In the closing moments, Lashley performed a third Spear on Lesnar and applied the Hurt Lock on him, however, in an attempt to break the hold, Lesnar inadvertently attacked Lashley with a low blow, thus Lashley won via disqualification. Following the match, an angered Lesnar performed an F\\-5 on the referee and on Lashley. Lesnar then performed an F\\-5 on Lashley through an announce table and delivered another F\\-5 to the referee.", "Next, Edge and Beth Phoenix faced The Judgment Day (Finn Bálor and Rhea Ripley, accompanied by Dominik Mysterio) in a mixed tag team match. During the match, as Phoenix attempted a Splash on Ripley, Mysterio tripped Phoenix. Edge chased after Mysterio, who ran to the backstage area, knocking over Bálor in the process, however, Mysterio later returned at ringside. Phoenix performed a DDT on Ripley and attempted to tag to Edge, only for Bálor to crawl under the ring to reach Edge and knock him off the apron. As Edge and Phoenix simultaneously applied the Edgecator on Bálor and Ripley, respectively, Mysterio tried to intervene only for the referee to prevent him from doing so. Ripley performed a headbutt on Phoenix and struck Edge with [brass knuckles](/wiki/Brass_knuckles \"Brass knuckles\"). Ripley placed Bálor onto Edge for a pin only for Phoenix to break up the pin attempt. In a further attempt to taunt Edge, Ripley placed Phoenix on the steel stairs and attempted a con\\-chair\\-to, however, Phoenix escaped and performed a Glam Slam on Ripley at ringside. Back in the ring, Bálor performed a Sling Blade on Edge and went for the Shotgun Dropkick, but Edge intercepted him with a Spear. Edge and Phoenix then performed the Shatter Machine on Bálor to win the match.", "In the penultimate match, Austin Theory defended the United States Championship against Bronson Reed, Damian Priest, Johnny Gargano, Montez Ford, and Seth \"Freakin\" Rollins in an Elimination Chamber match. Gargano and Rollins began the match. Theory entered third and began to target Gargano and Rollins, after which, Theory sent Gargano into the wall of a chamber pod. Theory attempted to rekindle his alliance with Gargano, dating back to [NXT](/wiki/NXT_%28WWE_brand%29 \"NXT (WWE brand)\"), however, Gargano turned on Theory. Theory locked himself in a chamber pod, however, Rollins opened the pod and both Gargano and Rollins attacked Theory while inside the pod. Priest entered fourth and dominated Gargano and Rollins. Theory cheered Priest on, however, Priest attacked him with a kick. Rollins performed a Superplex and a Falcon Arrow on Priest for a nearfall. Reed entered fifth and dominated the other competitors. Reed then performed a double Samoan Drop on Gargano and Rollins. Reed tried to pin Rollins which resulted in a nearfall. Reed performed a splash on Priest into the pod. Priest then performed a Shoulder Tackle on Theory off the turnbuckle, after which, Reed sent Theory into the pod. The last to enter was Ford. Paying homage to [The Rock](/wiki/Dwayne_Johnson \"Dwayne Johnson\"), Ford attempted his own People's Elbow on Theory only for Reed to intercept Ford. Theory then lifted Reed on his shoulders, only for Reed to counter into a Powerslam. Rollins took out Gargano, who was atop Reed's shoulders: Gargano in turn performed a Hurricanrana on Reed and Ford tried to pin Reed for a nearfall. Ford performed a Crossbody off the roof of the chamber onto Gargano, Rollins, Theory, Reed, and Priest. Gargano, Ford, and Rollins performed superkicks on Reed, after which, Gargano performed Final Beat on Reed followed by Rollins performing a Stomp on Reed. Ford performed From The Heavens on Reed to eliminate him. Gargano and Rollins knocked off Theory and Priest off the chamber wall, after which, Gargano and Rollins brawled atop a chamber pod. Rollins attempted a Powerbomb on Gargano, however, Gargano countered into a Hurricanrana sending Rollins off the chamber pod onto the other competitors. Priest performed the Razor's Edge on Gargano to eliminate him. As Rollins lifted Priest, Ford performed a Blockbuster on Priest to eliminate him. Ford performed Suicide Dives on Rollins and Theory. As Ford performed From The Heavens on Theory, Theory raised his knees to block the impact. Rollins performed the Stomp by Ford outside the ring and Theory pinned Ford to eliminate him. Following his elimination, referees tended to Ford and helped him to the backstage area. In the closing moments, Rollins performed a Pedigree on Theory, however, [Logan Paul](/wiki/Logan_Paul \"Logan Paul\"), who eliminated Rollins in the men's Royal Rumble match, appeared as Ford was leaving. Paul performed The Stomp on Rollins and Theory then performed A\\-Town Down on Rollins to retain the title.", "### Main event", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|[Sami Zayn](/wiki/Sami_Zayn \"Sami Zayn\") received enormous favorable crowd reaction and praise for his performance in the main event.{{cite web\\|first\\=Nick\\|last\\=Tylwalk\\|url\\=https://wrestlingjunkie.usatoday.com/2023/02/18/wwe\\-elimination\\-chamber\\-results\\-sami\\-zayn\\-roman\\-reigns/\\|title\\=WWE Elimination Chamber results: Roman Reigns shuts down Sami Zayn's underdog tale\\|date\\=February 18, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219041118/https://wrestlingjunkie.usatoday.com/2023/02/18/wwe\\-elimination\\-chamber\\-results\\-sami\\-zayn\\-roman\\-reigns/\\|archive\\-date\\=February 19, 2023\\|access\\-date\\=May 10, 2023\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|work\\=\\[\\[USA Today]]}}](/wiki/File:Sami_Zayn_NXT_TakeOver_Dallas_2016.jpg \"Sami Zayn NXT TakeOver Dallas 2016.jpg\") \nIn the main event, Roman Reigns (accompanied by [Paul Heyman](/wiki/Paul_Heyman \"Paul Heyman\")) defended the Undisputed WWE Universal Championship against Sami Zayn. As soon as the match started, the hometown crowd cheered for Zayn, while viciously booing and hurling insults towards Reigns. Reigns withstood an offensive flurry by Zayn before taunting the crowd, including Zayn's wife, who was seated in the front row. Zayn performed a Sunset Bomb on Reigns for a nearfall. Reigns performed a Uranage on Zayn for a nearfall. Zayn countered a Superman Punch into an Exploder Suplex. Reigns countered a Helluva Kick into a Superman Punch for a nearfall. As Reigns attempted a Spear, Zayn leapt over and rolled up Reigns for a nearfall. Zayn performed another Exploder Suplex on Reigns and followed up with his own Superman Punch and the Helluva Kick for a nearfall. Outside the ring, Reigns attempted a Spear, however, Zayn stepped out of the way, causing him to crash into the barricade. Back in the ring, Zayn performed a Blue Thunderbomb on Reigns for a nearfall. As Zayn attempted a second Blue Thunderbomb, Reigns countered and sent Zayn into the referee, incapacitating him. Zayn then performed a Helluva Kick, however, the referee was unable to count the pin. Jimmy Uso, who was told by Heyman to stay home a week prior, appeared and performed an Uso Splash on Zayn. Jimmy placed Reigns onto Zayn and a new referee came out to count the pin which resulted in a nearfall. Reigns performed a second Spear on Zayn for a nearfall. As Reigns attempted another Superman Punch, he accidentally incapacitated the new referee. Heyman obtained a chair from under the ring and passed it to Reigns. Jey Uso then appeared and Reigns lambasted Jey for siding with Zayn. Reigns then handed the chair to Jey, however, a conflicted Jey refused to strike Zayn. Zayn then attempted a Spear on Reigns, however, Reigns moved out of the way and Zayn accidentally struck Jey instead. Reigns then attacked Zayn with the chair, and performed a third Spear on Zayn to retain the titles.", "Following the match, Reigns and Jimmy attacked Zayn until Kevin Owens appeared and attacked Jimmy. Owens then attacked Reigns and performed [Stunners](/wiki/Stunner_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Stunner (professional wrestling)\") on both Reigns and Jimmy. Owens then performed a Pop\\-up Powerbomb on Jimmy through the announce table. Owens then retrieved a chair, only for Heyman to attack Owens to no avail. Owens then performed a Stunner on Heyman. Zayn performed a Helluva Kick on Reigns, and had a staredown with Owens, who left the ring. Zayn then received a standing ovation from the hometown crowd as the event came to an end.", "" ]
History ------- ### Early history Dolce\&Gabbana founders Domenico Dolce and Stefano Gabbana met each other in 1982 while working for Giorgio Corregiari, an Italian fashion brand. [Domenico Dolce](/wiki/Domenico_Dolce "Domenico Dolce") was born on August 13, [1958](/wiki/1958 "1958"), in [Polizzi Generosa](/wiki/Polizzi_Generosa "Polizzi Generosa"), while [Stefano Gabbana](/wiki/Stefano_Gabbana "Stefano Gabbana") was born on November 14, [1962](/wiki/1962 "1962"), in [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan"). Dolce began designing and making his clothes at the age of six. In 1983, the two established their own design consulting studio, which they named "Dolce \& Gabbana".{{cite magazine \|title\=Hands and Eyes: When Dolce met Gabbana. \|url\=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/03/14/hands\-and\-eyes \|magazine\=The New Yorker \|access\-date\=18 November 2021 \|archive\-date\=14 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114043645/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/03/14/hands\-and\-eyes \|url\-status\=live }} Their first women's collection debuted in 1985{{cite news \|last\=Givhan \|first\=Robin \|date\=2 April 2012 \|title\=Ob\-la\-di, Ob\-la\-da, Bras Go On \|newspaper\=Newsweek \|url\=http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/03/18/the\-evolution\-of\-the\-bra\-from\-mad\-men\-s\-day\-to\-our\-own.html \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=15 October 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927215141/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/03/18/the\-evolution\-of\-the\-bra\-from\-mad\-men\-s\-day\-to\-our\-own.html \|archive\-date\=27 September 2013}} at the New Talents section of [Milan Fashion Week](/wiki/Milan_Fashion_Week "Milan Fashion Week"), and the following year, they opened their first store in Milan.{{cite web \|title\=Biography of Dolce \& Gabanna \|url\=https://www.businessoffashion.com/community/people/domenico\-dolce\-stefano\-gabbana \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118204704/https://www.businessoffashion.com/community/people/domenico\-dolce\-stefano\-gabbana \|archive\-date\=18 November 2021 \|access\-date\=18 November 2021 \|publisher\=Business of Fashion}} The first meeting between the two happened over the phone when Dolce called the fashion company where Gabbana was working, looking for a job. After being hired by the company, Gabbana took Dolce under his wing and taught him the workings of a fashion company and how to [sketch](/wiki/Sketch_%28drawing%29 "Sketch (drawing)") new designs. Shortly after Dolce's hiring, Gabbana was drafted for 18 months of civil service at an institution for the mentally ill, but after his return, the two created a design consulting business.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.encyclopedia.com/fashion/encyclopedias\-almanacs\-transcripts\-and\-maps/dolce\-gabbana \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana \|website\=Encyclopedia.com \|access\-date\=July 12, 2024}} The company's 1986 Spring and Summer (SS) collection, titled *Geometrissimo* was presented alongside other fashion labels.{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=H5oadQtleT4C\&q\=history\+of\+dolce\+and\+gabbana\+collections\&pg\=PA206 \|title\=The Great Fashion Designers \|author\=Brenda Polan and Roger Trendre \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Berg \|page\=206 \|isbn\=9781847882271 \|access\-date\=24 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=8 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013822/https://books.google.com/books?id\=H5oadQtleT4C\&q\=history\+of\+dolce\+and\+gabbana\+collections\&pg\=PA206 \|url\-status\=live }} Dolce \& Gabbana did not have enough money to hire models or provide them with accessories, so they sought help from their friends. Their friends served as models and wore their personal items to accessorize the clothing. A bed sheet from Dolce's home was used as their stage curtain.{{cite news \|url\=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/07/16/dolce.gabbana.interview/index.html \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana: Fashion's golden duo \|date\=21 July 2012 \|access\-date\=29 May 2012 \|publisher\=\[\[CNN International]] \|author\=Stefanie Blendis and Gisella Deputato \|archive\-date\=6 February 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206015213/https://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/07/16/dolce.gabbana.interview/index.html \|url\-status\=live }} In March 1986, Dolce \& Gabbana released their first self\-produced collection, *Donne Vere/Real Women,* for the Fall and Winter (FW) 1986/87 season. The name of the collection was influenced by the local women who served as models on the runway. However, sales were initially disappointing, and Gabbana canceled the fabric order for their second collection. Dolce's family later offered to help with costs during a visit to [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily") over Christmas. Incidentally, the fabric company did not receive the cancellation notice in time, and the fabric was ready for them when they returned to Milan. In September 1986, Dolce\&Gabbana presented the SS 1987 Women's fashion show entitled *Trasformismo*.Despite working together, they always invoiced separately until an accountant advised them to invoice jointly to simplify things and make the business more cost\-effective. The two began invoicing clients under the name Dolce and Gabbana, which became the name of their developing design business. They produced their next collection in [1986](/wiki/1986 "1986") and opened their first store the same year. {{cite web \|url\=https://logo.com/blog/dolce\-gabbana\-logo \|title\=The History and Evolution of the Dolce \& Gabbana Logo \|website\=Logo.com \|access\-date\=July 12, 2024}} The fashion house continued to gain recognition, and in 1987, Dolce \& Gabbana presented the Women's SS 1988 fashion show, entitled *Il Gattopardo/The Leopard line*. The following year, they began designing underwear and swimwear, and by 1990, the company was exporting their products to Japan and the United States. In the same year, they launched their first perfume, *Dolce\&Gabbana Pour Homme* and *Dolce\&Gabbana Pour Femme*, produced and distributed by Euroitalia.{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|title\=The history behind Dolce and Gabbana \|url\=https://blog.perfumeclearancecentre.com.au/2015/06/23/the\-history\-behind\-dolce\-and\-gabbana/ \|access\-date\= \|website\=Perfume Clearance Centre \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana :: Perfume Houses :: Now Smell This \|url\=https://nstperfume.com/perfume\-houses\-d\-to\-e/dolce\-gabbana/ \|access\-date\= \|website\=nstperfume.com}} In 1990 the company opened its first women's boutique in Via Sant'Andrea, Milan. [Michael Gross](/wiki/Michael_Gross_%28American_writer%29 "Michael Gross (American writer)") wrote of their third collection in a 1992 interview, "They were a secret known only to a handful of Italian fashion editors. Their few models changed behind a rickety screen. They called their collection of T\-shirt\-cotton and elastic\-silk pieces, Transformation." The clothing in this collection came with instructions on the seven different ways a piece could be worn in an outfit, as the wearer could use [Velcro](/wiki/Velcro "Velcro") and snaps to alter the clothing's form.{{cite news \|author\=Michael Gross \|date\=7 September 1992 \|title\=La Dolce (\& Gabbana) Vita \|pages\=16–17 \|work\=\[\[New York Magazine]]}} Dolce \& Gabbana's fourth collection, influenced by Dolce's Sicilian roots, made an impact on the Italian fashion market. In this collection, Dolce drew on his Sicilian roots. The collection's advertising campaign was shot in Sicily by photographer [Ferdinando Scianna](/wiki/Ferdinando_Scianna "Ferdinando Scianna") and featured Dutch model [Marpessa Hennink](/wiki/Marpessa_Hennink "Marpessa Hennink") in black and white pictures reminiscent of Italian cinema from the 1940s.{{cite journal \|last1\=Locatelli \|first1\=Rossella \|title\=Marpessa \- Vogue Italia Encyclo \|journal\=Vogue Italia \|url\=http://www.vogue.it/en/encyclo/people/m/marpessa \|access\-date\=7 April 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411185716/http://www.vogue.it/en/encyclo/people/m/marpessa \|archive\-date\=11 April 2015 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Muñoz Martinez\-Mora \|first1\=Ines \|title\=Marpessa Clase Superior \|journal\=Vogue España \|date\=May 2013 \|pages\=206–216 \|trans\-title\=Marpessa Top Class \|language\=es}} The brand's use of Italian cinema as a theme continued in their fifth collection, which drew upon the work of filmmaker [Luchino Visconti](/wiki/Luchino_Visconti "Luchino Visconti") and his film [*The Leopard*](/wiki/The_Leopard_%281963_film%29 "The Leopard (1963 film)"). One of the dresses from their fourth collection, called *The Sicilian Dress*, became iconic for the brand and was named one of the 100 most important dresses ever designed by author Hal Rubenstein. The dress is considered to be the epitome of Dolce \& Gabbana's style, with a slip\-like silhouette that emphasizes the figure and flares out at the knees to create a swaying motion when walking.{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KvzSrWl5QP0C\&q\=dolce\+and\+gabbana\+collection\&pg\=PT202 \|title\=100 Unforgettable Dresses \|author\=Hal Rubenstein \|publisher\=Harper Collins \|year\=2012 \|isbn\=9780062198884 \|access\-date\=24 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=8 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013810/https://books.google.com/books?id\=KvzSrWl5QP0C\&q\=dolce\+and\+gabbana\+collection\&pg\=PT202 \|url\-status\=live }} Hal Rubenstein described the piece in 2012, writing: "The Sicilian Dress is the [essence](/wiki/Essence "Essence") of Dolce \& Gabbana, the sartorial cornerstone of the brand. The dress takes inspiration from a slip, but it is a slip that adorned [Anna Magnani](/wiki/Anna_Magnani "Anna Magnani"), and it is a silhouette that graced [Anita Ekberg](/wiki/Anita_Ekberg "Anita Ekberg"), [Sophia Loren](/wiki/Sophia_Loren "Sophia Loren"), and so on. The straps fit tightly to the body just like those of a bra; the neckline runs straight but is pinned at least twice, once on each side, to caress the two breasts and in the middle to meet an uplifting fold that provides slight support. The slip does not simply fall down but rises at the waist to hold the figure firmly but not too tightly, and then flares out to emphasize the hips, falling slightly tapered at the knees, ensuring the swaying of the hips while walking."{{cite book \|last\=Rubenstein \|first\=Hal \|title\=100 Unforgettable Dresses \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KvzSrWl5QP0C\&pg\=PT202 \|date\=2012 \|publisher\=Harper Design \|page\=202 \|isbn\=978\-0\-06\-115166\-8}} ### 1980s and 1990s In 1987, Dolce \& Gabbana launched their first knitwear collection line,{{cite web \|url\=https://fashion\-history.lovetoknow.com/fashion\-clothing\-industry/fashion\-designers/dolce\-gabbana\-brand\-history \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana Brand History \|publisher\=Fashion History \|access\-date\=18 November 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118202031/https://fashion\-history.lovetoknow.com/fashion\-clothing\-industry/fashion\-designers/dolce\-gabbana\-brand\-history \|url\-status\=live }} and in 1989, they started an underwear and beachwear collection. In the same year, they launched their first women's fashion show in Tokyo and opened their first store in Japan in partnership with Kashiyama Co.{{cite web \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana \|url\=http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biographies/dolce\-gabbana.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815181601/http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biographies/dolce\-gabbana.html \|archive\-date\=15 August 2012 \|access\-date\=29 May 2012}} In April 1990, they held their first fashion show in New York, started exporting their products to the United States, and founded their own showroom. That same year, Dolce\&Gabbana presented the first Men's FW 1990/1991 collection.{{cite book \|author\=Valerie Steele \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Hemsvn9ZbRkC\&q\=history\+of\+dolce\+and\+gabbana\+collections\&pg\=PA224 \|title\=The Berg Companion to Fashion \|publisher\=Berg \|year\=2010 \|isbn\=9781847885920 \|pages\=223–225 \|access\-date\=3 May 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013727/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Hemsvn9ZbRkC\&q\=history\+of\+dolce\+and\+gabbana\+collections\&pg\=PA224 \|archive\-date\=8 April 2023 \|url\-status\=live}} The collection features linear\-cut garments, characterized by dark and solid shades, such as black, gray and burgundy. The common thread of the collection is the high\-waisted trousers, combined with shirts, wool sweaters and blazers. In 1990 as well, the brand moved the design house into its first official offices. The company also began to design gowns and other more expensive pieces in addition to their original clothing. Their 1990 Spring/Summer women's collection, featured in the *Gli Anni '60* women's fashion show, referenced the mythological painting of [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael "Raphael"), and the duo began to build a reputation for crystal\-encrusted clothing. The 1991 Fall/Winter women's collection was also adorned by trinkets, including [filigree](/wiki/Filigree "Filigree") medals and embellished [corsets](/wiki/Corset "Corset"). The 1992 Fall/Winter women's collection was then inspired by the silver screen of the 1950s, though the collection still included crystal embellished body suits. In 1991, their men's collection won the Woolmark Award for the most innovative men's collection of the year. [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna_%28entertainer%29 "Madonna (entertainer)") wore a corset made of gemstones and an accompanying jacket from Dolce \& Gabbana at the 1991 [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") premiere of *[Truth or Dare](/wiki/Madonna:Truth_or_Dare "Truth or Dare"): In Bed with Madonna,* which is considered their first foray into international recognition. The duo partnered with Madonna in 1993 to design over 1500 costumes for the artist's Girlie Show international tour in support of her 1992 album *[Erotica](/wiki/Erotica_%28Madonna_album%29 "Erotica (Madonna album)")*. In 1994, the house's trademark [double\-breasted](/wiki/Double-breasted "Double-breasted") jacket was named "La Turlington" after model [Christy Turlington](/wiki/Christy_Turlington "Christy Turlington"). That same year the company launched the D\&G brand, a line produced and distributed by Ittierre, aimed at younger individuals. In 1993, *Dolce \& Gabbana Pour Femme* was awarded the Perfume Academy's 1993 award for best feminine fragrance of the year; *Dolce \& Gabbana pour Homme*, was the recipient of the best masculine fragrance of the year award from the same academy in 1995\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.perfumeclearancecentre.com.au/blogs/all\-things\-perfume/the\-history\-behind\-dolce\-and\-gabbana \|title\=THE HISTORY BEHIND DOLCE AND GABBANA \|publisher\=PCC \|access\-date\=18 November 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118202030/https://www.perfumeclearancecentre.com.au/blogs/all\-things\-perfume/the\-history\-behind\-dolce\-and\-gabbana \|url\-status\=live }} They won an "Oscar des Parfums" for best male perfume in 1996 from the French Parfum Academy, the first time ever that the title has been awarded to an Italian brand. Towards the end of the 1990s their sales were around $500 million and in 2003 alone, their revenue reached $633\.2 million. In 1990, they launched their first men's collection. That year, they also moved the design house into its first official offices and began to design gowns and other more expensive pieces in addition to their original clothing. Their 1990 Spring/Summer women's collection referenced the mythological painting of [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael "Raphael"), and the duo began to build a reputation for crystal\-encrusted clothing. The 1991 Fall/Winter women's collection was also adorned by trinkets, including [filigree](/wiki/Filigree "Filigree") medals and embellished [corsets](/wiki/Corset "Corset"). The 1992 Fall/Winter women's collection was then inspired by the silver screen of the 1950s, though the collection still included crystal embellished body suits.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.swide.com/luxury\-magazine/History/DG\-Archive/dg\-archive\-embellishments/2011/11/27 \|work\=Swide Magazine \|date\=27 November 2011 \|access\-date\=19 May 2012 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana and their Private Renaissance \|author\=Valentina Zannoni \|archive\-date\=30 December 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230171345/http://www.swide.com/luxury\-magazine/History/DG\-Archive/dg\-archive\-embellishments/2011/11/27 \|url\-status\=dead}} In 1993, *Dolce \& Gabbana Pour Femme* was awarded the Perfume Academy's 1993 award for best feminine fragrance of the year; *Dolce \& Gabbana pour Homme*, was the recipient of the best masculine fragrance of the year award from the same academy in 1995\.{{cite web \|title\=THE HISTORY BEHIND DOLCE AND GABBANA \|url\=https://www.perfumeclearancecentre.com.au/blogs/all\-things\-perfume/the\-history\-behind\-dolce\-and\-gabbana \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118202030/https://www.perfumeclearancecentre.com.au/blogs/all\-things\-perfume/the\-history\-behind\-dolce\-and\-gabbana \|archive\-date\=18 November 2021 \|access\-date\=18 November 2021 \|publisher\=PCC}} In 1995, the brand presented the SS 1996 Women's fashion show, *Le Eolie*, featuring garments with leopard and zebra prints. That same year Dolce \& Gabbana's collections caused a controversy with the British and Italian press, when they selected the American gangster motif as inspiration for their work.{{cite book \|author\=Caroline Evans \|title\=Fashion at the Edge: Spectacle, Modernity, and Deathliness \|publisher\=Yale University Press \|year\=2003 \|page\=19}} The brand transposed this Fall/Winter 1995 inspiration onto women's wear, which critics stated brought an erotic edge to the clothing. The duo had used the motif before in 1992 when photographer [Steven Meisel](/wiki/Steven_Meisel "Steven Meisel") shot an ad campaign for the house in which the models posed in "gangster chic". This included wide\-lapelled 1930s style coats and black leather caps.{{cite book \|author\=Rebecca Arnold \|title\=Fashion, Desire and Anxiety: Image and Morality in the 20th Century \|publisher\=I.B. Tauris \|year\=2001 \|pages\=39–40}} In 1996 the D\&G runway show was streamed on the Internet instead of being held on a physical runway, in an experimental move towards new media. That year Dolce \& Gabbana also designed the costumes for the film *[Romeo \+ Juliet](/wiki/Romeo_%2B_Juliet "Romeo + Juliet")*.{{cite web \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana \|url\=http://www.vogue.com/voguepedia/Dolce\_%26\_Gabbana \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723035756/http://www.vogue.com/voguepedia/Dolce\_%26\_Gabbana \|archive\-date\=23 July 2014 \|access\-date\=29 May 2012 \|work\=\[\[Vogue (magazine)\|Vogue]]}} ### 2000s Dolce\&Gabbana worked with various musical artists in the 2000s, designing costumes for Madonna's [Drowned World Tour](/wiki/Drowned_World_Tour "Drowned World Tour") in 2001, [Missy Elliott](/wiki/Missy_Elliott "Missy Elliott"), [Beyoncé](/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9 "Beyoncé"), and [Mary J. Blige](/wiki/Mary_J._Blige "Mary J. Blige")'s international tours and [Whitney Houston](/wiki/Whitney_Houston "Whitney Houston")'s *[My Love Is Your Love](/wiki/My_Love_Is_Your_Love "My Love Is Your Love")* tour.{{cite book \|page\=55 \|title\=Cherry Bomb: The Ultimate Guide to Becoming a Better Flirt, a Tougher Chick, and a Hotter Girlfriend—and to Living Life Like a Rock Star \|publisher\=Simon \& Schuster \|author\=Carrie Bornillo\-Vrenna \|year\=2008}}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.elle.com/Pop\-Culture/Celebrity\-Spotlight/Looking\-Back\-at\-Whitney\-Houston/(imageIndex)/14/(play)/false\#mode\=base;slide\=14; \|title\=Looking Back at Whitney Houston \|author\=Britt Aboutaleb \|date\=13 February 2012 \|access\-date\=29 May 2012 \|work\=\[\[Elle (magazine)\|Elle]]}}{{dead link\|date\=November 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Additionally, they designed costumes for [Kylie Minogue](/wiki/Kylie_Minogue "Kylie Minogue")'s [Showgirl Homecoming](/wiki/Showgirl_Homecoming "Showgirl Homecoming") tour and featured Madonna in their 2010 advertising campaigns. During this time, Dolce \& Gabbana drew inspiration from the sport of football, and their designs continued to influence trends in both fashion and music.{{cite news \|date\=8 November 2003 \|work\=\[\[Billboard Magazine]] \|author\=Michale Paoletta \|title\=Armani Conjures 'Night' for its Second A/X Disc \|page\=28}} In 2002, their early corset designs were revived by many European designers as a trend.{{cite news \|page\=74 \|work\=Out Magazine \|title\=A model designers \|date\=March 2002 \|author\=Brendan Lemon}} The brand also began holding private viewings of their new collections for buyers to pre\-empt the copying of their designs by [fast fashion companies](/wiki/Fast_fashion "Fast fashion").{{cite book \|title\=Beating the Commodity Trap: How to Maximize Your Competitive Position and Increase Your Pricing Power \|author\=Richard A. D'Aveni \|publisher\=Harvard Business Press \|year\=2009 \|page\=34}} In 2006, the company started a new journey in accessories and leather goods for men and women. In the same year, the brand launched a controversial ad campaign featuring two men kissing, which received criticism from some conservatives. However, the Advertising Standards Authority of Italy did not find the ad unacceptable for broadcast solely based on the depiction of two men kissing.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/feb/01/advertising.broadcasting \|title\=Gay kiss cleared by ad watchdog \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=February 2006 \|access\-date\=18 November 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118195902/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/feb/01/advertising.broadcasting \|url\-status\=live }} In February 2009, the Dolce\&Gabbana makeup line was launched. Dolce \& Gabbana created their first makeup in collaboration with make\-up artist [Pat McGrath](/wiki/Pat_McGrath_%28make-up_artist%29 "Pat McGrath (make-up artist)"). [Scarlett Johansson](/wiki/Scarlett_Johansson "Scarlett Johansson") appeared as the face of the advertising campaign for this new venture.{{Cite news \|last\=Gumuchian \|first\=Marie\-Louise \|date\=2009\-03\-04 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana launch luxury make\-up line \|language\=en\-US \|work\=Reuters \|url\=https://www.reuters.comarticle/idUSTRE5235BP/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-26}} ### 2010s [thumb\|Stefano Gabbana (left) and Domenico Dolce (right) in 2016](/wiki/File:Dolce_e_Gabbana_%2826441884825%29.jpg "Dolce e Gabbana (26441884825).jpg") In 2011, Dolce\&Gabbana merged with D\&G, with the aim of strengthening the main line. The final independent D\&G collection was the Spring/Summer 2012 collection shown in September 2011\.{{cite news \|author\=Ella Alexander \|date\=1 June 2011 \|title\=The End of D\&G \|work\=\[\[Vogue UK]] \|url\=http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2011/03/03/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-considers\-merging\-dandg\-line \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=19 May 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326044757/http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2011/03/03/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-considers\-merging\-dandg\-line \|archive\-date\=26 March 2016}} *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker "The New Yorker")* publication in 2005 stated that, "Dolce and Gabbana are becoming to the two\-thousands what [Prada](/wiki/Prada "Prada") was to the nineteen\-nineties and Armani was to the nineteen\-eighties—designers whose sensibility defines the decade."{{cite magazine \|author\=John Seabrook \|date\=14 March 2005 \|title\=Hands and Eyes: When Dolce met Gabbana \|url\=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/03/14/050314fa\_fact1?currentPage\=all \|url\-status\=live \|magazine\=\[\[The New Yorker]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018013719/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/03/14/050314fa\_fact1?currentPage\=all \|archive\-date\=18 October 2013 \|access\-date\=26 April 2013}} In terms of personal awards, *[FHM](/wiki/FHM "FHM")* named Dolce \& Gabbana as the designers of the year in 1996 and 1997\. In 2003, *[GQ Magazine](/wiki/GQ_Magazine "GQ Magazine")* awarded Dolce \& Gabbana the title of "Men of the Year". The following year, *[British Elle](/wiki/Elle_%28magazine%29 "Elle (magazine)")* readers voted Dolce \& Gabbana as the best international designers at the 2004 [Elle Style Awards](/wiki/Elle_Style_Awards "Elle Style Awards").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dolcegabbana.com/corporate/en/history/international\-awards.html \|title\=International Awards \|access\-date\=29 May 2012 \|archive\-date\=29 May 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529212544/http://www.dolcegabbana.com/corporate/en/history/international\-awards.html \|url\-status\=live }} On 19 June 2010, Dolce\&Gabbana celebrated the 20th anniversary of their brand at the Piazza della Scala and [Palazzo Marino](/wiki/Palazzo_Marino "Palazzo Marino") in Milan. The following day, a public exhibition was held which included a room with several dozen televisions piled haphazardly upon each other, each displaying a different collection from the design house's twenty\-year history.{{cite web \|title\=Dolce\&Gabbana 20th Anniversary. A day in history. A video. \|author\=Dolce \& Gabbana \|publisher\=Youtube: Dolce \& Gabbana Channel \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=9k3c0DtbiZw \|date\=16 July 2010 \|access\-date\=31 May 2012 \|archive\-date\=6 June 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606142454/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=9k3c0DtbiZw \|url\-status\=live }} In 2019, Dolce \& Gabbana extended its size range up to UK 22, making them one of the first luxury fashion houses to move towards body positivity and inclusivity for women. While most luxury fashion houses cater to women of sizes up to UK 16, Dolce \& Gabbana took the initiative to extend their size range for greater inclusivity.{{cite web \|url\=https://en.vogue.me/fashion/dolce\-gabbana\-first\-luxury\-fashion\-house\-extend\-size\-range/ \|title\=This Luxury Fashion House is the First to Extend its Size Range \|date\=2019\-06\-25 \|last\=Ifteqar \|first\=Naheed \|publisher\=Vogue \|access\-date\=18 November 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118201121/https://en.vogue.me/fashion/dolce\-gabbana\-first\-luxury\-fashion\-house\-extend\-size\-range/ \|url\-status\=live }} ### 2020s In September 2021, Dolce\&Gabbana collaborated with UNXD to issue *Collezione Genesi NFT*, its first non\-fungible token (NFT) collection. The collection consisted of nine pieces, including five physical and four digital creations, such as "Glass Suit" and "Impossible Tiara", and was sold for 1,885\.719 Ether (equivalent to nearly $5\.7 million). This collaboration with UNXD was a significant move towards the incorporation of blockchain technology into the fashion industry, and was widely reported by publications such as Vogue and The New York Times as being one of the first NFT collections created by a major fashion house.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/04/style/dolce\-gabbana\-nft.html \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana Just Set a $6 Million Record for Fashion NFTs \|date\=2021\-10\-04 \|last\=Thomas \|first\=Dana \|work\=The New York Times \|access\-date\=7 October 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118155724/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/04/style/dolce\-gabbana\-nft.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.co.uk/news/article/fashion\-nft\-dolce\-and\-gabbana \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana's NFT Experiment Is A Million\-Dollar Success Story \|date\=2021\-09\-30 \|last\=Kessler \|first\=Alex \|publisher\=Vogue \|access\-date\=20 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=27 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627202803/https://www.vogue.co.uk/news/article/fashion\-nft\-dolce\-and\-gabbana \|url\-status\=live }} Dolce\&Gabbana collaborated with the British\-American designer [Harris Reed](/wiki/Harris_Reed "Harris Reed") to present Somali model [Iman Abdulmajid](/wiki/Iman_Abdulmajid "Iman Abdulmajid") at the 2021 [Met Gala](/wiki/Met_Gala "Met Gala") fashion event in New York City. Harris Reed stated that fashion has a responsibility to spark conversation around social injustices. Iman, who faced institutional racism as a model, and founded a cosmetics line for women of color in 1994, was seen as an ideal collaborator to create a statement on the red carpet.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/red\-carpet\-dresses/a37582209/iman\-met\-gala\-2021\-harris\-reed/ \|title\=Iman Glowed in Gold Dolce \& Gabbana x Harris Reed on the Met Gala 2021 Red Carpet \|date\=2021\-09\-13 \|last\=Goldberg \|first\=Carrie \|publisher\=Harper's Bazaar \|access\-date\=20 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=20 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620225652/https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/red\-carpet\-dresses/a37582209/iman\-met\-gala\-2021\-harris\-reed/ \|url\-status\=live }} In 2022, Dolce\&Gabbana teamed up with American celebrity Kim Kardashian to produce the *Ciao Kim* collection.{{Cite web \|last\=Jackson \|first\=Clementina \|date\=2022\-09\-24 \|title\=Kim Kardashian Takes A Bow In Glittering Black Dress For The Finale Of Her D\&G Show \|url\=https://www.elle.com/uk/fashion/a41363839/dolce\-gabbana\-kim\-kardashian\-ss23\-show/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-20 \|website\=ELLE \|language\=en\-GB}} The collection predominantly showcased black, white, and silver clothing with embellishments such as lace, crystals, and leopard prints.{{Cite web \|title\=Kim Kardashian Dazzles at Dolce \& Gabbana Show at Milan Fashion Week \|url\=https://www.etonline.com/watch\-kim\-kardashian\-dazzle\-at\-dolce\-gabbana\-show\-at\-milan\-fashion\-week\-191495 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-23 \|website\=Entertainment Tonight \|language\=en\-US}} Later, in February 2023, Kim Kardashian was introduced as the face of D\&G's Spring/Summer 2023 collection in campaign photos shot by [Mert Alas and Marcus Piggott](/wiki/Mert_and_Marcus "Mert and Marcus").{{Cite web \|last\=Jones \|first\=Alexis \|date\=2023\-02\-18 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana Unveils Kim Kardashian as Face of New Campaign in Sexy Black and White Photos \|url\=https://people.com/style/kim\-kardashian\-face\-of\-new\-dolce\-gabbana\-campaign\-photos/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-20 \|website\=Peoplemag \|language\=en}} Dolce\&Gabbana has a history of co\-branding with various Italian companies such as Baci Perugina,{{cite web \|url\=https://news.italianfood.net/2021/11/03/perugina\-collaborates\-with\-dolce\-gabbana\-for\-a\-limited\-edition\-of\-pralines/ \|title\=Perugina Collaborates With Dolce \& Gabbana For A Limited Edition Of Pralines \|date\=2021\-11\-03 \|publisher\=Italian Food News \|access\-date\=20 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=4 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404004255/https://news.italianfood.net/2021/11/03/perugina\-collaborates\-with\-dolce\-gabbana\-for\-a\-limited\-edition\-of\-pralines/ \|url\-status\=live }} Fiasconaro,{{cite web \|url\=https://luxurylaunches.com/gastronomy/dolce\-gabbana\-has\-partnered\-with\-a\-renowned\-sicilian\-bakery\-for\-limited\-edition\-sweet\-treats\-in\-designer\-tins.php \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana has partnered with a renowned Sicilian bakery for limited edition sweet treats in designer tins \|date\=2020\-10\-05 \|last\=Tandon Sharma \|first\=Neha \|publisher\=LuxuryLaunches \|access\-date\=20 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=26 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526090552/https://luxurylaunches.com/gastronomy/dolce\-gabbana\-has\-partnered\-with\-a\-renowned\-sicilian\-bakery\-for\-limited\-edition\-sweet\-treats\-in\-designer\-tins.php \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://world.dolcegabbana.com/discover/dolcegabbana\-and\-fiasconaro/ \|title\=Dolce\&Gabbana and Fiasconaro \|publisher\=Dolce\&Gabbana World \|access\-date\=20 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=20 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520135454/https://world.dolcegabbana.com/discover/dolcegabbana\-and\-fiasconaro/ \|url\-status\=live }} Murano glass company, Barovier \& Toso, Mian, I Dogi, Venini, Barbini, Salviati, and Tessiture Bevilacqua, among others.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-casa\-home\-decor \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana's First\-Ever Home Decor Line, Casa, Is Here Just in Time For the Holidays \|date\=2021\-12\-03 \|last\=Taylor \|first\=Elise \|publisher\=Vogue Magazine \|access\-date\=20 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=20 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620233104/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-casa\-home\-decor \|url\-status\=live }} These collaborations have been an integral part of the brand's marketing strategy for many years. In 2023, Dolce\&Gabbana won the Craft and Artisanship Award at the CNMI Sustainable Fashion Awards.{{Cite web \|title\=The CNMI Sustainable Fashion Awards 2023 \|url\=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/cnmi\-sustainable\-fashion\-awards/2023\-award\-winners \|access\-date\=23 April 2024 \|website\=Ellen MacArthur Foundation}}{{Cite web \|title\=Milan's Sustainable Fashion Awards Take Centre Stage At La Scala \|url\=https://www.vogue.co.uk/article/milan\-sustainable\-fashion\-awards\-2023 \|access\-date\=23 April 2024 \|website\=Vogue\|date\=26 September 2023 }}
[ "History\n-------", "### Early history", "Dolce\\&Gabbana founders Domenico Dolce and Stefano Gabbana met each other in 1982 while working for Giorgio Corregiari, an Italian fashion brand. [Domenico Dolce](/wiki/Domenico_Dolce \"Domenico Dolce\") was born on August 13, [1958](/wiki/1958 \"1958\"), in [Polizzi Generosa](/wiki/Polizzi_Generosa \"Polizzi Generosa\"), while [Stefano Gabbana](/wiki/Stefano_Gabbana \"Stefano Gabbana\") was born on November 14, [1962](/wiki/1962 \"1962\"), in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\"). Dolce began designing and making his clothes at the age of six. In 1983, the two established their own design consulting studio, which they named \"Dolce \\& Gabbana\".{{cite magazine \\|title\\=Hands and Eyes: When Dolce met Gabbana. \\|url\\=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/03/14/hands\\-and\\-eyes \\|magazine\\=The New Yorker \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114043645/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/03/14/hands\\-and\\-eyes \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Their first women's collection debuted in 1985{{cite news \\|last\\=Givhan \\|first\\=Robin \\|date\\=2 April 2012 \\|title\\=Ob\\-la\\-di, Ob\\-la\\-da, Bras Go On \\|newspaper\\=Newsweek \\|url\\=http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/03/18/the\\-evolution\\-of\\-the\\-bra\\-from\\-mad\\-men\\-s\\-day\\-to\\-our\\-own.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927215141/http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2012/03/18/the\\-evolution\\-of\\-the\\-bra\\-from\\-mad\\-men\\-s\\-day\\-to\\-our\\-own.html \\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2013}} at the New Talents section of [Milan Fashion Week](/wiki/Milan_Fashion_Week \"Milan Fashion Week\"), and the following year, they opened their first store in Milan.{{cite web \\|title\\=Biography of Dolce \\& Gabanna \\|url\\=https://www.businessoffashion.com/community/people/domenico\\-dolce\\-stefano\\-gabbana \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118204704/https://www.businessoffashion.com/community/people/domenico\\-dolce\\-stefano\\-gabbana \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|publisher\\=Business of Fashion}}\nThe first meeting between the two happened over the phone when Dolce called the fashion company where Gabbana was working, looking for a job. After being hired by the company, Gabbana took Dolce under his wing and taught him the workings of a fashion company and how to [sketch](/wiki/Sketch_%28drawing%29 \"Sketch (drawing)\") new designs. Shortly after Dolce's hiring, Gabbana was drafted for 18 months of civil service at an institution for the mentally ill, but after his return, the two created a design consulting business.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.encyclopedia.com/fashion/encyclopedias\\-almanacs\\-transcripts\\-and\\-maps/dolce\\-gabbana \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana \\|website\\=Encyclopedia.com \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2024}}", "The company's 1986 Spring and Summer (SS) collection, titled *Geometrissimo* was presented alongside other fashion labels.{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=H5oadQtleT4C\\&q\\=history\\+of\\+dolce\\+and\\+gabbana\\+collections\\&pg\\=PA206 \\|title\\=The Great Fashion Designers \\|author\\=Brenda Polan and Roger Trendre \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Berg \\|page\\=206 \\|isbn\\=9781847882271 \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013822/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=H5oadQtleT4C\\&q\\=history\\+of\\+dolce\\+and\\+gabbana\\+collections\\&pg\\=PA206 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Dolce \\& Gabbana did not have enough money to hire models or provide them with accessories, so they sought help from their friends. Their friends served as models and wore their personal items to accessorize the clothing. A bed sheet from Dolce's home was used as their stage curtain.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/07/16/dolce.gabbana.interview/index.html \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana: Fashion's golden duo \\|date\\=21 July 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2012 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[CNN International]] \\|author\\=Stefanie Blendis and Gisella Deputato \\|archive\\-date\\=6 February 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206015213/https://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/07/16/dolce.gabbana.interview/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In March 1986, Dolce \\& Gabbana released their first self\\-produced collection, *Donne Vere/Real Women,* for the Fall and Winter (FW) 1986/87 season. The name of the collection was influenced by the local women who served as models on the runway. However, sales were initially disappointing, and Gabbana canceled the fabric order for their second collection. Dolce's family later offered to help with costs during a visit to [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\") over Christmas. Incidentally, the fabric company did not receive the cancellation notice in time, and the fabric was ready for them when they returned to Milan. In September 1986, Dolce\\&Gabbana presented the SS 1987 Women's fashion show entitled *Trasformismo*.Despite working together, they always invoiced separately until an accountant advised them to invoice jointly to simplify things and make the business more cost\\-effective. The two began invoicing clients under the name Dolce and Gabbana, which became the name of their developing design business. They produced their next collection in [1986](/wiki/1986 \"1986\") and opened their first store the same year.\n{{cite web \\|url\\=https://logo.com/blog/dolce\\-gabbana\\-logo \\|title\\=The History and Evolution of the Dolce \\& Gabbana Logo \\|website\\=Logo.com \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2024}}", "The fashion house continued to gain recognition, and in 1987, Dolce \\& Gabbana presented the Women's SS 1988 fashion show, entitled *Il Gattopardo/The Leopard line*. The following year, they began designing underwear and swimwear, and by 1990, the company was exporting their products to Japan and the United States. In the same year, they launched their first perfume, *Dolce\\&Gabbana Pour Homme* and *Dolce\\&Gabbana Pour Femme*, produced and distributed by Euroitalia.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|title\\=The history behind Dolce and Gabbana \\|url\\=https://blog.perfumeclearancecentre.com.au/2015/06/23/the\\-history\\-behind\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=Perfume Clearance Centre \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana :: Perfume Houses :: Now Smell This \\|url\\=https://nstperfume.com/perfume\\-houses\\-d\\-to\\-e/dolce\\-gabbana/ \\|access\\-date\\= \\|website\\=nstperfume.com}}", "In 1990 the company opened its first women's boutique in Via Sant'Andrea, Milan. [Michael Gross](/wiki/Michael_Gross_%28American_writer%29 \"Michael Gross (American writer)\") wrote of their third collection in a 1992 interview, \"They were a secret known only to a handful of Italian fashion editors. Their few models changed behind a rickety screen. They called their collection of T\\-shirt\\-cotton and elastic\\-silk pieces, Transformation.\" The clothing in this collection came with instructions on the seven different ways a piece could be worn in an outfit, as the wearer could use [Velcro](/wiki/Velcro \"Velcro\") and snaps to alter the clothing's form.{{cite news \\|author\\=Michael Gross \\|date\\=7 September 1992 \\|title\\=La Dolce (\\& Gabbana) Vita \\|pages\\=16–17 \\|work\\=\\[\\[New York Magazine]]}}", "Dolce \\& Gabbana's fourth collection, influenced by Dolce's Sicilian roots, made an impact on the Italian fashion market. In this collection, Dolce drew on his Sicilian roots. The collection's advertising campaign was shot in Sicily by photographer [Ferdinando Scianna](/wiki/Ferdinando_Scianna \"Ferdinando Scianna\") and featured Dutch model [Marpessa Hennink](/wiki/Marpessa_Hennink \"Marpessa Hennink\") in black and white pictures reminiscent of Italian cinema from the 1940s.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Locatelli \\|first1\\=Rossella \\|title\\=Marpessa \\- Vogue Italia Encyclo \\|journal\\=Vogue Italia \\|url\\=http://www.vogue.it/en/encyclo/people/m/marpessa \\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411185716/http://www.vogue.it/en/encyclo/people/m/marpessa \\|archive\\-date\\=11 April 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Muñoz Martinez\\-Mora \\|first1\\=Ines \\|title\\=Marpessa Clase Superior \\|journal\\=Vogue España \\|date\\=May 2013 \\|pages\\=206–216 \\|trans\\-title\\=Marpessa Top Class \\|language\\=es}} The brand's use of Italian cinema as a theme continued in their fifth collection, which drew upon the work of filmmaker [Luchino Visconti](/wiki/Luchino_Visconti \"Luchino Visconti\") and his film [*The Leopard*](/wiki/The_Leopard_%281963_film%29 \"The Leopard (1963 film)\").", "One of the dresses from their fourth collection, called *The Sicilian Dress*, became iconic for the brand and was named one of the 100 most important dresses ever designed by author Hal Rubenstein. The dress is considered to be the epitome of Dolce \\& Gabbana's style, with a slip\\-like silhouette that emphasizes the figure and flares out at the knees to create a swaying motion when walking.{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KvzSrWl5QP0C\\&q\\=dolce\\+and\\+gabbana\\+collection\\&pg\\=PT202 \\|title\\=100 Unforgettable Dresses \\|author\\=Hal Rubenstein \\|publisher\\=Harper Collins \\|year\\=2012 \\|isbn\\=9780062198884 \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013810/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KvzSrWl5QP0C\\&q\\=dolce\\+and\\+gabbana\\+collection\\&pg\\=PT202 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Hal Rubenstein described the piece in 2012, writing: \"The Sicilian Dress is the [essence](/wiki/Essence \"Essence\") of Dolce \\& Gabbana, the sartorial cornerstone of the brand. The dress takes inspiration from a slip, but it is a slip that adorned [Anna Magnani](/wiki/Anna_Magnani \"Anna Magnani\"), and it is a silhouette that graced [Anita Ekberg](/wiki/Anita_Ekberg \"Anita Ekberg\"), [Sophia Loren](/wiki/Sophia_Loren \"Sophia Loren\"), and so on. The straps fit tightly to the body just like those of a bra; the neckline runs straight but is pinned at least twice, once on each side, to caress the two breasts and in the middle to meet an uplifting fold that provides slight support. The slip does not simply fall down but rises at the waist to hold the figure firmly but not too tightly, and then flares out to emphasize the hips, falling slightly tapered at the knees, ensuring the swaying of the hips while walking.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Rubenstein \\|first\\=Hal \\|title\\=100 Unforgettable Dresses \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KvzSrWl5QP0C\\&pg\\=PT202 \\|date\\=2012 \\|publisher\\=Harper Design \\|page\\=202 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-06\\-115166\\-8}}", "### 1980s and 1990s", "In 1987, Dolce \\& Gabbana launched their first knitwear collection line,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://fashion\\-history.lovetoknow.com/fashion\\-clothing\\-industry/fashion\\-designers/dolce\\-gabbana\\-brand\\-history \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana Brand History \\|publisher\\=Fashion History \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118202031/https://fashion\\-history.lovetoknow.com/fashion\\-clothing\\-industry/fashion\\-designers/dolce\\-gabbana\\-brand\\-history \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and in 1989, they started an underwear and beachwear collection. In the same year, they launched their first women's fashion show in Tokyo and opened their first store in Japan in partnership with Kashiyama Co.{{cite web \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana \\|url\\=http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biographies/dolce\\-gabbana.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815181601/http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biographies/dolce\\-gabbana.html \\|archive\\-date\\=15 August 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2012}}", "In April 1990, they held their first fashion show in New York, started exporting their products to the United States, and founded their own showroom. That same year, Dolce\\&Gabbana presented the first Men's FW 1990/1991 collection.{{cite book \\|author\\=Valerie Steele \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Hemsvn9ZbRkC\\&q\\=history\\+of\\+dolce\\+and\\+gabbana\\+collections\\&pg\\=PA224 \\|title\\=The Berg Companion to Fashion \\|publisher\\=Berg \\|year\\=2010 \\|isbn\\=9781847885920 \\|pages\\=223–225 \\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013727/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Hemsvn9ZbRkC\\&q\\=history\\+of\\+dolce\\+and\\+gabbana\\+collections\\&pg\\=PA224 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2023 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The collection features linear\\-cut garments, characterized by dark and solid shades, such as black, gray and burgundy. The common thread of the collection is the high\\-waisted trousers, combined with shirts, wool sweaters and blazers. In 1990 as well, the brand moved the design house into its first official offices. The company also began to design gowns and other more expensive pieces in addition to their original clothing.", "Their 1990 Spring/Summer women's collection, featured in the *Gli Anni '60* women's fashion show, referenced the mythological painting of [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael \"Raphael\"), and the duo began to build a reputation for crystal\\-encrusted clothing. The 1991 Fall/Winter women's collection was also adorned by trinkets, including [filigree](/wiki/Filigree \"Filigree\") medals and embellished [corsets](/wiki/Corset \"Corset\"). The 1992 Fall/Winter women's collection was then inspired by the silver screen of the 1950s, though the collection still included crystal embellished body suits.", "In 1991, their men's collection won the Woolmark Award for the most innovative men's collection of the year. [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna_%28entertainer%29 \"Madonna (entertainer)\") wore a corset made of gemstones and an accompanying jacket from Dolce \\& Gabbana at the 1991 [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") premiere of *[Truth or Dare](/wiki/Madonna:Truth_or_Dare \"Truth or Dare\"): In Bed with Madonna,* which is considered their first foray into international recognition. The duo partnered with Madonna in 1993 to design over 1500 costumes for the artist's Girlie Show international tour in support of her 1992 album *[Erotica](/wiki/Erotica_%28Madonna_album%29 \"Erotica (Madonna album)\")*. In 1994, the house's trademark [double\\-breasted](/wiki/Double-breasted \"Double-breasted\") jacket was named \"La Turlington\" after model [Christy Turlington](/wiki/Christy_Turlington \"Christy Turlington\"). That same year the company launched the D\\&G brand, a line produced and distributed by Ittierre, aimed at younger individuals.", "In 1993, *Dolce \\& Gabbana Pour Femme* was awarded the Perfume Academy's 1993 award for best feminine fragrance of the year; *Dolce \\& Gabbana pour Homme*, was the recipient of the best masculine fragrance of the year award from the same academy in 1995\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.perfumeclearancecentre.com.au/blogs/all\\-things\\-perfume/the\\-history\\-behind\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana \\|title\\=THE HISTORY BEHIND DOLCE AND GABBANA \\|publisher\\=PCC \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118202030/https://www.perfumeclearancecentre.com.au/blogs/all\\-things\\-perfume/the\\-history\\-behind\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "They won an \"Oscar des Parfums\" for best male perfume in 1996 from the French Parfum Academy, the first time ever that the title has been awarded to an Italian brand. Towards the end of the 1990s their sales were around $500 million and in 2003 alone, their revenue reached $633\\.2 million.", "In 1990, they launched their first men's collection. That year, they also moved the design house into its first official offices and began to design gowns and other more expensive pieces in addition to their original clothing. Their 1990 Spring/Summer women's collection referenced the mythological painting of [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael \"Raphael\"), and the duo began to build a reputation for crystal\\-encrusted clothing. The 1991 Fall/Winter women's collection was also adorned by trinkets, including [filigree](/wiki/Filigree \"Filigree\") medals and embellished [corsets](/wiki/Corset \"Corset\"). The 1992 Fall/Winter women's collection was then inspired by the silver screen of the 1950s, though the collection still included crystal embellished body suits.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.swide.com/luxury\\-magazine/History/DG\\-Archive/dg\\-archive\\-embellishments/2011/11/27 \\|work\\=Swide Magazine \\|date\\=27 November 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2012 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana and their Private Renaissance \\|author\\=Valentina Zannoni \\|archive\\-date\\=30 December 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111230171345/http://www.swide.com/luxury\\-magazine/History/DG\\-Archive/dg\\-archive\\-embellishments/2011/11/27 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "In 1993, *Dolce \\& Gabbana Pour Femme* was awarded the Perfume Academy's 1993 award for best feminine fragrance of the year; *Dolce \\& Gabbana pour Homme*, was the recipient of the best masculine fragrance of the year award from the same academy in 1995\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=THE HISTORY BEHIND DOLCE AND GABBANA \\|url\\=https://www.perfumeclearancecentre.com.au/blogs/all\\-things\\-perfume/the\\-history\\-behind\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118202030/https://www.perfumeclearancecentre.com.au/blogs/all\\-things\\-perfume/the\\-history\\-behind\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|publisher\\=PCC}}", "In 1995, the brand presented the SS 1996 Women's fashion show, *Le Eolie*, featuring garments with leopard and zebra prints. That same year Dolce \\& Gabbana's collections caused a controversy with the British and Italian press, when they selected the American gangster motif as inspiration for their work.{{cite book \\|author\\=Caroline Evans \\|title\\=Fashion at the Edge: Spectacle, Modernity, and Deathliness \\|publisher\\=Yale University Press \\|year\\=2003 \\|page\\=19}} The brand transposed this Fall/Winter 1995 inspiration onto women's wear, which critics stated brought an erotic edge to the clothing. The duo had used the motif before in 1992 when photographer [Steven Meisel](/wiki/Steven_Meisel \"Steven Meisel\") shot an ad campaign for the house in which the models posed in \"gangster chic\". This included wide\\-lapelled 1930s style coats and black leather caps.{{cite book \\|author\\=Rebecca Arnold \\|title\\=Fashion, Desire and Anxiety: Image and Morality in the 20th Century \\|publisher\\=I.B. Tauris \\|year\\=2001 \\|pages\\=39–40}}", "In 1996 the D\\&G runway show was streamed on the Internet instead of being held on a physical runway, in an experimental move towards new media. That year Dolce \\& Gabbana also designed the costumes for the film *[Romeo \\+ Juliet](/wiki/Romeo_%2B_Juliet \"Romeo + Juliet\")*.{{cite web \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana \\|url\\=http://www.vogue.com/voguepedia/Dolce\\_%26\\_Gabbana \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723035756/http://www.vogue.com/voguepedia/Dolce\\_%26\\_Gabbana \\|archive\\-date\\=23 July 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2012 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Vogue (magazine)\\|Vogue]]}}", "### 2000s", "Dolce\\&Gabbana worked with various musical artists in the 2000s, designing costumes for Madonna's [Drowned World Tour](/wiki/Drowned_World_Tour \"Drowned World Tour\") in 2001, [Missy Elliott](/wiki/Missy_Elliott \"Missy Elliott\"), [Beyoncé](/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9 \"Beyoncé\"), and [Mary J. Blige](/wiki/Mary_J._Blige \"Mary J. Blige\")'s international tours and [Whitney Houston](/wiki/Whitney_Houston \"Whitney Houston\")'s *[My Love Is Your Love](/wiki/My_Love_Is_Your_Love \"My Love Is Your Love\")* tour.{{cite book \\|page\\=55 \\|title\\=Cherry Bomb: The Ultimate Guide to Becoming a Better Flirt, a Tougher Chick, and a Hotter Girlfriend—and to Living Life Like a Rock Star \\|publisher\\=Simon \\& Schuster \\|author\\=Carrie Bornillo\\-Vrenna \\|year\\=2008}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.elle.com/Pop\\-Culture/Celebrity\\-Spotlight/Looking\\-Back\\-at\\-Whitney\\-Houston/(imageIndex)/14/(play)/false\\#mode\\=base;slide\\=14; \\|title\\=Looking Back at Whitney Houston \\|author\\=Britt Aboutaleb \\|date\\=13 February 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2012 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Elle (magazine)\\|Elle]]}}{{dead link\\|date\\=November 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Additionally, they designed costumes for [Kylie Minogue](/wiki/Kylie_Minogue \"Kylie Minogue\")'s [Showgirl Homecoming](/wiki/Showgirl_Homecoming \"Showgirl Homecoming\") tour and featured Madonna in their 2010 advertising campaigns.", "During this time, Dolce \\& Gabbana drew inspiration from the sport of football, and their designs continued to influence trends in both fashion and music.{{cite news \\|date\\=8 November 2003 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Billboard Magazine]] \\|author\\=Michale Paoletta \\|title\\=Armani Conjures 'Night' for its Second A/X Disc \\|page\\=28}} In 2002, their early corset designs were revived by many European designers as a trend.{{cite news \\|page\\=74 \\|work\\=Out Magazine \\|title\\=A model designers \\|date\\=March 2002 \\|author\\=Brendan Lemon}} The brand also began holding private viewings of their new collections for buyers to pre\\-empt the copying of their designs by [fast fashion companies](/wiki/Fast_fashion \"Fast fashion\").{{cite book \\|title\\=Beating the Commodity Trap: How to Maximize Your Competitive Position and Increase Your Pricing Power \\|author\\=Richard A. D'Aveni \\|publisher\\=Harvard Business Press \\|year\\=2009 \\|page\\=34}}", "In 2006, the company started a new journey in accessories and leather goods for men and women. In the same year, the brand launched a controversial ad campaign featuring two men kissing, which received criticism from some conservatives. However, the Advertising Standards Authority of Italy did not find the ad unacceptable for broadcast solely based on the depiction of two men kissing.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/feb/01/advertising.broadcasting \\|title\\=Gay kiss cleared by ad watchdog \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=February 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118195902/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/feb/01/advertising.broadcasting \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In February 2009, the Dolce\\&Gabbana makeup line was launched. Dolce \\& Gabbana created their first makeup in collaboration with make\\-up artist [Pat McGrath](/wiki/Pat_McGrath_%28make-up_artist%29 \"Pat McGrath (make-up artist)\"). [Scarlett Johansson](/wiki/Scarlett_Johansson \"Scarlett Johansson\") appeared as the face of the advertising campaign for this new venture.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Gumuchian \\|first\\=Marie\\-Louise \\|date\\=2009\\-03\\-04 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana launch luxury make\\-up line \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=Reuters \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.comarticle/idUSTRE5235BP/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-26}}", "### 2010s", "[thumb\\|Stefano Gabbana (left) and Domenico Dolce (right) in 2016](/wiki/File:Dolce_e_Gabbana_%2826441884825%29.jpg \"Dolce e Gabbana (26441884825).jpg\")", "In 2011, Dolce\\&Gabbana merged with D\\&G, with the aim of strengthening the main line. The final independent D\\&G collection was the Spring/Summer 2012 collection shown in September 2011\\.{{cite news \\|author\\=Ella Alexander \\|date\\=1 June 2011 \\|title\\=The End of D\\&G \\|work\\=\\[\\[Vogue UK]] \\|url\\=http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2011/03/03/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-considers\\-merging\\-dandg\\-line \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326044757/http://www.vogue.co.uk/news/2011/03/03/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-considers\\-merging\\-dandg\\-line \\|archive\\-date\\=26 March 2016}} *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker \"The New Yorker\")* publication in 2005 stated that, \"Dolce and Gabbana are becoming to the two\\-thousands what [Prada](/wiki/Prada \"Prada\") was to the nineteen\\-nineties and Armani was to the nineteen\\-eighties—designers whose sensibility defines the decade.\"{{cite magazine \\|author\\=John Seabrook \\|date\\=14 March 2005 \\|title\\=Hands and Eyes: When Dolce met Gabbana \\|url\\=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/03/14/050314fa\\_fact1?currentPage\\=all \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[The New Yorker]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018013719/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/03/14/050314fa\\_fact1?currentPage\\=all \\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=26 April 2013}}", "In terms of personal awards, *[FHM](/wiki/FHM \"FHM\")* named Dolce \\& Gabbana as the designers of the year in 1996 and 1997\\. In 2003, *[GQ Magazine](/wiki/GQ_Magazine \"GQ Magazine\")* awarded Dolce \\& Gabbana the title of \"Men of the Year\". The following year, *[British Elle](/wiki/Elle_%28magazine%29 \"Elle (magazine)\")* readers voted Dolce \\& Gabbana as the best international designers at the 2004 [Elle Style Awards](/wiki/Elle_Style_Awards \"Elle Style Awards\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dolcegabbana.com/corporate/en/history/international\\-awards.html \\|title\\=International Awards \\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 May 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529212544/http://www.dolcegabbana.com/corporate/en/history/international\\-awards.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "On 19 June 2010, Dolce\\&Gabbana celebrated the 20th anniversary of their brand at the Piazza della Scala and [Palazzo Marino](/wiki/Palazzo_Marino \"Palazzo Marino\") in Milan. The following day, a public exhibition was held which included a room with several dozen televisions piled haphazardly upon each other, each displaying a different collection from the design house's twenty\\-year history.{{cite web \\|title\\=Dolce\\&Gabbana 20th Anniversary. A day in history. A video. \\|author\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana \\|publisher\\=Youtube: Dolce \\& Gabbana Channel \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=9k3c0DtbiZw \\|date\\=16 July 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 June 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606142454/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=9k3c0DtbiZw \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In 2019, Dolce \\& Gabbana extended its size range up to UK 22, making them one of the first luxury fashion houses to move towards body positivity and inclusivity for women. While most luxury fashion houses cater to women of sizes up to UK 16, Dolce \\& Gabbana took the initiative to extend their size range for greater inclusivity.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://en.vogue.me/fashion/dolce\\-gabbana\\-first\\-luxury\\-fashion\\-house\\-extend\\-size\\-range/ \\|title\\=This Luxury Fashion House is the First to Extend its Size Range \\|date\\=2019\\-06\\-25 \\|last\\=Ifteqar \\|first\\=Naheed \\|publisher\\=Vogue \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118201121/https://en.vogue.me/fashion/dolce\\-gabbana\\-first\\-luxury\\-fashion\\-house\\-extend\\-size\\-range/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### 2020s", "In September 2021, Dolce\\&Gabbana collaborated with UNXD to issue *Collezione Genesi NFT*, its first non\\-fungible token (NFT) collection. The collection consisted of nine pieces, including five physical and four digital creations, such as \"Glass Suit\" and \"Impossible Tiara\", and was sold for 1,885\\.719 Ether (equivalent to nearly $5\\.7 million). This collaboration with UNXD was a significant move towards the incorporation of blockchain technology into the fashion industry, and was widely reported by publications such as Vogue and The New York Times as being one of the first NFT collections created by a major fashion house.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/04/style/dolce\\-gabbana\\-nft.html \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana Just Set a $6 Million Record for Fashion NFTs \\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-04 \\|last\\=Thomas \\|first\\=Dana \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|access\\-date\\=7 October 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118155724/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/04/style/dolce\\-gabbana\\-nft.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.co.uk/news/article/fashion\\-nft\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana's NFT Experiment Is A Million\\-Dollar Success Story \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-30 \\|last\\=Kessler \\|first\\=Alex \\|publisher\\=Vogue \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627202803/https://www.vogue.co.uk/news/article/fashion\\-nft\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Dolce\\&Gabbana collaborated with the British\\-American designer [Harris Reed](/wiki/Harris_Reed \"Harris Reed\") to present Somali model [Iman Abdulmajid](/wiki/Iman_Abdulmajid \"Iman Abdulmajid\") at the 2021 [Met Gala](/wiki/Met_Gala \"Met Gala\") fashion event in New York City. Harris Reed stated that fashion has a responsibility to spark conversation around social injustices. Iman, who faced institutional racism as a model, and founded a cosmetics line for women of color in 1994, was seen as an ideal collaborator to create a statement on the red carpet.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/red\\-carpet\\-dresses/a37582209/iman\\-met\\-gala\\-2021\\-harris\\-reed/ \\|title\\=Iman Glowed in Gold Dolce \\& Gabbana x Harris Reed on the Met Gala 2021 Red Carpet \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-13 \\|last\\=Goldberg \\|first\\=Carrie \\|publisher\\=Harper's Bazaar \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620225652/https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/red\\-carpet\\-dresses/a37582209/iman\\-met\\-gala\\-2021\\-harris\\-reed/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In 2022, Dolce\\&Gabbana teamed up with American celebrity Kim Kardashian to produce the *Ciao Kim* collection.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Jackson \\|first\\=Clementina \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-24 \\|title\\=Kim Kardashian Takes A Bow In Glittering Black Dress For The Finale Of Her D\\&G Show \\|url\\=https://www.elle.com/uk/fashion/a41363839/dolce\\-gabbana\\-kim\\-kardashian\\-ss23\\-show/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-20 \\|website\\=ELLE \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} The collection predominantly showcased black, white, and silver clothing with embellishments such as lace, crystals, and leopard prints.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Kim Kardashian Dazzles at Dolce \\& Gabbana Show at Milan Fashion Week \\|url\\=https://www.etonline.com/watch\\-kim\\-kardashian\\-dazzle\\-at\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-show\\-at\\-milan\\-fashion\\-week\\-191495 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-23 \\|website\\=Entertainment Tonight \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Later, in February 2023, Kim Kardashian was introduced as the face of D\\&G's Spring/Summer 2023 collection in campaign photos shot by [Mert Alas and Marcus Piggott](/wiki/Mert_and_Marcus \"Mert and Marcus\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Jones \\|first\\=Alexis \\|date\\=2023\\-02\\-18 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana Unveils Kim Kardashian as Face of New Campaign in Sexy Black and White Photos \\|url\\=https://people.com/style/kim\\-kardashian\\-face\\-of\\-new\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-campaign\\-photos/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-20 \\|website\\=Peoplemag \\|language\\=en}}", "Dolce\\&Gabbana has a history of co\\-branding with various Italian companies such as Baci Perugina,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://news.italianfood.net/2021/11/03/perugina\\-collaborates\\-with\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-for\\-a\\-limited\\-edition\\-of\\-pralines/ \\|title\\=Perugina Collaborates With Dolce \\& Gabbana For A Limited Edition Of Pralines \\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-03 \\|publisher\\=Italian Food News \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404004255/https://news.italianfood.net/2021/11/03/perugina\\-collaborates\\-with\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-for\\-a\\-limited\\-edition\\-of\\-pralines/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Fiasconaro,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://luxurylaunches.com/gastronomy/dolce\\-gabbana\\-has\\-partnered\\-with\\-a\\-renowned\\-sicilian\\-bakery\\-for\\-limited\\-edition\\-sweet\\-treats\\-in\\-designer\\-tins.php \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana has partnered with a renowned Sicilian bakery for limited edition sweet treats in designer tins \\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-05 \\|last\\=Tandon Sharma \\|first\\=Neha \\|publisher\\=LuxuryLaunches \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526090552/https://luxurylaunches.com/gastronomy/dolce\\-gabbana\\-has\\-partnered\\-with\\-a\\-renowned\\-sicilian\\-bakery\\-for\\-limited\\-edition\\-sweet\\-treats\\-in\\-designer\\-tins.php \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://world.dolcegabbana.com/discover/dolcegabbana\\-and\\-fiasconaro/ \\|title\\=Dolce\\&Gabbana and Fiasconaro \\|publisher\\=Dolce\\&Gabbana World \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520135454/https://world.dolcegabbana.com/discover/dolcegabbana\\-and\\-fiasconaro/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Murano glass company, Barovier \\& Toso, Mian, I Dogi, Venini, Barbini, Salviati, and Tessiture Bevilacqua, among others.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-casa\\-home\\-decor \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana's First\\-Ever Home Decor Line, Casa, Is Here Just in Time For the Holidays \\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-03 \\|last\\=Taylor \\|first\\=Elise \\|publisher\\=Vogue Magazine \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620233104/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-casa\\-home\\-decor \\|url\\-status\\=live }} These collaborations have been an integral part of the brand's marketing strategy for many years.", "In 2023, Dolce\\&Gabbana won the Craft and Artisanship Award at the CNMI Sustainable Fashion Awards.{{Cite web \\|title\\=The CNMI Sustainable Fashion Awards 2023 \\|url\\=https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/cnmi\\-sustainable\\-fashion\\-awards/2023\\-award\\-winners \\|access\\-date\\=23 April 2024 \\|website\\=Ellen MacArthur Foundation}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Milan's Sustainable Fashion Awards Take Centre Stage At La Scala \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.co.uk/article/milan\\-sustainable\\-fashion\\-awards\\-2023 \\|access\\-date\\=23 April 2024 \\|website\\=Vogue\\|date\\=26 September 2023 }}", "" ]
