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History ------- ### Early history [thumb\|Interior of Terminal 2 in the 1960s with a view of Paul Coze's mural *The Phoenix*](/wiki/File:THE_PHOENIX_1.jpg "THE PHOENIX 1.jpg") [thumb\|Sky Harbor's Control Tower with [downtown Phoenix](/wiki/Downtown_Phoenix "Downtown Phoenix") in the distance](/wiki/File:PHX_tower_with_downtown.JPG "PHX tower with downtown.JPG") [thumb\|American Airlines aircraft at Terminal 4](/wiki/File:American_Airlines_aircraft_at_PHX_%28N657AW%2C_N837AW%2C_N604AW%2C_N845NN%29_-_Quintin_Soloviev.jpg "American Airlines aircraft at PHX (N657AW, N837AW, N604AW, N845NN) - Quintin Soloviev.jpg") Sky Harbor Airport's evocative name was conceived by J. Parker Van Zandt, the owner of [Scenic Airways](/wiki/Scenic_Airways "Scenic Airways"), who purchased 278 acres of farmland for Scenic's winter operations in November 1928\. Sky Harbor was not only named but founded and built by Van Zandt in late 1928\. He immediately commenced building a 100 x 120 foot airplane hangar and through early 1929 built one runway. This was the fourth airport built in [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona "Phoenix, Arizona"). Scenic Airways, lacking funds after the infamous [Stock Market Crash of 1929](/wiki/Stock_Market_Crash_of_1929 "Stock Market Crash of 1929"),{{cite news \|title\=Arizona 101: Sky Harbor Airport \|first\=Clay \|last\=Thompson \|url\=https://www.azcentral.com/story/travel/local/history/2014/03/24/arizona\-sky\-harbor\-airport/6736091/\|newspaper\= \[\[The Arizona Republic]] \|date\= March 24, 2014 \|access\-date\=April 20, 2018}}{{cite news \|title\=Valley 101: A Slightly Skewed Guide to Living in Arizona \|first\=Clay \|last\=Thompson \|url\=http://arizonaoddities.com/2010/06/how\-did\-sky\-harbor\-international\-airport\-get\-its\-name/ \|newspaper\=\[\[The Arizona Republic]] \|date\=January 14, 2001 \|access\-date\=July 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716051628/http://arizonaoddities.com/2010/06/how\-did\-sky\-harbor\-international\-airport\-get\-its\-name/ \|archive\-date\=July 16, 2012 \|url\-status\=live }} sold the airport to Acme Investment Company, which owned the airport until 1935, when the city of Phoenix purchased Sky Harbor airport from Acme for $100,000\. ### Historical airline service On February 23, 1929, [Maddux Air Lines](/wiki/Maddux_Air_Lines "Maddux Air Lines") began the airport's first scheduled passenger service with a route between [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") and [El Paso](/wiki/El_Paso "El Paso") stopping in Phoenix, Los Angeles, and several other cities; however the service was short\-lived, ending by autumn 1929\. [Standard Air Lines](/wiki/Standard_Air_Lines "Standard Air Lines") had been serving Phoenix since late 1927 at a different airport and began landing at Sky Harbor on August 5, 1929\. Standard operated a route between [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") and El Paso stopping at Phoenix, [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson "Tucson"), and [Douglas, Arizona](/wiki/Douglas%2C_Arizona "Douglas, Arizona"). Standard was acquired by American Airways in 1930 which later became [American Airlines](/wiki/American_Airlines "American Airlines"). American extended the route eastward to New York by way of [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas "Dallas"), [Nashville](/wiki/Nashville "Nashville"), and many other cities making for a southern transcontinental route across the United States.{{cite web \|title\=American Airlines and Tucson celebrate 90 years together \|first\=Jessie \|last\=Butler \|url\=https://www.flytucson.com/articles/american\-airlines\-tucson\-celebrate\-90\-years\-together/ \|website\=Tucson Airport Authority \|date\=May 27, 2018 \|access\-date\=May 27, 2020 \|archive\-date\=September 27, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927045146/https://www.flytucson.com/articles/american\-airlines\-tucson\-celebrate\-90\-years\-together/ \|url\-status\=live }} [TWA](/wiki/TWA "TWA") began service to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco_International_Airport "San Francisco International Airport") in 1938 and added Phoenix onto its transcontinental network by 1944 with flights to Los Angeles and eastward to [New York](/wiki/Idlewild_Airport "Idlewild Airport") stopping at [Albuquerque](/wiki/Albuquerque "Albuquerque"), [Kansas City](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri "Kansas City, Missouri"), and many more cities. [Arizona Airways](/wiki/Arizona_Airways "Arizona Airways") began intrastate service within Arizona in 1946 and merged into [Frontier Airlines](/wiki/Frontier_Airlines_%281950-1986%29 "Frontier Airlines (1950-1986)") in 1950 which added new routes to [Denver](/wiki/Denver "Denver"), Albuquerque, and El Paso. [Bonanza Airlines](/wiki/Bonanza_Airlines "Bonanza Airlines") began service by 1951 with a route to [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas "Las Vegas") and [Reno](/wiki/Reno "Reno") making several stops at smaller communities. New routes to [Salt Lake City](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City "Salt Lake City") and [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California "Southern California") were added in the 1960s along with nonstop flights to Las Vegas and Reno aboard [Douglas DC\-9](/wiki/Douglas_DC-9 "Douglas DC-9") jets by 1965\. Bonanza merged with two other carriers to become Air West in 1968 and was changed to [Hughes Airwest](/wiki/Hughes_Airwest "Hughes Airwest") in 1970 adding several new routes, including service to Mexico, creating a hub at Phoenix. Hughes Airwest was then merged into [Republic Airlines](/wiki/Republic_Airlines "Republic Airlines") in 1980 which continued the Phoenix hub operation until the mid\-1980s. [Western Airlines](/wiki/Western_Airlines "Western Airlines") came to Sky Harbor in 1957 with flights to Denver, Los Angeles and [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"), [Continental Airlines](/wiki/Continental_Airlines "Continental Airlines") came in 1961 to El Paso, Los Angeles, and Tucson, and [Delta Air Lines](/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines "Delta Air Lines") began flights to Dallas by 1969\.{{cite web \|title\=1935 and The Farm – Sky Harbor's Early Years and Memories \|url\=https://www.skyharbor.com/About/Information/History/75Years/TheEarlyYears \|website\=Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport \|date\=August 30, 2010 \|access\-date\=December 30, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627205926/http://skyharbor.com/about/earlyYears.html \|archive\-date\=June 27, 2014 \|url\-status\=live }} [Bonanza Air Lines](/wiki/Bonanza_Air_Lines "Bonanza Air Lines") moved its headquarters from Las Vegas to Phoenix in 1966\. Bonanza merged with two other airlines to form Air West, which became [Hughes Airwest](/wiki/Hughes_Airwest "Hughes Airwest") after [Howard Hughes](/wiki/Howard_Hughes "Howard Hughes") bought it in 1970\.{{cite web \|title\=US Airways: A Heritage Story \|first\=William \|last\=Lehman \|url\=http://www.usairways.com/en\-US/aboutus/pressroom/history/americawest.html \|work\=US Airways \|access\-date\=July 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220160932/http://www.usairways.com/en\-US/aboutus/pressroom/history/americawest.html \|archive\-date\=February 20, 2012 \|url\-status\=live }} After the [Airline Deregulation Act](/wiki/Airline_Deregulation_Act "Airline Deregulation Act") was signed in 1978, many new airlines began service to Sky Harbor. In 1978, former Hughes Airwest executive Ed Beauvais formed a plan for a new airline based in Phoenix. He founded [America West Airlines](/wiki/America_West_Airlines "America West Airlines") in 1981, which began service from Phoenix in 1983 and doubled in size during its first year.[Eastern Airlines](/wiki/Eastern_Airlines "Eastern Airlines") and [Allegheny Airlines](/wiki/Allegheny_Airlines "Allegheny Airlines") soon began service in 1979 followed by [United Airlines](/wiki/United_Airlines "United Airlines") in 1980\. Allegheny changed its name to [USAir](/wiki/USAir "USAir") shortly after beginning service in 1979\. [Southwest Airlines](/wiki/Southwest_Airlines "Southwest Airlines") arrived at Phoenix in January 1982 with 13 daily flights to 12 cities; by 1986 it had 64 daily flights from Phoenix and had a crew base there. Southwest opened a maintenance facility at PHX in 1992, which was its largest.{{cite web \|title\=Openings/Closings \|url\=http://www.swamedia.com/channels/By\-Category/pages/openings\-closings \|work\=Southwest Airlines \|access\-date\=July 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906004130/http://www.swamedia.com/channels/By\-Category/pages/openings\-closings \|archive\-date\=September 6, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead }} America West filed for [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](/wiki/Chapter_11_bankruptcy "Chapter 11 bankruptcy") protection in 1991 and sold its larger aircraft and Japanese route authority, but continued growing its domestic operations from Terminal 4 in cooperation with [Continental Airlines](/wiki/Continental_Airlines "Continental Airlines"). Although AWA enjoyed further growth at Phoenix during the 1990s the aftermath of the [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks "September 11, 2001 attacks") strained its financial position. AWA ended its relationship with Continental and merged with [US Airways](/wiki/US_Airways "US Airways") in 2005\. US Airways moved its headquarters to the AWA campus in Tempe and retained many AWA managers to run the merged company. US Airways was then merged into [American Airlines](/wiki/American_Airlines "American Airlines") in 2015 which continues to build upon the largest hub operation at Phoenix Sky Harbor. Sky Harbor landed its first transatlantic flights in 1996 when [British Airways](/wiki/British_Airways "British Airways") inaugurated nonstop service to London. The flight was first operated with a [Douglas DC\-10](/wiki/Douglas_DC-10 "Douglas DC-10") aircraft but soon upgraded to a [Boeing 747\-400](/wiki/Boeing_747-400 "Boeing 747-400").American Express Skyguide editions from 1996 ### Facilities expansions and growth After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), the airport began work on a new passenger terminal, as well as a new parallel runway and a diagonal runway.{{cite web \|title\=Phoenix Sky Harbor – City of Tempe History \|url\=http://www.tempe.gov/aircraftnoise/History.htm \|work\=\[\[City of Tempe]] \|access\-date\=July 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914155141/http://www.tempe.gov/aircraftnoise/History.htm \|archive\-date\=September 14, 2010}} On the February 1953 C\&GS diagram runways 8L and 8R are each {{convert\|6000\|ft}} long and runway 3 is {{convert\|5500\|ft}}. The $835,000 Terminal 1 (originally called the West Wing), which also had the first [control tower](/wiki/Control_tower "Control tower"), opened in October 1952\. The airport's master plan was redesigned in 1959 to eliminate the cross runway to make room for new terminals. American and TWA began jet service to Phoenix in 1960 and 1961 respectively, and Terminal 2 (originally called the East Wing) opened in 1962\.{{cite web \|title\=Sky Harbor and the Beginning of the Modern Era \|url\=http://skyharbor.com/about/modernera.html \|website\=Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport \|date\=September 7, 2010 \|access\-date\=July 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319054738/http://skyharbor.com/about/modernera.html \|archive\-date\=March 19, 2012 \|url\-status\=live }} Terminal 2 was designed by the Phoenix architectural firms of Weaver \& Drover and [Lescher \& Mahoney](/wiki/Lescher_%26_Mahoney "Lescher & Mahoney") and opened in 1962\.{{cite web\|title\=Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport – Phoenix, Arizona\|url\=http://www.dwlarchitects.com/projects/phoenix\-sky\-harbor\-intl\-airport/\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207224730/http://www.dwlarchitects.com/projects/phoenix\-sky\-harbor\-intl\-airport/\|archive\-date\=December 7, 2015\|access\-date\=September 3, 2015\|website\=DWL Architects \+ Planners, Inc}} Terminal 2 also featured a {{convert\|16\|ft\|adj\=on}} high and {{convert\|75\|ft\|adj\=on}} wide mural composed of 52 different materials, including mosaic glass, gemstones, shells, and vintage toys. *The Phoenix*, designed by the late French\-American artist and full\-time resident of Phoenix [Paul Coze](/wiki/Paul_Coze "Paul Coze"), was commissioned in 1960 as Phoenix's first work of public art and was installed in 1962 in the main lobby area of the terminal. *The Phoenix* was relocated to the Rental Car Center in 2021 following the decommisioning and demolition of Terminal 2\.{{cite news\|last\=Trimble\|first\=Lynn\|date\=December 13, 2019\|title\=The Phoenix Mural at Sky Harbor Airport is Moving in 2021 — Here's What We Know So Far\|newspaper\=Phoenix New Times\|url\=https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/arts/paul\-coze\-mural\-is\-moving\-to\-the\-airport\-rental\-car\-center\-11407181\|access\-date\=May 27, 2020\|archive\-date\=June 6, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606055734/https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/arts/paul\-coze\-mural\-is\-moving\-to\-the\-airport\-rental\-car\-center\-11407181\|url\-status\=live}} In November 2006, a Military and Veterans Hospitality Room, sponsored by the Phoenix Military and Veterans Commission, was opened in Terminal 2\. It has since relocated to Terminal 4 as the new [USO](/wiki/USO "USO") club. This terminal underwent two renovation projects. The first was completed in 1988\.{{cite report\|url\=http://azdot.gov/legacyapplications/airports/mp.asp?FAA\=PHX\|title\=Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport Master Plan Update\|author\=Howard Needles Tammen \& Bergendoff\|date\=September 1989\|publisher\=City of Phoenix Aviation Department\|access\-date\=September 3, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208023623/http://azdot.gov/legacyapplications/airports/mp.asp?FAA\=PHX\|format\=PDF\|chapter\=Passenger Terminal Facility Requirements\|chapter\-url\=https://apps.azdot.gov/files/Airports/MP\_PDF/PHX\_MP\_06\.pdf\|archive\-date\=December 8, 2015\|url\-status\=dead}} The second project, which cost $24 million and was designed by DWL Architects \+ Planners, Inc., was completed in 2007\. Construction on Terminal 3 began in January 1977\. Designed by DWL Architects \+ Planners, Inc., Terminal 3 opened in October 1979, and the "East" and "West" names were dropped since there were no longer only two terminals. In October 1989, ground was broken for Terminal 4, the largest terminal.{{cite web \|title\=The 80's: A Time of Change \|url\=http://skyharbor.com/about/timeofchange.html \|website\=Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport \|date\=September 13, 2010 \|access\-date\=July 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221152915/http://skyharbor.com/about/timeofchange.html \|archive\-date\=December 21, 2010 \|url\-status\=live }} It opened on November 2, 1990,{{cite news \|title\=Name on Airport Terminal Has Goldwater Flying High \|url\=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1990/11/04/name\-on\-airport\-terminal\-has\-goldwater\-flying\-high/ \|newspaper\=\[\[Orlando Sentinel]] \|date\=November 4, 1990 \|access\-date\=July 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522122956/http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1990\-11\-04/news/9011040319\_1\_goldwater\-terminal\-harbor\-international\-airport \|archive\-date\=May 22, 2014 \|url\-status\=live }} with four concourses: N2 and N3 on the north side and S3 and S4 on the south side. In 1994 the N4 International Concourse was opened, adding 10 gates and a sterile walkway to the S4 concourse. In 1997 construction began on the 14\-gate N1 concourse for America West Airlines. It was completed in June 1998 at a cost of $50 million,{{cite web \|title\=Terminal 4 Expansion Projects Concourse N1, N4 \& S2 \|url\=http://www.landrum\-brown.com/assets/Profiles/Terminal%20Planning.pdf \|work\=Landrum \& Brown \|page\=5 \|access\-date\=July 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304125718/http://www.landrum\-brown.com/assets/Profiles/Terminal%20Planning.pdf \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2009}} completing the expansion of the north side of the terminal. On the south side of the terminal, construction began in 2002 on the eight\-gate S2 concourse for Southwest Airlines. This project was completed in 2004 and has a different architectural design from the other six concourses. The eighth and final concourse for Terminal 4 began construction in May 2019\. Terminal 4 is named after former Arizona [Senator](/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate") and 1964 [Presidential](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") candidate [Barry M. Goldwater](/wiki/Barry_M._Goldwater "Barry M. Goldwater"). After Goldwater's death in 1998, the then\-mayor of Phoenix, [Skip Rimsza](/wiki/Skip_Rimsza "Skip Rimsza"), proposed renaming the airport in Goldwater's memory but was deluged with public support for the familiar "Sky Harbor" name.{{cite news \|title\=Political Briefing; A Sky\-High Tribute Grounded by Fallout \|first\=B. Drummond Jr. \|last\=Ayres \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/07/13/us/political\-briefing\-a\-sky\-high\-tribute\-grounded\-by\-fallout.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=July 13, 1998 \|access\-date\=July 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140523015904/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/07/13/us/political\-briefing\-a\-sky\-high\-tribute\-grounded\-by\-fallout.html \|archive\-date\=May 23, 2014 \|url\-status\=live }} Terminal 4, designed by DWL Architects \+ Planners, Inc., is the largest and busiest of the two terminals with 86 gates, divided into seven satellite concourses connected behind security. In 2007, the [Transportation Security Administration](/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration "Transportation Security Administration") introduced the first of its [backscatter X\-ray](/wiki/Backscatter_X-ray "Backscatter X-ray") machines at PHX.{{cite news \|title\=New Airport X\-Rays Scan Bodies, Not Just Bags \|first1\=Paul \|last1\=Giblin \|first2\=Eric \|last2\=Lipton \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/24/us/24scan.html \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|date\=February 24, 2007 \|access\-date\=July 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216155448/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/24/us/24scan.html \|archive\-date\=February 16, 2012 \|url\-status\=live }} ### Recent developments In February 2020, Terminal 2 accepted its final flight and was then decommissioned. Demolition occurred in early 2021 with the terminal being replaced by concrete stands for aircraft, accessible by bus from other terminals.{{Cite web \|title\=Sky Harbor's Terminal 2 is closed. What happens next? Here's what we know \|url\=https://www.azcentral.com/story/travel/airlines/2020/02/06/phoenix\-airport\-sky\-harbor\-terminal\-2\-is\-closed\-whats\-next\-demolition\-parking\-bus\-gates/4670749002/ \|access\-date\=July 30, 2023 \|website\=The Arizona Republic \|language\=en\-US}} Airlines previously using Terminal 2 were relocated to Terminal 3, which had completed renovations in January 2020\.{{Cite web \|title\=Phoenix Sky Harbor Airport Terminal 3 Modernisation, Arizona, USA \|url\=https://www.airport\-technology.com/projects/phoenix\-sky\-harbor\-airport\-terminal\-3\-modernisation\-arizona/ \|access\-date\=July 30, 2023 \|website\=Airport Technology \|language\=en\-US}} In January 2021, Terminal 3 was renamed in honor of Senator [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain "John McCain") by the Phoenix City Council.{{cite web \|last1\=Yeager \|first1\=Melissa \|title\=What's new at Phoenix Sky Harbor Airport Terminal 3, the newly renamed John McCain III Terminal \|url\=https://www.azcentral.com/story/travel/airlines/2019/01/04/phoenix\-sky\-harbor\-airport\-terminal\-3\-new\-concourse/2474231002/ \|website\=AZCentral \|access\-date\=April 21, 2023}} In February 2024, the airport announced plans for infrastructure upgrades at its central utility plant in Terminal 4, which will improve air conditioning at the airport. The $36 million project was funded by a FAA Airport Terminal Program grant included in the federal [Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act](/wiki/Infrastructure_Investment_and_Jobs_Act "Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act") that was signed into law by President [Joe Biden](/wiki/Joe_Biden "Joe Biden").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.azcentral.com/story/travel/airlines/2024/02/16/faa\-airport\-improvement\-program\-phoenix\-yuma\-grants/72618999007/ \|title\=These Arizona airports are getting $37M for terminal upgrades. Here's what's coming \|author\=Salerno, Michael \|work\=Arizona Republic \|date\=February 16, 2024 \|access\-date\=May 10, 2024}} On April 29, 2024, Phoenix Mayor [Kate Gallego](/wiki/Kate_Gallego "Kate Gallego") announced that a new terminal would be constructed on the west end of the property near the former location of Terminal 2\. She said that in 2023 the airport welcomed more than 48 million passengers and with continued growth expected the new terminal was needed to accommodate growing demand and handle the increased number of travelers. The terminal would feature a new customs facility and would be designed to have net\-zero [greenhouse gas](/wiki/Greenhouse_gas "Greenhouse gas") emissions, making it an environmentally friendly structure.{{cite web \| url\=https://businesstravelerusa.com/news/phoenix\-sky\-harbor\-to\-build\-new\-terminal/ \| title\=Phoenix's Sky Harbor Airport to Build New Terminal to Meet Growing Demand \| date\=April 30, 2024 }}
[ "History\n-------", "### Early history", "[thumb\\|Interior of Terminal 2 in the 1960s with a view of Paul Coze's mural *The Phoenix*](/wiki/File:THE_PHOENIX_1.jpg \"THE PHOENIX 1.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Sky Harbor's Control Tower with [downtown Phoenix](/wiki/Downtown_Phoenix \"Downtown Phoenix\") in the distance](/wiki/File:PHX_tower_with_downtown.JPG \"PHX tower with downtown.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|American Airlines aircraft at Terminal 4](/wiki/File:American_Airlines_aircraft_at_PHX_%28N657AW%2C_N837AW%2C_N604AW%2C_N845NN%29_-_Quintin_Soloviev.jpg \"American Airlines aircraft at PHX (N657AW, N837AW, N604AW, N845NN) - Quintin Soloviev.jpg\")", "Sky Harbor Airport's evocative name was conceived by J. Parker Van Zandt, the owner of [Scenic Airways](/wiki/Scenic_Airways \"Scenic Airways\"), who purchased 278 acres of farmland for Scenic's winter operations in November 1928\\. Sky Harbor was not only named but founded and built by Van Zandt in late 1928\\. He immediately commenced building a 100 x 120 foot airplane hangar and through early 1929 built one runway. This was the fourth airport built in [Phoenix](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona \"Phoenix, Arizona\"). Scenic Airways, lacking funds after the infamous [Stock Market Crash of 1929](/wiki/Stock_Market_Crash_of_1929 \"Stock Market Crash of 1929\"),{{cite news \\|title\\=Arizona 101: Sky Harbor Airport \\|first\\=Clay \\|last\\=Thompson \\|url\\=https://www.azcentral.com/story/travel/local/history/2014/03/24/arizona\\-sky\\-harbor\\-airport/6736091/\\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The Arizona Republic]] \\|date\\= March 24, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=April 20, 2018}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Valley 101: A Slightly Skewed Guide to Living in Arizona \\|first\\=Clay \\|last\\=Thompson \\|url\\=http://arizonaoddities.com/2010/06/how\\-did\\-sky\\-harbor\\-international\\-airport\\-get\\-its\\-name/ \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Arizona Republic]] \\|date\\=January 14, 2001 \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716051628/http://arizonaoddities.com/2010/06/how\\-did\\-sky\\-harbor\\-international\\-airport\\-get\\-its\\-name/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 16, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} sold the airport to Acme Investment Company, which owned the airport until 1935, when the city of Phoenix purchased Sky Harbor airport from Acme for $100,000\\.", "### Historical airline service", "On February 23, 1929, [Maddux Air Lines](/wiki/Maddux_Air_Lines \"Maddux Air Lines\") began the airport's first scheduled passenger service with a route between [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") and [El Paso](/wiki/El_Paso \"El Paso\") stopping in Phoenix, Los Angeles, and several other cities; however the service was short\\-lived, ending by autumn 1929\\. [Standard Air Lines](/wiki/Standard_Air_Lines \"Standard Air Lines\") had been serving Phoenix since late 1927 at a different airport and began landing at Sky Harbor on August 5, 1929\\. Standard operated a route between [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") and El Paso stopping at Phoenix, [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson \"Tucson\"), and [Douglas, Arizona](/wiki/Douglas%2C_Arizona \"Douglas, Arizona\"). Standard was acquired by American Airways in 1930 which later became [American Airlines](/wiki/American_Airlines \"American Airlines\"). American extended the route eastward to New York by way of [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas \"Dallas\"), [Nashville](/wiki/Nashville \"Nashville\"), and many other cities making for a southern transcontinental route across the United States.{{cite web \\|title\\=American Airlines and Tucson celebrate 90 years together \\|first\\=Jessie \\|last\\=Butler \\|url\\=https://www.flytucson.com/articles/american\\-airlines\\-tucson\\-celebrate\\-90\\-years\\-together/ \\|website\\=Tucson Airport Authority \\|date\\=May 27, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=May 27, 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 27, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927045146/https://www.flytucson.com/articles/american\\-airlines\\-tucson\\-celebrate\\-90\\-years\\-together/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "[TWA](/wiki/TWA \"TWA\") began service to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco_International_Airport \"San Francisco International Airport\") in 1938 and added Phoenix onto its transcontinental network by 1944 with flights to Los Angeles and eastward to [New York](/wiki/Idlewild_Airport \"Idlewild Airport\") stopping at [Albuquerque](/wiki/Albuquerque \"Albuquerque\"), [Kansas City](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\"), and many more cities. [Arizona Airways](/wiki/Arizona_Airways \"Arizona Airways\") began intrastate service within Arizona in 1946 and merged into [Frontier Airlines](/wiki/Frontier_Airlines_%281950-1986%29 \"Frontier Airlines (1950-1986)\") in 1950 which added new routes to [Denver](/wiki/Denver \"Denver\"), Albuquerque, and El Paso. [Bonanza Airlines](/wiki/Bonanza_Airlines \"Bonanza Airlines\") began service by 1951 with a route to [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas \"Las Vegas\") and [Reno](/wiki/Reno \"Reno\") making several stops at smaller communities. New routes to [Salt Lake City](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City \"Salt Lake City\") and [Southern California](/wiki/Southern_California \"Southern California\") were added in the 1960s along with nonstop flights to Las Vegas and Reno aboard [Douglas DC\\-9](/wiki/Douglas_DC-9 \"Douglas DC-9\") jets by 1965\\. Bonanza merged with two other carriers to become Air West in 1968 and was changed to [Hughes Airwest](/wiki/Hughes_Airwest \"Hughes Airwest\") in 1970 adding several new routes, including service to Mexico, creating a hub at Phoenix. Hughes Airwest was then merged into [Republic Airlines](/wiki/Republic_Airlines \"Republic Airlines\") in 1980 which continued the Phoenix hub operation until the mid\\-1980s. [Western Airlines](/wiki/Western_Airlines \"Western Airlines\") came to Sky Harbor in 1957 with flights to Denver, Los Angeles and [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"), [Continental Airlines](/wiki/Continental_Airlines \"Continental Airlines\") came in 1961 to El Paso, Los Angeles, and Tucson, and [Delta Air Lines](/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines \"Delta Air Lines\") began flights to Dallas by 1969\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=1935 and The Farm – Sky Harbor's Early Years and Memories \\|url\\=https://www.skyharbor.com/About/Information/History/75Years/TheEarlyYears \\|website\\=Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport \\|date\\=August 30, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=December 30, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627205926/http://skyharbor.com/about/earlyYears.html \\|archive\\-date\\=June 27, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "[Bonanza Air Lines](/wiki/Bonanza_Air_Lines \"Bonanza Air Lines\") moved its headquarters from Las Vegas to Phoenix in 1966\\. Bonanza merged with two other airlines to form Air West, which became [Hughes Airwest](/wiki/Hughes_Airwest \"Hughes Airwest\") after [Howard Hughes](/wiki/Howard_Hughes \"Howard Hughes\") bought it in 1970\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=US Airways: A Heritage Story \\|first\\=William \\|last\\=Lehman \\|url\\=http://www.usairways.com/en\\-US/aboutus/pressroom/history/americawest.html \\|work\\=US Airways \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220160932/http://www.usairways.com/en\\-US/aboutus/pressroom/history/americawest.html \\|archive\\-date\\=February 20, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "After the [Airline Deregulation Act](/wiki/Airline_Deregulation_Act \"Airline Deregulation Act\") was signed in 1978, many new airlines began service to Sky Harbor. In 1978, former Hughes Airwest executive Ed Beauvais formed a plan for a new airline based in Phoenix. He founded [America West Airlines](/wiki/America_West_Airlines \"America West Airlines\") in 1981, which began service from Phoenix in 1983 and doubled in size during its first year.[Eastern Airlines](/wiki/Eastern_Airlines \"Eastern Airlines\") and [Allegheny Airlines](/wiki/Allegheny_Airlines \"Allegheny Airlines\") soon began service in 1979 followed by [United Airlines](/wiki/United_Airlines \"United Airlines\") in 1980\\. Allegheny changed its name to [USAir](/wiki/USAir \"USAir\") shortly after beginning service in 1979\\. [Southwest Airlines](/wiki/Southwest_Airlines \"Southwest Airlines\") arrived at Phoenix in January 1982 with 13 daily flights to 12 cities; by 1986 it had 64 daily flights from Phoenix and had a crew base there. Southwest opened a maintenance facility at PHX in 1992, which was its largest.{{cite web \\|title\\=Openings/Closings \\|url\\=http://www.swamedia.com/channels/By\\-Category/pages/openings\\-closings \\|work\\=Southwest Airlines \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906004130/http://www.swamedia.com/channels/By\\-Category/pages/openings\\-closings \\|archive\\-date\\=September 6, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "America West filed for [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](/wiki/Chapter_11_bankruptcy \"Chapter 11 bankruptcy\") protection in 1991 and sold its larger aircraft and Japanese route authority, but continued growing its domestic operations from Terminal 4 in cooperation with [Continental Airlines](/wiki/Continental_Airlines \"Continental Airlines\"). Although AWA enjoyed further growth at Phoenix during the 1990s the aftermath of the [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks \"September 11, 2001 attacks\") strained its financial position. AWA ended its relationship with Continental and merged with [US Airways](/wiki/US_Airways \"US Airways\") in 2005\\. US Airways moved its headquarters to the AWA campus in Tempe and retained many AWA managers to run the merged company. US Airways was then merged into [American Airlines](/wiki/American_Airlines \"American Airlines\") in 2015 which continues to build upon the largest hub operation at Phoenix Sky Harbor.", "Sky Harbor landed its first transatlantic flights in 1996 when [British Airways](/wiki/British_Airways \"British Airways\") inaugurated nonstop service to London. The flight was first operated with a [Douglas DC\\-10](/wiki/Douglas_DC-10 \"Douglas DC-10\") aircraft but soon upgraded to a [Boeing 747\\-400](/wiki/Boeing_747-400 \"Boeing 747-400\").American Express Skyguide editions from 1996", "### Facilities expansions and growth", "After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), the airport began work on a new passenger terminal, as well as a new parallel runway and a diagonal runway.{{cite web \\|title\\=Phoenix Sky Harbor – City of Tempe History \\|url\\=http://www.tempe.gov/aircraftnoise/History.htm \\|work\\=\\[\\[City of Tempe]] \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914155141/http://www.tempe.gov/aircraftnoise/History.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=September 14, 2010}} On the February 1953 C\\&GS diagram runways 8L and 8R are each {{convert\\|6000\\|ft}} long and runway 3 is {{convert\\|5500\\|ft}}. The $835,000 Terminal 1 (originally called the West Wing), which also had the first [control tower](/wiki/Control_tower \"Control tower\"), opened in October 1952\\.", "The airport's master plan was redesigned in 1959 to eliminate the cross runway to make room for new terminals. American and TWA began jet service to Phoenix in 1960 and 1961 respectively, and Terminal 2 (originally called the East Wing) opened in 1962\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Sky Harbor and the Beginning of the Modern Era \\|url\\=http://skyharbor.com/about/modernera.html \\|website\\=Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport \\|date\\=September 7, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319054738/http://skyharbor.com/about/modernera.html \\|archive\\-date\\=March 19, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Terminal 2 was designed by the Phoenix architectural firms of Weaver \\& Drover and [Lescher \\& Mahoney](/wiki/Lescher_%26_Mahoney \"Lescher & Mahoney\") and opened in 1962\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport – Phoenix, Arizona\\|url\\=http://www.dwlarchitects.com/projects/phoenix\\-sky\\-harbor\\-intl\\-airport/\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207224730/http://www.dwlarchitects.com/projects/phoenix\\-sky\\-harbor\\-intl\\-airport/\\|archive\\-date\\=December 7, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=September 3, 2015\\|website\\=DWL Architects \\+ Planners, Inc}} Terminal 2 also featured a {{convert\\|16\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} high and {{convert\\|75\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} wide mural composed of 52 different materials, including mosaic glass, gemstones, shells, and vintage toys.", "*The Phoenix*, designed by the late French\\-American artist and full\\-time resident of Phoenix [Paul Coze](/wiki/Paul_Coze \"Paul Coze\"), was commissioned in 1960 as Phoenix's first work of public art and was installed in 1962 in the main lobby area of the terminal. *The Phoenix* was relocated to the Rental Car Center in 2021 following the decommisioning and demolition of Terminal 2\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Trimble\\|first\\=Lynn\\|date\\=December 13, 2019\\|title\\=The Phoenix Mural at Sky Harbor Airport is Moving in 2021 — Here's What We Know So Far\\|newspaper\\=Phoenix New Times\\|url\\=https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/arts/paul\\-coze\\-mural\\-is\\-moving\\-to\\-the\\-airport\\-rental\\-car\\-center\\-11407181\\|access\\-date\\=May 27, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=June 6, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606055734/https://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/arts/paul\\-coze\\-mural\\-is\\-moving\\-to\\-the\\-airport\\-rental\\-car\\-center\\-11407181\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In November 2006, a Military and Veterans Hospitality Room, sponsored by the Phoenix Military and Veterans Commission, was opened in Terminal 2\\. It has since relocated to Terminal 4 as the new [USO](/wiki/USO \"USO\") club. This terminal underwent two renovation projects. The first was completed in 1988\\.{{cite report\\|url\\=http://azdot.gov/legacyapplications/airports/mp.asp?FAA\\=PHX\\|title\\=Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport Master Plan Update\\|author\\=Howard Needles Tammen \\& Bergendoff\\|date\\=September 1989\\|publisher\\=City of Phoenix Aviation Department\\|access\\-date\\=September 3, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208023623/http://azdot.gov/legacyapplications/airports/mp.asp?FAA\\=PHX\\|format\\=PDF\\|chapter\\=Passenger Terminal Facility Requirements\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://apps.azdot.gov/files/Airports/MP\\_PDF/PHX\\_MP\\_06\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=December 8, 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The second project, which cost $24 million and was designed by DWL Architects \\+ Planners, Inc., was completed in 2007\\.", "Construction on Terminal 3 began in January 1977\\. Designed by DWL Architects \\+ Planners, Inc., Terminal 3 opened in October 1979, and the \"East\" and \"West\" names were dropped since there were no longer only two terminals.", "In October 1989, ground was broken for Terminal 4, the largest terminal.{{cite web \\|title\\=The 80's: A Time of Change \\|url\\=http://skyharbor.com/about/timeofchange.html \\|website\\=Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport \\|date\\=September 13, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221152915/http://skyharbor.com/about/timeofchange.html \\|archive\\-date\\=December 21, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} It opened on November 2, 1990,{{cite news \\|title\\=Name on Airport Terminal Has Goldwater Flying High \\|url\\=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1990/11/04/name\\-on\\-airport\\-terminal\\-has\\-goldwater\\-flying\\-high/ \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Orlando Sentinel]] \\|date\\=November 4, 1990 \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522122956/http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1990\\-11\\-04/news/9011040319\\_1\\_goldwater\\-terminal\\-harbor\\-international\\-airport \\|archive\\-date\\=May 22, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} with four concourses: N2 and N3 on the north side and S3 and S4 on the south side. In 1994 the N4 International Concourse was opened, adding 10 gates and a sterile walkway to the S4 concourse. In 1997 construction began on the 14\\-gate N1 concourse for America West Airlines. It was completed in June 1998 at a cost of $50 million,{{cite web \\|title\\=Terminal 4 Expansion Projects Concourse N1, N4 \\& S2 \\|url\\=http://www.landrum\\-brown.com/assets/Profiles/Terminal%20Planning.pdf \\|work\\=Landrum \\& Brown \\|page\\=5 \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304125718/http://www.landrum\\-brown.com/assets/Profiles/Terminal%20Planning.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2009}} completing the expansion of the north side of the terminal. On the south side of the terminal, construction began in 2002 on the eight\\-gate S2 concourse for Southwest Airlines. This project was completed in 2004 and has a different architectural design from the other six concourses. The eighth and final concourse for Terminal 4 began construction in May 2019\\. Terminal 4 is named after former Arizona [Senator](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\") and 1964 [Presidential](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") candidate [Barry M. Goldwater](/wiki/Barry_M._Goldwater \"Barry M. Goldwater\"). After Goldwater's death in 1998, the then\\-mayor of Phoenix, [Skip Rimsza](/wiki/Skip_Rimsza \"Skip Rimsza\"), proposed renaming the airport in Goldwater's memory but was deluged with public support for the familiar \"Sky Harbor\" name.{{cite news \\|title\\=Political Briefing; A Sky\\-High Tribute Grounded by Fallout \\|first\\=B. Drummond Jr. \\|last\\=Ayres \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/07/13/us/political\\-briefing\\-a\\-sky\\-high\\-tribute\\-grounded\\-by\\-fallout.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=July 13, 1998 \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140523015904/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/07/13/us/political\\-briefing\\-a\\-sky\\-high\\-tribute\\-grounded\\-by\\-fallout.html \\|archive\\-date\\=May 23, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Terminal 4, designed by DWL Architects \\+ Planners, Inc., is the largest and busiest of the two terminals with 86 gates, divided into seven satellite concourses connected behind security.", "In 2007, the [Transportation Security Administration](/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration \"Transportation Security Administration\") introduced the first of its [backscatter X\\-ray](/wiki/Backscatter_X-ray \"Backscatter X-ray\") machines at PHX.{{cite news \\|title\\=New Airport X\\-Rays Scan Bodies, Not Just Bags \\|first1\\=Paul \\|last1\\=Giblin \\|first2\\=Eric \\|last2\\=Lipton \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/24/us/24scan.html \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=February 24, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216155448/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/24/us/24scan.html \\|archive\\-date\\=February 16, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### Recent developments", "In February 2020, Terminal 2 accepted its final flight and was then decommissioned. Demolition occurred in early 2021 with the terminal being replaced by concrete stands for aircraft, accessible by bus from other terminals.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Sky Harbor's Terminal 2 is closed. What happens next? Here's what we know \\|url\\=https://www.azcentral.com/story/travel/airlines/2020/02/06/phoenix\\-airport\\-sky\\-harbor\\-terminal\\-2\\-is\\-closed\\-whats\\-next\\-demolition\\-parking\\-bus\\-gates/4670749002/ \\|access\\-date\\=July 30, 2023 \\|website\\=The Arizona Republic \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Airlines previously using Terminal 2 were relocated to Terminal 3, which had completed renovations in January 2020\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Phoenix Sky Harbor Airport Terminal 3 Modernisation, Arizona, USA \\|url\\=https://www.airport\\-technology.com/projects/phoenix\\-sky\\-harbor\\-airport\\-terminal\\-3\\-modernisation\\-arizona/ \\|access\\-date\\=July 30, 2023 \\|website\\=Airport Technology \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "In January 2021, Terminal 3 was renamed in honor of Senator [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain \"John McCain\") by the Phoenix City Council.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Yeager \\|first1\\=Melissa \\|title\\=What's new at Phoenix Sky Harbor Airport Terminal 3, the newly renamed John McCain III Terminal \\|url\\=https://www.azcentral.com/story/travel/airlines/2019/01/04/phoenix\\-sky\\-harbor\\-airport\\-terminal\\-3\\-new\\-concourse/2474231002/ \\|website\\=AZCentral \\|access\\-date\\=April 21, 2023}}", "In February 2024, the airport announced plans for infrastructure upgrades at its central utility plant in Terminal 4, which will improve air conditioning at the airport. The $36 million project was funded by a FAA Airport Terminal Program grant included in the federal [Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act](/wiki/Infrastructure_Investment_and_Jobs_Act \"Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act\") that was signed into law by President [Joe Biden](/wiki/Joe_Biden \"Joe Biden\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.azcentral.com/story/travel/airlines/2024/02/16/faa\\-airport\\-improvement\\-program\\-phoenix\\-yuma\\-grants/72618999007/ \\|title\\=These Arizona airports are getting $37M for terminal upgrades. Here's what's coming \\|author\\=Salerno, Michael \\|work\\=Arizona Republic \\|date\\=February 16, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=May 10, 2024}}", "On April 29, 2024, Phoenix Mayor [Kate Gallego](/wiki/Kate_Gallego \"Kate Gallego\") announced that a new terminal would be constructed on the west end of the property near the former location of Terminal 2\\. She said that in 2023 the airport welcomed more than 48 million passengers and with continued growth expected the new terminal was needed to accommodate growing demand and handle the increased number of travelers. The terminal would feature a new customs facility and would be designed to have net\\-zero [greenhouse gas](/wiki/Greenhouse_gas \"Greenhouse gas\") emissions, making it an environmentally friendly structure.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://businesstravelerusa.com/news/phoenix\\-sky\\-harbor\\-to\\-build\\-new\\-terminal/ \\| title\\=Phoenix's Sky Harbor Airport to Build New Terminal to Meet Growing Demand \\| date\\=April 30, 2024 }}", "" ]