Brand extensions ---------------- [thumb\|A pair of Dolce \& Gabbana's Golden Sneakers](/wiki/File:D%26G_Golden_Sneakers.jpg "D&G Golden Sneakers.jpg") Dolce \& Gabbana operated two distinct lines, D\&G and Dolce\&Gabbana, until 2011, when the lines merged under the label Dolce \& Gabbana. ### Dolce\&Gabbana Dolce\&Gabbana (spelled without spaces, unlike the name of the company) is a luxury fashion brand that draws inspiration from high\-end designs and specializes in timeless and formal products that respond to both long\-term trends and seasonal changes.{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Hemsvn9ZbRkC\&q\=Dolce%26Gabbana\+\+rather\+than\+seasonal\+changes\&pg\=PA225 \|title\=The Berg Companion to Fashion \|author\=Valerie Steele \|publisher\=Berg \|page\=225 \|year\=2010 \|isbn\=9781847885920 \|access\-date\=24 October 2020 \|archive\-date\=8 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013744/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Hemsvn9ZbRkC\&q\=Dolce%26Gabbana\+\+rather\+than\+seasonal\+changes\&pg\=PA225 \|url\-status\=live }} In 2010, the brand announced a collaboration with American singer [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna "Madonna") to create a collection of sunglasses named MDG, which was released in May of that year.{{Cite web \|title\=Madonna designs Dolce \& Gabbana sunglasses \|url\=https://ww.fashionnetwork.com/news/madonna\-designs\-dolce\-gabbana\-sunglasses,91614\.htmlhttps://ww.fashionnetwork.com/news/madonna\-designs\-dolce\-gabbana\-sunglasses,91614\.html \|access\-date\=5 March 2024 \|website\=Fashion Network}}{{Cite web \|title\=Madonna Joins Dolce \& Gabbana \|url\=https://www.vogue.co.uk/article/madonna\-dolce\-and\-gabbana\-sunglasses \|access\-date\=5 March 2024 \|website\=British Vogue\|date\=15 March 2010 }} In addition to fashion items, Dolce\&Gabbana offers fragrances for both men and women, with one example being 'The One' perfume. ### D\&G D\&G was a fashion [diffusion line](/wiki/Diffusion_line "Diffusion line") of Dolce\&Gabbana, characterized by a youthful and expressive design philosophy. Unlike Dolce\&Gabbana, which primarily focused on clothing, D\&G also offered watches produced by Naloni and [Binda Group](/wiki/Binda_Group "Binda Group"). However, in 2011, Dolce\&Gabbana made a strategic decision to discontinue the D\&G line in order to prioritize the growth of their other collections. This was done to concentrate "more strength and energy" towards their main line.{{cite journal \|url\=http://NY \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana to launch Couture \|journal\=NY Mag \|access\-date\=29 June 2012}}{{Dead link\|date\=November 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} ### Other product lines #### Bridal collection Dolce\&Gabbana has diversified its offerings over the years with a range of products. In 1992, they created a bridal collection, which was discontinued in 1998\. #### Underwear and Beachwear The first women's beachwear collection was developed in 1989, followed by the first men's beachwear collection in 1992\. In 2000, D\&G launched both a men's and women's underwear collection, separate from their Dolce \& Gabbana lingerie collection. #### Eyewear D\&G launched an eyewear line in 1998 and a timepieces line in 2000\. #### Junior Collection In 2001 they launched the D\&G Junior line for children. #### Anamalier collection In 2006 the duo launched the Anamalier line of leopard print accessories for women, and in 2007 they launched a line of [crocodile](/wiki/Crocodile "Crocodile") travel cases for men. Other bags produced by the house include the Miss Sicily tote bag,{{cite news \|url\=http://www.vogue.com/vogue\-daily/article/editors\-eye\-february/ \|title\=Editors' Eye: The Ten Things We Loved (or Longed For) This February \|date\=28 February 2012 \|access\-date\=19 May 2012 \|author\=Tabitha Simmons \|work\=\[\[Vogue UK]] \|archive\-date\=23 July 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723023846/http://www.vogue.com/vogue\-daily/article/editors\-eye\-february/ \|url\-status\=dead}} and the "Dolce" bag, offered in straw and leather.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.glamour.com/fashion/blogs/slaves\-to\-fashion/2012/01/it\-bag\-alert\-dolce\-gabbanas\-do.html \|title\=Celebrity Obsession Alert: Dolce \& Gabbana's "Dolce" Bag Is Everything For Spring \|date\=27 January 2012 \|work\=\[\[Glamour (magazine)\|Glamour]] \|author\=Tracy Lomrantz \|access\-date\=26 April 2013 \|archive\-date\=24 October 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024202157/http://www.glamour.com/fashion/blogs/slaves\-to\-fashion/2012/01/it\-bag\-alert\-dolce\-gabbanas\-do.html \|url\-status\=live }} #### Cosmetics In 2009, they launched their first line of color cosmetics, with [Scarlett Johansson](/wiki/Scarlett_Johansson "Scarlett Johansson") as the face of the advertising campaign. #### Jewelry Dolce \& Gabbana launched its first line of fine jewellery in late 2011 with an 80\-piece line including bejewelled rosaries, charm bracelets, and necklaces.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.vogue.co.uk/jewellery/news/2011/11/9/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-launch\-fine\-jewellery \|work\=\[\[Vogue UK]] \|author\=Lisa Niven \|date\=9 November 2011 \|title\=Dolce's Jewels \|access\-date\=19 May 2012 \|archive\-date\=12 January 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112065306/http://www.vogue.co.uk/jewellery/news/2011/11/9/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-launch\-fine\-jewellery \|url\-status\=live }} They later launched a fine jewellery collection for men.{{Cite web \|url\=http://sfluxe.net/fit\-for\-a\-king\-dolce\-gabbanas\-fine\-jewelry/ \|title\=» Fit For a King: Dolce \& Gabbana's Fine Jewellery Collection \|last\=Matthews \|first\=Damion \|date\=12 November 2015 \|website\=SFLUXE \|access\-date\=26 June 2016 \|archive\-date\=8 December 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208060931/https://sfluxe.net/fit\-for\-a\-king\-dolce\-gabbanas\-fine\-jewelry/ \|url\-status\=live }} #### Perfume Dolce \& Gabbana have received several awards for their fragrances, as was described in the above sections. Their current fragrances include: "The One", "Sport", "[Light Blue](/wiki/Light_Blue_%28fragrance%29 "Light Blue (fragrance)")", "Dolce", "Classic", "Sicily", "The One Rose", and the original scents "Pour Homme" and "Parfum".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dolcegabbana.com/dg/perfumes/ \|title\=Perfumes \|access\-date\=31 May 2012 \|archive\-date\=28 November 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128024250/http://www.dolcegabbana.com/dg/perfumes/ \|url\-status\=live }} On 16 October 2014, the company announced that [Colin Farrell](/wiki/Colin_Farrell "Colin Farrell") would be the face of their new fragrance called "Intenso."{{cite web \|url\=http://www.vogue.co.uk/beauty/2014/10/16/colin\-farrell\-face\-of\-dolce\-and\-gabbana\-campaign \|title\=Colin Farrell, Face Of Dolce \& Gabbana Campaign (Vogue.co.uk) \|work\=Vogue UK \|date\=16 October 2014 \|access\-date\=14 November 2014 \|archive\-date\=29 November 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129024815/http://www.vogue.co.uk/beauty/2014/10/16/colin\-farrell\-face\-of\-dolce\-and\-gabbana\-campaign \|url\-status\=live }} ### Alta Moda {{Prose\|section\|date\=September 2022}} Alta Moda was launched in 2012, inspired by [Giovanni Battista Giorgini](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Giorgini "Giovanni Battista Giorgini")'s efforts to promote Italian fashion and [Made in Italy](/wiki/Made_in_Italy "Made in Italy") brands abroad. Over the years, the concept behind the project's idea of couture was to pay a tribute to the Italian domestic artisanship in all its expressions and to its tailoring tradition. Since its first runway show, Dolce\&Gabbana has presented new collections at Italian landmarks such as [Teatro alla Scala](/wiki/Teatro_alla_Scala "Teatro alla Scala") in [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan"), [Piazza San Marco](/wiki/Piazza_San_Marco "Piazza San Marco") in [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice") or [Temple of Concordia, Agrigento](/wiki/Temple_of_Concordia%2C_Agrigento "Temple of Concordia, Agrigento").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-milan \|title\=Inside Dolce \& Gabbana's Diamond\-Spiked Alta Moda Weekend in Milan \|date\=2015\-02\-01 \|last\=Leitch \|first\=Luke \|publisher\=Vogue \|access\-date\=17 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=17 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517222205/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-milan \|url\-status\=live }} The main lines of the Alta Moda: * *Alta Moda* – Women's line * *Alta Sartoria* – Men's line * *Alta Gioielleria* – Men's and Women's line * *Alta Orologeria* – Men's and Women's line #### Timeline * July 2012 – Taormina. The first Dolce \& Gabbana Alta Moda presentation takes place in [Taormina](/wiki/Taormina "Taormina"), [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily"), and consists of 73 designs that highlighted the Italian artisanship. The show began with a launch of Bellini's Bel Canto opera *Norma* in the ancient Roman amphitheater, followed by the event next day in the former monastery of San Domenico.{{cite web \|url\=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\-features/TMG9390006/Dolce\-and\-Gabbana\-couture\-First\-look\-at\-the\-autumnwinter\-2012\-collection.html \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana couture: First look at the autumn/winter 2012 collection \|date\=2012\-07\-11 \|last\=Leitch \|first\=Luke \|publisher\=Telegraph Fashion \|access\-date\=17 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=31 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531150318/http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\-features/TMG9390006/Dolce\-and\-Gabbana\-couture\-First\-look\-at\-the\-autumnwinter\-2012\-collection.html \|url\-status\=live }} The first autumn/winter collection was made in keeping with the traditions of Sicilian historical periods, including modern adaptation of [Luchino Visconti](/wiki/Luchino_Visconti "Luchino Visconti")'s [The Leopard (1963 film)](/wiki/The_Leopard "The Leopard") radiating the changes in Sicilian life and society during the [Risorgimento](/wiki/Risorgimento "Risorgimento").{{cite web \|url\=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\-features/TMG9390037/Dolce\-and\-Gabbana\-couture\-autumnwinter\-2012\-The\-verdict.html \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana couture autumn/winter 2012: The verdict \|date\=2012\-07\-11 \|last\=Armstrong \|first\=Lisa \|publisher\=Telegraph Fashion \|access\-date\=17 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=17 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517224559/http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\-features/TMG9390037/Dolce\-and\-Gabbana\-couture\-autumnwinter\-2012\-The\-verdict.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://madame.lefigaro.fr/style/nuit\-sous\-volcan\-110712\-269418 \|title\=Une nuit sous le volcan \|date\=2012\-07\-11 \|last\=Mouzat \|first\=Virginie \|publisher\=Madame Figaro \|access\-date\=17 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=17 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517224548/https://madame.lefigaro.fr/style/nuit\-sous\-volcan\-110712\-269418 \|url\-status\=live }} * 2013 – Milan/Venice. Dolce\&Gabbana presents its first Alta Moda in Milan. The Collection was influenced by the symbols of the city.{{cite web \|url\=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\-features/TMG9955048/Inside\-Dolce\-and\-Gabbanas\-exclusive\-couture\-club.html \|title\=Inside Dolce \& Gabbana's exclusive couture club \|date\=2013\-03\-30 \|last\=Leitch \|first\=Luke \|publisher\=Telegraph Fashion \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=7 June 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180607003208/http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\-features/TMG9955048/Inside\-Dolce\-and\-Gabbanas\-exclusive\-couture\-club.html \|url\-status\=live }} Dolce\&Gabbana presented its third Alta Moda Collection in the frescoed halls of the historic Palazzo Barbaro in Venice overlooking the Grand Canal. The collection event was in part influenced by Byzantine and Venetian cathedral mosaics. The fashion show was followed by a masked ball inside another historic Venetian palace \- Palazzo Pisani Moretta.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.thestylistme.com/2013/07/10/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-fw\-2013\-venice/ \|title\=Dolce \& Gabban Alta Moda FW 2013 \|date\=10 July 2013 \|publisher\=TheStylistMe \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=16 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816193140/http://www.thestylistme.com/2013/07/10/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-fw\-2013\-venice/ \|url\-status\=live }} * 2014 – Milan/Capri. Impressionist and Modern Art Collections were demonstrated in La Scala, Milan's 18th\-century opera house with the flower style designs. Dolce\&Gabbana presented the Alta Moda Collection on the island of Capri.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/luxury/womens\-style/the\-making\-of\-a\-dolce\-\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-masterpiece/ \|title\=The making of a Dolce \& Gabbana Masterpiece \|date\=2014\-10\-04 \|last\=Milner \|first\=Glen \|publisher\=The Telegraph \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525003012/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/luxury/womens\-style/the\-making\-of\-a\-dolce\-\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-masterpiece/ \|url\-status\=live }} * 2015 – Milan/Portofin. Dolce\&Gabbana presented the Alta Moda Collection in the Toscanini foyer of Teatro alla Scala . *Alta Sartoria* and *Alta Gioielleria Collection* amplified couture line for men and women upheld in the Palazzo Labus, a 17th\-century building in Corso Venezia,{{cite news \|url\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-hold\-alta\-sartoria\-catwalk\-show\-for\-men\-88sz7phkq6s \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana hold Alta Sartoria catwalk show for men \|work\=The Times \|last1\=Howarth \|first1\=Peter \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=4 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404013041/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-hold\-alta\-sartoria\-catwalk\-show\-for\-men\-88sz7phkq6s \|url\-status\=live }} followed by the new Alta Moda, Alta Sartoria and Alta Gioielleria Collections during a 4\-day event in Portofino in July. The Portofino collection was influenced by [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare")'s [A Midsummer Night's Dream](/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream "A Midsummer Night's Dream") and became one of the designers' biggest productions with 94 models and 80 performers taking part in the show.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-fall\-2015?mbid\=social\_onsite\_pinterest \|title\=Alta Moda Comes Alive \|date\=2015\-07\-12 \|last\=Blanks \|first\=Tim \|publisher\=Vogue \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525004728/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-fall\-2015?mbid\=social\_onsite\_pinterest \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://st.ilsole24ore.com/art/moda/2015\-07\-14/l\-alta\-sartoria\-dolcegabbana\-111723\.shtml \|title\=Dolce\&Gabbana portano la loro "Alta sartoria" a Portofino \|date\=2015\-07\-14 \|last\=Crivelli \|first\=Giulia \|publisher\=Moda 24 \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525004730/https://st.ilsole24ore.com/art/moda/2015\-07\-14/l\-alta\-sartoria\-dolcegabbana\-111723\.shtml \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/fashion\-luxury/article/1840216/dolce\-gabbanas\-alta\-moda\-show\-midsummer\-nights\-dream\-come \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana's Alta Moda show A Midsummer Night's Dream come true \|date\=2015\-07\-17 \|last\=Zhang \|first\=Jing \|publisher\=South China Morning Post \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525004731/https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/fashion\-luxury/article/1840216/dolce\-gabbanas\-alta\-moda\-show\-midsummer\-nights\-dream\-come \|url\-status\=live }} * 2016 – Milan/Naples. Alta Moda in Milan was dedicated to [Elvira Leonardi Bouyeure](/wiki/Elvira_Leonardi_Bouyeure "Elvira Leonardi Bouyeure"), a notable Italian fashion designer and couturier of the post\-war period who lived in the same city. The events started with the presentation of the Alta Gioielleria inside the Alta Moda Salons of Via Senato. The following day, the historic Palazzo Labus hosted the Alta Sartoria fashion show. The collection included lines for men and women as well as "molto Italiano" \- Alta Moda jewellery craftsmanship that reflected historic art influence, such as painted vistas of Venice. Milan's La Scala was the stage of the Alta Moda show: the clothes were influenced by the heroines of the operas of the composer [Giacomo Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini "Giacomo Puccini").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.it/suzy\-menkes/suzy\-menkes/2016/01/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-aria\-of\-excellence \|title\=SuzyCouture: Dolce \& Gabbana's Aria of Excellence \|date\=2016\-02\-01 \|last\=Menkes \|first\=Suzy \|publisher\=Vogue Italia \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=4 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404004254/https://www.vogue.it/suzy\-menkes/suzy\-menkes/2016/01/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-aria\-of\-excellence \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.repubblica.it/d/2016/01/31/news/dolce\_gabbana\_alta\_moda\_teatro\_alla\_scala\_sfilata\_palcoscenico\-291130591/ \|title\=Dolce\&Gabbana: alta moda sul palcoscenico della Scala \|date\=2016\-01\-31 \|last\=Marchetti \|first\=Simone \|publisher\=Repubblica \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=8 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013810/https://www.repubblica.it/moda\-e\-beauty/2016/01/31/news/dolce\_gabbana\_alta\_moda\_teatro\_alla\_scala\_sfilata\_palcoscenico\-342250881/ \|url\-status\=live }} Villa Pignatelli was the location for the presentation of the new Alta Gioielleria creations and Castel dell'Ovo was the setting for the Alta Sartoria fashion show.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.businessoffashion.com/reviews/fashion\-week/dolce\-gabbana\-on\-neapolitan\-streets\-alta\-moda\-naples/ \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana on Neapolitan Streets \|date\=11 July 2016 \|publisher\=Business of Fashion \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=16 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516085905/https://www.businessoffashion.com/reviews/fashion\-week/dolce\-gabbana\-on\-neapolitan\-streets\-alta\-moda\-naples/ \|url\-status\=live }} * 2017 – Milan/Palermo. Alta Moda Milan fashion show took place inside the laboratories of Teatro alla Scala in Milan, former Ansaldo steelworks. The Alta Gioielleria creations were presented inside the Alta Moda Salons in Via Senato while, the stage of Teatro alla Scala hosted the Alta Sartoria fashion show; the collection was entirely dedicated to the Italian composer [Giuseppe Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi "Giuseppe Verdi") and his masterpieces. During the Men's show, were presented the first four examples of Alta Orologeria.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-sartoria\-spring\-2017 \|title\=And Now, Something for the Boys: Dolce \& Gabbana's Alta Sartoria Ode to Verdi \|date\=28 January 2017 \|publisher\=Vogue \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525011120/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-sartoria\-spring\-2017 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.lesechos.fr/weekend/mode\-beaute/lopera\-de\-dolce\-gabbana\-1210886 \|title\=L'Opéra de Dolce \& Gabbana \|date\=31 January 2017 \|publisher\=Les Echos \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525011120/https://www.lesechos.fr/weekend/mode\-beaute/lopera\-de\-dolce\-gabbana\-1210886 \|url\-status\=live }} * April 2017 – Tokyo, Japan and Beijing, China. On April 13, Dolce \& Gabbana presented its Alta Moda womenswear and Alta Sartoria menswear collections at the National Museum of Tokyo, a tribute to the Japanese culture and Italian tradition: Asian engravings and references to Renaissance painting, oriental and Baroque styles.{{Cite web \|date\=2017\-04\-16 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana Alta Moda Show 2017, Tokyo \|url\=https://fashionfad.in/fashion\-feed/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-show\-2017\-tokyo/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=Fashionfad \|language\=en\-US}} One week later, the Peninsula Hotel in Beijing hosted the *Ode to China* Alta Moda and Alta Sartoria fashion show dedicated to the Chinese arts culture.{{Cite web \|last\=Zhang \|first\=Jing \|date\=2017\-04\-24 \|title\=Just a year ago, Dolce \& Gabbana were saying Asia is the future \|url\=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/fashion\-luxury/article/2090113/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-asia\-future\-and\-beijings\-most\-beautiful \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=South China Morning Post \|language\=en}} * July 2017 – Palermo. Alta Moda Palermo was held in Pretoria Square in the historical center of Palermo. Palazzo Gangi hosted the presentation of the new Women's Alta Gioielleria creations; for the first time, a Collection of Men's Alta Gioielleria pieces were showcased at Palazzo Mazzarino. The Alta Moda looks illuminated Piazza Pretoria, while the setting for the Alta Sartoria fashion show was the [Cathedral of Monreale](/wiki/Monreale_Cathedral "Monreale Cathedral").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.lesechos.fr/2017/07/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-sicilia\-1235472 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana : Alta Sicilia \|date\=2017\-07\-21 \|last\=Denis \|first\=Gilles \|publisher\=Les Echos \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525013158/https://www.lesechos.fr/2017/07/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-sicilia\-1235472 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-palermo \|title\=Sicilians Do It Better: Dolce \& Gabbana Present Their Alta Moda in Palermo \|date\=8 July 2017 \|publisher\=Vogue \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525013157/https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-palermo \|url\-status\=live }} * April 2018 – New York, USA and Mexico City, Mexico. Dolce\&Gabbana brought the Grand Tour to New York, where the 4\-day events opened with the presentation of the Alta Gioielleria Collection, hosted by [Sarah Jessica Parker](/wiki/Sarah_Jessica_Parker "Sarah Jessica Parker") at the [New York Public Library](/wiki/New_York_Public_Library "New York Public Library"), where she auctioned off Dolce \& Gabbana jewelry and her dress for charity, and fashion shows featuring iconic New York landmarks and supermodels like [Karlie Kloss](/wiki/Karlie_Kloss "Karlie Kloss") and [Naomi Campbell](/wiki/Naomi_Campbell "Naomi Campbell").{{Cite web \|last\=Petrarca \|first\=Emilia \|date\=2018\-04\-13 \|title\=Inside Dolce \& Gabbana's Alta Moda Extravaganza \|url\=https://www.thecut.com/2018/04/inside\-dolce\-and\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-fashion\-shows.html \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=The Cut \|language\=en}} The Alta Sartoria fashion show took place at the Rainbow Room of Rockefeller Center and the Alta Moda show was staged at the Metropolitan Opera House.{{Cite web \|last\=Valenti \|first\=Lauren \|date\=2018\-04\-09 \|title\=The Starry Headpiece That Stole the Show on Dolce \& Gabbana's Alta Moda Runway \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-show\-2018\-new\-york\-metrapolitan\-opera\-star\-headpiece\-red\-lips\-cat\-eyes \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=Vogue \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite news \|last\=Bobila \|first\=Maria \|date\=2018\-04\-09 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana Threw a Very Extra 'Alta Moda' Weekend In New York City \|language\=en \|work\=Fashionista \|url\=https://fashionista.com/2018/04/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-couture\-spring\-2018\-collection \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22}} A few days after the events in New York, Dolce \& Gabbana showcased their Alta Moda collection in Mexico City on April 18\.{{Cite web \|last\=Buffa \|first\=Irene \|date\=2018\-04\-24 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana Mexico City: discover the 2018 Alta Moda collection \|url\=https://www.ontomywardrobe.com/dolcegabbana\-alta\-moda\-mexico\-city/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=Omw Magazine \|language\=en\-US}} The collection, inspired by Mexican culture, blended elements like rebozos, vibrant colors, and [Frida Kahlo](/wiki/Frida_Kahlo "Frida Kahlo")\-inspired hairstyles with the brand's signature Baroque style. The runway event took place at the [Soumaya Museum](/wiki/Museo_Soumaya "Museo Soumaya") and featured Mexican influencers such as Juan Pablo Zurita, Diego Boneta, and Mariana Zaragoza, highlighting Mexico's growing influence in the fashion industry.{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=2018\-04\-24 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana Alta Moda 2018 Mexico City \- Mens Only \|url\=http://fashionablymale.net/2018/04/24/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-2018\-mexico\-city\-mens\-only/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=Fashionably Male \|language\=en\-US}} * 2018 – Como/Milan. In 2018, the show was held on the shores of the lake Como. The presentation of the new Alta Gioielleria creations was held on the Steamship Concordia sailing towards Bellagio. The Alta Moda show took place at the Teresio Olivelli Park in Tremezzina. The collection was a tribute to the first historical novel of Italian literature, The Betrothed. Villa Carlotta was the location for the Alta Sartoria show.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.corriere.it/moda/news/18\_luglio\_08/dolce\-gabbana\-incanto\-lago\-23bc520c\-8291\-11e8\-8c19\-eee67e3476a0\.shtml \|title\=Dolce e Gabbana: incanto sul lago \|date\=7 August 2018 \|publisher\=Corriere \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525014859/https://www.corriere.it/moda/news/18\_luglio\_08/dolce\-gabbana\-incanto\-lago\-23bc520c\-8291\-11e8\-8c19\-eee67e3476a0\.shtml \|url\-status\=live }} Among the top models who presented Alta Moda collection were [Naomi Campbell](/wiki/Naomi_Campbell "Naomi Campbell"), [Eva Herzigova](/wiki/Eva_Herzigova "Eva Herzigova") and [Helena Christensen](/wiki/Helena_Christensen "Helena Christensen").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.mffashion.com/news/livestage/sul\-lago\-magico\-di\-dolce\-gabbana\-201807091903158927 \|title\=Sul lago magico di Dolce \& Gabbana \|publisher\=MF Fashion \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=8 April 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013826/https://www.mffashion.com/news/sul\-lago\-magico\-di\-dolce\-gabbana\-201807091903158927 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.gq.com.mx/moda/articulo/una\-oda\-al\-renacimiento\-firmada\-por\-domenico\-dolce\-y\-stefano\-gabbana \|title\=Una Oda al Renacimiento, Firmada por Domenico Dolce y Stefano Gabbana \|date\=11 December 2018 \|publisher\=GQ \|access\-date\=25 May 2022 \|archive\-date\=30 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730140000/https://www.gq.com.mx/moda/articulo/una\-oda\-al\-renacimiento\-firmada\-por\-domenico\-dolce\-y\-stefano\-gabbana \|url\-status\=live }} * 2019 – Agrigento/Milan. Alta Moda 2019 was first held in Agrigento, a city on the southern coast of Sicily with more than 400 guests visiting the show. The main event was the womenswear show Alta Moda. Another collection \- the Alta Gioielleria \- took place in a nearby town of [Palma di Montechiaro](/wiki/Palma_di_Montechiaro "Palma di Montechiaro"), the birthplace of [Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa](/wiki/Giuseppe_Tomasi_di_Lampedusa "Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-gioielleria\-sicily\-2019 \|title\=Much More Than Leopard Print: Dolce \& Gabbana's Alta Moda Pounces Into Action \|date\=5 July 2019 \|publisher\=Vogue \|access\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602224907/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-gioielleria\-sicily\-2019 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/dolcegabbana\-valle\-templi\-l\-alta\-moda\-ispirata\-divinita\-dell\-antica\-grecia\-ACh85EX?refresh\_ce\=1 \|title\=Dolce\&Gabbana nella Valle dei Templi, l'alta moda ispirata alle divinità dell'Antica Grecia \|date\=2019\-07\-07 \|last\=Crivelli \|first\=Giulia \|publisher\=24 Moda \|access\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602224907/https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/dolcegabbana\-valle\-templi\-l\-alta\-moda\-ispirata\-divinita\-dell\-antica\-grecia\-ACh85EX?refresh\_ce\=1 \|url\-status\=live }} The event that took place in December 2019 in Milan featured a new menswear collection, which was held in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, a landmark historical library founded in 1609 by Milan's Archbishop, Cardinal Borromeo.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-sartoria\-biblioteca\-ambrosiana \|title\=Knowledge Is Power at Dolce \& Gabbana's Alta Sartoria Show \|date\=9 December 2019 \|publisher\=Vogue \|access\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602224907/https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-sartoria\-biblioteca\-ambrosiana \|url\-status\=live }} * 2020 – Florence. Due to COVID\-19, Dolce \& Gabbana held two online summer shows of Alta Moda in July 2020\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-milan\-2020 \|title\=Couture.com: Dolce \& Gabbana's Alta Moda Platform Puts the Sublime Online \|publisher\=Vogue \|access\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602225914/https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-milan\-2020 \|url\-status\=live }} There was also a single live three day event that happened in September 2020, while Alta Moda and Alta Sartoria were also presented online. The menswear collection Dolce \& Gabbana Alta Sartoria was housed in the 12th\-century Palazzo Vecchio and included such items as brocade velvet blazers, silk blouses and jewel\-caked slippers.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.gq\-magazine.co.uk/fashion/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-sartoria\-florence\-review \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana took a regal turn for Alta Sartoria Florence \|date\=3 September 2020 \|publisher\=GQ \|access\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=18 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818125038/https://www.gq\-magazine.co.uk/fashion/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-sartoria\-florence\-review \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|url\=https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/09/05/icon/1599289769\_826003\.html \|title\=Renacimiento: teoría y práctica \|date\=2020\-09\-05 \|last\=Primo \|first\=Carlos \|newspaper\=El Pais \|access\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602231415/https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/09/05/icon/1599289769\_826003\.html \|url\-status\=live }} * 2021 – Venice. In 2021, the show celebrated the 1600th anniversary of [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice") founding in 421 AD. The event was run in several historical places of Venice: the [Doge's Palace](/wiki/Doge%27s_Palace "Doge's Palace"), the [Venetian Arsenal](/wiki/Venetian_Arsenal "Venetian Arsenal"), and the [Rialto Bridge](/wiki/Rialto_Bridge "Rialto Bridge") while the models were brought to the runways by [gondolas](/wiki/Gondola "Gondola").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.esquire.com/style/mens\-fashion/a37625855/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-sartoria\-venice\-2021/ \|title\=The Otherworldly Opulence of Dolce \& Gabbana's Alta Sartoria Extravaganza \|date\=2021\-09\-17 \|last\=Sullivan \|first\=Nick \|publisher\=Esquire \|access\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602231236/https://www.esquire.com/style/mens\-fashion/a37625855/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-sartoria\-venice\-2021/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-venice \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana's Stunning Alta Moda Show in Venice Boasted Both a Lightning Strike and a Rainbow \|date\=2021\-08\-29 \|last\=Veitch \|first\=Luke \|publisher\=Vogue \|access\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-date\=2 June 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602231236/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-venice \|url\-status\=live }} * 2022 \- Dolce \& Gabbana commemorated the 10th Anniversary of Alta Moda with a series of festivities that spanned four days and were hosted at various venues in [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily"), Italy.{{Cite web \|last\=Phelps \|first\=Nicole \|date\=2022\-07\-10 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana Celebrate 10 Glorious Years of Alta Moda in Sicily \|url\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-10\-year\-anniversary \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=Vogue \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Longmire \|first\=Becca \|title\=Stars Attend Glamorous Dolce \& Gabbana Fashion Show In Sicily \|url\=https://etcanada.com/photos/911991/stars\-attend\-glamorous\-dolce\-gabbana\-fashion\-show\-in\-sicily/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=etcanada.com \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=18 August 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818192220/https://etcanada.com/photos/911991/stars\-attend\-glamorous\-dolce\-gabbana\-fashion\-show\-in\-sicily/ \|url\-status\=dead }} The highlight of the celebrations was the Alta Moda Women's show in [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Sicily "Syracuse, Sicily") which was attended by numerous prominent figures, including [Drew Barrymore](/wiki/Drew_Barrymore "Drew Barrymore"), [Lupita Nyong'o](/wiki/Lupita_Nyong%27o "Lupita Nyong'o"), [Ellen Pompeo](/wiki/Ellen_Pompeo "Ellen Pompeo"), among others. * 2022 \- Dolce \& Gabbana hosted an Alta Moda/Casa Miami Takeover in late November and early December, emphasizing fashion, watchmaking, jewelry, interiors, and Latin culture.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2023}} The event took place at the Miami Surf Club.{{Cite web \|last\= \|date\=2022\-12\-06 \|title\=Dolce\&Gabbana Alta Moda 2022 \- The Italian Essence In Miami \|url\=https://modelagency.one/dolcegabbana\-alta\-moda\-2022\-the\-italian\-essence\-in\-miami/ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-22 \|website\=MAO {{!}} Model Agency One \|language\=en\-US}} The annual Alta Moda event, initiated in Taormina in 2012, showcases the *fatto a mano* tradition, emphasizing handcrafted clothing. In Miami, 100 hand\-made looks were presented, created by teams spanning different generations.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2023}} * July 2023, Dolce\&Gabbana chose the Valle d'Itria, Apulia, for the annual Alta Moda events. The Alta Moda collection was presented in the streets of Alberobello, while the Alta Moda collection was shown in Ostuni.{{Cite web \|last\=Trochu \|first\=Eugenie \|date\=2023\-07\-10 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana unveils an incredible show in the heart of Puglia \|url\=https://www.vogue.fr/article/dolce\-and\-gabbana\-alta\-moda\-puglia\-apulia\-haute\-couture\-fall\-winter\-2023\-2024 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-23 \|website\=Vogue France \|language\=fr\-FR}} The creations of the Alta Gioielleria Collection were showcased in the Spazio Ulivi Pettolecchia; on the occasion of the event, *Dolce\&Gabbana Alta Gioielleria: Masterpieces of High Jewellery*, a book edited by Carol Woolton, was unveiled.{{Cite book \|last\=Woolton \|first\=Carol \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BFd\_EAAAQBAJ \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana Alta Gioielleria: Masterpieces of High Jewellery \|date\=2023\-10\-10 \|publisher\=Rizzoli \|isbn\=978\-88\-918\-3694\-6 \|language\=en}} ### Dolce\&Gabbana Casa Furnishings and Furnishing Accessories The Dolce \& Gabbana Home Collection, launched in 1994, was discontinued in 1999, except for unique pieces created for D\&G premises. In August 2021, Dolce\&Gabbana introduced its first *Casa* furnishings and furnishing accessories collection, which was previewed in Venice during the *Alta Moda* events. The collection presented four themes: Leo, Zebra, Blu Mediterraneo, and Carretto, featuring a variety of furniture and interior accessories such as table ornaments, chandeliers, cabinetry, textiles, and other home decor items.{{cite web \|last\=Delman \|first\=Selina \|date\=2021\-08\-28 \|title\=Dolce \& Gabbana launches dedicated Home Collection: a first look \|url\=https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/luxury/2021/08/28/dolce\-gabbana\-launches\-dedicated\-home\-collection\-a\-first\-look/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517220152/https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/luxury/2021/08/28/dolce\-gabbana\-launches\-dedicated\-home\-collection\-a\-first\-look/ \|archive\-date\=17 May 2022 \|access\-date\=17 May 2022 \|publisher\=The National News}} The Casa brand's products were created through collaborations with Italian artisans, including Venetian furniture experts such as Barovier \& Toso, Mian, I Dogi, Venini, Barbini, Salviati, and Tessiture Bevilacqua, who provided their procedural knowledge to the company. As of March 2022, the Casa brand collection was mainly available online.
[ "Brand extensions\n----------------", "[thumb\\|A pair of Dolce \\& Gabbana's Golden Sneakers](/wiki/File:D%26G_Golden_Sneakers.jpg \"D&G Golden Sneakers.jpg\")\nDolce \\& Gabbana operated two distinct lines, D\\&G and Dolce\\&Gabbana, until 2011, when the lines merged under the label Dolce \\& Gabbana.", "### Dolce\\&Gabbana", "Dolce\\&Gabbana (spelled without spaces, unlike the name of the company) is a luxury fashion brand that draws inspiration from high\\-end designs and specializes in timeless and formal products that respond to both long\\-term trends and seasonal changes.{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Hemsvn9ZbRkC\\&q\\=Dolce%26Gabbana\\+\\+rather\\+than\\+seasonal\\+changes\\&pg\\=PA225 \\|title\\=The Berg Companion to Fashion \\|author\\=Valerie Steele \\|publisher\\=Berg \\|page\\=225 \\|year\\=2010 \\|isbn\\=9781847885920 \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013744/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Hemsvn9ZbRkC\\&q\\=Dolce%26Gabbana\\+\\+rather\\+than\\+seasonal\\+changes\\&pg\\=PA225 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In 2010, the brand announced a collaboration with American singer [Madonna](/wiki/Madonna \"Madonna\") to create a collection of sunglasses named MDG, which was released in May of that year.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Madonna designs Dolce \\& Gabbana sunglasses \\|url\\=https://ww.fashionnetwork.com/news/madonna\\-designs\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-sunglasses,91614\\.htmlhttps://ww.fashionnetwork.com/news/madonna\\-designs\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-sunglasses,91614\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2024 \\|website\\=Fashion Network}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Madonna Joins Dolce \\& Gabbana \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.co.uk/article/madonna\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-sunglasses \\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2024 \\|website\\=British Vogue\\|date\\=15 March 2010 }} In addition to fashion items, Dolce\\&Gabbana offers fragrances for both men and women, with one example being 'The One' perfume.", "### D\\&G", "D\\&G was a fashion [diffusion line](/wiki/Diffusion_line \"Diffusion line\") of Dolce\\&Gabbana, characterized by a youthful and expressive design philosophy. Unlike Dolce\\&Gabbana, which primarily focused on clothing, D\\&G also offered watches produced by Naloni and [Binda Group](/wiki/Binda_Group \"Binda Group\"). However, in 2011, Dolce\\&Gabbana made a strategic decision to discontinue the D\\&G line in order to prioritize the growth of their other collections. This was done to concentrate \"more strength and energy\" towards their main line.{{cite journal \\|url\\=http://NY \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana to launch Couture \\|journal\\=NY Mag \\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2012}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=November 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}", "### Other product lines", "#### Bridal collection", "Dolce\\&Gabbana has diversified its offerings over the years with a range of products. In 1992, they created a bridal collection, which was discontinued in 1998\\.", "#### Underwear and Beachwear", "The first women's beachwear collection was developed in 1989, followed by the first men's beachwear collection in 1992\\. In 2000, D\\&G launched both a men's and women's underwear collection, separate from their Dolce \\& Gabbana lingerie collection.", "#### Eyewear", "D\\&G launched an eyewear line in 1998 and a timepieces line in 2000\\.", "#### Junior Collection", "In 2001 they launched the D\\&G Junior line for children.", "#### Anamalier collection", "In 2006 the duo launched the Anamalier line of leopard print accessories for women, and in 2007 they launched a line of [crocodile](/wiki/Crocodile \"Crocodile\") travel cases for men. Other bags produced by the house include the Miss Sicily tote bag,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.vogue.com/vogue\\-daily/article/editors\\-eye\\-february/ \\|title\\=Editors' Eye: The Ten Things We Loved (or Longed For) This February \\|date\\=28 February 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2012 \\|author\\=Tabitha Simmons \\|work\\=\\[\\[Vogue UK]] \\|archive\\-date\\=23 July 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723023846/http://www.vogue.com/vogue\\-daily/article/editors\\-eye\\-february/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and the \"Dolce\" bag, offered in straw and leather.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.glamour.com/fashion/blogs/slaves\\-to\\-fashion/2012/01/it\\-bag\\-alert\\-dolce\\-gabbanas\\-do.html \\|title\\=Celebrity Obsession Alert: Dolce \\& Gabbana's \"Dolce\" Bag Is Everything For Spring \\|date\\=27 January 2012 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Glamour (magazine)\\|Glamour]] \\|author\\=Tracy Lomrantz \\|access\\-date\\=26 April 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 October 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024202157/http://www.glamour.com/fashion/blogs/slaves\\-to\\-fashion/2012/01/it\\-bag\\-alert\\-dolce\\-gabbanas\\-do.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "#### Cosmetics", "In 2009, they launched their first line of color cosmetics, with [Scarlett Johansson](/wiki/Scarlett_Johansson \"Scarlett Johansson\") as the face of the advertising campaign.", "#### Jewelry", "Dolce \\& Gabbana launched its first line of fine jewellery in late 2011 with an 80\\-piece line including bejewelled rosaries, charm bracelets, and necklaces.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.vogue.co.uk/jewellery/news/2011/11/9/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-launch\\-fine\\-jewellery \\|work\\=\\[\\[Vogue UK]] \\|author\\=Lisa Niven \\|date\\=9 November 2011 \\|title\\=Dolce's Jewels \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 January 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112065306/http://www.vogue.co.uk/jewellery/news/2011/11/9/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-launch\\-fine\\-jewellery \\|url\\-status\\=live }} They later launched a fine jewellery collection for men.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://sfluxe.net/fit\\-for\\-a\\-king\\-dolce\\-gabbanas\\-fine\\-jewelry/ \\|title\\=» Fit For a King: Dolce \\& Gabbana's Fine Jewellery Collection \\|last\\=Matthews \\|first\\=Damion \\|date\\=12 November 2015 \\|website\\=SFLUXE \\|access\\-date\\=26 June 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 December 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208060931/https://sfluxe.net/fit\\-for\\-a\\-king\\-dolce\\-gabbanas\\-fine\\-jewelry/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "#### Perfume", "Dolce \\& Gabbana have received several awards for their fragrances, as was described in the above sections. Their current fragrances include: \"The One\", \"Sport\", \"[Light Blue](/wiki/Light_Blue_%28fragrance%29 \"Light Blue (fragrance)\")\", \"Dolce\", \"Classic\", \"Sicily\", \"The One Rose\", and the original scents \"Pour Homme\" and \"Parfum\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dolcegabbana.com/dg/perfumes/ \\|title\\=Perfumes \\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 November 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128024250/http://www.dolcegabbana.com/dg/perfumes/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On 16 October 2014, the company announced that [Colin Farrell](/wiki/Colin_Farrell \"Colin Farrell\") would be the face of their new fragrance called \"Intenso.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.vogue.co.uk/beauty/2014/10/16/colin\\-farrell\\-face\\-of\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-campaign \\|title\\=Colin Farrell, Face Of Dolce \\& Gabbana Campaign (Vogue.co.uk) \\|work\\=Vogue UK \\|date\\=16 October 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129024815/http://www.vogue.co.uk/beauty/2014/10/16/colin\\-farrell\\-face\\-of\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-campaign \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### Alta Moda", "{{Prose\\|section\\|date\\=September 2022}}\nAlta Moda was launched in 2012, inspired by [Giovanni Battista Giorgini](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Giorgini \"Giovanni Battista Giorgini\")'s efforts to promote Italian fashion and [Made in Italy](/wiki/Made_in_Italy \"Made in Italy\") brands abroad. Over the years, the concept behind the project's idea of couture was to pay a tribute to the Italian domestic artisanship in all its expressions and to its tailoring tradition. Since its first runway show, Dolce\\&Gabbana has presented new collections at Italian landmarks such as [Teatro alla Scala](/wiki/Teatro_alla_Scala \"Teatro alla Scala\") in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\"), [Piazza San Marco](/wiki/Piazza_San_Marco \"Piazza San Marco\") in [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") or [Temple of Concordia, Agrigento](/wiki/Temple_of_Concordia%2C_Agrigento \"Temple of Concordia, Agrigento\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-milan \\|title\\=Inside Dolce \\& Gabbana's Diamond\\-Spiked Alta Moda Weekend in Milan \\|date\\=2015\\-02\\-01 \\|last\\=Leitch \\|first\\=Luke \\|publisher\\=Vogue \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517222205/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-milan \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "The main lines of the Alta Moda:\n* *Alta Moda* – Women's line\n* *Alta Sartoria* – Men's line\n* *Alta Gioielleria* – Men's and Women's line\n* *Alta Orologeria* – Men's and Women's line", "#### Timeline", "* July 2012 – Taormina. The first Dolce \\& Gabbana Alta Moda presentation takes place in [Taormina](/wiki/Taormina \"Taormina\"), [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\"), and consists of 73 designs that highlighted the Italian artisanship. The show began with a launch of Bellini's Bel Canto opera *Norma* in the ancient Roman amphitheater, followed by the event next day in the former monastery of San Domenico.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\\-features/TMG9390006/Dolce\\-and\\-Gabbana\\-couture\\-First\\-look\\-at\\-the\\-autumnwinter\\-2012\\-collection.html \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana couture: First look at the autumn/winter 2012 collection \\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-11 \\|last\\=Leitch \\|first\\=Luke \\|publisher\\=Telegraph Fashion \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531150318/http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\\-features/TMG9390006/Dolce\\-and\\-Gabbana\\-couture\\-First\\-look\\-at\\-the\\-autumnwinter\\-2012\\-collection.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The first autumn/winter collection was made in keeping with the traditions of Sicilian historical periods, including modern adaptation of [Luchino Visconti](/wiki/Luchino_Visconti \"Luchino Visconti\")'s [The Leopard (1963 film)](/wiki/The_Leopard \"The Leopard\") radiating the changes in Sicilian life and society during the [Risorgimento](/wiki/Risorgimento \"Risorgimento\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\\-features/TMG9390037/Dolce\\-and\\-Gabbana\\-couture\\-autumnwinter\\-2012\\-The\\-verdict.html \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana couture autumn/winter 2012: The verdict \\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-11 \\|last\\=Armstrong \\|first\\=Lisa \\|publisher\\=Telegraph Fashion \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517224559/http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\\-features/TMG9390037/Dolce\\-and\\-Gabbana\\-couture\\-autumnwinter\\-2012\\-The\\-verdict.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://madame.lefigaro.fr/style/nuit\\-sous\\-volcan\\-110712\\-269418 \\|title\\=Une nuit sous le volcan \\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-11 \\|last\\=Mouzat \\|first\\=Virginie \\|publisher\\=Madame Figaro \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517224548/https://madame.lefigaro.fr/style/nuit\\-sous\\-volcan\\-110712\\-269418 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* 2013 – Milan/Venice. Dolce\\&Gabbana presents its first Alta Moda in Milan. The Collection was influenced by the symbols of the city.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\\-features/TMG9955048/Inside\\-Dolce\\-and\\-Gabbanas\\-exclusive\\-couture\\-club.html \\|title\\=Inside Dolce \\& Gabbana's exclusive couture club \\|date\\=2013\\-03\\-30 \\|last\\=Leitch \\|first\\=Luke \\|publisher\\=Telegraph Fashion \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 June 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180607003208/http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news\\-features/TMG9955048/Inside\\-Dolce\\-and\\-Gabbanas\\-exclusive\\-couture\\-club.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Dolce\\&Gabbana presented its third Alta Moda Collection in the frescoed halls of the historic Palazzo Barbaro in Venice overlooking the Grand Canal. The collection event was in part influenced by Byzantine and Venetian cathedral mosaics. The fashion show was followed by a masked ball inside another historic Venetian palace \\- Palazzo Pisani Moretta.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.thestylistme.com/2013/07/10/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-fw\\-2013\\-venice/ \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabban Alta Moda FW 2013 \\|date\\=10 July 2013 \\|publisher\\=TheStylistMe \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816193140/http://www.thestylistme.com/2013/07/10/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-fw\\-2013\\-venice/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* 2014 – Milan/Capri. Impressionist and Modern Art Collections were demonstrated in La Scala, Milan's 18th\\-century opera house with the flower style designs. Dolce\\&Gabbana presented the Alta Moda Collection on the island of Capri.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/luxury/womens\\-style/the\\-making\\-of\\-a\\-dolce\\-\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-masterpiece/ \\|title\\=The making of a Dolce \\& Gabbana Masterpiece \\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-04 \\|last\\=Milner \\|first\\=Glen \\|publisher\\=The Telegraph \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525003012/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/luxury/womens\\-style/the\\-making\\-of\\-a\\-dolce\\-\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-masterpiece/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* 2015 – Milan/Portofin. Dolce\\&Gabbana presented the Alta Moda Collection in the Toscanini foyer of Teatro alla Scala . *Alta Sartoria* and *Alta Gioielleria Collection* amplified couture line for men and women upheld in the Palazzo Labus, a 17th\\-century building in Corso Venezia,{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-hold\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-catwalk\\-show\\-for\\-men\\-88sz7phkq6s \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana hold Alta Sartoria catwalk show for men \\|work\\=The Times \\|last1\\=Howarth \\|first1\\=Peter \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404013041/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-hold\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-catwalk\\-show\\-for\\-men\\-88sz7phkq6s \\|url\\-status\\=live }} followed by the new Alta Moda, Alta Sartoria and Alta Gioielleria Collections during a 4\\-day event in Portofino in July. The Portofino collection was influenced by [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\")'s [A Midsummer Night's Dream](/wiki/A_Midsummer_Night%27s_Dream \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\") and became one of the designers' biggest productions with 94 models and 80 performers taking part in the show.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-fall\\-2015?mbid\\=social\\_onsite\\_pinterest \\|title\\=Alta Moda Comes Alive \\|date\\=2015\\-07\\-12 \\|last\\=Blanks \\|first\\=Tim \\|publisher\\=Vogue \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525004728/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-fall\\-2015?mbid\\=social\\_onsite\\_pinterest \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://st.ilsole24ore.com/art/moda/2015\\-07\\-14/l\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-dolcegabbana\\-111723\\.shtml \\|title\\=Dolce\\&Gabbana portano la loro \"Alta sartoria\" a Portofino \\|date\\=2015\\-07\\-14 \\|last\\=Crivelli \\|first\\=Giulia \\|publisher\\=Moda 24 \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525004730/https://st.ilsole24ore.com/art/moda/2015\\-07\\-14/l\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-dolcegabbana\\-111723\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/fashion\\-luxury/article/1840216/dolce\\-gabbanas\\-alta\\-moda\\-show\\-midsummer\\-nights\\-dream\\-come \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana's Alta Moda show A Midsummer Night's Dream come true \\|date\\=2015\\-07\\-17 \\|last\\=Zhang \\|first\\=Jing \\|publisher\\=South China Morning Post \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525004731/https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/fashion\\-luxury/article/1840216/dolce\\-gabbanas\\-alta\\-moda\\-show\\-midsummer\\-nights\\-dream\\-come \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* 2016 – Milan/Naples. Alta Moda in Milan was dedicated to [Elvira Leonardi Bouyeure](/wiki/Elvira_Leonardi_Bouyeure \"Elvira Leonardi Bouyeure\"), a notable Italian fashion designer and couturier of the post\\-war period who lived in the same city. The events started with the presentation of the Alta Gioielleria inside the Alta Moda Salons of Via Senato. The following day, the historic Palazzo Labus hosted the Alta Sartoria fashion show. The collection included lines for men and women as well as \"molto Italiano\" \\- Alta Moda jewellery craftsmanship that reflected historic art influence, such as painted vistas of Venice. Milan's La Scala was the stage of the Alta Moda show: the clothes were influenced by the heroines of the operas of the composer [Giacomo Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini \"Giacomo Puccini\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.it/suzy\\-menkes/suzy\\-menkes/2016/01/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-aria\\-of\\-excellence \\|title\\=SuzyCouture: Dolce \\& Gabbana's Aria of Excellence \\|date\\=2016\\-02\\-01 \\|last\\=Menkes \\|first\\=Suzy \\|publisher\\=Vogue Italia \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404004254/https://www.vogue.it/suzy\\-menkes/suzy\\-menkes/2016/01/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-aria\\-of\\-excellence \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.repubblica.it/d/2016/01/31/news/dolce\\_gabbana\\_alta\\_moda\\_teatro\\_alla\\_scala\\_sfilata\\_palcoscenico\\-291130591/ \\|title\\=Dolce\\&Gabbana: alta moda sul palcoscenico della Scala \\|date\\=2016\\-01\\-31 \\|last\\=Marchetti \\|first\\=Simone \\|publisher\\=Repubblica \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013810/https://www.repubblica.it/moda\\-e\\-beauty/2016/01/31/news/dolce\\_gabbana\\_alta\\_moda\\_teatro\\_alla\\_scala\\_sfilata\\_palcoscenico\\-342250881/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Villa Pignatelli was the location for the presentation of the new Alta Gioielleria creations and Castel dell'Ovo was the setting for the Alta Sartoria fashion show.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.businessoffashion.com/reviews/fashion\\-week/dolce\\-gabbana\\-on\\-neapolitan\\-streets\\-alta\\-moda\\-naples/ \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana on Neapolitan Streets \\|date\\=11 July 2016 \\|publisher\\=Business of Fashion \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516085905/https://www.businessoffashion.com/reviews/fashion\\-week/dolce\\-gabbana\\-on\\-neapolitan\\-streets\\-alta\\-moda\\-naples/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* 2017 – Milan/Palermo. Alta Moda Milan fashion show took place inside the laboratories of Teatro alla Scala in Milan, former Ansaldo steelworks. The Alta Gioielleria creations were presented inside the Alta Moda Salons in Via Senato while, the stage of Teatro alla Scala hosted the Alta Sartoria fashion show; the collection was entirely dedicated to the Italian composer [Giuseppe Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi \"Giuseppe Verdi\") and his masterpieces. During the Men's show, were presented the first four examples of Alta Orologeria.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-spring\\-2017 \\|title\\=And Now, Something for the Boys: Dolce \\& Gabbana's Alta Sartoria Ode to Verdi \\|date\\=28 January 2017 \\|publisher\\=Vogue \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525011120/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-spring\\-2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.lesechos.fr/weekend/mode\\-beaute/lopera\\-de\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-1210886 \\|title\\=L'Opéra de Dolce \\& Gabbana \\|date\\=31 January 2017 \\|publisher\\=Les Echos \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525011120/https://www.lesechos.fr/weekend/mode\\-beaute/lopera\\-de\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-1210886 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* April 2017 – Tokyo, Japan and Beijing, China. On April 13, Dolce \\& Gabbana presented its Alta Moda womenswear and Alta Sartoria menswear collections at the National Museum of Tokyo, a tribute to the Japanese culture and Italian tradition: Asian engravings and references to Renaissance painting, oriental and Baroque styles.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2017\\-04\\-16 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana Alta Moda Show 2017, Tokyo \\|url\\=https://fashionfad.in/fashion\\-feed/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-show\\-2017\\-tokyo/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=Fashionfad \\|language\\=en\\-US}} One week later, the Peninsula Hotel in Beijing hosted the *Ode to China* Alta Moda and Alta Sartoria fashion show dedicated to the Chinese arts culture.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Zhang \\|first\\=Jing \\|date\\=2017\\-04\\-24 \\|title\\=Just a year ago, Dolce \\& Gabbana were saying Asia is the future \\|url\\=https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/fashion\\-luxury/article/2090113/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-asia\\-future\\-and\\-beijings\\-most\\-beautiful \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=South China Morning Post \\|language\\=en}}\n* July 2017 – Palermo. Alta Moda Palermo was held in Pretoria Square in the historical center of Palermo. Palazzo Gangi hosted the presentation of the new Women's Alta Gioielleria creations; for the first time, a Collection of Men's Alta Gioielleria pieces were showcased at Palazzo Mazzarino. The Alta Moda looks illuminated Piazza Pretoria, while the setting for the Alta Sartoria fashion show was the [Cathedral of Monreale](/wiki/Monreale_Cathedral \"Monreale Cathedral\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.lesechos.fr/2017/07/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-sicilia\\-1235472 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana : Alta Sicilia \\|date\\=2017\\-07\\-21 \\|last\\=Denis \\|first\\=Gilles \\|publisher\\=Les Echos \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525013158/https://www.lesechos.fr/2017/07/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-sicilia\\-1235472 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-palermo \\|title\\=Sicilians Do It Better: Dolce \\& Gabbana Present Their Alta Moda in Palermo \\|date\\=8 July 2017 \\|publisher\\=Vogue \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525013157/https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-palermo \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* April 2018 – New York, USA and Mexico City, Mexico. Dolce\\&Gabbana brought the Grand Tour to New York, where the 4\\-day events opened with the presentation of the Alta Gioielleria Collection, hosted by [Sarah Jessica Parker](/wiki/Sarah_Jessica_Parker \"Sarah Jessica Parker\") at the [New York Public Library](/wiki/New_York_Public_Library \"New York Public Library\"), where she auctioned off Dolce \\& Gabbana jewelry and her dress for charity, and fashion shows featuring iconic New York landmarks and supermodels like [Karlie Kloss](/wiki/Karlie_Kloss \"Karlie Kloss\") and [Naomi Campbell](/wiki/Naomi_Campbell \"Naomi Campbell\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Petrarca \\|first\\=Emilia \\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-13 \\|title\\=Inside Dolce \\& Gabbana's Alta Moda Extravaganza \\|url\\=https://www.thecut.com/2018/04/inside\\-dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-fashion\\-shows.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=The Cut \\|language\\=en}} The Alta Sartoria fashion show took place at the Rainbow Room of Rockefeller Center and the Alta Moda show was staged at the Metropolitan Opera House.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Valenti \\|first\\=Lauren \\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-09 \\|title\\=The Starry Headpiece That Stole the Show on Dolce \\& Gabbana's Alta Moda Runway \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-show\\-2018\\-new\\-york\\-metrapolitan\\-opera\\-star\\-headpiece\\-red\\-lips\\-cat\\-eyes \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=Vogue \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Bobila \\|first\\=Maria \\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-09 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana Threw a Very Extra 'Alta Moda' Weekend In New York City \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=Fashionista \\|url\\=https://fashionista.com/2018/04/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-couture\\-spring\\-2018\\-collection \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22}} A few days after the events in New York, Dolce \\& Gabbana showcased their Alta Moda collection in Mexico City on April 18\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Buffa \\|first\\=Irene \\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-24 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana Mexico City: discover the 2018 Alta Moda collection \\|url\\=https://www.ontomywardrobe.com/dolcegabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-mexico\\-city/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=Omw Magazine \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The collection, inspired by Mexican culture, blended elements like rebozos, vibrant colors, and [Frida Kahlo](/wiki/Frida_Kahlo \"Frida Kahlo\")\\-inspired hairstyles with the brand's signature Baroque style. The runway event took place at the [Soumaya Museum](/wiki/Museo_Soumaya \"Museo Soumaya\") and featured Mexican influencers such as Juan Pablo Zurita, Diego Boneta, and Mariana Zaragoza, highlighting Mexico's growing influence in the fashion industry.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-24 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana Alta Moda 2018 Mexico City \\- Mens Only \\|url\\=http://fashionablymale.net/2018/04/24/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-2018\\-mexico\\-city\\-mens\\-only/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=Fashionably Male \\|language\\=en\\-US}}\n* 2018 – Como/Milan. In 2018, the show was held on the shores of the lake Como. The presentation of the new Alta Gioielleria creations was held on the Steamship Concordia sailing towards Bellagio. The Alta Moda show took place at the Teresio Olivelli Park in Tremezzina. The collection was a tribute to the first historical novel of Italian literature, The Betrothed. Villa Carlotta was the location for the Alta Sartoria show.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.corriere.it/moda/news/18\\_luglio\\_08/dolce\\-gabbana\\-incanto\\-lago\\-23bc520c\\-8291\\-11e8\\-8c19\\-eee67e3476a0\\.shtml \\|title\\=Dolce e Gabbana: incanto sul lago \\|date\\=7 August 2018 \\|publisher\\=Corriere \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525014859/https://www.corriere.it/moda/news/18\\_luglio\\_08/dolce\\-gabbana\\-incanto\\-lago\\-23bc520c\\-8291\\-11e8\\-8c19\\-eee67e3476a0\\.shtml \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Among the top models who presented Alta Moda collection were [Naomi Campbell](/wiki/Naomi_Campbell \"Naomi Campbell\"), [Eva Herzigova](/wiki/Eva_Herzigova \"Eva Herzigova\") and [Helena Christensen](/wiki/Helena_Christensen \"Helena Christensen\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.mffashion.com/news/livestage/sul\\-lago\\-magico\\-di\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-201807091903158927 \\|title\\=Sul lago magico di Dolce \\& Gabbana \\|publisher\\=MF Fashion \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408013826/https://www.mffashion.com/news/sul\\-lago\\-magico\\-di\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-201807091903158927 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.gq.com.mx/moda/articulo/una\\-oda\\-al\\-renacimiento\\-firmada\\-por\\-domenico\\-dolce\\-y\\-stefano\\-gabbana \\|title\\=Una Oda al Renacimiento, Firmada por Domenico Dolce y Stefano Gabbana \\|date\\=11 December 2018 \\|publisher\\=GQ \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730140000/https://www.gq.com.mx/moda/articulo/una\\-oda\\-al\\-renacimiento\\-firmada\\-por\\-domenico\\-dolce\\-y\\-stefano\\-gabbana \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* 2019 – Agrigento/Milan. Alta Moda 2019 was first held in Agrigento, a city on the southern coast of Sicily with more than 400 guests visiting the show. The main event was the womenswear show Alta Moda. Another collection \\- the Alta Gioielleria \\- took place in a nearby town of [Palma di Montechiaro](/wiki/Palma_di_Montechiaro \"Palma di Montechiaro\"), the birthplace of [Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa](/wiki/Giuseppe_Tomasi_di_Lampedusa \"Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-gioielleria\\-sicily\\-2019 \\|title\\=Much More Than Leopard Print: Dolce \\& Gabbana's Alta Moda Pounces Into Action \\|date\\=5 July 2019 \\|publisher\\=Vogue \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602224907/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-gioielleria\\-sicily\\-2019 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/dolcegabbana\\-valle\\-templi\\-l\\-alta\\-moda\\-ispirata\\-divinita\\-dell\\-antica\\-grecia\\-ACh85EX?refresh\\_ce\\=1 \\|title\\=Dolce\\&Gabbana nella Valle dei Templi, l'alta moda ispirata alle divinità dell'Antica Grecia \\|date\\=2019\\-07\\-07 \\|last\\=Crivelli \\|first\\=Giulia \\|publisher\\=24 Moda \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602224907/https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/dolcegabbana\\-valle\\-templi\\-l\\-alta\\-moda\\-ispirata\\-divinita\\-dell\\-antica\\-grecia\\-ACh85EX?refresh\\_ce\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The event that took place in December 2019 in Milan featured a new menswear collection, which was held in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, a landmark historical library founded in 1609 by Milan's Archbishop, Cardinal Borromeo.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-biblioteca\\-ambrosiana \\|title\\=Knowledge Is Power at Dolce \\& Gabbana's Alta Sartoria Show \\|date\\=9 December 2019 \\|publisher\\=Vogue \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602224907/https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-biblioteca\\-ambrosiana \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* 2020 – Florence. Due to COVID\\-19, Dolce \\& Gabbana held two online summer shows of Alta Moda in July 2020\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-milan\\-2020 \\|title\\=Couture.com: Dolce \\& Gabbana's Alta Moda Platform Puts the Sublime Online \\|publisher\\=Vogue \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602225914/https://www.vogue.com/slideshow/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-milan\\-2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} There was also a single live three day event that happened in September 2020, while Alta Moda and Alta Sartoria were also presented online. The menswear collection Dolce \\& Gabbana Alta Sartoria was housed in the 12th\\-century Palazzo Vecchio and included such items as brocade velvet blazers, silk blouses and jewel\\-caked slippers.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.gq\\-magazine.co.uk/fashion/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-florence\\-review \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana took a regal turn for Alta Sartoria Florence \\|date\\=3 September 2020 \\|publisher\\=GQ \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818125038/https://www.gq\\-magazine.co.uk/fashion/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-florence\\-review \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/09/05/icon/1599289769\\_826003\\.html \\|title\\=Renacimiento: teoría y práctica \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-05 \\|last\\=Primo \\|first\\=Carlos \\|newspaper\\=El Pais \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602231415/https://elpais.com/elpais/2020/09/05/icon/1599289769\\_826003\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* 2021 – Venice. In 2021, the show celebrated the 1600th anniversary of [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") founding in 421 AD. The event was run in several historical places of Venice: the [Doge's Palace](/wiki/Doge%27s_Palace \"Doge's Palace\"), the [Venetian Arsenal](/wiki/Venetian_Arsenal \"Venetian Arsenal\"), and the [Rialto Bridge](/wiki/Rialto_Bridge \"Rialto Bridge\") while the models were brought to the runways by [gondolas](/wiki/Gondola \"Gondola\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.esquire.com/style/mens\\-fashion/a37625855/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-venice\\-2021/ \\|title\\=The Otherworldly Opulence of Dolce \\& Gabbana's Alta Sartoria Extravaganza \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-17 \\|last\\=Sullivan \\|first\\=Nick \\|publisher\\=Esquire \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602231236/https://www.esquire.com/style/mens\\-fashion/a37625855/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-sartoria\\-venice\\-2021/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-venice \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana's Stunning Alta Moda Show in Venice Boasted Both a Lightning Strike and a Rainbow \\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-29 \\|last\\=Veitch \\|first\\=Luke \\|publisher\\=Vogue \\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602231236/https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-venice \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* 2022 \\- Dolce \\& Gabbana commemorated the 10th Anniversary of Alta Moda with a series of festivities that spanned four days and were hosted at various venues in [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\"), Italy.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Phelps \\|first\\=Nicole \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-10 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana Celebrate 10 Glorious Years of Alta Moda in Sicily \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.com/article/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-10\\-year\\-anniversary \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=Vogue \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Longmire \\|first\\=Becca \\|title\\=Stars Attend Glamorous Dolce \\& Gabbana Fashion Show In Sicily \\|url\\=https://etcanada.com/photos/911991/stars\\-attend\\-glamorous\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-fashion\\-show\\-in\\-sicily/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=etcanada.com \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818192220/https://etcanada.com/photos/911991/stars\\-attend\\-glamorous\\-dolce\\-gabbana\\-fashion\\-show\\-in\\-sicily/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The highlight of the celebrations was the Alta Moda Women's show in [Syracuse](/wiki/Syracuse%2C_Sicily \"Syracuse, Sicily\") which was attended by numerous prominent figures, including [Drew Barrymore](/wiki/Drew_Barrymore \"Drew Barrymore\"), [Lupita Nyong'o](/wiki/Lupita_Nyong%27o \"Lupita Nyong'o\"), [Ellen Pompeo](/wiki/Ellen_Pompeo \"Ellen Pompeo\"), among others.\n* 2022 \\- Dolce \\& Gabbana hosted an Alta Moda/Casa Miami Takeover in late November and early December, emphasizing fashion, watchmaking, jewelry, interiors, and Latin culture.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2023}} The event took place at the Miami Surf Club.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-06 \\|title\\=Dolce\\&Gabbana Alta Moda 2022 \\- The Italian Essence In Miami \\|url\\=https://modelagency.one/dolcegabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-2022\\-the\\-italian\\-essence\\-in\\-miami/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-22 \\|website\\=MAO {{!}} Model Agency One \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The annual Alta Moda event, initiated in Taormina in 2012, showcases the *fatto a mano* tradition, emphasizing handcrafted clothing. In Miami, 100 hand\\-made looks were presented, created by teams spanning different generations.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2023}}\n* July 2023, Dolce\\&Gabbana chose the Valle d'Itria, Apulia, for the annual Alta Moda events. The Alta Moda collection was presented in the streets of Alberobello, while the Alta Moda collection was shown in Ostuni.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Trochu \\|first\\=Eugenie \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-10 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana unveils an incredible show in the heart of Puglia \\|url\\=https://www.vogue.fr/article/dolce\\-and\\-gabbana\\-alta\\-moda\\-puglia\\-apulia\\-haute\\-couture\\-fall\\-winter\\-2023\\-2024 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-23 \\|website\\=Vogue France \\|language\\=fr\\-FR}} The creations of the Alta Gioielleria Collection were showcased in the Spazio Ulivi Pettolecchia; on the occasion of the event, *Dolce\\&Gabbana Alta Gioielleria: Masterpieces of High Jewellery*, a book edited by Carol Woolton, was unveiled.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Woolton \\|first\\=Carol \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BFd\\_EAAAQBAJ \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana Alta Gioielleria: Masterpieces of High Jewellery \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-10 \\|publisher\\=Rizzoli \\|isbn\\=978\\-88\\-918\\-3694\\-6 \\|language\\=en}}", "### Dolce\\&Gabbana Casa Furnishings and Furnishing Accessories", "The Dolce \\& Gabbana Home Collection, launched in 1994, was discontinued in 1999, except for unique pieces created for D\\&G premises. In August 2021, Dolce\\&Gabbana introduced its first *Casa* furnishings and furnishing accessories collection, which was previewed in Venice during the *Alta Moda* events. The collection presented four themes: Leo, Zebra, Blu Mediterraneo, and Carretto, featuring a variety of furniture and interior accessories such as table ornaments, chandeliers, cabinetry, textiles, and other home decor items.{{cite web \\|last\\=Delman \\|first\\=Selina \\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-28 \\|title\\=Dolce \\& Gabbana launches dedicated Home Collection: a first look \\|url\\=https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/luxury/2021/08/28/dolce\\-gabbana\\-launches\\-dedicated\\-home\\-collection\\-a\\-first\\-look/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517220152/https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/luxury/2021/08/28/dolce\\-gabbana\\-launches\\-dedicated\\-home\\-collection\\-a\\-first\\-look/ \\|archive\\-date\\=17 May 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2022 \\|publisher\\=The National News}} The Casa brand's products were created through collaborations with Italian artisans, including Venetian furniture experts such as Barovier \\& Toso, Mian, I Dogi, Venini, Barbini, Salviati, and Tessiture Bevilacqua, who provided their procedural knowledge to the company. As of March 2022, the Casa brand collection was mainly available online.", "" ]
Career ------ ### Early career At [California State University, Long Beach](/wiki/California_State_University%2C_Long_Beach "California State University, Long Beach"), he revamped radio broadcast agreements.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2012}} At the [University of South Carolina](/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina "University of South Carolina"), he managed $33 million in facility improvements, including the [Colonial Life Arena](/wiki/Colonial_Life_Arena "Colonial Life Arena"), now the home of USC's basketball teams as well as other sports.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2012}} At [American University](/wiki/American_University "American University"), he worked to get the school into the [Patriot League](/wiki/Patriot_League "Patriot League").{{citation needed\|date\=October 2012}} He hired top\-level executive staff, including JC Whipple to fill the role of Asst. AD for Communications. At [LSU](/wiki/Louisiana_State_University "Louisiana State University"), he developed a football ticket donation program and was involved in $90 million renovation of [Tiger Stadium](/wiki/Tiger_Stadium_%28LSU%29 "Tiger Stadium (LSU)"). ### Georgia Tech When hired at Georgia Tech on February 22, 2006, Radakovich beat out former Tech player and head coach [Bill Curry](/wiki/Bill_Curry "Bill Curry") and former Tech baseball and football player and baseball assistant coach [Cam Bonifay](/wiki/Cam_Bonifay "Cam Bonifay") for the job.{{cite press release\|url\=http://www.gatech.edu/news\-room/release.php?id\=874 \|title\=Dan Radakovich is Tech's New Athletics Director \|publisher\=Georgia Institute of Technology \|date\=February 22, 2006 \|accessdate\=May 16, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070419172952/http://www.gatech.edu/news\-room/release.php?id\=874 \|archivedate\=April 19, 2007 }}{{cite news\|url\=http://ramblinwreck.cstv.com/genrel/022206aaa.html\|title\=Radakovich Named Georgia Tech Director of Athletics\|work\=RamblinWreck.com\|publisher\=\[\[Georgia Tech Athletic Association]]\|date\=February 22, 2006\|accessdate\=October 29, 2012}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.nique.net/issues/2006\-02\-24/news/2\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929135646/http://www.nique.net/issues/2006\-02\-24/news/2\|archivedate\=September 29, 2007\|title\=Radakovich replaces Braine\|date\=February 24, 2006\|work\=\[\[The Technique]]}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.whistle.gatech.edu/archives/06/feb/27/gtaa.shtml\|title\=Tech taps Radakovich to lead Athletic Association\|work\=The Whistle\|publisher\=\[\[Georgia Institute of Technology]]\|date\=February 27, 2006\|accessdate\=October 29, 2012}} Radakovich improved the sales of season tickets for the 2006 football season, especially "chairback" or "club level" season tickets; hired football head coach [Paul Johnson](/wiki/Paul_Johnson_%28American_football_coach%29 "Paul Johnson (American football coach)"). He changed the way that athletic seating worked with the TECH Fund. The program also had several facilities changes, including a new indoor practice facility for football, Alexander Memorial Coliseum redesigned as [Hank McCamish Pavilion](/wiki/Hank_McCamish_Pavilion "Hank McCamish Pavilion"), and rebuilt tennis facilities.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2012}} He is blamed for leaving the school saddled with the stigma of being the sole major program wearing Russell Athletic uniforms until 2018\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.ajc.com/sports/college/how\-georgia\-tech\-equipment\-staff\-handling\-the\-switch\-adidas/3DL4UAyYuZ8QaXOnkxb8SN/\|title\=How Georgia Tech's equipment staff is handling the switch to Adidas\|last\=Sugiura\|first\=Ken\|newspaper\=The Atlanta Journal\-Constitution\|language\=English\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-23}} The original contract was for 10 years, beginning in July 2008\. Then\-AD Radakovich had the option to cancel the final 5 years of the partnership prior to August 1, 2012\. ### Clemson University On October 29, 2012, Radakovich accepted the position of athletic director at [Clemson University](/wiki/Clemson_University "Clemson University").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.espn.com/espn/story/\_/id/8568821/dan\-radakovich\-georgia\-tech\-yellow\-jackets\-clemson\-tigers\-ad\|title\=Report: Dan Radakovich to Clemson\|publisher\=\[\[ESPN]]\|date\=October 29, 2012\|access\-date\=October 29, 2012}}{{cite news\|url\=http://blogs.ajc.com/georgia\-tech\-sports/2012/10/28/clemson\-reportedly\-interested\-in\-radakovich/\|title\=Radakovich headed for Clemson\|work\=\[\[Atlanta Journal\-Constitution]]\|date\=October 28, 2012\|accessdate\=October 29, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030135941/http://blogs.ajc.com/georgia\-tech\-sports/2012/10/28/clemson\-reportedly\-interested\-in\-radakovich/\|archivedate\=October 30, 2012}} Since taking over as Athletic Director, Radakovich has helped complete more than $180 million in facility enhancements, headlined by a rebuilt Littlejohn Coliseum, the Reeves Football Operations Complex, Duckworth Family Tennis Center, baseball operations facility{{Citation\|last\=Clemson Tigers\|title\=Clemson Baseball {{!}}{{!}} Player Facility Tour\|date\=2018\-04\-01\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=uwYzZrBbxyk\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-23}} and the new softball stadium,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.tigernet.com/story/From\-the\-roster\-to\-the\-stadium\-Clemson\-softball\-foundation\-taking\-shape\-17818\|title\=From the roster to the stadium, Clemson softball foundation taking shape\|date\=2019\-04\-17\|website\=TigerNet.com\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-23}} set to open in 2020\. The Reeves complex opened in Feb. 2017,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.greenvilleonline.com/story/sports/college/clemson/2017/01/31/clemson\-opens\-new\-football\-center\-just\-time\-signing\-day/97274716/\|title\=Clemson opens new football center, just in time for Signing Day\|website\=The Greenville News\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-23}} just weeks after winning the 2016 [College Football Playoff](/wiki/College_Football_Playoff_National_Championship "College Football Playoff National Championship") National Championship. Radakovich has overseen Clemson's rise to a national football power, led by head coach [Dabo Swinney](/wiki/Dabo_Swinney "Dabo Swinney"). Swinney's football program claimed both the [2016](/wiki/2016_College_Football_Playoff_National_Championship "2016 College Football Playoff National Championship") and [2018](/wiki/2018_College_Football_Playoff_National_Championship "2018 College Football Playoff National Championship") College Football National Championship. Radakovich also helped complete several premium seating projects in several facilities. Clemson's athletic department has set records in [Academic Progress Rate](/wiki/Academic_Progress_Rate "Academic Progress Rate"), Graduation Success Rate,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/graduation\-rates\|title\=Graduation Rates\|last\=dthomas\|date\=2013\-11\-19\|website\=NCAA.org \- The Official Site of the NCAA\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-23}} and numerous other academic measures. Department revenue nearly doubled from $69 million in FY14 to more than $120 million in 2019\. Clemson also agreed a new 10\-year, $58 million partnership{{Cite web\|url\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2789366\-nike\-clemson\-agree\-to\-10\-year\-58\-million\-apparel\-contract\-extension\|title\=Nike, Clemson Agree to 10\-Year, $58 Million Apparel Contract Extension\|last\=Chiari\|first\=Mike\|website\=Bleacher Report\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-23}} with Nike that spans all sports. Radakovich was named Sports Business Daily's Athletic Director of the Year in 2017 at the Sports Business Awards.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com:443/en/Daily/Issues/2017/05/25/Sports%20Business%20Awards/AD%20of%20Year.aspx\|title\=Sports Business Awards: Clemson's Dan Radakovich Wins Athletic Director Of The Year\|website\=www.sportsbusinessdaily.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-23}} Radakovich was a member of the [College Football Playoff](/wiki/College_Football_Playoff "College Football Playoff") Selection Committee from 2014 to 2017\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://clemsontigers.com/dan\-radakovichs\-cfp\-committee\-tenure/\|title\=Dan Radakovich's CFP Committee Tenure\|date\=2018\-02\-07\|website\=Clemson Tigers Official Athletics Site\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-23}}{{cite web\|title\=Selection Committee\|url\=http://www.collegefootballplayoff.com/selection\-committee\|website\=College Football Playoff\|accessdate\=November 10, 2015}} In April 2019, he signed an extension to continue in this role until 2024\. ### University of Miami {{see also\|Miami Hurricanes}} In December 2021, Radakovich joined the [University of Miami](/wiki/University_of_Miami "University of Miami") as athletic director for the [Miami Hurricanes](/wiki/Miami_Hurricanes "Miami Hurricanes").
[ "Career\n------", "### Early career", "At [California State University, Long Beach](/wiki/California_State_University%2C_Long_Beach \"California State University, Long Beach\"), he revamped radio broadcast agreements.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2012}}", "At the [University of South Carolina](/wiki/University_of_South_Carolina \"University of South Carolina\"), he managed $33 million in facility improvements, including the [Colonial Life Arena](/wiki/Colonial_Life_Arena \"Colonial Life Arena\"), now the home of USC's basketball teams as well as other sports.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2012}}", "At [American University](/wiki/American_University \"American University\"), he worked to get the school into the [Patriot League](/wiki/Patriot_League \"Patriot League\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2012}} He hired top\\-level executive staff, including JC Whipple to fill the role of Asst. AD for Communications.", "At [LSU](/wiki/Louisiana_State_University \"Louisiana State University\"), he developed a football ticket donation program and was involved in $90 million renovation of [Tiger Stadium](/wiki/Tiger_Stadium_%28LSU%29 \"Tiger Stadium (LSU)\").", "### Georgia Tech", "When hired at Georgia Tech on February 22, 2006, Radakovich beat out former Tech player and head coach [Bill Curry](/wiki/Bill_Curry \"Bill Curry\") and former Tech baseball and football player and baseball assistant coach [Cam Bonifay](/wiki/Cam_Bonifay \"Cam Bonifay\") for the job.{{cite press release\\|url\\=http://www.gatech.edu/news\\-room/release.php?id\\=874 \\|title\\=Dan Radakovich is Tech's New Athletics Director \\|publisher\\=Georgia Institute of Technology \\|date\\=February 22, 2006 \\|accessdate\\=May 16, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070419172952/http://www.gatech.edu/news\\-room/release.php?id\\=874 \\|archivedate\\=April 19, 2007 }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://ramblinwreck.cstv.com/genrel/022206aaa.html\\|title\\=Radakovich Named Georgia Tech Director of Athletics\\|work\\=RamblinWreck.com\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Georgia Tech Athletic Association]]\\|date\\=February 22, 2006\\|accessdate\\=October 29, 2012}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.nique.net/issues/2006\\-02\\-24/news/2\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929135646/http://www.nique.net/issues/2006\\-02\\-24/news/2\\|archivedate\\=September 29, 2007\\|title\\=Radakovich replaces Braine\\|date\\=February 24, 2006\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Technique]]}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.whistle.gatech.edu/archives/06/feb/27/gtaa.shtml\\|title\\=Tech taps Radakovich to lead Athletic Association\\|work\\=The Whistle\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Georgia Institute of Technology]]\\|date\\=February 27, 2006\\|accessdate\\=October 29, 2012}} Radakovich improved the sales of season tickets for the 2006 football season, especially \"chairback\" or \"club level\" season tickets; hired football head coach [Paul Johnson](/wiki/Paul_Johnson_%28American_football_coach%29 \"Paul Johnson (American football coach)\"). He changed the way that athletic seating worked with the TECH Fund. The program also had several facilities changes, including a new indoor practice facility for football, Alexander Memorial Coliseum redesigned as [Hank McCamish Pavilion](/wiki/Hank_McCamish_Pavilion \"Hank McCamish Pavilion\"), and rebuilt tennis facilities.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2012}} He is blamed for leaving the school saddled with the stigma of being the sole major program wearing Russell Athletic uniforms until 2018\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.ajc.com/sports/college/how\\-georgia\\-tech\\-equipment\\-staff\\-handling\\-the\\-switch\\-adidas/3DL4UAyYuZ8QaXOnkxb8SN/\\|title\\=How Georgia Tech's equipment staff is handling the switch to Adidas\\|last\\=Sugiura\\|first\\=Ken\\|newspaper\\=The Atlanta Journal\\-Constitution\\|language\\=English\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-23}} The original contract was for 10 years, beginning in July 2008\\. Then\\-AD Radakovich had the option to cancel the final 5 years of the partnership prior to August 1, 2012\\.", "### Clemson University", "On October 29, 2012, Radakovich accepted the position of athletic director at [Clemson University](/wiki/Clemson_University \"Clemson University\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/espn/story/\\_/id/8568821/dan\\-radakovich\\-georgia\\-tech\\-yellow\\-jackets\\-clemson\\-tigers\\-ad\\|title\\=Report: Dan Radakovich to Clemson\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPN]]\\|date\\=October 29, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=October 29, 2012}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://blogs.ajc.com/georgia\\-tech\\-sports/2012/10/28/clemson\\-reportedly\\-interested\\-in\\-radakovich/\\|title\\=Radakovich headed for Clemson\\|work\\=\\[\\[Atlanta Journal\\-Constitution]]\\|date\\=October 28, 2012\\|accessdate\\=October 29, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030135941/http://blogs.ajc.com/georgia\\-tech\\-sports/2012/10/28/clemson\\-reportedly\\-interested\\-in\\-radakovich/\\|archivedate\\=October 30, 2012}} Since taking over as Athletic Director, Radakovich has helped complete more than $180 million in facility enhancements, headlined by a rebuilt Littlejohn Coliseum, the Reeves Football Operations Complex, Duckworth Family Tennis Center, baseball operations facility{{Citation\\|last\\=Clemson Tigers\\|title\\=Clemson Baseball {{!}}{{!}} Player Facility Tour\\|date\\=2018\\-04\\-01\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=uwYzZrBbxyk\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-23}} and the new softball stadium,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tigernet.com/story/From\\-the\\-roster\\-to\\-the\\-stadium\\-Clemson\\-softball\\-foundation\\-taking\\-shape\\-17818\\|title\\=From the roster to the stadium, Clemson softball foundation taking shape\\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-17\\|website\\=TigerNet.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-23}} set to open in 2020\\.", "The Reeves complex opened in Feb. 2017,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.greenvilleonline.com/story/sports/college/clemson/2017/01/31/clemson\\-opens\\-new\\-football\\-center\\-just\\-time\\-signing\\-day/97274716/\\|title\\=Clemson opens new football center, just in time for Signing Day\\|website\\=The Greenville News\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-23}} just weeks after winning the 2016 [College Football Playoff](/wiki/College_Football_Playoff_National_Championship \"College Football Playoff National Championship\") National Championship. Radakovich has overseen Clemson's rise to a national football power, led by head coach [Dabo Swinney](/wiki/Dabo_Swinney \"Dabo Swinney\"). Swinney's football program claimed both the [2016](/wiki/2016_College_Football_Playoff_National_Championship \"2016 College Football Playoff National Championship\") and [2018](/wiki/2018_College_Football_Playoff_National_Championship \"2018 College Football Playoff National Championship\") College Football National Championship. Radakovich also helped complete several premium seating projects in several facilities. Clemson's athletic department has set records in [Academic Progress Rate](/wiki/Academic_Progress_Rate \"Academic Progress Rate\"), Graduation Success Rate,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/graduation\\-rates\\|title\\=Graduation Rates\\|last\\=dthomas\\|date\\=2013\\-11\\-19\\|website\\=NCAA.org \\- The Official Site of the NCAA\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-23}} and numerous other academic measures.", "Department revenue nearly doubled from $69 million in FY14 to more than $120 million in 2019\\. Clemson also agreed a new 10\\-year, $58 million partnership{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2789366\\-nike\\-clemson\\-agree\\-to\\-10\\-year\\-58\\-million\\-apparel\\-contract\\-extension\\|title\\=Nike, Clemson Agree to 10\\-Year, $58 Million Apparel Contract Extension\\|last\\=Chiari\\|first\\=Mike\\|website\\=Bleacher Report\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-23}} with Nike that spans all sports.", "Radakovich was named Sports Business Daily's Athletic Director of the Year in 2017 at the Sports Business Awards.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sportsbusinessdaily.com:443/en/Daily/Issues/2017/05/25/Sports%20Business%20Awards/AD%20of%20Year.aspx\\|title\\=Sports Business Awards: Clemson's Dan Radakovich Wins Athletic Director Of The Year\\|website\\=www.sportsbusinessdaily.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-23}}", "Radakovich was a member of the [College Football Playoff](/wiki/College_Football_Playoff \"College Football Playoff\") Selection Committee from 2014 to 2017\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://clemsontigers.com/dan\\-radakovichs\\-cfp\\-committee\\-tenure/\\|title\\=Dan Radakovich's CFP Committee Tenure\\|date\\=2018\\-02\\-07\\|website\\=Clemson Tigers Official Athletics Site\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-23}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Selection Committee\\|url\\=http://www.collegefootballplayoff.com/selection\\-committee\\|website\\=College Football Playoff\\|accessdate\\=November 10, 2015}} In April 2019, he signed an extension to continue in this role until 2024\\.", "### University of Miami", "{{see also\\|Miami Hurricanes}}\nIn December 2021, Radakovich joined the [University of Miami](/wiki/University_of_Miami \"University of Miami\") as athletic director for the [Miami Hurricanes](/wiki/Miami_Hurricanes \"Miami Hurricanes\").", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|2020\= 13604 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2016}} }} ### 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 10,208 people residing in Vail, Arizona (a 248% increase from 2000\). The population density was 561\.2 people per square mile. According to the census, Vail is 69\.8% [non\-Hispanic white](/wiki/European_American "European American"), 3\.3% [Black](/wiki/African_American "African American") or [African American](/wiki/African_American "African American"), 0\.9% [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States"), 2\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_American "Asian American"), 0\.2% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander "Pacific Islander"), 5\.0% from [other races](/wiki/Chicano "Chicano"), and 4\.1% were [mixed race](/wiki/Multiracial "Multiracial"). People of Hispanic or [Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") origin made up 19\.4% of the population. People from 0–4 years old were 7\.5% of the population, children from ages 5–17 were 23\.2% of the population, adults 18–64 were 62\.0% of the total, and people 65 and over were 7\.3% of the population. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 2,484 people, 842 households, and 675 families residing in the CDP. The population density was {{convert\|136\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 906 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|49\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 87\.2% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.6% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), \<0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 7\.5% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 3\.7% from two or more races. 16\.6% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") of any race. There were 842 households, of which 43\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 6\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19\.8% were non\-families. 14\.0% of all households had one occupant and 1\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.95 and the average family size was 3\.25\. In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 31\.8% under the age of 18, 5\.6% from 18 to 24, 33\.3% from 25 to 44, 23\.6% from 45 to 64, and 5\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101\.3 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $46,202, and the median income for a family was $53,958\. Males had a median income of $37,418 versus $28,594 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the CDP was $19,892\. About 6\.1% of families and 6\.3% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 6\.5% of those under age 18 and 7\.5% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|2020\\= 13604\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2016}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the census of 2010, there were 10,208 people residing in Vail, Arizona (a 248% increase from 2000\\). The population density was 561\\.2 people per square mile. According to the census, Vail is 69\\.8% [non\\-Hispanic white](/wiki/European_American \"European American\"), 3\\.3% [Black](/wiki/African_American \"African American\") or [African American](/wiki/African_American \"African American\"), 0\\.9% [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\"), 2\\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_American \"Asian American\"), 0\\.2% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander \"Pacific Islander\"), 5\\.0% from [other races](/wiki/Chicano \"Chicano\"), and 4\\.1% were [mixed race](/wiki/Multiracial \"Multiracial\"). People of Hispanic or [Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") origin made up 19\\.4% of the population.", "People from 0–4 years old were 7\\.5% of the population, children from ages 5–17 were 23\\.2% of the population, adults 18–64 were 62\\.0% of the total, and people 65 and over were 7\\.3% of the population.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 2,484 people, 842 households, and 675 families residing in the CDP. The population density was {{convert\\|136\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 906 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|49\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 87\\.2% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.6% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), \\<0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 7\\.5% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 3\\.7% from two or more races. 16\\.6% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") of any race.", "There were 842 households, of which 43\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 6\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19\\.8% were non\\-families. 14\\.0% of all households had one occupant and 1\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.95 and the average family size was 3\\.25\\.", "In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 31\\.8% under the age of 18, 5\\.6% from 18 to 24, 33\\.3% from 25 to 44, 23\\.6% from 45 to 64, and 5\\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 101\\.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101\\.3 males.", "The median income for a household in the CDP was $46,202, and the median income for a family was $53,958\\. Males had a median income of $37,418 versus $28,594 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the CDP was $19,892\\. About 6\\.1% of families and 6\\.3% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 6\\.5% of those under age 18 and 7\\.5% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
History ------- Some historians of theology cite [Origen](/wiki/Origen "Origen")'s *peri archon* as the first summary of Catholic theology. Others consider that the first in point of time is "De Trinitate" by [St. Hilary of Poitiers](/wiki/St._Hilary_of_Poitiers "St. Hilary of Poitiers"). The distinction has also been accorded to [Radulfus Ardens](/wiki/Radulfus_Ardens "Radulfus Ardens"), an eleventh\-century theologian and preacher, a native of [Beaulieu](/wiki/Beaulieu-sous-Parthenay "Beaulieu-sous-Parthenay"), author of a comprehensive "Speculum Universale", still in Manuscript. In this wide sense of the word, however, the encyclopedic treatises of [St. Isidore of Seville](/wiki/St._Isidore_of_Seville "St. Isidore of Seville"), [Rabanus Maurus](/wiki/Rabanus_Maurus "Rabanus Maurus") etc., entitled "De Etymologiis" or "De Universo" might also be considered to be summaries of theology and philosophy. In the stricter sense of the word, "Summa" is applied to the more technical systematic compendiums which began to appear in the twelfth century. According to the *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy")*, the form was invented by the grammarian [Peter Helias](/wiki/Peter_Helias "Peter Helias").[Literary Forms of Medieval Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-literary/) An alternative title is "Sentences" (Latin *Libri Sententiarum*), the diminutive, "Summulæ", being of later origin. What is peculiar to "summists" or "sententiaries", as the authors of these works are called, is the adoption of the method first suggested by [Gerbert](/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_II "Pope Sylvester II") in his "De Rationali et Ratione Uti", and used by [Abelard](/wiki/Abelard "Abelard") in his "Sic et Non", consisting in an exposition of contradictory views, the affirmative and negative. Progress towards the final form of the thirteenth\-century "Summæ" is marked by the greater care which was taken, as time went on, to explain in a systematic manner the apparent contradiction among the conflicting opinions presented. Besides this method of exposition, the twelfth\-century summists adopted [dialectic](/wiki/Dialectic "Dialectic") definitely as a means of elucidating, not only philosophical, but also theological truth. Finally the summists adopted more or less unanimously a fixed division of the field of theology and philosophy, and adhered more or less closely to a definite order of topics, although varying in their arrangement. The first great summist was [Peter Lombard](/wiki/Peter_Lombard "Peter Lombard") (died 1160\), author of the *[Books of Sentences](/wiki/Books_of_Sentences "Books of Sentences")* and surnamed "Master of Sentences". The order of topics in the *Books of Sentences* is as follows: In the first place, the topics are divided into res and signa, or things and signs. "Things" are subdivided into: the object of our happiness, God — to this topic Peter devotes the first book; means of attaining this object, viz., creatures — the topic treated in the second book; virtues, men and angels, that is, special means of happiness and subjects of happiness — the topic of the third book; the fourth book is devoted to signs: the sacraments. How far Peter Lombard was influenced by earlier summists, such as [Robert Pullen](/wiki/Robert_Pullen "Robert Pullen"), [Hugh of St. Victor](/wiki/Hugh_of_St._Victor "Hugh of St. Victor") and the author of the "[Summa Sententiarum](/wiki/Summa_sententiarum "Summa sententiarum")" which was immediately inspired by Abelard's work, historians have not determined. It is generally admitted that the Lombard was not entirely original. He deserves his renown as the first great summist chiefly because, in spite of the opposition which his work met during his lifetime, its influence grew greater in time, until in the thirteenth century it was universally adopted as a text. Notwithstanding all that hostile critics of [Scholasticism](/wiki/Scholasticism "Scholasticism") have said about the dryness and unattractiveness of the medieval "Summæ", these works have many merits from the point of view of pedagogy, and a philosophical school which supplements, as Scholasticism did, the compendious treatment of the "Summæ", with the looser form of treatment of the "Quæstiones Disputatæ" and the "Opuscula", unites in its method of writing the advantages which modern philosophy derives from the combination of textbook and doctor's dissertation. The *[Summa Theologica](/wiki/Summa_Theologica "Summa Theologica")* of [St. Thomas Aquinas](/wiki/St._Thomas_Aquinas "St. Thomas Aquinas"), begun when Aquinas was [Regent Master](/wiki/Regent_master "Regent master") at the *studium provinciale* at [Santa Sabina](/wiki/Santa_Sabina "Santa Sabina") the forerunner of the [Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, *Angelicum*](/wiki/Pontifical_University_of_Saint_Thomas_Aquinas "Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas"), is often considered the most perfect specimen of this kind of literature. The term "Summulæ" was used, for the most part, to designate the logical compendiums which came to be adopted as texts in the schools during the thirteenth century. The best known of these is the "Summulæ Logicales" of [Peter Hispanus](/wiki/Peter_Hispanus "Peter Hispanus"), afterwards Pope John XXI.
[ "History\n-------", "Some historians of theology cite [Origen](/wiki/Origen \"Origen\")'s *peri archon* as the first summary of Catholic theology. Others consider that the first in point of time is \"De Trinitate\" by [St. Hilary of Poitiers](/wiki/St._Hilary_of_Poitiers \"St. Hilary of Poitiers\"). The distinction has also been accorded to [Radulfus Ardens](/wiki/Radulfus_Ardens \"Radulfus Ardens\"), an eleventh\\-century theologian and preacher, a native of [Beaulieu](/wiki/Beaulieu-sous-Parthenay \"Beaulieu-sous-Parthenay\"), author of a comprehensive \"Speculum Universale\", still in Manuscript. In this wide sense of the word, however, the encyclopedic treatises of [St. Isidore of Seville](/wiki/St._Isidore_of_Seville \"St. Isidore of Seville\"), [Rabanus Maurus](/wiki/Rabanus_Maurus \"Rabanus Maurus\") etc., entitled \"De Etymologiis\" or \"De Universo\" might also be considered to be summaries of theology and philosophy.", "In the stricter sense of the word, \"Summa\" is applied to the more technical systematic compendiums which began to appear in the twelfth century. According to the *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy \"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\")*, the form was invented by the grammarian [Peter Helias](/wiki/Peter_Helias \"Peter Helias\").[Literary Forms of Medieval Philosophy (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)](http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-literary/) An alternative title is \"Sentences\" (Latin *Libri Sententiarum*), the diminutive, \"Summulæ\", being of later origin. What is peculiar to \"summists\" or \"sententiaries\", as the authors of these works are called, is the adoption of the method first suggested by [Gerbert](/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_II \"Pope Sylvester II\") in his \"De Rationali et Ratione Uti\", and used by [Abelard](/wiki/Abelard \"Abelard\") in his \"Sic et Non\", consisting in an exposition of contradictory views, the affirmative and negative. Progress towards the final form of the thirteenth\\-century \"Summæ\" is marked by the greater care which was taken, as time went on, to explain in a systematic manner the apparent contradiction among the conflicting opinions presented. Besides this method of exposition, the twelfth\\-century summists adopted [dialectic](/wiki/Dialectic \"Dialectic\") definitely as a means of elucidating, not only philosophical, but also theological truth. Finally the summists adopted more or less unanimously a fixed division of the field of theology and philosophy, and adhered more or less closely to a definite order of topics, although varying in their arrangement.", "The first great summist was [Peter Lombard](/wiki/Peter_Lombard \"Peter Lombard\") (died 1160\\), author of the *[Books of Sentences](/wiki/Books_of_Sentences \"Books of Sentences\")* and surnamed \"Master of Sentences\". The order of topics in the *Books of Sentences* is as follows: In the first place, the topics are divided into res and signa, or things and signs. \"Things\" are subdivided into: the object of our happiness, God — to this topic Peter devotes the first book; means of attaining this object, viz., creatures — the topic treated in the second book; virtues, men and angels, that is, special means of happiness and subjects of happiness — the topic of the third book; the fourth book is devoted to signs: the sacraments.", "How far Peter Lombard was influenced by earlier summists, such as [Robert Pullen](/wiki/Robert_Pullen \"Robert Pullen\"), [Hugh of St. Victor](/wiki/Hugh_of_St._Victor \"Hugh of St. Victor\") and the author of the \"[Summa Sententiarum](/wiki/Summa_sententiarum \"Summa sententiarum\")\" which was immediately inspired by Abelard's work, historians have not determined. It is generally admitted that the Lombard was not entirely original. He deserves his renown as the first great summist chiefly because, in spite of the opposition which his work met during his lifetime, its influence grew greater in time, until in the thirteenth century it was universally adopted as a text. Notwithstanding all that hostile critics of [Scholasticism](/wiki/Scholasticism \"Scholasticism\") have said about the dryness and unattractiveness of the medieval \"Summæ\", these works have many merits from the point of view of pedagogy, and a philosophical school which supplements, as Scholasticism did, the compendious treatment of the \"Summæ\", with the looser form of treatment of the \"Quæstiones Disputatæ\" and the \"Opuscula\", unites in its method of writing the advantages which modern philosophy derives from the combination of textbook and doctor's dissertation. The *[Summa Theologica](/wiki/Summa_Theologica \"Summa Theologica\")* of [St. Thomas Aquinas](/wiki/St._Thomas_Aquinas \"St. Thomas Aquinas\"), begun when Aquinas was [Regent Master](/wiki/Regent_master \"Regent master\") at the *studium provinciale* at [Santa Sabina](/wiki/Santa_Sabina \"Santa Sabina\") the forerunner of the [Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, *Angelicum*](/wiki/Pontifical_University_of_Saint_Thomas_Aquinas \"Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas\"), is often considered the most perfect specimen of this kind of literature.", "The term \"Summulæ\" was used, for the most part, to designate the logical compendiums which came to be adopted as texts in the schools during the thirteenth century. The best known of these is the \"Summulæ Logicales\" of [Peter Hispanus](/wiki/Peter_Hispanus \"Peter Hispanus\"), afterwards Pope John XXI.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- Set during the spring and summer of 1980 in the fictional Hampstead, Connecticut, an adulterous housewife named Stony Friedgood picks up a man at a bar, but is brutally murdered by the patron. At the same time, her unaware husband Leo, working with the Department of Defense, is involved in the cover up of DRG\-16, a nerve gas that escapes its containment and rushes into the town of Hampstead. Leo works to stop the public from finding out about the gas that leaked, which already killed three men at the lab. When he arrives home, the gas is already above Hampstead, causing deaths and hallucinations. Meanwhile, the descendants of the founders of Hampstead are introduced: Richard Allbee, a former child actor turned architect with a wife and child on the way, returns from London and is plagued by dreams and visions of his former deceased co\-actor Billy Bentley and culture shock; Patsy McCloud, the abused wife of Les McCloud, has psychic abilities and dreams of escaping her husband and Tabby Smithfield, a young child with an alcoholic father, who has similar abilities like Patsy. Graham Williams, an old historian who murdered a serial killer in his past, and discovered a cycle of evil in the town that arrives every thirty years in the name of a monster named the Dragon, connects with the others and learn from Graham that an older evil has poisoned the town and wreaked havoc, as is happening at that moment. Several of the locals experience frightening visions they believe was brought on by DRG, but was in fact created by the Dragon. The Dragon, originally businessman Gideon Winter, had bought land from the town centuries ago and killed women and children. He was discovered and murdered by the founders, leading to his vendetta against the town and its inhabitants. The Dragon would possess people each cycle to commit atrocities, such as Bates Krell. Graham had confronted Bates Krell years ago and murdered him after discovering his acts of villainy. Graham then devoted himself to uncover the history which he shares with the other three. Tabby reluctantly accompanies three teenage robbers on their trip to doctor Wren Van Horne's home, where they are attacked and killed; several children drown themselves on the town beach; policemen murder each other during an annual meeting at a movie theater; a group of firefighters die when they spontaneously combust trying to stop several houses from burning; Leo escapes town but dies in the streets of New York; and local reporter Sarah Spry and her friend Ulick Byrne attempt to uncover the secret of Hampstead. More evil and terrifying hallucinations brought on by the Dragon destroy the town and send the townsfolk away. The four are no stranger as they witness firsthand the town crumble. As the novel progresses, the Dragon gets more hostile trying to split the group and demotivate them: Les McCloud, Patsy's husband, is killed during a drive after a dog kills itself when it crashed into his car; Richard comes home from his work to see his wife murdered, while pregnant; Tabby's home catches fire, his father kills his stepmother, and they are consumed by the flames; and Graham visits Kendall Point, a place of terror in town, and nearly falls to his death. The government discovers the slip and failed coverup of DRG as reporters and news stations discover the events happening in Hampstead. Sarah and Ulick, after investigating, arrive at the home of former killer Bates Krell and are attacked by Wren Van Horne, who became the new host of the Dragon and murdered several locals, including Stony Friedgood. Tabby arrives at Van Horne's manor with Patsy, in an attempt to stop the Dragon single\-handedly like Graham previously. They meet one of the surviving thieves, Bruce Norman, who helps them break in. They easily shoot and kill Van Horne, but a celestial form of the Dragon kidnaps Tabby and burns the house down. At the same time, Graham and Richard, figuring out what Tabby planned to do, are attacked by an indestructible dog at Williams' home, but manage to escape with Graham's shotgun. The two, along with Patsy, journey to Krell's home and are hit with vivid hallucinations, like dead beings emerging from the basement floor and blood inside the basement. They enter a tunnel and several caverns where each individual is tested by the Dragon: Patsy sees the victims of the Dragon in a chamber, in them Sarah, Ulick, and her husband Les; Richard returns to the set of the show he acted in and is attacked by Billy Bentley, but learns to accept his death; and Graham is embarrassed for his infidelity with his wives and accusations of being a communist. They arrive underneath Kendall Point, and rescue Tabby. The Dragon appears, in the form of a literal dragon, and causes an earthquake. The four enter a large cave created by the Dragon. Patsy unites the group with her powers, and gives them the strength and courage to face the Dragon. Singing “[When the Red, Red, Robin Comes Bob, Bob, Bobbin’ Along](/wiki/When_the_Red%2C_Red_Robin_%28Comes_Bob%2C_Bob%2C_Bobbin%27_Along%29 "When the Red, Red Robin (Comes Bob, Bob, Bobbin' Along)")”, Richard uses a shotgun which transforms into a sword to stab the Dragon and kill him, seemingly ending the cycle. The four escape Kendall Point before it cracks and falls into the ocean, along with Van Horne’s mansion and a few buildings. The four recoup at Graham’s home where it is fully revealed that the novel was written by Graham on the suggestion of Richard. The novel ends with Patsy moving with a new boyfriend to New York, then somewhere south, Richard getting a new wife and daughter, adopting Tabby, who goes to college, and Graham publishing *Floating Dragon* and being promised by Patsy to meet again soon.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "Set during the spring and summer of 1980 in the fictional Hampstead, Connecticut, an adulterous housewife named Stony Friedgood picks up a man at a bar, but is brutally murdered by the patron. At the same time, her unaware husband Leo, working with the Department of Defense, is involved in the cover up of DRG\\-16, a nerve gas that escapes its containment and rushes into the town of Hampstead. Leo works to stop the public from finding out about the gas that leaked, which already killed three men at the lab. When he arrives home, the gas is already above Hampstead, causing deaths and hallucinations.", "Meanwhile, the descendants of the founders of Hampstead are introduced: Richard Allbee, a former child actor turned architect with a wife and child on the way, returns from London and is plagued by dreams and visions of his former deceased co\\-actor Billy Bentley and culture shock; Patsy McCloud, the abused wife of Les McCloud, has psychic abilities and dreams of escaping her husband and Tabby Smithfield, a young child with an alcoholic father, who has similar abilities like Patsy. Graham Williams, an old historian who murdered a serial killer in his past, and discovered a cycle of evil in the town that arrives every thirty years in the name of a monster named the Dragon, connects with the others and learn from Graham that an older evil has poisoned the town and wreaked havoc, as is happening at that moment.", "Several of the locals experience frightening visions they believe was brought on by DRG, but was in fact created by the Dragon. The Dragon, originally businessman Gideon Winter, had bought land from the town centuries ago and killed women and children. He was discovered and murdered by the founders, leading to his vendetta against the town and its inhabitants. The Dragon would possess people each cycle to commit atrocities, such as Bates Krell. Graham had confronted Bates Krell years ago and murdered him after discovering his acts of villainy. Graham then devoted himself to uncover the history which he shares with the other three.", "Tabby reluctantly accompanies three teenage robbers on their trip to doctor Wren Van Horne's home, where they are attacked and killed; several children drown themselves on the town beach; policemen murder each other during an annual meeting at a movie theater; a group of firefighters die when they spontaneously combust trying to stop several houses from burning; Leo escapes town but dies in the streets of New York; and local reporter Sarah Spry and her friend Ulick Byrne attempt to uncover the secret of Hampstead.", "More evil and terrifying hallucinations brought on by the Dragon destroy the town and send the townsfolk away. The four are no stranger as they witness firsthand the town crumble. As the novel progresses, the Dragon gets more hostile trying to split the group and demotivate them: Les McCloud, Patsy's husband, is killed during a drive after a dog kills itself when it crashed into his car; Richard comes home from his work to see his wife murdered, while pregnant; Tabby's home catches fire, his father kills his stepmother, and they are consumed by the flames; and Graham visits Kendall Point, a place of terror in town, and nearly falls to his death.", "The government discovers the slip and failed coverup of DRG as reporters and news stations discover the events happening in Hampstead. Sarah and Ulick, after investigating, arrive at the home of former killer Bates Krell and are attacked by Wren Van Horne, who became the new host of the Dragon and murdered several locals, including Stony Friedgood. Tabby arrives at Van Horne's manor with Patsy, in an attempt to stop the Dragon single\\-handedly like Graham previously. They meet one of the surviving thieves, Bruce Norman, who helps them break in. They easily shoot and kill Van Horne, but a celestial form of the Dragon kidnaps Tabby and burns the house down. At the same time, Graham and Richard, figuring out what Tabby planned to do, are attacked by an indestructible dog at Williams' home, but manage to escape with Graham's shotgun.", "The two, along with Patsy, journey to Krell's home and are hit with vivid hallucinations, like dead beings emerging from the basement floor and blood inside the basement. They enter a tunnel and several caverns where each individual is tested by the Dragon: Patsy sees the victims of the Dragon in a chamber, in them Sarah, Ulick, and her husband Les; Richard returns to the set of the show he acted in and is attacked by Billy Bentley, but learns to accept his death; and Graham is embarrassed for his infidelity with his wives and accusations of being a communist. They arrive underneath Kendall Point, and rescue Tabby. The Dragon appears, in the form of a literal dragon, and causes an earthquake.", "The four enter a large cave created by the Dragon. Patsy unites the group with her powers, and gives them the strength and courage to face the Dragon. Singing “[When the Red, Red, Robin Comes Bob, Bob, Bobbin’ Along](/wiki/When_the_Red%2C_Red_Robin_%28Comes_Bob%2C_Bob%2C_Bobbin%27_Along%29 \"When the Red, Red Robin (Comes Bob, Bob, Bobbin' Along)\")”, Richard uses a shotgun which transforms into a sword to stab the Dragon and kill him, seemingly ending the cycle. The four escape Kendall Point before it cracks and falls into the ocean, along with Van Horne’s mansion and a few buildings. The four recoup at Graham’s home where it is fully revealed that the novel was written by Graham on the suggestion of Richard.", "The novel ends with Patsy moving with a new boyfriend to New York, then somewhere south, Richard getting a new wife and daughter, adopting Tabby, who goes to college, and Graham publishing *Floating Dragon* and being promised by Patsy to meet again soon.", "" ]
Plot ---- The [Federation](/wiki/United_Federation_of_Planets "United Federation of Planets") [starship](/wiki/Starship "Starship") *[Enterprise](/wiki/USS_Enterprise_%28NCC-1701%29 "USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)")* is in pursuit of the stolen space cruiser *Aurora*. In trying to escape, the *Aurora* overloads its engines and its six passengers are safely beamed aboard the *Enterprise* just as the *Aurora* explodes. The group consists of Tongo Rad, son of the Catullan [ambassador](/wiki/Ambassador "Ambassador"); Irina Galliulin, an acquaintance of Ensign [Chekov](/wiki/Pavel_Chekov "Pavel Chekov"); Dr. Sevrin, a noted electronics, acoustics, and communications researcher; Adam, a musician; and two other women. In responses to Kirk's questions, Dr. Sevrin says their destination is the planet "Eden", which Kirk responds is a [myth](/wiki/Myth "Myth"). The group refuses to co\-operate with Kirk, but are impressed by First Officer [Spock](/wiki/Spock "Spock"), who is familiar with their [social movement](/wiki/Social_movement "Social movement"). They are persuaded to go to [Sickbay](/wiki/Sickbay "Sickbay") for a [medical examination](/wiki/Physical_examination "Physical examination") which reveals the party to be in good health, except for Sevrin, who is an [asymptomatic carrier](/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier "Asymptomatic carrier") of a [bacterium](/wiki/Bacteria "Bacteria"). Sevrin is [quarantined](/wiki/Quarantine "Quarantine") in the [brig](/wiki/Military_prison "Military prison"). He admits to being aware of this, and believes it to be a product of artificial environments, and tells Spock that the planet Eden will somehow "cleanse" him. Spock attempts to reason with Sevrin and offers to help him find Eden in exchange for his cooperation, but concludes that Sevrin is not [sane](/wiki/Insanity "Insanity"). The rest of the group plan to take over the ship. After putting on a music concert including Spock, during which Rad frees Sevrin, the group takes over Auxiliary Control and puts the *Enterprise* on course for Eden. On arrival at the planet, Sevrin renders all *Enterprise* crew unconscious with an [ultrasonic frequency](/wiki/Ultrasound "Ultrasound") broadcast through the intercom. When the crew regain consciousness, they discover that Sevrin and his followers have stolen a shuttlecraft.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.startrek.com/legacy\_media/images/200303/tos\-075\-the\-galileo\-ii\-on\-a\-pl/320x240\.jpg \|title\=''Galileo II'' on "Eden" \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103001653/http://www.startrek.com/legacy\_media/images/200303/tos\-075\-the\-galileo\-ii\-on\-a\-pl/320x240\.jpg \|archive\-date\=January 3, 2019 }} Kirk deactivates Sevrin's sonic device, and then joins Spock, Chief Medical Officer [Dr. McCoy](/wiki/Leonard_McCoy "Leonard McCoy"), and Chekov in a search for the group. The planet surface is lush and beautiful. However, all the plant life secretes a powerful [acid](/wiki/Acid "Acid"), as Chekov discovers when he touches a flower. The team soon finds Adam, lying dead from [poisonous](/wiki/Poison "Poison") fruit. Sevrin and the other survivors are then found in the shuttlecraft, all with chemical burns on their feet. Kirk says they must leave, but Sevrin runs from the shuttle, bites into one of the fruits, and dies. Back on the *Enterprise*, Irina comes to the bridge to say goodbye to Chekov. Spock advises her and her friends not to give up their search for Eden, as he believes they will either find it, or create one for themselves.
[ "Plot\n----", "The [Federation](/wiki/United_Federation_of_Planets \"United Federation of Planets\") [starship](/wiki/Starship \"Starship\") *[Enterprise](/wiki/USS_Enterprise_%28NCC-1701%29 \"USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)\")* is in pursuit of the stolen space cruiser *Aurora*. In trying to escape, the *Aurora* overloads its engines and its six passengers are safely beamed aboard the *Enterprise* just as the *Aurora* explodes. The group consists of Tongo Rad, son of the Catullan [ambassador](/wiki/Ambassador \"Ambassador\"); Irina Galliulin, an acquaintance of Ensign [Chekov](/wiki/Pavel_Chekov \"Pavel Chekov\"); Dr. Sevrin, a noted electronics, acoustics, and communications researcher; Adam, a musician; and two other women.", "In responses to Kirk's questions, Dr. Sevrin says their destination is the planet \"Eden\", which Kirk responds is a [myth](/wiki/Myth \"Myth\"). The group refuses to co\\-operate with Kirk, but are impressed by First Officer [Spock](/wiki/Spock \"Spock\"), who is familiar with their [social movement](/wiki/Social_movement \"Social movement\"). They are persuaded to go to [Sickbay](/wiki/Sickbay \"Sickbay\") for a [medical examination](/wiki/Physical_examination \"Physical examination\") which reveals the party to be in good health, except for Sevrin, who is an [asymptomatic carrier](/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier \"Asymptomatic carrier\") of a [bacterium](/wiki/Bacteria \"Bacteria\"). Sevrin is [quarantined](/wiki/Quarantine \"Quarantine\") in the [brig](/wiki/Military_prison \"Military prison\"). He admits to being aware of this, and believes it to be a product of artificial environments, and tells Spock that the planet Eden will somehow \"cleanse\" him. Spock attempts to reason with Sevrin and offers to help him find Eden in exchange for his cooperation, but concludes that Sevrin is not [sane](/wiki/Insanity \"Insanity\").", "The rest of the group plan to take over the ship. After putting on a music concert including Spock, during which Rad frees Sevrin, the group takes over Auxiliary Control and puts the *Enterprise* on course for Eden. On arrival at the planet, Sevrin renders all *Enterprise* crew unconscious with an [ultrasonic frequency](/wiki/Ultrasound \"Ultrasound\") broadcast through the intercom.", "When the crew regain consciousness, they discover that Sevrin and his followers have stolen a shuttlecraft.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.startrek.com/legacy\\_media/images/200303/tos\\-075\\-the\\-galileo\\-ii\\-on\\-a\\-pl/320x240\\.jpg \\|title\\=''Galileo II'' on \"Eden\" \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103001653/http://www.startrek.com/legacy\\_media/images/200303/tos\\-075\\-the\\-galileo\\-ii\\-on\\-a\\-pl/320x240\\.jpg \\|archive\\-date\\=January 3, 2019 }} Kirk deactivates Sevrin's sonic device, and then joins Spock, Chief Medical Officer [Dr. McCoy](/wiki/Leonard_McCoy \"Leonard McCoy\"), and Chekov in a search for the group.", "The planet surface is lush and beautiful. However, all the plant life secretes a powerful [acid](/wiki/Acid \"Acid\"), as Chekov discovers when he touches a flower. The team soon finds Adam, lying dead from [poisonous](/wiki/Poison \"Poison\") fruit. Sevrin and the other survivors are then found in the shuttlecraft, all with chemical burns on their feet. Kirk says they must leave, but Sevrin runs from the shuttle, bites into one of the fruits, and dies.", "Back on the *Enterprise*, Irina comes to the bridge to say goodbye to Chekov. Spock advises her and her friends not to give up their search for Eden, as he believes they will either find it, or create one for themselves.", "" ]
Communal facilities ------------------- ### Victoria Park Victoria Park is an open space beside the Mersey, with a modern sports stadium and a skateboard park. It contains a large Georgian manor house, previously the Old Warps maternity hospital, subsequently converted into flats. Nearby is a narrow Victorian suspension bridge, Howley Bridge, which provides pedestrian access between Howley and Latchford. Victoria Park is on the site of the Old Warps Estate. In 1897 the local council bought the estate from the owners and converted it into a park to provide an amenity for the local working\-class people of the terraced housing of industrial Latchford. To mark the Diamond Jubilee of [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom "Victoria of the United Kingdom") the park was named "Victoria Park". The Georgian manor house "Old Warps" still stands and has been converted to a restaurant. Before work on the Mersey commenced{{clarify\|date\=April 2012}}, Victoria Park was under{{clarify\|date\=April 2012}} the [River Mersey](/wiki/River_Mersey "River Mersey"), in an area that was considered dangerous by even the most experienced seamen. In 1724 various new [weirs](/wiki/Weir "Weir") were built along the course of the River Mersey due to its often treacherous nature. The course of the Mersey was then altered and the land was converted into the Old Warps Estate. A weir was built and is still monitored 24 hours a day by a "weir man" from a wooden building situated about the weir, which is the tidal limit of the Mersey. The Mersey is so improved now that salmon and trout are often seen, as are herons, kingfishers and cormorants, especially in the wide pool on the river bend below the weir. Access to [Howley](/wiki/Howley%2C_Warrington "Howley, Warrington") is provided by a [suspension bridge](/wiki/Howley_Bridge "Howley Bridge") for pedestrians, recently renovated by Warrington Borough Council. Victoria Park has a large [running track](/wiki/Running_track "Running track") which is the home of Warrington Athletic Club, and has [bowling](/wiki/Bowls "Bowls") greens, a [skate\-park](/wiki/Skatepark "Skatepark") and various other leisure facilities. A 5 km run against the clock is organised by the group [Parkrun](/wiki/Parkrun "Parkrun") most Saturday mornings.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.parkrun.org.uk/warrington/ \|title\=Warrington Parkrun \|work\=Parkrun information \|publisher\=Prkrun Warrington \|access\-date\=12 June 2015}} Old Manor Lock marks the northern end of the park. Victoria Park has also been used for the past 2 years for a new festival called Neighbourhood Weekender, which is an extended, larger version of the Neighbourhood inner\-city festival in Manchester, and has taken place on May bank holiday, in 2018 and 2019\. ### Black Bear Park [Black Bear Canal](/wiki/Runcorn_to_Latchford_Canal "Runcorn to Latchford Canal"), now infilled and used as Black Bear Park, once ran from docks on the Manchester Ship Canal near Wilderspool Causeway (to the west of Latchford) to the Mersey at Manor Lock in Howley, providing a shortcut for shipping, avoiding a large river bend and weir. In 1804, an eight\-mile long canal was built between Latchford and [Runcorn](/wiki/Runcorn "Runcorn"). It was named the Old Quay Canal. Once the [Manchester Ship Canal](/wiki/Manchester_Ship_Canal "Manchester Ship Canal") was dug, in the 1890s, it was shortened to one mile, from [Stockton Heath](/wiki/Stockton_Heath "Stockton Heath") to the [River Mersey](/wiki/River_Mersey "River Mersey"), at Manor Lock. It was renamed the Black Bear Canal. The Black Bear Canal remained in use for the transport of South American hides to tanneries, until the 1960s, when it fell into disuse. [Warrington Borough Council](/wiki/Warrington_Borough_Council "Warrington Borough Council") bought the land. After a local boy drowned in the late 1960s, it was converted in 1981 into a parkland forming a line from [Victoria Park](/wiki/Victoria_Park_%28Warrington%29 "Victoria Park (Warrington)") and the banks of the [River Mersey](/wiki/River_Mersey "River Mersey"), through to [Stockton Heath](/wiki/Stockton_Heath "Stockton Heath"). The park also forms a part of the [Trans Pennine Trail](/wiki/Trans_Pennine_Trail "Trans Pennine Trail").
[ "Communal facilities\n-------------------", "### Victoria Park", "Victoria Park is an open space beside the Mersey, with a modern sports stadium and a skateboard park. It contains a large Georgian manor house, previously the Old Warps maternity hospital, subsequently converted into flats. Nearby is a narrow Victorian suspension bridge, Howley Bridge, which provides pedestrian access between Howley and Latchford.", "Victoria Park is on the site of the Old Warps Estate. In 1897 the local council bought the estate from the owners and converted it into a park to provide an amenity for the local working\\-class people of the terraced housing of industrial Latchford. To mark the Diamond Jubilee of [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Victoria of the United Kingdom\") the park was named \"Victoria Park\". The Georgian manor house \"Old Warps\" still stands and has been converted to a restaurant.", "Before work on the Mersey commenced{{clarify\\|date\\=April 2012}}, Victoria Park was under{{clarify\\|date\\=April 2012}} the [River Mersey](/wiki/River_Mersey \"River Mersey\"), in an area that was considered dangerous by even the most experienced seamen. In 1724 various new [weirs](/wiki/Weir \"Weir\") were built along the course of the River Mersey due to its often treacherous nature. The course of the Mersey was then altered and the land was converted into the Old Warps Estate. A weir was built and is still monitored 24 hours a day by a \"weir man\" from a wooden building situated about the weir, which is the tidal limit of the Mersey. The Mersey is so improved now that salmon and trout are often seen, as are herons, kingfishers and cormorants, especially in the wide pool on the river bend below the weir.", "Access to [Howley](/wiki/Howley%2C_Warrington \"Howley, Warrington\") is provided by a [suspension bridge](/wiki/Howley_Bridge \"Howley Bridge\") for pedestrians, recently renovated by Warrington Borough Council.", "Victoria Park has a large [running track](/wiki/Running_track \"Running track\") which is the home of Warrington Athletic Club, and has [bowling](/wiki/Bowls \"Bowls\") greens, a [skate\\-park](/wiki/Skatepark \"Skatepark\") and various other leisure facilities. A 5 km run against the clock is organised by the group [Parkrun](/wiki/Parkrun \"Parkrun\") most Saturday mornings.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.parkrun.org.uk/warrington/ \\|title\\=Warrington Parkrun \\|work\\=Parkrun information \\|publisher\\=Prkrun Warrington \\|access\\-date\\=12 June 2015}} Old Manor Lock marks the northern end of the park.", "Victoria Park has also been used for the past 2 years for a new festival called Neighbourhood Weekender, which is an extended, larger version of the Neighbourhood inner\\-city festival in Manchester, and has taken place on May bank holiday, in 2018 and 2019\\.", "### Black Bear Park", "[Black Bear Canal](/wiki/Runcorn_to_Latchford_Canal \"Runcorn to Latchford Canal\"), now infilled and used as Black Bear Park, once ran from docks on the Manchester Ship Canal near Wilderspool Causeway (to the west of Latchford) to the Mersey at Manor Lock in Howley, providing a shortcut for shipping, avoiding a large river bend and weir.", "In 1804, an eight\\-mile long canal was built between Latchford and [Runcorn](/wiki/Runcorn \"Runcorn\"). It was named the Old Quay Canal. Once the [Manchester Ship Canal](/wiki/Manchester_Ship_Canal \"Manchester Ship Canal\") was dug, in the 1890s, it was shortened to one mile, from [Stockton Heath](/wiki/Stockton_Heath \"Stockton Heath\") to the [River Mersey](/wiki/River_Mersey \"River Mersey\"), at Manor Lock. It was renamed the Black Bear Canal. The Black Bear Canal remained in use for the transport of South American hides to tanneries, until the 1960s, when it fell into disuse.", "[Warrington Borough Council](/wiki/Warrington_Borough_Council \"Warrington Borough Council\") bought the land. After a local boy drowned in the late 1960s, it was converted in 1981 into a parkland forming a line from [Victoria Park](/wiki/Victoria_Park_%28Warrington%29 \"Victoria Park (Warrington)\") and the banks of the [River Mersey](/wiki/River_Mersey \"River Mersey\"), through to [Stockton Heath](/wiki/Stockton_Heath \"Stockton Heath\"). The park also forms a part of the [Trans Pennine Trail](/wiki/Trans_Pennine_Trail \"Trans Pennine Trail\").", "" ]
### Victoria Park Victoria Park is an open space beside the Mersey, with a modern sports stadium and a skateboard park. It contains a large Georgian manor house, previously the Old Warps maternity hospital, subsequently converted into flats. Nearby is a narrow Victorian suspension bridge, Howley Bridge, which provides pedestrian access between Howley and Latchford. Victoria Park is on the site of the Old Warps Estate. In 1897 the local council bought the estate from the owners and converted it into a park to provide an amenity for the local working\-class people of the terraced housing of industrial Latchford. To mark the Diamond Jubilee of [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom "Victoria of the United Kingdom") the park was named "Victoria Park". The Georgian manor house "Old Warps" still stands and has been converted to a restaurant. Before work on the Mersey commenced{{clarify\|date\=April 2012}}, Victoria Park was under{{clarify\|date\=April 2012}} the [River Mersey](/wiki/River_Mersey "River Mersey"), in an area that was considered dangerous by even the most experienced seamen. In 1724 various new [weirs](/wiki/Weir "Weir") were built along the course of the River Mersey due to its often treacherous nature. The course of the Mersey was then altered and the land was converted into the Old Warps Estate. A weir was built and is still monitored 24 hours a day by a "weir man" from a wooden building situated about the weir, which is the tidal limit of the Mersey. The Mersey is so improved now that salmon and trout are often seen, as are herons, kingfishers and cormorants, especially in the wide pool on the river bend below the weir. Access to [Howley](/wiki/Howley%2C_Warrington "Howley, Warrington") is provided by a [suspension bridge](/wiki/Howley_Bridge "Howley Bridge") for pedestrians, recently renovated by Warrington Borough Council. Victoria Park has a large [running track](/wiki/Running_track "Running track") which is the home of Warrington Athletic Club, and has [bowling](/wiki/Bowls "Bowls") greens, a [skate\-park](/wiki/Skatepark "Skatepark") and various other leisure facilities. A 5 km run against the clock is organised by the group [Parkrun](/wiki/Parkrun "Parkrun") most Saturday mornings.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.parkrun.org.uk/warrington/ \|title\=Warrington Parkrun \|work\=Parkrun information \|publisher\=Prkrun Warrington \|access\-date\=12 June 2015}} Old Manor Lock marks the northern end of the park. Victoria Park has also been used for the past 2 years for a new festival called Neighbourhood Weekender, which is an extended, larger version of the Neighbourhood inner\-city festival in Manchester, and has taken place on May bank holiday, in 2018 and 2019\.
[ "### Victoria Park", "Victoria Park is an open space beside the Mersey, with a modern sports stadium and a skateboard park. It contains a large Georgian manor house, previously the Old Warps maternity hospital, subsequently converted into flats. Nearby is a narrow Victorian suspension bridge, Howley Bridge, which provides pedestrian access between Howley and Latchford.", "Victoria Park is on the site of the Old Warps Estate. In 1897 the local council bought the estate from the owners and converted it into a park to provide an amenity for the local working\\-class people of the terraced housing of industrial Latchford. To mark the Diamond Jubilee of [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Victoria of the United Kingdom\") the park was named \"Victoria Park\". The Georgian manor house \"Old Warps\" still stands and has been converted to a restaurant.", "Before work on the Mersey commenced{{clarify\\|date\\=April 2012}}, Victoria Park was under{{clarify\\|date\\=April 2012}} the [River Mersey](/wiki/River_Mersey \"River Mersey\"), in an area that was considered dangerous by even the most experienced seamen. In 1724 various new [weirs](/wiki/Weir \"Weir\") were built along the course of the River Mersey due to its often treacherous nature. The course of the Mersey was then altered and the land was converted into the Old Warps Estate. A weir was built and is still monitored 24 hours a day by a \"weir man\" from a wooden building situated about the weir, which is the tidal limit of the Mersey. The Mersey is so improved now that salmon and trout are often seen, as are herons, kingfishers and cormorants, especially in the wide pool on the river bend below the weir.", "Access to [Howley](/wiki/Howley%2C_Warrington \"Howley, Warrington\") is provided by a [suspension bridge](/wiki/Howley_Bridge \"Howley Bridge\") for pedestrians, recently renovated by Warrington Borough Council.", "Victoria Park has a large [running track](/wiki/Running_track \"Running track\") which is the home of Warrington Athletic Club, and has [bowling](/wiki/Bowls \"Bowls\") greens, a [skate\\-park](/wiki/Skatepark \"Skatepark\") and various other leisure facilities. A 5 km run against the clock is organised by the group [Parkrun](/wiki/Parkrun \"Parkrun\") most Saturday mornings.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.parkrun.org.uk/warrington/ \\|title\\=Warrington Parkrun \\|work\\=Parkrun information \\|publisher\\=Prkrun Warrington \\|access\\-date\\=12 June 2015}} Old Manor Lock marks the northern end of the park.", "Victoria Park has also been used for the past 2 years for a new festival called Neighbourhood Weekender, which is an extended, larger version of the Neighbourhood inner\\-city festival in Manchester, and has taken place on May bank holiday, in 2018 and 2019\\.", "" ]
Plot ---- In 2021, society is driven by a virtual Internet, which has created a degenerative effect called "nerve attenuation syndrome" or NAS. Megacorporations control much of the world, intensifying the class hostility already created by NAS. Johnny is a "mnemonic courier" who discreetly transports sensitive data for corporations in a storage device implanted in his brain at the cost of his childhood memories. His current job is for a group of scientists in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"). Johnny initially balks when he learns the data exceeds his memory capacity even with compression, but he agrees given the large fee will cover the cost of the operation to remove the device. Johnny keeps it secret that he is overloaded; he must have the data extracted within a few days or suffer fatal brain damage and corrupt the data. The scientists encrypt the data with three random images from a television feed. As they transmit these images to the receiver in [Newark, New Jersey](/wiki/Newark%2C_New_Jersey "Newark, New Jersey"), they are attacked and killed by yakuza led by Shinji, who wields a laser whip. Johnny battles the yakuza, grabs a fragment of the encryption key images, and escapes. Shinji reports his failure to his superior, Takahashi. Their conversation reveals the yakuza are working on behalf of Pharmakom, a megacorporation. Johnny witnesses brief projections of a female [artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence "Artificial intelligence") who attempts to aid him, but he dismisses her. In Newark, Johnny meets with his handler Ralfi, who betrays him. Johnny is rescued from the yakuza by Jane, a cybernetically\-enhanced bodyguard; members of the Lo\-Teks, an anti\-establishment group; and the Lo\-Teks' leader, J\-Bone. Ralfi is sliced into pieces when he gets in Shinji's way. Jane takes Johnny to Spider, the doctor who installed Jane's implants. At a clinic, Spider reveals his [medical charity](/wiki/Medical_charity "Medical charity") was intended to receive the Beijing scientists' data, which is a stolen cure for NAS. Spider claims Pharmakom refuses to release the cure because they are profiting off mitigation treatments. The portion of the encryption images Johnny took plus the piece Spider received are insufficient to decrypt Johnny's mind, so Spider suggests they see Jones at the Lo\-Teks' base. Suddenly, an assassin hired by Takahashi known as "The Street Preacher" attacks them, killing Spider as Johnny and Jane escape. The two reach the Lo\-Tek base and learn from J\-Bone that Jones is a dolphin once used by the [Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") that can help decrypt Johnny's payload. As they start the procedure, Shinji and the yakuza attack the base. Takahashi appears and confronts Johnny, holding him at gunpoint, before Shinji, in a surprise betrayal, shoots Takahashi. Johnny and Shinji fight, culminating with Johnny killing Shinji. Before he dies, Takahashi has a change of heart and turns over a portion of the encryption key to Johnny. This still is not enough to fully decrypt the data. J\-Bone tells Johnny that he will need to hack his own mind with Jones' help. Johnny, Jane, J\-Bone and the Lo\-Teks defeat the remaining forces sent after them. The Street Preacher arrives, and, after a fight, is electrocuted to death by Johnny and Jane. The second attempt starts, and aided by the female AI, Johnny decrypts the data and simultaneously recovers his childhood memories. The AI is revealed to be a virtual version of Johnny's mother, who founded Pharmakom and was angered by the company's actions. As J\-Bone transmits the NAS cure information across the internet via [pirate broadcasts](/wiki/Pirate_broadcast "Pirate broadcast"), Johnny and Jane watch from afar as the Pharmakom headquarters goes up in flames from the public outcry. In celebration, J\-Bone disposes of the Street Preacher's burnt corpse by tossing it into the waters of Newark.