Playing career -------------- ### Division 2 to HockeyAllsvenskan Viktor Fasth was born in [Kalix](/wiki/Kalix "Kalix"), but grew up in [Vänersborg](/wiki/V%C3%A4nersborg "Vänersborg"). As an 18\-year\-old goaltender, Fasth played with the Brooklyn Tigers (a youth affiliate connected to [Luleå HF](/wiki/Lule%C3%A5_HF "Luleå HF"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.laget.se/brooklyntigers \|title\=Brooklyn Tigers Unga HF \| laget.se \|website\=www.laget.se \|access\-date\=13 February 2013}}) in the [Swedish Division 2](/wiki/Division_2_%28Swedish_ice_hockey%29 "Division 2 (Swedish ice hockey)"), the fourth\-tier league. The following season he played with Vänersborgs HC in the third\-tier league [Division 1](/wiki/Division_1_%28Swedish_ice_hockey%29 "Division 1 (Swedish ice hockey)"). The following season, in 2002–03, he turned to Tvåstad Cobras HC to return to Division 2\. Tvåstad became promoted to Division 1 that season, and Fasth continued to play for them in the 2003–04 season. However, the Tvåstad Cobras HC team was shut down after the 2003–04 season due to financial problems,{{cite web \| url\=http://www.kristianstadsbladet.se/sport/article849733/Tvaringstad\-Cobras\-laumlgger\-ned\-sitt\-A\-lag.html \| title\=Tvåstad Cobras lägger ned sitt A\-lag \| publisher\=\[\[Kristianstadsbladet]] \| language\=sv \| date\=18 May 2004 \| access\-date\=16 May 2011}} and Fasth therefore moved to play in [Tingsryds AIF](/wiki/Tingsryds_AIF "Tingsryds AIF") in Division 1 for three seasons. In his 2006–07 season with Tingsryd he was the third best goaltender in Division 1F, with a 92\.47% [save percentage](/wiki/Save_percentage "Save percentage") in 33 games. His biggest success with the team came in that season, when he helped the team reach the [Kvalserien](/wiki/Kvalserien_%28HockeyAllsvenskan%29 "Kvalserien (HockeyAllsvenskan)") qualification for [HockeyAllsvenskan](/wiki/HockeyAllsvenskan "HockeyAllsvenskan") for the first time since their relegation to Division 1 in the 2002–03 season. However, the team finished fourth in the qualification and thus remained in Division 1\. Fasth then signed with [Växjö Lakers Hockey](/wiki/V%C3%A4xj%C3%B6_Lakers "Växjö Lakers") in the 2007–08 season, at that time in the second\-tier league [HockeyAllsvenskan](/wiki/HockeyAllsvenskan "HockeyAllsvenskan"), and played there for three seasons. He played well in all of these seasons, placing, in save percentage, second in the 2007–08 season and first in the 2009–10 season. ### Elitserien [thumb\|left\|Viktor Fasth with AIK](/wiki/File:Fasth_Viktor_AIK_2011_1.jpg "Fasth Viktor AIK 2011 1.jpg") After a successful 2009–10 season, which ended with play in the [Kvalserien](/wiki/Kvalserien "Kvalserien") qualification for Sweden's top\-tier league [Elitserien](/wiki/Swedish_Hockey_League "Swedish Hockey League") (SHL), he signed a one\-year contract with Elitserien newcomers [AIK](/wiki/AIK_IF "AIK IF") to make his debut season in Elitserien, the top ice hockey league in Sweden. He was set to be the team's backup goaltender, but injury problems for [Christopher Heino\-Lindberg](/wiki/Christopher_Heino-Lindberg "Christopher Heino-Lindberg") forced AIK to start Viktor Fasth. Playing in 42 games, he posted an impressive 92\.45% save percentage and placed third in the leading goaltenders league for save percentage. He significantly contributed to AIK's success that season, reaching the semifinals in the playoffs, where they were eliminated by [Färjestad BK](/wiki/F%C3%A4rjestad_BK "Färjestad BK") in four games. Viktor Fasth received both the [Honken Trophy](/wiki/Honken_Trophy "Honken Trophy") award and the [Guldpucken](/wiki/Guldpucken "Guldpucken") (*Golden Puck*) award. In February 2011, Fasth extended his contract with the team by 2 years, which meant the contract was expected to expire after the 2012–13 season.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.aikhockey.se/Nyheter/Arkiv/2010/Fasth\-stannar\-i\-AIK/ \| title\=Fasth stannar i AIK \| publisher\=\[\[AIK IF]] \| language\=sv \| date\=9 February 2011 \| access\-date\=16 May 2011 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110416213651/http://aikhockey.se/Nyheter/Arkiv/2010/Fasth\-stannar\-i\-AIK/ \| archive\-date\=16 April 2011 \| url\-status\=dead \| df\=dmy\-all }} Fasth continued to impress in the 2011–12 season. Once again he finished third in save percentage at 93\.14% and he was subsequently awarded the Honken Trophy for the second year in a row. In the playoffs, he continued to shut the door, and he and AIK managed to repeat the 2010–11 success, advancing to the semifinals, where they once again were eliminated, this time in seven games against [Skellefteå AIK](/wiki/Skellefte%C3%A5_AIK "Skellefteå AIK"). ### National Hockey League On 21 May 2012, Fasth signed a 1\-year, one\-way $1 million [USD](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar") deal with the [Anaheim Ducks](/wiki/Anaheim_Ducks "Anaheim Ducks") of the [National Hockey League](/wiki/National_Hockey_League "National Hockey League") (NHL).{{cite web \|url\=https://twitter.com/DarrenDreger/status/204680298707943424 \|title\=Fasth Signs with Ducks \|publisher\=\[\[Twitter]] \|author\=Darren Dreger \|date\=21 May 2012 \|access\-date\=21 May 2012\|author\-link\=Darren Dreger }}{{cite web \|url\=http://ducks.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\=632295 \|title\=Ducks Sign Fasth to One\-Year Contract \|publisher\=\[\[Anaheim Ducks]] \|work\=ducks.nhl.com \|date\=21 May 2012 \|access\-date\=22 May 2012}} On 20 September 2012, due to the ongoing [2012–13 NHL lockout](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_lockout "2012–13 NHL lockout"), Fasth signed to play with his former team [Tingsryds AIF](/wiki/Tingsryds_AIF "Tingsryds AIF") of the [HockeyAllsvenskan](/wiki/HockeyAllsvenskan "HockeyAllsvenskan") (Swe\-2\). Fasth played in 12 games for the team, registering an impressive 94\.17% save percentage and a 1\.68 [goals against average](/wiki/Goals_against_average "Goals against average") (GAA).{{cite web \|url\=http://www.aftonbladet.se/sportbladet/hockey/sverige/allsvenskan/article15477781\.ab \|title\=Viktor Fasth klar för allsvenska Tingsryd \|work\=\[\[Sportbladet]] \|last\=Sjögren \|first\=Patrik \|date\=20 September 2012 \|access\-date\=20 September 2012}} In his NHL debut on 26 January 2013, Fasth led the Ducks to a 3–2 shootout victory over the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators "Nashville Predators"). Fasth stopped 19 of the 21 shots sent his way, and prevented the Predators from finding the net in the shootout with [Martin Erat](/wiki/Martin_Erat "Martin Erat") hitting the crossbar, Fasth stopping [Mike Fisher](/wiki/Mike_Fisher_%28ice_hockey%29 "Mike Fisher (ice hockey)")'s shot, and then swatting the puck out of the air from [David Legwand](/wiki/David_Legwand "David Legwand"). [Corey Perry](/wiki/Corey_Perry "Corey Perry") scored the game\-winning goal for the Ducks in the shootout. Fasth found early success in the NHL, starting the season 8–0–0 – the best start by a goaltender in the regular season as a starter since [Ray Emery](/wiki/Ray_Emery "Ray Emery") of the [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators "Ottawa Senators") won his first nine games between the end of [2002–03](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_NHL_season "2002–03 NHL season") and the beginning of the [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_NHL_season "2003–04 NHL season") season. Fasth eventually ended the streak in his ninth start on 25 February 2013, with a 2–5 loss against the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings "Los Angeles Kings") on the road, also ending a six\-game winning streak for the Ducks. With the loss, Fasth failed to match Ray Emery's streak.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.aftonbladet.se/sportbladet/hockey/internationellt/nhl/article16312614\.ab \|title\=Åtta raka – sedan sprack sviten \|work\=\[\[Sportbladet]] \|last\=Bjurman \|first\=Per \|date\=26 February 2013 \|access\-date\=26 February 2013}} Fasth further helped the Ducks advance to an 11–2–1 record, their best start since their Stanley Cup\-winning [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Anaheim_Ducks_season "2006–07 Anaheim Ducks season") season. Fasth finished the regular season with a 15–6–2 record; the [Ducks](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Anaheim_Ducks_season "2012–13 Anaheim Ducks season") finished with a 30–12–6 record and qualified for the [2013 Stanley Cup playoffs](/wiki/2013_Stanley_Cup_playoffs "2013 Stanley Cup playoffs"). The Ducks were eliminated in the Conference Quarterfinals by the [Detroit Red Wings](/wiki/Detroit_Red_Wings "Detroit Red Wings") in seven games, with Fasth not playing in any of these games as the backup to [Jonas Hiller](/wiki/Jonas_Hiller "Jonas Hiller"). The following year, Fasth was injured early in the season. On 4 March 2014, Fasth was traded by the Ducks to the [Edmonton Oilers](/wiki/Edmonton_Oilers "Edmonton Oilers") in exchange for a fifth and a third round pick in the [2014](/wiki/2014_NHL_Entry_Draft "2014 NHL Entry Draft") and [2015 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2015_NHL_Entry_Draft "2015 NHL Entry Draft"), respectively. This gave him the chance to compete for the number one job against goalie [Ben Scrivens](/wiki/Ben_Scrivens "Ben Scrivens").{{cite web\| url \= https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=445235 \| title \= Oilers acquire G Fasth \| publisher \= \[\[The Sports Network]] \| date \= 4 March 2014 \| access\-date \= 4 March 2014}} ### Kontinental Hockey League On 9 July 2015, Fasth agreed to terms on an initial one\-year contract with [CSKA Moscow](/wiki/HC_CSKA_Moscow "HC CSKA Moscow") of the [Kontinental Hockey League](/wiki/Kontinental_Hockey_League "Kontinental Hockey League") (KHL).{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.sportsnet.ca/hockey/nhl/viktor\-fasth\-khl\-cska\-moscow\-unrestricted\-free\-agent\-signs/\|title \= Fedorov signs ex\-Oiler Viktor Fasth to KHL\|date \= 9 July 2015\|access\-date \= 9 July 2015\| website \= Sportsnet\|last \= Fox\|first \= Luke}} Fasth provided an immediate stability to CSKA and was extended for a further season. Over his two seasons in the KHL with CSKA, Fasth won 28 of his 41 games. ### Return to Sweden As a free agent following the [2016–17](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_KHL_season "2016–17 KHL season") season, Fasth opted to return to his homeland and agreed to a second stint with Växjö Lakers, who were promoted to the SHL in his absence from leaving the club in 2010\. He signed a three\-year contract on 1 May 2017\.{{cite web\| publisher \= \[\[Växjö Lakers]] \| language \= sv \| url \= https://www.vaxjolakers.se/artikel/hukdaj26f\-4af7d/viktor\-fasth\-atervander\-till\-vaxjo\-lakers \| title \= Victor Fasth returns to Vaxjo Lakers \| date \= 1 May 2017 \| access\-date \= 1 May 2017}}
[ "Playing career\n--------------", "### Division 2 to HockeyAllsvenskan", "Viktor Fasth was born in [Kalix](/wiki/Kalix \"Kalix\"), but grew up in [Vänersborg](/wiki/V%C3%A4nersborg \"Vänersborg\"). As an 18\\-year\\-old goaltender, Fasth played with the Brooklyn Tigers (a youth affiliate connected to [Luleå HF](/wiki/Lule%C3%A5_HF \"Luleå HF\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.laget.se/brooklyntigers \\|title\\=Brooklyn Tigers Unga HF \\| laget.se \\|website\\=www.laget.se \\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2013}}) in the [Swedish Division 2](/wiki/Division_2_%28Swedish_ice_hockey%29 \"Division 2 (Swedish ice hockey)\"), the fourth\\-tier league. The following season he played with Vänersborgs HC in the third\\-tier league [Division 1](/wiki/Division_1_%28Swedish_ice_hockey%29 \"Division 1 (Swedish ice hockey)\"). The following season, in 2002–03, he turned to Tvåstad Cobras HC to return to Division 2\\. Tvåstad became promoted to Division 1 that season, and Fasth continued to play for them in the 2003–04 season. However, the Tvåstad Cobras HC team was shut down after the 2003–04 season due to financial problems,{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.kristianstadsbladet.se/sport/article849733/Tvaringstad\\-Cobras\\-laumlgger\\-ned\\-sitt\\-A\\-lag.html \\| title\\=Tvåstad Cobras lägger ned sitt A\\-lag \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Kristianstadsbladet]] \\| language\\=sv \\| date\\=18 May 2004 \\| access\\-date\\=16 May 2011}} and Fasth therefore moved to play in [Tingsryds AIF](/wiki/Tingsryds_AIF \"Tingsryds AIF\") in Division 1 for three seasons. In his 2006–07 season with Tingsryd he was the third best goaltender in Division 1F, with a 92\\.47% [save percentage](/wiki/Save_percentage \"Save percentage\") in 33 games. His biggest success with the team came in that season, when he helped the team reach the [Kvalserien](/wiki/Kvalserien_%28HockeyAllsvenskan%29 \"Kvalserien (HockeyAllsvenskan)\") qualification for [HockeyAllsvenskan](/wiki/HockeyAllsvenskan \"HockeyAllsvenskan\") for the first time since their relegation to Division 1 in the 2002–03 season. However, the team finished fourth in the qualification and thus remained in Division 1\\.", "Fasth then signed with [Växjö Lakers Hockey](/wiki/V%C3%A4xj%C3%B6_Lakers \"Växjö Lakers\") in the 2007–08 season, at that time in the second\\-tier league [HockeyAllsvenskan](/wiki/HockeyAllsvenskan \"HockeyAllsvenskan\"), and played there for three seasons. He played well in all of these seasons, placing, in save percentage, second in the 2007–08 season and first in the 2009–10 season.", "### Elitserien", "[thumb\\|left\\|Viktor Fasth with AIK](/wiki/File:Fasth_Viktor_AIK_2011_1.jpg \"Fasth Viktor AIK 2011 1.jpg\")\nAfter a successful 2009–10 season, which ended with play in the [Kvalserien](/wiki/Kvalserien \"Kvalserien\") qualification for Sweden's top\\-tier league [Elitserien](/wiki/Swedish_Hockey_League \"Swedish Hockey League\") (SHL), he signed a one\\-year contract with Elitserien newcomers [AIK](/wiki/AIK_IF \"AIK IF\") to make his debut season in Elitserien, the top ice hockey league in Sweden. He was set to be the team's backup goaltender, but injury problems for [Christopher Heino\\-Lindberg](/wiki/Christopher_Heino-Lindberg \"Christopher Heino-Lindberg\") forced AIK to start Viktor Fasth. Playing in 42 games, he posted an impressive 92\\.45% save percentage and placed third in the leading goaltenders league for save percentage. He significantly contributed to AIK's success that season, reaching the semifinals in the playoffs, where they were eliminated by [Färjestad BK](/wiki/F%C3%A4rjestad_BK \"Färjestad BK\") in four games. Viktor Fasth received both the [Honken Trophy](/wiki/Honken_Trophy \"Honken Trophy\") award and the [Guldpucken](/wiki/Guldpucken \"Guldpucken\") (*Golden Puck*) award. In February 2011, Fasth extended his contract with the team by 2 years, which meant the contract was expected to expire after the 2012–13 season.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.aikhockey.se/Nyheter/Arkiv/2010/Fasth\\-stannar\\-i\\-AIK/ \\| title\\=Fasth stannar i AIK \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[AIK IF]] \\| language\\=sv \\| date\\=9 February 2011 \\| access\\-date\\=16 May 2011 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110416213651/http://aikhockey.se/Nyheter/Arkiv/2010/Fasth\\-stannar\\-i\\-AIK/ \\| archive\\-date\\=16 April 2011 \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| df\\=dmy\\-all }}", "Fasth continued to impress in the 2011–12 season. Once again he finished third in save percentage at 93\\.14% and he was subsequently awarded the Honken Trophy for the second year in a row. In the playoffs, he continued to shut the door, and he and AIK managed to repeat the 2010–11 success, advancing to the semifinals, where they once again were eliminated, this time in seven games against [Skellefteå AIK](/wiki/Skellefte%C3%A5_AIK \"Skellefteå AIK\").", "### National Hockey League", "On 21 May 2012, Fasth signed a 1\\-year, one\\-way $1 million [USD](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\") deal with the [Anaheim Ducks](/wiki/Anaheim_Ducks \"Anaheim Ducks\") of the [National Hockey League](/wiki/National_Hockey_League \"National Hockey League\") (NHL).{{cite web \\|url\\=https://twitter.com/DarrenDreger/status/204680298707943424 \\|title\\=Fasth Signs with Ducks \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Twitter]] \\|author\\=Darren Dreger \\|date\\=21 May 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2012\\|author\\-link\\=Darren Dreger }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://ducks.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id\\=632295 \\|title\\=Ducks Sign Fasth to One\\-Year Contract \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Anaheim Ducks]] \\|work\\=ducks.nhl.com \\|date\\=21 May 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2012}}", "On 20 September 2012, due to the ongoing [2012–13 NHL lockout](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_lockout \"2012–13 NHL lockout\"), Fasth signed to play with his former team [Tingsryds AIF](/wiki/Tingsryds_AIF \"Tingsryds AIF\") of the [HockeyAllsvenskan](/wiki/HockeyAllsvenskan \"HockeyAllsvenskan\") (Swe\\-2\\). Fasth played in 12 games for the team, registering an impressive 94\\.17% save percentage and a 1\\.68 [goals against average](/wiki/Goals_against_average \"Goals against average\") (GAA).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.aftonbladet.se/sportbladet/hockey/sverige/allsvenskan/article15477781\\.ab \\|title\\=Viktor Fasth klar för allsvenska Tingsryd \\|work\\=\\[\\[Sportbladet]] \\|last\\=Sjögren \\|first\\=Patrik \\|date\\=20 September 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=20 September 2012}}", "In his NHL debut on 26 January 2013, Fasth led the Ducks to a 3–2 shootout victory over the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators \"Nashville Predators\"). Fasth stopped 19 of the 21 shots sent his way, and prevented the Predators from finding the net in the shootout with [Martin Erat](/wiki/Martin_Erat \"Martin Erat\") hitting the crossbar, Fasth stopping [Mike Fisher](/wiki/Mike_Fisher_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Mike Fisher (ice hockey)\")'s shot, and then swatting the puck out of the air from [David Legwand](/wiki/David_Legwand \"David Legwand\"). [Corey Perry](/wiki/Corey_Perry \"Corey Perry\") scored the game\\-winning goal for the Ducks in the shootout. Fasth found early success in the NHL, starting the season 8–0–0 – the best start by a goaltender in the regular season as a starter since [Ray Emery](/wiki/Ray_Emery \"Ray Emery\") of the [Ottawa Senators](/wiki/Ottawa_Senators \"Ottawa Senators\") won his first nine games between the end of [2002–03](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_NHL_season \"2002–03 NHL season\") and the beginning of the [2003–04](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_NHL_season \"2003–04 NHL season\") season. Fasth eventually ended the streak in his ninth start on 25 February 2013, with a 2–5 loss against the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings \"Los Angeles Kings\") on the road, also ending a six\\-game winning streak for the Ducks. With the loss, Fasth failed to match Ray Emery's streak.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.aftonbladet.se/sportbladet/hockey/internationellt/nhl/article16312614\\.ab \\|title\\=Åtta raka – sedan sprack sviten \\|work\\=\\[\\[Sportbladet]] \\|last\\=Bjurman \\|first\\=Per \\|date\\=26 February 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=26 February 2013}} Fasth further helped the Ducks advance to an 11–2–1 record, their best start since their Stanley Cup\\-winning [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Anaheim_Ducks_season \"2006–07 Anaheim Ducks season\") season. Fasth finished the regular season with a 15–6–2 record; the [Ducks](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Anaheim_Ducks_season \"2012–13 Anaheim Ducks season\") finished with a 30–12–6 record and qualified for the [2013 Stanley Cup playoffs](/wiki/2013_Stanley_Cup_playoffs \"2013 Stanley Cup playoffs\"). The Ducks were eliminated in the Conference Quarterfinals by the [Detroit Red Wings](/wiki/Detroit_Red_Wings \"Detroit Red Wings\") in seven games, with Fasth not playing in any of these games as the backup to [Jonas Hiller](/wiki/Jonas_Hiller \"Jonas Hiller\").", "The following year, Fasth was injured early in the season. On 4 March 2014, Fasth was traded by the Ducks to the [Edmonton Oilers](/wiki/Edmonton_Oilers \"Edmonton Oilers\") in exchange for a fifth and a third round pick in the [2014](/wiki/2014_NHL_Entry_Draft \"2014 NHL Entry Draft\") and [2015 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2015_NHL_Entry_Draft \"2015 NHL Entry Draft\"), respectively. This gave him the chance to compete for the number one job against goalie [Ben Scrivens](/wiki/Ben_Scrivens \"Ben Scrivens\").{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=445235 \\| title \\= Oilers acquire G Fasth \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[The Sports Network]] \\| date \\= 4 March 2014 \\| access\\-date \\= 4 March 2014}}", "### Kontinental Hockey League", "On 9 July 2015, Fasth agreed to terms on an initial one\\-year contract with [CSKA Moscow](/wiki/HC_CSKA_Moscow \"HC CSKA Moscow\") of the [Kontinental Hockey League](/wiki/Kontinental_Hockey_League \"Kontinental Hockey League\") (KHL).{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.sportsnet.ca/hockey/nhl/viktor\\-fasth\\-khl\\-cska\\-moscow\\-unrestricted\\-free\\-agent\\-signs/\\|title \\= Fedorov signs ex\\-Oiler Viktor Fasth to KHL\\|date \\= 9 July 2015\\|access\\-date \\= 9 July 2015\\| website \\= Sportsnet\\|last \\= Fox\\|first \\= Luke}} Fasth provided an immediate stability to CSKA and was extended for a further season. Over his two seasons in the KHL with CSKA, Fasth won 28 of his 41 games.", "### Return to Sweden", "As a free agent following the [2016–17](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_KHL_season \"2016–17 KHL season\") season, Fasth opted to return to his homeland and agreed to a second stint with Växjö Lakers, who were promoted to the SHL in his absence from leaving the club in 2010\\. He signed a three\\-year contract on 1 May 2017\\.{{cite web\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Växjö Lakers]] \\| language \\= sv \\| url \\= https://www.vaxjolakers.se/artikel/hukdaj26f\\-4af7d/viktor\\-fasth\\-atervander\\-till\\-vaxjo\\-lakers \\| title \\= Victor Fasth returns to Vaxjo Lakers \\| date \\= 1 May 2017 \\| access\\-date \\= 1 May 2017}}", "" ]
Background ---------- In her *[Autobiography](/wiki/Agatha_Christie:An_Autobiography "An Autobiography")*, Christie claimed that the success of *[And Then There Were None](/wiki/And_Then_There_Were_None_%281943_play%29 "And Then There Were None (1943 play)")* set her on the path of being a playwright as well as a writer of books and that only she would adapt her works for the stage from then on, and that *The Hollow* would be her next play.Christie, Agatha. *An Autobiography*. (Page 472\). Collins, 1977\. {{ISBN\|0\-00\-216012\-9}} In writing this, Christie forgot her intervening plays of *[Appointment with Death](/wiki/Appointment_with_Death_%281945_play%29 "Appointment with Death (1945 play)")* (1945\) and *[Murder on the Nile](/wiki/Murder_on_the_Nile/Hidden_Horizon "Murder on the Nile/Hidden Horizon")* (1946\), in addition to Moie Charles and [Barbara Toy](/wiki/Barbara_Toy "Barbara Toy")'s 1949 adaptation of *[Murder at the Vicarage](/wiki/Murder_at_the_Vicarage_%28play%29 "Murder at the Vicarage (play)")*. Christie had always felt that *The Hollow* would make a good play, but she came up against the opposition of her daughter, [Rosalind Hicks](/wiki/Rosalind_Hicks "Rosalind Hicks"), whom Christie affectionately described as having "had the valuable role in life of eternally trying to discourage me without success". Christie was determined to turn the book, which both she and Rosalind liked, into a play, but was equally adamant that in doing so it would lose the character of [Hercule Poirot](/wiki/Hercule_Poirot "Hercule Poirot"), whose appearance in the book she thought had "ruined it".*Autobiography*. (Page 473\). The parts of the policemen were changed from the book as well from Inspector Grange and Sergeant Clark to Inspector Colquhoun and Detective Sergeant Penny. [Bertie Meyer](/wiki/Bertie_Meyer "Bertie Meyer"), a backer of plays, whose association with Christie's stage works dated back to *[Alibi](/wiki/Alibi_%28play%29 "Alibi (play)")* in 1928, signed a contract to produce *The Hollow* in 1950 and plans were made with Christie's agent, Edmund Cork, to open the play in London to coincide with the start of the [Festival of Britain](/wiki/Festival_of_Britain "Festival of Britain"). These plans came to nothing and Christie was annoyed at the treatment she was starting to receive from Meyer on this and his slow response to staging another play she had written, *[Towards Zero](/wiki/Towards_Zero_%28play%29 "Towards Zero (play)")*.Saunders, Peter. *The Mousetrap Man*. (Page 108\) Collins, 1972\. {{ISBN\|0\-00\-211538\-7}} Meyer turned it down as he believed that it would be too difficult to cast, although it has been speculated that the [anti\-Semitism](/wiki/Anti-Semitism "Anti-Semitism") in the novel was the primary reason, him being Jewish.{{cite book\|last\=Pendergast\|first\=Bruce\|title\=Everyman's Guide to the Mysteries of Agatha Christie\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DCfEhieX8F0C\&pg\=PT308\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Trafford Publishing\|isbn\=978\-1\-4120\-2304\-7\|page\=308}} During the year, [Peter Saunders](/wiki/Peter_Saunders_%28impresario%29 "Peter Saunders (impresario)"), a young and new theatrical producer had sustained a significant loss when he staged an adaptation by Dan Sutherland of [Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's](/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle "Arthur Conan Doyle") 1913 book, *[The Poison Belt](/wiki/The_Poison_Belt "The Poison Belt")*. Desperate to make up these losses, he cast around for a play that he could take on tour which would not involve too much expense and which would be sure to attract a paying audience. Charles and Toy's adaptation of Christie's *Murder at the Vicarage* was just about to finish a four\-month run at the [Playhouse Theatre](/wiki/Playhouse_Theatre "Playhouse Theatre") and, desperate to minimise his costs, he hit upon the idea that the name of the actors who starred in the production wouldn't really matter as Christie herself was enough of a public name to attract the audience. He therefore deliberately advertised the play as *Agatha Christie's "Murder at the Vicarage"* rather than *"Murder at the Vicarage" by Agatha Christie*. This small piece of showmanship worked. He recouped his losses and, more importantly, brought himself to the attention of Christie who, annoyed with the slow progress of Bertie Meyer, gave *The Hollow* to Saunders instead.Saunders. (Pages 106–108\) Saunders faced great difficulties in staging the play, including refusals to assist in casting or finance from colleagues in the theatrical world, who felt that the piece was badly written. One problem was the casting of the star part of Lady Angkatell and it was Saunders who hit upon the idea of [Jeanne De Casalis](/wiki/Jeanne_De_Casalis "Jeanne De Casalis"), a choice that Christie did not accept at first but which she later admitted was right.Saunders. (Pages 112–113\) The play opened at the [Arts Theatre](/wiki/Cambridge_Arts_Theatre "Cambridge Arts Theatre") in [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge "Cambridge") on 10 February 1951, although Christie was absent as she was in [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") accompanying her husband [Max Mallowan](/wiki/Max_Mallowan "Max Mallowan") on one of his archaeological expeditions. She arranged for flowers to be sent to the female members of the cast. Hundreds of miles away, she was as nervous as ever at the public reaction, although she was reassured by telegrams which told her that the opening night was a success. Even so, Saunders and director [Hubert Gregg](/wiki/Hubert_Gregg "Hubert Gregg") had to make some amendments to take out some of the unintentional comic moments that had occurred on the first night.[Morgan, Janet](/wiki/Janet_Morgan%2C_Lady_Balfour_of_Burleigh "Janet Morgan, Lady Balfour of Burleigh"). *Agatha Christie, A Biography.* (Page 288\) Collins, 1984 {{ISBN\|0\-00\-216330\-6}}. After an eight\-week tour, the play opened at the [Fortune Theatre](/wiki/Fortune_Theatre "Fortune Theatre") in London on 7 June 1951 to an enthusiastic press response. It transferred to the [Ambassadors Theatre](/wiki/Ambassadors_Theatre_%28London%29 "Ambassadors Theatre (London)") on 8 October 1951Saunders. (Pages 114–115\) and ran for a total of eleven months and 376 performances,*Book and Magazine Collector*. Issue 174\. September 1998 enabling Christie to see it on her return. One special thrill for Saunders was a request by [Queen Mary](/wiki/Mary_of_Teck "Mary of Teck"), a noted Christie fan, to see the play. She came to the Fortune Theatre to do so and met various members of the cast in the interval. Christie herself was so pleased at the efforts that Saunders made that she took him to lunch just after Christmas 1951 and gave him a brown paper package. Inside it was the script for a new play she had just written, *[The Mousetrap](/wiki/The_Mousetrap "The Mousetrap")*.
[ "Background\n----------", "In her *[Autobiography](/wiki/Agatha_Christie:An_Autobiography \"An Autobiography\")*, Christie claimed that the success of *[And Then There Were None](/wiki/And_Then_There_Were_None_%281943_play%29 \"And Then There Were None (1943 play)\")* set her on the path of being a playwright as well as a writer of books and that only she would adapt her works for the stage from then on, and that *The Hollow* would be her next play.Christie, Agatha. *An Autobiography*. (Page 472\\). Collins, 1977\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-00\\-216012\\-9}} In writing this, Christie forgot her intervening plays of *[Appointment with Death](/wiki/Appointment_with_Death_%281945_play%29 \"Appointment with Death (1945 play)\")* (1945\\) and *[Murder on the Nile](/wiki/Murder_on_the_Nile/Hidden_Horizon \"Murder on the Nile/Hidden Horizon\")* (1946\\), in addition to Moie Charles and [Barbara Toy](/wiki/Barbara_Toy \"Barbara Toy\")'s 1949 adaptation of *[Murder at the Vicarage](/wiki/Murder_at_the_Vicarage_%28play%29 \"Murder at the Vicarage (play)\")*.", "Christie had always felt that *The Hollow* would make a good play, but she came up against the opposition of her daughter, [Rosalind Hicks](/wiki/Rosalind_Hicks \"Rosalind Hicks\"), whom Christie affectionately described as having \"had the valuable role in life of eternally trying to discourage me without success\". Christie was determined to turn the book, which both she and Rosalind liked, into a play, but was equally adamant that in doing so it would lose the character of [Hercule Poirot](/wiki/Hercule_Poirot \"Hercule Poirot\"), whose appearance in the book she thought had \"ruined it\".*Autobiography*. (Page 473\\). The parts of the policemen were changed from the book as well from Inspector Grange and Sergeant Clark to Inspector Colquhoun and Detective Sergeant Penny.", "[Bertie Meyer](/wiki/Bertie_Meyer \"Bertie Meyer\"), a backer of plays, whose association with Christie's stage works dated back to *[Alibi](/wiki/Alibi_%28play%29 \"Alibi (play)\")* in 1928, signed a contract to produce *The Hollow* in 1950 and plans were made with Christie's agent, Edmund Cork, to open the play in London to coincide with the start of the [Festival of Britain](/wiki/Festival_of_Britain \"Festival of Britain\"). These plans came to nothing and Christie was annoyed at the treatment she was starting to receive from Meyer on this and his slow response to staging another play she had written, *[Towards Zero](/wiki/Towards_Zero_%28play%29 \"Towards Zero (play)\")*.Saunders, Peter. *The Mousetrap Man*. (Page 108\\) Collins, 1972\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-00\\-211538\\-7}} Meyer turned it down as he believed that it would be too difficult to cast, although it has been speculated that the [anti\\-Semitism](/wiki/Anti-Semitism \"Anti-Semitism\") in the novel was the primary reason, him being Jewish.{{cite book\\|last\\=Pendergast\\|first\\=Bruce\\|title\\=Everyman's Guide to the Mysteries of Agatha Christie\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DCfEhieX8F0C\\&pg\\=PT308\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Trafford Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4120\\-2304\\-7\\|page\\=308}} During the year, [Peter Saunders](/wiki/Peter_Saunders_%28impresario%29 \"Peter Saunders (impresario)\"), a young and new theatrical producer had sustained a significant loss when he staged an adaptation by Dan Sutherland of [Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's](/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle \"Arthur Conan Doyle\") 1913 book, *[The Poison Belt](/wiki/The_Poison_Belt \"The Poison Belt\")*. Desperate to make up these losses, he cast around for a play that he could take on tour which would not involve too much expense and which would be sure to attract a paying audience. Charles and Toy's adaptation of Christie's *Murder at the Vicarage* was just about to finish a four\\-month run at the [Playhouse Theatre](/wiki/Playhouse_Theatre \"Playhouse Theatre\") and, desperate to minimise his costs, he hit upon the idea that the name of the actors who starred in the production wouldn't really matter as Christie herself was enough of a public name to attract the audience. He therefore deliberately advertised the play as *Agatha Christie's \"Murder at the Vicarage\"* rather than *\"Murder at the Vicarage\" by Agatha Christie*. This small piece of showmanship worked. He recouped his losses and, more importantly, brought himself to the attention of Christie who, annoyed with the slow progress of Bertie Meyer, gave *The Hollow* to Saunders instead.Saunders. (Pages 106–108\\)", "Saunders faced great difficulties in staging the play, including refusals to assist in casting or finance from colleagues in the theatrical world, who felt that the piece was badly written. One problem was the casting of the star part of Lady Angkatell and it was Saunders who hit upon the idea of [Jeanne De Casalis](/wiki/Jeanne_De_Casalis \"Jeanne De Casalis\"), a choice that Christie did not accept at first but which she later admitted was right.Saunders. (Pages 112–113\\)", "The play opened at the [Arts Theatre](/wiki/Cambridge_Arts_Theatre \"Cambridge Arts Theatre\") in [Cambridge](/wiki/Cambridge \"Cambridge\") on 10 February 1951, although Christie was absent as she was in [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") accompanying her husband [Max Mallowan](/wiki/Max_Mallowan \"Max Mallowan\") on one of his archaeological expeditions. She arranged for flowers to be sent to the female members of the cast. Hundreds of miles away, she was as nervous as ever at the public reaction, although she was reassured by telegrams which told her that the opening night was a success. Even so, Saunders and director [Hubert Gregg](/wiki/Hubert_Gregg \"Hubert Gregg\") had to make some amendments to take out some of the unintentional comic moments that had occurred on the first night.[Morgan, Janet](/wiki/Janet_Morgan%2C_Lady_Balfour_of_Burleigh \"Janet Morgan, Lady Balfour of Burleigh\"). *Agatha Christie, A Biography.* (Page 288\\) Collins, 1984 {{ISBN\\|0\\-00\\-216330\\-6}}.", "After an eight\\-week tour, the play opened at the [Fortune Theatre](/wiki/Fortune_Theatre \"Fortune Theatre\") in London on 7 June 1951 to an enthusiastic press response. It transferred to the [Ambassadors Theatre](/wiki/Ambassadors_Theatre_%28London%29 \"Ambassadors Theatre (London)\") on 8 October 1951Saunders. (Pages 114–115\\) and ran for a total of eleven months and 376 performances,*Book and Magazine Collector*. Issue 174\\. September 1998 enabling Christie to see it on her return.", "One special thrill for Saunders was a request by [Queen Mary](/wiki/Mary_of_Teck \"Mary of Teck\"), a noted Christie fan, to see the play. She came to the Fortune Theatre to do so and met various members of the cast in the interval. Christie herself was so pleased at the efforts that Saunders made that she took him to lunch just after Christmas 1951 and gave him a brown paper package. Inside it was the script for a new play she had just written, *[The Mousetrap](/wiki/The_Mousetrap \"The Mousetrap\")*.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- The action of the play passes in the garden room of Sir Henry Angkatell's house, The Hollow, about eighteen miles from London. Time: the present. **ACT I** * A Friday afternoon in early September The play begins with Henrietta Angkatell (Henry's younger cousin, in her 30s) working on a sculpture and Sir Henry Angkatell reading a newspaper. Lucy Angkatell, Henry's wife, soon enters and makes some characteristically disjointed statements about moles in the garden. Discussion reveals that a number of guests will be arriving to spend the weekend at The Hollow. The first guest to arrive is Midge Hardcastle, another cousin to the Angkatells. The group reflects on a portrait of Ainswick, an estate once inhabited by Lucy Angkatell. Midge and Henrietta remember Ainswick fondly as well, having spent a part of their childhood or adolescence there. Gudgeon, the butler, soon shows in the next guest, Edward Angkatell, yet another cousin and the current owner and resident of Ainswick. It is made clear that Midge is in love with Edward, but Edward is in love with Henrietta. The Angkatell clan briefly leaves the stage, and Gudgeon returns with a maid in training, the working\-class Doris. A car is heard, and Gudgeon greets the final guests, John and Gerda Cristow, a successful but condescending doctor and his slow\-witted wife. After establishing that John doesn't think much of Gerda's intelligence, he departs, and Henrietta enters and warmly greets Gerda. Henrietta gives Gerda a statuette for which she had previously posed. John, Sir Henry, and Midge return from the garden, and John expresses disdain for the statuette. To break the tension, Henry mentions that film star Veronica Craye is currently residing nearby, in a cottage called Dovecotes. John and Henrietta find themselves alone on stage, and after John reveals that he and Veronica Craye were once lovers, it becomes apparent that he and Henrietta are currently having an affair. Edward walks in on an intimate moment between the two, and John leaves. Edward tries to convince Henrietta to return with him to Ainswick, but is rebuffed. Henrietta leaves to get dressed for a formal dinner, and Sir Henry and Midge come onstage. Midge discusses her employment at a dress shop, rejecting her cousins' pleas to accept their financial support and aristocratic lifestyle. As the Angkatells and Cristows all return to the stage, Veronica Craye makes a surprise appearance. She complains that her cottage has lost power, and her lighter is not working, and so is in need of matches. While waiting for Gudgeon to return with the matches, Veronica notices John, and reveals their past to the group. She asks John, dazed by her appearance, to come over after dinner. He assents, and the act ends as Veronica departs and the rest of the cast goes to dinner. **ACT II** * Scene 1 – Saturday morning John Cristow enters, quickly followed by Gudgeon who bears a note that displeases John. Midge enters, and John goes off in search of Henrietta. Lucy enters, and reveals to Midge that she saw John return to the house at three in the morning. Sir Henry then passes through the room with a pair of revolvers on his way to the shooting range, revealing that Lucy is an accomplished markswoman while convincing Midge to join him at the targets. Henrietta enters as shots are heard from off\-stage, quickly followed by Gerda who is alarmed by the gunfire. Henrietta convinces Gerda to try shooting, and the two leave for the target alley. John enters and begins to write letters as Lucy leaves with a basket of eggs. Veronica enters, interrupting John and revealing that she sent the note delivered by Gudgeon at the top of the act. Veronica's lighter is now working, and she reveals that her residence at Dovecotes was part of a plot to reunite with John. She expresses an interest in leaving her current husband and marrying John, but John rebuffs her, expressing a newfound satisfaction with his marriage and regret over the romantic activities of his overnight visit to Dovecotes. Veronica leaves in a rage, but not before threatening John with the telling line, "If I can't have you, no one shall." John finds himself alone, hears a noise from offstage, and goes to investigate. Gunshots are heard, and as John staggers and collapses, a revolver is thrown onstage. Gerda is the first to enter, and picks up the revolver. The entire cast quickly enters, and John musters the strength to call the name "Henrietta." Henrietta wrests the revolver from Gerda, and Gudgeon calls for a doctor as the curtain falls. * Scene 2 – Later the same day The curtain rises on Lucy, Edward, Henrietta, and Midge, sitting in an uncomfortable silence. Lucy expresses admiration for Inspector Colquhoun, the Scotland Yard detective investigating the murder. Gudgeon enters with lunch, and he and Lucy exchange clandestine comments about Lucy's basket of eggs. Lucy and Edward express the opinion that Gerda, having been discovered holding a gun near John after the shooting, is his murderer, while Henrietta insists that Gerda deserves a chance to defend herself. Gerda enters, soon followed by Sir Henry and Inspector Colquohoun. Colquohoun recommends that Gerda hire a solicitor before making a statement, but she declines, and describes her entrance as the audience observed immediately after the shooting. Gerda states that there was no disagreement between her and John in response to Colquohoun's queries. Colquohoun then asks to question Lucy who, delighted with the intrigue, readily complies. They leave with Sir Henry, leaving Edward and Henrietta alone. It becomes apparent that both knew about John and Veronica's rendezvous, Edward expresses sympathy for Henrietta's loss, and Henrietta has an emotional breakdown over John's death. Henrietta leaves as Midge enters. Edward pines for Henrietta while comforting Midge in fatherly way. She attempts to overcome his preconceptions, pointing out that she is "not a child" any more. Edward is called away to be questioned by the inspector, and Henrietta returns from a walk. She and Midge discuss Edward's misplaced affections, and Henrietta recommends that Midge be more bold with her advances. Lucy replaces Henrietta onstage, and expresses a desire for Henrietta and Edward to marry, ensuring that the Ainswick estate will remain in the family. The inspector enters with Police Sergeant Penny. They question Midge, who conceals her knowledge of John's affair with Henrietta, but acknowledges that John's final words were Henrietta's name. The police are left alone on stage. They note that Edward denies Cristow having any final words, while Sir Henry backs Midge's version of events. Henrietta returns, responds frankly to the inspector that she and John were romantically involved, and asserts that Gerda remains oblivious to the affair. Upon her departure, Colquohoun confides to Penny that the identity of the murderer is still unclear. Gudgeon enters, and hypothesizes that a mysterious handbag found on the sofa may belong to Veronica Craye. Fortuitously, Veronica appears, having heard about the murder. She claims John was obsessed with her, and that she had to rebuff his offer of reconciliation. She claims ownership of the handbag, but becomes irate when Colquohoun reveals a gun he found in the bag. Veronica storms out, refusing to comment further without a lawyer. **ACT III** *(The lights are lowered during the act to denote the passing of one hour.)* * The following Monday morning The curtain rises on Inspector Colquohoun and Sergeant Penny looking at the portrait of Ainswick, and discussing the estate's inheritance. Doris enters, reveals that she saw Gudgeon carrying a revolver the day of the murder, and quickly leaves. Sir Henry enters, and upon being questioned about his firearm collection, says that the gun Gerda was holding at the time of the murder was among them, and that he had brought it to the target alley but had subsequently found it missing. Coulqouhoun states that ballistics evidence prove it was not the murder weapon after all. At Coulqouhoun's request, Henry checks his collection again, and discovers that a second gun of the same calibre is missing. Colquohoun shows him the gun found in Veronica's handbag, and Henry confirms that it is one and the same gun. Colquohoun then questions Gudgeon about Doris' earlier statement; Gudgeon confirms the event, saying he was simply up (having found the gun laying out), and had simply forgotten the incident. Lucy enters, dismisses Gudgeon, and reveals that the butler has been attempting to cover for her – the gun had been in her basket of eggs, though she claims not to remember why. When the detectives are gone, she confides to Henry that she had thought John might have an accident involving the basket, but that she would never actually go so far as to commit murder. Edward and Midge soon find themselves alone on stage. Edward's affections have changed, and he and Midge become engaged. Lucy enters, and is delighted by the news. Midge and Henrietta have a private conversation, and Midge begins to suspect that Edward has only proposed to create the illusion that he is not in love with Henrietta, which might be a motive for him to have murdered John. By the time Edward returns, Midge is convinced of this motivation, and calls off their engagement. Edward is distraught, and returns to the stage with a gun, clearly contemplating suicide. Midge finds him, confesses her fears, and the two reconcile. All depart for the formal inquest into the murder, and the lights fade. *An hour later* Gerda and Henrietta enter. Henrietta asks Gerda what she has done with the holster of the murder weapon, stating that if they can get rid of that, there will be no evidence, and no one will be convicted of the murder. Gerda feigns ignorance, but Henrietta is persistent. Gerda tells Henrietta that the cut up scraps are in her leatherworking bag, and confides that she witnessed John's infidelity with Veronica, and therefore had to kill him. Henrietta goes offstage to get some tea to calm Gerda's frazzled nerves. Gerda, thinking she is unobserved, takes a vial of poison from her purse, and pours some into Henrietta's drink. Henrietta returned more quickly than Gerda expected, and witnesses this silently from just outside the room. She enters, more noisily this time. Vocalizing her decision to have tea with Gerda, rather than the sherry she had poured for herself, she leaves to get another teacup. Gerda picks up a revolver, but Inspector Coulquouhoun enters and takes it from her. Upon hearing that Veronica Craye will not be convicted of the murder (she somehow knows about the gun in Veronica's handbag), Gerda begins to go into a hysterical fit, calling for her deceased husband. Inspector Colquohoun unknowingly offers the poisoned drink to Gerda, who drinks it before she realises what she has done. Henrietta returns, and explains the poisoned drink to Colquohoun, who reveals that he had deduced Gerda's guilt from her character. Lucy enters, and the lights go down as the inspector calls the police station. NOTE: Some modern productions restructure the play into two acts, with one intermission following Act 2, Scene 1\.
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "The action of the play passes in the garden room of Sir Henry Angkatell's house, The Hollow, about eighteen miles from London. Time: the present.", "**ACT I**\n* A Friday afternoon in early September", "The play begins with Henrietta Angkatell (Henry's younger cousin, in her 30s) working on a sculpture and Sir Henry Angkatell reading a newspaper. Lucy Angkatell, Henry's wife, soon enters and makes some characteristically disjointed statements about moles in the garden. Discussion reveals that a number of guests will be arriving to spend the weekend at The Hollow. The first guest to arrive is Midge Hardcastle, another cousin to the Angkatells. The group reflects on a portrait of Ainswick, an estate once inhabited by Lucy Angkatell. Midge and Henrietta remember Ainswick fondly as well, having spent a part of their childhood or adolescence there. Gudgeon, the butler, soon shows in the next guest, Edward Angkatell, yet another cousin and the current owner and resident of Ainswick. It is made clear that Midge is in love with Edward, but Edward is in love with Henrietta. The Angkatell clan briefly leaves the stage, and Gudgeon returns with a maid in training, the working\\-class Doris. A car is heard, and Gudgeon greets the final guests, John and Gerda Cristow, a successful but condescending doctor and his slow\\-witted wife. After establishing that John doesn't think much of Gerda's intelligence, he departs, and Henrietta enters and warmly greets Gerda. Henrietta gives Gerda a statuette for which she had previously posed. John, Sir Henry, and Midge return from the garden, and John expresses disdain for the statuette. To break the tension, Henry mentions that film star Veronica Craye is currently residing nearby, in a cottage called Dovecotes. John and Henrietta find themselves alone on stage, and after John reveals that he and Veronica Craye were once lovers, it becomes apparent that he and Henrietta are currently having an affair. Edward walks in on an intimate moment between the two, and John leaves. Edward tries to convince Henrietta to return with him to Ainswick, but is rebuffed. Henrietta leaves to get dressed for a formal dinner, and Sir Henry and Midge come onstage. Midge discusses her employment at a dress shop, rejecting her cousins' pleas to accept their financial support and aristocratic lifestyle. As the Angkatells and Cristows all return to the stage, Veronica Craye makes a surprise appearance. She complains that her cottage has lost power, and her lighter is not working, and so is in need of matches. While waiting for Gudgeon to return with the matches, Veronica notices John, and reveals their past to the group. She asks John, dazed by her appearance, to come over after dinner. He assents, and the act ends as Veronica departs and the rest of the cast goes to dinner.", "**ACT II**\n* Scene 1 – Saturday morning", "John Cristow enters, quickly followed by Gudgeon who bears a note that displeases John. Midge enters, and John goes off in search of Henrietta. Lucy enters, and reveals to Midge that she saw John return to the house at three in the morning. Sir Henry then passes through the room with a pair of revolvers on his way to the shooting range, revealing that Lucy is an accomplished markswoman while convincing Midge to join him at the targets. Henrietta enters as shots are heard from off\\-stage, quickly followed by Gerda who is alarmed by the gunfire. Henrietta convinces Gerda to try shooting, and the two leave for the target alley. John enters and begins to write letters as Lucy leaves with a basket of eggs. Veronica enters, interrupting John and revealing that she sent the note delivered by Gudgeon at the top of the act. Veronica's lighter is now working, and she reveals that her residence at Dovecotes was part of a plot to reunite with John. She expresses an interest in leaving her current husband and marrying John, but John rebuffs her, expressing a newfound satisfaction with his marriage and regret over the romantic activities of his overnight visit to Dovecotes. Veronica leaves in a rage, but not before threatening John with the telling line, \"If I can't have you, no one shall.\" John finds himself alone, hears a noise from offstage, and goes to investigate. Gunshots are heard, and as John staggers and collapses, a revolver is thrown onstage. Gerda is the first to enter, and picks up the revolver. The entire cast quickly enters, and John musters the strength to call the name \"Henrietta.\" Henrietta wrests the revolver from Gerda, and Gudgeon calls for a doctor as the curtain falls.", "* Scene 2 – Later the same day", "The curtain rises on Lucy, Edward, Henrietta, and Midge, sitting in an uncomfortable silence. Lucy expresses admiration for Inspector Colquhoun, the Scotland Yard detective investigating the murder. Gudgeon enters with lunch, and he and Lucy exchange clandestine comments about Lucy's basket of eggs. Lucy and Edward express the opinion that Gerda, having been discovered holding a gun near John after the shooting, is his murderer, while Henrietta insists that Gerda deserves a chance to defend herself. Gerda enters, soon followed by Sir Henry and Inspector Colquohoun. Colquohoun recommends that Gerda hire a solicitor before making a statement, but she declines, and describes her entrance as the audience observed immediately after the shooting. Gerda states that there was no disagreement between her and John in response to Colquohoun's queries. Colquohoun then asks to question Lucy who, delighted with the intrigue, readily complies. They leave with Sir Henry, leaving Edward and Henrietta alone. It becomes apparent that both knew about John and Veronica's rendezvous, Edward expresses sympathy for Henrietta's loss, and Henrietta has an emotional breakdown over John's death. Henrietta leaves as Midge enters. Edward pines for Henrietta while comforting Midge in fatherly way. She attempts to overcome his preconceptions, pointing out that she is \"not a child\" any more. Edward is called away to be questioned by the inspector, and Henrietta returns from a walk. She and Midge discuss Edward's misplaced affections, and Henrietta recommends that Midge be more bold with her advances. Lucy replaces Henrietta onstage, and expresses a desire for Henrietta and Edward to marry, ensuring that the Ainswick estate will remain in the family. The inspector enters with Police Sergeant Penny. They question Midge, who conceals her knowledge of John's affair with Henrietta, but acknowledges that John's final words were Henrietta's name. The police are left alone on stage. They note that Edward denies Cristow having any final words, while Sir Henry backs Midge's version of events. Henrietta returns, responds frankly to the inspector that she and John were romantically involved, and asserts that Gerda remains oblivious to the affair. Upon her departure, Colquohoun confides to Penny that the identity of the murderer is still unclear. Gudgeon enters, and hypothesizes that a mysterious handbag found on the sofa may belong to Veronica Craye. Fortuitously, Veronica appears, having heard about the murder. She claims John was obsessed with her, and that she had to rebuff his offer of reconciliation. She claims ownership of the handbag, but becomes irate when Colquohoun reveals a gun he found in the bag. Veronica storms out, refusing to comment further without a lawyer.", "**ACT III**\n*(The lights are lowered during the act to denote the passing of one hour.)*\n* The following Monday morning", "The curtain rises on Inspector Colquohoun and Sergeant Penny looking at the portrait of Ainswick, and discussing the estate's inheritance. Doris enters, reveals that she saw Gudgeon carrying a revolver the day of the murder, and quickly leaves. Sir Henry enters, and upon being questioned about his firearm collection, says that the gun Gerda was holding at the time of the murder was among them, and that he had brought it to the target alley but had subsequently found it missing. Coulqouhoun states that ballistics evidence prove it was not the murder weapon after all. At Coulqouhoun's request, Henry checks his collection again, and discovers that a second gun of the same calibre is missing. Colquohoun shows him the gun found in Veronica's handbag, and Henry confirms that it is one and the same gun. Colquohoun then questions Gudgeon about Doris' earlier statement; Gudgeon confirms the event, saying he was simply up (having found the gun laying out), and had simply forgotten the incident. Lucy enters, dismisses Gudgeon, and reveals that the butler has been attempting to cover for her – the gun had been in her basket of eggs, though she claims not to remember why. When the detectives are gone, she confides to Henry that she had thought John might have an accident involving the basket, but that she would never actually go so far as to commit murder. Edward and Midge soon find themselves alone on stage. Edward's affections have changed, and he and Midge become engaged. Lucy enters, and is delighted by the news. Midge and Henrietta have a private conversation, and Midge begins to suspect that Edward has only proposed to create the illusion that he is not in love with Henrietta, which might be a motive for him to have murdered John. By the time Edward returns, Midge is convinced of this motivation, and calls off their engagement. Edward is distraught, and returns to the stage with a gun, clearly contemplating suicide. Midge finds him, confesses her fears, and the two reconcile. All depart for the formal inquest into the murder, and the lights fade.", "*An hour later*\nGerda and Henrietta enter. Henrietta asks Gerda what she has done with the holster of the murder weapon, stating that if they can get rid of that, there will be no evidence, and no one will be convicted of the murder. Gerda feigns ignorance, but Henrietta is persistent. Gerda tells Henrietta that the cut up scraps are in her leatherworking bag, and confides that she witnessed John's infidelity with Veronica, and therefore had to kill him. Henrietta goes offstage to get some tea to calm Gerda's frazzled nerves. Gerda, thinking she is unobserved, takes a vial of poison from her purse, and pours some into Henrietta's drink. Henrietta returned more quickly than Gerda expected, and witnesses this silently from just outside the room. She enters, more noisily this time. Vocalizing her decision to have tea with Gerda, rather than the sherry she had poured for herself, she leaves to get another teacup. Gerda picks up a revolver, but Inspector Coulquouhoun enters and takes it from her. Upon hearing that Veronica Craye will not be convicted of the murder (she somehow knows about the gun in Veronica's handbag), Gerda begins to go into a hysterical fit, calling for her deceased husband. Inspector Colquohoun unknowingly offers the poisoned drink to Gerda, who drinks it before she realises what she has done. Henrietta returns, and explains the poisoned drink to Colquohoun, who reveals that he had deduced Gerda's guilt from her character. Lucy enters, and the lights go down as the inspector calls the police station.", "NOTE: Some modern productions restructure the play into two acts, with one intermission following Act 2, Scene 1\\.", "" ]
History ------- [right\|thumbnail\|100px\|Mustangs' Logo](/wiki/File:Wisconsin_Mustangs_Logo.png "Wisconsin Mustangs Logo.png") ### 2000–09 The organization was founded in 2000 as the **Northwest Wisconsin Knights** in [Spooner, Wisconsin](/wiki/Spooner%2C_Wisconsin "Spooner, Wisconsin"), as a [Junior B](/wiki/Junior_ice_hockey%23Tier_III "Junior ice hockey#Tier III") team in the [Minnesota Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Minnesota_Junior_Hockey_League "Minnesota Junior Hockey League") (MnJHL). In 2004, the Knights changed their name to the **Wisconsin Mustangs**. In 2006, the MnJHL was promoted to Tier III Junior A status by [USA Hockey](/wiki/USA_Hockey "USA Hockey"). From 2001 until 2003, the Knights had an interleague relationship with the [Superior International Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Superior_International_Junior_Hockey_League "Superior International Junior Hockey League") (SIJHL) of [Hockey Canada](/wiki/Hockey_Canada "Hockey Canada"). The 2009–10 season saw them back in an interlock with the SIJHL. ### 2010–19 [thumbnail\|220px\|2011 Wilderness](/wiki/File:Wisc_Wilderness.jpg "Wisc Wilderness.jpg") On May 17, 2010, the Mustangs announced they were officially leaving the MnJHL, their players were released to a dispersal draft.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mnjhl.com/news\_article/show/51290?referrer\_id\=110239 \|title \= Mnjhl.com}} Soon after they applied for entry into the SIJHL. After a couple months of petitioning USA Hockey to join a Hockey Canada\-sanctioned league, they were allowed entry. The team dropped the Mustangs logo, colors, and name as the organization entered the new league as the **[Wisconsin Wilderness](/wiki/Wisconsin_Wilderness "Wisconsin Wilderness")**. On September 17, 2010, the Wilderness played their first game as a full member of the SIJHL, on the road, against the [Sioux Lookout Flyers](/wiki/Sioux_Lookout_Flyers "Sioux Lookout Flyers"), winning the game 3–2\. On September 24, 2010, the Wilderness became the first American\-based full membership SIJHL team to host a regular season game in the United States. The Wilderness defeated the [Fort Frances Lakers](/wiki/Fort_Frances_Lakers "Fort Frances Lakers") 4–3\. In 2011, the Wilderness won the league championship in their inaugural SIJHL season. In the summer of 2012, the team relocated to [Cloquet, Minnesota](/wiki/Cloquet%2C_Minnesota "Cloquet, Minnesota"), and changed their name to the **Minnesota Wilderness**. On May 4, 2013, the Wilderness became the first American team to win the [Dudley Hewitt Cup](/wiki/Dudley_Hewitt_Cup "Dudley Hewitt Cup") by defeating the [St. Michael's Buzzers](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Buzzers "St. Michael's Buzzers") 4–3 in overtime in the Central Canada final. They also became the first American team to participate in the [Royal Bank Cup](/wiki/Royal_Bank_Cup "Royal Bank Cup") tournament, the Canadian National Junior A championship. After winning the [Dudley Hewitt Cup](/wiki/Dudley_Hewitt_Cup "Dudley Hewitt Cup"), the Wilderness announced that the [2013 Royal Bank Cup](/wiki/2013_Royal_Bank_Cup "2013 Royal Bank Cup") would be their final foray in Canadian junior hockey as they joined the [North American Hockey League](/wiki/North_American_Hockey_League "North American Hockey League") (NAHL) at the beginning of the 2013–14 season. At the Royal Bank Cup, Minnesota finished fourth in the round\-robin with a 1–3 record. In the semifinal, they surrendered a 4–2 third period lead to the [Alberta Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Alberta_Junior_Hockey_League "Alberta Junior Hockey League")'s [Brooks Bandits](/wiki/Brooks_Bandits "Brooks Bandits") to lose 5–4 in overtime. Their loss to Brooks ended their hopes of a national championship and was their final game as members of the [Superior International Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Superior_International_Junior_Hockey_League "Superior International Junior Hockey League"). In 2013, the Wilderness bought the franchise rights of the dormant [St. Louis Bandits](/wiki/St._Louis_Bandits "St. Louis Bandits") franchise to obtain entry into the NAHL. ### 2020–present In July 2022, the Wilderness fired assistant coach Brendan Phelps over allegations that he solicited a 16\-year\-old boy for sex online.{{Cite web\|url\=https://kstp.com/kstp\-news/top\-news/minnesota\-wilderness\-coach\-fired\-after\-sex\-solicitation\-allegations/\|title\=Minnesota Wilderness coach fired after sex solicitation allegations\|date\=July 12, 2022\|website\=KSTP Eyewitness News}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://theathletic.com/news/minnesota\-junior\-hockey\-coach\-fired/Q2YsNmN7GqUw/\|title\=Junior hockey coach fired over sexual misconduct allegations\|first\=Katie\|last\=Strang\|website\=The Athletic}} He was also temporarily suspended by the [United States Center for SafeSport](/wiki/United_States_Center_for_SafeSport "United States Center for SafeSport").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.fox21online.com/2022/07/11/minnesota\-wilderness\-assistant\-coach\-brendan\-phelps\-fired\-after\-youtube\-video/\|title\=Minnesota Wilderness Assistant Coach Brendan Phelps Fired after YouTube Video\|work\=Fox\|date\=July 12, 2022}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.duluthnewstribune.com/news/local/no\-charges\-for\-former\-cloquet\-coach\-after\-amateur\-sting\|title\=No charges for former Cloquet coach after amateur sting\|date\=August 18, 2022\|website\=Duluth News Tribune}}
[ "History\n-------", "[right\\|thumbnail\\|100px\\|Mustangs' Logo](/wiki/File:Wisconsin_Mustangs_Logo.png \"Wisconsin Mustangs Logo.png\")\n### 2000–09", "", "", "The organization was founded in 2000 as the **Northwest Wisconsin Knights** in [Spooner, Wisconsin](/wiki/Spooner%2C_Wisconsin \"Spooner, Wisconsin\"), as a [Junior B](/wiki/Junior_ice_hockey%23Tier_III \"Junior ice hockey#Tier III\") team in the [Minnesota Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Minnesota_Junior_Hockey_League \"Minnesota Junior Hockey League\") (MnJHL). In 2004, the Knights changed their name to the **Wisconsin Mustangs**. In 2006, the MnJHL was promoted to Tier III Junior A status by [USA Hockey](/wiki/USA_Hockey \"USA Hockey\").\nFrom 2001 until 2003, the Knights had an interleague relationship with the [Superior International Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Superior_International_Junior_Hockey_League \"Superior International Junior Hockey League\") (SIJHL) of [Hockey Canada](/wiki/Hockey_Canada \"Hockey Canada\"). The 2009–10 season saw them back in an interlock with the SIJHL.", "### 2010–19", "", "[thumbnail\\|220px\\|2011 Wilderness](/wiki/File:Wisc_Wilderness.jpg \"Wisc Wilderness.jpg\")\nOn May 17, 2010, the Mustangs announced they were officially leaving the MnJHL, their players were released to a dispersal draft.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mnjhl.com/news\\_article/show/51290?referrer\\_id\\=110239 \\|title \\= Mnjhl.com}} Soon after they applied for entry into the SIJHL. After a couple months of petitioning USA Hockey to join a Hockey Canada\\-sanctioned league, they were allowed entry. The team dropped the Mustangs logo, colors, and name as the organization entered the new league as the **[Wisconsin Wilderness](/wiki/Wisconsin_Wilderness \"Wisconsin Wilderness\")**.", "", "On September 17, 2010, the Wilderness played their first game as a full member of the SIJHL, on the road, against the [Sioux Lookout Flyers](/wiki/Sioux_Lookout_Flyers \"Sioux Lookout Flyers\"), winning the game 3–2\\. On September 24, 2010, the Wilderness became the first American\\-based full membership SIJHL team to host a regular season game in the United States. The Wilderness defeated the [Fort Frances Lakers](/wiki/Fort_Frances_Lakers \"Fort Frances Lakers\") 4–3\\. In 2011, the Wilderness won the league championship in their inaugural SIJHL season.", "In the summer of 2012, the team relocated to [Cloquet, Minnesota](/wiki/Cloquet%2C_Minnesota \"Cloquet, Minnesota\"), and changed their name to the **Minnesota Wilderness**.", "On May 4, 2013, the Wilderness became the first American team to win the [Dudley Hewitt Cup](/wiki/Dudley_Hewitt_Cup \"Dudley Hewitt Cup\") by defeating the [St. Michael's Buzzers](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Buzzers \"St. Michael's Buzzers\") 4–3 in overtime in the Central Canada final. They also became the first American team to participate in the [Royal Bank Cup](/wiki/Royal_Bank_Cup \"Royal Bank Cup\") tournament, the Canadian National Junior A championship.", "", "After winning the [Dudley Hewitt Cup](/wiki/Dudley_Hewitt_Cup \"Dudley Hewitt Cup\"), the Wilderness announced that the [2013 Royal Bank Cup](/wiki/2013_Royal_Bank_Cup \"2013 Royal Bank Cup\") would be their final foray in Canadian junior hockey as they joined the [North American Hockey League](/wiki/North_American_Hockey_League \"North American Hockey League\") (NAHL) at the beginning of the 2013–14 season. At the Royal Bank Cup, Minnesota finished fourth in the round\\-robin with a 1–3 record. In the semifinal, they surrendered a 4–2 third period lead to the [Alberta Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Alberta_Junior_Hockey_League \"Alberta Junior Hockey League\")'s [Brooks Bandits](/wiki/Brooks_Bandits \"Brooks Bandits\") to lose 5–4 in overtime. Their loss to Brooks ended their hopes of a national championship and was their final game as members of the [Superior International Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Superior_International_Junior_Hockey_League \"Superior International Junior Hockey League\").", "In 2013, the Wilderness bought the franchise rights of the dormant [St. Louis Bandits](/wiki/St._Louis_Bandits \"St. Louis Bandits\") franchise to obtain entry into the NAHL.", "### 2020–present", "", "In July 2022, the Wilderness fired assistant coach Brendan Phelps over allegations that he solicited a 16\\-year\\-old boy for sex online.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://kstp.com/kstp\\-news/top\\-news/minnesota\\-wilderness\\-coach\\-fired\\-after\\-sex\\-solicitation\\-allegations/\\|title\\=Minnesota Wilderness coach fired after sex solicitation allegations\\|date\\=July 12, 2022\\|website\\=KSTP Eyewitness News}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://theathletic.com/news/minnesota\\-junior\\-hockey\\-coach\\-fired/Q2YsNmN7GqUw/\\|title\\=Junior hockey coach fired over sexual misconduct allegations\\|first\\=Katie\\|last\\=Strang\\|website\\=The Athletic}} He was also temporarily suspended by the [United States Center for SafeSport](/wiki/United_States_Center_for_SafeSport \"United States Center for SafeSport\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fox21online.com/2022/07/11/minnesota\\-wilderness\\-assistant\\-coach\\-brendan\\-phelps\\-fired\\-after\\-youtube\\-video/\\|title\\=Minnesota Wilderness Assistant Coach Brendan Phelps Fired after YouTube Video\\|work\\=Fox\\|date\\=July 12, 2022}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.duluthnewstribune.com/news/local/no\\-charges\\-for\\-former\\-cloquet\\-coach\\-after\\-amateur\\-sting\\|title\\=No charges for former Cloquet coach after amateur sting\\|date\\=August 18, 2022\\|website\\=Duluth News Tribune}}", "", "", "" ]
### 2010–19 [thumbnail\|220px\|2011 Wilderness](/wiki/File:Wisc_Wilderness.jpg "Wisc Wilderness.jpg") On May 17, 2010, the Mustangs announced they were officially leaving the MnJHL, their players were released to a dispersal draft.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mnjhl.com/news\_article/show/51290?referrer\_id\=110239 \|title \= Mnjhl.com}} Soon after they applied for entry into the SIJHL. After a couple months of petitioning USA Hockey to join a Hockey Canada\-sanctioned league, they were allowed entry. The team dropped the Mustangs logo, colors, and name as the organization entered the new league as the **[Wisconsin Wilderness](/wiki/Wisconsin_Wilderness "Wisconsin Wilderness")**. On September 17, 2010, the Wilderness played their first game as a full member of the SIJHL, on the road, against the [Sioux Lookout Flyers](/wiki/Sioux_Lookout_Flyers "Sioux Lookout Flyers"), winning the game 3–2\. On September 24, 2010, the Wilderness became the first American\-based full membership SIJHL team to host a regular season game in the United States. The Wilderness defeated the [Fort Frances Lakers](/wiki/Fort_Frances_Lakers "Fort Frances Lakers") 4–3\. In 2011, the Wilderness won the league championship in their inaugural SIJHL season. In the summer of 2012, the team relocated to [Cloquet, Minnesota](/wiki/Cloquet%2C_Minnesota "Cloquet, Minnesota"), and changed their name to the **Minnesota Wilderness**. On May 4, 2013, the Wilderness became the first American team to win the [Dudley Hewitt Cup](/wiki/Dudley_Hewitt_Cup "Dudley Hewitt Cup") by defeating the [St. Michael's Buzzers](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Buzzers "St. Michael's Buzzers") 4–3 in overtime in the Central Canada final. They also became the first American team to participate in the [Royal Bank Cup](/wiki/Royal_Bank_Cup "Royal Bank Cup") tournament, the Canadian National Junior A championship. After winning the [Dudley Hewitt Cup](/wiki/Dudley_Hewitt_Cup "Dudley Hewitt Cup"), the Wilderness announced that the [2013 Royal Bank Cup](/wiki/2013_Royal_Bank_Cup "2013 Royal Bank Cup") would be their final foray in Canadian junior hockey as they joined the [North American Hockey League](/wiki/North_American_Hockey_League "North American Hockey League") (NAHL) at the beginning of the 2013–14 season. At the Royal Bank Cup, Minnesota finished fourth in the round\-robin with a 1–3 record. In the semifinal, they surrendered a 4–2 third period lead to the [Alberta Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Alberta_Junior_Hockey_League "Alberta Junior Hockey League")'s [Brooks Bandits](/wiki/Brooks_Bandits "Brooks Bandits") to lose 5–4 in overtime. Their loss to Brooks ended their hopes of a national championship and was their final game as members of the [Superior International Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Superior_International_Junior_Hockey_League "Superior International Junior Hockey League"). In 2013, the Wilderness bought the franchise rights of the dormant [St. Louis Bandits](/wiki/St._Louis_Bandits "St. Louis Bandits") franchise to obtain entry into the NAHL.
[ "### 2010–19", "", "[thumbnail\\|220px\\|2011 Wilderness](/wiki/File:Wisc_Wilderness.jpg \"Wisc Wilderness.jpg\")\nOn May 17, 2010, the Mustangs announced they were officially leaving the MnJHL, their players were released to a dispersal draft.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mnjhl.com/news\\_article/show/51290?referrer\\_id\\=110239 \\|title \\= Mnjhl.com}} Soon after they applied for entry into the SIJHL. After a couple months of petitioning USA Hockey to join a Hockey Canada\\-sanctioned league, they were allowed entry. The team dropped the Mustangs logo, colors, and name as the organization entered the new league as the **[Wisconsin Wilderness](/wiki/Wisconsin_Wilderness \"Wisconsin Wilderness\")**.", "", "On September 17, 2010, the Wilderness played their first game as a full member of the SIJHL, on the road, against the [Sioux Lookout Flyers](/wiki/Sioux_Lookout_Flyers \"Sioux Lookout Flyers\"), winning the game 3–2\\. On September 24, 2010, the Wilderness became the first American\\-based full membership SIJHL team to host a regular season game in the United States. The Wilderness defeated the [Fort Frances Lakers](/wiki/Fort_Frances_Lakers \"Fort Frances Lakers\") 4–3\\. In 2011, the Wilderness won the league championship in their inaugural SIJHL season.", "In the summer of 2012, the team relocated to [Cloquet, Minnesota](/wiki/Cloquet%2C_Minnesota \"Cloquet, Minnesota\"), and changed their name to the **Minnesota Wilderness**.", "On May 4, 2013, the Wilderness became the first American team to win the [Dudley Hewitt Cup](/wiki/Dudley_Hewitt_Cup \"Dudley Hewitt Cup\") by defeating the [St. Michael's Buzzers](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Buzzers \"St. Michael's Buzzers\") 4–3 in overtime in the Central Canada final. They also became the first American team to participate in the [Royal Bank Cup](/wiki/Royal_Bank_Cup \"Royal Bank Cup\") tournament, the Canadian National Junior A championship.", "", "After winning the [Dudley Hewitt Cup](/wiki/Dudley_Hewitt_Cup \"Dudley Hewitt Cup\"), the Wilderness announced that the [2013 Royal Bank Cup](/wiki/2013_Royal_Bank_Cup \"2013 Royal Bank Cup\") would be their final foray in Canadian junior hockey as they joined the [North American Hockey League](/wiki/North_American_Hockey_League \"North American Hockey League\") (NAHL) at the beginning of the 2013–14 season. At the Royal Bank Cup, Minnesota finished fourth in the round\\-robin with a 1–3 record. In the semifinal, they surrendered a 4–2 third period lead to the [Alberta Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Alberta_Junior_Hockey_League \"Alberta Junior Hockey League\")'s [Brooks Bandits](/wiki/Brooks_Bandits \"Brooks Bandits\") to lose 5–4 in overtime. Their loss to Brooks ended their hopes of a national championship and was their final game as members of the [Superior International Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Superior_International_Junior_Hockey_League \"Superior International Junior Hockey League\").", "In 2013, the Wilderness bought the franchise rights of the dormant [St. Louis Bandits](/wiki/St._Louis_Bandits \"St. Louis Bandits\") franchise to obtain entry into the NAHL.", "" ]
Public institutions ------------------- All publicly funded post\-secondary institutions, including comprehensive community colleges, polytechnic institutions, and other institutions like the [Banff Centre](/wiki/Banff_Centre "Banff Centre") are governed under provincial legislation called the Post\-secondary Learning Act.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.alberta.ca/types\-publicly\-funded\-post\-secondary\-institutions\#jumplinks\-2\|website\=www.alberta.ca\|title\=Types of publicly funded institutions\|year\=2024\|publisher\=Government of Alberta\|access\-date\=5 February 2024}} ### Comprehensive community colleges Comprehensive community colleges are publicly funded post\-secondary institutions with a focus on providing vocational skills in specific fields, as well as providing [continuing education](/wiki/Continuing_education "Continuing education") programs and academic upgrading needed for admission into other institutions (like [universities in Alberta](/wiki/Universities_in_Alberta "Universities in Alberta")). These institutions may conduct research that supports economic and social development in their region. These institutions provide [certificate](/wiki/Academic_certificate "Academic certificate") and [diploma](/wiki/Diploma "Diploma") programs. These institutions may also provide apprenticeships for technical training programs and [undergraduate programs](/wiki/Undergraduate_program "Undergraduate program") in collaboration with a university. The following is a list of publicly funded comprehensive community colleges: | Institution | Main campus{{efn\|In addition to their main campuses, several comprehensive community colleges may also operate regional/\[\[satellite campus]]es in other municipalities inside their geographic service area.}} | Primary geographic service area | Founded | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | [Bow Valley College](/wiki/Bow_Valley_College "Bow Valley College") | [Calgary](/wiki/Calgary "Calgary") | [Calgary Metropolitan Region](/wiki/Calgary_Metropolitan_Region "Calgary Metropolitan Region") | 1965 | | [Keyano College](/wiki/Keyano_College "Keyano College") | [Fort McMurray](/wiki/Fort_McMurray "Fort McMurray") | Northeastern Alberta | 1965 | | [Lakeland College](/wiki/Lakeland_College_%28Alberta%29 "Lakeland College (Alberta)") | [Lloydminster](/wiki/Lloydminster "Lloydminster") | East Central Alberta | 1913 | | [Lethbridge College](/wiki/Lethbridge_College "Lethbridge College") | [Lethbridge](/wiki/Lethbridge "Lethbridge") | Southwestern Alberta | 1957 | | [Medicine Hat College](/wiki/Medicine_Hat_College "Medicine Hat College") | [Medicine Hat](/wiki/Medicine_Hat "Medicine Hat") | Southeastern Alberta | 1965 | | [NorQuest College](/wiki/NorQuest_College "NorQuest College") | [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton "Edmonton") | [Edmonton Metropolitan Region](/wiki/Edmonton_Metropolitan_Region "Edmonton Metropolitan Region") | 1965 | | [Northern Lakes College](/wiki/Northern_Lakes_College "Northern Lakes College") | [Slave Lake](/wiki/Slave_Lake "Slave Lake") | North Central Alberta | 1999 | | [Olds College](/wiki/Olds_College "Olds College") | [Olds](/wiki/Olds%2C_Alberta "Olds, Alberta") | Central Alberta | 1913 | | [Portage College](/wiki/Portage_College "Portage College") | [Lac La Biche](/wiki/Lac_La_Biche%2C_Alberta "Lac La Biche, Alberta") | East Central Alberta | 1968 | ### Polytechnic institutions Polytechnic institutions are publicly funded post\-secondary institutions with a focus on industry and [vocational training](/wiki/Vocational_training "Vocational training"), as well as technical programming. These institutions also provide programs for academic upgrading and continuing education programs. These institutions may conduct research and scholarly activities that align with the credentials they offer or are focused on strengthening economic development in the province. These institutions provide apprenticeships, certificate, and diploma programs. These institutions may also provide select undergraduate programs approved by the provincial government. The following is a list of publicly funded comprehensive community colleges: | Institution | Location | Primary geographic service area | Founded | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | [Northern Alberta Institute of Technology](/wiki/Northern_Alberta_Institute_of_Technology "Northern Alberta Institute of Technology") | [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton "Edmonton") | [Northern Alberta](/wiki/Northern_Alberta "Northern Alberta") | 1962 | | [Northwestern Polytechnic](/wiki/Northwestern_Polytechnic "Northwestern Polytechnic") | [Grande Prairie](/wiki/Grande_Prairie "Grande Prairie") | Northwestern Alberta | 1966 | | [Red Deer Polytechnic](/wiki/Red_Deer_Polytechnic "Red Deer Polytechnic") | [Red Deer](/wiki/Red_Deer%2C_Alberta "Red Deer, Alberta") | [Central Alberta](/wiki/Central_Alberta "Central Alberta") | 1964 | | [Southern Alberta Institute of Technology](/wiki/Southern_Alberta_Institute_of_Technology "Southern Alberta Institute of Technology") | [Calgary](/wiki/Calgary "Calgary") | [Southern Alberta](/wiki/Southern_Alberta "Southern Alberta") | 1916 | ### Other public institutions There is one publicly funded institution in Alberta with a specialized focus on the [fine arts](/wiki/Fine_arts "Fine arts") and culture, the [Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity](/wiki/Banff_Centre_for_Arts_and_Creativity "Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity"), based in [Banff](/wiki/Banff%2C_Alberta "Banff, Alberta"). As opposed to other publicly funded comprehensive community colleges and polytechnic institutions, the Banff Centre services the entire province. The Banff Centre provides certificate and diploma programs and is permitted to conduct research and scholarly activities that align with the credentials they offer.
[ "Public institutions\n-------------------", "All publicly funded post\\-secondary institutions, including comprehensive community colleges, polytechnic institutions, and other institutions like the [Banff Centre](/wiki/Banff_Centre \"Banff Centre\") are governed under provincial legislation called the Post\\-secondary Learning Act.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.alberta.ca/types\\-publicly\\-funded\\-post\\-secondary\\-institutions\\#jumplinks\\-2\\|website\\=www.alberta.ca\\|title\\=Types of publicly funded institutions\\|year\\=2024\\|publisher\\=Government of Alberta\\|access\\-date\\=5 February 2024}}", "### Comprehensive community colleges", "Comprehensive community colleges are publicly funded post\\-secondary institutions with a focus on providing vocational skills in specific fields, as well as providing [continuing education](/wiki/Continuing_education \"Continuing education\") programs and academic upgrading needed for admission into other institutions (like [universities in Alberta](/wiki/Universities_in_Alberta \"Universities in Alberta\")). These institutions may conduct research that supports economic and social development in their region.", "These institutions provide [certificate](/wiki/Academic_certificate \"Academic certificate\") and [diploma](/wiki/Diploma \"Diploma\") programs. These institutions may also provide apprenticeships for technical training programs and [undergraduate programs](/wiki/Undergraduate_program \"Undergraduate program\") in collaboration with a university.", "The following is a list of publicly funded comprehensive community colleges:", "| Institution | Main campus{{efn\\|In addition to their main campuses, several comprehensive community colleges may also operate regional/\\[\\[satellite campus]]es in other municipalities inside their geographic service area.}} | Primary geographic service area | Founded |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Bow Valley College](/wiki/Bow_Valley_College \"Bow Valley College\") | [Calgary](/wiki/Calgary \"Calgary\") | [Calgary Metropolitan Region](/wiki/Calgary_Metropolitan_Region \"Calgary Metropolitan Region\") | 1965 |\n| [Keyano College](/wiki/Keyano_College \"Keyano College\") | [Fort McMurray](/wiki/Fort_McMurray \"Fort McMurray\") | Northeastern Alberta | 1965 |\n| [Lakeland College](/wiki/Lakeland_College_%28Alberta%29 \"Lakeland College (Alberta)\") | [Lloydminster](/wiki/Lloydminster \"Lloydminster\") | East Central Alberta | 1913 |\n| [Lethbridge College](/wiki/Lethbridge_College \"Lethbridge College\") | [Lethbridge](/wiki/Lethbridge \"Lethbridge\") | Southwestern Alberta | 1957 |\n| [Medicine Hat College](/wiki/Medicine_Hat_College \"Medicine Hat College\") | [Medicine Hat](/wiki/Medicine_Hat \"Medicine Hat\") | Southeastern Alberta | 1965 |\n| [NorQuest College](/wiki/NorQuest_College \"NorQuest College\") | [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton \"Edmonton\") | [Edmonton Metropolitan Region](/wiki/Edmonton_Metropolitan_Region \"Edmonton Metropolitan Region\") | 1965 |\n| [Northern Lakes College](/wiki/Northern_Lakes_College \"Northern Lakes College\") | [Slave Lake](/wiki/Slave_Lake \"Slave Lake\") | North Central Alberta | 1999 |\n| [Olds College](/wiki/Olds_College \"Olds College\") | [Olds](/wiki/Olds%2C_Alberta \"Olds, Alberta\") | Central Alberta | 1913 |\n| [Portage College](/wiki/Portage_College \"Portage College\") | [Lac La Biche](/wiki/Lac_La_Biche%2C_Alberta \"Lac La Biche, Alberta\") | East Central Alberta | 1968 |", "", "### Polytechnic institutions", "Polytechnic institutions are publicly funded post\\-secondary institutions with a focus on industry and [vocational training](/wiki/Vocational_training \"Vocational training\"), as well as technical programming. These institutions also provide programs for academic upgrading and continuing education programs. These institutions may conduct research and scholarly activities that align with the credentials they offer or are focused on strengthening economic development in the province.", "These institutions provide apprenticeships, certificate, and diploma programs. These institutions may also provide select undergraduate programs approved by the provincial government.", "The following is a list of publicly funded comprehensive community colleges:", "| Institution | Location | Primary geographic service area | Founded |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Northern Alberta Institute of Technology](/wiki/Northern_Alberta_Institute_of_Technology \"Northern Alberta Institute of Technology\") | [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton \"Edmonton\") | [Northern Alberta](/wiki/Northern_Alberta \"Northern Alberta\") | 1962 |\n| [Northwestern Polytechnic](/wiki/Northwestern_Polytechnic \"Northwestern Polytechnic\") | [Grande Prairie](/wiki/Grande_Prairie \"Grande Prairie\") | Northwestern Alberta | 1966 |\n| [Red Deer Polytechnic](/wiki/Red_Deer_Polytechnic \"Red Deer Polytechnic\") | [Red Deer](/wiki/Red_Deer%2C_Alberta \"Red Deer, Alberta\") | [Central Alberta](/wiki/Central_Alberta \"Central Alberta\") | 1964 |\n| [Southern Alberta Institute of Technology](/wiki/Southern_Alberta_Institute_of_Technology \"Southern Alberta Institute of Technology\") | [Calgary](/wiki/Calgary \"Calgary\") | [Southern Alberta](/wiki/Southern_Alberta \"Southern Alberta\") | 1916 |", "### Other public institutions", "There is one publicly funded institution in Alberta with a specialized focus on the [fine arts](/wiki/Fine_arts \"Fine arts\") and culture, the [Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity](/wiki/Banff_Centre_for_Arts_and_Creativity \"Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity\"), based in [Banff](/wiki/Banff%2C_Alberta \"Banff, Alberta\"). As opposed to other publicly funded comprehensive community colleges and polytechnic institutions, the Banff Centre services the entire province. The Banff Centre provides certificate and diploma programs and is permitted to conduct research and scholarly activities that align with the credentials they offer.", "" ]
Trial ----- The pilots were subsequently indicted by a [Miami\-Dade County](/wiki/Miami-Dade_County "Miami-Dade County") [grand jury](/wiki/Grand_jury "Grand jury") on one count each of operating an aircraft while intoxicated. They were released on $7,500 bail. The pilots tried to get the case thrown out, contending that the federal government had exclusive jurisdiction over aviation safety unless there is a loss of life, serious injury, or damage to property. In 2003, a federal judge agreed with the pilots. This was critical, because federal law allows for prosecution only if one's blood alcohol content is 0\.10 or higher. The pilots were below that standard (although they were far above the FAA standard), raising the possibility that they would escape federal charges; however, the [11th Circuit Court of Appeals](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eleventh_Circuit "United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit") ruled that Florida did have jurisdiction over the case and that its prosecution had to run its course before federal courts got involved. The [Supreme Court](/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court "United States Supreme Court") refused to consider the case.{{cite web\|title\=Docket No. 04\-526\|publisher\=Supreme Court of the United States\|url\=https://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename\=/docketfiles/04\-526\.htm}} The pilots then negotiated a plea bargain in which they would have pleaded guilty in return for 14\-month [prison](/wiki/Prison "Prison") terms; Circuit Court [Judge David Young](/wiki/David_Young_%28judge%29 "David Young (judge)") rejected the deal, and the trial began in May 2005\. The main issue of the trial was the definition of "operating an aircraft": in order to get a conviction, the state had to prove the pilots were in control of the plane while under the influence of alcohol. The prosecution contended that the pilots were operating the aircraft from the moment they assumed responsibility for the plane. An America West operations manager testified that the captain had signed a dispatch release, accepting responsibility for the Airbus. When they arrived on the plane, prosecutors said, the pilots began several steps to complete the operation process: the first officer performed several safety checks and received clearance to input flight directives. The prosecution also heavily stressed the pilots' blood alcohol levels, which were taken nearly three hours after they arrived at the airport and over seven hours after they had their last drink. One state witness even suggested that at the time they arrived on the plane, the pilots may have had blood alcohol levels as high as 0\.15\. The defense contended that the order to return the plane to the terminal was issued before the plane was released from the tug: they argued that there was no steering at the time and, therefore, the pilots were never in control of the plane. The defense called only one witness, tug operator Franklin Tejeda, who said that he never relinquished control of the plane, since there was a steel rod attached to the nose wheel. As long as the rod was attached, Tejeda said, the pilots could not steer the plane. However, the prosecution got him to admit that he only began driving the tug when ordered to do so by the pilots. This admission by Tejeda was a fatal blow to the pilots' defense. On June 8, after six hours of deliberation, a six\-member jury convicted the pilots of operating an aircraft while intoxicated. In sentencing on July 20, Young called the pilots' behavior "outrageous," especially in light of the [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks "September 11, 2001 attacks"). He sentenced the captain to the maximum sentence of five years in prison and sentenced the first officer to 2\.5 years in prison. In addition, both men were fined $5,000 and were placed on a period of probation after they were released, during which they had to perform community service and not be allowed to fly a plane. The first officer and the captain were released on July 21, 2007, and September 5, 2009, respectively.