[ "Plot\n----", "In 2021, society is driven by a virtual Internet, which has created a degenerative effect called \"nerve attenuation syndrome\" or NAS. Megacorporations control much of the world, intensifying the class hostility already created by NAS.", "Johnny is a \"mnemonic courier\" who discreetly transports sensitive data for corporations in a storage device implanted in his brain at the cost of his childhood memories. His current job is for a group of scientists in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"). Johnny initially balks when he learns the data exceeds his memory capacity even with compression, but he agrees given the large fee will cover the cost of the operation to remove the device. Johnny keeps it secret that he is overloaded; he must have the data extracted within a few days or suffer fatal brain damage and corrupt the data. The scientists encrypt the data with three random images from a television feed. As they transmit these images to the receiver in [Newark, New Jersey](/wiki/Newark%2C_New_Jersey \"Newark, New Jersey\"), they are attacked and killed by yakuza led by Shinji, who wields a laser whip. Johnny battles the yakuza, grabs a fragment of the encryption key images, and escapes. Shinji reports his failure to his superior, Takahashi. Their conversation reveals the yakuza are working on behalf of Pharmakom, a megacorporation. Johnny witnesses brief projections of a female [artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence \"Artificial intelligence\") who attempts to aid him, but he dismisses her.", "In Newark, Johnny meets with his handler Ralfi, who betrays him. Johnny is rescued from the yakuza by Jane, a cybernetically\\-enhanced bodyguard; members of the Lo\\-Teks, an anti\\-establishment group; and the Lo\\-Teks' leader, J\\-Bone. Ralfi is sliced into pieces when he gets in Shinji's way. Jane takes Johnny to Spider, the doctor who installed Jane's implants. At a clinic, Spider reveals his [medical charity](/wiki/Medical_charity \"Medical charity\") was intended to receive the Beijing scientists' data, which is a stolen cure for NAS. Spider claims Pharmakom refuses to release the cure because they are profiting off mitigation treatments. The portion of the encryption images Johnny took plus the piece Spider received are insufficient to decrypt Johnny's mind, so Spider suggests they see Jones at the Lo\\-Teks' base. Suddenly, an assassin hired by Takahashi known as \"The Street Preacher\" attacks them, killing Spider as Johnny and Jane escape.", "The two reach the Lo\\-Tek base and learn from J\\-Bone that Jones is a dolphin once used by the [Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") that can help decrypt Johnny's payload. As they start the procedure, Shinji and the yakuza attack the base. Takahashi appears and confronts Johnny, holding him at gunpoint, before Shinji, in a surprise betrayal, shoots Takahashi. Johnny and Shinji fight, culminating with Johnny killing Shinji. Before he dies, Takahashi has a change of heart and turns over a portion of the encryption key to Johnny. This still is not enough to fully decrypt the data. J\\-Bone tells Johnny that he will need to hack his own mind with Jones' help. Johnny, Jane, J\\-Bone and the Lo\\-Teks defeat the remaining forces sent after them. The Street Preacher arrives, and, after a fight, is electrocuted to death by Johnny and Jane.", "The second attempt starts, and aided by the female AI, Johnny decrypts the data and simultaneously recovers his childhood memories. The AI is revealed to be a virtual version of Johnny's mother, who founded Pharmakom and was angered by the company's actions. As J\\-Bone transmits the NAS cure information across the internet via [pirate broadcasts](/wiki/Pirate_broadcast \"Pirate broadcast\"), Johnny and Jane watch from afar as the Pharmakom headquarters goes up in flames from the public outcry. In celebration, J\\-Bone disposes of the Street Preacher's burnt corpse by tossing it into the waters of Newark.", "" ]
Production ---------- ### Development In the 1980s, director Robert Longo was known primarily for his artwork, including "Men in the Cities", a series of images meant to be viewed sequentially. After having been influenced by film, he transitioned to directing music videos and, when he tired of that, became interested in adapting William Gibson's *Johnny Mnemonic*.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1992\-06\-27\-ca\-971\-story.html\|title\=An Artist Is Now a Director : Longo Hopes ''Crypt'' Opens Film Career\|last\=McKenna\|first\=Kristine\|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|date\=1992\-06\-27\|accessdate\=2023\-04\-16\|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-20\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420072015/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1992\-06\-27\-ca\-971\-story.html\|url\-status\=live}} Longo and Gibson first started work on a screenplay in 1989\.{{cite book\|title\=Conversations with William Gibson\|editor\-last\=Smith\|editor\-first\=Patrick A.\|chapter\=William Gibson Interview, Giuseppe Salza / 1994\|last\=Salza\|first\=Giuseppe\|publisher\=\[\[University Press of Mississippi]]\|year\=2014\|isbn\=978\-1\-62846\-016\-2\|page\=\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=hAAbBwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT80\|access\-date\=2023\-07\-10}} Longo's first attempt to finance the film was through [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. "Warner Bros.") in 1990\. [Bob Krasnow](/wiki/Bob_Krasnow "Bob Krasnow") liked Longo's short film, *[Arena Brains](/wiki/Arena_Brains "Arena Brains")*, and offered to finance a feature film. Before pre\-production could begin, Warner Bros. merged with [Time Inc.](/wiki/Time_Inc. "Time Inc."), and the film was put on hold. Recognizing the film was unlikely to be produced, Krasnow let Longo out of his contract. Longo nearly gave up on getting *Johnny Mnemonic* made but continued to make contacts in Hollywood. Longo and Gibson sought to sell *Johnny Mnemonic* as an [art film](/wiki/Art_film "Art film") on a small budget but failed to get financing from the studios. Gibson said they wanted to avoid flashy, [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV")\-inspired visuals and "plunge the audience into a very strange but consistent universe". Longo commented that the project "started out as an arty 1½\-million\-dollar movie, and it became a 30\-million\-dollar movie because we couldn't get a million and a half." Longo's lawyer suggested that their problem was that they were not asking for enough money and that studios would not be interested in such a small project.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/22/business/on\-line\-with\-william\-gibson\-present\-at\-the\-creation\-startled\-at\-the\-reality.html\|title\=ON LINE WITH William Gibson; Present at the Creation, Startled at the Reality\|last\=Lewis\|first\=Peter H.\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=May 22, 1995\|accessdate\=February 5, 2022\|archive\-date\=February 5, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205225049/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/22/business/on\-line\-with\-william\-gibson\-present\-at\-the\-creation\-startled\-at\-the\-reality.html\|url\-status\=live}} Studios were also concerned that Longo's artistic background would impact his ability to make a commercially viable film.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1995\-05\-21\-ca\-4082\-story.html\|title\=It's Just Art on a Big Screen : How did a New York artist land $27 million and star Keanu Reeves to make his very first Hollywood movie? Robert Longo says it's just that he always wanted to direct.\|last\=McKenna\|first\=Kristine\|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|date\=1995\-05\-21\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416172135/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1995\-05\-21\-ca\-4082\-story.html \|accessdate\=2023\-04\-16\|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-16 }} The unbounded spread of the Internet in the early 1990s and the consequent rapid growth of high technology culture had made cyberpunk increasingly relevant, and this was a primary motivation for Sony Pictures's decision to fund the project in the tens of millions. [Val Kilmer](/wiki/Val_Kilmer "Val Kilmer") was originally cast in the title role, and Reeves replaced him when Kilmer dropped out.{{cite magazine\|url\=https://ew.com/article/1995/06/23/johnny\-mnemonic\-faced\-financial\-woes/\|title\=''Johnny Mnemonic'' faced financial woes\|last\=Nashawaty\|first\=Chris\|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]]\|date\=June 23, 1995\|accessdate\=February 5, 2022\|archive\-date\=February 17, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217051604/https://ew.com/article/1995/06/23/johnny\-mnemonic\-faced\-financial\-woes/\|url\-status\=live}} Gibson approved of this casting and said Reeves understood the character well. Reeves' Canadian nationality opened up further financial options, such as Canadian tax incentives. In Canada, Longo discovered he had to maintain Canadian crew quotas. [Michael Chapman](/wiki/Michael_Chapman_%28cinematographer%29 "Michael Chapman (cinematographer)") had agreed to shoot the film, but Longo had to hire a Canadian cinematographer instead.{{cite web\|url\=https://sova.si.edu/record/AAA.longo09?s\=3140\&n\=10\&t\=C\&q\=AT\+\&i\=3140\|title\=Oral history interview with Robert Longo\|last\=Olch\|first\=Judith\|work\=\[\[Smithsonian Institution]]\|date\=January 30, 2009\|accessdate\=April 15, 2023\|archive\-date\=April 15, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415054918/https://sova.si.edu/record/AAA.longo09?s\=3140\&n\=10\&t\=C\&q\=AT\+\&i\=3140\|url\-status\=live}} ### Pre\-production When Reeves' previous film, *[Speed](/wiki/Speed_%281994_film%29 "Speed (1994 film)")*, turned into a major hit in 1994, expectations were raised for *Johnny Mnemonic*, and Sony saw the film as a potential blockbuster hit.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cnet.com/news/hackers\-25\-johnny\-mnemonic\-when\-hollywood\-got\-into\-the\-internet/\|title\=Before The Matrix, Johnny Mnemonic and Hackers led the internet movies of the '90s\|last\=Trenholm\|first\=Richard\|work\=\[\[CNET]]\|date\=December 22, 2021\|accessdate\=February 5, 2022\|archive\-date\=February 5, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205225050/https://www.cnet.com/news/hackers\-25\-johnny\-mnemonic\-when\-hollywood\-got\-into\-the\-internet/\|url\-status\=live}} Gibson said Sony executives began pressing them about whether their film had busses or explosions, critical elements of *Speed*.{{cite book\|title\=Conversations with William Gibson\|editor\-last\=Smith\|editor\-first\=Patrick A.\|chapter\=William Gibson Interview, Andy Diggle / 1997\|last\=Diggle\|first\=Andy\|publisher\=\[\[University Press of Mississippi]]\|year\=2014\|isbn\=978\-1\-62846\-016\-2\|page\=}} Longo's experiences with the financiers were poor, believing that their demands compromised his artistic vision. Many of the casting decisions, such as Lundgren, were forced upon Longo to increase the film's appeal outside of the United States. Longo and Gibson, who had no idea what to do with Lundgren, created a new character for him.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general\-news/director\-robert\-longo\-ruefully\-recalls\-895471/\|title\=Director Robert Longo Ruefully Recalls ''Johnny Mnemonic'': 'I Had Post\-Traumatic Stress From That Movie'\|last\=Riefe\|first\=Jordan\|work\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]]\|date\=May 18, 2016\|accessdate\=February 5, 2022\|archive\-date\=April 14, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414033718/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general\-news/director\-robert\-longo\-ruefully\-recalls\-895471/\|url\-status\=live}} Lundgren had previously starred in several action films that emphasized his physique. He intended the role of the street preacher to be a showcase for further range as an actor, but his character's monologue was cut during editing.{{cite magazine\|url\=https://ew.com/article/1995/06/16/dolph\-lundgren\-wants\-show\-hes\-serious\-actor/\|title\=Dolph Lundgren wants to show he's a serious actor\|last\=Pinsker\|first\=Beth\|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]]\|date\=June 16, 1995\|accessdate\=February 5, 2022\|archive\-date\=February 5, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205225052/https://ew.com/article/1995/06/16/dolph\-lundgren\-wants\-show\-hes\-serious\-actor/\|url\-status\=live}} Gibson said that the monologue, a sermon about [transhumanism](/wiki/Transhumanism "Transhumanism") that Lundgren delivered naked, was cut due to fears of offending religious groups.{{cite book\|title\=William Gibson: A Literary Companion\|last\=Henthorne\|first\=Tom\|date\=15 June 2011\|publisher\=\[\[McFarland \& Company]]\|isbn\=978\-0\-7864\-6151\-6\|pages\=77–78\|url\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/William\_Gibson/qDrfRE6PspwC\&pg\=PA77}} Kitano was cast to appeal to the Japanese market. Rollins, who is uninterested in science fiction, joined the cast because he liked the film's focus on an upcoming disadvantaged underclass. The film significantly deviates from the short story, such as turning Johnny, not his bodyguard, into the primary action figure. [Molly Millions](/wiki/Molly_Millions "Molly Millions") is replaced with Jane, as the film rights to Molly had already been sold. Gibson did not want Molly in the film, though, and thought it would be best to reserve her for a different franchise.{{cite web\|url\=http://legacy.aintitcool.com/node/5140\|title\=Alexandra DuPont Interviews William 'Freakin' Gibson!!!!\|work\=\[\[Ain't It Cool News]]\|date\=February 3, 2000\|accessdate\=April 15, 2023\|archive\-date\=April 18, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418144836/http://legacy.aintitcool.com/node/5140\|url\-status\=live}} Nerve attenuation syndrome (NAS) is a [fictional disease](/wiki/Fictional_disease "Fictional disease") that is not present in the short story. NAS, also called "the black shakes", is caused by an overexposure to electromagnetic radiation from omnipresent technological devices and is presented as a raging [epidemic](/wiki/Epidemic "Epidemic"). In the film, one pharmaceutical corporation has found a cure but chooses to withhold it from the public in favor of a more lucrative treatment program.{{cite magazine \| url\=https://www.wired.com/story/2021\-conspiracies\-johnny\-mnemonic/ \| title\=2021 and the Conspiracies of Johnny Mnemonic \| magazine\=\[\[Wired (magazine)\|Wired]] \| date\=January 11, 2021 \| first\=Jason \| last\=Kehe \| access\-date\=November 20, 2021 \| archive\-date\=September 23, 2021 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923164000/https://www.wired.com/story/2021\-conspiracies\-johnny\-mnemonic/ \| url\-status\=live }} References to Jones the dolphin's heroin addiction was one of many plot elements cut during editing. ### Filming and post\-production Shooting took place in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto"), where Longo temporarily moved his family, and Montreal. The studio continued to challenge Gibson and Longo on the script through [principal photography](/wiki/Principal_photography "Principal photography"), making some of the shooting both tense and confusing. The script was meant to be a commentary on science fiction films and how they are made,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.vice.com/en/article/bn5k5m/william\-gibson\-interview\-399\|title\=William Gibson Talks Cyberpunk, Cyberspace, and His Experiences in Hollywood\|last\=Walsh\|first\=Joseph\|work\=\[\[Vice (magazine)\|Vice]]\|date\=December 3, 2014\|accessdate\=April 14, 2023\|archive\-date\=April 15, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415023634/https://www.vice.com/en/article/bn5k5m/william\-gibson\-interview\-399\|url\-status\=live}} and the action sequences were meant to be ironic and reminiscent of scenes that Gibson and Longo enjoyed in [B movies](/wiki/B_movie "B movie"). Gibson and Longo had instructed Reeves not to play the character straight. For his part, Reeves said he played the character "very robotic and rigid", which he found exhausting.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1994\-06\-05\-ca\-647\-story.html\|title\=Movies : Keanu's Eccentric Adventure : From stoner dude to computer brain, 29\-year\-old Keanu Reeves has racked up 16 films during his eight hard\-working years of acting, and emerged almost untarnished by the corrosive glitter of Hollywood\|last\=McKenna\|first\=Kristine\|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|date\=1994\-06\-05\|accessdate\=2023\-04\-16\|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-17\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417003351/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1994\-06\-05\-ca\-647\-story.html\|url\-status\=live}} Reeves' suit and tie are a reference to "Men in the Cities". When Johnny cries out for room service, this was a reflection of Longo's frustration, and has also been identified as a reference to "Men in the Cities".{{cite book\|title\=Tech\-noir Film: A Theory of the Development of Popular Genres\|last\=Auger\|first\=Emily E.\|publisher\=Intellect Books\|year\=2011\|isbn\=978\-1\-84150\-424\-7\|page\=336}} The ending, where the Street Preacher appears to revive, was forced on Longo, but he refused to shoot the scene straight, as requested. The studio approved of his version nonetheless. Eight minutes of extra footage starring Kitano was shot for the Japanese release of the film. Gibson said that the film was "taken away and re\-cut by the American distributor" during post\-production. He described the original film as "a very funny, very alternative piece of work", and said it was "very unsuccessfully chopped and cut into something more mainstream". Gibson compared this to editing *[Blue Velvet](/wiki/Blue_Velvet_%28film%29 "Blue Velvet (film)")* into a mainstream thriller lacking any irony. Their editor, [Ronald Sanders](/wiki/Ronald_Sanders_%28film_editor%29 "Ronald Sanders (film editor)"), was replaced by someone that Longo said did not understand the film.{{cite news\|last\=Dahl\|first\=Patrick\|title\=Johnny Mnemonic in Black\-and\-White: Robert Longo Interview\|url\=https://www.screenslate.com/articles/johnny\-mnemonic\-black\-and\-white\-robert\-longo\-interview\|work\=Screenslate\|date\=10 June 2021\|access\-date\=1 October 2022\|archive\-date\=23 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323125458/https://www.screenslate.com/articles/johnny\-mnemonic\-black\-and\-white\-robert\-longo\-interview\|url\-status\=live}} Prior to its release, critic [Amy Harmon](/wiki/Amy_Harmon "Amy Harmon") identified the film as an epochal moment when cyberpunk counterculture would enter the mainstream. News of the script's compromises spurred pre\-release concerns that the film would prove a disappointment to hardcore cyberpunks. Gibson said he and Longo were in denial at first and believed the film might still be true to their vision. Gibson did not blame anyone for the recut, though, reasoning that the film had been financed with their money. Despite claims made on the internet, the Japanese cut of the film is no closer to a [director's cut](/wiki/Director%27s_cut "Director's cut"), and Longo has said that no director's cut exists. The score was composed by [Brad Fiedel](/wiki/Brad_Fiedel "Brad Fiedel"). Before Sony's involvement, [Black Rain](/wiki/Black_Rain_%28band%29 "Black Rain (band)") composed a soundtrack. Black Rain had previously provided music for a Gibson audiobook and worked with Longo. Because no shooting had occurred yet, the band composed songs inspired by the original short story. Once Sony became involved, the soundtrack was replaced with Sony artists, such as [Stabbing Westward](/wiki/Stabbing_Westward "Stabbing Westward").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.spin.com/2012/04/lost\-johnny\-mnemonic\-soundtrack\-unearthed/\|title\=''Lost ''Johnny Mnemonic'' Soundtrack Unearthed''!\|last\=Sherburne\|first\=Philip\|work\=\[\[Spin (magazine)\|Spin]]\|date\=2012\-04\-19\|accessdate\=2023\-04\-15\|archive\-date\=2023\-04\-19\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419141022/https://www.spin.com/2012/04/lost\-johnny\-mnemonic\-soundtrack\-unearthed/\|url\-status\=live}}
[ "Production\n----------", "### Development", "In the 1980s, director Robert Longo was known primarily for his artwork, including \"Men in the Cities\", a series of images meant to be viewed sequentially. After having been influenced by film, he transitioned to directing music videos and, when he tired of that, became interested in adapting William Gibson's *Johnny Mnemonic*.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1992\\-06\\-27\\-ca\\-971\\-story.html\\|title\\=An Artist Is Now a Director : Longo Hopes ''Crypt'' Opens Film Career\\|last\\=McKenna\\|first\\=Kristine\\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|date\\=1992\\-06\\-27\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-04\\-16\\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-20\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420072015/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1992\\-06\\-27\\-ca\\-971\\-story.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Longo and Gibson first started work on a screenplay in 1989\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=Conversations with William Gibson\\|editor\\-last\\=Smith\\|editor\\-first\\=Patrick A.\\|chapter\\=William Gibson Interview, Giuseppe Salza / 1994\\|last\\=Salza\\|first\\=Giuseppe\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University Press of Mississippi]]\\|year\\=2014\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-62846\\-016\\-2\\|page\\=\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hAAbBwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT80\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-10}} Longo's first attempt to finance the film was through [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. \"Warner Bros.\") in 1990\\. [Bob Krasnow](/wiki/Bob_Krasnow \"Bob Krasnow\") liked Longo's short film, *[Arena Brains](/wiki/Arena_Brains \"Arena Brains\")*, and offered to finance a feature film. Before pre\\-production could begin, Warner Bros. merged with [Time Inc.](/wiki/Time_Inc. \"Time Inc.\"), and the film was put on hold. Recognizing the film was unlikely to be produced, Krasnow let Longo out of his contract. Longo nearly gave up on getting *Johnny Mnemonic* made but continued to make contacts in Hollywood.", "Longo and Gibson sought to sell *Johnny Mnemonic* as an [art film](/wiki/Art_film \"Art film\") on a small budget but failed to get financing from the studios. Gibson said they wanted to avoid flashy, [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\")\\-inspired visuals and \"plunge the audience into a very strange but consistent universe\". Longo commented that the project \"started out as an arty 1½\\-million\\-dollar movie, and it became a 30\\-million\\-dollar movie because we couldn't get a million and a half.\" Longo's lawyer suggested that their problem was that they were not asking for enough money and that studios would not be interested in such a small project.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/22/business/on\\-line\\-with\\-william\\-gibson\\-present\\-at\\-the\\-creation\\-startled\\-at\\-the\\-reality.html\\|title\\=ON LINE WITH William Gibson; Present at the Creation, Startled at the Reality\\|last\\=Lewis\\|first\\=Peter H.\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=May 22, 1995\\|accessdate\\=February 5, 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=February 5, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205225049/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/22/business/on\\-line\\-with\\-william\\-gibson\\-present\\-at\\-the\\-creation\\-startled\\-at\\-the\\-reality.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Studios were also concerned that Longo's artistic background would impact his ability to make a commercially viable film.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1995\\-05\\-21\\-ca\\-4082\\-story.html\\|title\\=It's Just Art on a Big Screen : How did a New York artist land $27 million and star Keanu Reeves to make his very first Hollywood movie? Robert Longo says it's just that he always wanted to direct.\\|last\\=McKenna\\|first\\=Kristine\\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|date\\=1995\\-05\\-21\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416172135/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1995\\-05\\-21\\-ca\\-4082\\-story.html \\|accessdate\\=2023\\-04\\-16\\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-16 }}", "The unbounded spread of the Internet in the early 1990s and the consequent rapid growth of high technology culture had made cyberpunk increasingly relevant, and this was a primary motivation for Sony Pictures's decision to fund the project in the tens of millions. [Val Kilmer](/wiki/Val_Kilmer \"Val Kilmer\") was originally cast in the title role, and Reeves replaced him when Kilmer dropped out.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://ew.com/article/1995/06/23/johnny\\-mnemonic\\-faced\\-financial\\-woes/\\|title\\=''Johnny Mnemonic'' faced financial woes\\|last\\=Nashawaty\\|first\\=Chris\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]]\\|date\\=June 23, 1995\\|accessdate\\=February 5, 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=February 17, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217051604/https://ew.com/article/1995/06/23/johnny\\-mnemonic\\-faced\\-financial\\-woes/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Gibson approved of this casting and said Reeves understood the character well. Reeves' Canadian nationality opened up further financial options, such as Canadian tax incentives. In Canada, Longo discovered he had to maintain Canadian crew quotas. [Michael Chapman](/wiki/Michael_Chapman_%28cinematographer%29 \"Michael Chapman (cinematographer)\") had agreed to shoot the film, but Longo had to hire a Canadian cinematographer instead.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://sova.si.edu/record/AAA.longo09?s\\=3140\\&n\\=10\\&t\\=C\\&q\\=AT\\+\\&i\\=3140\\|title\\=Oral history interview with Robert Longo\\|last\\=Olch\\|first\\=Judith\\|work\\=\\[\\[Smithsonian Institution]]\\|date\\=January 30, 2009\\|accessdate\\=April 15, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=April 15, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415054918/https://sova.si.edu/record/AAA.longo09?s\\=3140\\&n\\=10\\&t\\=C\\&q\\=AT\\+\\&i\\=3140\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Pre\\-production", "When Reeves' previous film, *[Speed](/wiki/Speed_%281994_film%29 \"Speed (1994 film)\")*, turned into a major hit in 1994, expectations were raised for *Johnny Mnemonic*, and Sony saw the film as a potential blockbuster hit.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cnet.com/news/hackers\\-25\\-johnny\\-mnemonic\\-when\\-hollywood\\-got\\-into\\-the\\-internet/\\|title\\=Before The Matrix, Johnny Mnemonic and Hackers led the internet movies of the '90s\\|last\\=Trenholm\\|first\\=Richard\\|work\\=\\[\\[CNET]]\\|date\\=December 22, 2021\\|accessdate\\=February 5, 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=February 5, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205225050/https://www.cnet.com/news/hackers\\-25\\-johnny\\-mnemonic\\-when\\-hollywood\\-got\\-into\\-the\\-internet/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Gibson said Sony executives began pressing them about whether their film had busses or explosions, critical elements of *Speed*.{{cite book\\|title\\=Conversations with William Gibson\\|editor\\-last\\=Smith\\|editor\\-first\\=Patrick A.\\|chapter\\=William Gibson Interview, Andy Diggle / 1997\\|last\\=Diggle\\|first\\=Andy\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University Press of Mississippi]]\\|year\\=2014\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-62846\\-016\\-2\\|page\\=}}", "Longo's experiences with the financiers were poor, believing that their demands compromised his artistic vision. Many of the casting decisions, such as Lundgren, were forced upon Longo to increase the film's appeal outside of the United States. Longo and Gibson, who had no idea what to do with Lundgren, created a new character for him.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general\\-news/director\\-robert\\-longo\\-ruefully\\-recalls\\-895471/\\|title\\=Director Robert Longo Ruefully Recalls ''Johnny Mnemonic'': 'I Had Post\\-Traumatic Stress From That Movie'\\|last\\=Riefe\\|first\\=Jordan\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]]\\|date\\=May 18, 2016\\|accessdate\\=February 5, 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=April 14, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414033718/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general\\-news/director\\-robert\\-longo\\-ruefully\\-recalls\\-895471/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Lundgren had previously starred in several action films that emphasized his physique. He intended the role of the street preacher to be a showcase for further range as an actor, but his character's monologue was cut during editing.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=https://ew.com/article/1995/06/16/dolph\\-lundgren\\-wants\\-show\\-hes\\-serious\\-actor/\\|title\\=Dolph Lundgren wants to show he's a serious actor\\|last\\=Pinsker\\|first\\=Beth\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]]\\|date\\=June 16, 1995\\|accessdate\\=February 5, 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=February 5, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205225052/https://ew.com/article/1995/06/16/dolph\\-lundgren\\-wants\\-show\\-hes\\-serious\\-actor/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Gibson said that the monologue, a sermon about [transhumanism](/wiki/Transhumanism \"Transhumanism\") that Lundgren delivered naked, was cut due to fears of offending religious groups.{{cite book\\|title\\=William Gibson: A Literary Companion\\|last\\=Henthorne\\|first\\=Tom\\|date\\=15 June 2011\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[McFarland \\& Company]]\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7864\\-6151\\-6\\|pages\\=77–78\\|url\\=https://www.google.com/books/edition/William\\_Gibson/qDrfRE6PspwC\\&pg\\=PA77}} Kitano was cast to appeal to the Japanese market. Rollins, who is uninterested in science fiction, joined the cast because he liked the film's focus on an upcoming disadvantaged underclass.", "The film significantly deviates from the short story, such as turning Johnny, not his bodyguard, into the primary action figure. [Molly Millions](/wiki/Molly_Millions \"Molly Millions\") is replaced with Jane, as the film rights to Molly had already been sold. Gibson did not want Molly in the film, though, and thought it would be best to reserve her for a different franchise.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://legacy.aintitcool.com/node/5140\\|title\\=Alexandra DuPont Interviews William 'Freakin' Gibson!!!!\\|work\\=\\[\\[Ain't It Cool News]]\\|date\\=February 3, 2000\\|accessdate\\=April 15, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=April 18, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418144836/http://legacy.aintitcool.com/node/5140\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Nerve attenuation syndrome (NAS) is a [fictional disease](/wiki/Fictional_disease \"Fictional disease\") that is not present in the short story. NAS, also called \"the black shakes\", is caused by an overexposure to electromagnetic radiation from omnipresent technological devices and is presented as a raging [epidemic](/wiki/Epidemic \"Epidemic\"). In the film, one pharmaceutical corporation has found a cure but chooses to withhold it from the public in favor of a more lucrative treatment program.{{cite magazine \\| url\\=https://www.wired.com/story/2021\\-conspiracies\\-johnny\\-mnemonic/ \\| title\\=2021 and the Conspiracies of Johnny Mnemonic \\| magazine\\=\\[\\[Wired (magazine)\\|Wired]] \\| date\\=January 11, 2021 \\| first\\=Jason \\| last\\=Kehe \\| access\\-date\\=November 20, 2021 \\| archive\\-date\\=September 23, 2021 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923164000/https://www.wired.com/story/2021\\-conspiracies\\-johnny\\-mnemonic/ \\| url\\-status\\=live }} References to Jones the dolphin's heroin addiction was one of many plot elements cut during editing.", "### Filming and post\\-production", "Shooting took place in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\"), where Longo temporarily moved his family, and Montreal.", "The studio continued to challenge Gibson and Longo on the script through [principal photography](/wiki/Principal_photography \"Principal photography\"), making some of the shooting both tense and confusing. The script was meant to be a commentary on science fiction films and how they are made,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.vice.com/en/article/bn5k5m/william\\-gibson\\-interview\\-399\\|title\\=William Gibson Talks Cyberpunk, Cyberspace, and His Experiences in Hollywood\\|last\\=Walsh\\|first\\=Joseph\\|work\\=\\[\\[Vice (magazine)\\|Vice]]\\|date\\=December 3, 2014\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=April 15, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415023634/https://www.vice.com/en/article/bn5k5m/william\\-gibson\\-interview\\-399\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and the action sequences were meant to be ironic and reminiscent of scenes that Gibson and Longo enjoyed in [B movies](/wiki/B_movie \"B movie\"). Gibson and Longo had instructed Reeves not to play the character straight. For his part, Reeves said he played the character \"very robotic and rigid\", which he found exhausting.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1994\\-06\\-05\\-ca\\-647\\-story.html\\|title\\=Movies : Keanu's Eccentric Adventure : From stoner dude to computer brain, 29\\-year\\-old Keanu Reeves has racked up 16 films during his eight hard\\-working years of acting, and emerged almost untarnished by the corrosive glitter of Hollywood\\|last\\=McKenna\\|first\\=Kristine\\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|date\\=1994\\-06\\-05\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-04\\-16\\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-17\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417003351/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1994\\-06\\-05\\-ca\\-647\\-story.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Reeves' suit and tie are a reference to \"Men in the Cities\". When Johnny cries out for room service, this was a reflection of Longo's frustration, and has also been identified as a reference to \"Men in the Cities\".{{cite book\\|title\\=Tech\\-noir Film: A Theory of the Development of Popular Genres\\|last\\=Auger\\|first\\=Emily E.\\|publisher\\=Intellect Books\\|year\\=2011\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-84150\\-424\\-7\\|page\\=336}} The ending, where the Street Preacher appears to revive, was forced on Longo, but he refused to shoot the scene straight, as requested. The studio approved of his version nonetheless. Eight minutes of extra footage starring Kitano was shot for the Japanese release of the film.", "Gibson said that the film was \"taken away and re\\-cut by the American distributor\" during post\\-production. He described the original film as \"a very funny, very alternative piece of work\", and said it was \"very unsuccessfully chopped and cut into something more mainstream\". Gibson compared this to editing *[Blue Velvet](/wiki/Blue_Velvet_%28film%29 \"Blue Velvet (film)\")* into a mainstream thriller lacking any irony. Their editor, [Ronald Sanders](/wiki/Ronald_Sanders_%28film_editor%29 \"Ronald Sanders (film editor)\"), was replaced by someone that Longo said did not understand the film.{{cite news\\|last\\=Dahl\\|first\\=Patrick\\|title\\=Johnny Mnemonic in Black\\-and\\-White: Robert Longo Interview\\|url\\=https://www.screenslate.com/articles/johnny\\-mnemonic\\-black\\-and\\-white\\-robert\\-longo\\-interview\\|work\\=Screenslate\\|date\\=10 June 2021\\|access\\-date\\=1 October 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323125458/https://www.screenslate.com/articles/johnny\\-mnemonic\\-black\\-and\\-white\\-robert\\-longo\\-interview\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Prior to its release, critic [Amy Harmon](/wiki/Amy_Harmon \"Amy Harmon\") identified the film as an epochal moment when cyberpunk counterculture would enter the mainstream. News of the script's compromises spurred pre\\-release concerns that the film would prove a disappointment to hardcore cyberpunks. Gibson said he and Longo were in denial at first and believed the film might still be true to their vision. Gibson did not blame anyone for the recut, though, reasoning that the film had been financed with their money. Despite claims made on the internet, the Japanese cut of the film is no closer to a [director's cut](/wiki/Director%27s_cut \"Director's cut\"), and Longo has said that no director's cut exists.", "The score was composed by [Brad Fiedel](/wiki/Brad_Fiedel \"Brad Fiedel\"). Before Sony's involvement, [Black Rain](/wiki/Black_Rain_%28band%29 \"Black Rain (band)\") composed a soundtrack. Black Rain had previously provided music for a Gibson audiobook and worked with Longo. Because no shooting had occurred yet, the band composed songs inspired by the original short story. Once Sony became involved, the soundtrack was replaced with Sony artists, such as [Stabbing Westward](/wiki/Stabbing_Westward \"Stabbing Westward\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.spin.com/2012/04/lost\\-johnny\\-mnemonic\\-soundtrack\\-unearthed/\\|title\\=''Lost ''Johnny Mnemonic'' Soundtrack Unearthed''!\\|last\\=Sherburne\\|first\\=Philip\\|work\\=\\[\\[Spin (magazine)\\|Spin]]\\|date\\=2012\\-04\\-19\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-04\\-15\\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-19\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419141022/https://www.spin.com/2012/04/lost\\-johnny\\-mnemonic\\-soundtrack\\-unearthed/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
Addenda for certain specialist vocabularies ------------------------------------------- ### Glossary of Islam {{main\|Glossary of Islam}} ### List of Arabic star names {{main\|List of Arabic star names}} ### Arabic botanical names The following plant names entered medieval Latin texts from Arabic. Today, in descent from the medieval Latin, they are international systematic classification names (commonly known as "Latin" names): ***[Azadirachta](/wiki/Azadirachta "Azadirachta"), [Berberis](/wiki/Berberis "Berberis"), [Cakile](/wiki/Cakile "Cakile"), [Carthamus](/wiki/Carthamus "Carthamus"), [Cuscuta](/wiki/Cuscuta "Cuscuta"), [Doronicum](/wiki/Doronicum "Doronicum"), [Galanga](/wiki/Galanga "Galanga"), [Musa](/wiki/Musa_%28genus%29 "Musa (genus)"), [Nuphar](/wiki/Nuphar "Nuphar"), [Ribes](/wiki/Ribes "Ribes"), [Senna](/wiki/Senna_%28plant%29 "Senna (plant)"), [Taraxacum](/wiki/Taraxacum "Taraxacum"), [Usnea](/wiki/Usnea "Usnea"),** [Physalis **alkekengi**](/wiki/Physalis_alkekengi "Physalis alkekengi"), [Melia **azedarach**](/wiki/Melia_azedarach "Melia azedarach"), [Centaurea **behen**](/wiki/Centaurea_behen "Centaurea behen"), [Terminalia **bellerica**](/wiki/Terminalia_bellerica "Terminalia bellerica"), [Terminalia **chebula**](/wiki/Terminalia_chebula "Terminalia chebula"), [Cheiranthus **cheiri**](/wiki/Cheiranthus_cheiri "Cheiranthus cheiri"), [Piper **cubeba**](/wiki/Piper_cubeba "Piper cubeba"), [Phyllanthus **emblica**](/wiki/Phyllanthus_emblica "Phyllanthus emblica"), [Peganum **harmala**](/wiki/Peganum_harmala "Peganum harmala"), [Salsola **kali**](/wiki/Salsola_kali "Salsola kali"), [Prunus **mahaleb**](/wiki/Prunus_mahaleb "Prunus mahaleb"), [Datura **metel**](/wiki/Datura_metel "Datura metel"), [Daphne **mezereum**](/wiki/Daphne_mezereum "Daphne mezereum"), [Rheum **ribes**](/wiki/Rheum_ribes "Rheum ribes"), [Jasminum **sambac**](/wiki/Jasminum_sambac "Jasminum sambac"), [Cordia **sebestena**](/wiki/Cordia_sebestena "Cordia sebestena"), [Operculina **turpethum**](/wiki/Operculina_turpethum "Operculina turpethum"), [Curcuma **zedoaria**](/wiki/Curcuma_zedoaria "Curcuma zedoaria"), [Alpinia **zerumbet**](/wiki/Alpinia_zerumbet "Alpinia zerumbet") \+ [Zingiber **zerumbet**](/wiki/Zingiber_zerumbet "Zingiber zerumbet").* (List incomplete.)References for the medieval Arabic sources and medieval Latin borrowings of those plant names are as follows. Ones marked "(F)" go to the French dictionary at *Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales*, ones marked "(R)" go to *Random House Dictionary*, and other references are identified with terse labels: [Berberis](http://dictionary.com/browse/barberry)(R), [انبرباريس *anbarbārīs* \= Berberis](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_131.html)(Ibn Sina), [امبرباريس *ambarbārīs* \= Berberis](https://books.google.com/books?id=QbBCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA79)(Ibn Al\-Baitar), [الأمبرباريس *al\-ambarbārīs* is also called البرباريس *al\-barbārīs*](http://www.baheth.info) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ \|date\=29 October 2013 }}(Fairuzabadi's dictionary), [Galen uses name *"Oxyacantha"* for Berberis](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000817749#page/1144/mode/1up)(John Gerarde), [Arabic *amiberberis* \= Latin *Berberis*](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_51)(Matthaeus Silvaticus), [Berberis is frequent in Constantinus Africanus](https://books.google.com/books?id=etFaAAAAcAAJ&q=berberis&pg=PR3) (Constantinus Africanus was the introducer of plantname Berberis into medieval Latin), [Berberis](https://books.google.com/books?id=GHaGxm4TZ5wC&dq=berberis&pg=PA93)(Raja Tazi 1998\), [Barberry](https://archive.org/stream/etymologicaldict00skeauoft#page/51/mode/1up)(Skeat 1888\);; [Cakile](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/68/mode/1up)(Henri Lammens 1890\), [Cakile](https://archive.org/stream/s10journalasiatiq05sociuoft#page/503/mode/1up)(Pierre Guigues 1905\), [Kakile Serapionis](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000817749#page/192/mode/1up)(John Gerarde 1597\), [Chakile](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/69/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger, medieval Latin);; for *Carthamus* see [Carthamin](/wiki/%23CarthaminRef "#CarthaminRef");; [Cuscute](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/cuscute)(F), [Cuscuta](http://etimologias.dechile.net/?cuscuta) (Etimología), spelled كشوث *kushūth* in Ibn al\-Baitar;; [Doronicum](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/doronic)(F), [Doronicum](http://dictionary.com/browse/doronicum)(R), spelled درونج *dorūnaj* in Ibn al\-Baitar;; [Garingal \& Galanga](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/garingal)(F), [Galingale \& Galanga](https://archive.org/stream/oed04arch#page/n660/mode/1up)(NED);; [Musa](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/171/mode/1up)(Devic), [Musa](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n186/mode/1up)(Alphita), [موز *mauz*](https://books.google.com/books?id=lb8TAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA535)(Ibn al\-Baitar), [Muse \#4 and Musa](https://archive.org/stream/oed6barch#page/780/mode/1up)(NED);; [Nuphar (nénuphar)](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/nenuphar)(F), [Nénuphar](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/181/mode/1up)(Lammens);; [Ribès](https://archive.org/stream/lelivredelartdu00guiggoog#page/n54/mode/1up)(Pierre Guigues 1903 in preface to translation of Najm al\-Din Mahmud (died 1330\)), [Ribes](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/205/mode/1up)(Lammens 1890\), the meaning of late medieval Latin *ribes* was *[Rheum ribes](/wiki/Rheum_ribes "Rheum ribes")* – [e.g.](https://archive.org/stream/inantidotariumi01paglgoog#page/n433/mode/1up) [e.g.](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060715/image_316) – and the medieval Arabic ريباس *rībās* had the very same meaning – [e.g.](http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/SearchServlet/searchone?docid=269&searchtext=2LHZitio2KfYsw==&option=1&offset=1&WordForm=1&exactpage=325&totalpages=1&AllOffset=1) ;; [Senna](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/s%C3%A9n%C3%A9)(F), [Senna](http://dictionary.com/browse/senna)(R), [Séné](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/219/mode/1up)(Lammens), *Sene* in Alphita, السنى *al\-sanā* and السني *al\-senī* in Ibn al\-Baitar;; [Taraxacum](https://archive.org/stream/etymologicaldict00skeauoft#page/624/mode/1up)(Skeat), [Ataraxacon](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n81/mode/1up)(Alphita), [Taraxacum](http://dictionary.com/browse/taraxacum)(R);; [Usnea](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/usn%C3%A9e)(F), [Usnea](http://dictionary.com/browse/usnea)(R), [Usnee](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_191)(Simon of Genoa), [Usnée](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/244/mode/1up)(Lammens);; [alkekengi](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/alk%C3%A9kenge)(F), [alkekengi](http://dictionary.com/browse/alkekengi)(R);; [azedarach](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/azedarach)(F), [azedarach](https://books.google.com/books?id=MiNWi1g3fJ4C&dq=azedarach&pg=PA144)(Garland Cannon), [azadarach \+ azedarach](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_75)(Matthaeus Silvaticus anno 1317\), [*azedarach* produced *Azadirachta*](https://archive.org/download/EnglishWordsThatAreOfArabicEtymologicalAncestry/English-words-that-are-of-Arabic-etymological-ancestry.htm#AzedarachRef);; [béhen](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/63/mode/1up)(Devic, year 1876\), [Behemen \= behen \= behem](https://books.google.com/books?id=lIJDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA54-IA5) says Matthaeus Silvaticus (year 1317\); this name is بهمن *behmen \| bahman* in [Ibn al\-Baitar](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf) and [Ibn Sina](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_141.html);; [bellerica](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up/)(Yule), [bellerica](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairetym00devigoog#page/n92/mode/1up/)(Devic), [beliligi \= belirici \= bellerici](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_35)(Simon of Genoa), بليلج *belīlej* in Ibn al\-Baitar;; [chebula](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up)(Yule), [kebulus \= chebulae](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n182/mode/1up)(Alphita), [chébule](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/92/mode/1up)(Devic);; [cheiranthe](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/109/mode/1up)(Devic), [keiri](https://archive.org/stream/newenglishdicpt205murruoft#page/668/mode/1up)(NED), [خيري *kheīrī*](https://books.google.com/books?id=daZEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA266)(Ibn al\-Awwam);; [cubeba](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/cub%C3%A8be)(F), [cubeba](http://dictionary.com/browse/cubeb)(R);; [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up)(Yule), [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/109/mode/1up)(Devic), [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/82/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger);; [harmala](https://books.google.com/books?id=GHaGxm4TZ5wC&q=harmala&pg=PR3)(Tazi), [harmale](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/137/mode/1up)(Devic), [harmala](https://books.google.com/books?id=INtzYGQOlFoC&q=Arabic)(other), [harmala](https://archive.org/download/EnglishWordsThatAreOfArabicEtymologicalAncestry/English-words-that-are-of-Arabic-etymological-ancestry.htm#HarmalaRef)(more details);; [(Salsola) kali](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/kali)(F), [kali \= a marine littoral plant, an Arabic name](https://books.google.com/books?id=7s28XX0mqAUC&pg=PT105)(Simon of Genoa year 1292 in Latin, also in Matthaeus Silvaticus);; [mahaleb](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/mahaleb)(F), [mahaleb](https://books.google.com/books?id=PuEOAAAAQAAJ&q=mahaleb&pg=PA367)(Ibn al\-Awwam), [mahaleb](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_315)(Matthaeus Silvaticus year 1317\);; [mathil\-\>metel](http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/dec2007/1227.pdf)(other), [metel](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/163/mode/1up)(Devic), [nux methel](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/251/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger), [جوز ماثل *jūz māthil*](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_156.html)(Ibn Sina);; [mezereum](http://dictionary.com/browse/mezereum)(R), [mézéréon](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/163/mode/1up)(Devic), [mezereon](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n177/mode/1up)(Alphita: see editor's footnote quoting Matthaeus Silvaticus and John Gerarde), spelled مازريون *māzarīūn* in Ibn Sina and Ibn al\-Baitar;; [sambac](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/201/mode/1up)(Devic), [zambacca](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/235/mode/1up)(synonyms of Petrus de Abano, died c. 1316\), [sambacus](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58660f/f257.image)(Simon of Genoa), [زنبق \= دهن الياسمين](http://www.baheth.info/) (*zanbaq* in *Lisan al\-Arab*);; [sebesten](https://books.google.com/books?id=4FwKM83UA9cC&q=sebesten)(other), [sebesten](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/205/mode/1up)(Devic), [sebesten](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/166/mode/1up)(Alphita) (*sebesten* in late medieval Latin referred to *[Cordia myxa](/wiki/Cordia_myxa "Cordia myxa")*, not *[Cordia sebestena](/wiki/Cordia_sebestena "Cordia sebestena")*, and the medieval Arabic سبستان *sebestān* was Cordia myxa);; [turpeth](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/turbith)(F), [turpeth](http://dictionary.com/browse/Turpeth)(R);; [zedoaria](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/z%C3%A9doaire)(F), [zedoaria](http://dictionary.com/browse/Zedoary)(R);; [zérumbet](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/zérumbet)(F), zerumbet is from medieval Latin *[zurumbet](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_197) \| [zurumbeth](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/119/mode/1up) \| [zerumbet](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_410)* which is from Arabic زرنباد *[zurunbād](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/book-two.html) \| [zarunbād](https://archive.org/stream/lelivredelartdu00guiggoog#page/n282/mode/1up)*. The great majority of the above plant names can be seen in Latin in the late\-13th\-century medical\-botany dictionary *Synonyma Medicinae* by Simon of Genoa [(online)](https://books.google.com/books?id=7s28XX0mqAUC) and in the mid\-15th\-century Latin medical\-botany dictionary called the *Alphita* [(online)](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n60/mode/1up); and the few that are not in either of those two dictionaries can be seen in Latin in the book on medicaments by Serapion the Younger circa 1300 [(online)](https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000818200). None of the names are found in Latin in early medieval or classical Latin botany or medicine books \-\- partially excepting a complication over the name *harmala*, and excepting *galanga* and *zedoaria* because they have Latin records beginning in the 9th or 10th centuries. In other words nearly all the names were introduced to Latin in the later\-medieval period, specifically from the late 11th through late 13th centuries. Most early Latin users lived in Italy. All of the names, without exception, are in the Arabic\-to\-Latin medical translations of [Constantinus Africanus](/wiki/Constantinus_Africanus "Constantinus Africanus") (died c. 1087\) and/or [Gerardus Cremonensis](/wiki/Gerardus_Cremonensis "Gerardus Cremonensis") (died c. 1187\) and/or [Serapion the Younger](/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger "Serapion the Younger") (dated later 13th century Latin). The Arabic predecessors of the great majority of the names can be seen in Arabic as entries in Part Two of *The Canon of Medicine* of Ibn Sina, dated about 1025 in Arabic, which became a widely circulated book in Latin medical circles in the 13th and 14th centuries: an Arabic copy is at [DDC.AUB.edu.lb](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/book-two.html). All of the Arabic predecessor plant\-names without exception, and usually with better descriptions of the plants (compared to Ibn Sina's descriptions), are in [Ibn al\-Baitar](/wiki/Ibn_al-Baitar "Ibn al-Baitar")'s *Comprehensive Book of Simple Medicines and Foods*, dated about 1245, which was not translated to Latin in the medieval era but was published in the 19th century in German, French, and Arabic – an Arabic copy is at [Al\-Mostafa.com](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf) and at [AlWaraq.net](http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/AlwaraqSrv/bookpage?book=269&fkey=2&page=1&option=1). Over ninety percent of those botanical names were introduced to medieval Latin in a herbal medicine context. They include names of medicinal plants from Tropical Asia for which there had been no prior Latin or Greek name, such as azedarach, bellerica, cubeba, emblica, galanga, metel, turpethum, zedoaria and zerumbet. Another sizeable portion are ultimately Iranian names of medicinal plants of Iran. The Arabic\-to\-Latin translation of Ibn Sina's *[The Canon of Medicine](/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine "The Canon of Medicine")* helped establish many Arabic plant names in later medieval Latin. A book about medicating agents by [Serapion the Younger](/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger "Serapion the Younger") containing hundreds of Arabic botanical names circulated in Latin among [apothecaries](/wiki/Apothecaries "Apothecaries") in the 14th and 15th centuries.["Les Noms Arabes Dans Sérapion, *Liber de Simplici Medicina*"](https://archive.org/stream/s10journalasiatiq05sociuoft#page/473/mode/1up), by Pierre Guigues, published in 1905 in *Journal Asiatique*, Series X, tome V, pages 473–546, continued in tome VI, pages 49–112\. Medieval Arabic botany was primarily concerned with the use of plants for medicines. In a modern etymology analysis of one medieval Arabic list of medicines, the names of the medicines —primarily plant names— were assessed to be 31% ancient Mesopotamian names, 23% Greek names, 18% Persian, 13% Indian (often via Persian), 5% uniquely Arabic, and 3% [Egyptian](/wiki/Egyptian_language "Egyptian language"), with the remaining 7% of unassessable origin.Analysis of herbal medicine plant\-names by Martin Levey reported by him in "Chapter III: Botanonymy" in his 1973 book [*Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LtYUAAAAIAAJ). The Italian botanist [Prospero Alpini](/wiki/Prospero_Alpini "Prospero Alpini") stayed in Egypt for several years in the 1580s. He introduced to Latin botany from Arabic from Egypt the names ***[Abrus](/wiki/Abrus "Abrus"), [Abelmoschus](/wiki/Abelmoschus "Abelmoschus"), [Lablab](/wiki/Lablab "Lablab"), [Melochia](/wiki/Melochia "Melochia")***, each of which designated plants that were unknown to Western European botanists before Alpini, plants native to tropical Asia that were grown with artificial irrigation in Egypt at the time.Each discussed in [*Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yq0YhE8RM0kC&pg=PA32), by Helmut Genaust, year 1996\. Another Arabic botanical name introduced by Prospero Alpini from Egypt was *Sesban* meaning *[Sesbania sesban](/wiki/Sesbania_sesban "Sesbania sesban")* from synonymous Arabic سيسبان *saīsabān \| saīsbān* (Lammens 1890; Ibn al\-Baitar). The Latin botanical *Abrus* is the parent of the chemical name [Abrin](/wiki/Abrin "Abrin"); see [*abrine* @ CNRTL.fr](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/abrine). The Arabic لبلاب *lablāb* means any kind of climbing and twisting plant. The Latin and English *Lablab* is a certain vigorously climbing and twisting bean plant. Prospero Alpini called the plant in Latin *phaseolus niger lablab* \= "lablab black bean". Prospero Alpini published his *De Plantis Aegypti* in 1592\. It was republished in 1640 with supplements by other botanists – [*De Plantis Aegypti*, 1640](https://books.google.com/books?id=zdwTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR2). *De Plantis Exoticis* by Prospero Alpini (died 1617\) was published in 1639 – [ref](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000810199#page/n0/mode/2up). In the early 1760s [Peter Forsskål](/wiki/Peter_Forssk%C3%A5l "Peter Forsskål") systematically cataloged plants and fishes in the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea") area. For genera and species that did not already have Latin names, Forsskål used the common Arabic names as the scientific names. This became the international standard for most of what he cataloged. Forsskål's Latinized Arabic plant genus names include ***[Aerva](/wiki/Aerva "Aerva"), [Arnebia](/wiki/Arnebia "Arnebia"), [Cadaba](/wiki/Cadaba "Cadaba"), [Ceruana](/wiki/Ceruana "Ceruana"), [Maerua](/wiki/Maerua "Maerua"), [Maesa](/wiki/Maesa "Maesa"), [Themeda](/wiki/Themeda "Themeda")***, and others.A list of 43 of Forsskål's Latinized Arabic fish names is at [Baheyeldin.com/linguistics](http://baheyeldin.com/linguistics/forsskaal-arabic-species-names-fish-taxonomy.html). Forsskål was a student of Arabic language as well as of taxonomy. His published journals contain the underlying Arabic names as well as his Latinizations of them (downloadable from links at the Wikipedia [Peter Forsskål](/wiki/Peter_Forssk%C3%A5l "Peter Forsskål") page). Some additional miscellaneous botanical names with Arabic ancestry include ***[Abutilon](/wiki/Abutilon "Abutilon"), [Alchemilla](/wiki/Alchemilla "Alchemilla"), [Alhagi](/wiki/Alhagi "Alhagi"), [Argania](/wiki/Argania "Argania"), [argel](/wiki/Solenostemma_arghel "Solenostemma arghel"), [Averrhoa](/wiki/Averrhoa "Averrhoa"), [Avicennia](/wiki/Avicennia "Avicennia"), [azarolus](/wiki/Crataegus_azarolus "Crataegus azarolus") *\+ [acerola](/wiki/Acerola_cherry "Acerola cherry")*, [bonduc](/wiki/Caesalpinia_bonduc "Caesalpinia bonduc"), [lebbeck](/wiki/Albizia_lebbeck "Albizia lebbeck"), [Retama](/wiki/Retama "Retama"), [seyal](/wiki/Acacia_seyal "Acacia seyal").***Most of those miscellaneous botanical names are discussed in [*Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yZL3BQAAQBAJ), by Helmut Genaust, year 1996\. About half of them are in [*Dictionnaire Étymologique Des Mots Français D'Origine Orientale*](https://archive.org/details/dictionnairety00devi), by L. Marcel Devic, year 1876\. The following are supplemental notes. The names *argel* and *seyal* were introduced to scientific botany nomenclature from الحرجل *harjel* and سيال *seyāl* in the early 19th century by the botanist [Delile](/wiki/Alire_Raffeneau_Delile "Alire Raffeneau Delile"), who had visited North Africa. *Retama* comes from an old Spanish name for broom bushes and the Spanish name is from medieval Arabic رتم *ratam* with the same meaning – [ref](http://dle.rae.es/?id=WGF1AZr), [ref](https://archive.org/stream/oed8aarch#page/n578/mode/1up). *Acerola* is from tropical [New World](/wiki/New_World "New World") Spanish *acerola* \= "acerola cherry" which is from medieval Spanish and Portuguese *acerola \| azerola \| azarola* \= "[azarole hawthorn](/wiki/Azarole "Azarole")" which is from medieval Arabic الزعرور *al\-zoʿrūr* \= "azarole hawthorn" – [ref](http://dictionary.com/browse/acerola), [ref](http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/acerola). *Alchimilla* appears in 16th century Europe with the same core meaning as today's *Alchemilla* [(e.g.)](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/alchimille). Reporters on *Alchemilla* agree it is from Arabic although they do not agree on how. (List incomplete). ### Arabic textile words The list above included the six textile fabric names cotton, damask, gauze, macramé, mohair, \& muslin, and the three textile dye names anil, crimson/kermes, and safflower, and the garment names jumper and sash. The following are three lesser\-used textile words that were not listed: **[camlet](/wiki/Camlet "Camlet")**,In late medieval English, *chamelet \| chamlet* was a costly fabric and was typically an import from the Near East – [MED](http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=id&id=MED7207&egs=all), [NED](https://archive.org/stream/oed02arch#page/50/mode/1up). Today spelled "camlet", it is synonymous with French *camelot* which the French [CNRTL.fr](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/camelot) says is "from Arabic *khamlāt*, plural of *khamla*, meaning [plush](/wiki/Plush "Plush") woollen cloth.... The stuff was made in the Orient and introduced to the Occident at the same time as the word." The historian Wilhelm Heyd (1886\) says: "The \[medieval] Arabic *khamla* meant cloth with a long [nap](/wiki/Nap_%28textile%29 "Nap (textile)"), cloth with a lot of [plush](/wiki/Plush "Plush"). This is the common character of all the camlets \[of the late medieval Latins]. They could be made from diverse materials.... Some were made from fine goat hair." – [*Histoire du commerce du Levant au moyen\-âge*](https://archive.org/stream/histoireducomme00heydgoog#page/n716/mode/1up), Volume 2 pages 703–705, by W. Heyd, year 1886\. The medieval Arabic word was also in the form *khamīla*. Definitions of خملة *khamla* \| خميلة *khamīla*, and the plural *khamlāt*, taken from medieval Arabic dictionaries are in [Lane's *Arabic\-English Lexicon* page 813](http://dict.yulghun.com/lane/) and in the [*Lisan al\-Arab* under خمل *khaml*](http://www.baheth.info/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ \|date\=29 October 2013 }}. **[morocco leather](/wiki/Morocco_leather "Morocco leather")**,The English word morocco, meaning a type of leather, is a refreshed spelling of early 16th\-century English *maroquin*, from 15th\-century French *maroquin* meaning a soft flexible leather of goat\-skin made in the country of Morocco, or similar leather made anywhere, with *maroquin* literally meaning "Moroccan, from Morocco". [Maroquin @ NED](https://archive.org/stream/oed6barch#page/179/mode/1up), [morocco @ NED](https://archive.org/stream/oed6barch#page/668/mode/1up), [maroquin @ CNRTL.fr](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/maroquin), [FEW XIX](https://apps.atilf.fr/lecteurFEW/lire/190/121). and **[tabby](/wiki/Tabby_weave "Tabby weave")**. Those have established Arabic ancestry. The following are six textile fabric words whose ancestry is not established and not adequately in evidence, but Arabic ancestry is entertained by many reporters. Five of the six have Late Medieval start dates in the Western languages and the sixth started in the 16th century. **[Buckram](/wiki/Buckram "Buckram")**, **[Chiffon](/wiki/Chiffon_%28fabric%29 "Chiffon (fabric)")**, **[Fustian](/wiki/Fustian "Fustian")**, **[Gabardine](/wiki/Gabardine "Gabardine")**, **[Satin](/wiki/Satin "Satin")**, and [**Wadding** (padding)](/wiki/Wadding "Wadding"). The fabric **[Taffeta](/wiki/Taffeta "Taffeta")** has provenance in 14th\-century French, Italian, Catalan, Spanish, and English, and today it is often guessed to come ultimately from a Persian word for woven (*tāftah*), and it might have Arabic intermediation. **[Fustic](/wiki/Fustic_%28disambiguation%29 "Fustic (disambiguation)")** is a textile dye. The name is traceable to late medieval Spanish *fustet* dye, which is often guessed to be from an Arabic source.Fustic in the late medieval centuries was a dye from the wood of a Mediterranean tree. After the discovery of America, a better, more durable dye from a tree wood was found, and given the same name. The late medieval fustic came from the *[Rhus cotinus](/wiki/Rhus_cotinus "Rhus cotinus")* tree. "*Rhus cotinus* wood was treated in warm \[or boiling] water; a yellow infusion was obtained which on contact with air turned into brown; with acids it becomes greenish yellow and with alkalies orange; in combination with iron salts, especially with ferrous sulphate a greenish\-black was produced." – [*The Art of Dyeing in the History of Mankind*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MI-vbcXDdssC), by Franco Brunello, year 1973 page 382\. The earliest record of the word as a dye in the Western languages is in 13th\-century Spanish as *"fustet"*, followed by 14th\-century French as *"fustet"* and *"fustel"* – [CNRTL.fr](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/fustet), [DMF](http://atilf.atilf.fr/scripts/dmfX.exe?IDF=complXrmYXbcjbe;ISIS=isis_dmf2012.txt;;XMODE=STELLa;;). Medieval Spanish had *alfóstigo* \= "[pistachio](/wiki/Pistachio "Pistachio")", medieval Catalan *festuc* \= "pistachio, which were from Arabic فستق *(al\-)fustuq* \= "pistachio". Medieval Arabic additionally had *fustuqī* as a color name, yellow\-green like the pistachio nut [(e.g.)](https://archive.org/stream/ArabicEnglishLexicon.CopiousEasternSources.EnlargedSuppl.Kamoos.Lane.Poole.1863/06.ArabicEnglLex.v1p6.let.19.20.Ghayin.Fa.Lane-Poole.1877.#page/n178/mode/1up), [(e.g.)](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf), [(e.g.)](http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/SearchServlet/searchall?book=-1&option=1&offset=1&searchtext=2YHYs9iq2YLZig==&WordForm=1&RangeOp=-1). Many dictionaries today report that the Spanish dye name somehow came from this medieval Arabic word. But the proponents of this idea do not cite evidence of *fustuq* carrying the dye meaning in Arabic. The use of the word as a dye in medieval Arabic is not recorded under the entry for *fustuq* in [*A Dictionary of Andalusi Arabic* (1997\)](https://books.google.com/books?id=D2H8kOFNJbgC&q=fustic) nor under the entries for *fustuq* in the medieval Arabic dictionaries – [Lane's *Arabic\-English Lexicon*, page 2395](http://dict.yulghun.com/lane/), [Baheth.info](http://www.baheth.info/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ \|date\=29 October 2013 }}. This suggests that the use of the word as a dye may have started in Spanish. From a phonetic angle the medieval Spanish and French *fustet* is a diminutive of the medieval Spanish and French *fuste* \= "boards of wood, timber", which was from classical Latin *fustis* \= "wooden stick" – [DRAE](http://dle.rae.es/?id=IebP6I4), [Du Cange](http://ducange.enc.sorbonne.fr/fustis). From the semantic angle, since most names of natural dyes referred to both the plant that produces the dye and the dye itself, *fustet* meaning "little pieces of wood" can plausibly beget the dye name *fustet*. The semantic transformation from "pistachio" to "fustic dye" is poorly understood, assuming it happened. [*New English Dictionary on Historical Principles* (year 1901\)](https://archive.org/stream/oed04arch#page/n638/mode/1up) says "the name was transferred from the pistachio \[tree] to the closely allied *Rhus cotinus*". But the two trees are not closely allied. **[Carthamin](/wiki/Carthamin "Carthamin")** is another old textile dye. Its name was borrowed in the late medieval West from Arabic قرطم *qartam \| qirtim \| qurtum* \= "the carthamin dye plant or its seeds"."Carthamin" and "Carthamus" in [*New English Dictionary on Historical Principles*](https://archive.org/stream/oed02arch#page/139/mode/1up) (year 1893\). Similarly summarized in [CNRTL.fr (French)](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/carthame) and [*Diccionario RAE* (Spanish)](http://dle.rae.es/?id=7jfNpl9). For the word in medieval Arabic see [قرطم @ Baheth.info](http://www.baheth.info/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ \|date\=29 October 2013 }} (see also عصفر *ʿusfur*), [قرطم @ Ibn al\-Awwam](https://books.google.com/books?id=daZEAAAAcAAJ&q=alazor) and [قرطم @ Ibn al\-Baitar](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf). The textile industry was the largest manufacturing industry in the Arabic\-speaking lands in the medieval and early modern eras. ### Arabic cuisine words The following words are from Arabic, although some of them have entered Western European languages via other languages. **[Baba ghanoush](/wiki/Baba_ghanoush "Baba ghanoush"), [Falafel](/wiki/Falafel "Falafel"), [Fattoush](/wiki/Fattoush "Fattoush"), [Halva](/wiki/Halva "Halva"), [Hummus](/wiki/Hummus "Hummus"), [Kibbeh](/wiki/Kibbeh "Kibbeh"), [Kebab](/wiki/Kebab "Kebab"), [Lahmacun](/wiki/Lahmacun "Lahmacun"), [Shawarma](/wiki/Shawarma "Shawarma"), [Tabouleh](/wiki/Tabouleh "Tabouleh"), [Tahini](/wiki/Tahini "Tahini"), [Za'atar](/wiki/Za%27atar "Za'atar")** . Some cuisine words of lesser circulation are **[Ful medames](/wiki/Ful_medames "Ful medames"), [Kabsa](/wiki/Kabsa "Kabsa"), [Kushari](/wiki/Kushari "Kushari"), [Labneh](/wiki/Labneh "Labneh"), [Mahleb](/wiki/Mahleb "Mahleb"), [Mulukhiyah](/wiki/Mulukhiyah "Mulukhiyah"), [Ma'amoul](/wiki/Ma%27amoul "Ma'amoul"), [Mansaf](/wiki/Mansaf "Mansaf"), [Shanklish](/wiki/Shanklish "Shanklish"), [Tepsi Baytinijan](/wiki/Tepsi_Baytinijan "Tepsi Baytinijan")** . For more see [Arab cuisine](/wiki/Arab_cuisine "Arab cuisine"). Middle Eastern cuisine words were rare before 1970 in English, being mostly confined to travellers' reports. Usage increased rapidly in the 1970s for certain words. ### Arabic music words Some words used in English in talking about Arabic music: **[Ataba](/wiki/Ataba "Ataba"), [Baladi](/wiki/Baladi "Baladi"), [Dabke](/wiki/Dabke "Dabke"), [Darbouka](/wiki/Darbouka "Darbouka"), [Jins](/wiki/Jins "Jins"), [Khaleeji](/wiki/Khaliji_%28music%29 "Khaliji (music)"), [Maqam](/wiki/Arabian_maqam "Arabian maqam"), [Mawal](/wiki/Mawwal "Mawwal"), [Mizmar](/wiki/Mizmar_%28instrument%29 "Mizmar (instrument)"), [Oud](/wiki/Oud "Oud"), [Qanun](/wiki/Kanun_%28instrument%29 "Kanun (instrument)"), [Raï](/wiki/Ra%C3%AF "Raï"), [Raqs sharqi](/wiki/Raqs_sharqi "Raqs sharqi"), [Taqsim](/wiki/Taqsim "Taqsim").** ### Arabic place names {{Main\|List of Arabic place names}}