[ "Trial\n-----", "The pilots were subsequently indicted by a [Miami\\-Dade County](/wiki/Miami-Dade_County \"Miami-Dade County\") [grand jury](/wiki/Grand_jury \"Grand jury\") on one count each of operating an aircraft while intoxicated. They were released on $7,500 bail.", "The pilots tried to get the case thrown out, contending that the federal government had exclusive jurisdiction over aviation safety unless there is a loss of life, serious injury, or damage to property. In 2003, a federal judge agreed with the pilots. This was critical, because federal law allows for prosecution only if one's blood alcohol content is 0\\.10 or higher. The pilots were below that standard (although they were far above the FAA standard), raising the possibility that they would escape federal charges; however, the [11th Circuit Court of Appeals](/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eleventh_Circuit \"United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit\") ruled that Florida did have jurisdiction over the case and that its prosecution had to run its course before federal courts got involved. The [Supreme Court](/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court \"United States Supreme Court\") refused to consider the case.{{cite web\\|title\\=Docket No. 04\\-526\\|publisher\\=Supreme Court of the United States\\|url\\=https://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename\\=/docketfiles/04\\-526\\.htm}} The pilots then negotiated a plea bargain in which they would have pleaded guilty in return for 14\\-month [prison](/wiki/Prison \"Prison\") terms; Circuit Court [Judge David Young](/wiki/David_Young_%28judge%29 \"David Young (judge)\") rejected the deal, and the trial began in May 2005\\.", "The main issue of the trial was the definition of \"operating an aircraft\": in order to get a conviction, the state had to prove the pilots were in control of the plane while under the influence of alcohol. The prosecution contended that the pilots were operating the aircraft from the moment they assumed responsibility for the plane. An America West operations manager testified that the captain had signed a dispatch release, accepting responsibility for the Airbus. When they arrived on the plane, prosecutors said, the pilots began several steps to complete the operation process: the first officer performed several safety checks and received clearance to input flight directives. The prosecution also heavily stressed the pilots' blood alcohol levels, which were taken nearly three hours after they arrived at the airport and over seven hours after they had their last drink. One state witness even suggested that at the time they arrived on the plane, the pilots may have had blood alcohol levels as high as 0\\.15\\.", "The defense contended that the order to return the plane to the terminal was issued before the plane was released from the tug: they argued that there was no steering at the time and, therefore, the pilots were never in control of the plane. The defense called only one witness, tug operator Franklin Tejeda, who said that he never relinquished control of the plane, since there was a steel rod attached to the nose wheel. As long as the rod was attached, Tejeda said, the pilots could not steer the plane. However, the prosecution got him to admit that he only began driving the tug when ordered to do so by the pilots. This admission by Tejeda was a fatal blow to the pilots' defense. On June 8, after six hours of deliberation, a six\\-member jury convicted the pilots of operating an aircraft while intoxicated.", "In sentencing on July 20, Young called the pilots' behavior \"outrageous,\" especially in light of the [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks \"September 11, 2001 attacks\"). He sentenced the captain to the maximum sentence of five years in prison and sentenced the first officer to 2\\.5 years in prison. In addition, both men were fined $5,000 and were placed on a period of probation after they were released, during which they had to perform community service and not be allowed to fly a plane.", "The first officer and the captain were released on July 21, 2007, and September 5, 2009, respectively.", "" ]
Architecture ------------ Chavín de Huántar was the place of origin of the second large\-scale political entity in the central Andes, and this is mainly due to the extensive architecture at the site{{Cite journal\|last\=Rick\|first\=John W\|title\=Context, Construction, and Ritual in the Development of Authority at Chavín de Huantar\|journal\=Chavín: Art, Architecture, and Culture}} as well as the architecture is considered an engineering accomplishment. The site uses both internal and external architecture. Internal architecture refers to galleries, passageways, rooms, staircases, ventilation shafts, and drainage canals. External architecture refers to plazas, platform mounds, and terraces.{{Cite journal\|last\=Kembel\|first\=Silvia Rodriguez\|title\=The Architecture at the Monumental Center of Chavín de Huántar: Sequence, Transformation and Chronology\|journal\=Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture}} Construction of the "Old Temple" took place from around 900 to 500 BCE, and construction of the "New Temple", the structure that was constructed and added on to the "Old Temple", took place from around 500 to 200 BCE. The lack of residential structures, occupational deposits, generalized weaponry, and evidence of storage further make the site's architecture more interesting, as it focuses mainly on the temples and what lies inside of them. The monumental center at Chavín de Huántar was built in at least 15 known phases, all of which incorporate the 39 known episodes of gallery construction. The earliest known construction stage, the Separate Mound Stage, consisted of separate buildings and do not conform, necessarily, to the U\-shaped pattern seen in the Initial Horizon Period and the Early Horizon Period. During the Expansion Stage, construction integrated stepped platforms and created contiguous U\-shaped form by connecting the buildings, which now surround open spaces. At this stage, galleries are elaborate in form and features. During the Black and White Stage, all known plazas (the Plaza Mayor, Plaza Menor, and the Circular Plaza) were constructed. As construction came to an end, galleries took on a more standardized look. By the end of the growth process, buildings become plazas with a U\-shaped arrangement and an east\-west axis bisecting the enclosed space. The axis also intersects the [Lanzón](/wiki/Lanz%C3%B3n "Lanzón"). Modifications were done during all stages of construction to maintain access to the internal architecture of the site. There was a high level of interest in maintaining access to internal architecture and sacred elements of the site. The internal architecture was constructed as part of a single design and was intricately incorporated with the external architecture. Including lateral and asymmetrical growth allowed for these sacred elements to remain visible, including the Lanzón. The Lanzón Gallery was created from an earlier freestanding structure that was then transformed into a stone\-roofed internal space by constructing around it. The Lanzón was possibly present before the roofing, as it is likely that the Lanzón predates the construction of mounds and plazas. In general, galleries follow construction patterns, which indicates a massive effort in design and planning. Maintaining these galleries over time was important to architects. The galleries are known to be windowless, dead ends, sharp turns and changes in floor height, all of which were designed to disorient people walking in them. A combination of symmetry and asymmetry was used in the design and planning of the site construction, and in fact, guided the design. There were centered placements of staircases, entrances, and patios, all of which were consistently prominent. In the last stages of construction, due to constraints, centeredness was no longer possible, so architects shifted to constructing symmetrical pairs. Externally, buildings were asymmetrical to each other. The primary construction materials used were quartzite and sandstone, white granite, and black limestone. Alternate coursing of quartzite was used in the major platforms, while white sandstone and white granite were used interchangeably in the architecture, and were almost always cut and polished. Granite and black\-veined limestone were the raw materials used in almost all of the engraved lithic art at the site. Granite was also used extensively in the construction of the Circular Plaza. Stone\-faced platform mounds at the site were made using an orderly fill of rectangular quartzite blocks in leveled layers. Platforms were built directly on top of fallen wall stones from earlier constructions, as there was little to no attempt to remove debris.
[ "Architecture\n------------", "Chavín de Huántar was the place of origin of the second large\\-scale political entity in the central Andes, and this is mainly due to the extensive architecture at the site{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Rick\\|first\\=John W\\|title\\=Context, Construction, and Ritual in the Development of Authority at Chavín de Huantar\\|journal\\=Chavín: Art, Architecture, and Culture}} as well as the architecture is considered an engineering accomplishment. The site uses both internal and external architecture. Internal architecture refers to galleries, passageways, rooms, staircases, ventilation shafts, and drainage canals. External architecture refers to plazas, platform mounds, and terraces.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Kembel\\|first\\=Silvia Rodriguez\\|title\\=The Architecture at the Monumental Center of Chavín de Huántar: Sequence, Transformation and Chronology\\|journal\\=Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture}} Construction of the \"Old Temple\" took place from around 900 to 500 BCE, and construction of the \"New Temple\", the structure that was constructed and added on to the \"Old Temple\", took place from around 500 to 200 BCE. The lack of residential structures, occupational deposits, generalized weaponry, and evidence of storage further make the site's architecture more interesting, as it focuses mainly on the temples and what lies inside of them.", "The monumental center at Chavín de Huántar was built in at least 15 known phases, all of which incorporate the 39 known episodes of gallery construction. The earliest known construction stage, the Separate Mound Stage, consisted of separate buildings and do not conform, necessarily, to the U\\-shaped pattern seen in the Initial Horizon Period and the Early Horizon Period. During the Expansion Stage, construction integrated stepped platforms and created contiguous U\\-shaped form by connecting the buildings, which now surround open spaces. At this stage, galleries are elaborate in form and features. During the Black and White Stage, all known plazas (the Plaza Mayor, Plaza Menor, and the Circular Plaza) were constructed. As construction came to an end, galleries took on a more standardized look. By the end of the growth process, buildings become plazas with a U\\-shaped arrangement and an east\\-west axis bisecting the enclosed space. The axis also intersects the [Lanzón](/wiki/Lanz%C3%B3n \"Lanzón\").", "Modifications were done during all stages of construction to maintain access to the internal architecture of the site. There was a high level of interest in maintaining access to internal architecture and sacred elements of the site. The internal architecture was constructed as part of a single design and was intricately incorporated with the external architecture. Including lateral and asymmetrical growth allowed for these sacred elements to remain visible, including the Lanzón.", "The Lanzón Gallery was created from an earlier freestanding structure that was then transformed into a stone\\-roofed internal space by constructing around it. The Lanzón was possibly present before the roofing, as it is likely that the Lanzón predates the construction of mounds and plazas. In general, galleries follow construction patterns, which indicates a massive effort in design and planning. Maintaining these galleries over time was important to architects. The galleries are known to be windowless, dead ends, sharp turns and changes in floor height, all of which were designed to disorient people walking in them.", "A combination of symmetry and asymmetry was used in the design and planning of the site construction, and in fact, guided the design. There were centered placements of staircases, entrances, and patios, all of which were consistently prominent. In the last stages of construction, due to constraints, centeredness was no longer possible, so architects shifted to constructing symmetrical pairs. Externally, buildings were asymmetrical to each other.", "The primary construction materials used were quartzite and sandstone, white granite, and black limestone. Alternate coursing of quartzite was used in the major platforms, while white sandstone and white granite were used interchangeably in the architecture, and were almost always cut and polished. Granite and black\\-veined limestone were the raw materials used in almost all of the engraved lithic art at the site. Granite was also used extensively in the construction of the Circular Plaza.", "Stone\\-faced platform mounds at the site were made using an orderly fill of rectangular quartzite blocks in leveled layers. Platforms were built directly on top of fallen wall stones from earlier constructions, as there was little to no attempt to remove debris.", "" ]
Art --- {{ multiple image \| align \= right \| direction \= vertical \| header \= Chavín Art \| width \= 200 \| image1 \= Incised Strombus\-Shell Trumpet, 400\-200 B.C.E, L52\.1\.jpg \| caption1 \= Incised Strombus\-Shell Trumpet, 400\-200 B.C.E, \[\[Brooklyn Museum]]. This shell trumpet was probably made for ceremonial use. The incised designs depict a person of high rank, indicated by his facial tattoos and ankle ornament, playing a shell trumpet. The figure is surrounded by snakes, including one that emanates from the instrument. The twisting and intertwined snakes may indicate the power of the trumpet to communicate with supernatural beings. \| image2 \= Chavin lanzon stela2 cyark.jpg \| caption2 \= The \[\[Lanzón]] at Chavín, still image from a video of a photo\-textured \[\[point cloud]] using \[\[3D scanner]] data collected by nonprofit \[\[CyArk]]. }} The Chavín culture represents the first widespread, recognizable artistic style in the Andes. Chavín art can be divided into two phases: The first phase corresponding to the construction of the "Old Temple" at Chavín de Huántar (c. 900–500 BCE); and the second phase corresponding to the construction of Chavín de Huántar's "New Temple" (c. 500–200 BCE). Chavín art is known for its complex iconography and its "mythical realism".{{Cite journal\|last\=Bischof\|first\=Henning\|title\=Context and Content of Early Chavín Art\|journal\=Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture}} There is constant evidence within all types of art (ceramics, pottery, sculptures, etc.) of human\-animal interactions, which was reflective of societal interconnections and how the Chavín people viewed themselves connected with "the other world". Some other iconography found in Chavín art continues to give a glimpse as to what the culture was like, such as the general evidence of the use of [psycho\-active plants](/wiki/Psychoactive_plant "Psychoactive plant") in ritual. The [San Pedro Cactus](/wiki/Trichocereus_macrogonus_var._pachanoi "Trichocereus macrogonus var. pachanoi") is often seen on various art forms, sometimes being held by humans, which is used as evidence to support the use of the plant.{{Cite journal\|last\=Torres\|first\=Constantino Manuel\|title\=Chavín's Psychoactive Pharmacopoeia: The Iconographic Evidence\|journal\=Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture}} The stone sculpture [stela of the cactus bearer](/wiki/Stela_of_the_cactus_bearer "Stela of the cactus bearer") shows an anthropomorphized being with [serpent](/wiki/Snake "Snake") hair, a mouth with [fangs](/wiki/Tusk "Tusk"), a belt with a two\-headed serpent and claws, who in their right hand holds what appears to be a San Pedro cactus.{{Cite web \|last\=Morris \|first\=Hamilton \|date\=2012\-06\-19 \|title\=Desvelando los criptocactos \|url\=https://www.vice.com/es/article/7ban8a/desvelando\-los\-criptocactos\-0000147\-v6n5 \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-24 \|website\=www.vice.com \|language\=es}} A general study of the coastal Chavín pottery with respect to shape reveals two kinds of vessels: a polyhedral carved type and a globular painted type.Tello, Julio C. (1943\) "Discovery of the Chavín Culture in Peru", *American Antiquity* 9(1, Countries South of the Rio Grande):135–160\. Stylistically, Chavín art forms make extensive use of the technique of [contour rivalry](/wiki/Contour_rivalry "Contour rivalry"). The art is intentionally difficult to interpret and understand, since it was intended only to be read by high priests of the Chavín cult, who could understand the intricately complex and sacred designs. The [Raimondi Stele](/wiki/Raimondi_Stele "Raimondi Stele") is one of the major examples of this technique. Ceramics, however, do not appear to represent the same stylistic features that are found on sculptures. Chavín art decorates the walls of the temple and includes carvings, sculptures and pottery. Artists depicted exotic creatures found in other regions, such as jaguars and eagles, rather than local plants and animals. The feline figure is one of the most important motifs seen in Chavín art. It has an important religious meaning and is repeated on many carvings and sculptures. Eagles are also commonly seen throughout Chavín art. There are three important artifacts which are the major examples of Chavín art. These artifacts are the Tello Obelisk, tenon heads, and the [Lanzón](/wiki/Lanz%C3%B3n "Lanzón"). Tello Obelisk is a vertical, rectangular shaft with a step\-like notch at the top. The obelisk is carved in relief on all four sides and consists of two representations of a single\-type creature. The head, body and tail occupy one or the other broad sides, while the legs, genitalia and other subsidiary elements occupy the narrow sides. These creatures have been interpreted as a "cat\-dragon" type of creature (by Tello) and as a cayman (by Rowe and Lathrop).{{Cite journal\|last\=Urton\|first\=Gary\|title\=The Body of Meaning in Chavín Art\|journal\=Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture}} The large artifact may portray a [creation myth](/wiki/Creation_myth "Creation myth"). Tenon heads are found throughout Chavín de Huántar and are one of the most well\-known images associated with the Chavín civilization. Tenon heads are massive stone carvings of fanged jaguar heads which project from the tops of the interior walls. Possibly the most impressive artifact from Chavín de Huántar is the Lanzón. The Lanzón is a 4\.53\-meter\-long carved granite shaft displayed in the temple. The shaft extends through an entire floor of the structure and the ceiling. It is carved with an image of a fanged deity, a recurring image throughout the Chavín civilization.Burger, Richard L. *Chavin and the Origins of Andean Civilization*. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992\. The Lanzón is found in a gallery inside of the Old Temple. The sculpture is enhanced by the four openings of the chamber it lies in, making it so that it allows only partial and segmented views. In rollout drawings, the figures depicted are coherent to interpreters, but it's important to note that this is not how the Lanzón is meant to be seen.{{Cite journal\|last\=Cummins\|first\=Tom\|title\=The Felicitous Legacy of the Lanzón\|journal\=Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture}}
[ "Art\n---", "{{\nmultiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| header \\= Chavín Art\n\\| width \\= 200\n\\| image1 \\= Incised Strombus\\-Shell Trumpet, 400\\-200 B.C.E, L52\\.1\\.jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= Incised Strombus\\-Shell Trumpet, 400\\-200 B.C.E, \\[\\[Brooklyn Museum]]. This shell trumpet was probably made for ceremonial use. The incised designs depict a person of high rank, indicated by his facial tattoos and ankle ornament, playing a shell trumpet. The figure is surrounded by snakes, including one that emanates from the instrument. The twisting and intertwined snakes may indicate the power of the trumpet to communicate with supernatural beings.\n\\| image2 \\= Chavin lanzon stela2 cyark.jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= The \\[\\[Lanzón]] at Chavín, still image from a video of a photo\\-textured \\[\\[point cloud]] using \\[\\[3D scanner]] data collected by nonprofit \\[\\[CyArk]].\n}}\nThe Chavín culture represents the first widespread, recognizable artistic style in the Andes. Chavín art can be divided into two phases: The first phase corresponding to the construction of the \"Old Temple\" at Chavín de Huántar (c. 900–500 BCE); and the second phase corresponding to the construction of Chavín de Huántar's \"New Temple\" (c. 500–200 BCE).", "Chavín art is known for its complex iconography and its \"mythical realism\".{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Bischof\\|first\\=Henning\\|title\\=Context and Content of Early Chavín Art\\|journal\\=Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture}} There is constant evidence within all types of art (ceramics, pottery, sculptures, etc.) of human\\-animal interactions, which was reflective of societal interconnections and how the Chavín people viewed themselves connected with \"the other world\".", "Some other iconography found in Chavín art continues to give a glimpse as to what the culture was like, such as the general evidence of the use of [psycho\\-active plants](/wiki/Psychoactive_plant \"Psychoactive plant\") in ritual. The [San Pedro Cactus](/wiki/Trichocereus_macrogonus_var._pachanoi \"Trichocereus macrogonus var. pachanoi\") is often seen on various art forms, sometimes being held by humans, which is used as evidence to support the use of the plant.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Torres\\|first\\=Constantino Manuel\\|title\\=Chavín's Psychoactive Pharmacopoeia: The Iconographic Evidence\\|journal\\=Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture}} The stone sculpture [stela of the cactus bearer](/wiki/Stela_of_the_cactus_bearer \"Stela of the cactus bearer\") shows an anthropomorphized being with [serpent](/wiki/Snake \"Snake\") hair, a mouth with [fangs](/wiki/Tusk \"Tusk\"), a belt with a two\\-headed serpent and claws, who in their right hand holds what appears to be a San Pedro cactus.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Morris \\|first\\=Hamilton \\|date\\=2012\\-06\\-19 \\|title\\=Desvelando los criptocactos \\|url\\=https://www.vice.com/es/article/7ban8a/desvelando\\-los\\-criptocactos\\-0000147\\-v6n5 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-24 \\|website\\=www.vice.com \\|language\\=es}}", "A general study of the coastal Chavín pottery with respect to shape reveals two kinds of vessels: a polyhedral carved type and a globular painted type.Tello, Julio C. (1943\\) \"Discovery of the Chavín Culture in Peru\", *American Antiquity* 9(1, Countries South of the Rio Grande):135–160\\. Stylistically, Chavín art forms make extensive use of the technique of [contour rivalry](/wiki/Contour_rivalry \"Contour rivalry\"). The art is intentionally difficult to interpret and understand, since it was intended only to be read by high priests of the Chavín cult, who could understand the intricately complex and sacred designs. The [Raimondi Stele](/wiki/Raimondi_Stele \"Raimondi Stele\") is one of the major examples of this technique. Ceramics, however, do not appear to represent the same stylistic features that are found on sculptures.", "Chavín art decorates the walls of the temple and includes carvings, sculptures and pottery. Artists depicted exotic creatures found in other regions, such as jaguars and eagles, rather than local plants and animals. The feline figure is one of the most important motifs seen in Chavín art. It has an important religious meaning and is repeated on many carvings and sculptures. Eagles are also commonly seen throughout Chavín art. There are three important artifacts which are the major examples of Chavín art. These artifacts are the Tello Obelisk, tenon heads, and the [Lanzón](/wiki/Lanz%C3%B3n \"Lanzón\").", "Tello Obelisk is a vertical, rectangular shaft with a step\\-like notch at the top. The obelisk is carved in relief on all four sides and consists of two representations of a single\\-type creature. The head, body and tail occupy one or the other broad sides, while the legs, genitalia and other subsidiary elements occupy the narrow sides. These creatures have been interpreted as a \"cat\\-dragon\" type of creature (by Tello) and as a cayman (by Rowe and Lathrop).{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Urton\\|first\\=Gary\\|title\\=The Body of Meaning in Chavín Art\\|journal\\=Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture}} The large artifact may portray a [creation myth](/wiki/Creation_myth \"Creation myth\").", "Tenon heads are found throughout Chavín de Huántar and are one of the most well\\-known images associated with the Chavín civilization. Tenon heads are massive stone carvings of fanged jaguar heads which project from the tops of the interior walls.", "Possibly the most impressive artifact from Chavín de Huántar is the Lanzón. The Lanzón is a 4\\.53\\-meter\\-long carved granite shaft displayed in the temple. The shaft extends through an entire floor of the structure and the ceiling. It is carved with an image of a fanged deity, a recurring image throughout the Chavín civilization.Burger, Richard L. *Chavin and the Origins of Andean Civilization*. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992\\. The Lanzón is found in a gallery inside of the Old Temple. The sculpture is enhanced by the four openings of the chamber it lies in, making it so that it allows only partial and segmented views. In rollout drawings, the figures depicted are coherent to interpreters, but it's important to note that this is not how the Lanzón is meant to be seen.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Cummins\\|first\\=Tom\\|title\\=The Felicitous Legacy of the Lanzón\\|journal\\=Chavín: Art, Architecture and Culture}}", "" ]
Religion and ritual ------------------- [thumb\|[Stele of the cactus bearer](/wiki/Stele_of_the_cactus_bearer "Stele of the cactus bearer"), excavated 1972](/wiki/File:Estela_Wachumero_en_Chavin.jpg "Estela Wachumero en Chavin.jpg") Religion and the practices which followed had a deeper connection to the sociopolitical and economic aspects within the Chavín society.{{Cite book\|title\=Rituals of the Past: Prehispanic and Colonial Case Studies in Andean Archaeology\|last\=Contreras\|first\=Daniel A.\|publisher\=University of Colorado\|year\=2017\|pages\=51–77}} Ritual activity for the Chavín is not fully understood, but a great understanding of the overall ritual influence and impact that ritual had on the Chavín is more evident through their architectural structures, offering deposits, and artistic remains, mainly through pictographic displays. Over time, the effects of ritual moved to be more intimate and exclusive, as evident with the use and development of ritual space and architecture. Religious figures played a large role in how the site was designed and how rituals were oriented. ### Sacred spaces: ritual architecture The overall architecture at Chavín had religious influence and significance. The sacred spaces and structures within this society were evident to have ritualistic and potentially religious purposes. Understanding how the site of [Chavin de Huántar](/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_de_Hu%C3%A1ntar "Chavín de Huántar") is designed allows modern individuals to recognize how the site reflects intentionality of the builders to relay a specific experience.{{Cite book\|title\=Making Senses of the Past : Toward a Sensory Archaeology\|last\=Weismantle\|first\=Mary\|publisher\=Southern Illinois University Press\|year\=2013\|pages\=113–133}} The site was considered to be sensory, meaning that the architectural structure and design elicited a certain feeling through the senses, through sight and touch. It is [perception](/wiki/Perception_%28psychology%29 "Perception (psychology)"), which is essentially a series of physiological responses. Sacred spaces, such as plazas, were designed to mainly disrupt visual impact, meaning that the sacred architecture was designed to be experienced more so than actually viewed. People who designed and built the architecture at Chavín are understood to be priests or religious leaders within the community.{{Cite book\|title\=Rituals of the Past: Prehispanic and Colonial Case Studies in Andean Archaeology\|last\=Rick\|first\=John\|publisher\=University Press of Colorado\|year\=2017\|isbn\=9781607325963\|pages\=21–46}} Configuration of the site also emphasizes that there was a presence of high\-ranked officials. The architecture within Chavín was dictated by these individuals to keep the ritual elements of their culture prominent. This was done so through the details and formatting of each building, which in essence created the effect that those participating in the ritual were experiencing their religious phenomena. Construction of the sacred ritual spaces was done with a diverse labor pattern and no central authority was controlling the area during its actual construction. The ritual architecture of the Chavín is similar to other Andean coastal architecture. The earliest architectural forms on the site were plastered, rectangular chambers. One of these later housed the [Lanzon](/wiki/Lanz%C3%B3n "Lanzón"). The architecture of the Chavín site allowed for a rich and diverse ritual practice within the ritualized spaces, leading scholars to speculate whether or not the Chavín served as a multi\-ethnic ceremonial center; the architecture, materials, and offerings might have been inspired by other cultures, but there is a question as to whether or not it was symbolic of a greater diverse ritual practice. The ritual spaces themselves had a hierarchy, and legitimized and reflected cosmological and social order and structure. The Chavín buildings and spaces used for ritual were constructed to elicit an experience, and encompassed many of the overall architectural facets described previously. Two of the most well\-noted ritual spaces include the Old Temple and New Temple, with a shift to the New Temple as time progressed. Both temples featured pathways and deity worship spaces on the north and south wings. In addition to this, the temples, most notably the Old Temple, had deities carved into stone.{{Cite journal\|last\=Peregrine et a.\|first\=P. N.\|date\=2002\|title\=Chavin\|journal\=Encyclopedia of Prehistory\|via\=41}} The temples were conformed into a U\-shaped area, encompassing a circular plaza. The temples featured ceremonial chambers and sacred hearths. Another important structure designed and utilized for ritual included plazas, of which there were many. The Circular Plaza in particular and the Square Plaza were two of the sites primarily focused around ceremonial activity. Within the Chavín site was a structure which revealed rooms and galleries, speculated by archaeologists to be used as “ritual chambers” for a variety of ceremonies, including what could have been a ceremony surrounding fire. Major use of underground space in the form of stone\-lined galleries that are often like labyrinths and run through the monuments’ major platforms and mounds has been speculated to be a center for religious activity where ceremonies occurred in several different contexts involving both audiences and participants. The open spaces of plazas versus the small restricted spaces of Chavín galleries in the temple shows that there is a progression of how the ritual spaces and architecture was used, moving more from public to private practice. The gallery spaces are central to understanding the implications of the Chavín ritual practices. In fact, these underground galleries were more than just a place of ritual. As was recently discovered in 2018 by a team of archaeologists led by John Rick, through the use of all\-terrain robots, these galleries were the final resting place for, presumably, the temple's builders. The men's bodies weren't buried in a very honorable way: they were face\-down, covered by rocks.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2018/08/robots\-help\-find\-new\-underground.html\|title\=Robots help find new underground galleries in Peru's Chavín de Huántar\|website\=The Archaeology News Network\|access\-date\=2018\-09\-19}} John Rick raised the possibility, yet to be confirmed, that these people could very well have been sacrificed. This discovery shed some light as to where the people of Chavín buried their dead, although there might be other burial sites, as the director for the excavation said that he doesn't believe it was customary to bury them in those galleries, just that it sometimes happened. If it becomes known, through the study of the remains, that they were indeed sacrificed, it could also serve to prove the theory that the galleries were a place of ritual, but for now, we can only know for sure that it was the final resting place for the men who built the temple. The sizes of the spaces in the sacred spaces provided different amounts of room for people to congregate. External spaces such as the plazas had the ability to hold more individuals for ritual practices. The Square Plaza could have held 5,200 individuals. The Circular Plaza could have held around 600 individuals. Internal spaces within the temples, for example the galleries or hallways, could have only held a small number. Within the Lanzon gallery in the Old Temple, only around 15 people could have attended a ceremony, and within the canal entries only 2 to 4 people could have witnessed the ceremony. ### Practices and ceremonies Ritualistic activity for Chavín is not necessarily original; it has deep roots connected to activities from other (Andean civilisations\|Andean) societies and cultures. The rituals in the space might have been indicative of the other diverse practices that took place at that time. The want for more followers extended more deeply than numbers, but rather the Chavín wanted to establish a central authority as well as socially integrate diverse societies. Ritual practice at this time evolved and showed evidence of both public and private religion, and showed an increased distance between participants and observers in public ceremonies. Participants are termed in the archaeology community as visitors to the site. The transition was not immediate, as ancient practices were highly appealed to frequently as rituals progressed. There is debate as to whether or not the Chavín practices were more hierarchical or hierarchical. It is believed by archaeologists that for the Chavín to have the most successful and impact rituals, they must be more condensed and more private in their nature. But other evidence shows that central areas reflected the lack of hierarchy in ritual practice, and that the society utilised the open spaces to better demonstrate a more inclusive religious experience. This demonstrates that ritual practice might have been hierarchical or hierarchical, and reflects back to the ideas of their exclusivity with other religious institutions, rituals, and traditions. Regardless, it is understood and well accepted that the Chavin were inclusive in their ritual practices. Important aspects of Chavín ritual activity and practice have been discovered to be processions, offerings of different materials (exotic and valuable), and the use of water. One of these offerings can be connected to the smashed pieces of obsidian found along with fragments of mirror. Other ceremonial acts for the Chavín included the smashing of pots and ceremonies surrounding the use of fire, held within certain areas of the Chavín site as a part of their ritual. Artefacts in the temples relay the ritual practice of offerings. Ceramics, for example, were believed to be offerings brought by the pilgrims. Another artefact was a conch shell, used as a trumpet. Art suggests that processions were essential to disclosing that processions were an important part of Chavín ritual. Other ritual practices were produced by the shamans, such as divination, celestial observations, calendar calculations, health, and healing. One other ritualistic element included the use of psychotropic drugs through [mescaline](/wiki/Mescaline "Mescaline") containing cacti. The cacti provided a psychedelic drug that caused a lot of sensory overloads. It has been displayed in art, specifically ashlar blocks with costumed figures in procession carrying the cacti. Ritual evidence in the architectural remains shows that there was paraphernalia for grinding and ingesting [snuff](/wiki/Snuff_%28tobacco%29 "Snuff (tobacco)"). Artistic evidence shows that certain drawings were done by shamans whilst under the influence of the [psychedelic drugs](/wiki/Psychedelic_drug "Psychedelic drug"). Music also played a role in Chavín ritual. Strombus shell trumpets were found at Chavín sites. Trumpets were stored underground and it is believed that they were used by ritual practitioners, who would use them and play in procession through the underground galleries. ### Religious art [thumb\|Stele of Goddess Pacopampa (ML300025\)](/wiki/File:Lima_Mus%C3%A9e_Rafael_Larco_Herrera_St%C3%A8le_de_Pacopampa_ML300025.jpg "Lima Musée Rafael Larco Herrera Stèle de Pacopampa ML300025.jpg") Religious art is reflective of the landscape around the Chavín and everyday experiences they lived through, including that which can be affiliated with religious practices. Art implied that there were certain deities within the Chavín culture, as well as symbols indicative of ritualistic activities. [Lithic](/wiki/Lithic_fragment_%28geology%29 "Lithic fragment (geology)") art, for example, indicates that processions were important to Chavín ritual. Other artistic expressions included images of jaguars and hybrid humans with felines, avians, and crocodilian features. These in particular are done through artistic interpretations and were believed to have been done by shamans under the influence of the psychedelic drugs. In addition to animals, art reflected plant life, including images of the cacti used as a psychedelic drug. ### Deities Deities were an important element in Chavín religious practice. Most important to the Chavín was the Lanzón, the most central deity in Chavín culture, making the Lanzón central to religious practices. It is believed to be a founding ancestor who had oracle powers. The statue of the Lanzón was carved into a large stone and was found within the Old Temple. It was originally in the rectangular chamber, and is considered to be the focal point of the Old Temple. It is carved out of stone and stands at 4\.5 meters tall. The Lanzón is also represented in the New Temple. Other deities reflected the landscape around the Chavín, including animals in nature and the cosmos, and included figures such as crested eagles, hawks, serpents, crocodiles (caymans), and jaguars. They were intermingled with human aspects, becoming more of a hybrid. The Chavín were also interested in binaries and manipulating them, such as showing men and women, the sun and moon, and the sky and water in the same image. ### Religious figures Religious figures played a role in the Chavín religious ritual. In general, individuals higher up in the societal hierarchy had control over the management of the ritual activities and brought the Chavín ritual into the society. [Shamans](/wiki/Shamanism "Shamanism") are most commonly understood to be the primary religious figure. Leaders managed daily secular functioning, and it corresponded with authority figures leading from a small group, rather than having one individual as the head figure. They lived close to the temple in residential buildings. Leaders demonstrated skills in understanding the supernatural world with the ability to manipulate it, thus making them stand out to be a religious figure.
[ "Religion and ritual\n-------------------", "[thumb\\|[Stele of the cactus bearer](/wiki/Stele_of_the_cactus_bearer \"Stele of the cactus bearer\"), excavated 1972](/wiki/File:Estela_Wachumero_en_Chavin.jpg \"Estela Wachumero en Chavin.jpg\")\nReligion and the practices which followed had a deeper connection to the sociopolitical and economic aspects within the Chavín society.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Rituals of the Past: Prehispanic and Colonial Case Studies in Andean Archaeology\\|last\\=Contreras\\|first\\=Daniel A.\\|publisher\\=University of Colorado\\|year\\=2017\\|pages\\=51–77}} Ritual activity for the Chavín is not fully understood, but a great understanding of the overall ritual influence and impact that ritual had on the Chavín is more evident through their architectural structures, offering deposits, and artistic remains, mainly through pictographic displays. Over time, the effects of ritual moved to be more intimate and exclusive, as evident with the use and development of ritual space and architecture. Religious figures played a large role in how the site was designed and how rituals were oriented.", "### Sacred spaces: ritual architecture", "The overall architecture at Chavín had religious influence and significance. The sacred spaces and structures within this society were evident to have ritualistic and potentially religious purposes. Understanding how the site of [Chavin de Huántar](/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_de_Hu%C3%A1ntar \"Chavín de Huántar\") is designed allows modern individuals to recognize how the site reflects intentionality of the builders to relay a specific experience.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Making Senses of the Past : Toward a Sensory Archaeology\\|last\\=Weismantle\\|first\\=Mary\\|publisher\\=Southern Illinois University Press\\|year\\=2013\\|pages\\=113–133}} The site was considered to be sensory, meaning that the architectural structure and design elicited a certain feeling through the senses, through sight and touch. It is [perception](/wiki/Perception_%28psychology%29 \"Perception (psychology)\"), which is essentially a series of physiological responses. Sacred spaces, such as plazas, were designed to mainly disrupt visual impact, meaning that the sacred architecture was designed to be experienced more so than actually viewed. People who designed and built the architecture at Chavín are understood to be priests or religious leaders within the community.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Rituals of the Past: Prehispanic and Colonial Case Studies in Andean Archaeology\\|last\\=Rick\\|first\\=John\\|publisher\\=University Press of Colorado\\|year\\=2017\\|isbn\\=9781607325963\\|pages\\=21–46}} Configuration of the site also emphasizes that there was a presence of high\\-ranked officials. \nThe architecture within Chavín was dictated by these individuals to keep the ritual elements of their culture prominent. This was done so through the details and formatting of each building, which in essence created the effect that those participating in the ritual were experiencing their religious phenomena. Construction of the sacred ritual spaces was done with a diverse labor pattern and no central authority was controlling the area during its actual construction. The ritual architecture of the Chavín is similar to other Andean coastal architecture.", "The earliest architectural forms on the site were plastered, rectangular chambers. One of these later housed the [Lanzon](/wiki/Lanz%C3%B3n \"Lanzón\"). The architecture of the Chavín site allowed for a rich and diverse ritual practice within the ritualized spaces, leading scholars to speculate whether or not the Chavín served as a multi\\-ethnic ceremonial center; the architecture, materials, and offerings might have been inspired by other cultures, but there is a question as to whether or not it was symbolic of a greater diverse ritual practice. The ritual spaces themselves had a hierarchy, and legitimized and reflected cosmological and social order and structure.", "The Chavín buildings and spaces used for ritual were constructed to elicit an experience, and encompassed many of the overall architectural facets described previously. Two of the most well\\-noted ritual spaces include the Old Temple and New Temple, with a shift to the New Temple as time progressed. Both temples featured pathways and deity worship spaces on the north and south wings. In addition to this, the temples, most notably the Old Temple, had deities carved into stone.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Peregrine et a.\\|first\\=P. N.\\|date\\=2002\\|title\\=Chavin\\|journal\\=Encyclopedia of Prehistory\\|via\\=41}} The temples were conformed into a U\\-shaped area, encompassing a circular plaza. The temples featured ceremonial chambers and sacred hearths. Another important structure designed and utilized for ritual included plazas, of which there were many. The Circular Plaza in particular and the Square Plaza were two of the sites primarily focused around ceremonial activity.", "Within the Chavín site was a structure which revealed rooms and galleries, speculated by archaeologists to be used as “ritual chambers” for a variety of ceremonies, including what could have been a ceremony surrounding fire. Major use of underground space in the form of stone\\-lined galleries that are often like labyrinths and run through the monuments’ major platforms and mounds has been speculated to be a center for religious activity where ceremonies occurred in several different contexts involving both audiences and participants.", "The open spaces of plazas versus the small restricted spaces of Chavín galleries in the temple shows that there is a progression of how the ritual spaces and architecture was used, moving more from public to private practice. The gallery spaces are central to understanding the implications of the Chavín ritual practices.", "In fact, these underground galleries were more than just a place of ritual. As was recently discovered in 2018 by a team of archaeologists led by John Rick, through the use of all\\-terrain robots, these galleries were the final resting place for, presumably, the temple's builders. The men's bodies weren't buried in a very honorable way: they were face\\-down, covered by rocks.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2018/08/robots\\-help\\-find\\-new\\-underground.html\\|title\\=Robots help find new underground galleries in Peru's Chavín de Huántar\\|website\\=The Archaeology News Network\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-19}} John Rick raised the possibility, yet to be confirmed, that these people could very well have been sacrificed. This discovery shed some light as to where the people of Chavín buried their dead, although there might be other burial sites, as the director for the excavation said that he doesn't believe it was customary to bury them in those galleries, just that it sometimes happened. If it becomes known, through the study of the remains, that they were indeed sacrificed, it could also serve to prove the theory that the galleries were a place of ritual, but for now, we can only know for sure that it was the final resting place for the men who built the temple.", "The sizes of the spaces in the sacred spaces provided different amounts of room for people to congregate. External spaces such as the plazas had the ability to hold more individuals for ritual practices. The Square Plaza could have held 5,200 individuals. The Circular Plaza could have held around 600 individuals. Internal spaces within the temples, for example the galleries or hallways, could have only held a small number. Within the Lanzon gallery in the Old Temple, only around 15 people could have attended a ceremony, and within the canal entries only 2 to 4 people could have witnessed the ceremony.", "### Practices and ceremonies", "Ritualistic activity for Chavín is not necessarily original; it has deep roots connected to activities from other (Andean civilisations\\|Andean) societies and cultures. The rituals in the space might have been indicative of the other diverse practices that took place at that time.", "The want for more followers extended more deeply than numbers, but rather the Chavín wanted to establish a central authority as well as socially integrate diverse societies. Ritual practice at this time evolved and showed evidence of both public and private religion, and showed an increased distance between participants and observers in public ceremonies. Participants are termed in the archaeology community as visitors to the site. The transition was not immediate, as ancient practices were highly appealed to frequently as rituals progressed.", "There is debate as to whether or not the Chavín practices were more hierarchical or hierarchical. It is believed by archaeologists that for the Chavín to have the most successful and impact rituals, they must be more condensed and more private in their nature. But other evidence shows that central areas reflected the lack of hierarchy in ritual practice, and that the society utilised the open spaces to better demonstrate a more inclusive religious experience. This demonstrates that ritual practice might have been hierarchical or hierarchical, and reflects back to the ideas of their exclusivity with other religious institutions, rituals, and traditions. Regardless, it is understood and well accepted that the Chavin were inclusive in their ritual practices.", "Important aspects of Chavín ritual activity and practice have been discovered to be processions, offerings of different materials (exotic and valuable), and the use of water. One of these offerings can be connected to the smashed pieces of obsidian found along with fragments of mirror. Other ceremonial acts for the Chavín included the smashing of pots and ceremonies surrounding the use of fire, held within certain areas of the Chavín site as a part of their ritual. Artefacts in the temples relay the ritual practice of offerings. Ceramics, for example, were believed to be offerings brought by the pilgrims. Another artefact was a conch shell, used as a trumpet. Art suggests that processions were essential to disclosing that processions were an important part of Chavín ritual. Other ritual practices were produced by the shamans, such as divination, celestial observations, calendar calculations, health, and healing.", "One other ritualistic element included the use of psychotropic drugs through [mescaline](/wiki/Mescaline \"Mescaline\") containing cacti. The cacti provided a psychedelic drug that caused a lot of sensory overloads. It has been displayed in art, specifically ashlar blocks with costumed figures in procession carrying the cacti. Ritual evidence in the architectural remains shows that there was paraphernalia for grinding and ingesting [snuff](/wiki/Snuff_%28tobacco%29 \"Snuff (tobacco)\"). Artistic evidence shows that certain drawings were done by shamans whilst under the influence of the [psychedelic drugs](/wiki/Psychedelic_drug \"Psychedelic drug\").", "Music also played a role in Chavín ritual. Strombus shell trumpets were found at Chavín sites. Trumpets were stored underground and it is believed that they were used by ritual practitioners, who would use them and play in procession through the underground galleries.", "### Religious art", "[thumb\\|Stele of Goddess Pacopampa (ML300025\\)](/wiki/File:Lima_Mus%C3%A9e_Rafael_Larco_Herrera_St%C3%A8le_de_Pacopampa_ML300025.jpg \"Lima Musée Rafael Larco Herrera Stèle de Pacopampa ML300025.jpg\")\nReligious art is reflective of the landscape around the Chavín and everyday experiences they lived through, including that which can be affiliated with religious practices. Art implied that there were certain deities within the Chavín culture, as well as symbols indicative of ritualistic activities. [Lithic](/wiki/Lithic_fragment_%28geology%29 \"Lithic fragment (geology)\") art, for example, indicates that processions were important to Chavín ritual. Other artistic expressions included images of jaguars and hybrid humans with felines, avians, and crocodilian features. These in particular are done through artistic interpretations and were believed to have been done by shamans under the influence of the psychedelic drugs. In addition to animals, art reflected plant life, including images of the cacti used as a psychedelic drug.", "### Deities", "Deities were an important element in Chavín religious practice. Most important to the Chavín was the Lanzón, the most central deity in Chavín culture, making the Lanzón central to religious practices. It is believed to be a founding ancestor who had oracle powers. The statue of the Lanzón was carved into a large stone and was found within the Old Temple. It was originally in the rectangular chamber, and is considered to be the focal point of the Old Temple. It is carved out of stone and stands at 4\\.5 meters tall. The Lanzón is also represented in the New Temple. Other deities reflected the landscape around the Chavín, including animals in nature and the cosmos, and included figures such as crested eagles, hawks, serpents, crocodiles (caymans), and jaguars. They were intermingled with human aspects, becoming more of a hybrid. The Chavín were also interested in binaries and manipulating them, such as showing men and women, the sun and moon, and the sky and water in the same image.", "### Religious figures", "Religious figures played a role in the Chavín religious ritual. In general, individuals higher up in the societal hierarchy had control over the management of the ritual activities and brought the Chavín ritual into the society. [Shamans](/wiki/Shamanism \"Shamanism\") are most commonly understood to be the primary religious figure. Leaders managed daily secular functioning, and it corresponded with authority figures leading from a small group, rather than having one individual as the head figure. They lived close to the temple in residential buildings. Leaders demonstrated skills in understanding the supernatural world with the ability to manipulate it, thus making them stand out to be a religious figure.", "" ]
### Sacred spaces: ritual architecture The overall architecture at Chavín had religious influence and significance. The sacred spaces and structures within this society were evident to have ritualistic and potentially religious purposes. Understanding how the site of [Chavin de Huántar](/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_de_Hu%C3%A1ntar "Chavín de Huántar") is designed allows modern individuals to recognize how the site reflects intentionality of the builders to relay a specific experience.{{Cite book\|title\=Making Senses of the Past : Toward a Sensory Archaeology\|last\=Weismantle\|first\=Mary\|publisher\=Southern Illinois University Press\|year\=2013\|pages\=113–133}} The site was considered to be sensory, meaning that the architectural structure and design elicited a certain feeling through the senses, through sight and touch. It is [perception](/wiki/Perception_%28psychology%29 "Perception (psychology)"), which is essentially a series of physiological responses. Sacred spaces, such as plazas, were designed to mainly disrupt visual impact, meaning that the sacred architecture was designed to be experienced more so than actually viewed. People who designed and built the architecture at Chavín are understood to be priests or religious leaders within the community.{{Cite book\|title\=Rituals of the Past: Prehispanic and Colonial Case Studies in Andean Archaeology\|last\=Rick\|first\=John\|publisher\=University Press of Colorado\|year\=2017\|isbn\=9781607325963\|pages\=21–46}} Configuration of the site also emphasizes that there was a presence of high\-ranked officials. The architecture within Chavín was dictated by these individuals to keep the ritual elements of their culture prominent. This was done so through the details and formatting of each building, which in essence created the effect that those participating in the ritual were experiencing their religious phenomena. Construction of the sacred ritual spaces was done with a diverse labor pattern and no central authority was controlling the area during its actual construction. The ritual architecture of the Chavín is similar to other Andean coastal architecture. The earliest architectural forms on the site were plastered, rectangular chambers. One of these later housed the [Lanzon](/wiki/Lanz%C3%B3n "Lanzón"). The architecture of the Chavín site allowed for a rich and diverse ritual practice within the ritualized spaces, leading scholars to speculate whether or not the Chavín served as a multi\-ethnic ceremonial center; the architecture, materials, and offerings might have been inspired by other cultures, but there is a question as to whether or not it was symbolic of a greater diverse ritual practice. The ritual spaces themselves had a hierarchy, and legitimized and reflected cosmological and social order and structure. The Chavín buildings and spaces used for ritual were constructed to elicit an experience, and encompassed many of the overall architectural facets described previously. Two of the most well\-noted ritual spaces include the Old Temple and New Temple, with a shift to the New Temple as time progressed. Both temples featured pathways and deity worship spaces on the north and south wings. In addition to this, the temples, most notably the Old Temple, had deities carved into stone.{{Cite journal\|last\=Peregrine et a.\|first\=P. N.\|date\=2002\|title\=Chavin\|journal\=Encyclopedia of Prehistory\|via\=41}} The temples were conformed into a U\-shaped area, encompassing a circular plaza. The temples featured ceremonial chambers and sacred hearths. Another important structure designed and utilized for ritual included plazas, of which there were many. The Circular Plaza in particular and the Square Plaza were two of the sites primarily focused around ceremonial activity. Within the Chavín site was a structure which revealed rooms and galleries, speculated by archaeologists to be used as “ritual chambers” for a variety of ceremonies, including what could have been a ceremony surrounding fire. Major use of underground space in the form of stone\-lined galleries that are often like labyrinths and run through the monuments’ major platforms and mounds has been speculated to be a center for religious activity where ceremonies occurred in several different contexts involving both audiences and participants. The open spaces of plazas versus the small restricted spaces of Chavín galleries in the temple shows that there is a progression of how the ritual spaces and architecture was used, moving more from public to private practice. The gallery spaces are central to understanding the implications of the Chavín ritual practices. In fact, these underground galleries were more than just a place of ritual. As was recently discovered in 2018 by a team of archaeologists led by John Rick, through the use of all\-terrain robots, these galleries were the final resting place for, presumably, the temple's builders. The men's bodies weren't buried in a very honorable way: they were face\-down, covered by rocks.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2018/08/robots\-help\-find\-new\-underground.html\|title\=Robots help find new underground galleries in Peru's Chavín de Huántar\|website\=The Archaeology News Network\|access\-date\=2018\-09\-19}} John Rick raised the possibility, yet to be confirmed, that these people could very well have been sacrificed. This discovery shed some light as to where the people of Chavín buried their dead, although there might be other burial sites, as the director for the excavation said that he doesn't believe it was customary to bury them in those galleries, just that it sometimes happened. If it becomes known, through the study of the remains, that they were indeed sacrificed, it could also serve to prove the theory that the galleries were a place of ritual, but for now, we can only know for sure that it was the final resting place for the men who built the temple. The sizes of the spaces in the sacred spaces provided different amounts of room for people to congregate. External spaces such as the plazas had the ability to hold more individuals for ritual practices. The Square Plaza could have held 5,200 individuals. The Circular Plaza could have held around 600 individuals. Internal spaces within the temples, for example the galleries or hallways, could have only held a small number. Within the Lanzon gallery in the Old Temple, only around 15 people could have attended a ceremony, and within the canal entries only 2 to 4 people could have witnessed the ceremony.
[ "### Sacred spaces: ritual architecture", "The overall architecture at Chavín had religious influence and significance. The sacred spaces and structures within this society were evident to have ritualistic and potentially religious purposes. Understanding how the site of [Chavin de Huántar](/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_de_Hu%C3%A1ntar \"Chavín de Huántar\") is designed allows modern individuals to recognize how the site reflects intentionality of the builders to relay a specific experience.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Making Senses of the Past : Toward a Sensory Archaeology\\|last\\=Weismantle\\|first\\=Mary\\|publisher\\=Southern Illinois University Press\\|year\\=2013\\|pages\\=113–133}} The site was considered to be sensory, meaning that the architectural structure and design elicited a certain feeling through the senses, through sight and touch. It is [perception](/wiki/Perception_%28psychology%29 \"Perception (psychology)\"), which is essentially a series of physiological responses. Sacred spaces, such as plazas, were designed to mainly disrupt visual impact, meaning that the sacred architecture was designed to be experienced more so than actually viewed. People who designed and built the architecture at Chavín are understood to be priests or religious leaders within the community.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Rituals of the Past: Prehispanic and Colonial Case Studies in Andean Archaeology\\|last\\=Rick\\|first\\=John\\|publisher\\=University Press of Colorado\\|year\\=2017\\|isbn\\=9781607325963\\|pages\\=21–46}} Configuration of the site also emphasizes that there was a presence of high\\-ranked officials. \nThe architecture within Chavín was dictated by these individuals to keep the ritual elements of their culture prominent. This was done so through the details and formatting of each building, which in essence created the effect that those participating in the ritual were experiencing their religious phenomena. Construction of the sacred ritual spaces was done with a diverse labor pattern and no central authority was controlling the area during its actual construction. The ritual architecture of the Chavín is similar to other Andean coastal architecture.", "The earliest architectural forms on the site were plastered, rectangular chambers. One of these later housed the [Lanzon](/wiki/Lanz%C3%B3n \"Lanzón\"). The architecture of the Chavín site allowed for a rich and diverse ritual practice within the ritualized spaces, leading scholars to speculate whether or not the Chavín served as a multi\\-ethnic ceremonial center; the architecture, materials, and offerings might have been inspired by other cultures, but there is a question as to whether or not it was symbolic of a greater diverse ritual practice. The ritual spaces themselves had a hierarchy, and legitimized and reflected cosmological and social order and structure.", "The Chavín buildings and spaces used for ritual were constructed to elicit an experience, and encompassed many of the overall architectural facets described previously. Two of the most well\\-noted ritual spaces include the Old Temple and New Temple, with a shift to the New Temple as time progressed. Both temples featured pathways and deity worship spaces on the north and south wings. In addition to this, the temples, most notably the Old Temple, had deities carved into stone.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Peregrine et a.\\|first\\=P. N.\\|date\\=2002\\|title\\=Chavin\\|journal\\=Encyclopedia of Prehistory\\|via\\=41}} The temples were conformed into a U\\-shaped area, encompassing a circular plaza. The temples featured ceremonial chambers and sacred hearths. Another important structure designed and utilized for ritual included plazas, of which there were many. The Circular Plaza in particular and the Square Plaza were two of the sites primarily focused around ceremonial activity.", "Within the Chavín site was a structure which revealed rooms and galleries, speculated by archaeologists to be used as “ritual chambers” for a variety of ceremonies, including what could have been a ceremony surrounding fire. Major use of underground space in the form of stone\\-lined galleries that are often like labyrinths and run through the monuments’ major platforms and mounds has been speculated to be a center for religious activity where ceremonies occurred in several different contexts involving both audiences and participants.", "The open spaces of plazas versus the small restricted spaces of Chavín galleries in the temple shows that there is a progression of how the ritual spaces and architecture was used, moving more from public to private practice. The gallery spaces are central to understanding the implications of the Chavín ritual practices.", "In fact, these underground galleries were more than just a place of ritual. As was recently discovered in 2018 by a team of archaeologists led by John Rick, through the use of all\\-terrain robots, these galleries were the final resting place for, presumably, the temple's builders. The men's bodies weren't buried in a very honorable way: they were face\\-down, covered by rocks.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2018/08/robots\\-help\\-find\\-new\\-underground.html\\|title\\=Robots help find new underground galleries in Peru's Chavín de Huántar\\|website\\=The Archaeology News Network\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-19}} John Rick raised the possibility, yet to be confirmed, that these people could very well have been sacrificed. This discovery shed some light as to where the people of Chavín buried their dead, although there might be other burial sites, as the director for the excavation said that he doesn't believe it was customary to bury them in those galleries, just that it sometimes happened. If it becomes known, through the study of the remains, that they were indeed sacrificed, it could also serve to prove the theory that the galleries were a place of ritual, but for now, we can only know for sure that it was the final resting place for the men who built the temple.", "The sizes of the spaces in the sacred spaces provided different amounts of room for people to congregate. External spaces such as the plazas had the ability to hold more individuals for ritual practices. The Square Plaza could have held 5,200 individuals. The Circular Plaza could have held around 600 individuals. Internal spaces within the temples, for example the galleries or hallways, could have only held a small number. Within the Lanzon gallery in the Old Temple, only around 15 people could have attended a ceremony, and within the canal entries only 2 to 4 people could have witnessed the ceremony.", "" ]
### Practices and ceremonies Ritualistic activity for Chavín is not necessarily original; it has deep roots connected to activities from other (Andean civilisations\|Andean) societies and cultures. The rituals in the space might have been indicative of the other diverse practices that took place at that time. The want for more followers extended more deeply than numbers, but rather the Chavín wanted to establish a central authority as well as socially integrate diverse societies. Ritual practice at this time evolved and showed evidence of both public and private religion, and showed an increased distance between participants and observers in public ceremonies. Participants are termed in the archaeology community as visitors to the site. The transition was not immediate, as ancient practices were highly appealed to frequently as rituals progressed. There is debate as to whether or not the Chavín practices were more hierarchical or hierarchical. It is believed by archaeologists that for the Chavín to have the most successful and impact rituals, they must be more condensed and more private in their nature. But other evidence shows that central areas reflected the lack of hierarchy in ritual practice, and that the society utilised the open spaces to better demonstrate a more inclusive religious experience. This demonstrates that ritual practice might have been hierarchical or hierarchical, and reflects back to the ideas of their exclusivity with other religious institutions, rituals, and traditions. Regardless, it is understood and well accepted that the Chavin were inclusive in their ritual practices. Important aspects of Chavín ritual activity and practice have been discovered to be processions, offerings of different materials (exotic and valuable), and the use of water. One of these offerings can be connected to the smashed pieces of obsidian found along with fragments of mirror. Other ceremonial acts for the Chavín included the smashing of pots and ceremonies surrounding the use of fire, held within certain areas of the Chavín site as a part of their ritual. Artefacts in the temples relay the ritual practice of offerings. Ceramics, for example, were believed to be offerings brought by the pilgrims. Another artefact was a conch shell, used as a trumpet. Art suggests that processions were essential to disclosing that processions were an important part of Chavín ritual. Other ritual practices were produced by the shamans, such as divination, celestial observations, calendar calculations, health, and healing. One other ritualistic element included the use of psychotropic drugs through [mescaline](/wiki/Mescaline "Mescaline") containing cacti. The cacti provided a psychedelic drug that caused a lot of sensory overloads. It has been displayed in art, specifically ashlar blocks with costumed figures in procession carrying the cacti. Ritual evidence in the architectural remains shows that there was paraphernalia for grinding and ingesting [snuff](/wiki/Snuff_%28tobacco%29 "Snuff (tobacco)"). Artistic evidence shows that certain drawings were done by shamans whilst under the influence of the [psychedelic drugs](/wiki/Psychedelic_drug "Psychedelic drug"). Music also played a role in Chavín ritual. Strombus shell trumpets were found at Chavín sites. Trumpets were stored underground and it is believed that they were used by ritual practitioners, who would use them and play in procession through the underground galleries.
[ "### Practices and ceremonies", "Ritualistic activity for Chavín is not necessarily original; it has deep roots connected to activities from other (Andean civilisations\\|Andean) societies and cultures. The rituals in the space might have been indicative of the other diverse practices that took place at that time.", "The want for more followers extended more deeply than numbers, but rather the Chavín wanted to establish a central authority as well as socially integrate diverse societies. Ritual practice at this time evolved and showed evidence of both public and private religion, and showed an increased distance between participants and observers in public ceremonies. Participants are termed in the archaeology community as visitors to the site. The transition was not immediate, as ancient practices were highly appealed to frequently as rituals progressed.", "There is debate as to whether or not the Chavín practices were more hierarchical or hierarchical. It is believed by archaeologists that for the Chavín to have the most successful and impact rituals, they must be more condensed and more private in their nature. But other evidence shows that central areas reflected the lack of hierarchy in ritual practice, and that the society utilised the open spaces to better demonstrate a more inclusive religious experience. This demonstrates that ritual practice might have been hierarchical or hierarchical, and reflects back to the ideas of their exclusivity with other religious institutions, rituals, and traditions. Regardless, it is understood and well accepted that the Chavin were inclusive in their ritual practices.", "Important aspects of Chavín ritual activity and practice have been discovered to be processions, offerings of different materials (exotic and valuable), and the use of water. One of these offerings can be connected to the smashed pieces of obsidian found along with fragments of mirror. Other ceremonial acts for the Chavín included the smashing of pots and ceremonies surrounding the use of fire, held within certain areas of the Chavín site as a part of their ritual. Artefacts in the temples relay the ritual practice of offerings. Ceramics, for example, were believed to be offerings brought by the pilgrims. Another artefact was a conch shell, used as a trumpet. Art suggests that processions were essential to disclosing that processions were an important part of Chavín ritual. Other ritual practices were produced by the shamans, such as divination, celestial observations, calendar calculations, health, and healing.", "One other ritualistic element included the use of psychotropic drugs through [mescaline](/wiki/Mescaline \"Mescaline\") containing cacti. The cacti provided a psychedelic drug that caused a lot of sensory overloads. It has been displayed in art, specifically ashlar blocks with costumed figures in procession carrying the cacti. Ritual evidence in the architectural remains shows that there was paraphernalia for grinding and ingesting [snuff](/wiki/Snuff_%28tobacco%29 \"Snuff (tobacco)\"). Artistic evidence shows that certain drawings were done by shamans whilst under the influence of the [psychedelic drugs](/wiki/Psychedelic_drug \"Psychedelic drug\").", "Music also played a role in Chavín ritual. Strombus shell trumpets were found at Chavín sites. Trumpets were stored underground and it is believed that they were used by ritual practitioners, who would use them and play in procession through the underground galleries.", "" ]
The three series of GAZ\-21 --------------------------- Three series GAZ\-21 were released, most easily distinguished by the grille. The first series (1956–58\), known as the *Star*, featured a lattice of three large horizontal bars in the centre of which was a medallion with a star. Vehicles of the second series (1958–1962\), known as the *Shark*, featured a grille with 16 vertical slits. Finally, the third series (1962–1970\), known as the *[Baleen](/wiki/Baleen_whale "Baleen whale")*, featured a grille with 34 thin vertical rods. [thumb\|First series (1956–58\)](/wiki/File:GAZ-21_%281st_generation%29_%22Volga%22_in_Moscow_%28front_view%29.jpg "GAZ-21 (1st generation) ") ### First series 1956–1958 The design process leading to the GAZ\-21 began in November 1953\. [Alexander Nevzorov](/wiki/Alexander_Nevzorov_%28automotive_engineer%29 "Alexander Nevzorov (automotive engineer)"), head of the design team, was given a free hand to develop whatever he wanted to reach the objective of competing with American automobiles.{{citation\|ref\=CSU\|title\=Cars of the Soviet Union: The Definite History\|first\=Andy\|last\=Thompson\|publisher\=Haynes\|location\=Sparkford, Yeovil, Somerset\|page\=61\|year\=2008\|isbn \= 978\-1\-84425\-483\-5}} Designer Lev Eremeyev decided to follow the fashion set by the [Chevrolet Bel Air](/wiki/Chevrolet_Bel_Air "Chevrolet Bel Air"), [Plymouth Savoy](/wiki/Plymouth_Savoy "Plymouth Savoy"), and [Ford Mainline](/wiki/Ford_Mainline "Ford Mainline"); the finished product bears a resemblance to the 1955 [Mainline](/wiki/Ford_Mainline "Ford Mainline"), although according to archive documents, the latter was purchased for comparison and on\-road testing by GAZ only in mid\-1954, after the first prototypes of the GAZ\-21 had already been built and tested.[GAZ report on the Ford Mainline (PDF)](http://www.gaz24.ru/mainline.pdf){{cite web\|url\=http://www.gaz24\.ru/am\_gaz21\.zip\|title\=An article on the history of the GAZ\-21 in the ''Avtomobilny Modelizm'' magazine\|access\-date\=2016\-02\-24\|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-27\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227063743/http://www.gaz24\.ru/am\_gaz21\.zip\|url\-status\=dead}} The prototype appeared in the first quarter of 1954, powered by an [inline four](/wiki/Inline-four_engine "Inline-four engine") with [overhead camshaft](/wiki/Overhead_camshaft "Overhead camshaft") (driven by chain) and cross\-flow [hemispherical](/wiki/Hemi_engine "Hemi engine") [head](/wiki/Cylinder_head "Cylinder head"). Since the OHV engine was not ready in time, production M21s had a {{cvt\|65\|PS\|kW hp\|lk\=on}} {{cvt\|2432\|cc\|cid}} [sidevalve](/wiki/Sidevalve "Sidevalve") four, based on the [GAZ\-20](/wiki/GAZ-M20_Pobeda "GAZ-M20 Pobeda")'s. The Volga was offered with a three\-speed [transmission](/wiki/Transmission_%28mechanics%29 "Transmission (mechanics)"), either [manual](/wiki/Manual_transmission "Manual transmission") (with synchronized second and third gears) or [automatic](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission"). Front suspension was [independent](/wiki/Independent_suspension "Independent suspension"), while the rear was a [live axle](/wiki/Beam_axle "Beam axle") with [semielliptical springs](/wiki/Leaf_spring "Leaf spring"); lever shock absorbers were on all four corners. Lubrication was by a central oiling system, from a drum and foot\-operated pump; the oil lines were prone to puncturing, and not all of the 19 lubricated points were supplied equally.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU "#CSU"), p. 65\. The Volga offered front seats able to fold flat (not unlike a contemporary [Nash](/wiki/Fraser_Nash "Fraser Nash") option) and came standard with cigarette lighter and a radio[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU "#CSU"), p. 62\. (still optional on most U.S. cars).Flory, J. "Kelly", Jr. *American Cars 1946–1959* (Jefferson, NC: McFarland \& Coy, 2008\), *passim*. The three variants were the standard M21G, an M21B taxi (with a [taximeter](/wiki/Taximeter "Taximeter") in place of the radio and bucket seats in front instead of a bench), and a tropical model, the M21GYU, all with the GAZ leaping deer [hood ornament](/wiki/Hood_ornament "Hood ornament"). [Drag coefficient](/wiki/Automobile_drag_coefficient "Automobile drag coefficient") was a surprisingly good 0\.42\. The only thing that the Volga and Mainline had in common was the [Ford\-O\-Matic](/wiki/Ford-O-Matic "Ford-O-Matic") automatic transmission, which the GAZ plant liecensed for use in their vehicles, and even then only a few early Volgas had this transmission, before the design adopted a manual transmission.{{cite news\|title\=Ford's Cruise\-O\-Matic and the C Family of Automatic Transmissions (Part III)\|newspaper\=Techtelegraph\|date\=2022\-06\-15\|url\=https://techtelegraph.co.uk/fords\-cruise\-o\-matic\-and\-the\-c\-family\-of\-automatic\-transmissions\-part\-iii/}} The Volga made its public debut in 1955, with a three cars on a demonstration drive from Moscow to the Crimea, two automatic models and a manual. It was, however, still far from production\-ready; in the first year, 1956, only five cars were assembled, the first on 10 October 1956\. Full\-scale production began in 1957, with a list price of 5,400 [rubles](/wiki/Ruble "Ruble"). The new 1957 production cars, known as Series Ones, had a brand\-new {{cvt\|2445\|cc\|cid}} OHV engine, the first model produced by Zavolzhskiy Motorniy Zavod ([Zavolzhye Engine Factory](/wiki/Zavolzhye_Engine_Factory "Zavolzhye Engine Factory"), ZMZ). Unusual for the era, it had aluminum block and head, with gear\-driven [camshaft](/wiki/Camshaft "Camshaft") and [compression ratio](/wiki/Compression_ratio "Compression ratio") of 6\.6:1; it produced {{cvt\|70\|PS\|kW hp}} at 4,000 [rpm](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute "Revolutions per minute") and {{cvt\|123\|lbft\|Nm\|lk\=on}} at 2,200 rpm. The automatic transmission model was soon discontinued, with only 700 built: it was widely criticized as being too difficult for Soviet drivers to maintain, few [service stations](/wiki/Automobile_repair_shop "Automobile repair shop") were available to do the work and few private mechanics were qualified, and a shortage of [transmission oil](/wiki/Hydraulic_fluid "Hydraulic fluid") existed.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU "#CSU"), pp. 62–63\. From 1958, a three\-speed manual, with synchromesh on the top two gears, was the only transmission available; this was the M21V, while the taxi became the M21A.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU "#CSU"), p. 63\. The automatic did go on to be used in the low\-production [GAZ\-13](/wiki/GAZ-13 "GAZ-13") Chaika, which was also maintained by professionals. Standard equipment on all models included spare parts and two tool kits, with [spanners](/wiki/Adjustable_spanner "Adjustable spanner"), [wrenches](/wiki/Wrench "Wrench"), [screwdrivers](/wiki/Screwdriver "Screwdriver"), a tire pump, and a can of paint to fix minor dings.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU "#CSU"), p. 66\. Also, export models were built, M21D with the manual transmission and M21E with the automatic, both with a higher 7\.2:1 compression engine, producing {{cvt\|80\|PS\|kW hp}}. Cars produced in the fall of 1958 combined features of the first and second series. [thumb\|Second series (1959–62\)](/wiki/File:GAZ-21_%282nd_series_%22i%22%29_%22Volga%22_%28front_view%29.jpg "GAZ-21 (2nd series ") ### Second series 1959–1962 Second\-series Volgas were introduced in 1959, with a new grille painted the body color or in chrome. Halfway through the 1959 production run ([model year](/wiki/Model_year "Model year") 1959{{frac\|1\|2}}), a [vinyl](/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride "Polyvinyl chloride") cover was added to the dash.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU "#CSU"), p. 64\. Added were windscreen washers and tubeless tires. Just before the second\-series production concluded, telescopic shocks replaced the lever type. The 1961 Volgas were priced at 5,100 rubles. Variants of this series included the M21I and M21A taxi with the {{cvt\|70\|PS\|kW hp}} inline four, and the M21K and right\-hand drive M21H (for export) with the {{cvt\|80\|PS\|kW hp}} engine. The Volga was shown at the 1958 [Brussels World's Fair](/wiki/Brussels_World%27s_Fair "Brussels World's Fair") and together with the [GAZ\-52 truck](/wiki/GAZ-53 "GAZ-53") and the GAZ\-13 Chaika, it won the award.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.volga.nl/medailleEN.htm\|title\=Expo 1958\|work\=volga.nl}} In the same year, production for export began. The second\-series Volgas became known for having no frills, but outstanding durability, helped by the {{cvt\|230\|mm\|in}} ground clearance. In 1959, a Volga took a class win at the [Thousand Lakes Rally](/wiki/Rally_Finland "Rally Finland") in Finland, and third at the [Acropolis Rally](/wiki/Acropolis_Rally "Acropolis Rally"). That year, the central lubrication system was deleted, in favor of a more traditional local grease\-application nipple. In early 1962, a small number of cars were built that combined features of the second and third series. [thumb\|Third series (1962–70\)](/wiki/File:Volga_GAZ_21_M.JPG "Volga GAZ 21 M.JPG") ### Third series 1962–1970 The third series was produced from 1962 to 1970\. The 1962 models dropped the leaping\-deer hood ornament, and had a new grille. It used a 6\.7:1 compression engine of {{cvt\|75\|PS\|kW hp}} with an optional 7\.65:1 compression of {{cvt\|80\|PS\|kW hp}} (usually reserved for the export models).[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU "#CSU"), p. 123\. The [headliner](/wiki/Headliner_%28material%29 "Headliner (material)") changed from cloth to vinyl, and the radio became optional. It was offered as the standard M21L, M21T taxi, and right\-hand drive M21N export model. Also in 1962, GAZ advertised a [station wagon](/wiki/Station_wagon "Station wagon")/estate model, the M22; most of these were exported or reserved for official use. The first station wagons/estates were delivered in 1963, and were designated M22 ({{cvt\|75\|PS\|kW hp}}), M22G (export, {{cvt\|75\|hp\|kW PS}}), M22T (export, {{cvt\|85\|PS\|kW hp}}); ambulances were M22B ({{cvt\|75\|PS\|kW hp}}) and M22BK ({{cvt\|85\|PS\|kW hp}}).[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU "#CSU"), p. 124\. An M22 prototype [four\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive "Four-wheel drive") station wagon/estate was also built, as was an M22A [van](/wiki/Sedan_delivery "Sedan delivery"). Belgian importer Sobimpex N.V. assembled Volgas locally for sale in Western Europe. These were often fitted with diesel engines; the cars arrived in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp") without an engine and with the gearbox in the trunk. Originally (beginning in 1960\) Sobimpex fitted a 1\.6\-liter [Perkins](/wiki/Perkins_Engines "Perkins Engines") 4\.99 unit, a larger [Rover](/wiki/Rover_Company "Rover Company") engine supplanted that in 1963, and the more modern {{ill\|Indenor\|fr}} four\-cylinder units replaced the Rover engine in 1964\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gaz21volga.com/Technik/belgien/belgische.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110225065708/http://www.gaz21volga.com/Technik/belgien/belgische.htm\|archive\-date\=2011\-02\-25\|title\=Дизельные ГАЗ\-21 "Волга" в Бельгии\|trans\-title\=Diesel GAZ\-21 "Volga" in Belgium\|language\=ru\|work\=GAZ21Volga.com}} Belgian\-built cars were marketed as "Scaldia\-Volgas", named after the Latin name for the river [Scheldt](/wiki/Scheldt "Scheldt"). While the diesel models cost considerably more than ones with the original engine, they were quite popular for their economy and reliability, and outsold the petrol models in both Belgium and the Netherlands.
[ "The three series of GAZ\\-21\n---------------------------", "Three series GAZ\\-21 were released, most easily distinguished by the grille. The first series (1956–58\\), known as the *Star*, featured a lattice of three large horizontal bars in the centre of which was a medallion with a star. Vehicles of the second series (1958–1962\\), known as the *Shark*, featured a grille with 16 vertical slits. Finally, the third series (1962–1970\\), known as the *[Baleen](/wiki/Baleen_whale \"Baleen whale\")*, featured a grille with 34 thin vertical rods.", "[thumb\\|First series (1956–58\\)](/wiki/File:GAZ-21_%281st_generation%29_%22Volga%22_in_Moscow_%28front_view%29.jpg \"GAZ-21 (1st generation) \")", "### First series 1956–1958", "The design process leading to the GAZ\\-21 began in November 1953\\. [Alexander Nevzorov](/wiki/Alexander_Nevzorov_%28automotive_engineer%29 \"Alexander Nevzorov (automotive engineer)\"), head of the design team, was given a free hand to develop whatever he wanted to reach the objective of competing with American automobiles.{{citation\\|ref\\=CSU\\|title\\=Cars of the Soviet Union: The Definite History\\|first\\=Andy\\|last\\=Thompson\\|publisher\\=Haynes\\|location\\=Sparkford, Yeovil, Somerset\\|page\\=61\\|year\\=2008\\|isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-84425\\-483\\-5}} Designer Lev Eremeyev decided to follow the fashion set by the [Chevrolet Bel Air](/wiki/Chevrolet_Bel_Air \"Chevrolet Bel Air\"), [Plymouth Savoy](/wiki/Plymouth_Savoy \"Plymouth Savoy\"), and [Ford Mainline](/wiki/Ford_Mainline \"Ford Mainline\"); the finished product bears a resemblance to the 1955 [Mainline](/wiki/Ford_Mainline \"Ford Mainline\"), although according to archive documents, the latter was purchased for comparison and on\\-road testing by GAZ only in mid\\-1954, after the first prototypes of the GAZ\\-21 had already been built and tested.[GAZ report on the Ford Mainline (PDF)](http://www.gaz24.ru/mainline.pdf){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gaz24\\.ru/am\\_gaz21\\.zip\\|title\\=An article on the history of the GAZ\\-21 in the ''Avtomobilny Modelizm'' magazine\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-02\\-24\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-27\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227063743/http://www.gaz24\\.ru/am\\_gaz21\\.zip\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The prototype appeared in the first quarter of 1954, powered by an [inline four](/wiki/Inline-four_engine \"Inline-four engine\") with [overhead camshaft](/wiki/Overhead_camshaft \"Overhead camshaft\") (driven by chain) and cross\\-flow [hemispherical](/wiki/Hemi_engine \"Hemi engine\") [head](/wiki/Cylinder_head \"Cylinder head\"). Since the OHV engine was not ready in time, production M21s had a {{cvt\\|65\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|lk\\=on}} {{cvt\\|2432\\|cc\\|cid}} [sidevalve](/wiki/Sidevalve \"Sidevalve\") four, based on the [GAZ\\-20](/wiki/GAZ-M20_Pobeda \"GAZ-M20 Pobeda\")'s. The Volga was offered with a three\\-speed [transmission](/wiki/Transmission_%28mechanics%29 \"Transmission (mechanics)\"), either [manual](/wiki/Manual_transmission \"Manual transmission\") (with synchronized second and third gears) or [automatic](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\"). Front suspension was [independent](/wiki/Independent_suspension \"Independent suspension\"), while the rear was a [live axle](/wiki/Beam_axle \"Beam axle\") with [semielliptical springs](/wiki/Leaf_spring \"Leaf spring\"); lever shock absorbers were on all four corners. Lubrication was by a central oiling system, from a drum and foot\\-operated pump; the oil lines were prone to puncturing, and not all of the 19 lubricated points were supplied equally.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU \"#CSU\"), p. 65\\. The Volga offered front seats able to fold flat (not unlike a contemporary [Nash](/wiki/Fraser_Nash \"Fraser Nash\") option) and came standard with cigarette lighter and a radio[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU \"#CSU\"), p. 62\\. (still optional on most U.S. cars).Flory, J. \"Kelly\", Jr. *American Cars 1946–1959* (Jefferson, NC: McFarland \\& Coy, 2008\\), *passim*. The three variants were the standard M21G, an M21B taxi (with a [taximeter](/wiki/Taximeter \"Taximeter\") in place of the radio and bucket seats in front instead of a bench), and a tropical model, the M21GYU, all with the GAZ leaping deer [hood ornament](/wiki/Hood_ornament \"Hood ornament\"). [Drag coefficient](/wiki/Automobile_drag_coefficient \"Automobile drag coefficient\") was a surprisingly good 0\\.42\\. The only thing that the Volga and Mainline had in common was the [Ford\\-O\\-Matic](/wiki/Ford-O-Matic \"Ford-O-Matic\") automatic transmission, which the GAZ plant liecensed for use in their vehicles, and even then only a few early Volgas had this transmission, before the design adopted a manual transmission.{{cite news\\|title\\=Ford's Cruise\\-O\\-Matic and the C Family of Automatic Transmissions (Part III)\\|newspaper\\=Techtelegraph\\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-15\\|url\\=https://techtelegraph.co.uk/fords\\-cruise\\-o\\-matic\\-and\\-the\\-c\\-family\\-of\\-automatic\\-transmissions\\-part\\-iii/}}", "The Volga made its public debut in 1955, with a three cars on a demonstration drive from Moscow to the Crimea, two automatic models and a manual. It was, however, still far from production\\-ready; in the first year, 1956, only five cars were assembled, the first on 10 October 1956\\. Full\\-scale production began in 1957, with a list price of 5,400 [rubles](/wiki/Ruble \"Ruble\"). The new 1957 production cars, known as Series Ones, had a brand\\-new {{cvt\\|2445\\|cc\\|cid}} OHV engine, the first model produced by Zavolzhskiy Motorniy Zavod ([Zavolzhye Engine Factory](/wiki/Zavolzhye_Engine_Factory \"Zavolzhye Engine Factory\"), ZMZ). Unusual for the era, it had aluminum block and head, with gear\\-driven [camshaft](/wiki/Camshaft \"Camshaft\") and [compression ratio](/wiki/Compression_ratio \"Compression ratio\") of 6\\.6:1; it produced {{cvt\\|70\\|PS\\|kW hp}} at 4,000 [rpm](/wiki/Revolutions_per_minute \"Revolutions per minute\") and {{cvt\\|123\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|lk\\=on}} at 2,200 rpm.", "The automatic transmission model was soon discontinued, with only 700 built: it was widely criticized as being too difficult for Soviet drivers to maintain, few [service stations](/wiki/Automobile_repair_shop \"Automobile repair shop\") were available to do the work and few private mechanics were qualified, and a shortage of [transmission oil](/wiki/Hydraulic_fluid \"Hydraulic fluid\") existed.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU \"#CSU\"), pp. 62–63\\. From 1958, a three\\-speed manual, with synchromesh on the top two gears, was the only transmission available; this was the M21V, while the taxi became the M21A.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU \"#CSU\"), p. 63\\. The automatic did go on to be used in the low\\-production [GAZ\\-13](/wiki/GAZ-13 \"GAZ-13\") Chaika, which was also maintained by professionals. Standard equipment on all models included spare parts and two tool kits, with [spanners](/wiki/Adjustable_spanner \"Adjustable spanner\"), [wrenches](/wiki/Wrench \"Wrench\"), [screwdrivers](/wiki/Screwdriver \"Screwdriver\"), a tire pump, and a can of paint to fix minor dings.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU \"#CSU\"), p. 66\\.", "Also, export models were built, M21D with the manual transmission and M21E with the automatic, both with a higher 7\\.2:1 compression engine, producing {{cvt\\|80\\|PS\\|kW hp}}.", "Cars produced in the fall of 1958 combined features of the first and second series.", "[thumb\\|Second series (1959–62\\)](/wiki/File:GAZ-21_%282nd_series_%22i%22%29_%22Volga%22_%28front_view%29.jpg \"GAZ-21 (2nd series \")", "### Second series 1959–1962", "Second\\-series Volgas were introduced in 1959, with a new grille painted the body color or in chrome. Halfway through the 1959 production run ([model year](/wiki/Model_year \"Model year\") 1959{{frac\\|1\\|2}}), a [vinyl](/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride \"Polyvinyl chloride\") cover was added to the dash.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU \"#CSU\"), p. 64\\. Added were windscreen washers and tubeless tires. Just before the second\\-series production concluded, telescopic shocks replaced the lever type. The 1961 Volgas were priced at 5,100 rubles.", "Variants of this series included the M21I and M21A taxi with the {{cvt\\|70\\|PS\\|kW hp}} inline four, and the M21K and right\\-hand drive M21H (for export) with the {{cvt\\|80\\|PS\\|kW hp}} engine.", "The Volga was shown at the 1958 [Brussels World's Fair](/wiki/Brussels_World%27s_Fair \"Brussels World's Fair\") and together with the [GAZ\\-52 truck](/wiki/GAZ-53 \"GAZ-53\") and the GAZ\\-13 Chaika, it won the award.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.volga.nl/medailleEN.htm\\|title\\=Expo 1958\\|work\\=volga.nl}} In the same year, production for export began. The second\\-series Volgas became known for having no frills, but outstanding durability, helped by the {{cvt\\|230\\|mm\\|in}} ground clearance. In 1959, a Volga took a class win at the [Thousand Lakes Rally](/wiki/Rally_Finland \"Rally Finland\") in Finland, and third at the [Acropolis Rally](/wiki/Acropolis_Rally \"Acropolis Rally\"). That year, the central lubrication system was deleted, in favor of a more traditional local grease\\-application nipple.", "In early 1962, a small number of cars were built that combined features of the second and third series.", "[thumb\\|Third series (1962–70\\)](/wiki/File:Volga_GAZ_21_M.JPG \"Volga GAZ 21 M.JPG\")", "### Third series 1962–1970", "The third series was produced from 1962 to 1970\\. The 1962 models dropped the leaping\\-deer hood ornament, and had a new grille. It used a 6\\.7:1 compression engine of {{cvt\\|75\\|PS\\|kW hp}} with an optional 7\\.65:1 compression of {{cvt\\|80\\|PS\\|kW hp}} (usually reserved for the export models).[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU \"#CSU\"), p. 123\\. The [headliner](/wiki/Headliner_%28material%29 \"Headliner (material)\") changed from cloth to vinyl, and the radio became optional. It was offered as the standard M21L, M21T taxi, and right\\-hand drive M21N export model.", "Also in 1962, GAZ advertised a [station wagon](/wiki/Station_wagon \"Station wagon\")/estate model, the M22; most of these were exported or reserved for official use. The first station wagons/estates were delivered in 1963, and were designated M22 ({{cvt\\|75\\|PS\\|kW hp}}), M22G (export, {{cvt\\|75\\|hp\\|kW PS}}), M22T (export, {{cvt\\|85\\|PS\\|kW hp}}); ambulances were M22B ({{cvt\\|75\\|PS\\|kW hp}}) and M22BK ({{cvt\\|85\\|PS\\|kW hp}}).[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU \"#CSU\"), p. 124\\. An M22 prototype [four\\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive \"Four-wheel drive\") station wagon/estate was also built, as was an M22A [van](/wiki/Sedan_delivery \"Sedan delivery\").", "Belgian importer Sobimpex N.V. assembled Volgas locally for sale in Western Europe. These were often fitted with diesel engines; the cars arrived in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\") without an engine and with the gearbox in the trunk. Originally (beginning in 1960\\) Sobimpex fitted a 1\\.6\\-liter [Perkins](/wiki/Perkins_Engines \"Perkins Engines\") 4\\.99 unit, a larger [Rover](/wiki/Rover_Company \"Rover Company\") engine supplanted that in 1963, and the more modern {{ill\\|Indenor\\|fr}} four\\-cylinder units replaced the Rover engine in 1964\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gaz21volga.com/Technik/belgien/belgische.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110225065708/http://www.gaz21volga.com/Technik/belgien/belgische.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-02\\-25\\|title\\=Дизельные ГАЗ\\-21 \"Волга\" в Бельгии\\|trans\\-title\\=Diesel GAZ\\-21 \"Volga\" in Belgium\\|language\\=ru\\|work\\=GAZ21Volga.com}} Belgian\\-built cars were marketed as \"Scaldia\\-Volgas\", named after the Latin name for the river [Scheldt](/wiki/Scheldt \"Scheldt\"). While the diesel models cost considerably more than ones with the original engine, they were quite popular for their economy and reliability, and outsold the petrol models in both Belgium and the Netherlands.", "" ]
Models ------ The car's large size and tough construction made it popular in the police and taxi trades, and [V8](/wiki/V8_engine "V8 engine")\-powered versions (designated GAZ M23\) were produced for the [KGB](/wiki/KGB "KGB"). An [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission") was briefly offered in the late 1950s, but later discontinued due to lack of service stations, and then, through the 1960s, on the KGB's V8 version only, with the driver's controls being very similar to the discontinued "civil" automatic. The M21 Volga was produced in [sedan](/wiki/Sedan_%28car%29 "Sedan (car)") form from 1956 to 1970 and station wagon form (GAZ M22 Universal) from 1962 to 1970\. This left the design quite outdated by the 1960s. GAZ developed a boxier, more modern replacement, and in 1970, the M21 platform was discontinued by GAZ. Until the late 1970s, however, spare parts were produced by different plants all over the USSR, and some plants were rebuilding M21s using spare parts, wrecked, and junked cars. In 1988, about 80,000 M21 Volgas were registered in the USSR.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2024}} Based on the GAZ\-21, a number of [pick\-up trucks](/wiki/Pickup_truck "Pickup truck") were also built on its basis by various autonomous auto repair plants from all around the country. As these plants worked separately, there was no single design for these vehicles.{{cite web \|title\=пикапы на базе ГАЗ\-21 \|url\=http://www.denisovets.ru/gaz/gazpages/gaz21pickup.html \|website\=Denisovets}} The *Deluxe* variant has additional chrome trim around the windows and spanning the front and rear headlights, with the rear ones being fin\-shaped. They also usually included the {{cvt\|79\|hp}} engines instead of the standard {{cvt\|69\|hp}} ones. One M21 was given to [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin "Yuri Gagarin") after his [orbital flight](/wiki/Vostok_1 "Vostok 1"); Gagarin was very fond of his Volga.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU "#CSU"), p. 121\. The [UAZ\-469](/wiki/UAZ-469 "UAZ-469") all\-terrain vehicle uses a GAZ\-21A engine, and the [RAF\-977](/wiki/RAF-977 "RAF-977") minibus used the GAZ\-21 engine and drivetrain. A special\-variant GAZ\-23 Volga was produced for Soviet special services only, with a {{cvt\|160\|PS\|kW hp}} 5\.53\-litre V8 engine from the Chaika. These were also equipped with the Chaika's automatic transmission. This allowed the M23 to reach {{cvt\|170\|kph}}.*GAZ\-21S Militsya*, Avtomobil Na Sluzhbie, No.2, DeAgostini 2010, {{ISBN\|978\-5\-9774\-0418\-1}} {{in lang\|ru}} Only 603 of the M23s were built between 1962 and 1970\.