[ "Addenda for certain specialist vocabularies\n-------------------------------------------", "### Glossary of Islam", "{{main\\|Glossary of Islam}}", "### List of Arabic star names", "{{main\\|List of Arabic star names}}", "### Arabic botanical names", "The following plant names entered medieval Latin texts from Arabic. Today, in descent from the medieval Latin, they are international systematic classification names (commonly known as \"Latin\" names): ***[Azadirachta](/wiki/Azadirachta \"Azadirachta\"), [Berberis](/wiki/Berberis \"Berberis\"), [Cakile](/wiki/Cakile \"Cakile\"), [Carthamus](/wiki/Carthamus \"Carthamus\"), [Cuscuta](/wiki/Cuscuta \"Cuscuta\"), [Doronicum](/wiki/Doronicum \"Doronicum\"), [Galanga](/wiki/Galanga \"Galanga\"), [Musa](/wiki/Musa_%28genus%29 \"Musa (genus)\"), [Nuphar](/wiki/Nuphar \"Nuphar\"), [Ribes](/wiki/Ribes \"Ribes\"), [Senna](/wiki/Senna_%28plant%29 \"Senna (plant)\"), [Taraxacum](/wiki/Taraxacum \"Taraxacum\"), [Usnea](/wiki/Usnea \"Usnea\"),** [Physalis **alkekengi**](/wiki/Physalis_alkekengi \"Physalis alkekengi\"), [Melia **azedarach**](/wiki/Melia_azedarach \"Melia azedarach\"), [Centaurea **behen**](/wiki/Centaurea_behen \"Centaurea behen\"), [Terminalia **bellerica**](/wiki/Terminalia_bellerica \"Terminalia bellerica\"), [Terminalia **chebula**](/wiki/Terminalia_chebula \"Terminalia chebula\"), [Cheiranthus **cheiri**](/wiki/Cheiranthus_cheiri \"Cheiranthus cheiri\"), [Piper **cubeba**](/wiki/Piper_cubeba \"Piper cubeba\"), [Phyllanthus **emblica**](/wiki/Phyllanthus_emblica \"Phyllanthus emblica\"), [Peganum **harmala**](/wiki/Peganum_harmala \"Peganum harmala\"), [Salsola **kali**](/wiki/Salsola_kali \"Salsola kali\"), [Prunus **mahaleb**](/wiki/Prunus_mahaleb \"Prunus mahaleb\"), [Datura **metel**](/wiki/Datura_metel \"Datura metel\"), [Daphne **mezereum**](/wiki/Daphne_mezereum \"Daphne mezereum\"), [Rheum **ribes**](/wiki/Rheum_ribes \"Rheum ribes\"), [Jasminum **sambac**](/wiki/Jasminum_sambac \"Jasminum sambac\"), [Cordia **sebestena**](/wiki/Cordia_sebestena \"Cordia sebestena\"), [Operculina **turpethum**](/wiki/Operculina_turpethum \"Operculina turpethum\"), [Curcuma **zedoaria**](/wiki/Curcuma_zedoaria \"Curcuma zedoaria\"), [Alpinia **zerumbet**](/wiki/Alpinia_zerumbet \"Alpinia zerumbet\") \\+ [Zingiber **zerumbet**](/wiki/Zingiber_zerumbet \"Zingiber zerumbet\").* (List incomplete.)References for the medieval Arabic sources and medieval Latin borrowings of those plant names are as follows. Ones marked \"(F)\" go to the French dictionary at *Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales*, ones marked \"(R)\" go to *Random House Dictionary*, and other references are identified with terse labels: [Berberis](http://dictionary.com/browse/barberry)(R), [انبرباريس *anbarbārīs* \\= Berberis](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_131.html)(Ibn Sina), [امبرباريس *ambarbārīs* \\= Berberis](https://books.google.com/books?id=QbBCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA79)(Ibn Al\\-Baitar), [الأمبرباريس *al\\-ambarbārīs* is also called البرباريس *al\\-barbārīs*](http://www.baheth.info) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ \\|date\\=29 October 2013 }}(Fairuzabadi's dictionary), [Galen uses name *\"Oxyacantha\"* for Berberis](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000817749#page/1144/mode/1up)(John Gerarde), [Arabic *amiberberis* \\= Latin *Berberis*](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_51)(Matthaeus Silvaticus), [Berberis is frequent in Constantinus Africanus](https://books.google.com/books?id=etFaAAAAcAAJ&q=berberis&pg=PR3) (Constantinus Africanus was the introducer of plantname Berberis into medieval Latin), [Berberis](https://books.google.com/books?id=GHaGxm4TZ5wC&dq=berberis&pg=PA93)(Raja Tazi 1998\\), [Barberry](https://archive.org/stream/etymologicaldict00skeauoft#page/51/mode/1up)(Skeat 1888\\);; [Cakile](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/68/mode/1up)(Henri Lammens 1890\\), [Cakile](https://archive.org/stream/s10journalasiatiq05sociuoft#page/503/mode/1up)(Pierre Guigues 1905\\), [Kakile Serapionis](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000817749#page/192/mode/1up)(John Gerarde 1597\\), [Chakile](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/69/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger, medieval Latin);; for *Carthamus* see [Carthamin](/wiki/%23CarthaminRef \"#CarthaminRef\");; [Cuscute](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/cuscute)(F), [Cuscuta](http://etimologias.dechile.net/?cuscuta) (Etimología), spelled كشوث *kushūth* in Ibn al\\-Baitar;; [Doronicum](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/doronic)(F), [Doronicum](http://dictionary.com/browse/doronicum)(R), spelled درونج *dorūnaj* in Ibn al\\-Baitar;; [Garingal \\& Galanga](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/garingal)(F), [Galingale \\& Galanga](https://archive.org/stream/oed04arch#page/n660/mode/1up)(NED);; [Musa](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/171/mode/1up)(Devic), [Musa](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n186/mode/1up)(Alphita), [موز *mauz*](https://books.google.com/books?id=lb8TAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA535)(Ibn al\\-Baitar), [Muse \\#4 and Musa](https://archive.org/stream/oed6barch#page/780/mode/1up)(NED);; [Nuphar (nénuphar)](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/nenuphar)(F), [Nénuphar](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/181/mode/1up)(Lammens);; [Ribès](https://archive.org/stream/lelivredelartdu00guiggoog#page/n54/mode/1up)(Pierre Guigues 1903 in preface to translation of Najm al\\-Din Mahmud (died 1330\\)), [Ribes](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/205/mode/1up)(Lammens 1890\\), the meaning of late medieval Latin *ribes* was *[Rheum ribes](/wiki/Rheum_ribes \"Rheum ribes\")* – [e.g.](https://archive.org/stream/inantidotariumi01paglgoog#page/n433/mode/1up) [e.g.](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060715/image_316) – and the medieval Arabic ريباس *rībās* had the very same meaning – [e.g.](http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/SearchServlet/searchone?docid=269&searchtext=2LHZitio2KfYsw==&option=1&offset=1&WordForm=1&exactpage=325&totalpages=1&AllOffset=1) ;; [Senna](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/s%C3%A9n%C3%A9)(F), [Senna](http://dictionary.com/browse/senna)(R), [Séné](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/219/mode/1up)(Lammens), *Sene* in Alphita, السنى *al\\-sanā* and السني *al\\-senī* in Ibn al\\-Baitar;; [Taraxacum](https://archive.org/stream/etymologicaldict00skeauoft#page/624/mode/1up)(Skeat), [Ataraxacon](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n81/mode/1up)(Alphita), [Taraxacum](http://dictionary.com/browse/taraxacum)(R);; [Usnea](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/usn%C3%A9e)(F), [Usnea](http://dictionary.com/browse/usnea)(R), [Usnee](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_191)(Simon of Genoa), [Usnée](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/244/mode/1up)(Lammens);; [alkekengi](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/alk%C3%A9kenge)(F), [alkekengi](http://dictionary.com/browse/alkekengi)(R);; [azedarach](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/azedarach)(F), [azedarach](https://books.google.com/books?id=MiNWi1g3fJ4C&dq=azedarach&pg=PA144)(Garland Cannon), [azadarach \\+ azedarach](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_75)(Matthaeus Silvaticus anno 1317\\), [*azedarach* produced *Azadirachta*](https://archive.org/download/EnglishWordsThatAreOfArabicEtymologicalAncestry/English-words-that-are-of-Arabic-etymological-ancestry.htm#AzedarachRef);; [béhen](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/63/mode/1up)(Devic, year 1876\\), [Behemen \\= behen \\= behem](https://books.google.com/books?id=lIJDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA54-IA5) says Matthaeus Silvaticus (year 1317\\); this name is بهمن *behmen \\| bahman* in [Ibn al\\-Baitar](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf) and [Ibn Sina](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_141.html);; [bellerica](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up/)(Yule), [bellerica](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairetym00devigoog#page/n92/mode/1up/)(Devic), [beliligi \\= belirici \\= bellerici](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_35)(Simon of Genoa), بليلج *belīlej* in Ibn al\\-Baitar;; [chebula](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up)(Yule), [kebulus \\= chebulae](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n182/mode/1up)(Alphita), [chébule](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/92/mode/1up)(Devic);; [cheiranthe](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/109/mode/1up)(Devic), [keiri](https://archive.org/stream/newenglishdicpt205murruoft#page/668/mode/1up)(NED), [خيري *kheīrī*](https://books.google.com/books?id=daZEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA266)(Ibn al\\-Awwam);; [cubeba](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/cub%C3%A8be)(F), [cubeba](http://dictionary.com/browse/cubeb)(R);; [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up)(Yule), [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/109/mode/1up)(Devic), [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/82/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger);; [harmala](https://books.google.com/books?id=GHaGxm4TZ5wC&q=harmala&pg=PR3)(Tazi), [harmale](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/137/mode/1up)(Devic), [harmala](https://books.google.com/books?id=INtzYGQOlFoC&q=Arabic)(other), [harmala](https://archive.org/download/EnglishWordsThatAreOfArabicEtymologicalAncestry/English-words-that-are-of-Arabic-etymological-ancestry.htm#HarmalaRef)(more details);; [(Salsola) kali](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/kali)(F), [kali \\= a marine littoral plant, an Arabic name](https://books.google.com/books?id=7s28XX0mqAUC&pg=PT105)(Simon of Genoa year 1292 in Latin, also in Matthaeus Silvaticus);; [mahaleb](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/mahaleb)(F), [mahaleb](https://books.google.com/books?id=PuEOAAAAQAAJ&q=mahaleb&pg=PA367)(Ibn al\\-Awwam), [mahaleb](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_315)(Matthaeus Silvaticus year 1317\\);; [mathil\\-\\>metel](http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/dec2007/1227.pdf)(other), [metel](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/163/mode/1up)(Devic), [nux methel](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/251/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger), [جوز ماثل *jūz māthil*](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_156.html)(Ibn Sina);; [mezereum](http://dictionary.com/browse/mezereum)(R), [mézéréon](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/163/mode/1up)(Devic), [mezereon](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n177/mode/1up)(Alphita: see editor's footnote quoting Matthaeus Silvaticus and John Gerarde), spelled مازريون *māzarīūn* in Ibn Sina and Ibn al\\-Baitar;; [sambac](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/201/mode/1up)(Devic), [zambacca](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/235/mode/1up)(synonyms of Petrus de Abano, died c. 1316\\), [sambacus](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58660f/f257.image)(Simon of Genoa), [زنبق \\= دهن الياسمين](http://www.baheth.info/) (*zanbaq* in *Lisan al\\-Arab*);; [sebesten](https://books.google.com/books?id=4FwKM83UA9cC&q=sebesten)(other), [sebesten](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/205/mode/1up)(Devic), [sebesten](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/166/mode/1up)(Alphita) (*sebesten* in late medieval Latin referred to *[Cordia myxa](/wiki/Cordia_myxa \"Cordia myxa\")*, not *[Cordia sebestena](/wiki/Cordia_sebestena \"Cordia sebestena\")*, and the medieval Arabic سبستان *sebestān* was Cordia myxa);; [turpeth](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/turbith)(F), [turpeth](http://dictionary.com/browse/Turpeth)(R);; [zedoaria](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/z%C3%A9doaire)(F), [zedoaria](http://dictionary.com/browse/Zedoary)(R);; [zérumbet](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/zérumbet)(F), zerumbet is from medieval Latin *[zurumbet](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_197) \\| [zurumbeth](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/119/mode/1up) \\| [zerumbet](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_410)* which is from Arabic زرنباد *[zurunbād](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/book-two.html) \\| [zarunbād](https://archive.org/stream/lelivredelartdu00guiggoog#page/n282/mode/1up)*. The great majority of the above plant names can be seen in Latin in the late\\-13th\\-century medical\\-botany dictionary *Synonyma Medicinae* by Simon of Genoa [(online)](https://books.google.com/books?id=7s28XX0mqAUC) and in the mid\\-15th\\-century Latin medical\\-botany dictionary called the *Alphita* [(online)](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n60/mode/1up); and the few that are not in either of those two dictionaries can be seen in Latin in the book on medicaments by Serapion the Younger circa 1300 [(online)](https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000818200). None of the names are found in Latin in early medieval or classical Latin botany or medicine books \\-\\- partially excepting a complication over the name *harmala*, and excepting *galanga* and *zedoaria* because they have Latin records beginning in the 9th or 10th centuries. In other words nearly all the names were introduced to Latin in the later\\-medieval period, specifically from the late 11th through late 13th centuries. Most early Latin users lived in Italy. All of the names, without exception, are in the Arabic\\-to\\-Latin medical translations of [Constantinus Africanus](/wiki/Constantinus_Africanus \"Constantinus Africanus\") (died c. 1087\\) and/or [Gerardus Cremonensis](/wiki/Gerardus_Cremonensis \"Gerardus Cremonensis\") (died c. 1187\\) and/or [Serapion the Younger](/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger \"Serapion the Younger\") (dated later 13th century Latin). The Arabic predecessors of the great majority of the names can be seen in Arabic as entries in Part Two of *The Canon of Medicine* of Ibn Sina, dated about 1025 in Arabic, which became a widely circulated book in Latin medical circles in the 13th and 14th centuries: an Arabic copy is at [DDC.AUB.edu.lb](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/book-two.html). All of the Arabic predecessor plant\\-names without exception, and usually with better descriptions of the plants (compared to Ibn Sina's descriptions), are in [Ibn al\\-Baitar](/wiki/Ibn_al-Baitar \"Ibn al-Baitar\")'s *Comprehensive Book of Simple Medicines and Foods*, dated about 1245, which was not translated to Latin in the medieval era but was published in the 19th century in German, French, and Arabic – an Arabic copy is at [Al\\-Mostafa.com](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf) and at [AlWaraq.net](http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/AlwaraqSrv/bookpage?book=269&fkey=2&page=1&option=1).", "Over ninety percent of those botanical names were introduced to medieval Latin in a herbal medicine context. They include names of medicinal plants from Tropical Asia for which there had been no prior Latin or Greek name, such as azedarach, bellerica, cubeba, emblica, galanga, metel, turpethum, zedoaria and zerumbet. Another sizeable portion are ultimately Iranian names of medicinal plants of Iran. The Arabic\\-to\\-Latin translation of Ibn Sina's *[The Canon of Medicine](/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine \"The Canon of Medicine\")* helped establish many Arabic plant names in later medieval Latin. A book about medicating agents by [Serapion the Younger](/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger \"Serapion the Younger\") containing hundreds of Arabic botanical names circulated in Latin among [apothecaries](/wiki/Apothecaries \"Apothecaries\") in the 14th and 15th centuries.[\"Les Noms Arabes Dans Sérapion, *Liber de Simplici Medicina*\"](https://archive.org/stream/s10journalasiatiq05sociuoft#page/473/mode/1up), by Pierre Guigues, published in 1905 in *Journal Asiatique*, Series X, tome V, pages 473–546, continued in tome VI, pages 49–112\\. Medieval Arabic botany was primarily concerned with the use of plants for medicines. In a modern etymology analysis of one medieval Arabic list of medicines, the names of the medicines —primarily plant names— were assessed to be 31% ancient Mesopotamian names, 23% Greek names, 18% Persian, 13% Indian (often via Persian), 5% uniquely Arabic, and 3% [Egyptian](/wiki/Egyptian_language \"Egyptian language\"), with the remaining 7% of unassessable origin.Analysis of herbal medicine plant\\-names by Martin Levey reported by him in \"Chapter III: Botanonymy\" in his 1973 book [*Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LtYUAAAAIAAJ).", "The Italian botanist [Prospero Alpini](/wiki/Prospero_Alpini \"Prospero Alpini\") stayed in Egypt for several years in the 1580s. He introduced to Latin botany from Arabic from Egypt the names ***[Abrus](/wiki/Abrus \"Abrus\"), [Abelmoschus](/wiki/Abelmoschus \"Abelmoschus\"), [Lablab](/wiki/Lablab \"Lablab\"), [Melochia](/wiki/Melochia \"Melochia\")***, each of which designated plants that were unknown to Western European botanists before Alpini, plants native to tropical Asia that were grown with artificial irrigation in Egypt at the time.Each discussed in [*Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yq0YhE8RM0kC&pg=PA32), by Helmut Genaust, year 1996\\. Another Arabic botanical name introduced by Prospero Alpini from Egypt was *Sesban* meaning *[Sesbania sesban](/wiki/Sesbania_sesban \"Sesbania sesban\")* from synonymous Arabic سيسبان *saīsabān \\| saīsbān* (Lammens 1890; Ibn al\\-Baitar). The Latin botanical *Abrus* is the parent of the chemical name [Abrin](/wiki/Abrin \"Abrin\"); see [*abrine* @ CNRTL.fr](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/abrine). The Arabic لبلاب *lablāb* means any kind of climbing and twisting plant. The Latin and English *Lablab* is a certain vigorously climbing and twisting bean plant. Prospero Alpini called the plant in Latin *phaseolus niger lablab* \\= \"lablab black bean\". Prospero Alpini published his *De Plantis Aegypti* in 1592\\. It was republished in 1640 with supplements by other botanists – [*De Plantis Aegypti*, 1640](https://books.google.com/books?id=zdwTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR2). *De Plantis Exoticis* by Prospero Alpini (died 1617\\) was published in 1639 – [ref](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000810199#page/n0/mode/2up).", "In the early 1760s [Peter Forsskål](/wiki/Peter_Forssk%C3%A5l \"Peter Forsskål\") systematically cataloged plants and fishes in the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\") area. For genera and species that did not already have Latin names, Forsskål used the common Arabic names as the scientific names. This became the international standard for most of what he cataloged. Forsskål's Latinized Arabic plant genus names include ***[Aerva](/wiki/Aerva \"Aerva\"), [Arnebia](/wiki/Arnebia \"Arnebia\"), [Cadaba](/wiki/Cadaba \"Cadaba\"), [Ceruana](/wiki/Ceruana \"Ceruana\"), [Maerua](/wiki/Maerua \"Maerua\"), [Maesa](/wiki/Maesa \"Maesa\"), [Themeda](/wiki/Themeda \"Themeda\")***, and others.A list of 43 of Forsskål's Latinized Arabic fish names is at [Baheyeldin.com/linguistics](http://baheyeldin.com/linguistics/forsskaal-arabic-species-names-fish-taxonomy.html). Forsskål was a student of Arabic language as well as of taxonomy. His published journals contain the underlying Arabic names as well as his Latinizations of them (downloadable from links at the Wikipedia [Peter Forsskål](/wiki/Peter_Forssk%C3%A5l \"Peter Forsskål\") page).", "Some additional miscellaneous botanical names with Arabic ancestry include ***[Abutilon](/wiki/Abutilon \"Abutilon\"), [Alchemilla](/wiki/Alchemilla \"Alchemilla\"), [Alhagi](/wiki/Alhagi \"Alhagi\"), [Argania](/wiki/Argania \"Argania\"), [argel](/wiki/Solenostemma_arghel \"Solenostemma arghel\"), [Averrhoa](/wiki/Averrhoa \"Averrhoa\"), [Avicennia](/wiki/Avicennia \"Avicennia\"), [azarolus](/wiki/Crataegus_azarolus \"Crataegus azarolus\") *\\+ [acerola](/wiki/Acerola_cherry \"Acerola cherry\")*, [bonduc](/wiki/Caesalpinia_bonduc \"Caesalpinia bonduc\"), [lebbeck](/wiki/Albizia_lebbeck \"Albizia lebbeck\"), [Retama](/wiki/Retama \"Retama\"), [seyal](/wiki/Acacia_seyal \"Acacia seyal\").***Most of those miscellaneous botanical names are discussed in [*Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yZL3BQAAQBAJ), by Helmut Genaust, year 1996\\. About half of them are in [*Dictionnaire Étymologique Des Mots Français D'Origine Orientale*](https://archive.org/details/dictionnairety00devi), by L. Marcel Devic, year 1876\\. The following are supplemental notes. The names *argel* and *seyal* were introduced to scientific botany nomenclature from الحرجل *harjel* and سيال *seyāl* in the early 19th century by the botanist [Delile](/wiki/Alire_Raffeneau_Delile \"Alire Raffeneau Delile\"), who had visited North Africa. *Retama* comes from an old Spanish name for broom bushes and the Spanish name is from medieval Arabic رتم *ratam* with the same meaning – [ref](http://dle.rae.es/?id=WGF1AZr), [ref](https://archive.org/stream/oed8aarch#page/n578/mode/1up). *Acerola* is from tropical [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\") Spanish *acerola* \\= \"acerola cherry\" which is from medieval Spanish and Portuguese *acerola \\| azerola \\| azarola* \\= \"[azarole hawthorn](/wiki/Azarole \"Azarole\")\" which is from medieval Arabic الزعرور *al\\-zoʿrūr* \\= \"azarole hawthorn\" – [ref](http://dictionary.com/browse/acerola), [ref](http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/acerola). *Alchimilla* appears in 16th century Europe with the same core meaning as today's *Alchemilla* [(e.g.)](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/alchimille). Reporters on *Alchemilla* agree it is from Arabic although they do not agree on how. (List incomplete).", "### Arabic textile words", "The list above included the six textile fabric names cotton, damask, gauze, macramé, mohair, \\& muslin, and the three textile dye names anil, crimson/kermes, and safflower, and the garment names jumper and sash. The following are three lesser\\-used textile words that were not listed: **[camlet](/wiki/Camlet \"Camlet\")**,In late medieval English, *chamelet \\| chamlet* was a costly fabric and was typically an import from the Near East – [MED](http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/m/mec/med-idx?type=id&id=MED7207&egs=all), [NED](https://archive.org/stream/oed02arch#page/50/mode/1up). Today spelled \"camlet\", it is synonymous with French *camelot* which the French [CNRTL.fr](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/camelot) says is \"from Arabic *khamlāt*, plural of *khamla*, meaning [plush](/wiki/Plush \"Plush\") woollen cloth.... The stuff was made in the Orient and introduced to the Occident at the same time as the word.\" The historian Wilhelm Heyd (1886\\) says: \"The \\[medieval] Arabic *khamla* meant cloth with a long [nap](/wiki/Nap_%28textile%29 \"Nap (textile)\"), cloth with a lot of [plush](/wiki/Plush \"Plush\"). This is the common character of all the camlets \\[of the late medieval Latins]. They could be made from diverse materials.... Some were made from fine goat hair.\" – [*Histoire du commerce du Levant au moyen\\-âge*](https://archive.org/stream/histoireducomme00heydgoog#page/n716/mode/1up), Volume 2 pages 703–705, by W. Heyd, year 1886\\. The medieval Arabic word was also in the form *khamīla*. Definitions of خملة *khamla* \\| خميلة *khamīla*, and the plural *khamlāt*, taken from medieval Arabic dictionaries are in [Lane's *Arabic\\-English Lexicon* page 813](http://dict.yulghun.com/lane/) and in the [*Lisan al\\-Arab* under خمل *khaml*](http://www.baheth.info/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ \\|date\\=29 October 2013 }}. **[morocco leather](/wiki/Morocco_leather \"Morocco leather\")**,The English word morocco, meaning a type of leather, is a refreshed spelling of early 16th\\-century English *maroquin*, from 15th\\-century French *maroquin* meaning a soft flexible leather of goat\\-skin made in the country of Morocco, or similar leather made anywhere, with *maroquin* literally meaning \"Moroccan, from Morocco\". [Maroquin @ NED](https://archive.org/stream/oed6barch#page/179/mode/1up), [morocco @ NED](https://archive.org/stream/oed6barch#page/668/mode/1up), [maroquin @ CNRTL.fr](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/maroquin), [FEW XIX](https://apps.atilf.fr/lecteurFEW/lire/190/121). and **[tabby](/wiki/Tabby_weave \"Tabby weave\")**. Those have established Arabic ancestry. The following are six textile fabric words whose ancestry is not established and not adequately in evidence, but Arabic ancestry is entertained by many reporters. Five of the six have Late Medieval start dates in the Western languages and the sixth started in the 16th century. **[Buckram](/wiki/Buckram \"Buckram\")**, **[Chiffon](/wiki/Chiffon_%28fabric%29 \"Chiffon (fabric)\")**, **[Fustian](/wiki/Fustian \"Fustian\")**, **[Gabardine](/wiki/Gabardine \"Gabardine\")**, **[Satin](/wiki/Satin \"Satin\")**, and [**Wadding** (padding)](/wiki/Wadding \"Wadding\"). The fabric **[Taffeta](/wiki/Taffeta \"Taffeta\")** has provenance in 14th\\-century French, Italian, Catalan, Spanish, and English, and today it is often guessed to come ultimately from a Persian word for woven (*tāftah*), and it might have Arabic intermediation. **[Fustic](/wiki/Fustic_%28disambiguation%29 \"Fustic (disambiguation)\")** is a textile dye. The name is traceable to late medieval Spanish *fustet* dye, which is often guessed to be from an Arabic source.Fustic in the late medieval centuries was a dye from the wood of a Mediterranean tree. After the discovery of America, a better, more durable dye from a tree wood was found, and given the same name. The late medieval fustic came from the *[Rhus cotinus](/wiki/Rhus_cotinus \"Rhus cotinus\")* tree. \"*Rhus cotinus* wood was treated in warm \\[or boiling] water; a yellow infusion was obtained which on contact with air turned into brown; with acids it becomes greenish yellow and with alkalies orange; in combination with iron salts, especially with ferrous sulphate a greenish\\-black was produced.\" – [*The Art of Dyeing in the History of Mankind*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MI-vbcXDdssC), by Franco Brunello, year 1973 page 382\\. The earliest record of the word as a dye in the Western languages is in 13th\\-century Spanish as *\"fustet\"*, followed by 14th\\-century French as *\"fustet\"* and *\"fustel\"* – [CNRTL.fr](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/fustet), [DMF](http://atilf.atilf.fr/scripts/dmfX.exe?IDF=complXrmYXbcjbe;ISIS=isis_dmf2012.txt;;XMODE=STELLa;;). Medieval Spanish had *alfóstigo* \\= \"[pistachio](/wiki/Pistachio \"Pistachio\")\", medieval Catalan *festuc* \\= \"pistachio, which were from Arabic فستق *(al\\-)fustuq* \\= \"pistachio\". Medieval Arabic additionally had *fustuqī* as a color name, yellow\\-green like the pistachio nut [(e.g.)](https://archive.org/stream/ArabicEnglishLexicon.CopiousEasternSources.EnlargedSuppl.Kamoos.Lane.Poole.1863/06.ArabicEnglLex.v1p6.let.19.20.Ghayin.Fa.Lane-Poole.1877.#page/n178/mode/1up), [(e.g.)](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf), [(e.g.)](http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/SearchServlet/searchall?book=-1&option=1&offset=1&searchtext=2YHYs9iq2YLZig==&WordForm=1&RangeOp=-1). Many dictionaries today report that the Spanish dye name somehow came from this medieval Arabic word. But the proponents of this idea do not cite evidence of *fustuq* carrying the dye meaning in Arabic. The use of the word as a dye in medieval Arabic is not recorded under the entry for *fustuq* in [*A Dictionary of Andalusi Arabic* (1997\\)](https://books.google.com/books?id=D2H8kOFNJbgC&q=fustic) nor under the entries for *fustuq* in the medieval Arabic dictionaries – [Lane's *Arabic\\-English Lexicon*, page 2395](http://dict.yulghun.com/lane/), [Baheth.info](http://www.baheth.info/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ \\|date\\=29 October 2013 }}. This suggests that the use of the word as a dye may have started in Spanish. From a phonetic angle the medieval Spanish and French *fustet* is a diminutive of the medieval Spanish and French *fuste* \\= \"boards of wood, timber\", which was from classical Latin *fustis* \\= \"wooden stick\" – [DRAE](http://dle.rae.es/?id=IebP6I4), [Du Cange](http://ducange.enc.sorbonne.fr/fustis). From the semantic angle, since most names of natural dyes referred to both the plant that produces the dye and the dye itself, *fustet* meaning \"little pieces of wood\" can plausibly beget the dye name *fustet*. The semantic transformation from \"pistachio\" to \"fustic dye\" is poorly understood, assuming it happened. [*New English Dictionary on Historical Principles* (year 1901\\)](https://archive.org/stream/oed04arch#page/n638/mode/1up) says \"the name was transferred from the pistachio \\[tree] to the closely allied *Rhus cotinus*\". But the two trees are not closely allied. **[Carthamin](/wiki/Carthamin \"Carthamin\")** is another old textile dye. Its name was borrowed in the late medieval West from Arabic قرطم *qartam \\| qirtim \\| qurtum* \\= \"the carthamin dye plant or its seeds\".\"Carthamin\" and \"Carthamus\" in [*New English Dictionary on Historical Principles*](https://archive.org/stream/oed02arch#page/139/mode/1up) (year 1893\\). Similarly summarized in [CNRTL.fr (French)](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/carthame) and [*Diccionario RAE* (Spanish)](http://dle.rae.es/?id=7jfNpl9). For the word in medieval Arabic see [قرطم @ Baheth.info](http://www.baheth.info/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ \\|date\\=29 October 2013 }} (see also عصفر *ʿusfur*), [قرطم @ Ibn al\\-Awwam](https://books.google.com/books?id=daZEAAAAcAAJ&q=alazor) and [قرطم @ Ibn al\\-Baitar](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf). The textile industry was the largest manufacturing industry in the Arabic\\-speaking lands in the medieval and early modern eras.", "### Arabic cuisine words", "The following words are from Arabic, although some of them have entered Western European languages via other languages. **[Baba ghanoush](/wiki/Baba_ghanoush \"Baba ghanoush\"), [Falafel](/wiki/Falafel \"Falafel\"), [Fattoush](/wiki/Fattoush \"Fattoush\"), [Halva](/wiki/Halva \"Halva\"), [Hummus](/wiki/Hummus \"Hummus\"), [Kibbeh](/wiki/Kibbeh \"Kibbeh\"), [Kebab](/wiki/Kebab \"Kebab\"), [Lahmacun](/wiki/Lahmacun \"Lahmacun\"), [Shawarma](/wiki/Shawarma \"Shawarma\"), [Tabouleh](/wiki/Tabouleh \"Tabouleh\"), [Tahini](/wiki/Tahini \"Tahini\"), [Za'atar](/wiki/Za%27atar \"Za'atar\")** . Some cuisine words of lesser circulation are **[Ful medames](/wiki/Ful_medames \"Ful medames\"), [Kabsa](/wiki/Kabsa \"Kabsa\"), [Kushari](/wiki/Kushari \"Kushari\"), [Labneh](/wiki/Labneh \"Labneh\"), [Mahleb](/wiki/Mahleb \"Mahleb\"), [Mulukhiyah](/wiki/Mulukhiyah \"Mulukhiyah\"), [Ma'amoul](/wiki/Ma%27amoul \"Ma'amoul\"), [Mansaf](/wiki/Mansaf \"Mansaf\"), [Shanklish](/wiki/Shanklish \"Shanklish\"), [Tepsi Baytinijan](/wiki/Tepsi_Baytinijan \"Tepsi Baytinijan\")** . For more see [Arab cuisine](/wiki/Arab_cuisine \"Arab cuisine\"). Middle Eastern cuisine words were rare before 1970 in English, being mostly confined to travellers' reports. Usage increased rapidly in the 1970s for certain words.", "### Arabic music words", "Some words used in English in talking about Arabic music: **[Ataba](/wiki/Ataba \"Ataba\"), [Baladi](/wiki/Baladi \"Baladi\"), [Dabke](/wiki/Dabke \"Dabke\"), [Darbouka](/wiki/Darbouka \"Darbouka\"), [Jins](/wiki/Jins \"Jins\"), [Khaleeji](/wiki/Khaliji_%28music%29 \"Khaliji (music)\"), [Maqam](/wiki/Arabian_maqam \"Arabian maqam\"), [Mawal](/wiki/Mawwal \"Mawwal\"), [Mizmar](/wiki/Mizmar_%28instrument%29 \"Mizmar (instrument)\"), [Oud](/wiki/Oud \"Oud\"), [Qanun](/wiki/Kanun_%28instrument%29 \"Kanun (instrument)\"), [Raï](/wiki/Ra%C3%AF \"Raï\"), [Raqs sharqi](/wiki/Raqs_sharqi \"Raqs sharqi\"), [Taqsim](/wiki/Taqsim \"Taqsim\").**", "### Arabic place names", "{{Main\\|List of Arabic place names}}", "" ]
### Arabic botanical names The following plant names entered medieval Latin texts from Arabic. Today, in descent from the medieval Latin, they are international systematic classification names (commonly known as "Latin" names): ***[Azadirachta](/wiki/Azadirachta "Azadirachta"), [Berberis](/wiki/Berberis "Berberis"), [Cakile](/wiki/Cakile "Cakile"), [Carthamus](/wiki/Carthamus "Carthamus"), [Cuscuta](/wiki/Cuscuta "Cuscuta"), [Doronicum](/wiki/Doronicum "Doronicum"), [Galanga](/wiki/Galanga "Galanga"), [Musa](/wiki/Musa_%28genus%29 "Musa (genus)"), [Nuphar](/wiki/Nuphar "Nuphar"), [Ribes](/wiki/Ribes "Ribes"), [Senna](/wiki/Senna_%28plant%29 "Senna (plant)"), [Taraxacum](/wiki/Taraxacum "Taraxacum"), [Usnea](/wiki/Usnea "Usnea"),** [Physalis **alkekengi**](/wiki/Physalis_alkekengi "Physalis alkekengi"), [Melia **azedarach**](/wiki/Melia_azedarach "Melia azedarach"), [Centaurea **behen**](/wiki/Centaurea_behen "Centaurea behen"), [Terminalia **bellerica**](/wiki/Terminalia_bellerica "Terminalia bellerica"), [Terminalia **chebula**](/wiki/Terminalia_chebula "Terminalia chebula"), [Cheiranthus **cheiri**](/wiki/Cheiranthus_cheiri "Cheiranthus cheiri"), [Piper **cubeba**](/wiki/Piper_cubeba "Piper cubeba"), [Phyllanthus **emblica**](/wiki/Phyllanthus_emblica "Phyllanthus emblica"), [Peganum **harmala**](/wiki/Peganum_harmala "Peganum harmala"), [Salsola **kali**](/wiki/Salsola_kali "Salsola kali"), [Prunus **mahaleb**](/wiki/Prunus_mahaleb "Prunus mahaleb"), [Datura **metel**](/wiki/Datura_metel "Datura metel"), [Daphne **mezereum**](/wiki/Daphne_mezereum "Daphne mezereum"), [Rheum **ribes**](/wiki/Rheum_ribes "Rheum ribes"), [Jasminum **sambac**](/wiki/Jasminum_sambac "Jasminum sambac"), [Cordia **sebestena**](/wiki/Cordia_sebestena "Cordia sebestena"), [Operculina **turpethum**](/wiki/Operculina_turpethum "Operculina turpethum"), [Curcuma **zedoaria**](/wiki/Curcuma_zedoaria "Curcuma zedoaria"), [Alpinia **zerumbet**](/wiki/Alpinia_zerumbet "Alpinia zerumbet") \+ [Zingiber **zerumbet**](/wiki/Zingiber_zerumbet "Zingiber zerumbet").* (List incomplete.)References for the medieval Arabic sources and medieval Latin borrowings of those plant names are as follows. Ones marked "(F)" go to the French dictionary at *Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales*, ones marked "(R)" go to *Random House Dictionary*, and other references are identified with terse labels: [Berberis](http://dictionary.com/browse/barberry)(R), [انبرباريس *anbarbārīs* \= Berberis](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_131.html)(Ibn Sina), [امبرباريس *ambarbārīs* \= Berberis](https://books.google.com/books?id=QbBCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA79)(Ibn Al\-Baitar), [الأمبرباريس *al\-ambarbārīs* is also called البرباريس *al\-barbārīs*](http://www.baheth.info) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ \|date\=29 October 2013 }}(Fairuzabadi's dictionary), [Galen uses name *"Oxyacantha"* for Berberis](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000817749#page/1144/mode/1up)(John Gerarde), [Arabic *amiberberis* \= Latin *Berberis*](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_51)(Matthaeus Silvaticus), [Berberis is frequent in Constantinus Africanus](https://books.google.com/books?id=etFaAAAAcAAJ&q=berberis&pg=PR3) (Constantinus Africanus was the introducer of plantname Berberis into medieval Latin), [Berberis](https://books.google.com/books?id=GHaGxm4TZ5wC&dq=berberis&pg=PA93)(Raja Tazi 1998\), [Barberry](https://archive.org/stream/etymologicaldict00skeauoft#page/51/mode/1up)(Skeat 1888\);; [Cakile](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/68/mode/1up)(Henri Lammens 1890\), [Cakile](https://archive.org/stream/s10journalasiatiq05sociuoft#page/503/mode/1up)(Pierre Guigues 1905\), [Kakile Serapionis](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000817749#page/192/mode/1up)(John Gerarde 1597\), [Chakile](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/69/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger, medieval Latin);; for *Carthamus* see [Carthamin](/wiki/%23CarthaminRef "#CarthaminRef");; [Cuscute](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/cuscute)(F), [Cuscuta](http://etimologias.dechile.net/?cuscuta) (Etimología), spelled كشوث *kushūth* in Ibn al\-Baitar;; [Doronicum](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/doronic)(F), [Doronicum](http://dictionary.com/browse/doronicum)(R), spelled درونج *dorūnaj* in Ibn al\-Baitar;; [Garingal \& Galanga](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/garingal)(F), [Galingale \& Galanga](https://archive.org/stream/oed04arch#page/n660/mode/1up)(NED);; [Musa](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/171/mode/1up)(Devic), [Musa](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n186/mode/1up)(Alphita), [موز *mauz*](https://books.google.com/books?id=lb8TAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA535)(Ibn al\-Baitar), [Muse \#4 and Musa](https://archive.org/stream/oed6barch#page/780/mode/1up)(NED);; [Nuphar (nénuphar)](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/nenuphar)(F), [Nénuphar](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/181/mode/1up)(Lammens);; [Ribès](https://archive.org/stream/lelivredelartdu00guiggoog#page/n54/mode/1up)(Pierre Guigues 1903 in preface to translation of Najm al\-Din Mahmud (died 1330\)), [Ribes](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/205/mode/1up)(Lammens 1890\), the meaning of late medieval Latin *ribes* was *[Rheum ribes](/wiki/Rheum_ribes "Rheum ribes")* – [e.g.](https://archive.org/stream/inantidotariumi01paglgoog#page/n433/mode/1up) [e.g.](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060715/image_316) – and the medieval Arabic ريباس *rībās* had the very same meaning – [e.g.](http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/SearchServlet/searchone?docid=269&searchtext=2LHZitio2KfYsw==&option=1&offset=1&WordForm=1&exactpage=325&totalpages=1&AllOffset=1) ;; [Senna](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/s%C3%A9n%C3%A9)(F), [Senna](http://dictionary.com/browse/senna)(R), [Séné](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/219/mode/1up)(Lammens), *Sene* in Alphita, السنى *al\-sanā* and السني *al\-senī* in Ibn al\-Baitar;; [Taraxacum](https://archive.org/stream/etymologicaldict00skeauoft#page/624/mode/1up)(Skeat), [Ataraxacon](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n81/mode/1up)(Alphita), [Taraxacum](http://dictionary.com/browse/taraxacum)(R);; [Usnea](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/usn%C3%A9e)(F), [Usnea](http://dictionary.com/browse/usnea)(R), [Usnee](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_191)(Simon of Genoa), [Usnée](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/244/mode/1up)(Lammens);; [alkekengi](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/alk%C3%A9kenge)(F), [alkekengi](http://dictionary.com/browse/alkekengi)(R);; [azedarach](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/azedarach)(F), [azedarach](https://books.google.com/books?id=MiNWi1g3fJ4C&dq=azedarach&pg=PA144)(Garland Cannon), [azadarach \+ azedarach](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_75)(Matthaeus Silvaticus anno 1317\), [*azedarach* produced *Azadirachta*](https://archive.org/download/EnglishWordsThatAreOfArabicEtymologicalAncestry/English-words-that-are-of-Arabic-etymological-ancestry.htm#AzedarachRef);; [béhen](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/63/mode/1up)(Devic, year 1876\), [Behemen \= behen \= behem](https://books.google.com/books?id=lIJDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA54-IA5) says Matthaeus Silvaticus (year 1317\); this name is بهمن *behmen \| bahman* in [Ibn al\-Baitar](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf) and [Ibn Sina](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_141.html);; [bellerica](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up/)(Yule), [bellerica](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairetym00devigoog#page/n92/mode/1up/)(Devic), [beliligi \= belirici \= bellerici](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_35)(Simon of Genoa), بليلج *belīlej* in Ibn al\-Baitar;; [chebula](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up)(Yule), [kebulus \= chebulae](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n182/mode/1up)(Alphita), [chébule](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/92/mode/1up)(Devic);; [cheiranthe](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/109/mode/1up)(Devic), [keiri](https://archive.org/stream/newenglishdicpt205murruoft#page/668/mode/1up)(NED), [خيري *kheīrī*](https://books.google.com/books?id=daZEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA266)(Ibn al\-Awwam);; [cubeba](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/cub%C3%A8be)(F), [cubeba](http://dictionary.com/browse/cubeb)(R);; [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up)(Yule), [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/109/mode/1up)(Devic), [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/82/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger);; [harmala](https://books.google.com/books?id=GHaGxm4TZ5wC&q=harmala&pg=PR3)(Tazi), [harmale](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/137/mode/1up)(Devic), [harmala](https://books.google.com/books?id=INtzYGQOlFoC&q=Arabic)(other), [harmala](https://archive.org/download/EnglishWordsThatAreOfArabicEtymologicalAncestry/English-words-that-are-of-Arabic-etymological-ancestry.htm#HarmalaRef)(more details);; [(Salsola) kali](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/kali)(F), [kali \= a marine littoral plant, an Arabic name](https://books.google.com/books?id=7s28XX0mqAUC&pg=PT105)(Simon of Genoa year 1292 in Latin, also in Matthaeus Silvaticus);; [mahaleb](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/mahaleb)(F), [mahaleb](https://books.google.com/books?id=PuEOAAAAQAAJ&q=mahaleb&pg=PA367)(Ibn al\-Awwam), [mahaleb](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_315)(Matthaeus Silvaticus year 1317\);; [mathil\-\>metel](http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/dec2007/1227.pdf)(other), [metel](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/163/mode/1up)(Devic), [nux methel](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/251/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger), [جوز ماثل *jūz māthil*](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_156.html)(Ibn Sina);; [mezereum](http://dictionary.com/browse/mezereum)(R), [mézéréon](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/163/mode/1up)(Devic), [mezereon](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n177/mode/1up)(Alphita: see editor's footnote quoting Matthaeus Silvaticus and John Gerarde), spelled مازريون *māzarīūn* in Ibn Sina and Ibn al\-Baitar;; [sambac](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/201/mode/1up)(Devic), [zambacca](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/235/mode/1up)(synonyms of Petrus de Abano, died c. 1316\), [sambacus](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58660f/f257.image)(Simon of Genoa), [زنبق \= دهن الياسمين](http://www.baheth.info/) (*zanbaq* in *Lisan al\-Arab*);; [sebesten](https://books.google.com/books?id=4FwKM83UA9cC&q=sebesten)(other), [sebesten](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/205/mode/1up)(Devic), [sebesten](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/166/mode/1up)(Alphita) (*sebesten* in late medieval Latin referred to *[Cordia myxa](/wiki/Cordia_myxa "Cordia myxa")*, not *[Cordia sebestena](/wiki/Cordia_sebestena "Cordia sebestena")*, and the medieval Arabic سبستان *sebestān* was Cordia myxa);; [turpeth](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/turbith)(F), [turpeth](http://dictionary.com/browse/Turpeth)(R);; [zedoaria](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/z%C3%A9doaire)(F), [zedoaria](http://dictionary.com/browse/Zedoary)(R);; [zérumbet](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/zérumbet)(F), zerumbet is from medieval Latin *[zurumbet](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_197) \| [zurumbeth](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/119/mode/1up) \| [zerumbet](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_410)* which is from Arabic زرنباد *[zurunbād](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/book-two.html) \| [zarunbād](https://archive.org/stream/lelivredelartdu00guiggoog#page/n282/mode/1up)*. The great majority of the above plant names can be seen in Latin in the late\-13th\-century medical\-botany dictionary *Synonyma Medicinae* by Simon of Genoa [(online)](https://books.google.com/books?id=7s28XX0mqAUC) and in the mid\-15th\-century Latin medical\-botany dictionary called the *Alphita* [(online)](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n60/mode/1up); and the few that are not in either of those two dictionaries can be seen in Latin in the book on medicaments by Serapion the Younger circa 1300 [(online)](https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000818200). None of the names are found in Latin in early medieval or classical Latin botany or medicine books \-\- partially excepting a complication over the name *harmala*, and excepting *galanga* and *zedoaria* because they have Latin records beginning in the 9th or 10th centuries. In other words nearly all the names were introduced to Latin in the later\-medieval period, specifically from the late 11th through late 13th centuries. Most early Latin users lived in Italy. All of the names, without exception, are in the Arabic\-to\-Latin medical translations of [Constantinus Africanus](/wiki/Constantinus_Africanus "Constantinus Africanus") (died c. 1087\) and/or [Gerardus Cremonensis](/wiki/Gerardus_Cremonensis "Gerardus Cremonensis") (died c. 1187\) and/or [Serapion the Younger](/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger "Serapion the Younger") (dated later 13th century Latin). The Arabic predecessors of the great majority of the names can be seen in Arabic as entries in Part Two of *The Canon of Medicine* of Ibn Sina, dated about 1025 in Arabic, which became a widely circulated book in Latin medical circles in the 13th and 14th centuries: an Arabic copy is at [DDC.AUB.edu.lb](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/book-two.html). All of the Arabic predecessor plant\-names without exception, and usually with better descriptions of the plants (compared to Ibn Sina's descriptions), are in [Ibn al\-Baitar](/wiki/Ibn_al-Baitar "Ibn al-Baitar")'s *Comprehensive Book of Simple Medicines and Foods*, dated about 1245, which was not translated to Latin in the medieval era but was published in the 19th century in German, French, and Arabic – an Arabic copy is at [Al\-Mostafa.com](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf) and at [AlWaraq.net](http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/AlwaraqSrv/bookpage?book=269&fkey=2&page=1&option=1). Over ninety percent of those botanical names were introduced to medieval Latin in a herbal medicine context. They include names of medicinal plants from Tropical Asia for which there had been no prior Latin or Greek name, such as azedarach, bellerica, cubeba, emblica, galanga, metel, turpethum, zedoaria and zerumbet. Another sizeable portion are ultimately Iranian names of medicinal plants of Iran. The Arabic\-to\-Latin translation of Ibn Sina's *[The Canon of Medicine](/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine "The Canon of Medicine")* helped establish many Arabic plant names in later medieval Latin. A book about medicating agents by [Serapion the Younger](/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger "Serapion the Younger") containing hundreds of Arabic botanical names circulated in Latin among [apothecaries](/wiki/Apothecaries "Apothecaries") in the 14th and 15th centuries.["Les Noms Arabes Dans Sérapion, *Liber de Simplici Medicina*"](https://archive.org/stream/s10journalasiatiq05sociuoft#page/473/mode/1up), by Pierre Guigues, published in 1905 in *Journal Asiatique*, Series X, tome V, pages 473–546, continued in tome VI, pages 49–112\. Medieval Arabic botany was primarily concerned with the use of plants for medicines. In a modern etymology analysis of one medieval Arabic list of medicines, the names of the medicines —primarily plant names— were assessed to be 31% ancient Mesopotamian names, 23% Greek names, 18% Persian, 13% Indian (often via Persian), 5% uniquely Arabic, and 3% [Egyptian](/wiki/Egyptian_language "Egyptian language"), with the remaining 7% of unassessable origin.Analysis of herbal medicine plant\-names by Martin Levey reported by him in "Chapter III: Botanonymy" in his 1973 book [*Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LtYUAAAAIAAJ). The Italian botanist [Prospero Alpini](/wiki/Prospero_Alpini "Prospero Alpini") stayed in Egypt for several years in the 1580s. He introduced to Latin botany from Arabic from Egypt the names ***[Abrus](/wiki/Abrus "Abrus"), [Abelmoschus](/wiki/Abelmoschus "Abelmoschus"), [Lablab](/wiki/Lablab "Lablab"), [Melochia](/wiki/Melochia "Melochia")***, each of which designated plants that were unknown to Western European botanists before Alpini, plants native to tropical Asia that were grown with artificial irrigation in Egypt at the time.Each discussed in [*Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yq0YhE8RM0kC&pg=PA32), by Helmut Genaust, year 1996\. Another Arabic botanical name introduced by Prospero Alpini from Egypt was *Sesban* meaning *[Sesbania sesban](/wiki/Sesbania_sesban "Sesbania sesban")* from synonymous Arabic سيسبان *saīsabān \| saīsbān* (Lammens 1890; Ibn al\-Baitar). The Latin botanical *Abrus* is the parent of the chemical name [Abrin](/wiki/Abrin "Abrin"); see [*abrine* @ CNRTL.fr](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/abrine). The Arabic لبلاب *lablāb* means any kind of climbing and twisting plant. The Latin and English *Lablab* is a certain vigorously climbing and twisting bean plant. Prospero Alpini called the plant in Latin *phaseolus niger lablab* \= "lablab black bean". Prospero Alpini published his *De Plantis Aegypti* in 1592\. It was republished in 1640 with supplements by other botanists – [*De Plantis Aegypti*, 1640](https://books.google.com/books?id=zdwTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR2). *De Plantis Exoticis* by Prospero Alpini (died 1617\) was published in 1639 – [ref](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000810199#page/n0/mode/2up). In the early 1760s [Peter Forsskål](/wiki/Peter_Forssk%C3%A5l "Peter Forsskål") systematically cataloged plants and fishes in the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea "Red Sea") area. For genera and species that did not already have Latin names, Forsskål used the common Arabic names as the scientific names. This became the international standard for most of what he cataloged. Forsskål's Latinized Arabic plant genus names include ***[Aerva](/wiki/Aerva "Aerva"), [Arnebia](/wiki/Arnebia "Arnebia"), [Cadaba](/wiki/Cadaba "Cadaba"), [Ceruana](/wiki/Ceruana "Ceruana"), [Maerua](/wiki/Maerua "Maerua"), [Maesa](/wiki/Maesa "Maesa"), [Themeda](/wiki/Themeda "Themeda")***, and others.A list of 43 of Forsskål's Latinized Arabic fish names is at [Baheyeldin.com/linguistics](http://baheyeldin.com/linguistics/forsskaal-arabic-species-names-fish-taxonomy.html). Forsskål was a student of Arabic language as well as of taxonomy. His published journals contain the underlying Arabic names as well as his Latinizations of them (downloadable from links at the Wikipedia [Peter Forsskål](/wiki/Peter_Forssk%C3%A5l "Peter Forsskål") page). Some additional miscellaneous botanical names with Arabic ancestry include ***[Abutilon](/wiki/Abutilon "Abutilon"), [Alchemilla](/wiki/Alchemilla "Alchemilla"), [Alhagi](/wiki/Alhagi "Alhagi"), [Argania](/wiki/Argania "Argania"), [argel](/wiki/Solenostemma_arghel "Solenostemma arghel"), [Averrhoa](/wiki/Averrhoa "Averrhoa"), [Avicennia](/wiki/Avicennia "Avicennia"), [azarolus](/wiki/Crataegus_azarolus "Crataegus azarolus") *\+ [acerola](/wiki/Acerola_cherry "Acerola cherry")*, [bonduc](/wiki/Caesalpinia_bonduc "Caesalpinia bonduc"), [lebbeck](/wiki/Albizia_lebbeck "Albizia lebbeck"), [Retama](/wiki/Retama "Retama"), [seyal](/wiki/Acacia_seyal "Acacia seyal").***Most of those miscellaneous botanical names are discussed in [*Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yZL3BQAAQBAJ), by Helmut Genaust, year 1996\. About half of them are in [*Dictionnaire Étymologique Des Mots Français D'Origine Orientale*](https://archive.org/details/dictionnairety00devi), by L. Marcel Devic, year 1876\. The following are supplemental notes. The names *argel* and *seyal* were introduced to scientific botany nomenclature from الحرجل *harjel* and سيال *seyāl* in the early 19th century by the botanist [Delile](/wiki/Alire_Raffeneau_Delile "Alire Raffeneau Delile"), who had visited North Africa. *Retama* comes from an old Spanish name for broom bushes and the Spanish name is from medieval Arabic رتم *ratam* with the same meaning – [ref](http://dle.rae.es/?id=WGF1AZr), [ref](https://archive.org/stream/oed8aarch#page/n578/mode/1up). *Acerola* is from tropical [New World](/wiki/New_World "New World") Spanish *acerola* \= "acerola cherry" which is from medieval Spanish and Portuguese *acerola \| azerola \| azarola* \= "[azarole hawthorn](/wiki/Azarole "Azarole")" which is from medieval Arabic الزعرور *al\-zoʿrūr* \= "azarole hawthorn" – [ref](http://dictionary.com/browse/acerola), [ref](http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/acerola). *Alchimilla* appears in 16th century Europe with the same core meaning as today's *Alchemilla* [(e.g.)](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/alchimille). Reporters on *Alchemilla* agree it is from Arabic although they do not agree on how. (List incomplete).
[ "### Arabic botanical names", "The following plant names entered medieval Latin texts from Arabic. Today, in descent from the medieval Latin, they are international systematic classification names (commonly known as \"Latin\" names): ***[Azadirachta](/wiki/Azadirachta \"Azadirachta\"), [Berberis](/wiki/Berberis \"Berberis\"), [Cakile](/wiki/Cakile \"Cakile\"), [Carthamus](/wiki/Carthamus \"Carthamus\"), [Cuscuta](/wiki/Cuscuta \"Cuscuta\"), [Doronicum](/wiki/Doronicum \"Doronicum\"), [Galanga](/wiki/Galanga \"Galanga\"), [Musa](/wiki/Musa_%28genus%29 \"Musa (genus)\"), [Nuphar](/wiki/Nuphar \"Nuphar\"), [Ribes](/wiki/Ribes \"Ribes\"), [Senna](/wiki/Senna_%28plant%29 \"Senna (plant)\"), [Taraxacum](/wiki/Taraxacum \"Taraxacum\"), [Usnea](/wiki/Usnea \"Usnea\"),** [Physalis **alkekengi**](/wiki/Physalis_alkekengi \"Physalis alkekengi\"), [Melia **azedarach**](/wiki/Melia_azedarach \"Melia azedarach\"), [Centaurea **behen**](/wiki/Centaurea_behen \"Centaurea behen\"), [Terminalia **bellerica**](/wiki/Terminalia_bellerica \"Terminalia bellerica\"), [Terminalia **chebula**](/wiki/Terminalia_chebula \"Terminalia chebula\"), [Cheiranthus **cheiri**](/wiki/Cheiranthus_cheiri \"Cheiranthus cheiri\"), [Piper **cubeba**](/wiki/Piper_cubeba \"Piper cubeba\"), [Phyllanthus **emblica**](/wiki/Phyllanthus_emblica \"Phyllanthus emblica\"), [Peganum **harmala**](/wiki/Peganum_harmala \"Peganum harmala\"), [Salsola **kali**](/wiki/Salsola_kali \"Salsola kali\"), [Prunus **mahaleb**](/wiki/Prunus_mahaleb \"Prunus mahaleb\"), [Datura **metel**](/wiki/Datura_metel \"Datura metel\"), [Daphne **mezereum**](/wiki/Daphne_mezereum \"Daphne mezereum\"), [Rheum **ribes**](/wiki/Rheum_ribes \"Rheum ribes\"), [Jasminum **sambac**](/wiki/Jasminum_sambac \"Jasminum sambac\"), [Cordia **sebestena**](/wiki/Cordia_sebestena \"Cordia sebestena\"), [Operculina **turpethum**](/wiki/Operculina_turpethum \"Operculina turpethum\"), [Curcuma **zedoaria**](/wiki/Curcuma_zedoaria \"Curcuma zedoaria\"), [Alpinia **zerumbet**](/wiki/Alpinia_zerumbet \"Alpinia zerumbet\") \\+ [Zingiber **zerumbet**](/wiki/Zingiber_zerumbet \"Zingiber zerumbet\").* (List incomplete.)References for the medieval Arabic sources and medieval Latin borrowings of those plant names are as follows. Ones marked \"(F)\" go to the French dictionary at *Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales*, ones marked \"(R)\" go to *Random House Dictionary*, and other references are identified with terse labels: [Berberis](http://dictionary.com/browse/barberry)(R), [انبرباريس *anbarbārīs* \\= Berberis](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_131.html)(Ibn Sina), [امبرباريس *ambarbārīs* \\= Berberis](https://books.google.com/books?id=QbBCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA79)(Ibn Al\\-Baitar), [الأمبرباريس *al\\-ambarbārīs* is also called البرباريس *al\\-barbārīs*](http://www.baheth.info) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ \\|date\\=29 October 2013 }}(Fairuzabadi's dictionary), [Galen uses name *\"Oxyacantha\"* for Berberis](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000817749#page/1144/mode/1up)(John Gerarde), [Arabic *amiberberis* \\= Latin *Berberis*](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_51)(Matthaeus Silvaticus), [Berberis is frequent in Constantinus Africanus](https://books.google.com/books?id=etFaAAAAcAAJ&q=berberis&pg=PR3) (Constantinus Africanus was the introducer of plantname Berberis into medieval Latin), [Berberis](https://books.google.com/books?id=GHaGxm4TZ5wC&dq=berberis&pg=PA93)(Raja Tazi 1998\\), [Barberry](https://archive.org/stream/etymologicaldict00skeauoft#page/51/mode/1up)(Skeat 1888\\);; [Cakile](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/68/mode/1up)(Henri Lammens 1890\\), [Cakile](https://archive.org/stream/s10journalasiatiq05sociuoft#page/503/mode/1up)(Pierre Guigues 1905\\), [Kakile Serapionis](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000817749#page/192/mode/1up)(John Gerarde 1597\\), [Chakile](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/69/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger, medieval Latin);; for *Carthamus* see [Carthamin](/wiki/%23CarthaminRef \"#CarthaminRef\");; [Cuscute](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/cuscute)(F), [Cuscuta](http://etimologias.dechile.net/?cuscuta) (Etimología), spelled كشوث *kushūth* in Ibn al\\-Baitar;; [Doronicum](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/doronic)(F), [Doronicum](http://dictionary.com/browse/doronicum)(R), spelled درونج *dorūnaj* in Ibn al\\-Baitar;; [Garingal \\& Galanga](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/garingal)(F), [Galingale \\& Galanga](https://archive.org/stream/oed04arch#page/n660/mode/1up)(NED);; [Musa](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/171/mode/1up)(Devic), [Musa](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n186/mode/1up)(Alphita), [موز *mauz*](https://books.google.com/books?id=lb8TAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA535)(Ibn al\\-Baitar), [Muse \\#4 and Musa](https://archive.org/stream/oed6barch#page/780/mode/1up)(NED);; [Nuphar (nénuphar)](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/nenuphar)(F), [Nénuphar](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/181/mode/1up)(Lammens);; [Ribès](https://archive.org/stream/lelivredelartdu00guiggoog#page/n54/mode/1up)(Pierre Guigues 1903 in preface to translation of Najm al\\-Din Mahmud (died 1330\\)), [Ribes](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/205/mode/1up)(Lammens 1890\\), the meaning of late medieval Latin *ribes* was *[Rheum ribes](/wiki/Rheum_ribes \"Rheum ribes\")* – [e.g.](https://archive.org/stream/inantidotariumi01paglgoog#page/n433/mode/1up) [e.g.](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060715/image_316) – and the medieval Arabic ريباس *rībās* had the very same meaning – [e.g.](http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/SearchServlet/searchone?docid=269&searchtext=2LHZitio2KfYsw==&option=1&offset=1&WordForm=1&exactpage=325&totalpages=1&AllOffset=1) ;; [Senna](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/s%C3%A9n%C3%A9)(F), [Senna](http://dictionary.com/browse/senna)(R), [Séné](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/219/mode/1up)(Lammens), *Sene* in Alphita, السنى *al\\-sanā* and السني *al\\-senī* in Ibn al\\-Baitar;; [Taraxacum](https://archive.org/stream/etymologicaldict00skeauoft#page/624/mode/1up)(Skeat), [Ataraxacon](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n81/mode/1up)(Alphita), [Taraxacum](http://dictionary.com/browse/taraxacum)(R);; [Usnea](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/usn%C3%A9e)(F), [Usnea](http://dictionary.com/browse/usnea)(R), [Usnee](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_191)(Simon of Genoa), [Usnée](https://archive.org/stream/remarquessurlesm00lammuoft#page/244/mode/1up)(Lammens);; [alkekengi](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/alk%C3%A9kenge)(F), [alkekengi](http://dictionary.com/browse/alkekengi)(R);; [azedarach](http://cnrtl.fr/definition/azedarach)(F), [azedarach](https://books.google.com/books?id=MiNWi1g3fJ4C&dq=azedarach&pg=PA144)(Garland Cannon), [azadarach \\+ azedarach](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_75)(Matthaeus Silvaticus anno 1317\\), [*azedarach* produced *Azadirachta*](https://archive.org/download/EnglishWordsThatAreOfArabicEtymologicalAncestry/English-words-that-are-of-Arabic-etymological-ancestry.htm#AzedarachRef);; [béhen](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/63/mode/1up)(Devic, year 1876\\), [Behemen \\= behen \\= behem](https://books.google.com/books?id=lIJDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA54-IA5) says Matthaeus Silvaticus (year 1317\\); this name is بهمن *behmen \\| bahman* in [Ibn al\\-Baitar](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf) and [Ibn Sina](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_141.html);; [bellerica](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up/)(Yule), [bellerica](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairetym00devigoog#page/n92/mode/1up/)(Devic), [beliligi \\= belirici \\= bellerici](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_35)(Simon of Genoa), بليلج *belīlej* in Ibn al\\-Baitar;; [chebula](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up)(Yule), [kebulus \\= chebulae](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n182/mode/1up)(Alphita), [chébule](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/92/mode/1up)(Devic);; [cheiranthe](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/109/mode/1up)(Devic), [keiri](https://archive.org/stream/newenglishdicpt205murruoft#page/668/mode/1up)(NED), [خيري *kheīrī*](https://books.google.com/books?id=daZEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA266)(Ibn al\\-Awwam);; [cubeba](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/cub%C3%A8be)(F), [cubeba](http://dictionary.com/browse/cubeb)(R);; [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/hobsonjobsonglos00yulerich#page/608/mode/1up)(Yule), [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/109/mode/1up)(Devic), [emblic](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/82/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger);; [harmala](https://books.google.com/books?id=GHaGxm4TZ5wC&q=harmala&pg=PR3)(Tazi), [harmale](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/137/mode/1up)(Devic), [harmala](https://books.google.com/books?id=INtzYGQOlFoC&q=Arabic)(other), [harmala](https://archive.org/download/EnglishWordsThatAreOfArabicEtymologicalAncestry/English-words-that-are-of-Arabic-etymological-ancestry.htm#HarmalaRef)(more details);; [(Salsola) kali](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/kali)(F), [kali \\= a marine littoral plant, an Arabic name](https://books.google.com/books?id=7s28XX0mqAUC&pg=PT105)(Simon of Genoa year 1292 in Latin, also in Matthaeus Silvaticus);; [mahaleb](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/mahaleb)(F), [mahaleb](https://books.google.com/books?id=PuEOAAAAQAAJ&q=mahaleb&pg=PA367)(Ibn al\\-Awwam), [mahaleb](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_315)(Matthaeus Silvaticus year 1317\\);; [mathil\\-\\>metel](http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/dec2007/1227.pdf)(other), [metel](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/163/mode/1up)(Devic), [nux methel](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/251/mode/1up)(Serapion the Younger), [جوز ماثل *jūz māthil*](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/896/html/S1_156.html)(Ibn Sina);; [mezereum](http://dictionary.com/browse/mezereum)(R), [mézéréon](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/163/mode/1up)(Devic), [mezereon](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n177/mode/1up)(Alphita: see editor's footnote quoting Matthaeus Silvaticus and John Gerarde), spelled مازريون *māzarīūn* in Ibn Sina and Ibn al\\-Baitar;; [sambac](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/201/mode/1up)(Devic), [zambacca](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/235/mode/1up)(synonyms of Petrus de Abano, died c. 1316\\), [sambacus](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58660f/f257.image)(Simon of Genoa), [زنبق \\= دهن الياسمين](http://www.baheth.info/) (*zanbaq* in *Lisan al\\-Arab*);; [sebesten](https://books.google.com/books?id=4FwKM83UA9cC&q=sebesten)(other), [sebesten](https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairety00devi#page/205/mode/1up)(Devic), [sebesten](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/166/mode/1up)(Alphita) (*sebesten* in late medieval Latin referred to *[Cordia myxa](/wiki/Cordia_myxa \"Cordia myxa\")*, not *[Cordia sebestena](/wiki/Cordia_sebestena \"Cordia sebestena\")*, and the medieval Arabic سبستان *sebestān* was Cordia myxa);; [turpeth](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/turbith)(F), [turpeth](http://dictionary.com/browse/Turpeth)(R);; [zedoaria](http://cnrtl.fr/lexicographie/z%C3%A9doaire)(F), [zedoaria](http://dictionary.com/browse/Zedoary)(R);; [zérumbet](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/zérumbet)(F), zerumbet is from medieval Latin *[zurumbet](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060697/image_197) \\| [zurumbeth](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000818200#page/119/mode/1up) \\| [zerumbet](http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00060733/image_410)* which is from Arabic زرنباد *[zurunbād](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/book-two.html) \\| [zarunbād](https://archive.org/stream/lelivredelartdu00guiggoog#page/n282/mode/1up)*. The great majority of the above plant names can be seen in Latin in the late\\-13th\\-century medical\\-botany dictionary *Synonyma Medicinae* by Simon of Genoa [(online)](https://books.google.com/books?id=7s28XX0mqAUC) and in the mid\\-15th\\-century Latin medical\\-botany dictionary called the *Alphita* [(online)](https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/n60/mode/1up); and the few that are not in either of those two dictionaries can be seen in Latin in the book on medicaments by Serapion the Younger circa 1300 [(online)](https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000818200). None of the names are found in Latin in early medieval or classical Latin botany or medicine books \\-\\- partially excepting a complication over the name *harmala*, and excepting *galanga* and *zedoaria* because they have Latin records beginning in the 9th or 10th centuries. In other words nearly all the names were introduced to Latin in the later\\-medieval period, specifically from the late 11th through late 13th centuries. Most early Latin users lived in Italy. All of the names, without exception, are in the Arabic\\-to\\-Latin medical translations of [Constantinus Africanus](/wiki/Constantinus_Africanus \"Constantinus Africanus\") (died c. 1087\\) and/or [Gerardus Cremonensis](/wiki/Gerardus_Cremonensis \"Gerardus Cremonensis\") (died c. 1187\\) and/or [Serapion the Younger](/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger \"Serapion the Younger\") (dated later 13th century Latin). The Arabic predecessors of the great majority of the names can be seen in Arabic as entries in Part Two of *The Canon of Medicine* of Ibn Sina, dated about 1025 in Arabic, which became a widely circulated book in Latin medical circles in the 13th and 14th centuries: an Arabic copy is at [DDC.AUB.edu.lb](http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/saab/avicenna/book-two.html). All of the Arabic predecessor plant\\-names without exception, and usually with better descriptions of the plants (compared to Ibn Sina's descriptions), are in [Ibn al\\-Baitar](/wiki/Ibn_al-Baitar \"Ibn al-Baitar\")'s *Comprehensive Book of Simple Medicines and Foods*, dated about 1245, which was not translated to Latin in the medieval era but was published in the 19th century in German, French, and Arabic – an Arabic copy is at [Al\\-Mostafa.com](http://www.al-mostafa.info/data/arabic/depot/gap.php?file=001300-www.al-mostafa.com.pdf) and at [AlWaraq.net](http://www.alwaraq.net/Core/AlwaraqSrv/bookpage?book=269&fkey=2&page=1&option=1).", "Over ninety percent of those botanical names were introduced to medieval Latin in a herbal medicine context. They include names of medicinal plants from Tropical Asia for which there had been no prior Latin or Greek name, such as azedarach, bellerica, cubeba, emblica, galanga, metel, turpethum, zedoaria and zerumbet. Another sizeable portion are ultimately Iranian names of medicinal plants of Iran. The Arabic\\-to\\-Latin translation of Ibn Sina's *[The Canon of Medicine](/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine \"The Canon of Medicine\")* helped establish many Arabic plant names in later medieval Latin. A book about medicating agents by [Serapion the Younger](/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger \"Serapion the Younger\") containing hundreds of Arabic botanical names circulated in Latin among [apothecaries](/wiki/Apothecaries \"Apothecaries\") in the 14th and 15th centuries.[\"Les Noms Arabes Dans Sérapion, *Liber de Simplici Medicina*\"](https://archive.org/stream/s10journalasiatiq05sociuoft#page/473/mode/1up), by Pierre Guigues, published in 1905 in *Journal Asiatique*, Series X, tome V, pages 473–546, continued in tome VI, pages 49–112\\. Medieval Arabic botany was primarily concerned with the use of plants for medicines. In a modern etymology analysis of one medieval Arabic list of medicines, the names of the medicines —primarily plant names— were assessed to be 31% ancient Mesopotamian names, 23% Greek names, 18% Persian, 13% Indian (often via Persian), 5% uniquely Arabic, and 3% [Egyptian](/wiki/Egyptian_language \"Egyptian language\"), with the remaining 7% of unassessable origin.Analysis of herbal medicine plant\\-names by Martin Levey reported by him in \"Chapter III: Botanonymy\" in his 1973 book [*Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LtYUAAAAIAAJ).", "The Italian botanist [Prospero Alpini](/wiki/Prospero_Alpini \"Prospero Alpini\") stayed in Egypt for several years in the 1580s. He introduced to Latin botany from Arabic from Egypt the names ***[Abrus](/wiki/Abrus \"Abrus\"), [Abelmoschus](/wiki/Abelmoschus \"Abelmoschus\"), [Lablab](/wiki/Lablab \"Lablab\"), [Melochia](/wiki/Melochia \"Melochia\")***, each of which designated plants that were unknown to Western European botanists before Alpini, plants native to tropical Asia that were grown with artificial irrigation in Egypt at the time.Each discussed in [*Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yq0YhE8RM0kC&pg=PA32), by Helmut Genaust, year 1996\\. Another Arabic botanical name introduced by Prospero Alpini from Egypt was *Sesban* meaning *[Sesbania sesban](/wiki/Sesbania_sesban \"Sesbania sesban\")* from synonymous Arabic سيسبان *saīsabān \\| saīsbān* (Lammens 1890; Ibn al\\-Baitar). The Latin botanical *Abrus* is the parent of the chemical name [Abrin](/wiki/Abrin \"Abrin\"); see [*abrine* @ CNRTL.fr](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/abrine). The Arabic لبلاب *lablāb* means any kind of climbing and twisting plant. The Latin and English *Lablab* is a certain vigorously climbing and twisting bean plant. Prospero Alpini called the plant in Latin *phaseolus niger lablab* \\= \"lablab black bean\". Prospero Alpini published his *De Plantis Aegypti* in 1592\\. It was republished in 1640 with supplements by other botanists – [*De Plantis Aegypti*, 1640](https://books.google.com/books?id=zdwTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR2). *De Plantis Exoticis* by Prospero Alpini (died 1617\\) was published in 1639 – [ref](https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753000810199#page/n0/mode/2up).", "In the early 1760s [Peter Forsskål](/wiki/Peter_Forssk%C3%A5l \"Peter Forsskål\") systematically cataloged plants and fishes in the [Red Sea](/wiki/Red_Sea \"Red Sea\") area. For genera and species that did not already have Latin names, Forsskål used the common Arabic names as the scientific names. This became the international standard for most of what he cataloged. Forsskål's Latinized Arabic plant genus names include ***[Aerva](/wiki/Aerva \"Aerva\"), [Arnebia](/wiki/Arnebia \"Arnebia\"), [Cadaba](/wiki/Cadaba \"Cadaba\"), [Ceruana](/wiki/Ceruana \"Ceruana\"), [Maerua](/wiki/Maerua \"Maerua\"), [Maesa](/wiki/Maesa \"Maesa\"), [Themeda](/wiki/Themeda \"Themeda\")***, and others.A list of 43 of Forsskål's Latinized Arabic fish names is at [Baheyeldin.com/linguistics](http://baheyeldin.com/linguistics/forsskaal-arabic-species-names-fish-taxonomy.html). Forsskål was a student of Arabic language as well as of taxonomy. His published journals contain the underlying Arabic names as well as his Latinizations of them (downloadable from links at the Wikipedia [Peter Forsskål](/wiki/Peter_Forssk%C3%A5l \"Peter Forsskål\") page).", "Some additional miscellaneous botanical names with Arabic ancestry include ***[Abutilon](/wiki/Abutilon \"Abutilon\"), [Alchemilla](/wiki/Alchemilla \"Alchemilla\"), [Alhagi](/wiki/Alhagi \"Alhagi\"), [Argania](/wiki/Argania \"Argania\"), [argel](/wiki/Solenostemma_arghel \"Solenostemma arghel\"), [Averrhoa](/wiki/Averrhoa \"Averrhoa\"), [Avicennia](/wiki/Avicennia \"Avicennia\"), [azarolus](/wiki/Crataegus_azarolus \"Crataegus azarolus\") *\\+ [acerola](/wiki/Acerola_cherry \"Acerola cherry\")*, [bonduc](/wiki/Caesalpinia_bonduc \"Caesalpinia bonduc\"), [lebbeck](/wiki/Albizia_lebbeck \"Albizia lebbeck\"), [Retama](/wiki/Retama \"Retama\"), [seyal](/wiki/Acacia_seyal \"Acacia seyal\").***Most of those miscellaneous botanical names are discussed in [*Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yZL3BQAAQBAJ), by Helmut Genaust, year 1996\\. About half of them are in [*Dictionnaire Étymologique Des Mots Français D'Origine Orientale*](https://archive.org/details/dictionnairety00devi), by L. Marcel Devic, year 1876\\. The following are supplemental notes. The names *argel* and *seyal* were introduced to scientific botany nomenclature from الحرجل *harjel* and سيال *seyāl* in the early 19th century by the botanist [Delile](/wiki/Alire_Raffeneau_Delile \"Alire Raffeneau Delile\"), who had visited North Africa. *Retama* comes from an old Spanish name for broom bushes and the Spanish name is from medieval Arabic رتم *ratam* with the same meaning – [ref](http://dle.rae.es/?id=WGF1AZr), [ref](https://archive.org/stream/oed8aarch#page/n578/mode/1up). *Acerola* is from tropical [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\") Spanish *acerola* \\= \"acerola cherry\" which is from medieval Spanish and Portuguese *acerola \\| azerola \\| azarola* \\= \"[azarole hawthorn](/wiki/Azarole \"Azarole\")\" which is from medieval Arabic الزعرور *al\\-zoʿrūr* \\= \"azarole hawthorn\" – [ref](http://dictionary.com/browse/acerola), [ref](http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/acerola). *Alchimilla* appears in 16th century Europe with the same core meaning as today's *Alchemilla* [(e.g.)](http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/alchimille). Reporters on *Alchemilla* agree it is from Arabic although they do not agree on how. (List incomplete).", "" ]
Life and career --------------- Büsser was born in [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse "Toulouse") of partly German ancestry. He was the son of an organist, Fritz Büsser (1846–1879\), and sang as a boy in the choir of [Toulouse Cathedral](/wiki/Toulouse_Cathedral "Toulouse Cathedral") under {{Ill\|Aloÿs Kunc\|fr}} before entering the [École Niedermeyer de Paris](/wiki/%C3%89cole_Niedermeyer_de_Paris "École Niedermeyer de Paris") in 1885 to study with [Alexandre Georges](/wiki/Alexandre_Georges "Alexandre Georges").Kelly, Barbara L. [“Büsser (Busser), (Paul\-)Henri”](https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.04443), *Grove Music Online*, Oxford University Press, 2001\. {{subscription required}} He entered the [Conservatoire de Paris](/wiki/Conservatoire_de_Paris "Conservatoire de Paris") in 1889, studying organ with [César Franck](/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Franck "César Franck") and composition with [Ernest Guiraud](/wiki/Ernest_Guiraud "Ernest Guiraud"), [Charles Gounod](/wiki/Charles_Gounod "Charles Gounod") and [Jules Massenet](/wiki/Jules_Massenet "Jules Massenet"). He took the second prize in the 1892 [Prix de Rome](/wiki/Prix_de_Rome "Prix de Rome") competition. In that year, through the influence of Gounod, he was appointed organist of [Saint\-Cloud](/wiki/Saint-Cloud "Saint-Cloud"), near Paris, a post he held for 30 years. In 1900 Büsser was appointed conductor at the Théâtre du Château\-d'Eau in Paris. In 1902 he directed the off\-stage chorus at the premiere of [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy "Claude Debussy")'s *[Pelléas et Mélisande](/wiki/Pell%C3%A9as_et_M%C3%A9lisande_%28opera%29 "Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)")* at the [Opéra\-Comique](/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra-Comique "Opéra-Comique"), and took over the remaining performances when the original conductor, [André Messager](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Messager "André Messager"), stepped down after the third performance to meet other contractual commitments. Debussy was at first less impressed by Büsser's conducting than by Messager's, Nichols and Langham Smith, p. 149 but Büsser soon mastered the work and the composer inscribed a score of the opera to him "with the grateful friendship of Claude Debussy".Dietschy, p. 122 He later asked Büsser to orchestrate his *[Petite Suite](/wiki/Petite_Suite_%28Debussy%29 "Petite Suite (Debussy)")*.Dietschy, p. 147 In 1904 he began teaching at the Conservatoire, and in 1905 he succeeded [Paul Taffanel](/wiki/Paul_Taffanel "Paul Taffanel") as conductor at the [Opéra](/wiki/Paris_Op%C3%A9ra "Paris Opéra"). He reconstructed [Adolphe Adam](/wiki/Adolphe_Adam "Adolphe Adam")'s original 1841 ballet score for a 1924 revival of *[Giselle](/wiki/Giselle "Giselle")* at the Opéra.Percival, John. "Dance", *The Times*, 29 November 1985, p. 19 In 1931 he was promoted to professor of composition at the Conservatoire. Among his students were [Tomojirō Ikenouchi](/wiki/Tomojir%C5%8D_Ikenouchi "Tomojirō Ikenouchi"), [Henri Dutilleux](/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux "Henri Dutilleux"), [Jean\-Michel Damase](/wiki/Jean-Michel_Damase "Jean-Michel Damase"), [Rolande Falcinelli](/wiki/Rolande_Falcinelli "Rolande Falcinelli"), [Denise Roger](/wiki/Denise_Roger "Denise Roger"), and a Prix de Rome winner, [Henri Challan](/wiki/Henri_Challan "Henri Challan"). He was elected to the [Académie des Beaux\-Arts](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Beaux-Arts "Académie des Beaux-Arts") in 1938 in succession to [Gabriel Pierné](/wiki/Gabriel_Piern%C3%A9 "Gabriel Pierné"). From 1939 he was director of the Opéra\-Comique, a post from which he was dismissed in 1941 during the [Nazi occupation](/wiki/Paris_in_World_War_II "Paris in World War II") because of derogatory remarks he was alleged to have made about [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner"), although his own music clearly reflected Wagner's influence. Büsser edited and arranged a considerable amount of music. In 1913 he contributed to the final volume of the complete edition of the works of [Jean\-Philippe Rameau](/wiki/Jean-Philippe_Rameau "Jean-Philippe Rameau"). In the 1950s he edited the music of *Les Indes galantes* by Rameau, and *[Oberon](/wiki/Oberon_%28Weber%29 "Oberon (Weber)")* by [Carl Maria von Weber](/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber "Carl Maria von Weber"), described by *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* as two of the major stagings at the Paris Opéra in the postwar years.[Henri Büsser 101 Composer is Dead"](https://www.nytimes.com/1974/01/01/archives/henribusser-101-composer-is-dead-pupil-of-franck-had-been-director.html), *The New York Times*, 1 January 1974, p. 22 The breadth of his musical sympathies and his concern for historical as well as modern music were reflected in the title of his memoirs, *De Pelléas aux Indes galantes* (1955\).Büsser, Introduction His arrangements include many of works by French composers, such as [Lully](/wiki/Lully "Lully") as well as Rameau, and later ones including [Berlioz](/wiki/Berlioz "Berlioz"), Franck, [Bizet](/wiki/Bizet "Bizet") and [Fauré](/wiki/Faur%C3%A9 "Fauré"), as well as works by [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart "Mozart"), [Schubert](/wiki/Schubert "Schubert") and [Verdi](/wiki/Verdi "Verdi"). According to *[Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians](/wiki/Grove%27s_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians "Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians")*, Büsser's music for the concert hall is "firmly rooted in the French 19th\-century tradition" of Gounod and [Saint\-Saëns](/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns "Camille Saint-Saëns"), but in his best known music, written for the theatre, Wagner's influence is strong, as, to a lesser degree, is that of Debussy. Late in his life Büsser was made a Grand Officier of the [Légion d'honneur](/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_d%27honneur "Légion d'honneur"). At the age of 86 he married a retired opera singer, [Yvonne Gall](/wiki/Yvonne_Gall "Yvonne Gall"). He died in Paris just short of his 102nd birthday.
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "Büsser was born in [Toulouse](/wiki/Toulouse \"Toulouse\") of partly German ancestry. He was the son of an organist, Fritz Büsser (1846–1879\\), and sang as a boy in the choir of [Toulouse Cathedral](/wiki/Toulouse_Cathedral \"Toulouse Cathedral\") under {{Ill\\|Aloÿs Kunc\\|fr}} before entering the [École Niedermeyer de Paris](/wiki/%C3%89cole_Niedermeyer_de_Paris \"École Niedermeyer de Paris\") in 1885 to study with [Alexandre Georges](/wiki/Alexandre_Georges \"Alexandre Georges\").Kelly, Barbara L. [“Büsser (Busser), (Paul\\-)Henri”](https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.04443), *Grove Music Online*, Oxford University Press, 2001\\. {{subscription required}} He entered the [Conservatoire de Paris](/wiki/Conservatoire_de_Paris \"Conservatoire de Paris\") in 1889, studying organ with [César Franck](/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Franck \"César Franck\") and composition with [Ernest Guiraud](/wiki/Ernest_Guiraud \"Ernest Guiraud\"), [Charles Gounod](/wiki/Charles_Gounod \"Charles Gounod\") and [Jules Massenet](/wiki/Jules_Massenet \"Jules Massenet\"). He took the second prize in the 1892 [Prix de Rome](/wiki/Prix_de_Rome \"Prix de Rome\") competition. In that year, through the influence of Gounod, he was appointed organist of [Saint\\-Cloud](/wiki/Saint-Cloud \"Saint-Cloud\"), near Paris, a post he held for 30 years.", "In 1900 Büsser was appointed conductor at the Théâtre du Château\\-d'Eau in Paris. In 1902 he directed the off\\-stage chorus at the premiere of [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\")'s *[Pelléas et Mélisande](/wiki/Pell%C3%A9as_et_M%C3%A9lisande_%28opera%29 \"Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)\")* at the [Opéra\\-Comique](/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra-Comique \"Opéra-Comique\"), and took over the remaining performances when the original conductor, [André Messager](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Messager \"André Messager\"), stepped down after the third performance to meet other contractual commitments. Debussy was at first less impressed by Büsser's conducting than by Messager's, Nichols and Langham Smith, p. 149 but Büsser soon mastered the work and the composer inscribed a score of the opera to him \"with the grateful friendship of Claude Debussy\".Dietschy, p. 122 He later asked Büsser to orchestrate his *[Petite Suite](/wiki/Petite_Suite_%28Debussy%29 \"Petite Suite (Debussy)\")*.Dietschy, p. 147", "In 1904 he began teaching at the Conservatoire, and in 1905 he succeeded [Paul Taffanel](/wiki/Paul_Taffanel \"Paul Taffanel\") as conductor at the [Opéra](/wiki/Paris_Op%C3%A9ra \"Paris Opéra\"). He reconstructed [Adolphe Adam](/wiki/Adolphe_Adam \"Adolphe Adam\")'s original 1841 ballet score for a 1924 revival of *[Giselle](/wiki/Giselle \"Giselle\")* at the Opéra.Percival, John. \"Dance\", *The Times*, 29 November 1985, p. 19 In 1931 he was promoted to professor of composition at the Conservatoire. Among his students were [Tomojirō Ikenouchi](/wiki/Tomojir%C5%8D_Ikenouchi \"Tomojirō Ikenouchi\"), [Henri Dutilleux](/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux \"Henri Dutilleux\"), [Jean\\-Michel Damase](/wiki/Jean-Michel_Damase \"Jean-Michel Damase\"), [Rolande Falcinelli](/wiki/Rolande_Falcinelli \"Rolande Falcinelli\"), [Denise Roger](/wiki/Denise_Roger \"Denise Roger\"), and a Prix de Rome winner, [Henri Challan](/wiki/Henri_Challan \"Henri Challan\"). He was elected to the [Académie des Beaux\\-Arts](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Beaux-Arts \"Académie des Beaux-Arts\") in 1938 in succession to [Gabriel Pierné](/wiki/Gabriel_Piern%C3%A9 \"Gabriel Pierné\"). From 1939 he was director of the Opéra\\-Comique, a post from which he was dismissed in 1941 during the [Nazi occupation](/wiki/Paris_in_World_War_II \"Paris in World War II\") because of derogatory remarks he was alleged to have made about [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"), although his own music clearly reflected Wagner's influence.", "Büsser edited and arranged a considerable amount of music. In 1913 he contributed to the final volume of the complete edition of the works of [Jean\\-Philippe Rameau](/wiki/Jean-Philippe_Rameau \"Jean-Philippe Rameau\"). In the 1950s he edited the music of *Les Indes galantes* by Rameau, and *[Oberon](/wiki/Oberon_%28Weber%29 \"Oberon (Weber)\")* by [Carl Maria von Weber](/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber \"Carl Maria von Weber\"), described by *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* as two of the major stagings at the Paris Opéra in the postwar years.[Henri Büsser 101 Composer is Dead\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1974/01/01/archives/henribusser-101-composer-is-dead-pupil-of-franck-had-been-director.html), *The New York Times*, 1 January 1974, p. 22 The breadth of his musical sympathies and his concern for historical as well as modern music were reflected in the title of his memoirs, *De Pelléas aux Indes galantes* (1955\\).Büsser, Introduction His arrangements include many of works by French composers, such as [Lully](/wiki/Lully \"Lully\") as well as Rameau, and later ones including [Berlioz](/wiki/Berlioz \"Berlioz\"), Franck, [Bizet](/wiki/Bizet \"Bizet\") and [Fauré](/wiki/Faur%C3%A9 \"Fauré\"), as well as works by [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart \"Mozart\"), [Schubert](/wiki/Schubert \"Schubert\") and [Verdi](/wiki/Verdi \"Verdi\").", "According to *[Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians](/wiki/Grove%27s_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians \"Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians\")*, Büsser's music for the concert hall is \"firmly rooted in the French 19th\\-century tradition\" of Gounod and [Saint\\-Saëns](/wiki/Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns \"Camille Saint-Saëns\"), but in his best known music, written for the theatre, Wagner's influence is strong, as, to a lesser degree, is that of Debussy.", "Late in his life Büsser was made a Grand Officier of the [Légion d'honneur](/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_d%27honneur \"Légion d'honneur\"). At the age of 86 he married a retired opera singer, [Yvonne Gall](/wiki/Yvonne_Gall \"Yvonne Gall\"). He died in Paris just short of his 102nd birthday.", "" ]
Wii and PS2 versions -------------------- Unlike the PC and DS versions, the Wii and PlayStation 2 versions of the games are adventure games, so instead of taking care of a virtual pet, the player plays as a dog or cat who lives in a southern half of a village called Pawville, on a large island. The player goes on an adventure to stop an evil wolf named Ivlet from causing chaos on the island, and eventually destroying the world. There are various other characters, such as Victor, a friend of the player character, Gertrude, who runs the medicine shop known as the "Drug Store", Kenneth, who runs a Zoo, Stanley, a carpenter, and many others. The Wii versions of *Petz Dogz 2* and *Petz Catz 2* (*Catz* and *Dogz* in Europe) were originally released in Japan under the name *Kitten And The Magic Hat* (*Catz 2*) and *Puppy And The Magic Hat* (*Dogz 2*). ### Gameplay The game is similar to *[The Dog Island](/wiki/The_Dog_Island "The Dog Island")*, in which the player controls a dog or cat through environments while completing tasks. Before the game starts, the player is asked to choose the animal's breed, gender, and finally, name, all of which have no bearing in the game itself. The player can walk, run, creep, and push rocks as locomotion. Throughout the game, the player faces a variety of hostile animals, such as snakes, gorillas, bats, and others, who will hurt the player if they tread too closely. When an enemy attacks, the bubble indicating their mood above their head changes. The player starts out at 3 [HP](/wiki/Hit_point "Hit point"), which is upgraded at certain points in the game up to 8; if all of them are depleted, the player has to start over from the last save point. The player can stun enemies by barking/meowing behind them, which can be held down for a longer effect (in the dog's case, it will turn their bark into a howl), or by throwing pebbles against them. Bubbles appear above friendly [non\-playable characters](/wiki/Non-playable_characters "Non-playable characters") as well to indicate that they need the player's help for a task. The player can explore 14 locales in the game, including the beach "Dolphin Coast", lake "Lappy Lake", forest "Whisker Woods", and so on. Not all of them are open for the player at the start, requiring specific tasks to be completed first. While the player will visit every area at one point in the game, many parts are optional and can be opened by skills obtained later in the game. Once the player earns the Warp Ring from Arvin (the player character's father) they can warp between six locales for free through a magical stone normally used for saving. Each area has its own hazards independent from the hostile animals, such as a poisonous lake in Sky Heights, overheating in Inferno Cave, and tornadoes in Lonesome Park. Some areas host zoo animals that can be challenged for mini\-games, including soccer and sprint, to make them return to South Pawville's zoo, where the player can challenge them again. The game is tightly knit as compared to *The Dog Island*; South Pawville acts as a central hub that connects all branches of the island. Due to this, there is no traveler's inn or shop; every purchase and full healing through sleeping are therefore only conductible in South Pawville. The game has a variety of obtainable items. Fruits, vegetables, and plot\-related items are collected by sniffing and digging them (availability and location of the items are indicated in two circles that appear when the player are sniffing). The player can catch butterflies, insects, and fishes, each of which can be sold at the pawn shop in South Pawville for gold, or, in the case of fishes, sent to the aquarium for later viewing. Gold, the game's currency, is also received as reward for completing tasks and can be spent to buy healing items, accessories, and clothing. The dog and cat editions of the game have virtually identical content, aside from the different animals populating them and certain theme naming (e.g. healing items in the game are named after meat for dogs, but tunas for cats). ### Plot The player is a dog or cat living in South Pawville, a town located on a large island. The player's father, Arvin, owns the Magic Hat, a family inheritance that contains a powerful magic, which can be used for good or evil. When the player's best friend Victor talks about an evil wolf named Ivlet jailed at North Pawville's police station, he invites the player to investigate. Sheriff Ada warns them against nearing Ivlet, who usually sleeps during the day. This gives Victor idea of visiting him at night. When the two visit Ivlet that night, he tricks the player into giving him the Magic Hat. This empowers him with magic, which he uses to destroy both Pawvilles and make wild animals hostile. Ada jails the player, but is freed by Augusta, who says that the player should take responsibility by helping the townsfolk, while Victor decides to take the player's place as a compromise. Outside the police station, the player meets with Beat, the personification of the Magic Hat's good side, who asks for the player's help in retrieving back the hat. After the player helps out all of the Pawvilles' townsfolk, they are instructed by Arvin to meet with and assist Theophilus, a wizard living in Sky Heights, in combating Ivlet. Theophilus says that the Magic Hat, normally colored blue, grows darker if always used for evil, and if it turns black, it will corrupt its user into a monster. Suppressing the hat's power requires the Magic Shield, made from three crystals: the Water, Earth, and Ice Crystals. Once the player collects them, Theophilus sends the player to rendezvous with his brother, Bartholomew, who travelled to Gongoro Peak but did not return. The two wizards proceed to Sky Heights and plan the attack on Ivlet, who lives in an astral dimension, and invite the player to assist them. The three manage to defeat Ivlet and the dragon he summons. Retrieving back the Magic Hat, Beat says that since his task is done, he will have to part ways with the player, before entering the Magic Hat and returning it back to its normal color. The player returns home and is welcomed by their parents, with Arvin deciding to pass the Magic Hat to the player.
[ "Wii and PS2 versions\n--------------------", "Unlike the PC and DS versions, the Wii and PlayStation 2 versions of the games are adventure games, so instead of taking care of a virtual pet, the player plays as a dog or cat who lives in a southern half of a village called Pawville, on a large island. The player goes on an adventure to stop an evil wolf named Ivlet from causing chaos on the island, and eventually destroying the world.", "There are various other characters, such as Victor, a friend of the player character, Gertrude, who runs the medicine shop known as the \"Drug Store\", Kenneth, who runs a Zoo, Stanley, a carpenter, and many others.", "The Wii versions of *Petz Dogz 2* and *Petz Catz 2* (*Catz* and *Dogz* in Europe) were originally released in Japan under the name *Kitten And The Magic Hat* (*Catz 2*) and *Puppy And The Magic Hat* (*Dogz 2*).", "### Gameplay", "The game is similar to *[The Dog Island](/wiki/The_Dog_Island \"The Dog Island\")*, in which the player controls a dog or cat through environments while completing tasks. Before the game starts, the player is asked to choose the animal's breed, gender, and finally, name, all of which have no bearing in the game itself. The player can walk, run, creep, and push rocks as locomotion. Throughout the game, the player faces a variety of hostile animals, such as snakes, gorillas, bats, and others, who will hurt the player if they tread too closely. When an enemy attacks, the bubble indicating their mood above their head changes. The player starts out at 3 [HP](/wiki/Hit_point \"Hit point\"), which is upgraded at certain points in the game up to 8; if all of them are depleted, the player has to start over from the last save point. The player can stun enemies by barking/meowing behind them, which can be held down for a longer effect (in the dog's case, it will turn their bark into a howl), or by throwing pebbles against them. Bubbles appear above friendly [non\\-playable characters](/wiki/Non-playable_characters \"Non-playable characters\") as well to indicate that they need the player's help for a task.", "The player can explore 14 locales in the game, including the beach \"Dolphin Coast\", lake \"Lappy Lake\", forest \"Whisker Woods\", and so on. Not all of them are open for the player at the start, requiring specific tasks to be completed first. While the player will visit every area at one point in the game, many parts are optional and can be opened by skills obtained later in the game. Once the player earns the Warp Ring from Arvin (the player character's father) they can warp between six locales for free through a magical stone normally used for saving. Each area has its own hazards independent from the hostile animals, such as a poisonous lake in Sky Heights, overheating in Inferno Cave, and tornadoes in Lonesome Park. Some areas host zoo animals that can be challenged for mini\\-games, including soccer and sprint, to make them return to South Pawville's zoo, where the player can challenge them again. The game is tightly knit as compared to *The Dog Island*; South Pawville acts as a central hub that connects all branches of the island. Due to this, there is no traveler's inn or shop; every purchase and full healing through sleeping are therefore only conductible in South Pawville.", "The game has a variety of obtainable items. Fruits, vegetables, and plot\\-related items are collected by sniffing and digging them (availability and location of the items are indicated in two circles that appear when the player are sniffing). The player can catch butterflies, insects, and fishes, each of which can be sold at the pawn shop in South Pawville for gold, or, in the case of fishes, sent to the aquarium for later viewing. Gold, the game's currency, is also received as reward for completing tasks and can be spent to buy healing items, accessories, and clothing.", "The dog and cat editions of the game have virtually identical content, aside from the different animals populating them and certain theme naming (e.g. healing items in the game are named after meat for dogs, but tunas for cats).", "### Plot", "The player is a dog or cat living in South Pawville, a town located on a large island. The player's father, Arvin, owns the Magic Hat, a family inheritance that contains a powerful magic, which can be used for good or evil. When the player's best friend Victor talks about an evil wolf named Ivlet jailed at North Pawville's police station, he invites the player to investigate. Sheriff Ada warns them against nearing Ivlet, who usually sleeps during the day. This gives Victor idea of visiting him at night.", "When the two visit Ivlet that night, he tricks the player into giving him the Magic Hat. This empowers him with magic, which he uses to destroy both Pawvilles and make wild animals hostile. Ada jails the player, but is freed by Augusta, who says that the player should take responsibility by helping the townsfolk, while Victor decides to take the player's place as a compromise. Outside the police station, the player meets with Beat, the personification of the Magic Hat's good side, who asks for the player's help in retrieving back the hat.", "After the player helps out all of the Pawvilles' townsfolk, they are instructed by Arvin to meet with and assist Theophilus, a wizard living in Sky Heights, in combating Ivlet. Theophilus says that the Magic Hat, normally colored blue, grows darker if always used for evil, and if it turns black, it will corrupt its user into a monster. Suppressing the hat's power requires the Magic Shield, made from three crystals: the Water, Earth, and Ice Crystals. Once the player collects them, Theophilus sends the player to rendezvous with his brother, Bartholomew, who travelled to Gongoro Peak but did not return. The two wizards proceed to Sky Heights and plan the attack on Ivlet, who lives in an astral dimension, and invite the player to assist them. The three manage to defeat Ivlet and the dragon he summons.", "Retrieving back the Magic Hat, Beat says that since his task is done, he will have to part ways with the player, before entering the Magic Hat and returning it back to its normal color. The player returns home and is welcomed by their parents, with Arvin deciding to pass the Magic Hat to the player.", "" ]
Early career ------------ Pierre Bérégovoy was born in [Déville\-lès\-Rouen](/wiki/D%C3%A9ville-l%C3%A8s-Rouen "Déville-lès-Rouen") to a French mother and a [Ukrainian](/wiki/Ukrainians "Ukrainians") father (original family name *Береговий* in Ukrainian or *Береговой* in Russian) who had left the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") after the [Russian Civil War](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War "Russian Civil War"). He started his professional life at the age of 16 as a qualified metal worker. He got involved in politics following his activities in the [French Resistance](/wiki/French_Resistance "French Resistance") – while working at [SNCF](/wiki/SNCF "SNCF") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). A member of the socialist [SFIO](/wiki/French_Section_of_the_Workers%27_International "French Section of the Workers' International") and of the trade unions confederation [Workers Force](/wiki/CGT-FO "CGT-FO"), he joined the staff of the Minister of Public Works and Transport, [Christian Pineau](/wiki/Christian_Pineau "Christian Pineau"), as adviser for relations with the trade unions in 1949\. One year later, he became a technical agent at *[Gaz de France](/wiki/Gaz_de_France "Gaz de France")*. In 1959, he left the SFIO and participated in the foundation of the dissident [Unified Socialist Party](/wiki/Unified_Socialist_Party_%28France%29 "Unified Socialist Party (France)") (PSU). He became an adviser of [Pierre Mendès\-France](/wiki/Pierre_Mend%C3%A8s-France "Pierre Mendès-France"). In 1967, with [Alain Savary](/wiki/Alain_Savary "Alain Savary"), he created the pro\-Mendès\-France Union of Clubs for the Renewal of the Left. This group joined the renewed [Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28France%29 "Socialist Party (France)") (PS) in 1969\. He joined the executive group of the party behind [François Mitterrand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand "François Mitterrand"), and participated notably in the negotiations of the *[Common Program](/wiki/Common_Program_%28France%29 "Common Program (France)")* of the Union of the Left. In 1981, following Mitterrand's election as [President of France](/wiki/President_of_France "President of France"), he was chosen as Secretary General of the Presidency. One year later, he joined the cabinet as [Minister of Social affairs](/wiki/Minister_of_Social_Affairs_%28France%29 "Minister of Social Affairs (France)"). He was among the Socialist politicians who advised President Mitterrand to leave the [European Monetary System](/wiki/European_Monetary_System "European Monetary System") in order to continue Socialist economic policy. But in March 1983, Mitterrand listened to his Prime Minister [Pierre Mauroy](/wiki/Pierre_Mauroy "Pierre Mauroy") and ratified the change of economic policy. [thumb\|left\|The 1985 "[Plaza Accord](/wiki/Plaza_Accord "Plaza Accord")" is named after New York City's [Plaza Hotel](/wiki/Plaza_Hotel "Plaza Hotel"), which was the location of a meeting of finance ministers who reached an agreement about managing the fluctuating value of the US dollar. From left are [Gerhard Stoltenberg](/wiki/Gerhard_Stoltenberg "Gerhard Stoltenberg") of West Germany, Pierre Bérégovoy of France, [James A. Baker III](/wiki/James_A._Baker_III "James A. Baker III") of the United States, [Nigel Lawson](/wiki/Nigel_Lawson "Nigel Lawson") of Britain and [Noboru Takeshita](/wiki/Noboru_Takeshita "Noboru Takeshita") of Japan.](/wiki/File:Plaza_Accord_1985.jpg "Plaza Accord 1985.jpg") Bérégovoy became [Minister of the Economy and Finance](/wiki/Minister_of_the_Economy%2C_Finance_and_Industry_%28France%29 "Minister of the Economy, Finance and Industry (France)"), from 1984 to the 1986 Socialist electoral defeat. Elected mayor of [Nevers](/wiki/Nevers "Nevers") in 1983, and deputy of [Nièvre](/wiki/Ni%C3%A8vre "Nièvre") *département* in 1986, in the electoral land of Mitterrand, he was manager of the latter's [1988 presidential campaign](/wiki/1988_French_presidential_election "1988 French presidential election"). After his re\-election, at the time of each cabinet reshuffle, his name was mentioned as a possible prime minister. In the end, he returned to the Ministry of the Economy and Finance. In this function, he symbolized the adaptation of French socialism to the market economy and struck up hearty relations with employer representatives. After the [1992 regional elections](/wiki/1992_French_regional_elections "1992 French regional elections"), which were a disaster for the PS, he was finally appointed [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France "Prime Minister of France") and formed a new [minority government](/wiki/Minority_government "Minority government"). He promised to fight unemployment, economic decline and corruption. During his inaugural speech in the [French National Assembly](/wiki/French_National_Assembly "French National Assembly"), he claimed he knew the names of politicians from the right\-wing opposition implicated in corruption scandals, causing a great hue and cry. Bérégovoy forced Bernard Tapie, his Minister of Urban Affairs, to resign in May 1992 after his indictment by the French justice. He thus created the misnamed "[Balladur jurisprudence](/wiki/Balladur_jurisprudence "Balladur jurisprudence")".{{Cite web \|title\=Le Monde \- Toute l'actualité en continu \|url\=http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi\-bin/ACHATS/994735\.html?offre\=ARCHIVES\&type\_item\=ART\_ARCH\_30J\&objet\_id\=994735 \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-26 \|website\=Le Monde.fr \|language\=fr\-FR}} In social policy, a number of reforms were carried out. In November 1992 a law was passed that inserted a (arguably narrow) definition of sexual harassment into the labour code and empowered the labour inspectorate and workplace committees to enforce it.{{cite book\|title\=Integrating Gender: Women, Law and Politics in the European Union\|author\=Hoskyns, C.\|date\=1996\|publisher\=Verso\|isbn\=9781859840788\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=rjRu4M\-zfH8C\&pg\=PA217\|page\=217\|access\-date\=8 January 2017\|archive\-date\=4 March 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304114109/https://books.google.com/books?id\=rjRu4M\-zfH8C\&pg\=PA217\|url\-status\=live}} In May 1992, increased aid was provided to farmers, mainly comprising reductions in the agricultural land tax and increased grants for young farmers.{{cite book\|url\=http://www.oecd\-ilibrary.org/economics/oecd\-economic\-surveys\-france\-1992\_eco\_surveys\-fra\-1992\-en\|publisher\=oecd\-ilibrary.org\|title\=OECD Economic Surveys: France 1992 – Books – OECD iLibrary\|year\=1992 \|access\-date\=8 January 2017\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070704/http://www.oecd\-ilibrary.org/economics/oecd\-economic\-surveys\-france\-1992\_eco\_surveys\-fra\-1992\-en\|url\-status\=live}} In June 1992, the French parliament passed a bill which required mayors to encourage social mixing in public housing.{{cite book\|title\=Race and Ethnicity: Integration, adaptation and change\|author\=Goulbourne, H.\|date\=2001\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=9780415225038\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=nV1JfnbjXVgC\&pg\=PA275\|page\=275\|access\-date\=8 January 2017\|archive\-date\=14 December 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214234419/https://books.google.com/books?id\=nV1JfnbjXVgC\&pg\=PA275\|url\-status\=live}} A law of 12 July 1992 was aimed at enhancing both the status of child\-minders and "the quality of day care for children in a family environment," and a law of 29 July 1992 improved entitlement to medical assistance.{{cite book\|title\=European Social Charter: Governmental Committee, 13th Report\|author1\=Charter, C.E.G.C.E.S.\|author2\=Europe, C.\|date\=1996\|volume\=2\|publisher\=Council of Europe Press\|isbn\=9789287128676\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=H7\-Thm\-Ej5gC\&pg\=PA19\|page\=19\|access\-date\=8 January 2017}} The Sapin law of January 1993 sought to prevent corruption and encourage transparency "in economic activities and public procedures,"{{cite book\|title\=Sharing Concerns: Country Case Studies in Public\-Private Partnerships\|author1\=Teicher, J.\|author2\=Neesham, C.\|author3\=Profiroiu, M.\|date\=2013\|publisher\=Cambridge Scholars Publishing\|isbn\=9781443852616\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=19YwBwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA44\|page\=44\|access\-date\=8 January 2017}} and a law of January 1993 established "the principle of joint parental authority in the legitimate family, even if a divorce occurs."{{cite book\|title\=Family Law and Family Values\|author\=Maclean, M.\|date\=2005\|publisher\=Bloomsbury Publishing\|isbn\=9781847312129\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=QMbbBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA97\|page\=97\|access\-date\=8 January 2017\|archive\-date\=14 December 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214234419/https://books.google.com/books?id\=QMbbBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA97\|url\-status\=live}} In addition, the coverage of housing benefits was extended in 1993\.[http://www.eea\-esem.com/papers/eea\-esem/2004/702/Student\-2004\.pdf{{Dead link\|date\=May 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](http://www.eea-esem.com/papers/eea-esem/2004/702/Student-2004.pdf{{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}){{Cite web \|url\=http://www.npc.umich.edu/news/events/NPCEUconf/fack.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=14 May 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029033424/http://npc.umich.edu/news/events/NPCEUconf/fack.pdf \|archive\-date\=29 October 2015 \|url\-status\=dead }} After nearly a year as [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France "Prime Minister of France"), Bérégovoy led the Socialist Party into the electoral collapse of the [March 1993 parliamentary elections](/wiki/1993_French_legislative_election "1993 French legislative election"): the governing party, which previously held 260 seats (29 short from an overall majority), was reduced to only 53 seats, thus constituting the worst electoral defeat in the French left's history and one of the worst ever suffered by a governing party in French history. He resigned as PM on 29 March 1993\.
[ "Early career\n------------", "Pierre Bérégovoy was born in [Déville\\-lès\\-Rouen](/wiki/D%C3%A9ville-l%C3%A8s-Rouen \"Déville-lès-Rouen\") to a French mother and a [Ukrainian](/wiki/Ukrainians \"Ukrainians\") father (original family name *Береговий* in Ukrainian or *Береговой* in Russian) who had left the [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") after the [Russian Civil War](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War \"Russian Civil War\").", "He started his professional life at the age of 16 as a qualified metal worker. He got involved in politics following his activities in the [French Resistance](/wiki/French_Resistance \"French Resistance\") – while working at [SNCF](/wiki/SNCF \"SNCF\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). A member of the socialist [SFIO](/wiki/French_Section_of_the_Workers%27_International \"French Section of the Workers' International\") and of the trade unions confederation [Workers Force](/wiki/CGT-FO \"CGT-FO\"), he joined the staff of the Minister of Public Works and Transport, [Christian Pineau](/wiki/Christian_Pineau \"Christian Pineau\"), as adviser for relations with the trade unions in 1949\\. One year later, he became a technical agent at *[Gaz de France](/wiki/Gaz_de_France \"Gaz de France\")*.", "In 1959, he left the SFIO and participated in the foundation of the dissident [Unified Socialist Party](/wiki/Unified_Socialist_Party_%28France%29 \"Unified Socialist Party (France)\") (PSU). He became an adviser of [Pierre Mendès\\-France](/wiki/Pierre_Mend%C3%A8s-France \"Pierre Mendès-France\"). In 1967, with [Alain Savary](/wiki/Alain_Savary \"Alain Savary\"), he created the pro\\-Mendès\\-France Union of Clubs for the Renewal of the Left. This group joined the renewed [Socialist Party](/wiki/Socialist_Party_%28France%29 \"Socialist Party (France)\") (PS) in 1969\\. He joined the executive group of the party behind [François Mitterrand](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand \"François Mitterrand\"), and participated notably in the negotiations of the *[Common Program](/wiki/Common_Program_%28France%29 \"Common Program (France)\")* of the Union of the Left.", "In 1981, following Mitterrand's election as [President of France](/wiki/President_of_France \"President of France\"), he was chosen as Secretary General of the Presidency. One year later, he joined the cabinet as [Minister of Social affairs](/wiki/Minister_of_Social_Affairs_%28France%29 \"Minister of Social Affairs (France)\"). He was among the Socialist politicians who advised President Mitterrand to leave the [European Monetary System](/wiki/European_Monetary_System \"European Monetary System\") in order to continue Socialist economic policy. But in March 1983, Mitterrand listened to his Prime Minister [Pierre Mauroy](/wiki/Pierre_Mauroy \"Pierre Mauroy\") and ratified the change of economic policy.", "[thumb\\|left\\|The 1985 \"[Plaza Accord](/wiki/Plaza_Accord \"Plaza Accord\")\" is named after New York City's [Plaza Hotel](/wiki/Plaza_Hotel \"Plaza Hotel\"), which was the location of a meeting of finance ministers who reached an agreement about managing the fluctuating value of the US dollar. From left are [Gerhard Stoltenberg](/wiki/Gerhard_Stoltenberg \"Gerhard Stoltenberg\") of West Germany, Pierre Bérégovoy of France, [James A. Baker III](/wiki/James_A._Baker_III \"James A. Baker III\") of the United States, [Nigel Lawson](/wiki/Nigel_Lawson \"Nigel Lawson\") of Britain and [Noboru Takeshita](/wiki/Noboru_Takeshita \"Noboru Takeshita\") of Japan.](/wiki/File:Plaza_Accord_1985.jpg \"Plaza Accord 1985.jpg\")", "Bérégovoy became [Minister of the Economy and Finance](/wiki/Minister_of_the_Economy%2C_Finance_and_Industry_%28France%29 \"Minister of the Economy, Finance and Industry (France)\"), from 1984 to the 1986 Socialist electoral defeat.", "Elected mayor of [Nevers](/wiki/Nevers \"Nevers\") in 1983, and deputy of [Nièvre](/wiki/Ni%C3%A8vre \"Nièvre\") *département* in 1986, in the electoral land of Mitterrand, he was manager of the latter's [1988 presidential campaign](/wiki/1988_French_presidential_election \"1988 French presidential election\"). After his re\\-election, at the time of each cabinet reshuffle, his name was mentioned as a possible prime minister. In the end, he returned to the Ministry of the Economy and Finance. In this function, he symbolized the adaptation of French socialism to the market economy and struck up hearty relations with employer representatives.", "After the [1992 regional elections](/wiki/1992_French_regional_elections \"1992 French regional elections\"), which were a disaster for the PS, he was finally appointed [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France \"Prime Minister of France\") and formed a new [minority government](/wiki/Minority_government \"Minority government\"). He promised to fight unemployment, economic decline and corruption. During his inaugural speech in the [French National Assembly](/wiki/French_National_Assembly \"French National Assembly\"), he claimed he knew the names of politicians from the right\\-wing opposition implicated in corruption scandals, causing a great hue and cry. Bérégovoy forced Bernard Tapie, his Minister of Urban Affairs, to resign in May 1992 after his indictment by the French justice. He thus created the misnamed \"[Balladur jurisprudence](/wiki/Balladur_jurisprudence \"Balladur jurisprudence\")\".{{Cite web \\|title\\=Le Monde \\- Toute l'actualité en continu \\|url\\=http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi\\-bin/ACHATS/994735\\.html?offre\\=ARCHIVES\\&type\\_item\\=ART\\_ARCH\\_30J\\&objet\\_id\\=994735 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-26 \\|website\\=Le Monde.fr \\|language\\=fr\\-FR}} In social policy, a number of reforms were carried out. In November 1992 a law was passed that inserted a (arguably narrow) definition of sexual harassment into the labour code and empowered the labour inspectorate and workplace committees to enforce it.{{cite book\\|title\\=Integrating Gender: Women, Law and Politics in the European Union\\|author\\=Hoskyns, C.\\|date\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Verso\\|isbn\\=9781859840788\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rjRu4M\\-zfH8C\\&pg\\=PA217\\|page\\=217\\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304114109/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=rjRu4M\\-zfH8C\\&pg\\=PA217\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In May 1992, increased aid was provided to farmers, mainly comprising reductions in the agricultural land tax and increased grants for young farmers.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.oecd\\-ilibrary.org/economics/oecd\\-economic\\-surveys\\-france\\-1992\\_eco\\_surveys\\-fra\\-1992\\-en\\|publisher\\=oecd\\-ilibrary.org\\|title\\=OECD Economic Surveys: France 1992 – Books – OECD iLibrary\\|year\\=1992 \\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070704/http://www.oecd\\-ilibrary.org/economics/oecd\\-economic\\-surveys\\-france\\-1992\\_eco\\_surveys\\-fra\\-1992\\-en\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In June 1992, the French parliament passed a bill which required mayors to encourage social mixing in public housing.{{cite book\\|title\\=Race and Ethnicity: Integration, adaptation and change\\|author\\=Goulbourne, H.\\|date\\=2001\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=9780415225038\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=nV1JfnbjXVgC\\&pg\\=PA275\\|page\\=275\\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=14 December 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214234419/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=nV1JfnbjXVgC\\&pg\\=PA275\\|url\\-status\\=live}} A law of 12 July 1992 was aimed at enhancing both the status of child\\-minders and \"the quality of day care for children in a family environment,\" and a law of 29 July 1992 improved entitlement to medical assistance.{{cite book\\|title\\=European Social Charter: Governmental Committee, 13th Report\\|author1\\=Charter, C.E.G.C.E.S.\\|author2\\=Europe, C.\\|date\\=1996\\|volume\\=2\\|publisher\\=Council of Europe Press\\|isbn\\=9789287128676\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=H7\\-Thm\\-Ej5gC\\&pg\\=PA19\\|page\\=19\\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2017}} The Sapin law of January 1993 sought to prevent corruption and encourage transparency \"in economic activities and public procedures,\"{{cite book\\|title\\=Sharing Concerns: Country Case Studies in Public\\-Private Partnerships\\|author1\\=Teicher, J.\\|author2\\=Neesham, C.\\|author3\\=Profiroiu, M.\\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Cambridge Scholars Publishing\\|isbn\\=9781443852616\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=19YwBwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA44\\|page\\=44\\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2017}} and a law of January 1993 established \"the principle of joint parental authority in the legitimate family, even if a divorce occurs.\"{{cite book\\|title\\=Family Law and Family Values\\|author\\=Maclean, M.\\|date\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Publishing\\|isbn\\=9781847312129\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=QMbbBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA97\\|page\\=97\\|access\\-date\\=8 January 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=14 December 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214234419/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=QMbbBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA97\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In addition, the coverage of housing benefits was extended in 1993\\.[http://www.eea\\-esem.com/papers/eea\\-esem/2004/702/Student\\-2004\\.pdf{{Dead link\\|date\\=May 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](http://www.eea-esem.com/papers/eea-esem/2004/702/Student-2004.pdf{{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}){{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.npc.umich.edu/news/events/NPCEUconf/fack.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029033424/http://npc.umich.edu/news/events/NPCEUconf/fack.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=29 October 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "After nearly a year as [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France \"Prime Minister of France\"), Bérégovoy led the Socialist Party into the electoral collapse of the [March 1993 parliamentary elections](/wiki/1993_French_legislative_election \"1993 French legislative election\"): the governing party, which previously held 260 seats (29 short from an overall majority), was reduced to only 53 seats, thus constituting the worst electoral defeat in the French left's history and one of the worst ever suffered by a governing party in French history. He resigned as PM on 29 March 1993\\.", "" ]
Description and history ----------------------- Jules Frere was a [Fort Pierce](/wiki/Fort_Pierce%2C_Florida "Fort Pierce, Florida") merchant and owner of Sunrise Lumber Company. He built the original square, flat\-roofed structure and subsequently added the front cathedral portion which was completed in 1931\. The cathedral has leaded stained glass in the spine of the ceiling and detailed Florida themed leaded stained glass in the west\-facing French doors. A spiral staircase, which is no longer in existence, leads to a door leading out onto the flat roof of the original structure. The unique functional wood\-burning fireplace is surrounded by marble with decorative appointments. The cathedral structure ceiling and upper walls are plaster, with roughly the lower 6ft of the walls tiled to the floor. The floors of the structure are tile. The Underwood family purchased the home from Jules Frere. Around 1940 it was sold to the McDonald family for $4,800\.00 In a game of football, the McDonald children damaged the stained glass doors. Famed Florida artist Albert Ernest [A. E. Backus](/wiki/A._E._Backus "A. E. Backus"), also known as Beanie Backus, was commissioned to hand paint the broken lead tiles to match the broken glass. Over the years the home changed ownership and the detached 2 car garage was converted into a full apartment. In 2017, the property and adjacent acreage was again sold. Current resident has painstakingly renovated the features of the home, including authentic roofing and wrought iron work. Fruit trees, landscaping and upgraded hardscape on the site as well as the adjoining 2 acres has been completed. The interior layout of the Historic home has stayed relatively the same since it was finished in 1931\. An arched entryway separates the cathedral addition from the original section. Arched doorways continue into the kitchen and mudroom. Original hardwood flooring runs throughout the dining area and bedrooms. The bathroom, kitchen and mudroom/laundry have tiled flooring. The east\-facing backdoor opens out to the expansive 2 acre backyard filled with native plants, tropical fruit trees, and oak and pine trees draped in Spanish moss. A new hardscape walkway leads to the parking area and apartment which were added in 2019\. It was added to the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") on April 20, 1995\.
[ "Description and history\n-----------------------", "Jules Frere was a [Fort Pierce](/wiki/Fort_Pierce%2C_Florida \"Fort Pierce, Florida\") merchant and owner of Sunrise Lumber Company. He built the original square, flat\\-roofed structure and subsequently added the front cathedral portion which was completed in 1931\\.", "The cathedral has leaded stained glass in the spine of the ceiling and detailed Florida themed leaded stained glass in the west\\-facing French doors. A spiral staircase, which is no longer in existence, leads to a door leading out onto the flat roof of the original structure. The unique functional wood\\-burning fireplace is surrounded by marble with decorative appointments. \nThe cathedral structure ceiling and upper walls are plaster, with roughly the lower 6ft of the walls tiled to the floor. The floors of the structure are tile.", "The Underwood family purchased the home from Jules Frere. Around 1940 it was sold to the McDonald family for $4,800\\.00", "In a game of football, the McDonald children damaged the stained glass doors. Famed Florida artist Albert Ernest [A. E. Backus](/wiki/A._E._Backus \"A. E. Backus\"), also known as Beanie Backus, was commissioned to hand paint the broken lead tiles to match the broken glass.", "Over the years the home changed ownership and the detached 2 car garage was converted into a full apartment.", "In 2017, the property and adjacent acreage was again sold. Current resident has painstakingly renovated the features of the home, including authentic roofing and wrought iron work. Fruit trees, landscaping and upgraded hardscape on the site as well as the adjoining 2 acres has been completed.", "The interior layout of the Historic home has stayed relatively the same since it was finished in 1931\\. An arched entryway separates the cathedral addition from the original section. Arched doorways continue into the kitchen and mudroom. Original hardwood flooring runs throughout the dining area and bedrooms. The bathroom, kitchen and mudroom/laundry have tiled flooring.", "The east\\-facing backdoor opens out to the expansive 2 acre backyard filled with native plants, tropical fruit trees, and oak and pine trees draped in Spanish moss. A new hardscape walkway leads to the parking area and apartment which were added in 2019\\.", "It was added to the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") on April 20, 1995\\.", "" ]
Geography --------- Heidenheim is situated between [Albuch](/wiki/Albuch "Albuch") and the [Härtsfeld region](/wiki/H%C3%A4rtsfeld "Härtsfeld") in the northeast corner of the [Swabian Alb](/wiki/Swabian_Alb "Swabian Alb") where the valley of the [Brenz](/wiki/Brenz_River "Brenz River") meets the Stubental at the foot of Hellenstein Mountain. The source of the Brenz is located in [Königsbronn](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsbronn "Königsbronn") and enters Heidenheim from the northwest. It runs through the boroughs of Aufhausen and Schnaitheim before it gets to Heidenheim (proper). From there it continues on to the south through the borough of Mergelstetten, before it leaves the city limits to head for [Herbrechtingen](/wiki/Herbrechtingen "Herbrechtingen"). ### Neighbouring municipalities Heidenheim shares borders with the following cities and towns, listed clockwise starting from the North: [Aalen](/wiki/Aalen "Aalen") and [Neresheim](/wiki/Neresheim "Neresheim") (both in [Ostalb County](/wiki/Ostalbkreis "Ostalbkreis")), [Nattheim](/wiki/Nattheim "Nattheim") ([Heidenheim County](/wiki/Heidenheim_%28district%29 "Heidenheim (district)")), [Syrgenstein](/wiki/Syrgenstein "Syrgenstein") ([Dillingen County](/wiki/Dillingen_%28district%29 "Dillingen (district)"), [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria "Bavaria")), as well as [Herbrechtingen](/wiki/Herbrechtingen "Herbrechtingen"), [Steinheim am Albuch](/wiki/Steinheim_am_Albuch "Steinheim am Albuch") and [Königsbronn](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsbronn "Königsbronn") (all in Heidenheim County). ### Subdivisions Heidenheim an der Brenz consists of Heidenheim (proper) and the subdivisions (boroughs) of Schnaitheim, Mergelstetten, Oggenhausen and Großkuchen (annexed between 1910 and 1974\). Each of the four boroughs includes their own neighbourhoods that either have a long history of their own or were created as new developments. But while these neighbourhoods received their names during construction, their boundaries have not been officially defined. Oggenhausen and Großkuchen became part of Heidenheim during the last district reform in the 1970s and are also municipalities under state administrative law. This designation entitles them to a borough council, elected by registered voters in municipal elections. The Municipal Council is headed by a president. #### Schnaitheim Schnaitheim, to the north, was at one time a politically independent small town but is now Heidenheim's largest borough, officially known as Heidenheim\-Schnaitheim. Expansion of both towns has now eradicated any geographical separation between the two. Although largely residential, Schnaitheim is home to a number of Heidenheim's "[Big Box](/wiki/Big-box_store "Big-box store")"\-style retailers, and its commercial districts are an important part of the city's infrastructure. It has about 10,900 residents. Within Schnaitheim, neighbourhoods include Wehrenfeld on the east side, which consists largely of wealthier homes as well as a large recreational area featuring the town's largest sports club, TSG Schnaitheim. Other neighbourhoods include Hagen on the west side, located on the slope of a hill and Aufhausen, once a separate farming village to the north but now amalgamated. #### Mergelstetten Mergelstetten is located to the south of Heidenheim center, as it heads towards [Herbrechtingen](/wiki/Herbrechtingen "Herbrechtingen"). With about 7900 residents, Mergelstetten is home to a number of factories, but retains a rural feel. Within Mergelstetten, the residential area of Reutenen sits elevated on a hill. #### Oggenhausen About 5 kilometers to the east of Heidenheim, separated by the major road [European route E43](/wiki/European_route_E43 "European route E43"), the village of Oggenhausen is home to about 1550 residents. The town voted to merge into Heidenheim by popular vote in 1970\. #### Großkuchen About 8 kilometres north\-east of Heidenheim, the geographically separate Großkuchen is a popular recreational area with hiking trails and cross\-country skiing. It is also home to a small\-scale local [charcoal](/wiki/Charcoal "Charcoal") industry. The town has about 1550 residents and merged politically with Heidenheim in 1974\. ### Climate {{Weather box \|location \= Heidenheim an der Brenz (1991\-2020\) \|metric first \= Yes \|single line \= Yes \| precipitation colour \= green \| Jan mean C \=\-0\.6 \| Feb mean C \=0\.0 \| Mar mean C \=3\.8 \| Apr mean C \=8\.3 \| May mean C \=12\.8 \| Jun mean C \=16\.2 \| Jul mean C \=17\.7 \| Aug mean C \=17\.2 \| Sep mean C \=12\.7 \| Oct mean C \=8\.4 \| Nov mean C \=3\.5 \| Dec mean C \=0\.4 \| year mean C \= \| Jan precipitation mm \=69\.6 \| Feb precipitation mm \=55\.9 \| Mar precipitation mm \=65\.3 \| Apr precipitation mm \=50\.1 \| May precipitation mm \=79\.5 \| Jun precipitation mm \=80\.9 \| Jul precipitation mm \=89\.8 \| Aug precipitation mm \=81\.0 \| Sep precipitation mm \=57\.1 \| Oct precipitation mm \=64\.3 \| Nov precipitation mm \=65\.1 \| Dec precipitation mm \=78\.0 \| year precipitation mm \= \|Jan sun \= 46 \|Feb sun \= 71\.4 \|Mar sun \= 121\.4 \|Apr sun \= 170\.3 \|May sun \= 200\.4 \|Jun sun \= 215\.6 \|Jul sun \= 232\.9 \|Aug sun \= 212\.6 \|Sep sun \= 148\.1 \|Oct sun \= 91\.5 \|Nov sun \= 45\.6 \|Dec sun \= 39\.1 \|year sun \= \|source 1 \= ''\[\[Deutscher Wetterdienst]]''{{Cite web \|title\=Lufttemperatur: vieljährige Mittelwerte 1991 \- 2020 \|url\=https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/klimadatendeutschland/mittelwerte/temp\_9120\_SV\_html.html?view\=nasPublication\&nn\=771428 \|website\=dwd.de \|publisher\=Deutscher Wetterdienst \|access\-date\=23 February 2024\|no\-pp\=y \|language\=German \|trans\-title\=Air Temperature: Long\-term averages for 1991\-2020}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/klimadatendeutschland/mittelwerte/nieder\_9120\_SV\_html.html?view\=nasPublication\&nn\=771428 \|title\=Niederschlag: vieljährige Mittelwerte 1991 \- 2020 \|access\-date\=23 February 2024\|website\=dwd.de \|publisher\=Deutscher Wetterdienst \|no\-pp\=y \|language\=German \|trans\-title\=Precipitation: Long\-term averages for 1991\-2020}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/klimadatendeutschland/mittelwerte/sonne\_9120\_SV\_html.html?view\=nasPublication\&nn\=771428 \|title\=Sonnenscheindauer: vieljährige Mittelwerte 1991 \- 2020 \|website\=dwd.de \|publisher\=Deutscher Wetterdienst \|access\-date\=23 February 2024 \|no\-pp\=y \|language\=German \|trans\-title\=Sunshine: Long\-term averages for 1991\-2020 }} }}
[ "Geography\n---------", "Heidenheim is situated between [Albuch](/wiki/Albuch \"Albuch\") and the [Härtsfeld region](/wiki/H%C3%A4rtsfeld \"Härtsfeld\") in the northeast corner of the [Swabian Alb](/wiki/Swabian_Alb \"Swabian Alb\") where the valley of the [Brenz](/wiki/Brenz_River \"Brenz River\") meets the Stubental at the foot of Hellenstein Mountain. The source of the Brenz is located in [Königsbronn](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsbronn \"Königsbronn\") and enters Heidenheim from the northwest. It runs through the boroughs of Aufhausen and Schnaitheim before it gets to Heidenheim (proper). From there it continues on to the south through the borough of Mergelstetten, before it leaves the city limits to head for [Herbrechtingen](/wiki/Herbrechtingen \"Herbrechtingen\").", "### Neighbouring municipalities", "Heidenheim shares borders with the following cities and towns, listed clockwise starting from the North: [Aalen](/wiki/Aalen \"Aalen\") and [Neresheim](/wiki/Neresheim \"Neresheim\") (both in [Ostalb County](/wiki/Ostalbkreis \"Ostalbkreis\")), [Nattheim](/wiki/Nattheim \"Nattheim\") ([Heidenheim County](/wiki/Heidenheim_%28district%29 \"Heidenheim (district)\")), [Syrgenstein](/wiki/Syrgenstein \"Syrgenstein\") ([Dillingen County](/wiki/Dillingen_%28district%29 \"Dillingen (district)\"), [Bavaria](/wiki/Bavaria \"Bavaria\")), as well as [Herbrechtingen](/wiki/Herbrechtingen \"Herbrechtingen\"), [Steinheim am Albuch](/wiki/Steinheim_am_Albuch \"Steinheim am Albuch\") and [Königsbronn](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsbronn \"Königsbronn\") (all in Heidenheim County).", "### Subdivisions", "Heidenheim an der Brenz consists of Heidenheim (proper) and the subdivisions (boroughs) of Schnaitheim, Mergelstetten, Oggenhausen and Großkuchen (annexed between 1910 and 1974\\).", "Each of the four boroughs includes their own neighbourhoods that either have a long history of their own or were created as new developments. But while these neighbourhoods received their names during construction, their boundaries have not been officially defined.", "Oggenhausen and Großkuchen became part of Heidenheim during the last district reform in the 1970s and are also municipalities under state administrative law. This designation entitles them to a borough council, elected by registered voters in municipal elections. The Municipal Council is headed by a president.", "#### Schnaitheim", "Schnaitheim, to the north, was at one time a politically independent small town but is now Heidenheim's largest borough, officially known as Heidenheim\\-Schnaitheim. Expansion of both towns has now eradicated any geographical separation between the two. Although largely residential, Schnaitheim is home to a number of Heidenheim's \"[Big Box](/wiki/Big-box_store \"Big-box store\")\"\\-style retailers, and its commercial districts are an important part of the city's infrastructure. It has about 10,900 residents.", "Within Schnaitheim, neighbourhoods include Wehrenfeld on the east side, which consists largely of wealthier homes as well as a large recreational area featuring the town's largest sports club, TSG Schnaitheim. Other neighbourhoods include Hagen on the west side, located on the slope of a hill and Aufhausen, once a separate farming village to the north but now amalgamated.", "#### Mergelstetten", "Mergelstetten is located to the south of Heidenheim center, as it heads towards [Herbrechtingen](/wiki/Herbrechtingen \"Herbrechtingen\"). With about 7900 residents, Mergelstetten is home to a number of factories, but retains a rural feel. Within Mergelstetten, the residential area of Reutenen sits elevated on a hill.", "#### Oggenhausen", "About 5 kilometers to the east of Heidenheim, separated by the major road [European route E43](/wiki/European_route_E43 \"European route E43\"), the village of Oggenhausen is home to about 1550 residents. The town voted to merge into Heidenheim by popular vote in 1970\\.", "#### Großkuchen", "About 8 kilometres north\\-east of Heidenheim, the geographically separate Großkuchen is a popular recreational area with hiking trails and cross\\-country skiing. It is also home to a small\\-scale local [charcoal](/wiki/Charcoal \"Charcoal\") industry. The town has about 1550 residents and merged politically with Heidenheim in 1974\\.", "### Climate", "{{Weather box\n\\|location \\= Heidenheim an der Brenz (1991\\-2020\\)\n\\|metric first \\= Yes\n\\|single line \\= Yes\n\\| precipitation colour \\= green\n\\| Jan mean C \\=\\-0\\.6\n\\| Feb mean C \\=0\\.0\n\\| Mar mean C \\=3\\.8\n\\| Apr mean C \\=8\\.3\n\\| May mean C \\=12\\.8\n\\| Jun mean C \\=16\\.2\n\\| Jul mean C \\=17\\.7\n\\| Aug mean C \\=17\\.2\n\\| Sep mean C \\=12\\.7\n\\| Oct mean C \\=8\\.4\n\\| Nov mean C \\=3\\.5\n\\| Dec mean C \\=0\\.4\n\\| year mean C \\=", "\\| Jan precipitation mm \\=69\\.6\n\\| Feb precipitation mm \\=55\\.9\n\\| Mar precipitation mm \\=65\\.3\n\\| Apr precipitation mm \\=50\\.1\n\\| May precipitation mm \\=79\\.5\n\\| Jun precipitation mm \\=80\\.9\n\\| Jul precipitation mm \\=89\\.8\n\\| Aug precipitation mm \\=81\\.0\n\\| Sep precipitation mm \\=57\\.1\n\\| Oct precipitation mm \\=64\\.3\n\\| Nov precipitation mm \\=65\\.1\n\\| Dec precipitation mm \\=78\\.0\n\\| year precipitation mm \\=", "\\|Jan sun \\= 46\n\\|Feb sun \\= 71\\.4\n\\|Mar sun \\= 121\\.4\n\\|Apr sun \\= 170\\.3\n\\|May sun \\= 200\\.4\n\\|Jun sun \\= 215\\.6\n\\|Jul sun \\= 232\\.9\n\\|Aug sun \\= 212\\.6\n\\|Sep sun \\= 148\\.1\n\\|Oct sun \\= 91\\.5\n\\|Nov sun \\= 45\\.6\n\\|Dec sun \\= 39\\.1\n\\|year sun \\= \n\\|source 1 \\= ''\\[\\[Deutscher Wetterdienst]]''{{Cite web \\|title\\=Lufttemperatur: vieljährige Mittelwerte 1991 \\- 2020 \\|url\\=https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/klimadatendeutschland/mittelwerte/temp\\_9120\\_SV\\_html.html?view\\=nasPublication\\&nn\\=771428 \\|website\\=dwd.de \\|publisher\\=Deutscher Wetterdienst \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2024\\|no\\-pp\\=y \\|language\\=German \\|trans\\-title\\=Air Temperature: Long\\-term averages for 1991\\-2020}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/klimadatendeutschland/mittelwerte/nieder\\_9120\\_SV\\_html.html?view\\=nasPublication\\&nn\\=771428 \\|title\\=Niederschlag: vieljährige Mittelwerte 1991 \\- 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2024\\|website\\=dwd.de \\|publisher\\=Deutscher Wetterdienst \\|no\\-pp\\=y \\|language\\=German \\|trans\\-title\\=Precipitation: Long\\-term averages for 1991\\-2020}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/klimadatendeutschland/mittelwerte/sonne\\_9120\\_SV\\_html.html?view\\=nasPublication\\&nn\\=771428 \\|title\\=Sonnenscheindauer: vieljährige Mittelwerte 1991 \\- 2020 \\|website\\=dwd.de \\|publisher\\=Deutscher Wetterdienst \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2024 \\|no\\-pp\\=y \\|language\\=German \\|trans\\-title\\=Sunshine: Long\\-term averages for 1991\\-2020 }}\n}}", "" ]
### Subdivisions Heidenheim an der Brenz consists of Heidenheim (proper) and the subdivisions (boroughs) of Schnaitheim, Mergelstetten, Oggenhausen and Großkuchen (annexed between 1910 and 1974\). Each of the four boroughs includes their own neighbourhoods that either have a long history of their own or were created as new developments. But while these neighbourhoods received their names during construction, their boundaries have not been officially defined. Oggenhausen and Großkuchen became part of Heidenheim during the last district reform in the 1970s and are also municipalities under state administrative law. This designation entitles them to a borough council, elected by registered voters in municipal elections. The Municipal Council is headed by a president. #### Schnaitheim Schnaitheim, to the north, was at one time a politically independent small town but is now Heidenheim's largest borough, officially known as Heidenheim\-Schnaitheim. Expansion of both towns has now eradicated any geographical separation between the two. Although largely residential, Schnaitheim is home to a number of Heidenheim's "[Big Box](/wiki/Big-box_store "Big-box store")"\-style retailers, and its commercial districts are an important part of the city's infrastructure. It has about 10,900 residents. Within Schnaitheim, neighbourhoods include Wehrenfeld on the east side, which consists largely of wealthier homes as well as a large recreational area featuring the town's largest sports club, TSG Schnaitheim. Other neighbourhoods include Hagen on the west side, located on the slope of a hill and Aufhausen, once a separate farming village to the north but now amalgamated. #### Mergelstetten Mergelstetten is located to the south of Heidenheim center, as it heads towards [Herbrechtingen](/wiki/Herbrechtingen "Herbrechtingen"). With about 7900 residents, Mergelstetten is home to a number of factories, but retains a rural feel. Within Mergelstetten, the residential area of Reutenen sits elevated on a hill. #### Oggenhausen About 5 kilometers to the east of Heidenheim, separated by the major road [European route E43](/wiki/European_route_E43 "European route E43"), the village of Oggenhausen is home to about 1550 residents. The town voted to merge into Heidenheim by popular vote in 1970\. #### Großkuchen About 8 kilometres north\-east of Heidenheim, the geographically separate Großkuchen is a popular recreational area with hiking trails and cross\-country skiing. It is also home to a small\-scale local [charcoal](/wiki/Charcoal "Charcoal") industry. The town has about 1550 residents and merged politically with Heidenheim in 1974\.
[ "### Subdivisions", "Heidenheim an der Brenz consists of Heidenheim (proper) and the subdivisions (boroughs) of Schnaitheim, Mergelstetten, Oggenhausen and Großkuchen (annexed between 1910 and 1974\\).", "Each of the four boroughs includes their own neighbourhoods that either have a long history of their own or were created as new developments. But while these neighbourhoods received their names during construction, their boundaries have not been officially defined.", "Oggenhausen and Großkuchen became part of Heidenheim during the last district reform in the 1970s and are also municipalities under state administrative law. This designation entitles them to a borough council, elected by registered voters in municipal elections. The Municipal Council is headed by a president.", "#### Schnaitheim", "Schnaitheim, to the north, was at one time a politically independent small town but is now Heidenheim's largest borough, officially known as Heidenheim\\-Schnaitheim. Expansion of both towns has now eradicated any geographical separation between the two. Although largely residential, Schnaitheim is home to a number of Heidenheim's \"[Big Box](/wiki/Big-box_store \"Big-box store\")\"\\-style retailers, and its commercial districts are an important part of the city's infrastructure. It has about 10,900 residents.", "Within Schnaitheim, neighbourhoods include Wehrenfeld on the east side, which consists largely of wealthier homes as well as a large recreational area featuring the town's largest sports club, TSG Schnaitheim. Other neighbourhoods include Hagen on the west side, located on the slope of a hill and Aufhausen, once a separate farming village to the north but now amalgamated.", "#### Mergelstetten", "Mergelstetten is located to the south of Heidenheim center, as it heads towards [Herbrechtingen](/wiki/Herbrechtingen \"Herbrechtingen\"). With about 7900 residents, Mergelstetten is home to a number of factories, but retains a rural feel. Within Mergelstetten, the residential area of Reutenen sits elevated on a hill.", "#### Oggenhausen", "About 5 kilometers to the east of Heidenheim, separated by the major road [European route E43](/wiki/European_route_E43 \"European route E43\"), the village of Oggenhausen is home to about 1550 residents. The town voted to merge into Heidenheim by popular vote in 1970\\.", "#### Großkuchen", "About 8 kilometres north\\-east of Heidenheim, the geographically separate Großkuchen is a popular recreational area with hiking trails and cross\\-country skiing. It is also home to a small\\-scale local [charcoal](/wiki/Charcoal \"Charcoal\") industry. The town has about 1550 residents and merged politically with Heidenheim in 1974\\.", "" ]
History ------- There is evidence that human life existed within the city limits of Heidenheim as far back as 8,000 years ago. However, a permanent settlement was not established until approximately 1300 BC. Extensive ruins remain of settlements dating, predominantly, to the period from 1200 to 800 BC. At the time of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") from about 85 AD onwards, Heidenheim was the location of Castle *Aquileia* with attached cavalry of more than 1,000 mounted soldiers. The unit, called *ala II flavia milliaria* was later, around 159 AD, moved further North to [Aalen](/wiki/Aalen "Aalen"). At first, the castle marked the Eastern end of the [Alb Limes](/wiki/Alb_Limes "Alb Limes"). But it did not take long until a civilian settlement was founded at this strategically important spot, marked by the intersection of five [Roman roads](/wiki/Roman_roads "Roman roads"). This settlement was the largest Roman city in what is today Baden\-Württemberg and archeological finds suggest that it covered an area of approximately 37 \- {{convert\|50\|acres\|2\|abbr\=on\|lk\=out}} (15 \- 20 hectares). More recently, excavations have found the remains of a representative Roman administrative building. Its exact function was not fully understood as of May 2005, but given *Aquileia*{{'}}s size, location and other indicators, it is believed that it was probably the capital of a Roman administrative district (see also [Civitas](/wiki/Civitas "Civitas")). From 233 on, the [Alamanni](/wiki/Alamanni "Alamanni") repeatedly attacked the Roman [limes](/wiki/Limes_%28Roman_Empire%29 "Limes (Roman Empire)") fortifications. The Roman surrender of the limes in 260 spelled the end of the Roman city of Heidenheim. It is not clear to what extent Romans stayed on under the new Alammanic rule but it is very likely that some remained. Nothing is known about Aquileia/Heidenheim during the period of the [Great Migration](/wiki/Migration_Period "Migration Period"). However, in the 8th century Heidenheim was mentioned (again) for the first time in official documents. The creation of the city in the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") went hand in hand with the construction of [Hellenstein Castle](/wiki/Hellenstein_Castle "Hellenstein Castle"). The [city wall](/wiki/Defensive_wall "Defensive wall") was built in segments in 1190 and 1420 and [Emperor Charles IV](/wiki/Charles_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor") granted or confirmed the city's status as a [market town](/wiki/Market_town "Market town") in 1356\. Through the rule of the von Helfenstein family, the city became part of the [Duchy of Teck](/wiki/Duchy_of_Teck "Duchy of Teck"), ruled by [Württemberg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg "Württemberg"), in 1448\. It temporarily belonged to the dukes of [Bavaria](/wiki/Duchy_of_Bavaria "Duchy of Bavaria") between 1462 and 1504\. Later still, albeit for only a short period, the city belonged to [Ulm](/wiki/Ulm "Ulm"). During Württemberg times, it was always the seat of an administrative unit. This unit was an exclave of the dukes of [Württemberg](/wiki/Duchy_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg "Duchy of Württemberg") until 1803 when Württemberg's territorial gains connected the city with the main part of the duchy's territory. In 1807 Heidenheim was promoted to district status and then again to County status in 1938\. The district reform of the 1970s did not change the county limits by much. The economic development of the village and city is founded mainly on the area's ore deposits that were already being exploited in Roman times. However, the importance of this branch of the city's economy diminished near the turn of the 19th century due to great competition, first from [Wasseralfingen](/wiki/Wasseralfingen "Wasseralfingen") and later from the [Rhineland](/wiki/Rhineland "Rhineland"). Heidenheim also played an important part in the textile industry. [Flax](/wiki/Flax "Flax") grown in the Eastern [Swabian Alps](/wiki/Swabian_Alps "Swabian Alps") was used to manufacture [linen](/wiki/Linen "Linen"). The business grew into an industry at the dawn of the 19th century with the help of [cotton](/wiki/Cotton "Cotton") imports but declined after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") due to international competition. During the war, a subcamp of the [Dachau concentration camp](/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp "Dachau concentration camp") was located here. It provided [slave labour](/wiki/Slave_labour "Slave labour") to local industry.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.glosk.com/GM/Linde/17283/pages/List\_of\_subcamps\_of\_Dachau/84737\_en.htm \|title\=Linde, Land Nordrhein\-Westfalen, Germany \- Pages \- glosk \|access\-date\=2008\-11\-01 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209000835/http://www.glosk.com/GM/Linde/17283/pages/List\_of\_subcamps\_of\_Dachau/84737\_en.htm \|archive\-date\=2009\-02\-09 }} After World War II ended in 1945, a [displaced persons camp](/wiki/Displaced_persons_camp "Displaced persons camp") was established in the city to help relocate [Jewish](/wiki/Jew "Jew") [displaced persons](/wiki/Displaced_persons "Displaced persons"). The camp, housing at times up to 2,300 individuals, was dissolved in August 1949\. Mergelstetten was first mentioned in an official document by Bishop Walter von Augsburg in 1143 in which he confirmed that the nearby Cloister of Anhausen owned a mill, a fish pond and a farm. However, it is estimated that the first settlement was founded in the 7th or 8th century by the [Alamanni](/wiki/Alamanni "Alamanni"). Other important dates for the local economy are 1828 when Jakob Zoeppritz from [Darmstadt](/wiki/Darmstadt "Darmstadt") founded a woolen blanket factory and 1901 when Carl Schwenk of Ulm built the concrete factory.