[ "Models\n------", "The car's large size and tough construction made it popular in the police and taxi trades, and [V8](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\")\\-powered versions (designated GAZ M23\\) were produced for the [KGB](/wiki/KGB \"KGB\"). An [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\") was briefly offered in the late 1950s, but later discontinued due to lack of service stations, and then, through the 1960s, on the KGB's V8 version only, with the driver's controls being very similar to the discontinued \"civil\" automatic.", "The M21 Volga was produced in [sedan](/wiki/Sedan_%28car%29 \"Sedan (car)\") form from 1956 to 1970 and station wagon form (GAZ M22 Universal) from 1962 to 1970\\. This left the design quite outdated by the 1960s. GAZ developed a boxier, more modern replacement, and in 1970, the M21 platform was discontinued by GAZ. Until the late 1970s, however, spare parts were produced by different plants all over the USSR, and some plants were rebuilding M21s using spare parts, wrecked, and junked cars. In 1988, about 80,000 M21 Volgas were registered in the USSR.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2024}} Based on the GAZ\\-21, a number of [pick\\-up trucks](/wiki/Pickup_truck \"Pickup truck\") were also built on its basis by various autonomous auto repair plants from all around the country. As these plants worked separately, there was no single design for these vehicles.{{cite web \\|title\\=пикапы на базе ГАЗ\\-21 \\|url\\=http://www.denisovets.ru/gaz/gazpages/gaz21pickup.html \\|website\\=Denisovets}}", "The *Deluxe* variant has additional chrome trim around the windows and spanning the front and rear headlights, with the rear ones being fin\\-shaped. They also usually included the {{cvt\\|79\\|hp}} engines instead of the standard {{cvt\\|69\\|hp}} ones.", "One M21 was given to [Yuri Gagarin](/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin \"Yuri Gagarin\") after his [orbital flight](/wiki/Vostok_1 \"Vostok 1\"); Gagarin was very fond of his Volga.[Thompson](/wiki/%23CSU \"#CSU\"), p. 121\\.", "The [UAZ\\-469](/wiki/UAZ-469 \"UAZ-469\") all\\-terrain vehicle uses a GAZ\\-21A engine, and the [RAF\\-977](/wiki/RAF-977 \"RAF-977\") minibus used the GAZ\\-21 engine and drivetrain.", "A special\\-variant GAZ\\-23 Volga was produced for Soviet special services only, with a {{cvt\\|160\\|PS\\|kW hp}} 5\\.53\\-litre V8 engine from the Chaika. These were also equipped with the Chaika's automatic transmission. This allowed the M23 to reach {{cvt\\|170\\|kph}}.*GAZ\\-21S Militsya*, Avtomobil Na Sluzhbie, No.2, DeAgostini 2010, {{ISBN\\|978\\-5\\-9774\\-0418\\-1}} {{in lang\\|ru}} Only 603 of the M23s were built between 1962 and 1970\\.", "" ]
China ----- ### Opium trade British merchants, protected by the Royal Navy, dominated the opium trade in China. The opium was grown in India – then under British control – and sold by British merchants to Chinese wholesalers in China. The Chinese government protested, two wars resulted, with decisive victories by the British. The Americans did only 1/10 as much opium business in China, but showed more ingenuity in developing sources, and building a network of Chinese merchants.Tyler Dennett, *Americans in eastern Asia* (1922\) pp 115\-27\. The British had a monopoly on the Indian supply, but the Americans relied more on Turkey, and circumvented Chinese restrictions by smuggling to local merchants in the Portuguese colony of Macau while the Chinese government was focused exclusively on the British in Canton. In effect the British Navy protected the American interests, and American merchants received protection from the unequal treaties that China was forced to sign with the British.Jacques M. Downs, "American merchants and the China opium trade, 1800–1840". *Business History Review* 42\.4 (1968\): 418\-442\. [Online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3112527) American merchant Peter Snow was based in Canton, but his business was not highly profitable. On the other hand, he served as the U.S. consul there in the late 1830s and early 1840s. He proved efficient and effective in protecting American business interests during the opium crisis of 1839–40\.Jacques M. Downs, "Bad Luck in the China trade: Peter Wanton Snow", *Rhode Island History* (1966\) 25\#3 pp 73\-80\. The Chinese government saw him the Americans as a counterweight to the British. The Americans opportunistically took advantage of British victories and gain the same privileges without using or threatening to use its military. The emerging American policy was equal opportunity for all nations, which by 1900 became the "open door" policy.Arnold H. Taylor, "Opium and the Open Door", *South Atlantic Quarterly* (1970\) 69\#1 pp 79\-95\. The main American activity in China saw merchants unloaded their opium in Portuguese Macau, and purchase tea, silk and China in Canton. Most of the Americans were based in Salem Massachusetts, and after 1840 they suddenly gave up the international trade, and invested their profits in new textile factories in New England. There were practically no opportunities to invest in China itself, so the American presence dropped off sharply. All the remained was a nostalgic image of a friendly China that probably encouraged missionary activities in the late 1840s.Ernest R. May and James C, Thomson, eds. *American\-East Asian Relations: A Survey* (1972\) pp 26\-31\. ### Extraterritorial rights Under the 1844 [Treaty of Wanghia](/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia "Treaty of Wanghia"), negotiated by U.S. minister [Caleb Cushing](/wiki/Caleb_Cushing "Caleb Cushing"), American businessmen were restricted to the designated international districts in designated port cities. They were exempt from Chinese courts and were instead under the legal jurisdiction of American officials. These extraterritorial rights lasted until 1943\. The treaty represented an American challenge to British dominance. China mades similar treaties with Japan and the Western powers in order to block a British takeover of the Chinese market.Macabe Keliher, "Anglo\-American rivalry and the origins of US China policy". *Diplomatic History* 31\.2 (2007\): 227\-257\. [online](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-7709.2007.00613.x) American missionaries were allowed anywhere.Dennett, *Americans in Eastern Asia* (1922\) pp 145\-73\.Teemu Ruskola, "Canton is not Boston: the invention of American imperial sovereignty". *American Quarterly* 57\.3 (2005\): 859\-884\. [online](https://www.academia.edu/10873298/Canton_Is_Not_Boston_The_Invention_of_American_Imperial_Sovereignty) ### Missionaries in China {{Main\|Protestant missions in China}} British Protestant churches took the lead in establishing a missionary role in China, especially with the [China Inland Mission.](/wiki/OMF_International "OMF International") The American program was smaller, but it had a certain impact on China, and even more so on the United States.Patricia Neils, *United States Attitudes Toward China: Impact of American Missionaries* (1990\). Local government officials, all steeped in Confucianism, took a hostile view of Christianity, so converts were few and from the social fringe. Much more important was the impact on medicine and education. Peter Parker (1804–1888\) in Canton (Guangzhou) was the most influential American missionary doctor.Louis Fu, "Healing bodies or saving souls? Reverend Dr Peter Parker (1804–1888\) as medical missionary". *[Journal of Medical Biography](/wiki/Journal_of_Medical_Biography "Journal of Medical Biography")* 24\.2 (2016\): 266\-275\.Edward V. Gulick, *Peter Parker and the Opening of China* (1974\) John Kerr (1824\-1901\) in 1859 established the Boji Hospital in Canton as one of the most influential hospitals in China. He established a medical school and prepared textbooks and journal articles to introduce Western medicine in depth. By 1937, British and American missionaries operated 300 church hospitals, with 21,000 beds, as well as 600 small clinics.{{cite book\|author1\=Ya Tu\|author2\=Tingyu Fang\|title\=History and Philosophy of Chinese Medicine\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=SEeuDQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA216\|year\=2015\|publisher\=PMPH\-USA\|pages\=216 \|isbn\=9787117197847}}, published by the Chinese government.Louis Fu, "Medical missionaries in China: John Glasgow Kerr (1824–1901\) and cutting for the stone". *Journal of Medical Biography* 26\.3 (2018\): 194\-202\. The American missionary community could boast of hundreds of primary and secondary schools, topped off by 13 Protestant and three Catholic universities. The capstones were [Yenching University](/wiki/Yenching_University "Yenching University") and [Peking Union Medical College](/wiki/Peking_Union_Medical_College "Peking Union Medical College").[Warren I. Cohen](/wiki/Warren_I._Cohen "Warren I. Cohen"), ed., *Pacific Passage* p 149 American missionaries had an audience at home who listen closely to their first\-hand accounts. Around 1900 there were on average about 300 China missionaries on furlough back home, and they presented their case to church groups perhaps 30,000 times a year, reaching several million churchgoers. They were suffused with optimism that sooner or later China would be converted to Christianity. By the 1920s, however, the mainline Protestant churches realize that conversions were not happening, despite all the schools and hospitals. Furthermore, they had come to appreciate the ethical and cultural values of a different civilization, and began to doubt their own superiority. The mainline Protestant denomination missionary work declined rapidly.John King Fairbank, *China Watch* (1987\) pp 21\-23\.David A. Hollinger, *Protestants abroad: how missionaries tried to change the world but changed America* (2017\) pp 59\-93\. In their place came a growing role for Chinese Christians. Furthermore, there was an influx of fundamentalist, Pentecostal and Jehovah Witness missionaries who remained committed to the conversion process.Joel Carpenter, and Wilbert R. Shenk, eds. *Earthen vessels: American evangelicals and foreign missions, 1880\-1980* (2012\) pp xiii\-xiv. Novelist [Pearl S. Buck](/wiki/Pearl_S._Buck "Pearl S. Buck") (1892–1973\) was raised in a bilingual environment in China by her missionary parents. China was the setting for many of her best\-selling novels and stories, which explored the hardships, and the depth of humanity of the people she loved, and considered fully equal. After college in the United States, she returned to China as a Presbyterian missionary 1914 to 1932\. She taught English at the college level. *[The Good Earth](/wiki/The_Good_Earth "The Good Earth")* (1931\) was her best\-selling novel, and a popular movie. Along with numerous other books and articles she reached a large middle\-class American audience with a highly sympathetic view of China.Michael H. Hunt, "Pearl Buck\-Popular Expert on China, 1931\-1949". *Modern China* 3\.1 (1977\): 33\-64\. [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/188911) The Nobel Prize committee for literature hailed her, "for the notable works which pave the way to a human sympathy passing over widely separated racial boundaries and for the studies of human ideals which are a great and living art of portraiture."{{cite book\|editor\=Mark P. Hutchinson\|title\=The Oxford History of Protestant Dissenting Traditions, Volume V: The Twentieth Century: Themes and Variations in a Global Context\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DflyDwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA427\|year\=2018\|publisher\=Oxford UP\|page\=427\|isbn\=9780192518224}} No one had more influence on American political thinking about foreign policy than [Henry R. Luce](/wiki/Henry_R._Luce "Henry R. Luce") (1898\-1967\), founder and publisher of *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")*, *[Life](/wiki/Life_%28magazine%29 "Life (magazine)")* and *[Fortune](/wiki/Fortune_%28magazine%29 "Fortune (magazine)")* magazines from the 1920s to his death. He was born to missionary parents in China, and educated there until age 15\. His Chinese experience made a deep impression, and his publications always gave large scale favorable attention to China. He gave some very strong support to Chiang Kai\-shek in his battles against Mao Zedong.Michael H. Hunt, "East Asia in Henry Luce's 'American Century{{'"}}. *Diplomatic History* 23\.2 (1999\): 321\-353\. [Online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24913743)Robert E. Herzstein, *Henry R. Luce, Time, and the American crusade in Asia* (Cambridge UP, 2005\). pp 1\-4, 247\-49\. The politically most influential returning missionary was [Walter Judd](/wiki/Walter_Judd_%28politician%29 "Walter Judd (politician)") (1898\-1994\) Who served 10 years is a medical missionary in Fujian 1925\-1931 and 1934–1938\.Lee Edwards, *Missionary for Freedom: The Life and Times of Walter Judd* (1990\). On his return to Minnesota, he became an articulate spokesman denouncing the Japanese aggression against China, explaining it in terms of Japan's scarcity of raw materials and markets, population pressure, and the disorder and civil war in China. According to biographer Yanli Gao: Judd was both a Wilsonian moralist and a Jacksonian protectionist, whose efforts were driven by a general Christian understanding of human beings, as well as a missionary complex. As he appealed simultaneously to American national interests and a popular Christian moral conscience, the Judd experience demonstrated that determined courageous advocacy by missionaries did in fact help to shape an American foreign policy needing to be awakened from its isolationist slumbers."Yanli Gao and Robert Osburn Jr. "Walter Judd and the Sino\-Japanese War: Christian Missionary cum Foreign Policy Activist". *Journal of Church and State* 58\.4 (2016\): 615\-632\. Judd served two decades in Congress 1943\-1962 as a Republican, where he was a highly influential spokesman on Asian affairs generally and especially China. He was a liberal missionary and a but a conservative anti\-Communist congressman who defined the extent of American support for the [Chiang Kai\-shek](/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek "Chiang Kai-shek") regime.Yanli Gao, "Judd's China: a missionary congressman and US–China policy". *Journal of Modern Chinese History* 2\.2 (2008\): 197\-219\. ### 1905 Chinese boycott In response to severe restrictions on Chinese immigration to the United States, the overseas Chinese living in the United States organized a boycott whereby people in China refuse to purchase American products. The project was organized by a reform organization based in the United States, Baohuang Hui. Unlike the reactionary Boxers, these reformers were modernizers. The Manchu government had supported the Boxers, but these reformers—of whom Sun Yat\-sen was representative, opposed the government. The boycott was put into effect by merchants and students in south and central China. It made only a small economic impact, because China bought few American products apart from Standard Oil's kerosene. Washington was outraged and treated the boycott as a Boxer\-like violent attack, and demanded the Peking government stop it or else. President Theodore Roosevelt asked Congress for special funding for a naval expedition. Washington refused to consider softening the exclusion laws because it responded to deep\-seated [anti\-Chinese prejudices](/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States "Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States") that were widespread especially on the West Coast. It now began to denounce Chinese nationalism.Howard K. Beale, *Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power* (1955\) pp 212–252 The impact on the Chinese people, in China and abroad, was far\-reaching. Jane Larson argues the boycott, "marked the beginning of mass politics and modern nationalism in China. Never before had shared nationalistic aspirations mobilized Chinese across the world in political action, joining the cause of Chinese migrants with the fate of the Chinese nation."Jane Leung Larson, "The 1905 anti\-American boycott as a transnational Chinese movement". *Chinese America: History and Perspectives* (2007\): 191\-98, Quoting page 191, [Excerpt](https://search.proquest.com/openview/8de5ba0e3fcf2c41b458ea50e9c8cd3e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=32930)Guanhua Wang, *In Search of Justice: The 1905\-1906 Chinese Anti\-American Boycott* (Harvard East Asian Monographs, 2002\).Sin\-Kiong Wong, "Die for the boycott and nation: Martyrdom and the 1905 anti\-American movement in China". *Modern Asian Studies* 35\.3 (2001\): 565\-588\.
[ "China\n-----", "### Opium trade", "British merchants, protected by the Royal Navy, dominated the opium trade in China. The opium was grown in India – then under British control – and sold by British merchants to Chinese wholesalers in China. The Chinese government protested, two wars resulted, with decisive victories by the British. The Americans did only 1/10 as much opium business in China, but showed more ingenuity in developing sources, and building a network of Chinese merchants.Tyler Dennett, *Americans in eastern Asia* (1922\\) pp 115\\-27\\. The British had a monopoly on the Indian supply, but the Americans relied more on Turkey, and circumvented Chinese restrictions by smuggling to local merchants in the Portuguese colony of Macau while the Chinese government was focused exclusively on the British in Canton. In effect the British Navy protected the American interests, and American merchants received protection from the unequal treaties that China was forced to sign with the British.Jacques M. Downs, \"American merchants and the China opium trade, 1800–1840\". *Business History Review* 42\\.4 (1968\\): 418\\-442\\. [Online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3112527) American merchant Peter Snow was based in Canton, but his business was not highly profitable. On the other hand, he served as the U.S. consul there in the late 1830s and early 1840s. He proved efficient and effective in protecting American business interests during the opium crisis of 1839–40\\.Jacques M. Downs, \"Bad Luck in the China trade: Peter Wanton Snow\", *Rhode Island History* (1966\\) 25\\#3 pp 73\\-80\\. The Chinese government saw him the Americans as a counterweight to the British. The Americans opportunistically took advantage of British victories and gain the same privileges without using or threatening to use its military. The emerging American policy was equal opportunity for all nations, which by 1900 became the \"open door\" policy.Arnold H. Taylor, \"Opium and the Open Door\", *South Atlantic Quarterly* (1970\\) 69\\#1 pp 79\\-95\\. The main American activity in China saw merchants unloaded their opium in Portuguese Macau, and purchase tea, silk and China in Canton. Most of the Americans were based in Salem Massachusetts, and after 1840 they suddenly gave up the international trade, and invested their profits in new textile factories in New England. There were practically no opportunities to invest in China itself, so the American presence dropped off sharply. All the remained was a nostalgic image of a friendly China that probably encouraged missionary activities in the late 1840s.Ernest R. May and James C, Thomson, eds. *American\\-East Asian Relations: A Survey* (1972\\) pp 26\\-31\\.", "### Extraterritorial rights", "Under the 1844 [Treaty of Wanghia](/wiki/Treaty_of_Wanghia \"Treaty of Wanghia\"), negotiated by U.S. minister [Caleb Cushing](/wiki/Caleb_Cushing \"Caleb Cushing\"), American businessmen were restricted to the designated international districts in designated port cities. They were exempt from Chinese courts and were instead under the legal jurisdiction of American officials. These extraterritorial rights lasted until 1943\\. The treaty represented an American challenge to British dominance. China mades similar treaties with Japan and the Western powers in order to block a British takeover of the Chinese market.Macabe Keliher, \"Anglo\\-American rivalry and the origins of US China policy\". *Diplomatic History* 31\\.2 (2007\\): 227\\-257\\. [online](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-7709.2007.00613.x) American missionaries were allowed anywhere.Dennett, *Americans in Eastern Asia* (1922\\) pp 145\\-73\\.Teemu Ruskola, \"Canton is not Boston: the invention of American imperial sovereignty\". *American Quarterly* 57\\.3 (2005\\): 859\\-884\\. [online](https://www.academia.edu/10873298/Canton_Is_Not_Boston_The_Invention_of_American_Imperial_Sovereignty)", "### Missionaries in China", "{{Main\\|Protestant missions in China}}\nBritish Protestant churches took the lead in establishing a missionary role in China, especially with the [China Inland Mission.](/wiki/OMF_International \"OMF International\") The American program was smaller, but it had a certain impact on China, and even more so on the United States.Patricia Neils, *United States Attitudes Toward China: Impact of American Missionaries* (1990\\).", "Local government officials, all steeped in Confucianism, took a hostile view of Christianity, so converts were few and from the social fringe. Much more important was the impact on medicine and education. Peter Parker (1804–1888\\) in Canton (Guangzhou) was the most influential American missionary doctor.Louis Fu, \"Healing bodies or saving souls? Reverend Dr Peter Parker (1804–1888\\) as medical missionary\". *[Journal of Medical Biography](/wiki/Journal_of_Medical_Biography \"Journal of Medical Biography\")* 24\\.2 (2016\\): 266\\-275\\.Edward V. Gulick, *Peter Parker and the Opening of China* (1974\\) John Kerr (1824\\-1901\\) in 1859 established the Boji Hospital in Canton as one of the most influential hospitals in China. He established a medical school and prepared textbooks and journal articles to introduce Western medicine in depth. By 1937, British and American missionaries operated 300 church hospitals, with 21,000 beds, as well as 600 small clinics.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Ya Tu\\|author2\\=Tingyu Fang\\|title\\=History and Philosophy of Chinese Medicine\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SEeuDQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA216\\|year\\=2015\\|publisher\\=PMPH\\-USA\\|pages\\=216 \\|isbn\\=9787117197847}}, published by the Chinese government.Louis Fu, \"Medical missionaries in China: John Glasgow Kerr (1824–1901\\) and cutting for the stone\". *Journal of Medical Biography* 26\\.3 (2018\\): 194\\-202\\. The American missionary community could boast of hundreds of primary and secondary schools, topped off by 13 Protestant and three Catholic universities. The capstones were [Yenching University](/wiki/Yenching_University \"Yenching University\") and [Peking Union Medical College](/wiki/Peking_Union_Medical_College \"Peking Union Medical College\").[Warren I. Cohen](/wiki/Warren_I._Cohen \"Warren I. Cohen\"), ed., *Pacific Passage* p 149", "American missionaries had an audience at home who listen closely to their first\\-hand accounts. Around 1900 there were on average about 300 China missionaries on furlough back home, and they presented their case to church groups perhaps 30,000 times a year, reaching several million churchgoers. They were suffused with optimism that sooner or later China would be converted to Christianity. By the 1920s, however, the mainline Protestant churches realize that conversions were not happening, despite all the schools and hospitals. Furthermore, they had come to appreciate the ethical and cultural values of a different civilization, and began to doubt their own superiority. The mainline Protestant denomination missionary work declined rapidly.John King Fairbank, *China Watch* (1987\\) pp 21\\-23\\.David A. Hollinger, *Protestants abroad: how missionaries tried to change the world but changed America* (2017\\) pp 59\\-93\\. In their place came a growing role for Chinese Christians. Furthermore, there was an influx of fundamentalist, Pentecostal and Jehovah Witness missionaries who remained committed to the conversion process.Joel Carpenter, and Wilbert R. Shenk, eds. *Earthen vessels: American evangelicals and foreign missions, 1880\\-1980* (2012\\) pp xiii\\-xiv.", "Novelist [Pearl S. Buck](/wiki/Pearl_S._Buck \"Pearl S. Buck\") (1892–1973\\) was raised in a bilingual environment in China by her missionary parents. China was the setting for many of her best\\-selling novels and stories, which explored the hardships, and the depth of humanity of the people she loved, and considered fully equal. After college in the United States, she returned to China as a Presbyterian missionary 1914 to 1932\\. She taught English at the college level. *[The Good Earth](/wiki/The_Good_Earth \"The Good Earth\")* (1931\\) was her best\\-selling novel, and a popular movie. Along with numerous other books and articles she reached a large middle\\-class American audience with a highly sympathetic view of China.Michael H. Hunt, \"Pearl Buck\\-Popular Expert on China, 1931\\-1949\". *Modern China* 3\\.1 (1977\\): 33\\-64\\. [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/188911) The Nobel Prize committee for literature hailed her, \"for the notable works which pave the way to a human sympathy passing over widely separated racial boundaries and for the studies of human ideals which are a great and living art of portraiture.\"{{cite book\\|editor\\=Mark P. Hutchinson\\|title\\=The Oxford History of Protestant Dissenting Traditions, Volume V: The Twentieth Century: Themes and Variations in a Global Context\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DflyDwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA427\\|year\\=2018\\|publisher\\=Oxford UP\\|page\\=427\\|isbn\\=9780192518224}}", "No one had more influence on American political thinking about foreign policy than [Henry R. Luce](/wiki/Henry_R._Luce \"Henry R. Luce\") (1898\\-1967\\), founder and publisher of *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")*, *[Life](/wiki/Life_%28magazine%29 \"Life (magazine)\")* and *[Fortune](/wiki/Fortune_%28magazine%29 \"Fortune (magazine)\")* magazines from the 1920s to his death. He was born to missionary parents in China, and educated there until age 15\\. His Chinese experience made a deep impression, and his publications always gave large scale favorable attention to China. He gave some very strong support to Chiang Kai\\-shek in his battles against Mao Zedong.Michael H. Hunt, \"East Asia in Henry Luce's 'American Century{{'\"}}. *Diplomatic History* 23\\.2 (1999\\): 321\\-353\\. [Online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24913743)Robert E. Herzstein, *Henry R. Luce, Time, and the American crusade in Asia* (Cambridge UP, 2005\\). pp 1\\-4, 247\\-49\\.", "The politically most influential returning missionary was [Walter Judd](/wiki/Walter_Judd_%28politician%29 \"Walter Judd (politician)\") (1898\\-1994\\) Who served 10 years is a medical missionary in Fujian 1925\\-1931 and 1934–1938\\.Lee Edwards, *Missionary for Freedom: The Life and Times of Walter Judd* (1990\\). On his return to Minnesota, he became an articulate spokesman denouncing the Japanese aggression against China, explaining it in terms of Japan's scarcity of raw materials and markets, population pressure, and the disorder and civil war in China. According to biographer Yanli Gao:\nJudd was both a Wilsonian moralist and a Jacksonian protectionist, whose efforts were driven by a general Christian understanding of human beings, as well as a missionary complex. As he appealed simultaneously to American national interests and a popular Christian moral conscience, the Judd experience demonstrated that determined courageous advocacy by missionaries did in fact help to shape an American foreign policy needing to be awakened from its isolationist slumbers.\"Yanli Gao and Robert Osburn Jr. \"Walter Judd and the Sino\\-Japanese War: Christian Missionary cum Foreign Policy Activist\". *Journal of Church and State* 58\\.4 (2016\\): 615\\-632\\. Judd served two decades in Congress 1943\\-1962 as a Republican, where he was a highly influential spokesman on Asian affairs generally and especially China. He was a liberal missionary and a but a conservative anti\\-Communist congressman who defined the extent of American support for the [Chiang Kai\\-shek](/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek \"Chiang Kai-shek\") regime.Yanli Gao, \"Judd's China: a missionary congressman and US–China policy\". *Journal of Modern Chinese History* 2\\.2 (2008\\): 197\\-219\\.", "### 1905 Chinese boycott", "In response to severe restrictions on Chinese immigration to the United States, the overseas Chinese living in the United States organized a boycott whereby people in China refuse to purchase American products. The project was organized by a reform organization based in the United States, Baohuang Hui. Unlike the reactionary Boxers, these reformers were modernizers. The Manchu government had supported the Boxers, but these reformers—of whom Sun Yat\\-sen was representative, opposed the government. The boycott was put into effect by merchants and students in south and central China. It made only a small economic impact, because China bought few American products apart from Standard Oil's kerosene. Washington was outraged and treated the boycott as a Boxer\\-like violent attack, and demanded the Peking government stop it or else. President Theodore Roosevelt asked Congress for special funding for a naval expedition. Washington refused to consider softening the exclusion laws because it responded to deep\\-seated [anti\\-Chinese prejudices](/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States \"Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States\") that were widespread especially on the West Coast. It now began to denounce Chinese nationalism.Howard K. Beale, *Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power* (1955\\) pp 212–252 The impact on the Chinese people, in China and abroad, was far\\-reaching. Jane Larson argues the boycott, \"marked the beginning of mass politics and modern nationalism in China. Never before had shared nationalistic aspirations mobilized Chinese across the world in political action, joining the cause of Chinese migrants with the fate of the Chinese nation.\"Jane Leung Larson, \"The 1905 anti\\-American boycott as a transnational Chinese movement\". *Chinese America: History and Perspectives* (2007\\): 191\\-98, Quoting page 191, [Excerpt](https://search.proquest.com/openview/8de5ba0e3fcf2c41b458ea50e9c8cd3e/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=32930)Guanhua Wang, *In Search of Justice: The 1905\\-1906 Chinese Anti\\-American Boycott* (Harvard East Asian Monographs, 2002\\).Sin\\-Kiong Wong, \"Die for the boycott and nation: Martyrdom and the 1905 anti\\-American movement in China\". *Modern Asian Studies* 35\\.3 (2001\\): 565\\-588\\.", "" ]
Race history ------------ The T81 debuted at the non\-championship [1966 Syracuse Grand Prix](/wiki/1966_Syracuse_Grand_Prix "1966 Syracuse Grand Prix"). The works team was not present but [Rob Walker](/wiki/R.R.C._Walker_Racing_Team "R.R.C. Walker Racing Team") entered a car for [Jo Siffert](/wiki/Jo_Siffert "Jo Siffert") and [Guy Ligier](/wiki/Guy_Ligier "Guy Ligier") entered his own car. Siffert qualified third but retired with a broken universal joint, while [Ligier](/wiki/Ligier "Ligier") qualified fifth and finished sixth and last. The World Championship debut was at the [1966 Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1966_Monaco_Grand_Prix "1966 Monaco Grand Prix"). [Jochen Rindt](/wiki/Jochen_Rindt "Jochen Rindt") and [Richie Ginther](/wiki/Richie_Ginther "Richie Ginther") were the works drivers, qualifying in seventh and ninth position respectively. Both retired with mechanical problems. [Guy Ligier](/wiki/Guy_Ligier "Guy Ligier") and [Jo Bonnier](/wiki/Jo_Bonnier "Jo Bonnier") were also present and finished the race but were unclassified. With up to three works entries, and three privateer cars, there were suggestions that Cooper were overstretching themselves and that as a result the preparation of the cars was suffering. However [John Surtees](/wiki/John_Surtees "John Surtees"), who had replaced Ginther after walking out on [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari"), took the car's first win in the final race of the 1966 season in Mexico, and in turn Surtees's replacement, [Pedro Rodríguez](/wiki/Pedro_Rodr%C3%ADguez_%28racing_driver%29 "Pedro Rodríguez (racing driver)"), won the very next race, the 1967 season opener in South Africa. The T81B variant was first raced by Rindt at the 1967 Monaco Grand Prix. Cooper finished third in the Constructors' Championship in 1966 and 1967, their highest placing since 1962, but it would be their last flourish. The T81's last race came at the start of the 1968 season in South Africa in the hands of privateers [Jo Siffert](/wiki/Jo_Siffert "Jo Siffert") and [Jo Bonnier](/wiki/Jo_Bonnier "Jo Bonnier"), as by this time the works team had moved on to the [T86](/wiki/Cooper_T86 "Cooper T86") chassis. As it happened, Cooper folded at the end of the 1968 season, making the T81 the last Cooper to win a World Championship Grand Prix. In all the T81 (and T81B) was entered a total of 85 times in its 21 race lifespan, achieving 2 wins, 1 pole position, 6 podiums, and 23 points finishes, earning 74 points in total.
[ "Race history\n------------", "The T81 debuted at the non\\-championship [1966 Syracuse Grand Prix](/wiki/1966_Syracuse_Grand_Prix \"1966 Syracuse Grand Prix\"). The works team was not present but [Rob Walker](/wiki/R.R.C._Walker_Racing_Team \"R.R.C. Walker Racing Team\") entered a car for [Jo Siffert](/wiki/Jo_Siffert \"Jo Siffert\") and [Guy Ligier](/wiki/Guy_Ligier \"Guy Ligier\") entered his own car. Siffert qualified third but retired with a broken universal joint, while [Ligier](/wiki/Ligier \"Ligier\") qualified fifth and finished sixth and last.", "The World Championship debut was at the [1966 Monaco Grand Prix](/wiki/1966_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"1966 Monaco Grand Prix\"). [Jochen Rindt](/wiki/Jochen_Rindt \"Jochen Rindt\") and [Richie Ginther](/wiki/Richie_Ginther \"Richie Ginther\") were the works drivers, qualifying in seventh and ninth position respectively. Both retired with mechanical problems. [Guy Ligier](/wiki/Guy_Ligier \"Guy Ligier\") and [Jo Bonnier](/wiki/Jo_Bonnier \"Jo Bonnier\") were also present and finished the race but were unclassified.", "With up to three works entries, and three privateer cars, there were suggestions that Cooper were overstretching themselves and that as a result the preparation of the cars was suffering. However [John Surtees](/wiki/John_Surtees \"John Surtees\"), who had replaced Ginther after walking out on [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\"), took the car's first win in the final race of the 1966 season in Mexico, and in turn Surtees's replacement, [Pedro Rodríguez](/wiki/Pedro_Rodr%C3%ADguez_%28racing_driver%29 \"Pedro Rodríguez (racing driver)\"), won the very next race, the 1967 season opener in South Africa. The T81B variant was first raced by Rindt at the 1967 Monaco Grand Prix.", "Cooper finished third in the Constructors' Championship in 1966 and 1967, their highest placing since 1962, but it would be their last flourish.", "The T81's last race came at the start of the 1968 season in South Africa in the hands of privateers [Jo Siffert](/wiki/Jo_Siffert \"Jo Siffert\") and [Jo Bonnier](/wiki/Jo_Bonnier \"Jo Bonnier\"), as by this time the works team had moved on to the [T86](/wiki/Cooper_T86 \"Cooper T86\") chassis. As it happened, Cooper folded at the end of the 1968 season, making the T81 the last Cooper to win a World Championship Grand Prix.", "In all the T81 (and T81B) was entered a total of 85 times in its 21 race lifespan, achieving 2 wins, 1 pole position, 6 podiums, and 23 points finishes, earning 74 points in total.", "" ]
History ------- Studies for the electrification of Perth's suburban rail network began in 1984 and in 1988 43 two\-car electric railcars were ordered from [Walkers Limited](/wiki/Walkers_Limited "Walkers Limited"), [Maryborough](/wiki/Maryborough%2C_Queensland "Maryborough, Queensland"). Prior to this, Perth's rail transport network consisted of three railway lines radiating from Perth and operated by a mixture of diesel railcars and diesel locomotive hauled trains. In 1979, one of these lines, the [Fremantle line](/wiki/Fremantle_railway_line "Fremantle railway line"), was closed but reopened in 1983 following a change in [State Government](/wiki/Government_of_Western_Australia "Government of Western Australia"). The trains were transported across the continent on [standard gauge](/wiki/Standard_gauge "Standard gauge") bogies and converted to Western Australia's {{RailGauge\|3ft6in\|lk\=on}} gauge standard locally. The first set, set 01, arrived in September 1990 and immediately became the subject of industrial action at [Westrail](/wiki/Westrail "Westrail")'s [Midland Railway Workshops](/wiki/Midland_Railway_Workshops "Midland Railway Workshops") over a pay dispute and the impending one\-man train operation which the new trains would ensure. Testing of the new trains began soon afterwards and mostly on the [Armadale line](/wiki/Armadale_line "Armadale line") while the electrification process continued. While the trials were largely successful a number of negative points were noted, not the least of which were braking issues and the creation of a harmonic vibration from the train's bogies which caused nausea in otherwise healthy passengers. The trains entered revenue service on the 28 September 1991, running [Perth Royal Show](/wiki/Perth_Royal_Show "Perth Royal Show") specials and by April 1992 had virtually taken over the suburban network timetables, with only a very limited number of services still operated by the older diesel trains. The last entered service on 30 October 1992\. Some sets have been named: * 01 [City of Perth](/wiki/Perth "Perth") named 11 April 1992 * 02 [City of Armadale](/wiki/Armadale%2C_Western_Australia "Armadale, Western Australia") named 11 April 1992 * 03 [Shire of Swan](/wiki/City_of_Swan "City of Swan") named 11 April 1992 * 04 [City of Fremantle](/wiki/Fremantle "Fremantle") named 11 April 1992 * 05 [City of Wanneroo](/wiki/City_of_Wanneroo "City of Wanneroo") named 21 March 1993 * 43 [City of Maryborough](/wiki/Maryborough%2C_Queensland "Maryborough, Queensland") named 30 October 1993 The new trains revolutionised the commuter services on the Perth network, but their success was marred by project delays and a number of early accidents. Some of those accidents involved collisions with motor vehicles at unprotected level crossings, the increased speed and quieter operation as opposed to the older, slower and louder, diesel trains being considered as a contributing factor. In three accidents within the first twelve months of operations three fatalities \- all in motor vehicles \- were suffered. Other accidents did not involve loss of life and some, such as a collision between sets while shunting at the train depot at [Claisebrook](/wiki/Claisebrook_railway_depot "Claisebrook railway depot"), meant that some sets were mixed while their other half underwent repairs. Several months in 1993, for instance, saw the pairings of AEA226 and AEB339, and AEA217 and AEB326\. When repairs were completed the original set combinations were restored. Additionally, a number of teething troubles soon presented themselves, such as braking problems which meant that trains would sometimes fail to stop in the space required and thus not be correctly positioned at the station platforms. These problems were eventually overcome and the type has provided stable service ever since. In April 1997, a further five were ordered, entering service in 1998/99\.New Suburban Trains for Brisbane and Perth *[Railway Digest](/wiki/Railway_Digest "Railway Digest")* June 1997 page 14 These sets introduced longitudinal seating and the current green [Transperth](/wiki/Transperth "Transperth") livery to the fleet, and with detail improvements including internal information panels, extra security cameras and quieter wheel motors, were subsequently dubbed 'second generation' sets. They are externally identical. Some of the first generation trains were then progressively updated to bring them inline with the more recent units. All are scheduled to be replaced by [B\-series](/wiki/Transperth_B-series_train "Transperth B-series train") from 2023, however have not been done yet due to the platforms being too short.[Made in WA: Metronet railcars to be proudly built in WA](https://web.archive.org/save/https://www.mediastatements.wa.gov.au/Pages/McGowan/2019/08/Made-in-WA-METRONET-railcars-to-be-proudly-built-in-WA.aspx) Minister for Transport 18 August 2019[Alstom to supply next generation of EMUs to Perth](https://web.archive.org/web/20190903204554/https://www.metro-report.com/news/news-by-region/asia-pacific-ex-china/single-view/view/alstom-to-supply-252-multiple-unit-cars-to-western-australia-1.html) *[Metro Report International](/wiki/Metro_Report_International "Metro Report International")* 20 August 2019 [thumb\|Cab of the A\-series as it appeared in September 1990](/wiki/File:A_Series_1990_Train_Cab.jpg "A Series 1990 Train Cab.jpg")
[ "History\n-------", "Studies for the electrification of Perth's suburban rail network began in 1984 and in 1988 43 two\\-car electric railcars were ordered from [Walkers Limited](/wiki/Walkers_Limited \"Walkers Limited\"), [Maryborough](/wiki/Maryborough%2C_Queensland \"Maryborough, Queensland\"). Prior to this, Perth's rail transport network consisted of three railway lines radiating from Perth and operated by a mixture of diesel railcars and diesel locomotive hauled trains. In 1979, one of these lines, the [Fremantle line](/wiki/Fremantle_railway_line \"Fremantle railway line\"), was closed but reopened in 1983 following a change in [State Government](/wiki/Government_of_Western_Australia \"Government of Western Australia\").", "The trains were transported across the continent on [standard gauge](/wiki/Standard_gauge \"Standard gauge\") bogies and converted to Western Australia's {{RailGauge\\|3ft6in\\|lk\\=on}} gauge standard locally. The first set, set 01, arrived in September 1990 and immediately became the subject of industrial action at [Westrail](/wiki/Westrail \"Westrail\")'s [Midland Railway Workshops](/wiki/Midland_Railway_Workshops \"Midland Railway Workshops\") over a pay dispute and the impending one\\-man train operation which the new trains would ensure.", "Testing of the new trains began soon afterwards and mostly on the [Armadale line](/wiki/Armadale_line \"Armadale line\") while the electrification process continued. While the trials were largely successful a number of negative points were noted, not the least of which were braking issues and the creation of a harmonic vibration from the train's bogies which caused nausea in otherwise healthy passengers.", "The trains entered revenue service on the 28 September 1991, running [Perth Royal Show](/wiki/Perth_Royal_Show \"Perth Royal Show\") specials and by April 1992 had virtually taken over the suburban network timetables, with only a very limited number of services still operated by the older diesel trains. The last entered service on 30 October 1992\\.", "Some sets have been named:\n* 01 [City of Perth](/wiki/Perth \"Perth\") named 11 April 1992\n* 02 [City of Armadale](/wiki/Armadale%2C_Western_Australia \"Armadale, Western Australia\") named 11 April 1992\n* 03 [Shire of Swan](/wiki/City_of_Swan \"City of Swan\") named 11 April 1992\n* 04 [City of Fremantle](/wiki/Fremantle \"Fremantle\") named 11 April 1992\n* 05 [City of Wanneroo](/wiki/City_of_Wanneroo \"City of Wanneroo\") named 21 March 1993\n* 43 [City of Maryborough](/wiki/Maryborough%2C_Queensland \"Maryborough, Queensland\") named 30 October 1993", "The new trains revolutionised the commuter services on the Perth network, but their success was marred by project delays and a number of early accidents. Some of those accidents involved collisions with motor vehicles at unprotected level crossings, the increased speed and quieter operation as opposed to the older, slower and louder, diesel trains being considered as a contributing factor. In three accidents within the first twelve months of operations three fatalities \\- all in motor vehicles \\- were suffered.", "Other accidents did not involve loss of life and some, such as a collision between sets while shunting at the train depot at [Claisebrook](/wiki/Claisebrook_railway_depot \"Claisebrook railway depot\"), meant that some sets were mixed while their other half underwent repairs. Several months in 1993, for instance, saw the pairings of AEA226 and AEB339, and AEA217 and AEB326\\. When repairs were completed the original set combinations were restored.", "Additionally, a number of teething troubles soon presented themselves, such as braking problems which meant that trains would sometimes fail to stop in the space required and thus not be correctly positioned at the station platforms. These problems were eventually overcome and the type has provided stable service ever since.", "In April 1997, a further five were ordered, entering service in 1998/99\\.New Suburban Trains for Brisbane and Perth *[Railway Digest](/wiki/Railway_Digest \"Railway Digest\")* June 1997 page 14 These sets introduced longitudinal seating and the current green [Transperth](/wiki/Transperth \"Transperth\") livery to the fleet, and with detail improvements including internal information panels, extra security cameras and quieter wheel motors, were subsequently dubbed 'second generation' sets. They are externally identical. Some of the first generation trains were then progressively updated to bring them inline with the more recent units.", "All are scheduled to be replaced by [B\\-series](/wiki/Transperth_B-series_train \"Transperth B-series train\") from 2023, however have not been done yet due to the platforms being too short.[Made in WA: Metronet railcars to be proudly built in WA](https://web.archive.org/save/https://www.mediastatements.wa.gov.au/Pages/McGowan/2019/08/Made-in-WA-METRONET-railcars-to-be-proudly-built-in-WA.aspx) Minister for Transport 18 August 2019[Alstom to supply next generation of EMUs to Perth](https://web.archive.org/web/20190903204554/https://www.metro-report.com/news/news-by-region/asia-pacific-ex-china/single-view/view/alstom-to-supply-252-multiple-unit-cars-to-western-australia-1.html) *[Metro Report International](/wiki/Metro_Report_International \"Metro Report International\")* 20 August 2019", "[thumb\\|Cab of the A\\-series as it appeared in September 1990](/wiki/File:A_Series_1990_Train_Cab.jpg \"A Series 1990 Train Cab.jpg\")", "" ]
Geography --------- According to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"), the township has a total area of {{convert\|182\.2\|sqmi}}; {{convert\|174\.5\|sqmi}} is land and {{convert\|7\.6\|sqmi}}, or 4\.19%, is water. Bassett Township is the largest organized township in land area in Saint Louis County. The township is located within the [Superior National Forest](/wiki/Superior_National_Forest "Superior National Forest"). The [Dunka River](/wiki/Dunka_River "Dunka River") flows through the northern part of the township. The [Partridge River](/wiki/Partridge_River_%28St._Louis_River%29 "Partridge River (St. Louis River)") flows through the northwest corner of Bassett Township. The [Saint Louis River](/wiki/Saint_Louis_River_%28Lake_Superior_tributary%29 "Saint Louis River (Lake Superior tributary)") flows through the central portion of the township. The North Branch of the Whiteface River flows through the south–central and southeast portions of Bassett Township. Creeks that flow through the township include Shiver, Reno, Jenkins, Apple, Toimi, Petrel, Nelson, Store, Laird, Stone, Butterball, Cranberry, and Colvin. Pine Lake, Cadotte Lake, and Bassett Lake are all partially located within Bassett Township. Lakes within the township include Seven Beaver Lake, Big Lake, Round Lake, and Stone Lake. ### Adjacent townships, cities, and communities The following are adjacent to Bassett Township: * [Fairbanks Township](/wiki/Fairbanks_Township%2C_St._Louis_County%2C_Minnesota "Fairbanks Township, St. Louis County, Minnesota") (south) * The unincorporated community of [Fairbanks](/wiki/Fairbanks%2C_Minnesota "Fairbanks, Minnesota") (south) * [Linwood Lake Unorganized Territory](/wiki/Linwood_Lake%2C_Minnesota "Linwood Lake, Minnesota") (southwest) * [Hush Lake Unorganized Territory](/wiki/Hush_Lake%2C_Minnesota "Hush Lake, Minnesota") (west) * The city of [Hoyt Lakes](/wiki/Hoyt_Lakes%2C_Minnesota "Hoyt Lakes, Minnesota") (west and northwest) * The city of [Babbitt](/wiki/Babbitt%2C_Minnesota "Babbitt, Minnesota") (north) * [Stony River Township](/wiki/Stony_River_Township%2C_Lake_County%2C_Minnesota "Stony River Township, Lake County, Minnesota") of [Lake County](/wiki/Lake_County%2C_Minnesota "Lake County, Minnesota") (northeast) * [Lake No. 2 Unorganized Territory](/wiki/Lake_No._2%2C_Minnesota "Lake No. 2, Minnesota") of [Lake County](/wiki/Lake_County%2C_Minnesota "Lake County, Minnesota") (east) ### Unincorporated communities * [Bassett](/wiki/Bassett%2C_Minnesota "Bassett, Minnesota") * [Skibo](/wiki/Skibo%2C_Minnesota "Skibo, Minnesota")
[ "Geography\n---------", "According to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the township has a total area of {{convert\\|182\\.2\\|sqmi}}; {{convert\\|174\\.5\\|sqmi}} is land and {{convert\\|7\\.6\\|sqmi}}, or 4\\.19%, is water.", "Bassett Township is the largest organized township in land area in Saint Louis County.", "The township is located within the [Superior National Forest](/wiki/Superior_National_Forest \"Superior National Forest\"). The [Dunka River](/wiki/Dunka_River \"Dunka River\") flows through the northern part of the township.", "The [Partridge River](/wiki/Partridge_River_%28St._Louis_River%29 \"Partridge River (St. Louis River)\") flows through the northwest corner of Bassett Township. The [Saint Louis River](/wiki/Saint_Louis_River_%28Lake_Superior_tributary%29 \"Saint Louis River (Lake Superior tributary)\") flows through the central portion of the township.", "The North Branch of the Whiteface River flows through the south–central and southeast portions of Bassett Township.", "Creeks that flow through the township include Shiver, Reno, Jenkins, Apple, Toimi, Petrel, Nelson, Store, Laird, Stone, Butterball, Cranberry, and Colvin.", "Pine Lake, Cadotte Lake, and Bassett Lake are all partially located within Bassett Township. Lakes within the township include Seven Beaver Lake, Big Lake, Round Lake, and Stone Lake.", "### Adjacent townships, cities, and communities", "The following are adjacent to Bassett Township:", "* [Fairbanks Township](/wiki/Fairbanks_Township%2C_St._Louis_County%2C_Minnesota \"Fairbanks Township, St. Louis County, Minnesota\") (south)\n* The unincorporated community of [Fairbanks](/wiki/Fairbanks%2C_Minnesota \"Fairbanks, Minnesota\") (south)\n* [Linwood Lake Unorganized Territory](/wiki/Linwood_Lake%2C_Minnesota \"Linwood Lake, Minnesota\") (southwest)\n* [Hush Lake Unorganized Territory](/wiki/Hush_Lake%2C_Minnesota \"Hush Lake, Minnesota\") (west)\n* The city of [Hoyt Lakes](/wiki/Hoyt_Lakes%2C_Minnesota \"Hoyt Lakes, Minnesota\") (west and northwest)\n* The city of [Babbitt](/wiki/Babbitt%2C_Minnesota \"Babbitt, Minnesota\") (north)\n* [Stony River Township](/wiki/Stony_River_Township%2C_Lake_County%2C_Minnesota \"Stony River Township, Lake County, Minnesota\") of [Lake County](/wiki/Lake_County%2C_Minnesota \"Lake County, Minnesota\") (northeast)\n* [Lake No. 2 Unorganized Territory](/wiki/Lake_No._2%2C_Minnesota \"Lake No. 2, Minnesota\") of [Lake County](/wiki/Lake_County%2C_Minnesota \"Lake County, Minnesota\") (east)", "### Unincorporated communities", "* [Bassett](/wiki/Bassett%2C_Minnesota \"Bassett, Minnesota\")\n* [Skibo](/wiki/Skibo%2C_Minnesota \"Skibo, Minnesota\")" ]
Career ------ In 1966 she moved to [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University "Boston University"), where she taught biology for twenty\-two years. She was initially an Adjunct Assistant Professor, then was appointed to Assistant Professor in 1967\. She was promoted to Associate Professor in 1971, to full Professor in 1977, and to University Professor in 1986\. In 1988 she was appointed Distinguished Professor of Botany at the [University of Massachusetts at Amherst](/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst "University of Massachusetts Amherst"). She was Distinguished Professor of Biology in 1993\. In 1997 she transferred to the Department of Geosciences at UMass Amherst to become Distinguished Professor of Geosciences "with great delight",{{cite book \|last1\=Yount \|first1\=Lisa \|title\=A to Z of biologists \|year\=2003 \|publisher\=Facts on File \|location\=New York, NY \|isbn\=978\-1\-4381\-0917\-6 \|page\=198 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=pOdHrsTZ\-RYC}} the post which she held until her death.{{cite encyclopedia \|last1\=Haskett \|first1\=Dorothy Regan \|title\=Lynn Petra Alexander Sagan Margulis (1938–2011\) \|url\=http://embryo.asu.edu/pages/lynn\-petra\-alexander\-sagan\-margulis\-1938\-2011 \|encyclopedia\=The Embryo Project Encyclopedia \|publisher\=Arizona Board of Regents, Arizona State University \|access\-date\=December 18, 2014}} ### Endosymbiosis theory {{Main\|Symbiogenesis}} [thumb\|The [chloroplasts](/wiki/Chloroplast "Chloroplast") of [glaucophytes](/wiki/Glaucophyte "Glaucophyte") like this *[Glaucocystis](/wiki/Glaucocystis "Glaucocystis")* have a [peptidoglycan](/wiki/Peptidoglycan "Peptidoglycan") layer, evidence of their [endosymbiotic](/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory "Endosymbiotic theory") origin from [cyanobacteria](/wiki/Cyanobacteria "Cyanobacteria").{{cite journal \|journal\=\[\[American Journal of Botany]] \|year\=2004 \|volume\=91 \|issue\=10 \|pages\=1481–1493 \|title\=Diversity and evolutionary history of plastids and their hosts \|first\=Patrick J. \|last\=Keeling \|doi\=10\.3732/ajb.91\.10\.1481 \|pmid\=21652304\|doi\-access\=free }}](/wiki/File:Glaucocystis_sp.jpg "Glaucocystis sp.jpg") In 1966, as a young faculty member at [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University "Boston University"), Margulis wrote a theoretical paper titled "On the Origin of Mitosing Cells".{{cite journal \|last1\=Sagan \|first1\=Lynn \|title\=On the origin of mitosing cells \|journal\=Journal of Theoretical Biology \|year\=1967 \|volume\=14 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=225–274 \|doi\=10\.1016/0022\-5193(67\)90079\-3 \|pmid\=11541392\|bibcode\=1967JThBi..14\..225S }} The paper, however, was "rejected by about fifteen scientific journals," she recalled.Margulis, Lynn, [Gaia Is a Tough Bitch](http://www.edge.org/documents/ThirdCulture/n-Ch.7.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122013320/https://www.edge.org/documents/ThirdCulture/n\-Ch.7\.html \|date\=November 22, 2017 }}. Chapter 7 in The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution by John Brockman (Simon \& Schuster, 1995\){{Dead link\|date\=July 2021\|url\=https://www.edge.org/documents/ThirdCulture/n\-Ch.7\.html}} It was finally accepted by *[Journal of Theoretical Biology](/wiki/Journal_of_Theoretical_Biology "Journal of Theoretical Biology")* and is considered today a landmark in modern [endosymbiotic theory](/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory "Endosymbiotic theory"). Weathering constant criticism of her ideas for decades, Margulis was famous for her tenacity in pushing her theory forward, despite the opposition she faced at the time. The descent of mitochondria from bacteria and of chloroplasts from cyanobacteria was experimentally demonstrated in 1978 by [Robert Schwartz](/wiki/Murder_of_Robert_Schwartz%23Background "Murder of Robert Schwartz#Background") and [Margaret Dayhoff](/wiki/Margaret_Dayhoff "Margaret Dayhoff").{{cite journal \|last1\=Schwartz \|first1\=R. \|last2\=Dayhoff \|first2\=M. \|title\=Origins of prokaryotes, eukaryotes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts \|journal\=Science \|year\=1978 \|volume\=199 \|issue\=4327 \|pages\=395–403 \|doi\=10\.1126/science.202030 \|pmid\=202030 \|bibcode\=1978Sci...199\..395S}} This formed the first experimental evidence for the symbiogenesis theory. The endosymbiosis theory of organogenesis became widely accepted in the early 1980s, after the genetic material of [mitochondria](/wiki/Mitochondria "Mitochondria") and [chloroplasts](/wiki/Chloroplast "Chloroplast") had been found to be significantly different from that of the symbiont's [nuclear DNA](/wiki/Nuclear_DNA "Nuclear DNA").{{cite encyclopedia \|first\=Nicholas W. \|last\=Gillham \|title\=Chloroplasts and Mitochondria \|encyclopedia\=Encyclopedia of Genetics \|editor\-first\=Eric C.R. \|editor\-last\=Reeve \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PuCYAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA721 \|date\=January 14, 2014 \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-26350\-9 \|pages\=721–735}} In 1995, English evolutionary biologist [Richard Dawkins](/wiki/Richard_Dawkins "Richard Dawkins") had this to say about Lynn Margulis and her work: > I greatly admire Lynn Margulis's sheer courage and stamina in sticking by the endosymbiosis theory, and carrying it through from being an unorthodoxy to an orthodoxy. I'm referring to the theory that the eukaryotic cell is a symbiotic union of primitive prokaryotic cells. This is one of the great achievements of twentieth\-century evolutionary biology, and I greatly admire her for it. ### Symbiosis as evolutionary force {{main\|Symbiosis}} {{See also\|Horizontal gene transfer}} Margulis opposed competition\-oriented views of evolution, stressing the importance of symbiotic or cooperative relationships between species.{{cite journal \|last1\=Mann \|first1\=C \|title\=Lynn Margulis: Science's unruly Earth mother \|journal\=Science \|year\=1991 \|volume\=252 \|issue\=5004 \|pages\=378–381 \|doi\=10\.1126/science.252\.5004\.378 \|bibcode\=1991Sci...252\..378M \|pmid\=17740930}} She later formulated a theory that proposed symbiotic relationships between organisms of different phyla, or kingdoms, as the driving force of [evolution](/wiki/Evolution "Evolution"), and explained [genetic variation](/wiki/Genetic_variation "Genetic variation") as occurring mainly through transfer of nuclear information between [bacterial cells](/wiki/Bacteria "Bacteria") or [viruses](/wiki/Virus "Virus") and [eukaryotic cells](/wiki/Eukaryotic_cell "Eukaryotic cell"). Her organelle genesis ideas are now widely accepted, but the proposal that symbiotic relationships explain most genetic variation is still something of a fringe idea. Margulis also held a negative view of certain interpretations of [Neo\-Darwinism](/wiki/Neo-Darwinism "Neo-Darwinism") that she felt were excessively focused on competition between organisms, as she believed that history will ultimately judge them as comprising "a minor twentieth\-century religious sect within the sprawling religious persuasion of Anglo\-Saxon Biology." She wrote that proponents of the standard theory "wallow in their zoological, capitalistic, competitive, cost\-benefit interpretation of Darwin – having mistaken him ... Neo\-Darwinism, which insists on \[the slow accrual of mutations by gene\-level natural selection], is in a complete funk." ### Gaia hypothesis {{Further\|Gaia hypothesis}} Margulis initially sought out the advice of [James Lovelock](/wiki/James_Lovelock "James Lovelock") for her own research: she explained that, "In the early seventies, I was trying to align bacteria by their metabolic pathways. I noticed that all kinds of bacteria produced gases. Oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, ammonia—more than thirty different gases are given off by the bacteria whose evolutionary history I was keen to reconstruct. Why did every scientist I asked believe that atmospheric oxygen was a biological product but the other atmospheric gases—nitrogen, methane, sulfur, and so on—were not? 'Go talk to Lovelock,' at least four different scientists suggested. Lovelock believed that the gases in the atmosphere were biological." Margulis met with Lovelock, who explained his Gaia hypothesis to her, and very soon they began an intense collaborative effort on the concept. One of the earliest significant publications on Gaia was a 1974 paper co\-authored by Lovelock and Margulis, which succinctly defined the hypothesis as follows: "The notion of the biosphere as an active adaptive control system able to maintain the Earth in homeostasis we are calling the 'Gaia hypothesis.'"{{Cite journal \|last1\=Lovelock \|first1\=J.E. \|last2\=Margulis \|first2\=L. \|date\=1974 \|title\=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the gaia hypothesis \|journal\=Tellus A \|volume\=26 \|issue\=1–2 \|pages\=2–10 \|doi\=10\.3402/tellusa.v26i1\-2\.9731 \|doi\-access\=free \|s2cid\=129803613 \|language\=en \|bibcode\=1974Tell...26\....2L }} Like other early presentations of Lovelock's idea, the Lovelock\-Margulis 1974 paper seemed to give living organisms complete agency in creating planetary self\-regulation, whereas later, as the idea matured, this planetary\-scale self\-regulation was recognized as an emergent property of the [Earth system](/wiki/Earth_system_science "Earth system science"), life and its physical environment taken together.{{cite book\|last1\=Lovelock\|first1\=James\|title\=The Ages of Gaia: A Biography of Our Living Earth\|date\=1988\|publisher\=W.W.Norton \& Co\|location\=New York}} When climatologist Stephen Schneider convened the 1989 American Geophysical Union Chapman Conference around the issue of Gaia, the idea of "strong Gaia" and "weak Gaia" was introduced by James Kirchner, after which Margulis was sometimes associated with the idea of "weak Gaia", incorrectly (her essay "*Gaia is a Tough Bitch*" dates from 1995 – and it stated her own distinction from Lovelock as she saw it, which was primarily that she did not like the metaphor of Earth as a single organism, because, she said, "No organism eats its own waste"). In her 1998 book *Symbiotic Planet*, Margulis explored the relationship between Gaia and her work on symbiosis.{{cite book \|last1\=Margulis \|first1\=Lynn \|title\=Symbiotic Planet \|date\=1998 \|publisher\=Basic Books \|location\=New York, NY}} ### Five kingdoms of life In 1969, life on earth was classified into [five kingdoms](/wiki/Five_kingdoms "Five kingdoms"), as introduced by [Robert Whittaker](/wiki/Robert_Whittaker_%28ecologist%29 "Robert Whittaker (ecologist)").{{Cite journal\|last\=Whittaker \|first\=R.H. \|date\=January 1969 \|title\=New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms\|journal\=Science\|volume\=163 \|issue\=3863\|pages\=150–60 \|pmid\=5762760 \|doi\=10\.1126/science.163\.3863\.150\|bibcode \= 1969Sci...163\..150W \|citeseerx\=10\.1\.1\.403\.5430 }} Margulis became the most important supporter, as well as critic{{cite book\|last1\=Margulis\|first1\=Lynn \|chapter\=Five\-Kingdom Classification and the Origin and Evolution of Cells \|title\=Evolutionary Biology \|journal\=BMC Evolutionary Biology \|year\=1974\|volume\=7\|pages\=45–78\|doi\=10\.1007/978\-1\-4615\-6944\-2\_2\|pmid\=17376230\|pmc\=1847511\|isbn\=978\-1\-4615\-6946\-6}} – while supporting parts, she was the first to recognize the limitations of Whittaker's classification of microbes.{{cite journal\|last1\=Margulis\|first1\=Lynn\|title\=Whittaker's Five Kingdoms of Organisms: Minor Revisions Suggested by Considerations of the Origin of Mitosis\|journal\=Evolution\|year\=1971\|volume\=25\|issue\=1\|pages\=242–245\|jstor\=2406516\|doi\=10\.2307/2406516\|pmid\=28562945}} But later discoveries of new organisms, such as [archaea](/wiki/Archaea "Archaea"), and emergence of molecular taxonomy challenged the concept.{{cite journal\|last1\=Hagen\|first1\=Joel B.\|title\=Five Kingdoms, More or Less: Robert Whittaker and the Broad Classification of Organisms\|journal\=BioScience\|year\=2012\|volume\=62\|issue\=1\|pages\=67–74\|doi\=10\.1525/bio.2012\.62\.1\.11\|s2cid\=86253586\|doi\-access\=free}} By the mid\-2000s, most scientists began to agree that there are more than five kingdoms.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Simpson\|first1\=Alastair G.B.\|last2\=Roger \|first2\=Andrew J.\|year\=2004 \|title\=The real 'kingdoms' of eukaryotes \|journal\=Current Biology \|volume\=14 \|issue\=17\|pages\=R693–6\|name\-list\-style\=amp \|pmid\=15341755 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.cub.2004\.08\.038\|s2cid\=207051421\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=2004CBio...14\.R693S }}{{cite journal\|last1\=Adl\|first1\=SM\|last2\=Simpson\|first2\=AG\|last3\=Farmer\|first3\=MA\|last4\=Andersen\|first4\=RA\|last5\=Anderson\|first5\=OR\|last6\=Barta\|first6\=JR\|last7\=Bowser\|first7\=SS\|last8\=Brugerolle\|first8\=G\|title\=The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists.\|journal\=The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology\|year\=2005\|volume\=52\|issue\=5\|pages\=399–451\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1550\-7408\.2005\.00053\.x\|pmid\=16248873\|s2cid\=8060916\|display\-authors\=etal\|doi\-access\=free\|url\=http://doc.rero.ch/record/14409/files/PAL\_E1847\.pdf}} Margulis became the most important defender of the five kingdom classification. She rejected the [three\-domain system](/wiki/Three-domain_system "Three-domain system") introduced by [Carl Woese](/wiki/Carl_Woese "Carl Woese") in 1990, which gained wide acceptance. She introduced a modified classification by which all life forms, including the newly discovered, could be integrated into the classical five kingdoms. According to Margulis, the main problem, archaea, falls under the kingdom Prokaryotae alongside bacteria (in contrast to the three\-domain system, which treats archaea as a higher taxon than kingdom, or the six\-kingdom system, which holds that it is a separate kingdom). Margulis' concept is given in detail in her book *Five Kingdoms*, written with Karlene V. Schwartz.{{cite web\|last1\=Tao\|first1\=Amy\|title\=Lynn Margulis\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/364780/Lynn\-Margulis\|website\=Encyclopædia Britannica\|access\-date\=December 18, 2014\|date\=October 22, 2013}} It has been suggested that it is mainly because of Margulis that the five\-kingdom system survives. ### Metamorphosis theory In 2009, via a then\-standard publication\-process known as "communicated submission" (which bypassed traditional [peer review](/wiki/Peer_review "Peer review")), she was instrumental in getting the *[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences")* (*PNAS*) to publish a paper by [Donald I. Williamson](/wiki/Donald_I._Williamson "Donald I. Williamson") rejecting "the Darwinian assumption that larvae and their adults evolved from a single common ancestor."{{cite journal\|last1\=Williamson\|first1\=D. I.\|title\=Caterpillars evolved from onychophorans by hybridogenesis\|journal\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\|year\=2009\|volume\=106\|issue\=47\|pages\=19901–19905\|doi\=10\.1073/pnas.0908357106\|pmid\=19717430\|pmc\=2785264\|bibcode\=2009PNAS..10619901W\|doi\-access\=free}}[Controversial caterpillar\-evolution study formally rebutted](http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2009/10/29/controversial-caterpillar-evolution-study-formally-rebutted/), *[Scientific American](/wiki/Scientific_American "Scientific American") Online* Williamson's paper provoked immediate response from the [scientific community](/wiki/Scientific_community "Scientific community"), including a countering paper in *PNAS*. Conrad Labandeira of the [Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History](/wiki/Smithsonian_National_Museum_of_Natural_History "Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History") said, "If I was reviewing \[Williamson's paper] I would probably opt to reject it," he says, "but I'm not saying it's a bad thing that this is published. What it may do is broaden the discussion on how metamorphosis works and \[...] \[on] the origin of these very radical life cycles." But [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University "Duke University") insect developmental biologist [Fred Nijhout](/wiki/Fred_Nijhout "Fred Nijhout") said that the paper was better suited for the "*National Enquirer* than the National Academy."{{cite magazine\|last\=Borrell \|first\=Brendan \|url\=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id\=national\-academy\-as\-national\-enquirer \|title\=National Academy as National Enquirer ? PNAS Publishes Theory That Caterpillars Originated from Interspecies Sex \|magazine\=Scientific American \|access\-date\=November 23, 2011}} In September it was announced that *PNAS* would eliminate communicated submissions in July 2010\. *PNAS* stated that the decision had nothing to do with the Williamson controversy. ### AIDS/HIV theory In 2009 Margulis and seven others authored a position paper concerning research on the viability of round body forms of some spirochetes, "Syphilis, Lyme disease, \& AIDS: Resurgence of 'the great imitator'?"{{cite journal \|url\=http://www1\.biogema.de/WEK/312\-Margulis\-final.pdf \|title\=Syphilis, Lyme disease \& AIDS: Resurgence of "the great imitator"? \|journal\=Symbiosis \|volume\=47 \|issue\=1 \|year\=2009 \|pages\=51–58\|doi\=10\.1007/BF03179970 \|last1\=Margulis \|first1\=Lynn \|last2\=Maniotis \|first2\=Andrew \|last3\=MacAllister \|first3\=James \|last4\=Scythes \|first4\=John \|last5\=Brorson \|first5\=Oystein \|last6\=Hall \|first6\=John \|last7\=Krumbein \|first7\=Wolfgang E. \|last8\=Chapman \|first8\=Michael J. \|s2cid\=25177964 }} which states that, "Detailed research that correlates life histories of symbiotic [spirochetes](/wiki/Spirochete "Spirochete") to changes in the immune system of associated vertebrates is sorely needed", and urging the "reinvestigation of the natural history of mammalian, [tick](/wiki/Tick "Tick")\-borne, and venereal transmission of spirochetes in relation to impairment of the human immune system". The paper went on to suggest "that the possible direct causal involvement of spirochetes and their round bodies to symptoms of immune deficiency be carefully and vigorously investigated". In a *[Discover Magazine](/wiki/Discover_Magazine "Discover Magazine")* interview, Margulis explained her reason for interest in the topic of the 2009 "AIDS" paper: "I'm interested in spirochetes only because of our ancestry. I'm not interested in the diseases", and stated that she had called them "symbionts" because both the spirochete which causes syphilis (*[Treponema](/wiki/Treponema "Treponema")*) and the spirochete which causes Lyme disease (*[Borrelia](/wiki/Borrelia "Borrelia")*) only retain about 20% of the genes they would need to live freely, outside of their human hosts. However, in the *Discover Magazine* interview Margulis said that "the set of symptoms, or syndrome, presented by syphilitics overlaps completely with another syndrome: AIDS", and also noted that [Kary Mullis](/wiki/Kary_Mullis "Kary Mullis"){{efn\|\[\[Kary Mullis]] won the 1993 \[\[Nobel Prize]] for the \[\[polymerase chain reaction]], and was known for his unconventional scientific views.}} said that "he went looking for a reference substantiating that HIV causes AIDS and discovered, 'There is no such document' ". This provoked a widespread supposition that Margulis had been an "[AIDS denialist](/wiki/AIDS_denialist "AIDS denialist")". Jerry Coyne reacted on his *Why Evolution is True* blog against his interpretation that Margulis believed "that AIDS is really syphilis, not viral in origin at all."{{cite web \|author\=Jerry Coyne \|website\=Why Evolution is True \|url\=https://whyevolutionistrue.wordpress.com/2011/04/12/lynn\-margulis\-disses\-evolution\-in\-discover\-magazine\-embarrasses\-both\-herself\-and\-the\-field/ \|date\=April 12, 2011 \|title\=Lynn Margulis disses evolution in Discover Magazine – Embarrasses both herself and the field}} [Seth Kalichman](/wiki/Seth_Kalichman "Seth Kalichman"), a social psychologist who studies behavioral and social aspects of AIDS, cited her \[Margulis] 2009 paper as an example of AIDS denialism "flourishing",{{Cite journal \|last1\=Kalichman \|first1\=S. C. \|last2\=Eaton \|first2\=L. \|last3\=Cherry \|first3\=C. \|doi\=10\.1007/s10865\-010\-9275\-7 \|title\="There is no Proof that HIV Causes AIDS": AIDS denialism beliefs among people living with HIV/AIDS \|journal\=Journal of Behavioral Medicine \|volume\=33 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=432–440 \|year\=2010 \|pmid\=20571892 \|pmc\=3015095}} and asserted that her \[Margulis] "endorsement of HIV/AIDS denialism defies understanding".{{cite book \|author\=Seth C. Kalichman \|title\=Denying AIDS: Conspiracy Theories, Pseudoscience, and Human Tragedy \|author\-link\=Seth Kalichman \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\_mtDBCDwxugC\&pg\=PA181 \|date\=January 16, 2009 \|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media \|isbn\=978\-0\-387\-79476\-1 \|pages\=181–82}}
[ "Career\n------", "In 1966 she moved to [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University \"Boston University\"), where she taught biology for twenty\\-two years. She was initially an Adjunct Assistant Professor, then was appointed to Assistant Professor in 1967\\. She was promoted to Associate Professor in 1971, to full Professor in 1977, and to University Professor in 1986\\. In 1988 she was appointed Distinguished Professor of Botany at the [University of Massachusetts at Amherst](/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst \"University of Massachusetts Amherst\"). She was Distinguished Professor of Biology in 1993\\. In 1997 she transferred to the Department of Geosciences at UMass Amherst to become Distinguished Professor of Geosciences \"with great delight\",{{cite book \\|last1\\=Yount \\|first1\\=Lisa \\|title\\=A to Z of biologists \\|year\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Facts on File \\|location\\=New York, NY \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4381\\-0917\\-6 \\|page\\=198 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pOdHrsTZ\\-RYC}} the post which she held until her death.{{cite encyclopedia \\|last1\\=Haskett \\|first1\\=Dorothy Regan \\|title\\=Lynn Petra Alexander Sagan Margulis (1938–2011\\) \\|url\\=http://embryo.asu.edu/pages/lynn\\-petra\\-alexander\\-sagan\\-margulis\\-1938\\-2011 \\|encyclopedia\\=The Embryo Project Encyclopedia \\|publisher\\=Arizona Board of Regents, Arizona State University \\|access\\-date\\=December 18, 2014}}", "### Endosymbiosis theory", "{{Main\\|Symbiogenesis}}\n[thumb\\|The [chloroplasts](/wiki/Chloroplast \"Chloroplast\") of [glaucophytes](/wiki/Glaucophyte \"Glaucophyte\") like this *[Glaucocystis](/wiki/Glaucocystis \"Glaucocystis\")* have a [peptidoglycan](/wiki/Peptidoglycan \"Peptidoglycan\") layer, evidence of their [endosymbiotic](/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory \"Endosymbiotic theory\") origin from [cyanobacteria](/wiki/Cyanobacteria \"Cyanobacteria\").{{cite journal \\|journal\\=\\[\\[American Journal of Botany]] \\|year\\=2004 \\|volume\\=91 \\|issue\\=10 \\|pages\\=1481–1493 \\|title\\=Diversity and evolutionary history of plastids and their hosts \\|first\\=Patrick J. \\|last\\=Keeling \\|doi\\=10\\.3732/ajb.91\\.10\\.1481 \\|pmid\\=21652304\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}](/wiki/File:Glaucocystis_sp.jpg \"Glaucocystis sp.jpg\")", "In 1966, as a young faculty member at [Boston University](/wiki/Boston_University \"Boston University\"), Margulis wrote a theoretical paper titled \"On the Origin of Mitosing Cells\".{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Sagan \\|first1\\=Lynn \\|title\\=On the origin of mitosing cells \\|journal\\=Journal of Theoretical Biology \\|year\\=1967 \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=225–274 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0022\\-5193(67\\)90079\\-3 \\|pmid\\=11541392\\|bibcode\\=1967JThBi..14\\..225S }} The paper, however, was \"rejected by about fifteen scientific journals,\" she recalled.Margulis, Lynn, [Gaia Is a Tough Bitch](http://www.edge.org/documents/ThirdCulture/n-Ch.7.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122013320/https://www.edge.org/documents/ThirdCulture/n\\-Ch.7\\.html \\|date\\=November 22, 2017 }}. Chapter 7 in The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution by John Brockman (Simon \\& Schuster, 1995\\){{Dead link\\|date\\=July 2021\\|url\\=https://www.edge.org/documents/ThirdCulture/n\\-Ch.7\\.html}} It was finally accepted by *[Journal of Theoretical Biology](/wiki/Journal_of_Theoretical_Biology \"Journal of Theoretical Biology\")* and is considered today a landmark in modern [endosymbiotic theory](/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory \"Endosymbiotic theory\"). Weathering constant criticism of her ideas for decades, Margulis was famous for her tenacity in pushing her theory forward, despite the opposition she faced at the time. The descent of mitochondria from bacteria and of chloroplasts from cyanobacteria was experimentally demonstrated in 1978 by [Robert Schwartz](/wiki/Murder_of_Robert_Schwartz%23Background \"Murder of Robert Schwartz#Background\") and [Margaret Dayhoff](/wiki/Margaret_Dayhoff \"Margaret Dayhoff\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Schwartz \\|first1\\=R. \\|last2\\=Dayhoff \\|first2\\=M. \\|title\\=Origins of prokaryotes, eukaryotes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts \\|journal\\=Science \\|year\\=1978 \\|volume\\=199 \\|issue\\=4327 \\|pages\\=395–403 \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.202030 \\|pmid\\=202030 \\|bibcode\\=1978Sci...199\\..395S}} This formed the first experimental evidence for the symbiogenesis theory. The endosymbiosis theory of organogenesis became widely accepted in the early 1980s, after the genetic material of [mitochondria](/wiki/Mitochondria \"Mitochondria\") and [chloroplasts](/wiki/Chloroplast \"Chloroplast\") had been found to be significantly different from that of the symbiont's [nuclear DNA](/wiki/Nuclear_DNA \"Nuclear DNA\").{{cite encyclopedia \\|first\\=Nicholas W. \\|last\\=Gillham \\|title\\=Chloroplasts and Mitochondria \\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopedia of Genetics \\|editor\\-first\\=Eric C.R. \\|editor\\-last\\=Reeve \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PuCYAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA721 \\|date\\=January 14, 2014 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-26350\\-9 \\|pages\\=721–735}}", "In 1995, English evolutionary biologist [Richard Dawkins](/wiki/Richard_Dawkins \"Richard Dawkins\") had this to say about Lynn Margulis and her work:", "> I greatly admire Lynn Margulis's sheer courage and stamina in sticking by the endosymbiosis theory, and carrying it through from being an unorthodoxy to an orthodoxy. I'm referring to the theory that the eukaryotic cell is a symbiotic union of primitive prokaryotic cells. This is one of the great achievements of twentieth\\-century evolutionary biology, and I greatly admire her for it.", "", "### Symbiosis as evolutionary force", "{{main\\|Symbiosis}}\n{{See also\\|Horizontal gene transfer}}", "Margulis opposed competition\\-oriented views of evolution, stressing the importance of symbiotic or cooperative relationships between species.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Mann \\|first1\\=C \\|title\\=Lynn Margulis: Science's unruly Earth mother \\|journal\\=Science \\|year\\=1991 \\|volume\\=252 \\|issue\\=5004 \\|pages\\=378–381 \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.252\\.5004\\.378 \\|bibcode\\=1991Sci...252\\..378M \\|pmid\\=17740930}}", "She later formulated a theory that proposed symbiotic relationships between organisms of different phyla, or kingdoms, as the driving force of [evolution](/wiki/Evolution \"Evolution\"), and explained [genetic variation](/wiki/Genetic_variation \"Genetic variation\") as occurring mainly through transfer of nuclear information between [bacterial cells](/wiki/Bacteria \"Bacteria\") or [viruses](/wiki/Virus \"Virus\") and [eukaryotic cells](/wiki/Eukaryotic_cell \"Eukaryotic cell\"). Her organelle genesis ideas are now widely accepted, but the proposal that symbiotic relationships explain most genetic variation is still something of a fringe idea.", "Margulis also held a negative view of certain interpretations of [Neo\\-Darwinism](/wiki/Neo-Darwinism \"Neo-Darwinism\") that she felt were excessively focused on competition between organisms, as she believed that history will ultimately judge them as comprising \"a minor twentieth\\-century religious sect within the sprawling religious persuasion of Anglo\\-Saxon Biology.\"\nShe wrote that proponents of the standard theory \"wallow in their zoological, capitalistic, competitive, cost\\-benefit interpretation of Darwin – having mistaken him ... Neo\\-Darwinism, which insists on \\[the slow accrual of mutations by gene\\-level natural selection], is in a complete funk.\"", "### Gaia hypothesis", "{{Further\\|Gaia hypothesis}}\nMargulis initially sought out the advice of [James Lovelock](/wiki/James_Lovelock \"James Lovelock\") for her own research: she explained that, \"In the early seventies, I was trying to align bacteria by their metabolic pathways. I noticed that all kinds of bacteria produced gases. Oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, ammonia—more than thirty different gases are given off by the bacteria whose evolutionary history I was keen to reconstruct. Why did every scientist I asked believe that atmospheric oxygen was a biological product but the other atmospheric gases—nitrogen, methane, sulfur, and so on—were not? 'Go talk to Lovelock,' at least four different scientists suggested. Lovelock believed that the gases in the atmosphere were biological.\"", "Margulis met with Lovelock, who explained his Gaia hypothesis to her, and very soon they began an intense collaborative effort on the concept. One of the earliest significant publications on Gaia was a 1974 paper co\\-authored by Lovelock and Margulis, which succinctly defined the hypothesis as follows: \"The notion of the biosphere as an active adaptive control system able to maintain the Earth in homeostasis we are calling the 'Gaia hypothesis.'\"{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Lovelock \\|first1\\=J.E. \\|last2\\=Margulis \\|first2\\=L. \\|date\\=1974 \\|title\\=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the gaia hypothesis \\|journal\\=Tellus A \\|volume\\=26 \\|issue\\=1–2 \\|pages\\=2–10 \\|doi\\=10\\.3402/tellusa.v26i1\\-2\\.9731 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|s2cid\\=129803613 \\|language\\=en \\|bibcode\\=1974Tell...26\\....2L }}", "Like other early presentations of Lovelock's idea, the Lovelock\\-Margulis 1974 paper seemed to give living organisms complete agency in creating planetary self\\-regulation, whereas later, as the idea matured, this planetary\\-scale self\\-regulation was recognized as an emergent property of the [Earth system](/wiki/Earth_system_science \"Earth system science\"), life and its physical environment taken together.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Lovelock\\|first1\\=James\\|title\\=The Ages of Gaia: A Biography of Our Living Earth\\|date\\=1988\\|publisher\\=W.W.Norton \\& Co\\|location\\=New York}} When climatologist Stephen Schneider convened the 1989 American Geophysical Union Chapman Conference around the issue of Gaia, the idea of \"strong Gaia\" and \"weak Gaia\" was introduced by James Kirchner, after which Margulis was sometimes associated with the idea of \"weak Gaia\", incorrectly (her essay \"*Gaia is a Tough Bitch*\" dates from 1995 – and it stated her own distinction from Lovelock as she saw it, which was primarily that she did not like the metaphor of Earth as a single organism, because, she said, \"No organism eats its own waste\"). In her 1998 book *Symbiotic Planet*, Margulis explored the relationship between Gaia and her work on symbiosis.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Margulis \\|first1\\=Lynn \\|title\\=Symbiotic Planet \\|date\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=Basic Books \\|location\\=New York, NY}}", "### Five kingdoms of life", "In 1969, life on earth was classified into [five kingdoms](/wiki/Five_kingdoms \"Five kingdoms\"), as introduced by [Robert Whittaker](/wiki/Robert_Whittaker_%28ecologist%29 \"Robert Whittaker (ecologist)\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Whittaker \\|first\\=R.H. \\|date\\=January 1969 \\|title\\=New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms\\|journal\\=Science\\|volume\\=163 \\|issue\\=3863\\|pages\\=150–60 \\|pmid\\=5762760 \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.163\\.3863\\.150\\|bibcode \\= 1969Sci...163\\..150W \\|citeseerx\\=10\\.1\\.1\\.403\\.5430 }} Margulis became the most important supporter, as well as critic{{cite book\\|last1\\=Margulis\\|first1\\=Lynn \\|chapter\\=Five\\-Kingdom Classification and the Origin and Evolution of Cells \\|title\\=Evolutionary Biology \\|journal\\=BMC Evolutionary Biology \\|year\\=1974\\|volume\\=7\\|pages\\=45–78\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-1\\-4615\\-6944\\-2\\_2\\|pmid\\=17376230\\|pmc\\=1847511\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4615\\-6946\\-6}} – while supporting parts, she was the first to recognize the limitations of Whittaker's classification of microbes.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Margulis\\|first1\\=Lynn\\|title\\=Whittaker's Five Kingdoms of Organisms: Minor Revisions Suggested by Considerations of the Origin of Mitosis\\|journal\\=Evolution\\|year\\=1971\\|volume\\=25\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=242–245\\|jstor\\=2406516\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2406516\\|pmid\\=28562945}} But later discoveries of new organisms, such as [archaea](/wiki/Archaea \"Archaea\"), and emergence of molecular taxonomy challenged the concept.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Hagen\\|first1\\=Joel B.\\|title\\=Five Kingdoms, More or Less: Robert Whittaker and the Broad Classification of Organisms\\|journal\\=BioScience\\|year\\=2012\\|volume\\=62\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=67–74\\|doi\\=10\\.1525/bio.2012\\.62\\.1\\.11\\|s2cid\\=86253586\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} By the mid\\-2000s, most scientists began to agree that there are more than five kingdoms.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Simpson\\|first1\\=Alastair G.B.\\|last2\\=Roger \\|first2\\=Andrew J.\\|year\\=2004 \\|title\\=The real 'kingdoms' of eukaryotes \\|journal\\=Current Biology \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=17\\|pages\\=R693–6\\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|pmid\\=15341755 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.cub.2004\\.08\\.038\\|s2cid\\=207051421\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=2004CBio...14\\.R693S }}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Adl\\|first1\\=SM\\|last2\\=Simpson\\|first2\\=AG\\|last3\\=Farmer\\|first3\\=MA\\|last4\\=Andersen\\|first4\\=RA\\|last5\\=Anderson\\|first5\\=OR\\|last6\\=Barta\\|first6\\=JR\\|last7\\=Bowser\\|first7\\=SS\\|last8\\=Brugerolle\\|first8\\=G\\|title\\=The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists.\\|journal\\=The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology\\|year\\=2005\\|volume\\=52\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=399–451\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1550\\-7408\\.2005\\.00053\\.x\\|pmid\\=16248873\\|s2cid\\=8060916\\|display\\-authors\\=etal\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|url\\=http://doc.rero.ch/record/14409/files/PAL\\_E1847\\.pdf}} Margulis became the most important defender of the five kingdom classification. She rejected the [three\\-domain system](/wiki/Three-domain_system \"Three-domain system\") introduced by [Carl Woese](/wiki/Carl_Woese \"Carl Woese\") in 1990, which gained wide acceptance. She introduced a modified classification by which all life forms, including the newly discovered, could be integrated into the classical five kingdoms. According to Margulis, the main problem, archaea, falls under the kingdom Prokaryotae alongside bacteria (in contrast to the three\\-domain system, which treats archaea as a higher taxon than kingdom, or the six\\-kingdom system, which holds that it is a separate kingdom). Margulis' concept is given in detail in her book *Five Kingdoms*, written with Karlene V. Schwartz.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Tao\\|first1\\=Amy\\|title\\=Lynn Margulis\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/364780/Lynn\\-Margulis\\|website\\=Encyclopædia Britannica\\|access\\-date\\=December 18, 2014\\|date\\=October 22, 2013}} It has been suggested that it is mainly because of Margulis that the five\\-kingdom system survives.", "### Metamorphosis theory", "In 2009, via a then\\-standard publication\\-process known as \"communicated submission\" (which bypassed traditional [peer review](/wiki/Peer_review \"Peer review\")), she was instrumental in getting the *[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences \"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\")* (*PNAS*) to publish a paper by [Donald I. Williamson](/wiki/Donald_I._Williamson \"Donald I. Williamson\") rejecting \"the Darwinian assumption that larvae and their adults evolved from a single common ancestor.\"{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Williamson\\|first1\\=D. I.\\|title\\=Caterpillars evolved from onychophorans by hybridogenesis\\|journal\\=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\\|year\\=2009\\|volume\\=106\\|issue\\=47\\|pages\\=19901–19905\\|doi\\=10\\.1073/pnas.0908357106\\|pmid\\=19717430\\|pmc\\=2785264\\|bibcode\\=2009PNAS..10619901W\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}[Controversial caterpillar\\-evolution study formally rebutted](http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2009/10/29/controversial-caterpillar-evolution-study-formally-rebutted/), *[Scientific American](/wiki/Scientific_American \"Scientific American\") Online* Williamson's paper provoked immediate response from the [scientific community](/wiki/Scientific_community \"Scientific community\"), including a countering paper in *PNAS*. Conrad Labandeira of the [Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History](/wiki/Smithsonian_National_Museum_of_Natural_History \"Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History\") said, \"If I was reviewing \\[Williamson's paper] I would probably opt to reject it,\" he says, \"but I'm not saying it's a bad thing that this is published. What it may do is broaden the discussion on how metamorphosis works and \\[...] \\[on] the origin of these very radical life cycles.\" But [Duke University](/wiki/Duke_University \"Duke University\") insect developmental biologist [Fred Nijhout](/wiki/Fred_Nijhout \"Fred Nijhout\") said that the paper was better suited for the \"*National Enquirer* than the National Academy.\"{{cite magazine\\|last\\=Borrell \\|first\\=Brendan \\|url\\=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id\\=national\\-academy\\-as\\-national\\-enquirer \\|title\\=National Academy as National Enquirer ? PNAS Publishes Theory That Caterpillars Originated from Interspecies Sex \\|magazine\\=Scientific American \\|access\\-date\\=November 23, 2011}} In September it was announced that *PNAS* would eliminate communicated submissions in July 2010\\. *PNAS* stated that the decision had nothing to do with the Williamson controversy.", "### AIDS/HIV theory", "In 2009 Margulis and seven others authored a position paper concerning research on the viability of round body forms of some spirochetes, \"Syphilis, Lyme disease, \\& AIDS: Resurgence of 'the great imitator'?\"{{cite journal \\|url\\=http://www1\\.biogema.de/WEK/312\\-Margulis\\-final.pdf \\|title\\=Syphilis, Lyme disease \\& AIDS: Resurgence of \"the great imitator\"? \\|journal\\=Symbiosis \\|volume\\=47 \\|issue\\=1 \\|year\\=2009 \\|pages\\=51–58\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/BF03179970 \\|last1\\=Margulis \\|first1\\=Lynn \\|last2\\=Maniotis \\|first2\\=Andrew \\|last3\\=MacAllister \\|first3\\=James \\|last4\\=Scythes \\|first4\\=John \\|last5\\=Brorson \\|first5\\=Oystein \\|last6\\=Hall \\|first6\\=John \\|last7\\=Krumbein \\|first7\\=Wolfgang E. \\|last8\\=Chapman \\|first8\\=Michael J. \\|s2cid\\=25177964 }} which states that, \"Detailed research that correlates life histories of symbiotic [spirochetes](/wiki/Spirochete \"Spirochete\") to changes in the immune system of associated vertebrates is sorely needed\", and urging the \"reinvestigation of the natural history of mammalian, [tick](/wiki/Tick \"Tick\")\\-borne, and venereal transmission of spirochetes in relation to impairment of the human immune system\". The paper went on to suggest \"that the possible direct causal involvement of spirochetes and their round bodies to symptoms of immune deficiency be carefully and vigorously investigated\".", "In a *[Discover Magazine](/wiki/Discover_Magazine \"Discover Magazine\")* interview, Margulis explained her reason for interest in the topic of the 2009 \"AIDS\" paper: \"I'm interested in spirochetes only because of our ancestry. I'm not interested in the diseases\", and stated that she had called them \"symbionts\" because both the spirochete which causes syphilis (*[Treponema](/wiki/Treponema \"Treponema\")*) and the spirochete which causes Lyme disease (*[Borrelia](/wiki/Borrelia \"Borrelia\")*) only retain about 20% of the genes they would need to live freely, outside of their human hosts.", "However, in the *Discover Magazine* interview Margulis said that \"the set of symptoms, or syndrome, presented by syphilitics overlaps completely with another syndrome: AIDS\", and also noted that [Kary Mullis](/wiki/Kary_Mullis \"Kary Mullis\"){{efn\\|\\[\\[Kary Mullis]] won the 1993 \\[\\[Nobel Prize]] for the \\[\\[polymerase chain reaction]], and was known for his unconventional scientific views.}} said that \"he went looking for a reference substantiating that HIV causes AIDS and discovered, 'There is no such document' \".", "This provoked a widespread supposition that Margulis had been an \"[AIDS denialist](/wiki/AIDS_denialist \"AIDS denialist\")\". Jerry Coyne reacted on his *Why Evolution is True* blog against his interpretation that Margulis believed \"that AIDS is really syphilis, not viral in origin at all.\"{{cite web \\|author\\=Jerry Coyne \\|website\\=Why Evolution is True \\|url\\=https://whyevolutionistrue.wordpress.com/2011/04/12/lynn\\-margulis\\-disses\\-evolution\\-in\\-discover\\-magazine\\-embarrasses\\-both\\-herself\\-and\\-the\\-field/ \\|date\\=April 12, 2011 \\|title\\=Lynn Margulis disses evolution in Discover Magazine – Embarrasses both herself and the field}} [Seth Kalichman](/wiki/Seth_Kalichman \"Seth Kalichman\"), a social psychologist who studies behavioral and social aspects of AIDS, cited her \\[Margulis] 2009 paper as an example of AIDS denialism \"flourishing\",{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Kalichman \\|first1\\=S. C. \\|last2\\=Eaton \\|first2\\=L. \\|last3\\=Cherry \\|first3\\=C. \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10865\\-010\\-9275\\-7 \\|title\\=\"There is no Proof that HIV Causes AIDS\": AIDS denialism beliefs among people living with HIV/AIDS \\|journal\\=Journal of Behavioral Medicine \\|volume\\=33 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=432–440 \\|year\\=2010 \\|pmid\\=20571892 \\|pmc\\=3015095}} and asserted that her \\[Margulis] \"endorsement of HIV/AIDS denialism defies understanding\".{{cite book \\|author\\=Seth C. Kalichman \\|title\\=Denying AIDS: Conspiracy Theories, Pseudoscience, and Human Tragedy \\|author\\-link\\=Seth Kalichman \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\_mtDBCDwxugC\\&pg\\=PA181 \\|date\\=January 16, 2009 \\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-387\\-79476\\-1 \\|pages\\=181–82}}", "" ]
Political career ---------------- Chhotepur is son in law of [Shiromani Akali Dal](/wiki/Shiromani_Akali_Dal "Shiromani Akali Dal") President [Mohan Singh Tur](/wiki/Mohan_Singh_Tur "Mohan Singh Tur"). He was elected sarpanch of [Chhotepur](/wiki/Chhotepur "Chhotepur") village in [Majha](/wiki/Majha "Majha") region of [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab "Punjab") in 1975\. In 1985, he won [Dhariwal constituency](/wiki/Dhariwal_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 "Dhariwal (Vidhan Sabha constituency)") in [Gurdaspur district](/wiki/Gurdaspur_district "Gurdaspur district") and became minister for health and tourism in [Surjit Singh Barnala](/wiki/Surjit_Singh_Barnala "Surjit Singh Barnala") government. He was brother of Sukhbir singh Badol.(Saka bhra) He resigned from government in a protest against the government actions at the [Golden Temple](/wiki/Golden_Temple "Golden Temple"). He again contested as an independent candidate in 1997 state election from [Dhariwal constituency](/wiki/Dhariwal_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 "Dhariwal (Vidhan Sabha constituency)"). He contested 2002 state election from [Dhariwal constituency](/wiki/Dhariwal_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 "Dhariwal (Vidhan Sabha constituency)") and won the seat as an Independent by margin of 80 votes against [Sucha Singh Langah](/wiki/Sucha_Singh_Langah "Sucha Singh Langah"). In 2009, Chhotepur joined the Indian National Congress in presence of Captain [Amarinder Singh](/wiki/Amarinder_Singh "Amarinder Singh") in [Gurdaspur](/wiki/Gurdaspur "Gurdaspur"). He helped [Partap Singh Bajwa](/wiki/Partap_Singh_Bajwa "Partap Singh Bajwa") to defeat [Vinod Khanna](/wiki/Vinod_Khanna "Vinod Khanna") of [Bharatiya Janta Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janta_Party "Bharatiya Janta Party") by 8,342 votes. In 2012 state election, Chhotepur again contested as Independent lost to [Charanjit Kaur Bajwa](/wiki/Charanjit_Kaur_Bajwa "Charanjit Kaur Bajwa") a wife of [Partap Singh Bajwa](/wiki/Partap_Singh_Bajwa "Partap Singh Bajwa") and came third but got 17000 votes. In 2014 elections, he became [Arvind Kejriwal](/wiki/Arvind_Kejriwal "Arvind Kejriwal")'s go to man in [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab "Punjab"). He became the AAP convener for [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab "Punjab"). In 2017, Chhotepur launched [Aapna Punjab Party](/wiki/Aapna_Punjab_Party "Aapna Punjab Party") which led to losses for the Aap in Punjab and stuck it to 20 seats.[Chhotepur floats Aapna Punjab Party, invites Navjot Sidhu for lead role](http://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/chhotepur-unveils-flag-of-his-new-political-outfit-apna-punjab-party/story-Y2gVyp3wEOwrmDDHsVrb5K.html)[Sucha Singh Chhotepur decides to not support any party in Gurdaspur LS bypoll](http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/sucha-singh-chhotepur-decides-to-not-support-any-party-in-gurdaspur-ls-bypoll-4879528/) [Chhotepur floats Aapna Punjab Party](https://sikhsiyasat.net/2016/10/01/sacked-aap-convenor-sucha-singh-chhotepur-floats-apna-punjab-party-app/)[He walked out of SAD govt, impressed Arvind Kejriwal, then fell out with him](http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/meet-sucha-singh-chhotepur-he-walked-out-of-sad-govt-impressed-kejriwal-then-fell-out-with-him-2996516/) On 9 December 2021, he joined [Shiromani Akali Dal](/wiki/Shiromani_Akali_Dal "Shiromani Akali Dal") just before [2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election](/wiki/2022_Punjab_Legislative_Assembly_election "2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election") and will contest from [Batala](/wiki/Batala_Assembly_Constituency "Batala Assembly Constituency").[Sucha Singh Chhotepur joined Shiromani Akali Dal](https://www.amarujala.com/chandigarh/sucha-singh-chhotepur-joined-shiromani-akali-dal-in-chandigarh). *Amarujala*. Retrieved 9 December 2021\. In [2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election](/wiki/2022_Punjab_Legislative_Assembly_election "2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election") he contested from [Batala Assembly constituency](/wiki/Batala_Assembly_constituency "Batala Assembly constituency") but lost the election to [Amansher Singh](/wiki/Amansher_Singh "Amansher Singh") of [Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party "Aam Aadmi Party").