[ "History\n-------", "There is evidence that human life existed within the city limits of Heidenheim as far back as 8,000 years ago. However, a permanent settlement was not established until approximately 1300 BC. Extensive ruins remain of settlements dating, predominantly, to the period from 1200 to 800 BC.", "At the time of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") from about 85 AD onwards, Heidenheim was the location of Castle *Aquileia* with attached cavalry of more than 1,000 mounted soldiers. The unit, called *ala II flavia milliaria* was later, around 159 AD, moved further North to [Aalen](/wiki/Aalen \"Aalen\"). At first, the castle marked the Eastern end of the [Alb Limes](/wiki/Alb_Limes \"Alb Limes\"). But it did not take long until a civilian settlement was founded at this strategically important spot, marked by the intersection of five [Roman roads](/wiki/Roman_roads \"Roman roads\"). This settlement was the largest Roman city in what is today Baden\\-Württemberg and archeological finds suggest that it covered an area of approximately 37 \\- {{convert\\|50\\|acres\\|2\\|abbr\\=on\\|lk\\=out}} (15 \\- 20 hectares). More recently, excavations have found the remains of a representative Roman administrative building. Its exact function was not fully understood as of May 2005, but given *Aquileia*{{'}}s size, location and other indicators, it is believed that it was probably the capital of a Roman administrative district (see also [Civitas](/wiki/Civitas \"Civitas\")). From 233 on, the [Alamanni](/wiki/Alamanni \"Alamanni\") repeatedly attacked the Roman [limes](/wiki/Limes_%28Roman_Empire%29 \"Limes (Roman Empire)\") fortifications. The Roman surrender of the limes in 260 spelled the end of the Roman city of Heidenheim. It is not clear to what extent Romans stayed on under the new Alammanic rule but it is very likely that some remained.", "Nothing is known about Aquileia/Heidenheim during the period of the [Great Migration](/wiki/Migration_Period \"Migration Period\"). However, in the 8th century Heidenheim was mentioned (again) for the first time in official documents. The creation of the city in the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") went hand in hand with the construction of [Hellenstein Castle](/wiki/Hellenstein_Castle \"Hellenstein Castle\"). The [city wall](/wiki/Defensive_wall \"Defensive wall\") was built in segments in 1190 and 1420 and [Emperor Charles IV](/wiki/Charles_IV%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor\") granted or confirmed the city's status as a [market town](/wiki/Market_town \"Market town\") in 1356\\. Through the rule of the von Helfenstein family, the city became part of the [Duchy of Teck](/wiki/Duchy_of_Teck \"Duchy of Teck\"), ruled by [Württemberg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg \"Württemberg\"), in 1448\\. It temporarily belonged to the dukes of [Bavaria](/wiki/Duchy_of_Bavaria \"Duchy of Bavaria\") between 1462 and 1504\\. Later still, albeit for only a short period, the city belonged to [Ulm](/wiki/Ulm \"Ulm\"). During Württemberg times, it was always the seat of an administrative unit. This unit was an exclave of the dukes of [Württemberg](/wiki/Duchy_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg \"Duchy of Württemberg\") until 1803 when Württemberg's territorial gains connected the city with the main part of the duchy's territory. In 1807 Heidenheim was promoted to district status and then again to County status in 1938\\. The district reform of the 1970s did not change the county limits by much.", "The economic development of the village and city is founded mainly on the area's ore deposits that were already being exploited in Roman times. However, the importance of this branch of the city's economy diminished near the turn of the 19th century due to great competition, first from [Wasseralfingen](/wiki/Wasseralfingen \"Wasseralfingen\") and later from the [Rhineland](/wiki/Rhineland \"Rhineland\").", "Heidenheim also played an important part in the textile industry. [Flax](/wiki/Flax \"Flax\") grown in the Eastern [Swabian Alps](/wiki/Swabian_Alps \"Swabian Alps\") was used to manufacture [linen](/wiki/Linen \"Linen\"). The business grew into an industry at the dawn of the 19th century with the help of [cotton](/wiki/Cotton \"Cotton\") imports but declined after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") due to international competition. During the war, a subcamp of the [Dachau concentration camp](/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp \"Dachau concentration camp\") was located here. It provided [slave labour](/wiki/Slave_labour \"Slave labour\") to local industry.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.glosk.com/GM/Linde/17283/pages/List\\_of\\_subcamps\\_of\\_Dachau/84737\\_en.htm \\|title\\=Linde, Land Nordrhein\\-Westfalen, Germany \\- Pages \\- glosk \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-11\\-01 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090209000835/http://www.glosk.com/GM/Linde/17283/pages/List\\_of\\_subcamps\\_of\\_Dachau/84737\\_en.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-09 }}", "After World War II ended in 1945, a [displaced persons camp](/wiki/Displaced_persons_camp \"Displaced persons camp\") was established in the city to help relocate [Jewish](/wiki/Jew \"Jew\") [displaced persons](/wiki/Displaced_persons \"Displaced persons\"). The camp, housing at times up to 2,300 individuals, was dissolved in August 1949\\.", "Mergelstetten was first mentioned in an official document by Bishop Walter von Augsburg in 1143 in which he confirmed that the nearby Cloister of Anhausen owned a mill, a fish pond and a farm. However, it is estimated that the first settlement was founded in the 7th or 8th century by the [Alamanni](/wiki/Alamanni \"Alamanni\"). Other important dates for the local economy are 1828 when Jakob Zoeppritz from [Darmstadt](/wiki/Darmstadt \"Darmstadt\") founded a woolen blanket factory and 1901 when Carl Schwenk of Ulm built the concrete factory.", "" ]
Religion -------- [thumb\|[Schloss Hellenstein](/wiki/Schloss_Hellenstein "Schloss Hellenstein") in winter](/wiki/File:Schloss_Hellenstein.jpg "Schloss Hellenstein.jpg") Heidenheim's residents originally belonged to the [Prince\-Bishopric of Augsburg](/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Augsburg "Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg") from where they were assigned to the Heidenheim Chapter. However, in 1524 the [Reformation](/wiki/Reformation "Reformation") burst into the city via Ulm. At the time Heidenheim was part of Württemberg and Duke Ulrich championed the Reformation from 1535 on. Residents of city have adhered over the centuries primarily to the [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") faith. In those days, Heidenheim became the seat of a Deacony, its church being located on the site where Paul's Protestant Church (built in 1897\) currently stands. But Heidenheim's first parish church was Peter's Church at the top of the Totenberg. Originally a Roman church, it was remodeled several times and now serves as the chapel for the cemetery. During the 16th century, Michael's Church became the seat of the Heidenheim parish. This church was built ca. 1200, completely rebuilt in 1578, and expanded in 1621\. The tower was erected in 1687, and the extension was added to again in 1767\. With the construction of Paul's Church the seat of the deaconry moved there; however, Michael's Church remains a church of Paul's Parish to this day. In the meantime, Heidenheim's population continued to grow. During the 20th century, several additional parishes were founded: Christ Parish was founded in 1958 (its church built in 1956\), John's Parish with church and community center in 1963, Forestchurch Parish in 1972 (its church was built in 1975 but the community had had the use of a wooden chapel built in 1926\), as well as Reconciliation Parish and Zinzendorf Parish. These six parishes located in Heidenheim (proper) form the Protestant United Parish of Heidenheim. As they too belonged to Württemberg, the boroughs of Mergelstetten and Schnaitheim also converted to Protestantism early on. As a result, independent Protestant parishes and churches exist in both boroughs. Mergelstetten was at first a branch of Bolheim, but became its own parish in 1700\. Today's church was built in 1843 to replace one that had burnt to the ground two years earlier. The church of Schnaitheim was constructed in the 17th century, although the town already had a church (first mentioned in 1344\). Oggenhausen at first belonged to the parish of [Zöschingen](/wiki/Z%C3%B6schingen "Zöschingen") and remained Catholic. But during the 17th century here too Protestantism won out. Later the town became part of the parish of Nattheim until it became a parish in its own right in 1834\. The village church was built in 1702 to replace an earlier chapel. Großkuchen remained Catholic because ecumenically it belonged to [Öttingen](/wiki/%C3%96ttingen "Öttingen") and because the Benedictine Abbey at Neresheim owned the right to use the village church. The few Protestants who by now have moved in are attached to the parish in Schnaitheim. All Protestant parishes within city limits belong to the Deanony of Heidenheim within the [Evangelical\-Lutheran Church in Württemberg](/wiki/Evangelical-Lutheran_Church_in_W%C3%BCrttemberg "Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg"). Finally, [pietist](/wiki/Pietism "Pietism") parishes are also represented in Heidenheim. [Catholics](/wiki/Catholic "Catholic") only reemerged in Heidenheim during the 19th century. In 1882 they got their own church when the Church of St. Mary was built. The corresponding parish was founded in 1886\. A second church, Trinity Church, was built in 1961 and became a parish in 1962\. Mergelstetten got Christ the King Church in 1957, which was later elevated to a parish in 1961\. These three parishes form what is today Ministry 3 of the Deacony Heidenheim within the Diocese of Rottenburg\-Stuttgart. In Schnaitheim, St. Boniface Church was built in 1951 (parish in 1961\). The Church of Saint Peter and Paul in Großkuchen had been built back in 1736 on the foundation of an older church. Part of the parish is also Kleinkuchen but it has its own church of Saint Ulrich (built in 1517 and then rebuilt in 1746\). Both parishes (St Boniface and St. Peter and Paul) together with the neighbouring parish of Mary's Ascension in [Königsbronn](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsbronn "Königsbronn") form the Ministry 2\. Catholics from Oggenhausen belong to the Holy Heart of Jesus parish in Nattheim (Ministry 1\), also part of the Deacony of Heidenheim. In addition to the two larger denominations, residents have the choice of independent churches and parishes such as the [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist "Methodist") Church, The Evangelical Immanuel Parish, the Evangelical Chrischona\-Community and others. The [New Apostolic Church](/wiki/New_Apostolic_Church "New Apostolic Church") and [The Christian Community](/wiki/The_Christian_Community "The Christian Community") are also represented in Heidenheim.
[ "Religion\n--------", "[thumb\\|[Schloss Hellenstein](/wiki/Schloss_Hellenstein \"Schloss Hellenstein\") in winter](/wiki/File:Schloss_Hellenstein.jpg \"Schloss Hellenstein.jpg\")\nHeidenheim's residents originally belonged to the [Prince\\-Bishopric of Augsburg](/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Augsburg \"Prince-Bishopric of Augsburg\") from where they were assigned to the Heidenheim Chapter. However, in 1524 the [Reformation](/wiki/Reformation \"Reformation\") burst into the city via Ulm.", "At the time Heidenheim was part of Württemberg and Duke Ulrich championed the Reformation from 1535 on. Residents of city have adhered over the centuries primarily to the [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") faith.", "In those days, Heidenheim became the seat of a Deacony, its church being located on the site where Paul's Protestant Church (built in 1897\\) currently stands. But Heidenheim's first parish church was Peter's Church at the top of the Totenberg. Originally a Roman church, it was remodeled several times and now serves as the chapel for the cemetery. During the 16th century, Michael's Church became the seat of the Heidenheim parish. This church was built ca. 1200, completely rebuilt in 1578, and expanded in 1621\\. The tower was erected in 1687, and the extension was added to again in 1767\\. With the construction of Paul's Church the seat of the deaconry moved there; however, Michael's Church remains a church of Paul's Parish to this day.", "In the meantime, Heidenheim's population continued to grow. During the 20th century, several additional parishes were founded: Christ Parish was founded in 1958 (its church built in 1956\\), John's Parish with church and community center in 1963, Forestchurch Parish in 1972 (its church was built in 1975 but the community had had the use of a wooden chapel built in 1926\\), as well as Reconciliation Parish and Zinzendorf Parish.", "These six parishes located in Heidenheim (proper) form the Protestant United Parish of Heidenheim. As they too belonged to Württemberg, the boroughs of Mergelstetten and Schnaitheim also converted to Protestantism early on. As a result, independent Protestant parishes and churches exist in both boroughs.", "Mergelstetten was at first a branch of Bolheim, but became its own parish in 1700\\. Today's church was built in 1843 to replace one that had burnt to the ground two years earlier.", "The church of Schnaitheim was constructed in the 17th century, although the town already had a church (first mentioned in 1344\\).", "Oggenhausen at first belonged to the parish of [Zöschingen](/wiki/Z%C3%B6schingen \"Zöschingen\") and remained Catholic. But during the 17th century here too Protestantism won out. Later the town became part of the parish of Nattheim until it became a parish in its own right in 1834\\. The village church was built in 1702 to replace an earlier chapel. Großkuchen remained Catholic because ecumenically it belonged to [Öttingen](/wiki/%C3%96ttingen \"Öttingen\") and because the Benedictine Abbey at Neresheim owned the right to use the village church. The few Protestants who by now have moved in are attached to the parish in Schnaitheim. All Protestant parishes within city limits belong to the Deanony of Heidenheim within the [Evangelical\\-Lutheran Church in Württemberg](/wiki/Evangelical-Lutheran_Church_in_W%C3%BCrttemberg \"Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg\"). Finally, [pietist](/wiki/Pietism \"Pietism\") parishes are also represented in Heidenheim.", "[Catholics](/wiki/Catholic \"Catholic\") only reemerged in Heidenheim during the 19th century. In 1882 they got their own church when the Church of St. Mary was built. The corresponding parish was founded in 1886\\.", "A second church, Trinity Church, was built in 1961 and became a parish in 1962\\. Mergelstetten got Christ the King Church in 1957, which was later elevated to a parish in 1961\\. These three parishes form what is today Ministry 3 of the Deacony Heidenheim within the Diocese of Rottenburg\\-Stuttgart.", "In Schnaitheim, St. Boniface Church was built in 1951 (parish in 1961\\). The Church of Saint Peter and Paul in Großkuchen had been built back in 1736 on the foundation of an older church. Part of the parish is also Kleinkuchen but it has its own church of Saint Ulrich (built in 1517 and then rebuilt in 1746\\). Both parishes (St Boniface and St. Peter and Paul) together with the neighbouring parish of Mary's Ascension in [Königsbronn](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsbronn \"Königsbronn\") form the Ministry 2\\.", "Catholics from Oggenhausen belong to the Holy Heart of Jesus parish in Nattheim (Ministry 1\\), also part of the Deacony of Heidenheim.", "In addition to the two larger denominations, residents have the choice of independent churches and parishes such as the [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist \"Methodist\") Church, The Evangelical Immanuel Parish, the Evangelical Chrischona\\-Community and others. The [New Apostolic Church](/wiki/New_Apostolic_Church \"New Apostolic Church\") and [The Christian Community](/wiki/The_Christian_Community \"The Christian Community\") are also represented in Heidenheim.", "" ]
People, culture, and architecture --------------------------------- Schnaitheim is home to the Sasse Theater company. The State Museum of Württemberg ("Württembergisches Landesmuseum") operates a branch location in [Hellenstein Castle](/wiki/Hellenstein_Castle "Hellenstein Castle") where it has its [Carriage](/wiki/Carriage "Carriage") and [Chaise](/wiki/Chaise "Chaise") Museum. The Museum in the [Roman Baths](/wiki/Thermae "Thermae") exhibits finds dating back to the Roman era. The Art Museum, located in a former [Jugendstil](/wiki/Jugendstil "Jugendstil") bath, organizes traveling exhibits. It also displays a permanent exhibit of the world's largest and most complete collection of [Picasso](/wiki/Picasso "Picasso") posters. Located on top of Hellenstein Mountain and overlooking the city, Hellenstein Castle is the most important building and landmark in Heidenheim. Notable structures in the inner city are the Protestant Michaels' Church (the former parish seat of the city), the *Elmar\-Doch\-House*, the Crown Inn and Pub, the Lower Gate, Villa Waldemaier, the [burgher](/wiki/Bourgeoisie "Bourgeoisie") tower *Türmle*, the Castle Pharmacy, the [weavers](/wiki/Weaving "Weaving")' settlement, the Heathland [smithy](/wiki/Forge "Forge"), the Old [mint](/wiki/Mint_%28facility%29 "Mint (facility)") and the old Peters' Church (today cemetery chapel). The construction facility for the manufacture of large [turbines](/wiki/Turbine "Turbine") built for the local Voith company in 1924 is a significant industrial historic landmark. The little castle in Schnaitheim is situated at the Brenz river's edge and offers a sight to see for visitors and residents alike. The Schnaitheim Mill is located just a few hundred yards away with its large wheel, though operation of the mill was halted several years ago. In Mergelstetten the old church was torn down in 1841 and replaced with a new Protestant church built in [neo\-gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture "Gothic Revival architecture") style. The building was commissioned by [Carl Alexander Heideloff](/wiki/Carl_Alexander_Heideloff "Carl Alexander Heideloff"), who also commissioned [Lichtenstein Castle](/wiki/Lichtenstein_Castle_%28W%C3%BCrttemberg%29 "Lichtenstein Castle (Württemberg)"). Lumber was used to build parts of the church because the parish was poor at the time. For the same reason, the church tower was not built as tall as originally planned. Nonetheless, this church is popular and picturesque and frequently used on postcards. ### Events Every other year the [Shepherd](/wiki/Shepherd "Shepherd") Run takes place in Heidenheim, first held in 1723 by Duke Eberhard Ludwig. It attracts all the shepherds in the area. Part of the Shepherd Run festivities is the crowning of a new shepherd king and queen. The Run was held until 1828\. Thereafter followed a long break until 1922, when it was held again (five times until 1952\). Since its return in 1972, it has once again been an integral part of Heidenheim's regular cultural program. In 2006 Heidenheim hosted the bi\-annual Baden\-Württemberg State Botanical Show. Heidenheim hosts an annual World Cup fencing tournament in épée. Because of the size and depth of the field, the Heidenheim event is considered the strongest épée event in the world, stronger even than the World Championships or the Olympic Games. ### Opera Festival Every year, Heidenheim puts on the [Opera](/wiki/Opera "Opera") Festival "Opernfestspiele Heidenheim" in Hellenstein Castle. The festival developed out of the former serenades held there. In recent years it has received international recognition and critical acclaim under the artistic direction of conductor Marco\-Maria Canonica. In the summer of 2009 the Festival staged Marschner's opera "Der Vampyr", which was the second part of a cycle of three operas under the motto "Romantik im Rittersaal". The first part was von Weber's "[Der Freischütz](/wiki/Der_Freisch%C3%BCtz "Der Freischütz")", performed in 2008, and the third and final installment was Wagner's "[Der fliegende Holländer](/wiki/Der_fliegende_Holl%C3%A4nder "Der fliegende Holländer")" in 2010\. During the summer of 2010 all three operas were performed in full cycles. The Opernfestspiele Heidenheim draws visitors from around Europe and overseas, and has significantly boosted the city's reputation as an important cultural site. Residents also enjoy the annual theater festival in the outdoor Nature Theater.
[ "People, culture, and architecture\n---------------------------------", "Schnaitheim is home to the Sasse Theater company.", "The State Museum of Württemberg (\"Württembergisches Landesmuseum\") operates a branch location in [Hellenstein Castle](/wiki/Hellenstein_Castle \"Hellenstein Castle\") where it has its [Carriage](/wiki/Carriage \"Carriage\") and [Chaise](/wiki/Chaise \"Chaise\") Museum. The Museum in the [Roman Baths](/wiki/Thermae \"Thermae\") exhibits finds dating back to the Roman era. The Art Museum, located in a former [Jugendstil](/wiki/Jugendstil \"Jugendstil\") bath, organizes traveling exhibits. It also displays a permanent exhibit of the world's largest and most complete collection of [Picasso](/wiki/Picasso \"Picasso\") posters.", "Located on top of Hellenstein Mountain and overlooking the city, Hellenstein Castle is the most important building and landmark in Heidenheim.", "Notable structures in the inner city are the Protestant Michaels' Church (the former parish seat of the city), the *Elmar\\-Doch\\-House*, the Crown Inn and Pub, the Lower Gate, Villa Waldemaier, the [burgher](/wiki/Bourgeoisie \"Bourgeoisie\") tower *Türmle*, the Castle Pharmacy, the [weavers](/wiki/Weaving \"Weaving\")' settlement, the Heathland [smithy](/wiki/Forge \"Forge\"), the Old [mint](/wiki/Mint_%28facility%29 \"Mint (facility)\") and the old Peters' Church (today cemetery chapel).", "The construction facility for the manufacture of large [turbines](/wiki/Turbine \"Turbine\") built for the local Voith company in 1924 is a significant industrial historic landmark.", "The little castle in Schnaitheim is situated at the Brenz river's edge and offers a sight to see for visitors and residents alike. The Schnaitheim Mill is located just a few hundred yards away with its large wheel, though operation of the mill was halted several years ago.", "In Mergelstetten the old church was torn down in 1841 and replaced with a new Protestant church built in [neo\\-gothic](/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture \"Gothic Revival architecture\") style. The building was commissioned by [Carl Alexander Heideloff](/wiki/Carl_Alexander_Heideloff \"Carl Alexander Heideloff\"), who also commissioned [Lichtenstein Castle](/wiki/Lichtenstein_Castle_%28W%C3%BCrttemberg%29 \"Lichtenstein Castle (Württemberg)\"). Lumber was used to build parts of the church because the parish was poor at the time. For the same reason, the church tower was not built as tall as originally planned. Nonetheless, this church is popular and picturesque and frequently used on postcards.", "### Events", "Every other year the [Shepherd](/wiki/Shepherd \"Shepherd\") Run takes place in Heidenheim, first held in 1723 by Duke Eberhard Ludwig. It attracts all the shepherds in the area. Part of the Shepherd Run festivities is the crowning of a new shepherd king and queen. The Run was held until 1828\\. Thereafter followed a long break until 1922, when it was held again (five times until 1952\\). Since its return in 1972, it has once again been an integral part of Heidenheim's regular cultural program.", "In 2006 Heidenheim hosted the bi\\-annual Baden\\-Württemberg State Botanical Show.", "Heidenheim hosts an annual World Cup fencing tournament in épée. Because of the size and depth of the field, the Heidenheim event is considered the strongest épée event in the world, stronger even than the World Championships or the Olympic Games.", "### Opera Festival", "Every year, Heidenheim puts on the [Opera](/wiki/Opera \"Opera\") Festival \"Opernfestspiele Heidenheim\" in Hellenstein Castle. The festival developed out of the former serenades held there. In recent years it has received international recognition and critical acclaim under the artistic direction of conductor Marco\\-Maria Canonica. In the summer of 2009 the Festival staged Marschner's opera \"Der Vampyr\", which was the second part of a cycle of three operas under the motto \"Romantik im Rittersaal\". The first part was von Weber's \"[Der Freischütz](/wiki/Der_Freisch%C3%BCtz \"Der Freischütz\")\", performed in 2008, and the third and final installment was Wagner's \"[Der fliegende Holländer](/wiki/Der_fliegende_Holl%C3%A4nder \"Der fliegende Holländer\")\" in 2010\\. During the summer of 2010 all three operas were performed in full cycles. The Opernfestspiele Heidenheim draws visitors from around Europe and overseas, and has significantly boosted the city's reputation as an important cultural site. Residents also enjoy the annual theater festival in the outdoor Nature Theater.", "" ]
Economy and industry -------------------- ### Industry In economic terms, Heidenheim's main claim to fame is being the headquarters of [Voith](/wiki/Voith "Voith"), an industrial company specializing in [turbines](/wiki/Turbines "Turbines") and machinery for the [paper](/wiki/Paper "Paper")\-making industry. Voith is Heidenheim's largest employer and employs 7,500 people in and around the town. In May 2006, the world's first Paper Technology Centre was opened in Heidenheim at the cost of 75 million euros.{{cite web \|url \= http://www.voithpaper.de/vp\_e\_grpdiv\_history\_today.htm \|url\-status \= dead \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070928103842/http://www.voithpaper.de/vp\_e\_grpdiv\_history\_today.htm \|archive\-date \= September 28, 2007 \|title \= Significant events}} Voith bills the centre as "the most important center for paper research in the world". ### Transport Heidenheim is a stop along the [Brenz Railway](/wiki/Brenz_Railway "Brenz Railway") that runs from [Aalen](/wiki/Aalen_Hauptbahnhof "Aalen Hauptbahnhof") via Heidenheim to [Ulm](/wiki/Ulm_Hauptbahnhof "Ulm Hauptbahnhof"). The regional train line is also part of Heidenheim's local public transport system. The town has a second train station on this line at the suburb of Schnaitheim. Several bus lines also serve residents and visitors inside city limits. Heidenheim is located near the Autobahn [A 7](/wiki/Bundesautobahn_7 "Bundesautobahn 7") just off the Exit Heidenheim and is also easily accessible by car and truck via the federal highways [B 19](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_19 "Bundesstraße 19") and [B 466](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_466 "Bundesstraße 466") that traverse the city. ### Media "Heidenheimer Zeitung" and "Heidenheimer Neue Presse" are daily newspapers published in the city. In addition, the "Neue Woche" is published weekly (Thursday), as is the "Sunday Newspaper" (Sunday). The [Südwestrundfunk](/wiki/S%C3%BCdwestrundfunk "Südwestrundfunk") (SWR) operates a relay station for four of its FM stations and the television channel [Das Erste](/wiki/Das_Erste "Das Erste"). The Schmittenberg radio tower emits programs for two more radio stations.
[ "Economy and industry\n--------------------", "### Industry", "In economic terms, Heidenheim's main claim to fame is being the headquarters of [Voith](/wiki/Voith \"Voith\"), an industrial company specializing in [turbines](/wiki/Turbines \"Turbines\") and machinery for the [paper](/wiki/Paper \"Paper\")\\-making industry. Voith is Heidenheim's largest employer and employs 7,500 people in and around the town.", "In May 2006, the world's first Paper Technology Centre was opened in Heidenheim at the cost of 75 million euros.{{cite web\n\\|url \\= http://www.voithpaper.de/vp\\_e\\_grpdiv\\_history\\_today.htm\n\\|url\\-status \\= dead\n\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070928103842/http://www.voithpaper.de/vp\\_e\\_grpdiv\\_history\\_today.htm\n\\|archive\\-date \\= September 28, 2007\n\\|title \\= Significant events}} Voith bills the centre as \"the most important center for paper research in the world\".", "### Transport", "Heidenheim is a stop along the [Brenz Railway](/wiki/Brenz_Railway \"Brenz Railway\") that runs from [Aalen](/wiki/Aalen_Hauptbahnhof \"Aalen Hauptbahnhof\") via Heidenheim to [Ulm](/wiki/Ulm_Hauptbahnhof \"Ulm Hauptbahnhof\"). The regional train line is also part of Heidenheim's local public transport system. The town has a second train station on this line at the suburb of Schnaitheim.", "Several bus lines also serve residents and visitors inside city limits.", "Heidenheim is located near the Autobahn [A 7](/wiki/Bundesautobahn_7 \"Bundesautobahn 7\") just off the Exit Heidenheim and is also easily accessible by car and truck via the federal highways [B 19](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_19 \"Bundesstraße 19\") and [B 466](/wiki/Bundesstra%C3%9Fe_466 \"Bundesstraße 466\") that traverse the city.", "### Media", "\"Heidenheimer Zeitung\" and \"Heidenheimer Neue Presse\" are daily newspapers published in the city. In addition, the \"Neue Woche\" is published weekly (Thursday), as is the \"Sunday Newspaper\" (Sunday).", "The [Südwestrundfunk](/wiki/S%C3%BCdwestrundfunk \"Südwestrundfunk\") (SWR) operates a relay station for four of its FM stations and the television channel [Das Erste](/wiki/Das_Erste \"Das Erste\"). The Schmittenberg radio tower emits programs for two more radio stations.", "" ]
Division of Korea (1945–1950\) ------------------------------ {{Main\|Division of Korea}} [thumb\|left\|Welcome celebration for the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") in [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang "Pyongyang") on 14 October 1945](/wiki/File:Welcome_Celebration_for_Red_Army_in_Pyongyang2.JPG "Welcome Celebration for Red Army in Pyongyang2.JPG") At the [Tehran Conference](/wiki/Tehran_Conference "Tehran Conference") in November 1943 and the [Yalta Conference](/wiki/Yalta_Conference "Yalta Conference") in February 1945, the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") promised to join its [allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") in the [Pacific War](/wiki/Pacific_War "Pacific War") within three months of [victory in Europe](/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day "Victory in Europe Day"). On 8 August 1945, after three months to the day, the Soviet Union [declared war on Japan](/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War "Soviet–Japanese War").{{cite book \| last \= Walker \| first \= J Samuel \| title \= Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan \| url \= https://archive.org/details/promptutterdestr00walk \| url\-access \= registration \| publisher \= The University of North Carolina Press \| year \= 1997 \| location \= Chapel Hill \| page \= \[https://archive.org/details/promptutterdestr00walk/page/82 82] \| isbn \= 978\-0\-8078\-2361\-3}} Soviet troops advanced rapidly, and the US government became anxious that they would occupy the whole of Korea. On 10 August, the US government decided to propose the [38th parallel](/wiki/38th_parallel_north "38th parallel north") as the dividing line between a Soviet occupation zone in the north and a US occupation zone in the south. The parallel was chosen as it would place the capital, [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul "Seoul"), under American control.{{cite book\| last1 \= Seth\| first1 \= Michael J.\| title \= A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present\| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=WJtMGXyGlUEC\| publisher \= Rowman \& Littlefield Publishers\| publication\-date \= 2010\| page \= 306\| isbn \= 9780742567177\| date \= 16 October 2010}} To the surprise of the Americans, the Soviet Union immediately accepted the division. The agreement was incorporated into [General Order No. 1](/wiki/General_Order_No._1 "General Order No. 1") (approved on 17 August 1945\) for the surrender of Japan.{{cite book \|author\= Hyung Gu Lynn \|date\= 2007 \|title\= Bipolar Orders: The Two Koreas since 1989 \|publisher\= Zed Books \|page\=18}} The division placed sixteen million Koreans in the American zone and nine million in the Soviet zone.{{cite book\|title\=The Making of Modern Korea\|last\=Buzo\|first\=Adrian\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2002\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-23749\-9\|location\=London\|page\=53}} Soviet forces began amphibious landings in Korea by 14 August and rapidly took over the northeast, and on 16 August they landed at [Wonsan](/wiki/Wonsan "Wonsan").{{cite book\| last1 \= Seth\| first1 \= Michael J.\| title \= A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present\| url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=WJtMGXyGlUEC\| publisher \= Rowman \& Littlefield Publishers\| publication\-date \= 2010\| page \= 86\| isbn \= 9780742567177\| date \= 16 October 2010}} On 24 August, the Red Army reached [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang "Pyongyang"). US forces did not arrive in the south until 8 September. Throughout August 1945, People's Committees sprang up across Korea, affiliated with the Committee for the Preparation of Korean Independence, which in September founded the [People's Republic of Korea](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Korea "People's Republic of Korea"). When Soviet troops entered Pyongyang, they found a local People's Committee established there, led by veteran Christian nationalist [Cho Man\-sik](/wiki/Cho_Man-sik "Cho Man-sik").{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|pages\=54–57}} Unlike their American counterparts, the Soviet authorities recognized and worked with the People's Committees.{{cite book \| title \= Korea's Twentieth\-Century Odyssey \| url \= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/105 \| url\-access \= registration \| last \= Robinson \| first \= Michael E \| year \= 2007 \| publisher \= University of Hawaii Press \| location \= Honolulu \| isbn \= 978\-0\-8248\-3174\-5 \| pages \= \[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/105 105–107] }}{{cite book \| title \= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\| last \= Cumings\| first \= Bruce\| author\-link \= Bruce Cumings\| year \= 2005\| publisher \= \[\[W. W. Norton \& Company]]\| location \= New York\| isbn \= 978\-0\-393\-32702\-1 \|pages\=227–228}} By some accounts, Cho Man\-sik was the Soviet government's first choice to lead North Korea.{{cite book \| title \= Korea\| last \= Bluth \| first \= Christoph \| year \= 2008\| publisher \= Polity Press\| location \= Cambridge\| isbn \= 978\-07456\-3357\-2 \|page\=12}}{{cite book \| last \= Jager \| first \= Sheila Miyoshi \|author\-link\=Sheila Miyoshi Jager \| title \= Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea \| year \= 2013 \| publisher \= Profile Books \| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-1\-84668\-067\-0\|page\=23}} On 19 September, [Kim Il Sung](/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung "Kim Il Sung") and 66 other Korean Red Army officers arrived in Wonsan. They had fought the Japanese in [Manchuria](/wiki/Manchuria "Manchuria") in the 1930s but had lived in the USSR and trained in the Red Army since 1941\.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=56}} On 14 October, Soviet authorities introduced Kim to the North Korean public as a guerrilla hero. In December 1945, at the [Moscow Conference](/wiki/Moscow_Conference_%281945%29 "Moscow Conference (1945)"), the Soviet Union agreed to a US proposal for a [trusteeship](/wiki/United_Nations_Trust_Territories "United Nations Trust Territories") over Korea for up to five years in the lead\-up to independence. Most Koreans demanded independence immediately, but Kim and the other Communists supported the trusteeship under pressure from the Soviet government. [Cho Man\-sik](/wiki/Cho_Man-sik "Cho Man-sik") opposed the proposal at a public meeting on 4 January 1946, and disappeared into house arrest.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=59}}{{cite book \| title \= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\| last \= Cumings\| first \= Bruce\| author\-link \= Bruce Cumings\| year \= 2005\| publisher \= \[\[W. W. Norton \& Company]]\| location \= New York\| isbn \= 978\-0\-393\-32702\-1 \|pages\=187–190}} On 8 February 1946, the People's Committees were reorganized as Interim People's Committees dominated by Communists.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=60}} The new regime instituted popular policies of land redistribution, industry nationalization, labor law reform, and equality for women.{{cite book\| title \= Korea's Twentieth\-Century Odyssey \| url \= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi \| url\-access \= registration \| last \= Robinson \| first \= Michael E \| year \= 2007 \| publisher \= University of Hawaii Press \| location \= Honolulu \| isbn \= 978\-0\-8248\-3174\-5 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/107 107]}} Meanwhile, existing Communist groups were reconstituted as a party under Kim Il Sung's leadership. On 18 December 1945, local Communist Party committees were combined into the North Korean Communist Party. In August 1946, this party merged with the [New People's Party](/wiki/New_People%27s_Party_%28Korea%29 "New People's Party (Korea)") to form the [Workers' Party of North Korea](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_North_Korea "Workers' Party of North Korea"). In December, a [popular front](/wiki/Democratic_Front_for_the_Reunification_of_the_Fatherland "Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland") led by the Workers' Party dominated elections in the North. In 1949, the Workers' Party of North Korea merged with its [southern counterpart](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_South_Korea "Workers' Party of South Korea") to become the [Workers' Party of Korea](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Korea "Workers' Party of Korea") with Kim as party chairman.{{cite book\| title \= Korea's Twentieth\-Century Odyssey \| url \= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi \| url\-access \= registration \| last \= Robinson \| first \= Michael E \| year \= 2007 \| publisher \= University of Hawaii Press \| location \= Honolulu \| isbn \= 978\-0\-8248\-3174\-5 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/148 148]}} [thumb\|In August 1948, the 'People's Congress' was held in [Haeju](/wiki/Haeju "Haeju"), [Hwanghae Province](/wiki/Hwanghae_Province "Hwanghae Province"). [Paek Nam\-un](/wiki/Paek_Nam-un "Paek Nam-un"), [Ho Hon](/wiki/Ho_Hon "Ho Hon"), [Pak Hon\-yong](/wiki/Pak_Hon-yong "Pak Hon-yong"), [Hong Myong\-hui](/wiki/Hong_Myong-hui "Hong Myong-hui")](/wiki/File:%ED%97%88%ED%97%8C_%EB%B0%95%ED%97%8C%EC%98%81_%ED%99%8D%EB%AA%85%ED%9D%AC.jpg "허헌 박헌영 홍명희.jpg") In 1946, a sweeping series of laws transformed North Korea on Soviet\-style Communist lines. The "land to the tiller" reform redistributed the bulk of agricultural land to the poor and landless peasant population, effectively breaking the power of the landed class.Charles K. Armstrong, The North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), 71–86\. This was followed by a "Labor Law", a "Sexual Equality Law", and a "Nationalisation of Industry, Transport, Communications and Banks Law".{{cite book \| title \= Korea since 1850 \| last1 \= Lone \| first1 \= Stewart\| last2 \= McCormack \| first2 \= Gavan \| author\-link2 \= Gavan McCormack \| publisher \= Longman Cheshire \| location \= Melbourne \| year \= 1993 \| page\=184 }} Kim established the [Korean People's Army](/wiki/Korean_People%27s_Army "Korean People's Army") (KPA) aligned with the Communists, formed from a cadre of guerrillas and former soldiers who had gained combat experience in battles against the Japanese and later [Nationalist Chinese](/wiki/Nationalist_Chinese "Nationalist Chinese") troops. From their ranks, using Soviet advisers and equipment, Kim constructed a large army skilled in infiltration tactics and guerrilla warfare. Before the outbreak of the Korean War, [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin") equipped the KPA with modern medium tanks, trucks, artillery, and small arms. Kim also formed an air force, equipped at first with ex\-Soviet propeller\-driven fighter and attack aircraft. Later, North Korean pilot candidates were sent to the Soviet Union and China to train in [MiG\-15](/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-15 "Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15") jet aircraft at secret bases.Blair, Clay, *The Forgotten War: America in Korea*, [Naval Institute Press](/wiki/Naval_Institute_Press "Naval Institute Press") (2003\). ### Establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea [thumb\|right\|Kim Il\-sung with [Kim Koo](/wiki/Kim_Koo "Kim Koo") in 1948](/wiki/File:1948_%EA%B9%80%EC%9D%BC%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%BC_%EA%B9%80%EA%B5%AC.jpg "1948 김일성과 김구.jpg") As negotiations with the Soviet Union on the future of Korea failed to make progress, the US took the issue to the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") in September 1947\. In response, the UN established [the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea](/wiki/UNTCOK "UNTCOK") to hold elections in Korea. The Soviet Union opposed this move. In the absence of Soviet cooperation, it was decided to hold UN\-supervised elections in the south only.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=66}} In April 1948, a conference of organizations from the North and the South met in [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang "Pyongyang"), but the conference produced no results. The southern politicians [Kim Koo](/wiki/Kim_Koo "Kim Koo") and [Kim Kyu\-sik](/wiki/Kim_Kyu-sik "Kim Kyu-sik") attended the conference and boycotted the elections in the South.{{cite book \| title \= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\| last \= Cumings\| first \= Bruce\| author\-link \= Bruce Cumings\| year \= 2005\| publisher \= \[\[W. W. Norton \& Company]]\| location \= New York\| isbn \= 978\-0\-393\-32702\-1 \|pages\=211, 507}} Both men were posthumously awarded the [National Reunification Prize](/wiki/National_Reunification_Prize "National Reunification Prize") by North Korea.{{cite web\|title\=National Reunification Prize Winners \|url\=http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/1998/9805/news05/07\.htm \|date\=7 May 1998 \|agency\=Korean Central News Agency \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602043554/http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/1998/9805/news05/07\.htm \|archive\-date\=2 June 2013 }} The elections were held in South Korea on 10 May 1948\. On 15 August, the [Republic of Korea](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea "Republic of Korea") formally came into existence.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=67}} A parallel process occurred in North Korea. A new [Supreme People's Assembly](/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Assembly "Supreme People's Assembly") was elected in August 1948, and on 3 September a [new constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_North_Korea "Constitution of North Korea") was promulgated. The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) [was proclaimed](/wiki/Day_of_the_Foundation_of_the_Republic_%28North_Korea%29 "Day of the Foundation of the Republic (North Korea)") on 9 September, with Kim as [Premier](/wiki/Premier_of_North_Korea "Premier of North Korea").{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|pages\=60–61}} On 12 December 1948, the United Nations General Assembly accepted the report of UNTCOK and declared the Republic of Korea to be the "only lawful government in Korea". By 1949, North Korea was a full\-fledged Communist state. All parties and mass organizations joined the [Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland](/wiki/Democratic_Front_for_the_Reunification_of_the_Fatherland "Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland"), ostensibly a [popular front](/wiki/Popular_front "Popular front") but in reality dominated by the Communists. The government moved rapidly to establish a [political system](/wiki/Politics_of_North_Korea "Politics of North Korea") that was partly styled on the [Soviet system](/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union "Politics of the Soviet Union"), with political power monopolised by the [Workers' Party of Korea](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Korea "Workers' Party of Korea") (WPK).
[ "Division of Korea (1945–1950\\)\n------------------------------", "{{Main\\|Division of Korea}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Welcome celebration for the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") in [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang \"Pyongyang\") on 14 October 1945](/wiki/File:Welcome_Celebration_for_Red_Army_in_Pyongyang2.JPG \"Welcome Celebration for Red Army in Pyongyang2.JPG\")\nAt the [Tehran Conference](/wiki/Tehran_Conference \"Tehran Conference\") in November 1943 and the [Yalta Conference](/wiki/Yalta_Conference \"Yalta Conference\") in February 1945, the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") promised to join its [allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") in the [Pacific War](/wiki/Pacific_War \"Pacific War\") within three months of [victory in Europe](/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day \"Victory in Europe Day\"). On 8 August 1945, after three months to the day, the Soviet Union [declared war on Japan](/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War \"Soviet–Japanese War\").{{cite book \\| last \\= Walker \\| first \\= J Samuel \\| title \\= Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/promptutterdestr00walk \\| url\\-access \\= registration \\| publisher \\= The University of North Carolina Press \\| year \\= 1997 \\| location \\= Chapel Hill \\| page \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/promptutterdestr00walk/page/82 82] \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-8078\\-2361\\-3}} Soviet troops advanced rapidly, and the US government became anxious that they would occupy the whole of Korea. On 10 August, the US government decided to propose the [38th parallel](/wiki/38th_parallel_north \"38th parallel north\") as the dividing line between a Soviet occupation zone in the north and a US occupation zone in the south. The parallel was chosen as it would place the capital, [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul \"Seoul\"), under American control.{{cite book\\| last1 \\= Seth\\| first1 \\= Michael J.\\| title \\= A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present\\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WJtMGXyGlUEC\\| publisher \\= Rowman \\& Littlefield Publishers\\| publication\\-date \\= 2010\\| page \\= 306\\| isbn \\= 9780742567177\\| date \\= 16 October 2010}} To the surprise of the Americans, the Soviet Union immediately accepted the division. The agreement was incorporated into [General Order No. 1](/wiki/General_Order_No._1 \"General Order No. 1\") (approved on 17 August 1945\\) for the surrender of Japan.{{cite book \\|author\\= Hyung Gu Lynn \\|date\\= 2007 \\|title\\= Bipolar Orders: The Two Koreas since 1989 \\|publisher\\= Zed Books \\|page\\=18}} The division placed sixteen million Koreans in the American zone and nine million in the Soviet zone.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Making of Modern Korea\\|last\\=Buzo\\|first\\=Adrian\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2002\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9\\|location\\=London\\|page\\=53}}", "Soviet forces began amphibious landings in Korea by 14 August and rapidly took over the northeast, and on 16 August they landed at [Wonsan](/wiki/Wonsan \"Wonsan\").{{cite book\\| last1 \\= Seth\\| first1 \\= Michael J.\\| title \\= A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present\\| url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WJtMGXyGlUEC\\| publisher \\= Rowman \\& Littlefield Publishers\\| publication\\-date \\= 2010\\| page \\= 86\\| isbn \\= 9780742567177\\| date \\= 16 October 2010}} On 24 August, the Red Army reached [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang \"Pyongyang\"). US forces did not arrive in the south until 8 September.", "Throughout August 1945, People's Committees sprang up across Korea, affiliated with the Committee for the Preparation of Korean Independence, which in September founded the [People's Republic of Korea](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Korea \"People's Republic of Korea\"). When Soviet troops entered Pyongyang, they found a local People's Committee established there, led by veteran Christian nationalist [Cho Man\\-sik](/wiki/Cho_Man-sik \"Cho Man-sik\").{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|pages\\=54–57}} Unlike their American counterparts, the Soviet authorities recognized and worked with the People's Committees.{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea's Twentieth\\-Century Odyssey \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/105 \\| url\\-access \\= registration \\| last \\= Robinson \\| first \\= Michael E \\| year \\= 2007 \\| publisher \\= University of Hawaii Press \\| location \\= Honolulu \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-8248\\-3174\\-5 \\| pages \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/105 105–107] }}{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\\| last \\= Cumings\\| first \\= Bruce\\| author\\-link \\= Bruce Cumings\\| year \\= 2005\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[W. W. Norton \\& Company]]\\| location \\= New York\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-393\\-32702\\-1 \\|pages\\=227–228}} By some accounts, Cho Man\\-sik was the Soviet government's first choice to lead North Korea.{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea\\| last \\= Bluth \\| first \\= Christoph \\| year \\= 2008\\| publisher \\= Polity Press\\| location \\= Cambridge\\| isbn \\= 978\\-07456\\-3357\\-2 \\|page\\=12}}{{cite book \\| last \\= Jager \\| first \\= Sheila Miyoshi \\|author\\-link\\=Sheila Miyoshi Jager \\| title \\= Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea \\| year \\= 2013 \\| publisher \\= Profile Books \\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-84668\\-067\\-0\\|page\\=23}}", "On 19 September, [Kim Il Sung](/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung \"Kim Il Sung\") and 66 other Korean Red Army officers arrived in Wonsan. They had fought the Japanese in [Manchuria](/wiki/Manchuria \"Manchuria\") in the 1930s but had lived in the USSR and trained in the Red Army since 1941\\.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=56}} On 14 October, Soviet authorities introduced Kim to the North Korean public as a guerrilla hero.", "In December 1945, at the [Moscow Conference](/wiki/Moscow_Conference_%281945%29 \"Moscow Conference (1945)\"), the Soviet Union agreed to a US proposal for a [trusteeship](/wiki/United_Nations_Trust_Territories \"United Nations Trust Territories\") over Korea for up to five years in the lead\\-up to independence. Most Koreans demanded independence immediately, but Kim and the other Communists supported the trusteeship under pressure from the Soviet government. [Cho Man\\-sik](/wiki/Cho_Man-sik \"Cho Man-sik\") opposed the proposal at a public meeting on 4 January 1946, and disappeared into house arrest.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=59}}{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\\| last \\= Cumings\\| first \\= Bruce\\| author\\-link \\= Bruce Cumings\\| year \\= 2005\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[W. W. Norton \\& Company]]\\| location \\= New York\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-393\\-32702\\-1 \\|pages\\=187–190}} On 8 February 1946, the People's Committees were reorganized as Interim People's Committees dominated by Communists.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=60}} The new regime instituted popular policies of land redistribution, industry nationalization, labor law reform, and equality for women.{{cite book\\| title \\= Korea's Twentieth\\-Century Odyssey \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi \\| url\\-access \\= registration \\| last \\= Robinson \\| first \\= Michael E \\| year \\= 2007 \\| publisher \\= University of Hawaii Press \\| location \\= Honolulu \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-8248\\-3174\\-5 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/107 107]}}", "Meanwhile, existing Communist groups were reconstituted as a party under Kim Il Sung's leadership. On 18 December 1945, local Communist Party committees were combined into the North Korean Communist Party. In August 1946, this party merged with the [New People's Party](/wiki/New_People%27s_Party_%28Korea%29 \"New People's Party (Korea)\") to form the [Workers' Party of North Korea](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_North_Korea \"Workers' Party of North Korea\"). In December, a [popular front](/wiki/Democratic_Front_for_the_Reunification_of_the_Fatherland \"Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland\") led by the Workers' Party dominated elections in the North. In 1949, the Workers' Party of North Korea merged with its [southern counterpart](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_South_Korea \"Workers' Party of South Korea\") to become the [Workers' Party of Korea](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Korea \"Workers' Party of Korea\") with Kim as party chairman.{{cite book\\| title \\= Korea's Twentieth\\-Century Odyssey \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi \\| url\\-access \\= registration \\| last \\= Robinson \\| first \\= Michael E \\| year \\= 2007 \\| publisher \\= University of Hawaii Press \\| location \\= Honolulu \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-8248\\-3174\\-5 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/148 148]}}\n[thumb\\|In August 1948, the 'People's Congress' was held in [Haeju](/wiki/Haeju \"Haeju\"), [Hwanghae Province](/wiki/Hwanghae_Province \"Hwanghae Province\"). [Paek Nam\\-un](/wiki/Paek_Nam-un \"Paek Nam-un\"), [Ho Hon](/wiki/Ho_Hon \"Ho Hon\"), [Pak Hon\\-yong](/wiki/Pak_Hon-yong \"Pak Hon-yong\"), [Hong Myong\\-hui](/wiki/Hong_Myong-hui \"Hong Myong-hui\")](/wiki/File:%ED%97%88%ED%97%8C_%EB%B0%95%ED%97%8C%EC%98%81_%ED%99%8D%EB%AA%85%ED%9D%AC.jpg \"허헌 박헌영 홍명희.jpg\")", "In 1946, a sweeping series of laws transformed North Korea on Soviet\\-style Communist lines. The \"land to the tiller\" reform redistributed the bulk of agricultural land to the poor and landless peasant population, effectively breaking the power of the landed class.Charles K. Armstrong, The North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), 71–86\\. This was followed by a \"Labor Law\", a \"Sexual Equality Law\", and a \"Nationalisation of Industry, Transport, Communications and Banks Law\".{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea since 1850 \\| last1 \\= Lone \\| first1 \\= Stewart\\| last2 \\= McCormack \\| first2 \\= Gavan \\| author\\-link2 \\= Gavan McCormack \\| publisher \\= Longman Cheshire \\| location \\= Melbourne \\| year \\= 1993 \\| page\\=184 }}", "Kim established the [Korean People's Army](/wiki/Korean_People%27s_Army \"Korean People's Army\") (KPA) aligned with the Communists, formed from a cadre of guerrillas and former soldiers who had gained combat experience in battles against the Japanese and later [Nationalist Chinese](/wiki/Nationalist_Chinese \"Nationalist Chinese\") troops. From their ranks, using Soviet advisers and equipment, Kim constructed a large army skilled in infiltration tactics and guerrilla warfare. Before the outbreak of the Korean War, [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\") equipped the KPA with modern medium tanks, trucks, artillery, and small arms. Kim also formed an air force, equipped at first with ex\\-Soviet propeller\\-driven fighter and attack aircraft. Later, North Korean pilot candidates were sent to the Soviet Union and China to train in [MiG\\-15](/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-15 \"Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15\") jet aircraft at secret bases.Blair, Clay, *The Forgotten War: America in Korea*, [Naval Institute Press](/wiki/Naval_Institute_Press \"Naval Institute Press\") (2003\\).", "### Establishment of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea", "[thumb\\|right\\|Kim Il\\-sung with [Kim Koo](/wiki/Kim_Koo \"Kim Koo\") in 1948](/wiki/File:1948_%EA%B9%80%EC%9D%BC%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%BC_%EA%B9%80%EA%B5%AC.jpg \"1948 김일성과 김구.jpg\")", "As negotiations with the Soviet Union on the future of Korea failed to make progress, the US took the issue to the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") in September 1947\\. In response, the UN established [the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea](/wiki/UNTCOK \"UNTCOK\") to hold elections in Korea. The Soviet Union opposed this move. In the absence of Soviet cooperation, it was decided to hold UN\\-supervised elections in the south only.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=66}} In April 1948, a conference of organizations from the North and the South met in [Pyongyang](/wiki/Pyongyang \"Pyongyang\"), but the conference produced no results. The southern politicians [Kim Koo](/wiki/Kim_Koo \"Kim Koo\") and [Kim Kyu\\-sik](/wiki/Kim_Kyu-sik \"Kim Kyu-sik\") attended the conference and boycotted the elections in the South.{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\\| last \\= Cumings\\| first \\= Bruce\\| author\\-link \\= Bruce Cumings\\| year \\= 2005\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[W. W. Norton \\& Company]]\\| location \\= New York\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-393\\-32702\\-1 \\|pages\\=211, 507}} Both men were posthumously awarded the [National Reunification Prize](/wiki/National_Reunification_Prize \"National Reunification Prize\") by North Korea.{{cite web\\|title\\=National Reunification Prize Winners \\|url\\=http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/1998/9805/news05/07\\.htm \\|date\\=7 May 1998 \\|agency\\=Korean Central News Agency \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602043554/http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/1998/9805/news05/07\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2013 }} The elections were held in South Korea on 10 May 1948\\. On 15 August, the [Republic of Korea](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea \"Republic of Korea\") formally came into existence.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=67}} A parallel process occurred in North Korea. A new [Supreme People's Assembly](/wiki/Supreme_People%27s_Assembly \"Supreme People's Assembly\") was elected in August 1948, and on 3 September a [new constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_North_Korea \"Constitution of North Korea\") was promulgated. The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) [was proclaimed](/wiki/Day_of_the_Foundation_of_the_Republic_%28North_Korea%29 \"Day of the Foundation of the Republic (North Korea)\") on 9 September, with Kim as [Premier](/wiki/Premier_of_North_Korea \"Premier of North Korea\").{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|pages\\=60–61}} On 12 December 1948, the United Nations General Assembly accepted the report of UNTCOK and declared the Republic of Korea to be the \"only lawful government in Korea\".", "By 1949, North Korea was a full\\-fledged Communist state. All parties and mass organizations joined the [Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland](/wiki/Democratic_Front_for_the_Reunification_of_the_Fatherland \"Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland\"), ostensibly a [popular front](/wiki/Popular_front \"Popular front\") but in reality dominated by the Communists. The government moved rapidly to establish a [political system](/wiki/Politics_of_North_Korea \"Politics of North Korea\") that was partly styled on the [Soviet system](/wiki/Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Politics of the Soviet Union\"), with political power monopolised by the [Workers' Party of Korea](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Korea \"Workers' Party of Korea\") (WPK).", "" ]
Post\-war redevelopment (1953–1970s) ------------------------------------ ### Internal politics [thumb\|left\|From left to right: [Pak Chang\-ok](/wiki/Pak_Chang-ok "Pak Chang-ok"), [Li Jishen](/wiki/Li_Jishen "Li Jishen"), [Kim Tu\-bong](/wiki/Kim_Tu-bong "Kim Tu-bong"), [Zhu De](/wiki/Zhu_De "Zhu De"), [Kim Il Sung](/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung "Kim Il Sung"), [Averky Aristov](/wiki/Averky_Aristov "Averky Aristov"), [Pak Chŏng Ae](/wiki/Pak_Ch%C5%8Fng_Ae "Pak Chŏng Ae") and [Choe Yong\-gon](/wiki/Choe_Yong-gon_%28army_commander%29 "Choe Yong-gon (army commander)") in 1955](/wiki/File:%E5%BA%86%E7%A5%9D%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E2%80%9C%E5%85%AB%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%94%E2%80%9D%E8%A7%A3%E6%94%BE%E5%8D%81%E5%91%A8%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E4%BC%9A.jpg "庆祝朝鲜“八一五”解放十周年大会.jpg") Kim began gradually consolidating his power. Up to this time, North Korean politics were represented by four factions: the [Yan'an](/wiki/Yan%27an "Yan'an") faction, made up of returnees from China; the "Soviet Koreans" who were ethnic Koreans from the USSR; native Korean communists led by [Pak Hon\-yong](/wiki/Pak_Hon-yong "Pak Hon-yong"); and Kim's Kapsan group who had fought guerrilla actions against Japan in the 1930s.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=95}}{{cite book \| title \= Korea since 1850 \| last1 \= Lone \| first1 \= Stewart\| last2 \= McCormack \| first2 \= Gavan \| author\-link2 \= Gavan McCormack \| publisher \= Longman Cheshire \| location \= Melbourne \| year \= 1993 \| page\=177 }} [Pak Hon\-yong](/wiki/Pak_Hon-yong "Pak Hon-yong"), party vice chairman and Foreign Minister of the DPRK, was blamed for the failure of the southern population to support North Korea during the war, was dismissed from his positions in 1953, and was executed after a show trial in 1955\.Dae\-Sook Suh, *Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader* (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988\), 133–136\.{{cite web\|last\=Hoare\|first\=James\|title\=Pak Heon\-yeong\|url\=https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/resource/modern\-korean\-history\-portal/pak\-heon\-yeong\|work\=Modern Korean History Portal\|publisher\=Woodrow Wilson Center\|access\-date\=5 March 2014}} The Party Congress in 1956 indicated the transformation that the party had undergone. Most members of other factions had lost their positions of influence. More than half the delegates had joined after 1950, most were under 40 years old, and most had limited formal education. In February 1956, Soviet leader [Nikita Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev "Nikita Khrushchev") made a sweeping denunciation of Stalin, which sent shock waves throughout the Communist world. Encouraged by this, members of the party leadership in North Korea began to criticize Kim's dictatorial leadership, personality cult, and Stalinist economic policies. Kim consequently purged them in the [August Faction Incident](/wiki/August_Faction_Incident "August Faction Incident").{{cite journal\|last\=Person\|first\=James\|title\="We Need Help from Outside": The North Korean Opposition Movement of 1956\|journal\=Cold War International History Project Working Paper\|date\=August 2006\|issue\=52\|url\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/WP52\.pdf\|access\-date\=5 March 2014\|archive\-date\=5 July 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705153656/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/WP52\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|pages\=95–96}} By 1960, 70 per cent of the members of the 1956 Central Committee were no longer in politics.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=96}} Kim Il Sung had initially been criticized by the Soviets during a previous 1955 visit to Moscow for practicing Stalinism and a cult of personality, which was already growing enormous. The Korean ambassador to the USSR, Li Sangjo, a member of the Yan'an faction, reported that it had become a criminal offense to so much as write on Kim's picture in a newspaper and that he had been elevated to the status of Marx, Lenin, Mao, and Stalin in the communist pantheon. He also charged Kim with rewriting history to appear as if his guerrilla faction had single\-handedly liberated Korea from the Japanese, completely ignoring the assistance of the Chinese People's Volunteers. In addition, Li stated that in the process of agricultural collectivization, grain was being forcibly confiscated from the peasants, leading to "at least 300 suicides" and that Kim made nearly all major policy decisions and appointments himself. Li reported that over 30,000 people were in prison for completely unjust and arbitrary reasons as trivial as not printing Kim Il Sung's portrait on sufficient quality paper or using newspapers with his picture to wrap parcels. Grain confiscation and tax collection were also conducted forcibly with violence, beatings, and imprisonment.{{cite web\|last\=Ri\|first\=Sang\-jo\|title\=Letter from Ri Sang\-jo to the Central Committee of the Korean Workers Party\|url\=https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/114152\|publisher\=Woodrow Wilson Center\|access\-date\=5 March 2014}} In late 1968, known military opponents of North Korea's *[Juche](/wiki/Juche "Juche")* (or self\-reliance) ideology such as Kim Chang\-bong (minister of National Security), Huh Bong\-hak (chief of the Division for Southern Intelligence) and Lee Young\-ho (commander in chief of the DPRK Navy) were purged as anti\-party/counter\-revolutionary elements, despite their credentials as anti\-Japanese guerrilla fighters in the past.{{cite web \|last\=Pike \|first\=John \|title\=North Korean Purges \|url\=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/dprk/leadership\-purges.htm}} Kim's personality cult was modeled on Stalinism and his regime originally acknowledged Stalin as the supreme leader. After Stalin's death in 1953, however, Kim was described as the "Great Leader" or "Suryong". As his personality cult grew, the doctrine of *Juche* began to displace Marxism–Leninism. At the same time the cult extended beyond Kim himself to include his family in a revolutionary blood line.{{cite book \| title \= Korea since 1850 \| last1 \= Lone \| first1 \= Stewart\| last2 \= McCormack \| first2 \= Gavan \| author\-link2 \= Gavan McCormack \| publisher \= Longman Cheshire \| location \= Melbourne \| year \= 1993 \| pages\=179–180 }} In 1972, to celebrate [Kim Il\-sung's birthday](/wiki/Kim_Il-sung%27s_birthday "Kim Il-sung's birthday"), the [Mansu Hill Grand Monument](/wiki/Mansu_Hill_Grand_Monument "Mansu Hill Grand Monument") was unveiled, including a 22\-meter bronze statue of him.{{Cite book\| last1\= Oberdorfer\| first1\=Don\| last2\=Carlin\| first2\=Robert \| title\=The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History \| publisher \= Basic Books\| year \= 2014 \| page \= 18 \| isbn \= 9780465031238}} ### International relations [thumb\|right\|[Kim Il Sung](/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung "Kim Il Sung") and [Zhou Enlai](/wiki/Zhou_Enlai "Zhou Enlai") tour Beijing in 1958](/wiki/File:Zhou_Enlai_and_Kim_Il_Sung_in_Beijing.jpg "Zhou Enlai and Kim Il Sung in Beijing.jpg") Like Mao in China, Kim Il Sung refused to accept Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalin and continued to model his regime on Stalinist norms.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|pages\=95–97}}{{cite book\| title \= Korea's Twentieth\-Century Odyssey \| url \= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi \| url\-access \= registration \| last \= Robinson \| first \= Michael E \| year \= 2007 \| publisher \= University of Hawaii Press \| location \= Honolulu \| isbn \= 978\-0\-8248\-3174\-5 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/152 152]}} At the same time, he increasingly stressed Korean independence, as embodied in the concept of *Juche*.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|pages\=95, 122}} Kim told [Alexei Kosygin](/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin "Alexei Kosygin") in 1965 that he was not anyone's puppet and "We{{nbsp}}... implement the purest Marxism and condemn as false both the Chinese admixtures and the errors of the CPSU".{{cite journal\|author1\-link\=Sergey Radchenko\|last\=Radchenko\|first\=Sergey\|title\=The Soviet Union and the North Korean Seizure of the USS Pueblo: Evidence from Russian Archives\|journal\=Cold War International History Project Working Paper\|issue\=47\|page\=8\|url\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHP\_WP\_47\.pdf\|access\-date\=2014\-03\-05\|archive\-date\=2018\-08\-17\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817225006/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHP\_WP\_47\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} Relations with China had worsened during the war. [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong "Mao Zedong") criticized Kim for having started the whole "idiotic war" and for being an incompetent military commander who should have been removed from power. PLA commander [Peng Dehuai](/wiki/Peng_Dehuai "Peng Dehuai") was equally contemptuous of Kim's skills at waging war.{{cite book \| last \= Jager \| first \= Sheila Miyoshi \| title \= Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea \| year \= 2013 \| publisher \= Profile Books \| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-1\-84668\-067\-0\|pages\=362–363}} By some analysis, Kim Il Sung remained in power partially because the Soviets turned their attention to the [Hungarian Revolution of 1956](/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956 "Hungarian Revolution of 1956") that fall.{{cite book \| last \= Jager \| first \= Sheila Miyoshi \| title \= Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea \| year \= 2013 \| publisher \= Profile Books \| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-1\-84668\-067\-0\|pages\=363–364}} The Soviets and Chinese were unable to stop the inevitable purge of Kim's domestic opponents or his move towards a one\-man Stalinist autocracy and relations with both countries deteriorated in the former's case because of the elimination of the pro\-Soviet Koreans and the latter because of the regime's refusal to acknowledge Chinese assistance in either liberation from the Japanese or the war in 1950–1953\. Beginning in the late 1950s, North Korea and China began renegotiating their border, culminating in the 1962 [Sino–North Korean Border Treaty](/wiki/Sino%E2%80%93North_Korean_Border_Treaty "Sino–North Korean Border Treaty") and a 1964 companion that established the modern border between the two countries. [thumb\|right\|The captured USS *Pueblo* being visited by tourists in Pyongyang](/wiki/File:USS_Pueblo%2C_Pyongyang%2C_2012.jpg "USS Pueblo, Pyongyang, 2012.jpg") Tensions between North and South escalated in the late 1960s with a series of low\-level armed clashes known as the [Korean DMZ Conflict](/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict_%281966-1969%29 "Korean DMZ Conflict (1966-1969)"). In 1966, Kim declared "liberation of the south" to be a "national duty".{{cite book \| last \= Jager \| first \= Sheila Miyoshi \| title \= Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea \| year \= 2013 \| publisher \= Profile Books \| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-1\-84668\-067\-0\|page\=366}} In 1968, North Korean commandos launched the [Blue House Raid](/wiki/Blue_House_Raid "Blue House Raid"), an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate the South Korean President [Park Chung Hee](/wiki/Park_Chung_Hee "Park Chung Hee"). Shortly after, the US spy ship [Pueblo](/wiki/USS_Pueblo_%28AGER-2%29 "USS Pueblo (AGER-2)") was captured by the North Korean navy.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=99}} The crew were held captive throughout the year despite American protests that the vessel was in international waters, and they were finally released in December after a formal US apology was issued.{{cite book\|last\=Lerner\|first\=Mitchell\|title\=The Pueblo Incident: A Spy Ship and the Failure of American Foreign Policy\|date\=2002\|publisher\=University Press of Kansas\|location\=Lawrence, KS\|isbn\=9780700611713}} In April 1969 a North Korean fighter jet [shot down](/wiki/1969_EC-121_shootdown_incident "1969 EC-121 shootdown incident") an [EC\-121](/wiki/EC-121 "EC-121") aircraft, killing all 31 crewmen on board. The Nixon administration found itself unable to react at all, since the US was heavily committed in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") and had no troops to spare if the situation in Korea escalated. However, the *Pueblo* capture and EC\-121 shootdown did not find approval in Moscow, as the Soviet Union did not want a second major war to erupt in Asia. China's response to the USS *Pueblo* crisis is less clear.["New Romanian Evidence on the Blue House Raid and the USS Pueblo Incident."](http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/nkidp-e-dossier-no-5-new-romanian-evidence-the-blue-house-raid-and-the-uss-pueblo) NKIDP e\-Dossier No. 5\. Retrieved 3 May 2012\. After Khrushchev was replaced by [Leonid Brezhnev](/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev "Leonid Brezhnev") as Soviet Leader in 1964, and with the incentive of Soviet aid, North Korea strengthened its ties with the USSR. Kim condemned China's [Cultural Revolution](/wiki/Cultural_Revolution "Cultural Revolution") as "unbelievable idiocy". In turn, China's Red Guards labelled him a "fat revisionist".{{cite book \| last \= Jager \| first \= Sheila Miyoshi \| title \= Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea \| year \= 2013 \| publisher \= Profile Books \| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-1\-84668\-067\-0\|page\=376}}{{cite journal\|last\=Radchenko\|first\=Sergey\|title\=The Soviet Union and the North Korean Seizure of the USS Pueblo: Evidence from Russian Archives\|journal\=Cold War International History Project Working Paper\|issue\=47\|pages\=11, 16\|url\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHP\_WP\_47\.pdf\|access\-date\=2014\-03\-05\|archive\-date\=2018\-08\-17\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817225006/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHP\_WP\_47\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite journal \|date\=April–June 1967 \|title\=Quarterly Chronicle and Documentation \|jstor\= 651878\|journal\=\[\[The China Quarterly]] \|issue\= 30\|pages\= 195–249}} In 1972, the first formal summit meeting between Pyongyang and Seoul was held, but the cautious talks did not lead to a lasting change in the relationship.{{cite web\|last\=Shin\|first\=Jong\-Dae\|title\=DPRK Perspectives on Korean Reunification after the July 4th Joint Communiqué\|url\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/dprk\-perspectives\-korean\-reunification\-after\-the\-july\-4th\-joint\-communiqu%C3%A9\|work\=NKIDP e\-Dossier no. 10\|publisher\=Woodrow Wilson Center\|access\-date\=5 March 2014}} With the fall of South Vietnam to the North Vietnamese on 30 April 1975, Kim Il Sung felt that the US had shown its weakness and that reunification of Korea under his regime was possible. Kim visited Beijing in May 1975{{cite journal \|last1\= Hook\|first1\=Brian \| last2\= Wilson\|first2\=Dick \|last3\=Yahuda \|first3\=Michael \|date\=September 1975 \|title\=Quarterly Chronicle and Documentation \|jstor\= 652772\|journal\=\[\[The China Quarterly]] \|issue\= 63\|pages\=572–610 }}{{cite journal \|last1\= Zagoria\|first1\=Donald S. \|last2\= Kim\|first2\= Young Kun\|date\= December 1975\|title\=North Korea and the Major Powers \|jstor\= 2643582\|journal\= Asian Survey\|volume\= 15\|issue\= 12\|pages\=1017–1035 \|doi\= 10\.2307/2643582}}{{cite journal \|last\= Kim\|first\= Young C.\|date\= January 1976\|title\=The Democratic People's Republic of Korea in 1975 \|jstor\=2643284 \|journal\= Asian Survey\|volume\=16 \|issue\= 1\|pages\= 82–94\|doi\= 10\.2307/2643284}} in the hope of gaining political and military support for this plan to invade South Korea again, but Mao Zedong refused.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=128}} Despite public proclamations of support, Mao privately told Kim that China would be unable to assist North Korea because of the lingering after\-effects of the Cultural Revolution throughout China, and because Mao had recently decided to restore diplomatic relations with the US.{{cite web\|last\=Chae\|first\=Ria\|title\=East German Documents on Kim Il Sung's April 1975 Trip to Beijing\|url\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/east\-german\-documents\-kim\-il\-sung%E2%80%99s\-april\-1975\-trip\-to\-beijing\|work\=NKIDP e\-Dossier no. 7\|publisher\=Woodrow Wilson Center\|access\-date\=5 March 2014}} Meanwhile, North Korea emphasized its independent orientation by joining the [Non\-Aligned Movement](/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement "Non-Aligned Movement") in 1975\.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=129}} It promoted *[Juche](/wiki/Juche "Juche")* as a model for developing countries to follow.{{cite journal\|last\=Armstrong\|first\=Charles\|title\=Juche and North Korea's Global\_Aspirations\|journal\=NKIDP Working Paper\|date\=April 2009\|issue\=1\|url\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/NKIDP\_Working\_Paper\_1\_Juche\_and\_North\_Koreas\_Global\_Aspirations\_web.pdf}} It developed strong ties with the regimes of Bokassa in the [Central African Republic](/wiki/Central_African_Republic "Central African Republic"), Macias Nguema in [Equatorial Guinea](/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea "Equatorial Guinea"), Idi Amin in [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda"), Pol Pot in Cambodia, Gaddafi in [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya"), and Ceausescu in [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania"). ### Economic development [thumb\|left\|North Korean village in the Yalu River delta](/wiki/File:North_Korean_village_in_Yalu_River_delta.jpg "North Korean village in Yalu River delta.jpg") Reconstruction of the country after the war proceeded with extensive Chinese and Soviet assistance.{{cite journal \|url\=http://japanfocus.org/\-Charles\_K\_\-Armstrong/3460 \|title\=The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950 – 1960 \|author\=Charles K. Armstrong \|journal\=The Asia\-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus \|year\=2010 \|access\-date\=3 May 2010 \|archive\-date\=23 December 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223030716/http://japanfocus.org/\-Charles\_K\_\-Armstrong/3460 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite journal\|last\=Shen\|first\=Zhihua\|author2\=Yafeng Xia\|title\=China and the Post\-War Reconstruction of North Korea, 1953–1961\|journal\=NKIDP Working Paper\|date\=May 2012\|issue\=4\|url\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/NKIDP\_Working\_Paper\_4\_China\_and\_the\_Postwar\_Reconstruction\_of\_North\_Korea.pdf\|access\-date\=5 March 2014\|archive\-date\=5 July 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705205556/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/NKIDP\_Working\_Paper\_4\_China\_and\_the\_Postwar\_Reconstruction\_of\_North\_Korea.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} Koreans with experience in Japanese industries also played a significant part.{{cite book \| title \= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\| last \= Cumings\| first \= Bruce\| author\-link \= Bruce Cumings\| year \= 2005\| publisher \= \[\[W. W. Norton \& Company]]\| location \= New York\| isbn \= 978\-0\-393\-32702\-1 \|page\=430}} Land was collectivized between 1953 and 1958\. Many landlords had been eliminated by the earlier reforms or during the war.{{cite book \| title \= Korea since 1850 \| last1 \= Lone \| first1 \= Stewart\| last2 \= McCormack \| first2 \= Gavan \| author\-link2 \= Gavan McCormack \| publisher \= Longman Cheshire \| location \= Melbourne \| year \= 1993 \| page\=185 }} Recovery from the war was slowed by a massive famine in 1954–55\. Local officials had exaggerated the size of the harvest by 50–70%. After the central government took its share, starvation threatened many peasants; about 800,000 died. In addition collectivization was resisted; many farmers killed their livestock rather than turn them over to the collective farm.Andrei Lankov. “Trouble Brewing: The North Korean Famine of 1954–1955 and Soviet Attitudes toward North Korea.” *Journal of Cold War Studies* 22:2 (Spring 2020\) pp:3–25\. [online](https://hdiplo.org/to/AR1020) Although developmental debates took place within the Workers' Party of Korea in the 1950s, North Korea, like all the postwar [communist states](/wiki/Communist_states "Communist states"), undertook massive state investment in heavy industry, state infrastructure and military strength, neglecting the production of consumer goods.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHPBulletin16\_p51\.pdf \|title\=New Evidence on North Korea in 1956 \|author\=James F. Person \|publisher\=Cold War International History Project \|year\=2008 \|access\-date\=3 May 2012 \|archive\-date\=3 December 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203002122/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHPBulletin16\_p51\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} The first Three Year Plan (1954–1956\) introduced the concept of *[Juche](/wiki/Juche "Juche")* or self\-reliance.{{cite book\| title \= Korea's Twentieth\-Century Odyssey \| url \= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi \| url\-access \= registration \| last \= Robinson \| first \= Michael E \| year \= 2007 \| publisher \= University of Hawaii Press \| location \= Honolulu \| isbn \= 978\-0\-8248\-3174\-5 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/151 151]}} The first Five Year Plan (1957\-1961\) consolidated the collectivization of agriculture and initiated mass mobilizations campaigns: the [Chollima Movement](/wiki/Chollima_Movement "Chollima Movement"), the [Chongsan\-ni](/wiki/Economy_of_North_Korea%23Ch%27%C5%8Fngsan-ni_Method "Economy of North Korea#Ch'ŏngsan-ni Method") system in agriculture and the [Taean Work System](/wiki/Economy_of_North_Korea%23Taean_work_system "Economy of North Korea#Taean work system") in industry.{{cite web\|author\=James F. Person\|date\=February 2009\|title\=New Evidence on North Korea's Chollima Movement and First\-Five\-Year Plan (1957–1961\)\|url\=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/NKIDP\_Document\_Reader\_\_North\_Korean\_Chollima\_Movement\_and\_First\_Five\_Year\_Plan.pdf\|publisher\=North Korea International Documentation Project\|access\-date\=28 July 2020}} The Chollima Movement was influenced by China's [Great Leap Forward](/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward "Great Leap Forward"), but did not have its disastrous results. Industry was fully nationalized by 1959\.{{cite book \| title \= Korea\| last \= Bluth \| first \= Christoph \| year \= 2008\| publisher \= Polity Press\| location \= Cambridge\| isbn \= 978\-07456\-3357\-2 \|page\=33}} Taxation on agricultural income was abolished in 1966\. North Korea was placed on a semi\-war footing, with equal emphasis being given to the civilian and military economies. This was expressed in the 1962 Party Plenum by the slogan, "Arms in one hand and a hammer and sickle in the other! "{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=98}} At a special party conference in 1966, members of the leadership who opposed the military build\-up were removed.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|pages\=98–99}} On the ruins left by the war, North Korea had built an industrialized command economy. The regime reached out to the [Third World](/wiki/Third_World "Third World") in the hope of developing strong trade relations.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nknews.org/2021/12/north\-korean\-capitalisms\-failure\-in\-the\-third\-world/\|title\=North Korean capitalism's failure in the Third World\|first\=Benjamin R\|last\=Young\|date\=2 December 2021\|publisher\=\[\[NK News]]}} [Che Guevara](/wiki/Che_Guevara "Che Guevara"), then a Cuban government minister, visited North Korea in 1960, and proclaimed it a model for Cuba to follow. In 1965, the British economist [Joan Robinson](/wiki/Joan_Robinson "Joan Robinson") described North Korea's economic development as a "miracle".{{cite book \| title \= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\| last \= Cumings\| first \= Bruce\| author\-link \= Bruce Cumings\| year \= 2005\| publisher \= \[\[W. W. Norton \& Company]]\| location \= New York\| isbn \= 978\-0\-393\-32702\-1 \|page\=404}}{{cite book \| title \= Nothing to Envy: Love, Life and Death in North Korea \| last \= Demick \| first \= Barbara \| author\-link \= Barbara Demick \| year \= 2010 \| publisher \= Fourth Estate \| location \= Sydney\| isbn \= 9780732286613 \|page\=64}} As late as the 1970s, its GDP per capita was estimated to be equivalent to South Korea's.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=140}}{{cite book \| title \= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\| last \= Cumings\| first \= Bruce\| author\-link \= Bruce Cumings\| year \= 2005\| publisher \= \[\[W. W. Norton \& Company]]\| location \= New York\| isbn \= 978\-0\-393\-32702\-1 \|page\=434}}{{cite book\| title \= Korea's Twentieth\-Century Odyssey \| url \= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi \| url\-access \= registration \| last \= Robinson \| first \= Michael E \| year \= 2007 \| publisher \= University of Hawaii Press \| location \= Honolulu \| isbn \= 978\-0\-8248\-3174\-5 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/153 153]}}{{cite book \| title \= Korea\| last \= Bluth \| first \= Christoph \| year \= 2008\| publisher \= Polity Press\| location \= Cambridge\| isbn \= 978\-07456\-3357\-2 \|page\=34}} By 1968, all homes had electricity, though the supply was unreliable.{{cite book\| title \= Kim Il\-song's North Korea \| last \= Hunter \| first \= Helen\-Louise \| year \= 1999 \| publisher \= Praeger \| location \= Westport, Connecticut \| isbn \= 978\-0\-275\-96296\-8 \|page\=196}} By 1972, all children from age 5 to 16 were enrolled in school, and over 200 universities and specialized colleges had been established.{{cite book\| title \= The Making of Modern Korea \| last \= Buzo \| first \= Adrian \| year \= 2002\| publisher \= Routledge\| location \= London \| isbn \= 978\-0\-415\-23749\-9 \|page\=101}}{{cite book \| title \= Korea since 1850 \| last1 \= Lone \| first1 \= Stewart\| last2 \= McCormack \| first2 \= Gavan \| author\-link2 \= Gavan McCormack \| publisher \= Longman Cheshire \| location \= Melbourne \| year \= 1993 \| page\=196 }} By the early 1980s, 60–70% of the population was urbanized.{{cite book \| title \= Korea since 1850 \| last1 \= Lone \| first1 \= Stewart\| last2 \= McCormack \| first2 \= Gavan \| author\-link2 \= Gavan McCormack \| publisher \= Longman Cheshire \| location \= Melbourne \| year \= 1993 \| page\=187 }}
[ "Post\\-war redevelopment (1953–1970s)\n------------------------------------", "### Internal politics", "[thumb\\|left\\|From left to right: [Pak Chang\\-ok](/wiki/Pak_Chang-ok \"Pak Chang-ok\"), [Li Jishen](/wiki/Li_Jishen \"Li Jishen\"), [Kim Tu\\-bong](/wiki/Kim_Tu-bong \"Kim Tu-bong\"), [Zhu De](/wiki/Zhu_De \"Zhu De\"), [Kim Il Sung](/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung \"Kim Il Sung\"), [Averky Aristov](/wiki/Averky_Aristov \"Averky Aristov\"), [Pak Chŏng Ae](/wiki/Pak_Ch%C5%8Fng_Ae \"Pak Chŏng Ae\") and [Choe Yong\\-gon](/wiki/Choe_Yong-gon_%28army_commander%29 \"Choe Yong-gon (army commander)\") in 1955](/wiki/File:%E5%BA%86%E7%A5%9D%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E2%80%9C%E5%85%AB%E4%B8%80%E4%BA%94%E2%80%9D%E8%A7%A3%E6%94%BE%E5%8D%81%E5%91%A8%E5%B9%B4%E5%A4%A7%E4%BC%9A.jpg \"庆祝朝鲜“八一五”解放十周年大会.jpg\")", "Kim began gradually consolidating his power. Up to this time, North Korean politics were represented by four factions: the [Yan'an](/wiki/Yan%27an \"Yan'an\") faction, made up of returnees from China; the \"Soviet Koreans\" who were ethnic Koreans from the USSR; native Korean communists led by [Pak Hon\\-yong](/wiki/Pak_Hon-yong \"Pak Hon-yong\"); and Kim's Kapsan group who had fought guerrilla actions against Japan in the 1930s.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=95}}{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea since 1850 \\| last1 \\= Lone \\| first1 \\= Stewart\\| last2 \\= McCormack \\| first2 \\= Gavan \\| author\\-link2 \\= Gavan McCormack \\| publisher \\= Longman Cheshire \\| location \\= Melbourne \\| year \\= 1993 \\| page\\=177 }}", "[Pak Hon\\-yong](/wiki/Pak_Hon-yong \"Pak Hon-yong\"), party vice chairman and Foreign Minister of the DPRK, was blamed for the failure of the southern population to support North Korea during the war, was dismissed from his positions in 1953, and was executed after a show trial in 1955\\.Dae\\-Sook Suh, *Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader* (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988\\), 133–136\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Hoare\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=Pak Heon\\-yeong\\|url\\=https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/resource/modern\\-korean\\-history\\-portal/pak\\-heon\\-yeong\\|work\\=Modern Korean History Portal\\|publisher\\=Woodrow Wilson Center\\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2014}}", "The Party Congress in 1956 indicated the transformation that the party had undergone. Most members of other factions had lost their positions of influence. More than half the delegates had joined after 1950, most were under 40 years old, and most had limited formal education.", "In February 1956, Soviet leader [Nikita Khrushchev](/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev \"Nikita Khrushchev\") made a sweeping denunciation of Stalin, which sent shock waves throughout the Communist world. Encouraged by this, members of the party leadership in North Korea began to criticize Kim's dictatorial leadership, personality cult, and Stalinist economic policies. Kim consequently purged them in the [August Faction Incident](/wiki/August_Faction_Incident \"August Faction Incident\").{{cite journal\\|last\\=Person\\|first\\=James\\|title\\=\"We Need Help from Outside\": The North Korean Opposition Movement of 1956\\|journal\\=Cold War International History Project Working Paper\\|date\\=August 2006\\|issue\\=52\\|url\\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/WP52\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=5 July 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705153656/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/WP52\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|pages\\=95–96}} By 1960, 70 per cent of the members of the 1956 Central Committee were no longer in politics.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=96}}", "Kim Il Sung had initially been criticized by the Soviets during a previous 1955 visit to Moscow for practicing Stalinism and a cult of personality, which was already growing enormous. The Korean ambassador to the USSR, Li Sangjo, a member of the Yan'an faction, reported that it had become a criminal offense to so much as write on Kim's picture in a newspaper and that he had been elevated to the status of Marx, Lenin, Mao, and Stalin in the communist pantheon. He also charged Kim with rewriting history to appear as if his guerrilla faction had single\\-handedly liberated Korea from the Japanese, completely ignoring the assistance of the Chinese People's Volunteers. In addition, Li stated that in the process of agricultural collectivization, grain was being forcibly confiscated from the peasants, leading to \"at least 300 suicides\" and that Kim made nearly all major policy decisions and appointments himself. Li reported that over 30,000 people were in prison for completely unjust and arbitrary reasons as trivial as not printing Kim Il Sung's portrait on sufficient quality paper or using newspapers with his picture to wrap parcels. Grain confiscation and tax collection were also conducted forcibly with violence, beatings, and imprisonment.{{cite web\\|last\\=Ri\\|first\\=Sang\\-jo\\|title\\=Letter from Ri Sang\\-jo to the Central Committee of the Korean Workers Party\\|url\\=https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/114152\\|publisher\\=Woodrow Wilson Center\\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2014}}", "In late 1968, known military opponents of North Korea's *[Juche](/wiki/Juche \"Juche\")* (or self\\-reliance) ideology such as Kim Chang\\-bong (minister of National Security), Huh Bong\\-hak (chief of the Division for Southern Intelligence) and Lee Young\\-ho (commander in chief of the DPRK Navy) were purged as anti\\-party/counter\\-revolutionary elements, despite their credentials as anti\\-Japanese guerrilla fighters in the past.{{cite web \\|last\\=Pike \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=North Korean Purges \\|url\\=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/dprk/leadership\\-purges.htm}}", "Kim's personality cult was modeled on Stalinism and his regime originally acknowledged Stalin as the supreme leader. After Stalin's death in 1953, however, Kim was described as the \"Great Leader\" or \"Suryong\". As his personality cult grew, the doctrine of *Juche* began to displace Marxism–Leninism. At the same time the cult extended beyond Kim himself to include his family in a revolutionary blood line.{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea since 1850 \\| last1 \\= Lone \\| first1 \\= Stewart\\| last2 \\= McCormack \\| first2 \\= Gavan \\| author\\-link2 \\= Gavan McCormack \\| publisher \\= Longman Cheshire \\| location \\= Melbourne \\| year \\= 1993 \\| pages\\=179–180 }}\nIn 1972, to celebrate [Kim Il\\-sung's birthday](/wiki/Kim_Il-sung%27s_birthday \"Kim Il-sung's birthday\"), the [Mansu Hill Grand Monument](/wiki/Mansu_Hill_Grand_Monument \"Mansu Hill Grand Monument\") was unveiled, including a 22\\-meter bronze statue of him.{{Cite book\\| last1\\= Oberdorfer\\| first1\\=Don\\| last2\\=Carlin\\| first2\\=Robert \\| title\\=The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History \\| publisher \\= Basic Books\\| year \\= 2014 \\| page \\= 18 \\| isbn \\= 9780465031238}}", "### International relations", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Kim Il Sung](/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung \"Kim Il Sung\") and [Zhou Enlai](/wiki/Zhou_Enlai \"Zhou Enlai\") tour Beijing in 1958](/wiki/File:Zhou_Enlai_and_Kim_Il_Sung_in_Beijing.jpg \"Zhou Enlai and Kim Il Sung in Beijing.jpg\")\nLike Mao in China, Kim Il Sung refused to accept Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalin and continued to model his regime on Stalinist norms.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|pages\\=95–97}}{{cite book\\| title \\= Korea's Twentieth\\-Century Odyssey \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi \\| url\\-access \\= registration \\| last \\= Robinson \\| first \\= Michael E \\| year \\= 2007 \\| publisher \\= University of Hawaii Press \\| location \\= Honolulu \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-8248\\-3174\\-5 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/152 152]}} At the same time, he increasingly stressed Korean independence, as embodied in the concept of *Juche*.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|pages\\=95, 122}} Kim told [Alexei Kosygin](/wiki/Alexei_Kosygin \"Alexei Kosygin\") in 1965 that he was not anyone's puppet and \"We{{nbsp}}... implement the purest Marxism and condemn as false both the Chinese admixtures and the errors of the CPSU\".{{cite journal\\|author1\\-link\\=Sergey Radchenko\\|last\\=Radchenko\\|first\\=Sergey\\|title\\=The Soviet Union and the North Korean Seizure of the USS Pueblo: Evidence from Russian Archives\\|journal\\=Cold War International History Project Working Paper\\|issue\\=47\\|page\\=8\\|url\\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHP\\_WP\\_47\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-17\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817225006/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHP\\_WP\\_47\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Relations with China had worsened during the war. [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong \"Mao Zedong\") criticized Kim for having started the whole \"idiotic war\" and for being an incompetent military commander who should have been removed from power. PLA commander [Peng Dehuai](/wiki/Peng_Dehuai \"Peng Dehuai\") was equally contemptuous of Kim's skills at waging war.{{cite book \\| last \\= Jager \\| first \\= Sheila Miyoshi \\| title \\= Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea \\| year \\= 2013 \\| publisher \\= Profile Books \\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-84668\\-067\\-0\\|pages\\=362–363}}", "By some analysis, Kim Il Sung remained in power partially because the Soviets turned their attention to the [Hungarian Revolution of 1956](/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956 \"Hungarian Revolution of 1956\") that fall.{{cite book \\| last \\= Jager \\| first \\= Sheila Miyoshi \\| title \\= Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea \\| year \\= 2013 \\| publisher \\= Profile Books \\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-84668\\-067\\-0\\|pages\\=363–364}} The Soviets and Chinese were unable to stop the inevitable purge of Kim's domestic opponents or his move towards a one\\-man Stalinist autocracy and relations with both countries deteriorated in the former's case because of the elimination of the pro\\-Soviet Koreans and the latter because of the regime's refusal to acknowledge Chinese assistance in either liberation from the Japanese or the war in 1950–1953\\.", "Beginning in the late 1950s, North Korea and China began renegotiating their border, culminating in the 1962 [Sino–North Korean Border Treaty](/wiki/Sino%E2%80%93North_Korean_Border_Treaty \"Sino–North Korean Border Treaty\") and a 1964 companion that established the modern border between the two countries. [thumb\\|right\\|The captured USS *Pueblo* being visited by tourists in Pyongyang](/wiki/File:USS_Pueblo%2C_Pyongyang%2C_2012.jpg \"USS Pueblo, Pyongyang, 2012.jpg\")", "Tensions between North and South escalated in the late 1960s with a series of low\\-level armed clashes known as the [Korean DMZ Conflict](/wiki/Korean_DMZ_Conflict_%281966-1969%29 \"Korean DMZ Conflict (1966-1969)\"). In 1966, Kim declared \"liberation of the south\" to be a \"national duty\".{{cite book \\| last \\= Jager \\| first \\= Sheila Miyoshi \\| title \\= Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea \\| year \\= 2013 \\| publisher \\= Profile Books \\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-84668\\-067\\-0\\|page\\=366}} In 1968, North Korean commandos launched the [Blue House Raid](/wiki/Blue_House_Raid \"Blue House Raid\"), an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate the South Korean President [Park Chung Hee](/wiki/Park_Chung_Hee \"Park Chung Hee\"). Shortly after, the US spy ship [Pueblo](/wiki/USS_Pueblo_%28AGER-2%29 \"USS Pueblo (AGER-2)\") was captured by the North Korean navy.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=99}} The crew were held captive throughout the year despite American protests that the vessel was in international waters, and they were finally released in December after a formal US apology was issued.{{cite book\\|last\\=Lerner\\|first\\=Mitchell\\|title\\=The Pueblo Incident: A Spy Ship and the Failure of American Foreign Policy\\|date\\=2002\\|publisher\\=University Press of Kansas\\|location\\=Lawrence, KS\\|isbn\\=9780700611713}} In April 1969 a North Korean fighter jet [shot down](/wiki/1969_EC-121_shootdown_incident \"1969 EC-121 shootdown incident\") an [EC\\-121](/wiki/EC-121 \"EC-121\") aircraft, killing all 31 crewmen on board. The Nixon administration found itself unable to react at all, since the US was heavily committed in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") and had no troops to spare if the situation in Korea escalated. However, the *Pueblo* capture and EC\\-121 shootdown did not find approval in Moscow, as the Soviet Union did not want a second major war to erupt in Asia. China's response to the USS *Pueblo* crisis is less clear.[\"New Romanian Evidence on the Blue House Raid and the USS Pueblo Incident.\"](http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/nkidp-e-dossier-no-5-new-romanian-evidence-the-blue-house-raid-and-the-uss-pueblo) NKIDP e\\-Dossier No. 5\\. Retrieved 3 May 2012\\.", "After Khrushchev was replaced by [Leonid Brezhnev](/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev \"Leonid Brezhnev\") as Soviet Leader in 1964, and with the incentive of Soviet aid, North Korea strengthened its ties with the USSR. Kim condemned China's [Cultural Revolution](/wiki/Cultural_Revolution \"Cultural Revolution\") as \"unbelievable idiocy\". In turn, China's Red Guards labelled him a \"fat revisionist\".{{cite book \\| last \\= Jager \\| first \\= Sheila Miyoshi \\| title \\= Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea \\| year \\= 2013 \\| publisher \\= Profile Books \\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-84668\\-067\\-0\\|page\\=376}}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Radchenko\\|first\\=Sergey\\|title\\=The Soviet Union and the North Korean Seizure of the USS Pueblo: Evidence from Russian Archives\\|journal\\=Cold War International History Project Working Paper\\|issue\\=47\\|pages\\=11, 16\\|url\\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHP\\_WP\\_47\\.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-03\\-05\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-17\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817225006/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHP\\_WP\\_47\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite journal \\|date\\=April–June 1967 \\|title\\=Quarterly Chronicle and Documentation \\|jstor\\= 651878\\|journal\\=\\[\\[The China Quarterly]] \\|issue\\= 30\\|pages\\= 195–249}}", "In 1972, the first formal summit meeting between Pyongyang and Seoul was held, but the cautious talks did not lead to a lasting change in the relationship.{{cite web\\|last\\=Shin\\|first\\=Jong\\-Dae\\|title\\=DPRK Perspectives on Korean Reunification after the July 4th Joint Communiqué\\|url\\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/dprk\\-perspectives\\-korean\\-reunification\\-after\\-the\\-july\\-4th\\-joint\\-communiqu%C3%A9\\|work\\=NKIDP e\\-Dossier no. 10\\|publisher\\=Woodrow Wilson Center\\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2014}}", "With the fall of South Vietnam to the North Vietnamese on 30 April 1975, Kim Il Sung felt that the US had shown its weakness and that reunification of Korea under his regime was possible. Kim visited Beijing in May 1975{{cite journal \\|last1\\= Hook\\|first1\\=Brian \\| last2\\= Wilson\\|first2\\=Dick \\|last3\\=Yahuda \\|first3\\=Michael \\|date\\=September 1975 \\|title\\=Quarterly Chronicle and Documentation \\|jstor\\= 652772\\|journal\\=\\[\\[The China Quarterly]] \\|issue\\= 63\\|pages\\=572–610 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\= Zagoria\\|first1\\=Donald S. \\|last2\\= Kim\\|first2\\= Young Kun\\|date\\= December 1975\\|title\\=North Korea and the Major Powers \\|jstor\\= 2643582\\|journal\\= Asian Survey\\|volume\\= 15\\|issue\\= 12\\|pages\\=1017–1035 \\|doi\\= 10\\.2307/2643582}}{{cite journal \\|last\\= Kim\\|first\\= Young C.\\|date\\= January 1976\\|title\\=The Democratic People's Republic of Korea in 1975 \\|jstor\\=2643284 \\|journal\\= Asian Survey\\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\= 1\\|pages\\= 82–94\\|doi\\= 10\\.2307/2643284}} in the hope of gaining political and military support for this plan to invade South Korea again, but Mao Zedong refused.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=128}} Despite public proclamations of support, Mao privately told Kim that China would be unable to assist North Korea because of the lingering after\\-effects of the Cultural Revolution throughout China, and because Mao had recently decided to restore diplomatic relations with the US.{{cite web\\|last\\=Chae\\|first\\=Ria\\|title\\=East German Documents on Kim Il Sung's April 1975 Trip to Beijing\\|url\\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/east\\-german\\-documents\\-kim\\-il\\-sung%E2%80%99s\\-april\\-1975\\-trip\\-to\\-beijing\\|work\\=NKIDP e\\-Dossier no. 7\\|publisher\\=Woodrow Wilson Center\\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2014}}", "Meanwhile, North Korea emphasized its independent orientation by joining the [Non\\-Aligned Movement](/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement \"Non-Aligned Movement\") in 1975\\.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=129}} It promoted *[Juche](/wiki/Juche \"Juche\")* as a model for developing countries to follow.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Armstrong\\|first\\=Charles\\|title\\=Juche and North Korea's Global\\_Aspirations\\|journal\\=NKIDP Working Paper\\|date\\=April 2009\\|issue\\=1\\|url\\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/NKIDP\\_Working\\_Paper\\_1\\_Juche\\_and\\_North\\_Koreas\\_Global\\_Aspirations\\_web.pdf}} It developed strong ties with the regimes of Bokassa in the [Central African Republic](/wiki/Central_African_Republic \"Central African Republic\"), Macias Nguema in [Equatorial Guinea](/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea \"Equatorial Guinea\"), Idi Amin in [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\"), Pol Pot in Cambodia, Gaddafi in [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"), and Ceausescu in [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\").", "### Economic development", "[thumb\\|left\\|North Korean village in the Yalu River delta](/wiki/File:North_Korean_village_in_Yalu_River_delta.jpg \"North Korean village in Yalu River delta.jpg\")\nReconstruction of the country after the war proceeded with extensive Chinese and Soviet assistance.{{cite journal \\|url\\=http://japanfocus.org/\\-Charles\\_K\\_\\-Armstrong/3460 \\|title\\=The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950 – 1960 \\|author\\=Charles K. Armstrong \\|journal\\=The Asia\\-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus \\|year\\=2010 \\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223030716/http://japanfocus.org/\\-Charles\\_K\\_\\-Armstrong/3460 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Shen\\|first\\=Zhihua\\|author2\\=Yafeng Xia\\|title\\=China and the Post\\-War Reconstruction of North Korea, 1953–1961\\|journal\\=NKIDP Working Paper\\|date\\=May 2012\\|issue\\=4\\|url\\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/NKIDP\\_Working\\_Paper\\_4\\_China\\_and\\_the\\_Postwar\\_Reconstruction\\_of\\_North\\_Korea.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=5 March 2014\\|archive\\-date\\=5 July 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705205556/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/NKIDP\\_Working\\_Paper\\_4\\_China\\_and\\_the\\_Postwar\\_Reconstruction\\_of\\_North\\_Korea.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Koreans with experience in Japanese industries also played a significant part.{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\\| last \\= Cumings\\| first \\= Bruce\\| author\\-link \\= Bruce Cumings\\| year \\= 2005\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[W. W. Norton \\& Company]]\\| location \\= New York\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-393\\-32702\\-1 \\|page\\=430}} Land was collectivized between 1953 and 1958\\. Many landlords had been eliminated by the earlier reforms or during the war.{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea since 1850 \\| last1 \\= Lone \\| first1 \\= Stewart\\| last2 \\= McCormack \\| first2 \\= Gavan \\| author\\-link2 \\= Gavan McCormack \\| publisher \\= Longman Cheshire \\| location \\= Melbourne \\| year \\= 1993 \\| page\\=185 }}", "Recovery from the war was slowed by a massive famine in 1954–55\\. Local officials had exaggerated the size of the harvest by 50–70%. After the central government took its share, starvation threatened many peasants; about 800,000 died. In addition collectivization was resisted; many farmers killed their livestock rather than turn them over to the collective farm.Andrei Lankov. “Trouble Brewing: The North Korean Famine of 1954–1955 and Soviet Attitudes toward North Korea.” *Journal of Cold War Studies* 22:2 (Spring 2020\\) pp:3–25\\. [online](https://hdiplo.org/to/AR1020)", "Although developmental debates took place within the Workers' Party of Korea in the 1950s, North Korea, like all the postwar [communist states](/wiki/Communist_states \"Communist states\"), undertook massive state investment in heavy industry, state infrastructure and military strength, neglecting the production of consumer goods.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHPBulletin16\\_p51\\.pdf \\|title\\=New Evidence on North Korea in 1956 \\|author\\=James F. Person \\|publisher\\=Cold War International History Project \\|year\\=2008 \\|access\\-date\\=3 May 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203002122/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/CWIHPBulletin16\\_p51\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "The first Three Year Plan (1954–1956\\) introduced the concept of *[Juche](/wiki/Juche \"Juche\")* or self\\-reliance.{{cite book\\| title \\= Korea's Twentieth\\-Century Odyssey \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi \\| url\\-access \\= registration \\| last \\= Robinson \\| first \\= Michael E \\| year \\= 2007 \\| publisher \\= University of Hawaii Press \\| location \\= Honolulu \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-8248\\-3174\\-5 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/151 151]}} The first Five Year Plan (1957\\-1961\\) consolidated the collectivization of agriculture and initiated mass mobilizations campaigns: the [Chollima Movement](/wiki/Chollima_Movement \"Chollima Movement\"), the [Chongsan\\-ni](/wiki/Economy_of_North_Korea%23Ch%27%C5%8Fngsan-ni_Method \"Economy of North Korea#Ch'ŏngsan-ni Method\") system in agriculture and the [Taean Work System](/wiki/Economy_of_North_Korea%23Taean_work_system \"Economy of North Korea#Taean work system\") in industry.{{cite web\\|author\\=James F. Person\\|date\\=February 2009\\|title\\=New Evidence on North Korea's Chollima Movement and First\\-Five\\-Year Plan (1957–1961\\)\\|url\\=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/NKIDP\\_Document\\_Reader\\_\\_North\\_Korean\\_Chollima\\_Movement\\_and\\_First\\_Five\\_Year\\_Plan.pdf\\|publisher\\=North Korea International Documentation Project\\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020}} The Chollima Movement was influenced by China's [Great Leap Forward](/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward \"Great Leap Forward\"), but did not have its disastrous results. Industry was fully nationalized by 1959\\.{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea\\| last \\= Bluth \\| first \\= Christoph \\| year \\= 2008\\| publisher \\= Polity Press\\| location \\= Cambridge\\| isbn \\= 978\\-07456\\-3357\\-2 \\|page\\=33}} Taxation on agricultural income was abolished in 1966\\.", "North Korea was placed on a semi\\-war footing, with equal emphasis being given to the civilian and military economies. This was expressed in the 1962 Party Plenum by the slogan, \"Arms in one hand and a hammer and sickle in the other! \"{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=98}} At a special party conference in 1966, members of the leadership who opposed the military build\\-up were removed.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|pages\\=98–99}}", "On the ruins left by the war, North Korea had built an industrialized command economy. The regime reached out to the [Third World](/wiki/Third_World \"Third World\") in the hope of developing strong trade relations.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nknews.org/2021/12/north\\-korean\\-capitalisms\\-failure\\-in\\-the\\-third\\-world/\\|title\\=North Korean capitalism's failure in the Third World\\|first\\=Benjamin R\\|last\\=Young\\|date\\=2 December 2021\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NK News]]}} [Che Guevara](/wiki/Che_Guevara \"Che Guevara\"), then a Cuban government minister, visited North Korea in 1960, and proclaimed it a model for Cuba to follow. In 1965, the British economist [Joan Robinson](/wiki/Joan_Robinson \"Joan Robinson\") described North Korea's economic development as a \"miracle\".{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\\| last \\= Cumings\\| first \\= Bruce\\| author\\-link \\= Bruce Cumings\\| year \\= 2005\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[W. W. Norton \\& Company]]\\| location \\= New York\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-393\\-32702\\-1 \\|page\\=404}}{{cite book \\| title \\= Nothing to Envy: Love, Life and Death in North Korea \\| last \\= Demick \\| first \\= Barbara \\| author\\-link \\= Barbara Demick \\| year \\= 2010 \\| publisher \\= Fourth Estate \\| location \\= Sydney\\| isbn \\= 9780732286613 \\|page\\=64}} As late as the 1970s, its GDP per capita was estimated to be equivalent to South Korea's.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=140}}{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History\\| last \\= Cumings\\| first \\= Bruce\\| author\\-link \\= Bruce Cumings\\| year \\= 2005\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[W. W. Norton \\& Company]]\\| location \\= New York\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-393\\-32702\\-1 \\|page\\=434}}{{cite book\\| title \\= Korea's Twentieth\\-Century Odyssey \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi \\| url\\-access \\= registration \\| last \\= Robinson \\| first \\= Michael E \\| year \\= 2007 \\| publisher \\= University of Hawaii Press \\| location \\= Honolulu \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-8248\\-3174\\-5 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/koreastwentieth00robi/page/153 153]}}{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea\\| last \\= Bluth \\| first \\= Christoph \\| year \\= 2008\\| publisher \\= Polity Press\\| location \\= Cambridge\\| isbn \\= 978\\-07456\\-3357\\-2 \\|page\\=34}} By 1968, all homes had electricity, though the supply was unreliable.{{cite book\\| title \\= Kim Il\\-song's North Korea \\| last \\= Hunter \\| first \\= Helen\\-Louise \\| year \\= 1999 \\| publisher \\= Praeger \\| location \\= Westport, Connecticut \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-275\\-96296\\-8 \\|page\\=196}} By 1972, all children from age 5 to 16 were enrolled in school, and over 200 universities and specialized colleges had been established.{{cite book\\| title \\= The Making of Modern Korea \\| last \\= Buzo \\| first \\= Adrian \\| year \\= 2002\\| publisher \\= Routledge\\| location \\= London \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-415\\-23749\\-9 \\|page\\=101}}{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea since 1850 \\| last1 \\= Lone \\| first1 \\= Stewart\\| last2 \\= McCormack \\| first2 \\= Gavan \\| author\\-link2 \\= Gavan McCormack \\| publisher \\= Longman Cheshire \\| location \\= Melbourne \\| year \\= 1993 \\| page\\=196 }} By the early 1980s, 60–70% of the population was urbanized.{{cite book \\| title \\= Korea since 1850 \\| last1 \\= Lone \\| first1 \\= Stewart\\| last2 \\= McCormack \\| first2 \\= Gavan \\| author\\-link2 \\= Gavan McCormack \\| publisher \\= Longman Cheshire \\| location \\= Melbourne \\| year \\= 1993 \\| page\\=187 }}", "" ]
Usage in Portugal ----------------- [thumb\|235px\|right\|The *alqueire* was a measure of capacity primarily used for grains](/wiki/File:Assorted_grains.jpg "Assorted grains.jpg") [thumb\|right\|235px\|With time, *alqueire* also began to refer to the area of land that could be sown with an alqueire of grain](/wiki/File:Mature_grain.jpg "Mature grain.jpg") The Arabic *al\-kayl*, used in areas of the [Iberian Peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula "Iberian Peninsula") under [Arab](/wiki/Arabs "Arabs") rule, was imported to northern Portugal around the time of the [Portuguese County](/wiki/County_of_Portugal "County of Portugal"), where it became known as *alqueire*. The first explicit reference dates from 1111, but the alqueire was already in use in the late 11th century. It was likely that the term *alqueire* designated a single well\-known measure in the Portuguese County. In 1145, the municipal ordinances of Coimbra stipulated that the alqueire (of cereal) should have a weight of 6\.5 [arráteis](/wiki/Arr%C3%A1tel "Arrátel"), and thus a capacity for around 3\.4 liters. This suggests that other alqueires were entering common usage alongside the standard definition. Throughout most of the first dynasty, reigns of [Afonso Henriques](/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Portugal "Afonso I of Portugal") to [Afonso IV](/wiki/Afonso_IV_of_Portugal "Afonso IV of Portugal"), the legal alqueire was equivalent to the Roman [modius](/wiki/Ancient_Roman_units_of_measurement%23Dry_measure "Ancient Roman units of measurement#Dry measure"), i.e. about 8\.7 liters. However, the legal alqueire was not used throughout the whole country. King [Pedro I](/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Portugal "Pedro I of Portugal") (1357\) introduced a new alqueire of 9\.8 liters and tried to impose it as a standard for the whole kingdom. This alqueire in fact had a wider spread than the previous one, but failed to generalize to the entire territory. With [Manuel I](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal "Manuel I of Portugal") (1499\), the alqueire of [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"), which amounted to 13\.1 liters, became the standard for the kingdom. [Sebastião I](/wiki/Sebastian_of_Portugal "Sebastian of Portugal") (1575\) distributed copies of this standard, in bronze, to the main towns of the kingdom. However, regional standards still survived. Later, probably following the 1755 earthquake, the capacity of the alqueire of Lisbon was adjusted to 13\.9 liters, which would allow easier conversion to the Spanish system. The main standards used in different regions of Portugal in the nineteenth century were as follows: * 13\.1 liters on the coast between [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") and [Aveiro](/wiki/Aveiro%2C_Portugal "Aveiro, Portugal") * 13\.9 liters, all over the country * 14\.9 and 15\.7 liters, especially in the interior and south * 17\.0, 17\.5 and 19\.3 liters, almost exclusively in the [Entre\-Douro\-e\-Minho](/wiki/Entre-Douro-e-Minho_Province "Entre-Douro-e-Minho Province") At the local level, a multitude of variants of these major patterns were in actual use. Despite the introduction of the metric system in the nineteenth century, traditional alqueires continued to be used. Since the Middle Ages, the term alqueire also designated units of measure of area of land. Typically, an area alqueire was the area of land that could be sown with an alqueire of seed. ### Azores Even until the 20th century, in conversations with local [Azorean](/wiki/Azores "Azores") seniors, many would refer to both meanings of alqueire: *"minha terra produziu 40 alqueires de milho por alqueire de terra"* (*my land produced 40 alqueires of corn per alqueire of land*).{{cite web\|last\=Almeida e Sousa\|first\=João Nuno\|date\=31 July 2011\|title\=Alqueires, palmos e varas…pequenas e grandes!\|url\=http://ilhas.blogspot.pt/2007/07/alqueires\-palmos\-e\-varaspequenas\-e.html\|accessdate\=4 April 2013\|publisher\=ILIHAS\|location\=Ponta Delgada (Azores), Portugal\|language\=Portuguese}} In the Azores, lands were distributed to the settlers who explored and expanded the territory; the Crown provided guarantees that who could explore and expand Portuguese patrimony would benefit from their largesse. It was in the [moio](/wiki/Moio_%28unit%29 "Moio (unit)") and *alqueire* that many of the rural property\-owners obtained their honorific titles.
[ "Usage in Portugal\n-----------------", "[thumb\\|235px\\|right\\|The *alqueire* was a measure of capacity primarily used for grains](/wiki/File:Assorted_grains.jpg \"Assorted grains.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|235px\\|With time, *alqueire* also began to refer to the area of land that could be sown with an alqueire of grain](/wiki/File:Mature_grain.jpg \"Mature grain.jpg\")", "The Arabic *al\\-kayl*, used in areas of the [Iberian Peninsula](/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula \"Iberian Peninsula\") under [Arab](/wiki/Arabs \"Arabs\") rule, was imported to northern Portugal around the time of the [Portuguese County](/wiki/County_of_Portugal \"County of Portugal\"), where it became known as *alqueire*. The first explicit reference dates from 1111, but the alqueire was already in use in the late 11th century. It was likely that the term *alqueire* designated a single well\\-known measure in the Portuguese County. In 1145, the municipal ordinances of Coimbra stipulated that the alqueire (of cereal) should have a weight of 6\\.5 [arráteis](/wiki/Arr%C3%A1tel \"Arrátel\"), and thus a capacity for around 3\\.4 liters. This suggests that other alqueires were entering common usage alongside the standard definition.", "Throughout most of the first dynasty, reigns of [Afonso Henriques](/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Portugal \"Afonso I of Portugal\") to [Afonso IV](/wiki/Afonso_IV_of_Portugal \"Afonso IV of Portugal\"), the legal alqueire was equivalent to the Roman [modius](/wiki/Ancient_Roman_units_of_measurement%23Dry_measure \"Ancient Roman units of measurement#Dry measure\"), i.e. about 8\\.7 liters. However, the legal alqueire was not used throughout the whole country. King [Pedro I](/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Portugal \"Pedro I of Portugal\") (1357\\) introduced a new alqueire of 9\\.8 liters and tried to impose it as a standard for the whole kingdom. This alqueire in fact had a wider spread than the previous one, but failed to generalize to the entire territory. With [Manuel I](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal \"Manuel I of Portugal\") (1499\\), the alqueire of [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"), which amounted to 13\\.1 liters, became the standard for the kingdom. [Sebastião I](/wiki/Sebastian_of_Portugal \"Sebastian of Portugal\") (1575\\) distributed copies of this standard, in bronze, to the main towns of the kingdom. However, regional standards still survived. Later, probably following the 1755 earthquake, the capacity of the alqueire of Lisbon was adjusted to 13\\.9 liters, which would allow easier conversion to the Spanish system.", "The main standards used in different regions of Portugal in the nineteenth century were as follows:", "* 13\\.1 liters on the coast between [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") and [Aveiro](/wiki/Aveiro%2C_Portugal \"Aveiro, Portugal\")\n* 13\\.9 liters, all over the country\n* 14\\.9 and 15\\.7 liters, especially in the interior and south\n* 17\\.0, 17\\.5 and 19\\.3 liters, almost exclusively in the [Entre\\-Douro\\-e\\-Minho](/wiki/Entre-Douro-e-Minho_Province \"Entre-Douro-e-Minho Province\")", "At the local level, a multitude of variants of these major patterns were in actual use. Despite the introduction of the metric system in the nineteenth century, traditional alqueires continued to be used.", "Since the Middle Ages, the term alqueire also designated units of measure of area of land. Typically, an area alqueire was the area of land that could be sown with an alqueire of seed.", "### Azores", "Even until the 20th century, in conversations with local [Azorean](/wiki/Azores \"Azores\") seniors, many would refer to both meanings of alqueire: *\"minha terra produziu 40 alqueires de milho por alqueire de terra\"* (*my land produced 40 alqueires of corn per alqueire of land*).{{cite web\\|last\\=Almeida e Sousa\\|first\\=João Nuno\\|date\\=31 July 2011\\|title\\=Alqueires, palmos e varas…pequenas e grandes!\\|url\\=http://ilhas.blogspot.pt/2007/07/alqueires\\-palmos\\-e\\-varaspequenas\\-e.html\\|accessdate\\=4 April 2013\\|publisher\\=ILIHAS\\|location\\=Ponta Delgada (Azores), Portugal\\|language\\=Portuguese}} In the Azores, lands were distributed to the settlers who explored and expanded the territory; the Crown provided guarantees that who could explore and expand Portuguese patrimony would benefit from their largesse. It was in the [moio](/wiki/Moio_%28unit%29 \"Moio (unit)\") and *alqueire* that many of the rural property\\-owners obtained their honorific titles.", "" ]
History ------- ### 1960s–1990s While the series dates back to 1901, the teams became regional rivals after the then\-[Washington Senators](/wiki/Washington_Senators_%281901%E2%80%931960%29 "Washington Senators (1901–1960)") moved to Minnesota and became the Twins in 1961\. The {{mlby\|1965}} season saw the [Twins](/wiki/1965_Minnesota_Twins_season "1965 Minnesota Twins season") and [White Sox](/wiki/1965_Chicago_White_Sox_season "1965 Chicago White Sox season") finish first and second in the American League Standings, with the Twins winning the pennant by seven games. Both teams were placed in the [AL West](/wiki/AL_West "AL West") following the {{mlby\|1969}} realignment, but inconsistent play from both teams throughout the 1970s and 1980s prevented a rivalry from developing. Both teams found limited success in the early 1990s, with the [Twins](/wiki/1991_Minnesota_Twins_season "1991 Minnesota Twins season") winning the AL West in {{mlby\|1991}} by eight games over the second place [White Sox](/wiki/1991_Chicago_White_Sox_season "1991 Chicago White Sox season") on their way to a second [World Series](/wiki/1991_World_Series "1991 World Series") title in five years, and the [White Sox](/wiki/1993_Chicago_White_Sox_season "1993 Chicago White Sox season") winning the division in 1993\. In {{mlby\|1994}}, both teams were placed in the newly formed [AL Central](/wiki/AL_Central "AL Central") but both teams declined throughout the remainder of the decade. ### 2000s The rivalry took shape in the 2000s as both teams consistently competed for the AL Central title. The Twins won three consecutive division titles from 2002–2004, with the Sox coming in second place each year. The {{mlby\|2003}} season proved to be the closest, as [Minnesota](/wiki/2003_Minnesota_Twins_season "2003 Minnesota Twins season") would win the division by four games after trailing [Chicago](/wiki/2003_Chicago_White_Sox_season "2003 Chicago White Sox season") by {{frac\|7\|1\|2}} games at the All\-Star Break. From September 16–18, 2003, Minnesota completed a pivotal three\-game sweep of Chicago, holding the White Sox to a combined seven runs and extending its division lead from a half\-game to {{frac\|3\|1\|2}} games.{{cite web \|title\=Jones delivers two big blasts \|work\=ESPN \|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\_/gameId/230918109 \|accessdate\=April 19, 2022}}{{dead link\|date\=July 2024\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} After the {{mlby\|2005}} [White Sox](/wiki/2005_Chicago_White_Sox_season "2005 Chicago White Sox season") dominated the AL Central en route to their [World Series](/wiki/2005_World_Series "2005 World Series") title, the [Twins](/wiki/2006_Minnesota_Twins_season "2006 Minnesota Twins season") retook the division in {{mlby\|2006}}, finishing one game ahead of the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/2006_Detroit_Tigers_season "2006 Detroit Tigers season") and just six ahead of the third\-place [White Sox](/wiki/2006_Chicago_White_Sox_season "2006 Chicago White Sox season"). The 2006 season was noted for White Sox manager [Ozzie Guillen](/wiki/Ozzie_Guillen "Ozzie Guillen") referring to the Twins players as "little [piranhas](/wiki/Piranha "Piranha")".{{cite web \|author\=Koenig, Zach \|date\=March 3, 2021 \|title\=The Beginning of the Twins \- White Sox Rivalry \|work\=SB Nation \|url\=https://www.twinkietown.com/2021/3/3/22304299/mlb\-minnesota\-chicago\-white\-sox\-the\-beginning\-of\-the\-rivalry\-history\-nostalgia \|accessdate\=April 19, 2022}} In {{mlby\|2008}}, The [White Sox](/wiki/2008_Chicago_White_Sox_season "2008 Chicago White Sox season") led the AL Central for most of the season.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/teams/CHW/2008\-schedule\-scores.shtml\|title\=2008 Chicago White Sox Schedule, Box Scores, and Splits\|publisher\=Sports Reference LLC\|work\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference]]\|access\-date\=May 2, 2010\|archive\-date\=March 31, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331165849/https://www.baseball\-reference.com/teams/CHW/2008\-schedule\-scores.shtml\|url\-status\=live}} The [Twins](/wiki/2008_Minnesota_Twins_season "2008 Minnesota Twins season") spent much of the season in second place behind the White Sox.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/teams/MIN/2008\-schedule\-scores.shtml\|title\=2008 Minnesota Twins Schedule, Box Scores, and Splits\|publisher\=Sports Reference LLC\|work\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference]]\|access\-date\=May 2, 2010\|archive\-date\=November 1, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101022812/https://www.baseball\-reference.com/teams/MIN/2008\-schedule\-scores.shtml\|url\-status\=live}} In the penultimate series of the season from September 23–25, the Twins swept the White Sox to take a half\-game lead.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap?gameId\=280925109\|title\=Casilla's 10th\-inning single gives Twins sweep of ChiSox\|date\=September 25, 2008\|access\-date\=April 11, 2020\|work\=\[\[ESPN]].com\|publisher\=\[\[Associated Press]]\|archive\-date\=May 2, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502110958/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap?gameId\=280925109\|url\-status\=dead}} Both the Twins and White Sox lost two of three in their final series, forcing Chicago to play a make\-up against the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/2008_Detroit_Tigers_season "2008 Detroit Tigers season"), which had been rained out earlier in September.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap?gameId\=280929104\|title\=Ramirez's grand slam paves way as White Sox force tiebreaker with Twins\|date\=September 29, 2008\|access\-date\=April 11, 2020\|work\=\[\[ESPN]].com\|publisher\=\[\[Associated Press]]\|archive\-date\=December 2, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202112510/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap?gameId\=280929104\|url\-status\=dead}} The White Sox won this game, leaving the Sox and Twins tied atop the AL Central at 88–74, forcing a [tie\-breaker game](/wiki/2008_American_League_Central_tie-breaker_game "2008 American League Central tie-breaker game") to decide the division champion.{{cite web\|url\=http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/news/press\_releases/press\_release.jsp?ymd\=20080929\&content\_id\=3573972\&vkey\=pr\_cws\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=cws\|title\=White Sox tiebreaker game sold out\|work\=MLB.com\|date\=September 29, 2008\|access\-date\=May 3, 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310071138/http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/news/press\_releases/press\_release.jsp?ymd\=20080929\&content\_id\=3573972\&vkey\=pr\_cws\&fext\=.jsp\&c\_id\=cws\|archive\-date\=March 10, 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=mdy\-all}} Chicago won the coin toss for home field advantage for the tiebreaker based on the rules at the time; White Sox fans were encouraged to wear black, leading to this game being called the "Blackout Game."{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/05/sports/ncaafootball/05blackout.html\|title\=When Spotlight Is On, the Clothes Turn Black\|last\=Branch\|first\=John\|date\=October 4, 2008\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|access\-date\=May 3, 2010\|archive\-date\=December 13, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213054400/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/05/sports/ncaafootball/05blackout.html\|url\-status\=live}} The White Sox won the game, 1–0, on the strength of a [Jim Thome](/wiki/Jim_Thome "Jim Thome") home run in the 7th inning. Chicago [starting pitcher](/wiki/Starting_pitcher "Starting pitcher") [John Danks](/wiki/John_Danks "John Danks"), pitching on three days rest, pitched eight shutout innings and [closer](/wiki/Closer_%28baseball%29 "Closer (baseball)") [Bobby Jenks](/wiki/Bobby_Jenks "Bobby Jenks") pitched the 9th to earn the save. {{cite web\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/boxes/CHA/CHA200809300\.shtml\|title\=September 30, 2008 Minnesota Twins at Chicago White Sox Box Score and Play by Play\|work\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference]]\|publisher\=Sports Reference LLC\|access\-date\=May 2, 2010\|archive\-date\=October 1, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001102139/https://www.baseball\-reference.com/boxes/CHA/CHA200809300\.shtml\|url\-status\=live}} ### 2010s The {{mlby\|2010}} season saw the [Twins](/wiki/2010_Minnesota_Twins_season "2010 Minnesota Twins season") come back from down {{frac\|5\|1\|2}} games behind the [White Sox](/wiki/2010_Chicago_White_Sox_season "2010 Chicago White Sox season") in mid\-July to win the division by 6 games; The Twins won 10 of 12 head\-to\-head meetings over the White Sox late in the season. On May 3, 2011, [Twins](/wiki/2011_Minnesota_Twins_season "2011 Minnesota Twins season") pitcher [Francisco Liriano](/wiki/Francisco_Liriano "Francisco Liriano") threw a [no\-hitter](/wiki/No-hitter "No-hitter") in a 1–0 win over the [White Sox](/wiki/2011_Chicago_White_Sox_season "2011 Chicago White Sox season"), the only no\-hitter in the series between the two teams.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/mlb/story/?id\=364537 \|title\=Twins' Liriano throws no\-hitter in victory over White Sox \|publisher\=Tsn.ca \|date\=May 4, 2011 \|access\-date\=September 20, 2011}} The next season, Liriano was traded to the [White Sox](/wiki/2012_Chicago_White_Sox_season "2012 Chicago White Sox season") in exchange for [Eduardo Escobar](/wiki/Eduardo_Escobar "Eduardo Escobar") and [Pedro Hernández](/wiki/Pedro_Hern%C3%A1ndez_%28pitcher%29 "Pedro Hernández (pitcher)").{{cite web \|url\=http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20120728\&content\_id\=35749736\&vkey\=news\_cws\&c\_id\=cws \|title\=White Sox Acquire Francisco Liriano \|publisher\=Chicago.whitesox.mlb.com \|access\-date\=April 2, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616071124/http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20120728\&content\_id\=35749736\&vkey\=news\_cws\&c\_id\=cws \|archive\-date\=June 16, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=mdy\-all }} As Liriano struggled with the command of his pitches, the White Sox removed him from the rotation in September.{{cite web\|url\=http://triblive.com/sports/pirates/4558985\-74/liriano\-fastball\-command\#axzz2cYTq23sd\|title\=Fastball command sparks Liriano comeback\|first\=Travis\|last\=Sawchik\|website\=TribLIVE.com\|access\-date\=July 31, 2017}} The rivalry cooled off throughout the 2010s as neither team found consistent success. Minnesota would make playoff appearances in {{mlby\|2017}} and {{mlby\|2019}}, while the White Sox failed to make the playoffs throughout the decade. ### 2020s The [Twins](/wiki/2020_Minnesota_Twins_season "2020 Minnesota Twins season") won the AL Central in the [COVID\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19")\-shortened {{mlby\|2020}} season with a record of 36–24, finishing just one game ahead of the [White Sox](/wiki/2020_Chicago_White_Sox_season "2020 Chicago White Sox season") and the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/2020_Cleveland_Indians_season "2020 Cleveland Indians season"). Both the Twins and White Sox made it to the postseason, marking the first time both teams would qualify. However, both lost their respective Wild Card Series. On May 17, 2021, The White Sox were already comfortably ahead the Twins 15–4 in the top of the ninth inning. The Twins position player [Willians Astudillo](/wiki/Willians_Astudillo "Willians Astudillo") pitching. On a 3–0 count, White Sox catcher [Yermín Mercedes](/wiki/Yerm%C3%ADn_Mercedes "Yermín Mercedes") hit a home run off of Astudillo to increase the score to 16–4\. This was criticized by his own manager [Tony La Russa](/wiki/Tony_La_Russa "Tony La Russa") for violating the [unwritten rules of baseball](/wiki/Unwritten_rules_of_baseball "Unwritten rules of baseball").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2021/05/18/tony\-larussa\-white\-sox\-yermin\-mercedes/ \|title\=Unwritten rules alert: Tony La Russa is upset over White Sox player's homer on 3\-0 count \|date\=2021\-05\-19 \|author1\=Des Bieler \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|place\=Washington, D.C. \|issn\=0190\-8286 \|oclc\=1330888409}} The rule said: "do not swing on a 3–0 count when your team is comfortably ahead."{{cite web\|last\=Beattie \|first\=John \|url\=https://nesn.com/2010/04/should\-some\-of\-baseballs\-unwritten\-rules\-be\-written/ \|title\=Should Some of Baseball's 'Unwritten Rules' Be Written? \| Boston Red Sox \|publisher\=NESN.com \|date\=April 24, 2010 \|access\-date\=April 21, 2019}} The next day, Twins pitcher [Tyler Duffey](/wiki/Tyler_Duffey "Tyler Duffey") threw behind Mercedes, possibly in an attempt to hit him. The umpires discussed and then threw Duffey [out of the game](/wiki/Ejection_%28sports%29 "Ejection (sports)") believing it was intentional. Duffey was also suspended for two games.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2021/05/mlb\-suspends\-twins\-tyler\-duffey\-rocco\-baldelli.html\|title\=MLB Suspends Twins Tyler Duffey, Rocco Baldelli}} The White Sox ended up winning the AL Central division finishing with a record of 93–69, while the Twins finished in last with a 73–89 record.
[ "History\n-------", "### 1960s–1990s", "While the series dates back to 1901, the teams became regional rivals after the then\\-[Washington Senators](/wiki/Washington_Senators_%281901%E2%80%931960%29 \"Washington Senators (1901–1960)\") moved to Minnesota and became the Twins in 1961\\. The {{mlby\\|1965}} season saw the [Twins](/wiki/1965_Minnesota_Twins_season \"1965 Minnesota Twins season\") and [White Sox](/wiki/1965_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"1965 Chicago White Sox season\") finish first and second in the American League Standings, with the Twins winning the pennant by seven games. Both teams were placed in the [AL West](/wiki/AL_West \"AL West\") following the {{mlby\\|1969}} realignment, but inconsistent play from both teams throughout the 1970s and 1980s prevented a rivalry from developing.", "Both teams found limited success in the early 1990s, with the [Twins](/wiki/1991_Minnesota_Twins_season \"1991 Minnesota Twins season\") winning the AL West in {{mlby\\|1991}} by eight games over the second place [White Sox](/wiki/1991_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"1991 Chicago White Sox season\") on their way to a second [World Series](/wiki/1991_World_Series \"1991 World Series\") title in five years, and the [White Sox](/wiki/1993_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"1993 Chicago White Sox season\") winning the division in 1993\\. In {{mlby\\|1994}}, both teams were placed in the newly formed [AL Central](/wiki/AL_Central \"AL Central\") but both teams declined throughout the remainder of the decade.", "### 2000s", "The rivalry took shape in the 2000s as both teams consistently competed for the AL Central title. The Twins won three consecutive division titles from 2002–2004, with the Sox coming in second place each year. The {{mlby\\|2003}} season proved to be the closest, as [Minnesota](/wiki/2003_Minnesota_Twins_season \"2003 Minnesota Twins season\") would win the division by four games after trailing [Chicago](/wiki/2003_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"2003 Chicago White Sox season\") by {{frac\\|7\\|1\\|2}} games at the All\\-Star Break. From September 16–18, 2003, Minnesota completed a pivotal three\\-game sweep of Chicago, holding the White Sox to a combined seven runs and extending its division lead from a half\\-game to {{frac\\|3\\|1\\|2}} games.{{cite web \\|title\\=Jones delivers two big blasts \\|work\\=ESPN \\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap/\\_/gameId/230918109 \\|accessdate\\=April 19, 2022}}{{dead link\\|date\\=July 2024\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}", "After the {{mlby\\|2005}} [White Sox](/wiki/2005_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"2005 Chicago White Sox season\") dominated the AL Central en route to their [World Series](/wiki/2005_World_Series \"2005 World Series\") title, the [Twins](/wiki/2006_Minnesota_Twins_season \"2006 Minnesota Twins season\") retook the division in {{mlby\\|2006}}, finishing one game ahead of the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/2006_Detroit_Tigers_season \"2006 Detroit Tigers season\") and just six ahead of the third\\-place [White Sox](/wiki/2006_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"2006 Chicago White Sox season\"). The 2006 season was noted for White Sox manager [Ozzie Guillen](/wiki/Ozzie_Guillen \"Ozzie Guillen\") referring to the Twins players as \"little [piranhas](/wiki/Piranha \"Piranha\")\".{{cite web \\|author\\=Koenig, Zach \\|date\\=March 3, 2021 \\|title\\=The Beginning of the Twins \\- White Sox Rivalry \\|work\\=SB Nation \\|url\\=https://www.twinkietown.com/2021/3/3/22304299/mlb\\-minnesota\\-chicago\\-white\\-sox\\-the\\-beginning\\-of\\-the\\-rivalry\\-history\\-nostalgia \\|accessdate\\=April 19, 2022}}", "In {{mlby\\|2008}}, The [White Sox](/wiki/2008_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"2008 Chicago White Sox season\") led the AL Central for most of the season.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/teams/CHW/2008\\-schedule\\-scores.shtml\\|title\\=2008 Chicago White Sox Schedule, Box Scores, and Splits\\|publisher\\=Sports Reference LLC\\|work\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=March 31, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331165849/https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/teams/CHW/2008\\-schedule\\-scores.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The [Twins](/wiki/2008_Minnesota_Twins_season \"2008 Minnesota Twins season\") spent much of the season in second place behind the White Sox.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/teams/MIN/2008\\-schedule\\-scores.shtml\\|title\\=2008 Minnesota Twins Schedule, Box Scores, and Splits\\|publisher\\=Sports Reference LLC\\|work\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=November 1, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101022812/https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/teams/MIN/2008\\-schedule\\-scores.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In the penultimate series of the season from September 23–25, the Twins swept the White Sox to take a half\\-game lead.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap?gameId\\=280925109\\|title\\=Casilla's 10th\\-inning single gives Twins sweep of ChiSox\\|date\\=September 25, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN]].com\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]\\|archive\\-date\\=May 2, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502110958/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap?gameId\\=280925109\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Both the Twins and White Sox lost two of three in their final series, forcing Chicago to play a make\\-up against the [Detroit Tigers](/wiki/2008_Detroit_Tigers_season \"2008 Detroit Tigers season\"), which had been rained out earlier in September.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap?gameId\\=280929104\\|title\\=Ramirez's grand slam paves way as White Sox force tiebreaker with Twins\\|date\\=September 29, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2020\\|work\\=\\[\\[ESPN]].com\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]]\\|archive\\-date\\=December 2, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202112510/https://www.espn.com/mlb/recap?gameId\\=280929104\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The White Sox won this game, leaving the Sox and Twins tied atop the AL Central at 88–74, forcing a [tie\\-breaker game](/wiki/2008_American_League_Central_tie-breaker_game \"2008 American League Central tie-breaker game\") to decide the division champion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/news/press\\_releases/press\\_release.jsp?ymd\\=20080929\\&content\\_id\\=3573972\\&vkey\\=pr\\_cws\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=cws\\|title\\=White Sox tiebreaker game sold out\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|date\\=September 29, 2008\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310071138/http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/news/press\\_releases/press\\_release.jsp?ymd\\=20080929\\&content\\_id\\=3573972\\&vkey\\=pr\\_cws\\&fext\\=.jsp\\&c\\_id\\=cws\\|archive\\-date\\=March 10, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}", "Chicago won the coin toss for home field advantage for the tiebreaker based on the rules at the time; White Sox fans were encouraged to wear black, leading to this game being called the \"Blackout Game.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/05/sports/ncaafootball/05blackout.html\\|title\\=When Spotlight Is On, the Clothes Turn Black\\|last\\=Branch\\|first\\=John\\|date\\=October 4, 2008\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=May 3, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=December 13, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213054400/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/05/sports/ncaafootball/05blackout.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The White Sox won the game, 1–0, on the strength of a [Jim Thome](/wiki/Jim_Thome \"Jim Thome\") home run in the 7th inning. Chicago [starting pitcher](/wiki/Starting_pitcher \"Starting pitcher\") [John Danks](/wiki/John_Danks \"John Danks\"), pitching on three days rest, pitched eight shutout innings and [closer](/wiki/Closer_%28baseball%29 \"Closer (baseball)\") [Bobby Jenks](/wiki/Bobby_Jenks \"Bobby Jenks\") pitched the 9th to earn the save.\n{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/boxes/CHA/CHA200809300\\.shtml\\|title\\=September 30, 2008 Minnesota Twins at Chicago White Sox Box Score and Play by Play\\|work\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference]]\\|publisher\\=Sports Reference LLC\\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=October 1, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001102139/https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/boxes/CHA/CHA200809300\\.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### 2010s", "The {{mlby\\|2010}} season saw the [Twins](/wiki/2010_Minnesota_Twins_season \"2010 Minnesota Twins season\") come back from down {{frac\\|5\\|1\\|2}} games behind the [White Sox](/wiki/2010_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"2010 Chicago White Sox season\") in mid\\-July to win the division by 6 games; The Twins won 10 of 12 head\\-to\\-head meetings over the White Sox late in the season.", "On May 3, 2011, [Twins](/wiki/2011_Minnesota_Twins_season \"2011 Minnesota Twins season\") pitcher [Francisco Liriano](/wiki/Francisco_Liriano \"Francisco Liriano\") threw a [no\\-hitter](/wiki/No-hitter \"No-hitter\") in a 1–0 win over the [White Sox](/wiki/2011_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"2011 Chicago White Sox season\"), the only no\\-hitter in the series between the two teams.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/mlb/story/?id\\=364537 \\|title\\=Twins' Liriano throws no\\-hitter in victory over White Sox \\|publisher\\=Tsn.ca \\|date\\=May 4, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=September 20, 2011}} The next season, Liriano was traded to the [White Sox](/wiki/2012_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"2012 Chicago White Sox season\") in exchange for [Eduardo Escobar](/wiki/Eduardo_Escobar \"Eduardo Escobar\") and [Pedro Hernández](/wiki/Pedro_Hern%C3%A1ndez_%28pitcher%29 \"Pedro Hernández (pitcher)\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20120728\\&content\\_id\\=35749736\\&vkey\\=news\\_cws\\&c\\_id\\=cws \\|title\\=White Sox Acquire Francisco Liriano \\|publisher\\=Chicago.whitesox.mlb.com \\|access\\-date\\=April 2, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616071124/http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20120728\\&content\\_id\\=35749736\\&vkey\\=news\\_cws\\&c\\_id\\=cws \\|archive\\-date\\=June 16, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=mdy\\-all }} As Liriano struggled with the command of his pitches, the White Sox removed him from the rotation in September.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://triblive.com/sports/pirates/4558985\\-74/liriano\\-fastball\\-command\\#axzz2cYTq23sd\\|title\\=Fastball command sparks Liriano comeback\\|first\\=Travis\\|last\\=Sawchik\\|website\\=TribLIVE.com\\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2017}}", "The rivalry cooled off throughout the 2010s as neither team found consistent success. Minnesota would make playoff appearances in {{mlby\\|2017}} and {{mlby\\|2019}}, while the White Sox failed to make the playoffs throughout the decade.", "### 2020s", "The [Twins](/wiki/2020_Minnesota_Twins_season \"2020 Minnesota Twins season\") won the AL Central in the [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\")\\-shortened {{mlby\\|2020}} season with a record of 36–24, finishing just one game ahead of the [White Sox](/wiki/2020_Chicago_White_Sox_season \"2020 Chicago White Sox season\") and the [Cleveland Indians](/wiki/2020_Cleveland_Indians_season \"2020 Cleveland Indians season\"). Both the Twins and White Sox made it to the postseason, marking the first time both teams would qualify. However, both lost their respective Wild Card Series.", "On May 17, 2021, The White Sox were already comfortably ahead the Twins 15–4 in the top of the ninth inning. The Twins position player [Willians Astudillo](/wiki/Willians_Astudillo \"Willians Astudillo\") pitching. On a 3–0 count, White Sox catcher [Yermín Mercedes](/wiki/Yerm%C3%ADn_Mercedes \"Yermín Mercedes\") hit a home run off of Astudillo to increase the score to 16–4\\. This was criticized by his own manager [Tony La Russa](/wiki/Tony_La_Russa \"Tony La Russa\") for violating the [unwritten rules of baseball](/wiki/Unwritten_rules_of_baseball \"Unwritten rules of baseball\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2021/05/18/tony\\-larussa\\-white\\-sox\\-yermin\\-mercedes/ \\|title\\=Unwritten rules alert: Tony La Russa is upset over White Sox player's homer on 3\\-0 count \\|date\\=2021\\-05\\-19 \\|author1\\=Des Bieler \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|place\\=Washington, D.C. \\|issn\\=0190\\-8286 \\|oclc\\=1330888409}} The rule said: \"do not swing on a 3–0 count when your team is comfortably ahead.\"{{cite web\\|last\\=Beattie \\|first\\=John \\|url\\=https://nesn.com/2010/04/should\\-some\\-of\\-baseballs\\-unwritten\\-rules\\-be\\-written/ \\|title\\=Should Some of Baseball's 'Unwritten Rules' Be Written? \\| Boston Red Sox \\|publisher\\=NESN.com \\|date\\=April 24, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=April 21, 2019}} The next day, Twins pitcher [Tyler Duffey](/wiki/Tyler_Duffey \"Tyler Duffey\") threw behind Mercedes, possibly in an attempt to hit him. The umpires discussed and then threw Duffey [out of the game](/wiki/Ejection_%28sports%29 \"Ejection (sports)\") believing it was intentional. Duffey was also suspended for two games.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mlbtraderumors.com/2021/05/mlb\\-suspends\\-twins\\-tyler\\-duffey\\-rocco\\-baldelli.html\\|title\\=MLB Suspends Twins Tyler Duffey, Rocco Baldelli}} The White Sox ended up winning the AL Central division finishing with a record of 93–69, while the Twins finished in last with a 73–89 record.", "" ]