[ "Political career\n----------------", "Chhotepur is son in law of [Shiromani Akali Dal](/wiki/Shiromani_Akali_Dal \"Shiromani Akali Dal\") President [Mohan Singh Tur](/wiki/Mohan_Singh_Tur \"Mohan Singh Tur\"). He was elected sarpanch of [Chhotepur](/wiki/Chhotepur \"Chhotepur\") village in [Majha](/wiki/Majha \"Majha\") region of [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab \"Punjab\") in 1975\\.", "In 1985, he won [Dhariwal constituency](/wiki/Dhariwal_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 \"Dhariwal (Vidhan Sabha constituency)\") in [Gurdaspur district](/wiki/Gurdaspur_district \"Gurdaspur district\") and became minister for health and tourism in [Surjit Singh Barnala](/wiki/Surjit_Singh_Barnala \"Surjit Singh Barnala\") government. He was brother of Sukhbir singh Badol.(Saka bhra) He resigned from government in a protest against the government actions at the [Golden Temple](/wiki/Golden_Temple \"Golden Temple\").", "He again contested as an independent candidate in 1997 state election from [Dhariwal constituency](/wiki/Dhariwal_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 \"Dhariwal (Vidhan Sabha constituency)\").", "He contested 2002 state election from [Dhariwal constituency](/wiki/Dhariwal_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 \"Dhariwal (Vidhan Sabha constituency)\") and won the seat as an Independent by margin of 80 votes against [Sucha Singh Langah](/wiki/Sucha_Singh_Langah \"Sucha Singh Langah\").", "In 2009, Chhotepur joined the Indian National Congress in presence of Captain [Amarinder Singh](/wiki/Amarinder_Singh \"Amarinder Singh\") in [Gurdaspur](/wiki/Gurdaspur \"Gurdaspur\"). He helped [Partap Singh Bajwa](/wiki/Partap_Singh_Bajwa \"Partap Singh Bajwa\") to defeat [Vinod Khanna](/wiki/Vinod_Khanna \"Vinod Khanna\") of [Bharatiya Janta Party](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janta_Party \"Bharatiya Janta Party\") by 8,342 votes.", "In 2012 state election, Chhotepur again contested as Independent lost to [Charanjit Kaur Bajwa](/wiki/Charanjit_Kaur_Bajwa \"Charanjit Kaur Bajwa\") a wife of [Partap Singh Bajwa](/wiki/Partap_Singh_Bajwa \"Partap Singh Bajwa\") and came third but got 17000 votes.", "In 2014 elections, he became [Arvind Kejriwal](/wiki/Arvind_Kejriwal \"Arvind Kejriwal\")'s go to man in [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab \"Punjab\"). He became the AAP convener for [Punjab](/wiki/Punjab \"Punjab\").", "In 2017, Chhotepur launched [Aapna Punjab Party](/wiki/Aapna_Punjab_Party \"Aapna Punjab Party\") which led to losses for the Aap in Punjab and stuck it to 20 seats.[Chhotepur floats Aapna Punjab Party, invites Navjot Sidhu for lead role](http://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/chhotepur-unveils-flag-of-his-new-political-outfit-apna-punjab-party/story-Y2gVyp3wEOwrmDDHsVrb5K.html)[Sucha Singh Chhotepur decides to not support any party in Gurdaspur LS bypoll](http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/sucha-singh-chhotepur-decides-to-not-support-any-party-in-gurdaspur-ls-bypoll-4879528/) [Chhotepur floats Aapna Punjab Party](https://sikhsiyasat.net/2016/10/01/sacked-aap-convenor-sucha-singh-chhotepur-floats-apna-punjab-party-app/)[He walked out of SAD govt, impressed Arvind Kejriwal, then fell out with him](http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/meet-sucha-singh-chhotepur-he-walked-out-of-sad-govt-impressed-kejriwal-then-fell-out-with-him-2996516/) On 9 December 2021, he joined [Shiromani Akali Dal](/wiki/Shiromani_Akali_Dal \"Shiromani Akali Dal\") just before [2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election](/wiki/2022_Punjab_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election\") and will contest from [Batala](/wiki/Batala_Assembly_Constituency \"Batala Assembly Constituency\").[Sucha Singh Chhotepur joined Shiromani Akali Dal](https://www.amarujala.com/chandigarh/sucha-singh-chhotepur-joined-shiromani-akali-dal-in-chandigarh). *Amarujala*. Retrieved 9 December 2021\\.", "In [2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election](/wiki/2022_Punjab_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election\") he contested from [Batala Assembly constituency](/wiki/Batala_Assembly_constituency \"Batala Assembly constituency\") but lost the election to [Amansher Singh](/wiki/Amansher_Singh \"Amansher Singh\") of [Aam Aadmi Party](/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party \"Aam Aadmi Party\").", "" ]
Early life ---------- José Júlio da Costa was the second of seven children of Eduardo Brito Júlio and Maria Gertrudes Júlio. He grew up in a family of owners that was considered wealthy. At the time of his arrest, he was married to Maria do Rosário Costa Pereira but had no children. ### Military service On 21 May 1910, at the age of 16, José enlisted as a volunteer in the Portuguese Army. He participated in the military uprising that led to the proclamation of the Portuguese Republic on 5 October 1910\. He was later placed in the Portuguese colonial army in which took part in actions in Portuguese [Timor](/wiki/Timor "Timor"), [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique "Mozambique") and [Angola](/wiki/Angola "Angola"). When World war I started in 1914, José tried to enlist as a volunteer to fight in but was refused.{{cite web \|url\=https://garvao.blogs.sapo.pt/jose\-julio\-da\-costa\-6884 \|title\=José Júlio da Costa \|publisher\= \|date\=16 January 2014 \|accessdate\=29 December 2015}} On 11 April 1916, after six years in service, José left the army with the rank of staff sergeant and returned to his homeland. ### President Pais When President Sidónio Pais was elected president in April 1918, José became angry with the government. Being a left\-wing political activist, José believed that Pais ruled the country like a dictator. In a few interviews that José gave before his death, he said that he was discontent with Pais 's policy and even accused him of betraying the ideals of the Portuguese Republican Revolution of 1910 and adapting from Germany, alongside the monarchists and clergy, who were the enemies of the Republic. José also wanted revenge on Pais because he had abandoned the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps, which had fought in [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders "Flanders") and France during the war. Jose was also angry about the outcome of a failed strike by farm workers of Vale de Santiago in which he had acted as a negotiator between the authorities and the rebels, and the agreement that he made with the authorities was repealed, and the workers were severely punished by a number of strikers being deported to Portuguese Africa. After the incident, José felt betrayed by the lack of trust from the authorities. He became radicalized and vowed to avenge his countrymen and fellow soldiers by assassinating the one he felt was the cause of all their problems, President, or, as he called him, President\-King Pais. According to José, he was willing to become a martyr and to die for his republic. He was fully aware that might lead to civil strife later.Douglas L. Wheeler (1998\) ‘Republican Portugal: A Political History 1910\-1926’ Madison: Univ of Wisconsin Press p.153 In this, José was almost prophetic\- the *[Ditatura Militar](/wiki/Ditadura_Nacional%23Ditadura_Militar%2C_1926%E2%80%931928 "Ditadura Nacional#Ditadura Militar, 1926–1928")* dictatorship took power only eight years after Sidónio Pais' death.
[ "Early life\n----------", "José Júlio da Costa was the second of seven children of Eduardo Brito Júlio and Maria Gertrudes Júlio. He grew up in a family of owners that was considered wealthy. At the time of his arrest, he was married to Maria do Rosário Costa Pereira but had no children.", "### Military service", "On 21 May 1910, at the age of 16, José enlisted as a volunteer in the Portuguese Army. He participated in the military uprising that led to the proclamation of the Portuguese Republic on 5 October 1910\\. He was later placed in the Portuguese colonial army in which took part in actions in Portuguese [Timor](/wiki/Timor \"Timor\"), [Mozambique](/wiki/Mozambique \"Mozambique\") and [Angola](/wiki/Angola \"Angola\"). When World war I started in 1914, José tried to enlist as a volunteer to fight in but was refused.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://garvao.blogs.sapo.pt/jose\\-julio\\-da\\-costa\\-6884 \\|title\\=José Júlio da Costa \\|publisher\\= \\|date\\=16 January 2014 \\|accessdate\\=29 December 2015}}", "On 11 April 1916, after six years in service, José left the army with the rank of staff sergeant and returned to his homeland.", "### President Pais", "When President Sidónio Pais was elected president in April 1918, José became angry with the government. Being a left\\-wing political activist, José believed that Pais ruled the country like a dictator. In a few interviews that José gave before his death, he said that he was discontent with Pais 's policy and even accused him of betraying the ideals of the Portuguese Republican Revolution of 1910 and adapting from Germany, alongside the monarchists and clergy, who were the enemies of the Republic.", "José also wanted revenge on Pais because he had abandoned the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps, which had fought in [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\") and France during the war. Jose was also angry about the outcome of a failed strike by farm workers of Vale de Santiago in which he had acted as a negotiator between the authorities and the rebels, and the agreement that he made with the authorities was repealed, and the workers were severely punished by a number of strikers being deported to Portuguese Africa. After the incident, José felt betrayed by the lack of trust from the authorities. He became radicalized and vowed to avenge his countrymen and fellow soldiers by assassinating the one he felt was the cause of all their problems, President, or, as he called him, President\\-King Pais.", "According to José, he was willing to become a martyr and to die for his republic. He was fully aware that might lead to civil strife later.Douglas L. Wheeler (1998\\) ‘Republican Portugal: A Political History 1910\\-1926’ Madison: Univ of Wisconsin Press p.153\n In this, José was almost prophetic\\- the *[Ditatura Militar](/wiki/Ditadura_Nacional%23Ditadura_Militar%2C_1926%E2%80%931928 \"Ditadura Nacional#Ditadura Militar, 1926–1928\")* dictatorship took power only eight years after Sidónio Pais' death.", "" ]
Geography --------- The territory of La Storta includes the [urban zone](/wiki/Administrative_subdivision_of_Rome%23Urban_subdivision_of_Rome "Administrative subdivision of Rome#Urban subdivision of Rome") **20H** *La Storta* and part of the urban zone **19G** *Castelluccia*. It also includes the locality of Pian Saccoccia (*piano di zona B49*): here is located an unauthorized settlement for which the municipality approved a restoration plan. ### Boundaries The zone borders, to the north, with *Zona* [Cesano](/wiki/Cesano_%28RM%29 "Cesano (RM)") (Z. LII), from which is separated by the Rio Galeria and by Via di Baccanello, up to [Via Cassia](/wiki/Via_Cassia "Via Cassia"). Eastward, it borders with *Zona* [Isola Farnese](/wiki/Isola_Farnese_%28zone_of_Rome%29 "Isola Farnese (zone of Rome)") (Z. LV), whose border is marked by the stretch of Via Cassia between Via di Baccanello and Via Isola Farnese, by Via Isola Farnese itself, by the countryside up to Via Prato della Corte and by Via Prato della Corte up to the [Cremera](/wiki/Cremera "Cremera"), the by the stream itself To the east, La Storta also borders with *Zona* [La Giustiniana](/wiki/La_Giustiniana_%28zone_of_Rome%29 "La Giustiniana (zone of Rome)") (Z. LIV), whose border is outlined by the Cremera, by Via Anna Foà, by the countryside up to Via Giacomo Andreassi, then by Via Cassia and Via Trionfale, up to the [GRA](/wiki/Grande_Raccordo_Anulare "Grande Raccordo Anulare"). To the south, the zone borders with *Zona* [Ottavia](/wiki/Ottavia_%28zone_of_Rome%29 "Ottavia (zone of Rome)") (Z. L), from which is separated by the stretch of the GRA between Via Trionfale and Via Cogliate. Southward, La Storta also borders with *Zona* [Casalotti](/wiki/Casalotti_%28zone_of_Rome%29 "Casalotti (zone of Rome)") (Z. XLVIII), whose border is outlined by the countryside between Via Cogliate and Via della Storta, by a stretch of Via della Storta itself, then by the countryside up to the Rio Galeria and by the stream itself. Westward, La Storta borders with *Zona* [Santa Maria di Galeria](/wiki/Santa_Maria_di_Galeria_%28zone_of_Rome%29 "Santa Maria di Galeria (zone of Rome)") (Z. XLIX), from which is separated by the Rio Galeria, up to Via Braccianese. ### Odonymy For the most part, odonyms of La Storta refers to Italian playwrights and theatre directors. In the southern part of the zone, some streets are named after cardinals, saints and religious benefactors. Streets in the locality of Pian Saccoccia are mainly named after prominent publishers. Odonyms of the zone can be categorized as follows: * **Benefactors**, e.g. Via [Maria Domenica Brun Barbantini](/wiki/Maria_Domenica_Brun_Barbantini "Maria Domenica Brun Barbantini"), Via [Giacomo Cusmano](/wiki/Giacomo_Cusmano "Giacomo Cusmano"), Via [Nicola Mazza](/wiki/Nicola_Mazza "Nicola Mazza"); * **Cardinals**, e.g. Via Cardinale [Andrea Aiuti](/wiki/Andrea_Aiuti "Andrea Aiuti"), Via Cardinale [Enrico Dante](/wiki/Enrico_Dante "Enrico Dante"), Via Cardinale [Giacomo Lercaro](/wiki/Giacomo_Lercaro "Giacomo Lercaro"), Via Cardinale [Mario Nasalli Rocca](/wiki/Mario_Nasalli_Rocca_di_Corneliano "Mario Nasalli Rocca di Corneliano"), Via Cardinale [Ugo Poletti](/wiki/Ugo_Poletti "Ugo Poletti"); * **Directors**, e.g. Via [Anton Giulio Bragaglia](/wiki/Anton_Giulio_Bragaglia "Anton Giulio Bragaglia"), Via [Vittorio De Sica](/wiki/Vittorio_De_Sica "Vittorio De Sica"), Via Remigio Paone; * **Local toponyms**, e.g. Via di Baccanello, Via del Casale della Castelluccia, Via del Casale di San Nicola, Via del Fosso dell'Olgiata, Via del Fosso Piordo, Via dell'Olgiatella, Via Pian Saccoccia, Via della Storta, Via della Torre delle Cornacchie, Via della Torre di Spizzichino; * **Playwrights**, e.g. Via [Giuseppe Adami](/wiki/Giuseppe_Adami "Giuseppe Adami"), Via [Francesco Albergati Capacelli](/wiki/Francesco_Albergati_Capacelli "Francesco Albergati Capacelli"), Via [Giambattista Andreini](/wiki/Giambattista_Andreini "Giambattista Andreini"), Via [Giovanni Barrella](/wiki/Giovanni_Barrella "Giovanni Barrella"), Via [Libero Bovio](/wiki/Libero_Bovio "Libero Bovio"), Via [Italo Alighiero Chiusano](/wiki/Italo_Alighiero_Chiusano "Italo Alighiero Chiusano"), Via [Aldo De Benedetti](/wiki/Aldo_De_Benedetti "Aldo De Benedetti"), Via [Leo de Berardinis](/wiki/Leo_de_Berardinis "Leo de Berardinis"), Via Giacinto Gallina, Via [Paolo Giacometti](/wiki/Paolo_Giacometti "Paolo Giacometti"), Via [Gherardo Gherardi](/wiki/Gherardo_Gherardi "Gherardo Gherardi"), Viale Roberto Lerici, Via [Giovanni Battista Lorenzi](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Lorenzi "Giovanni Battista Lorenzi"), Via [Antonio Petito](/wiki/Antonio_Petito "Antonio Petito"), Via [Marco Praga](/wiki/Marco_Praga "Marco Praga"), Largo [Giorgio Prosperi](/wiki/Giorgio_Prosperi "Giorgio Prosperi"), Via [Annibale Ruccello](/wiki/Annibale_Ruccello "Annibale Ruccello"), Via [Giorgio Strehler](/wiki/Giorgio_Strehler "Giorgio Strehler"), Via Vincenzo Tieri, Largo Cesare Vico Lodovici, Via [Raffaele Viviani](/wiki/Raffaele_Viviani "Raffaele Viviani"); * **Partisans and war heroes**, e.g. Via Carlo Del Papa, Via Amilcare Rossi, Via Luigi Scapuzzi, Via Silvio Solimano, Via Augusto Ugolini, Via [Mario Visintini](/wiki/Mario_Visintini "Mario Visintini"); * **Publishers**, e.g. Via [Giulio Einaudi](/wiki/Giulio_Einaudi "Giulio Einaudi"), Via [Gaston Gallimard](/wiki/Gaston_Gallimard "Gaston Gallimard"), Via [Felice Le Monnier](/wiki/Felice_Le_Monnier "Felice Le Monnier"), Via Romolo Lozzi, Via [Angelo Rizzoli](/wiki/Angelo_Rizzoli "Angelo Rizzoli"), Via Antonio Zaroto; * **Saints**, e.g. Via [Gioacchino da Fiore](/wiki/Joachim_of_Fiore "Joachim of Fiore"), Largo [Padre Pio da Pietrelcina](/wiki/Padre_Pio "Padre Pio"), Via [San Giuseppe da Copertino](/wiki/Joseph_of_Cupertino "Joseph of Cupertino").
[ "Geography\n---------", "The territory of La Storta includes the [urban zone](/wiki/Administrative_subdivision_of_Rome%23Urban_subdivision_of_Rome \"Administrative subdivision of Rome#Urban subdivision of Rome\") **20H** *La Storta* and part of the urban zone **19G** *Castelluccia*.", "It also includes the locality of Pian Saccoccia (*piano di zona B49*): here is located an unauthorized settlement for which the municipality approved a restoration plan.", "### Boundaries", "The zone borders, to the north, with *Zona* [Cesano](/wiki/Cesano_%28RM%29 \"Cesano (RM)\") (Z. LII), from which is separated by the Rio Galeria and by Via di Baccanello, up to [Via Cassia](/wiki/Via_Cassia \"Via Cassia\").", "Eastward, it borders with *Zona* [Isola Farnese](/wiki/Isola_Farnese_%28zone_of_Rome%29 \"Isola Farnese (zone of Rome)\") (Z. LV), whose border is marked by the stretch of Via Cassia between Via di Baccanello and Via Isola Farnese, by Via Isola Farnese itself, by the countryside up to Via Prato della Corte and by Via Prato della Corte up to the [Cremera](/wiki/Cremera \"Cremera\"), the by the stream itself To the east, La Storta also borders with *Zona* [La Giustiniana](/wiki/La_Giustiniana_%28zone_of_Rome%29 \"La Giustiniana (zone of Rome)\") (Z. LIV), whose border is outlined by the Cremera, by Via Anna Foà, by the countryside up to Via Giacomo Andreassi, then by Via Cassia and Via Trionfale, up to the [GRA](/wiki/Grande_Raccordo_Anulare \"Grande Raccordo Anulare\").", "To the south, the zone borders with *Zona* [Ottavia](/wiki/Ottavia_%28zone_of_Rome%29 \"Ottavia (zone of Rome)\") (Z. L), from which is separated by the stretch of the GRA between Via Trionfale and Via Cogliate. Southward, La Storta also borders with *Zona* [Casalotti](/wiki/Casalotti_%28zone_of_Rome%29 \"Casalotti (zone of Rome)\") (Z. XLVIII), whose border is outlined by the countryside between Via Cogliate and Via della Storta, by a stretch of Via della Storta itself, then by the countryside up to the Rio Galeria and by the stream itself.", "Westward, La Storta borders with *Zona* [Santa Maria di Galeria](/wiki/Santa_Maria_di_Galeria_%28zone_of_Rome%29 \"Santa Maria di Galeria (zone of Rome)\") (Z. XLIX), from which is separated by the Rio Galeria, up to Via Braccianese.", "### Odonymy", "For the most part, odonyms of La Storta refers to Italian playwrights and theatre directors. In the southern part of the zone, some streets are named after cardinals, saints and religious benefactors. Streets in the locality of Pian Saccoccia are mainly named after prominent publishers. Odonyms of the zone can be categorized as follows:\n* **Benefactors**, e.g. Via [Maria Domenica Brun Barbantini](/wiki/Maria_Domenica_Brun_Barbantini \"Maria Domenica Brun Barbantini\"), Via [Giacomo Cusmano](/wiki/Giacomo_Cusmano \"Giacomo Cusmano\"), Via [Nicola Mazza](/wiki/Nicola_Mazza \"Nicola Mazza\");\n* **Cardinals**, e.g. Via Cardinale [Andrea Aiuti](/wiki/Andrea_Aiuti \"Andrea Aiuti\"), Via Cardinale [Enrico Dante](/wiki/Enrico_Dante \"Enrico Dante\"), Via Cardinale [Giacomo Lercaro](/wiki/Giacomo_Lercaro \"Giacomo Lercaro\"), Via Cardinale [Mario Nasalli Rocca](/wiki/Mario_Nasalli_Rocca_di_Corneliano \"Mario Nasalli Rocca di Corneliano\"), Via Cardinale [Ugo Poletti](/wiki/Ugo_Poletti \"Ugo Poletti\");\n* **Directors**, e.g. Via [Anton Giulio Bragaglia](/wiki/Anton_Giulio_Bragaglia \"Anton Giulio Bragaglia\"), Via [Vittorio De Sica](/wiki/Vittorio_De_Sica \"Vittorio De Sica\"), Via Remigio Paone;\n* **Local toponyms**, e.g. Via di Baccanello, Via del Casale della Castelluccia, Via del Casale di San Nicola, Via del Fosso dell'Olgiata, Via del Fosso Piordo, Via dell'Olgiatella, Via Pian Saccoccia, Via della Storta, Via della Torre delle Cornacchie, Via della Torre di Spizzichino;\n* **Playwrights**, e.g. Via [Giuseppe Adami](/wiki/Giuseppe_Adami \"Giuseppe Adami\"), Via [Francesco Albergati Capacelli](/wiki/Francesco_Albergati_Capacelli \"Francesco Albergati Capacelli\"), Via [Giambattista Andreini](/wiki/Giambattista_Andreini \"Giambattista Andreini\"), Via [Giovanni Barrella](/wiki/Giovanni_Barrella \"Giovanni Barrella\"), Via [Libero Bovio](/wiki/Libero_Bovio \"Libero Bovio\"), Via [Italo Alighiero Chiusano](/wiki/Italo_Alighiero_Chiusano \"Italo Alighiero Chiusano\"), Via [Aldo De Benedetti](/wiki/Aldo_De_Benedetti \"Aldo De Benedetti\"), Via [Leo de Berardinis](/wiki/Leo_de_Berardinis \"Leo de Berardinis\"), Via Giacinto Gallina, Via [Paolo Giacometti](/wiki/Paolo_Giacometti \"Paolo Giacometti\"), Via [Gherardo Gherardi](/wiki/Gherardo_Gherardi \"Gherardo Gherardi\"), Viale Roberto Lerici, Via [Giovanni Battista Lorenzi](/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Lorenzi \"Giovanni Battista Lorenzi\"), Via [Antonio Petito](/wiki/Antonio_Petito \"Antonio Petito\"), Via [Marco Praga](/wiki/Marco_Praga \"Marco Praga\"), Largo [Giorgio Prosperi](/wiki/Giorgio_Prosperi \"Giorgio Prosperi\"), Via [Annibale Ruccello](/wiki/Annibale_Ruccello \"Annibale Ruccello\"), Via [Giorgio Strehler](/wiki/Giorgio_Strehler \"Giorgio Strehler\"), Via Vincenzo Tieri, Largo Cesare Vico Lodovici, Via [Raffaele Viviani](/wiki/Raffaele_Viviani \"Raffaele Viviani\");\n* **Partisans and war heroes**, e.g. Via Carlo Del Papa, Via Amilcare Rossi, Via Luigi Scapuzzi, Via Silvio Solimano, Via Augusto Ugolini, Via [Mario Visintini](/wiki/Mario_Visintini \"Mario Visintini\");\n* **Publishers**, e.g. Via [Giulio Einaudi](/wiki/Giulio_Einaudi \"Giulio Einaudi\"), Via [Gaston Gallimard](/wiki/Gaston_Gallimard \"Gaston Gallimard\"), Via [Felice Le Monnier](/wiki/Felice_Le_Monnier \"Felice Le Monnier\"), Via Romolo Lozzi, Via [Angelo Rizzoli](/wiki/Angelo_Rizzoli \"Angelo Rizzoli\"), Via Antonio Zaroto;\n* **Saints**, e.g. Via [Gioacchino da Fiore](/wiki/Joachim_of_Fiore \"Joachim of Fiore\"), Largo [Padre Pio da Pietrelcina](/wiki/Padre_Pio \"Padre Pio\"), Via [San Giuseppe da Copertino](/wiki/Joseph_of_Cupertino \"Joseph of Cupertino\").", "" ]
Collections ----------- [thumb\|Yeghishe Charents' personal library](/wiki/File:Yeghishe_Charents%27_private_Library_%281%29.jpg "Yeghishe Charents' private Library (1).jpg") [thumb\|Yeghishe Charents' gramophone](/wiki/File:Yeghishe_Charents%27_gramophone.jpg "Yeghishe Charents' gramophone.jpg") The Yeghishe Charents House Museum is a research centre studying Charents's life, and literary, cultural and social\-political activities. The museum exhibits the relics of Charents, including his personal belongings, manuscripts, documents, books, photos, and other specimens. All bear evidence in support of the poet's great talent for not only poetry, but also translation and publishing.{{Cite book\|title\=Charents 115\|publisher\="Astghik Publishing House" \|year\=2012\|isbn\=978\-9939\-840\-07\-9\|location\=Yerevan\|pages\=120}} The most valuable part of the museum is the Memorial House, where everything is arranged as it was in Charents's lifetime. The house is furnished in a combination of Western and Eastern tastes: the grand piano "Becker", the typewriter, the furniture of red wood, the carpets inherited from his father, the ottoman, the Chinese panels, the collection of [ivory](/wiki/Ivory "Ivory") and [bronze](/wiki/Bronze "Bronze") statues of [Buddha](/wiki/Buddha "Buddha"), the reproductions of [Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci "Leonardo da Vinci"), [Fra Angelico](/wiki/Fra_Angelico "Fra Angelico"), and so on. ### Library Charents's personal library forms a part of the Memorial House. According to the poet's daughter Arpenik, his library consisted of 6000 books in the 1930s. After his arrest during [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin")'s [Great Purge](/wiki/Great_Purge "Great Purge"), a large number of books were destroyed. Now there are 1452 books in the library, including many valuable works in different languages on different subjects, such as arts and religion. Charents's library included a unique collection of books by many Armenian writers, including [Khorenatsi](/wiki/Movses_Khorenatsi "Movses Khorenatsi"), [Buzand](/wiki/Pavstos_Buzand "Pavstos Buzand"), [Narekatsi](/wiki/Gregory_Narekatsi "Gregory Narekatsi"), [Kuchak](/wiki/Nahapet_Kuchak "Nahapet Kuchak"), [Shnorhali](/wiki/Nerses_Shnorhali "Nerses Shnorhali"), [Sayat\-Nova](/wiki/Sayat-Nova "Sayat-Nova"), [Leo](/wiki/Arakel_Babakhanian "Arakel Babakhanian"), [Tumanyan](/wiki/Hovhannes_Tumanyan "Hovhannes Tumanyan"), [Terian](/wiki/Vahan_Terian "Vahan Terian"), [Isahakyan](/wiki/Avetik_Isahakyan "Avetik Isahakyan"), and [Metsarents](/wiki/Misak_Metsarents "Misak Metsarents"). Having deeply studied [Ancient Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek "Ancient Greek"), European and Russian literatures, as well as old Oriental art and literature, the poet enriched his collection with [Aurelius](/wiki/Aurelius "Aurelius"), [Proust](/wiki/Proust "Proust"), [Asvaghosha](/wiki/Asvaghosha "Asvaghosha"), [Pirandello](/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello "Luigi Pirandello"), [Spengler](/wiki/Oswald_Spengler "Oswald Spengler"), [Tagore](/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore "Rabindranath Tagore") and others. Among these books, the 25 volumes of the "Starie Godi" – a Russian periodical published from 1907 to 1916 – are of particular value. Many books in the library are autographed. In the margins there are personal notes taken by Charents. There are also books that other writers presented to Charents, including [Avetik Isahakyan](/wiki/Avetik_Isahakyan "Avetik Isahakyan"), Hamlik Toumanian, Garegin Bess, [Khachik Dashtents](/wiki/Khachik_Dashtents "Khachik Dashtents") and others. Many books have been brought from [Tbilisi](/wiki/Tbilisi "Tbilisi") (Tiflis), [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg"), and [Volgograd](/wiki/Volgograd "Volgograd") (Tsaritsyn). The museum holds exhibitions, literary\-musical gatherings, lectures, concerts, meetings, presentations, and days of poetry reading.
[ "Collections\n-----------", "[thumb\\|Yeghishe Charents' personal library](/wiki/File:Yeghishe_Charents%27_private_Library_%281%29.jpg \"Yeghishe Charents' private Library (1).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Yeghishe Charents' gramophone](/wiki/File:Yeghishe_Charents%27_gramophone.jpg \"Yeghishe Charents' gramophone.jpg\")\nThe Yeghishe Charents House Museum is a research centre studying Charents's life, and literary, cultural and social\\-political activities. The museum exhibits the relics of Charents, including his personal belongings, manuscripts, documents, books, photos, and other specimens. All bear evidence in support of the poet's great talent for not only poetry, but also translation and publishing.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Charents 115\\|publisher\\=\"Astghik Publishing House\" \\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=978\\-9939\\-840\\-07\\-9\\|location\\=Yerevan\\|pages\\=120}}", "The most valuable part of the museum is the Memorial House, where everything is arranged as it was in Charents's lifetime. The house is furnished in a combination of Western and Eastern tastes: the grand piano \"Becker\", the typewriter, the furniture of red wood, the carpets inherited from his father, the ottoman, the Chinese panels, the collection of [ivory](/wiki/Ivory \"Ivory\") and [bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\") statues of [Buddha](/wiki/Buddha \"Buddha\"), the reproductions of [Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci \"Leonardo da Vinci\"), [Fra Angelico](/wiki/Fra_Angelico \"Fra Angelico\"), and so on.", "### Library", "Charents's personal library forms a part of the Memorial House. According to the poet's daughter Arpenik, his library consisted of 6000 books in the 1930s. After his arrest during [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\")'s [Great Purge](/wiki/Great_Purge \"Great Purge\"), a large number of books were destroyed. Now there are 1452 books in the library, including many valuable works in different languages on different subjects, such as arts and religion.", "Charents's library included a unique collection of books by many Armenian writers, including [Khorenatsi](/wiki/Movses_Khorenatsi \"Movses Khorenatsi\"), [Buzand](/wiki/Pavstos_Buzand \"Pavstos Buzand\"), [Narekatsi](/wiki/Gregory_Narekatsi \"Gregory Narekatsi\"), [Kuchak](/wiki/Nahapet_Kuchak \"Nahapet Kuchak\"), [Shnorhali](/wiki/Nerses_Shnorhali \"Nerses Shnorhali\"), [Sayat\\-Nova](/wiki/Sayat-Nova \"Sayat-Nova\"), [Leo](/wiki/Arakel_Babakhanian \"Arakel Babakhanian\"), [Tumanyan](/wiki/Hovhannes_Tumanyan \"Hovhannes Tumanyan\"), [Terian](/wiki/Vahan_Terian \"Vahan Terian\"), [Isahakyan](/wiki/Avetik_Isahakyan \"Avetik Isahakyan\"), and [Metsarents](/wiki/Misak_Metsarents \"Misak Metsarents\"). Having deeply studied [Ancient Greek](/wiki/Ancient_Greek \"Ancient Greek\"), European and Russian literatures, as well as old Oriental art and literature, the poet enriched his collection with [Aurelius](/wiki/Aurelius \"Aurelius\"), [Proust](/wiki/Proust \"Proust\"), [Asvaghosha](/wiki/Asvaghosha \"Asvaghosha\"), [Pirandello](/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello \"Luigi Pirandello\"), [Spengler](/wiki/Oswald_Spengler \"Oswald Spengler\"), [Tagore](/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore \"Rabindranath Tagore\") and others. Among these books, the 25 volumes of the \"Starie Godi\" – a Russian periodical published from 1907 to 1916 – are of particular value.", "Many books in the library are autographed. In the margins there are personal notes taken by Charents. There are also books that other writers presented to Charents, including [Avetik Isahakyan](/wiki/Avetik_Isahakyan \"Avetik Isahakyan\"), Hamlik Toumanian, Garegin Bess, [Khachik Dashtents](/wiki/Khachik_Dashtents \"Khachik Dashtents\") and others. Many books have been brought from [Tbilisi](/wiki/Tbilisi \"Tbilisi\") (Tiflis), [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\"), and [Volgograd](/wiki/Volgograd \"Volgograd\") (Tsaritsyn).", "The museum holds exhibitions, literary\\-musical gatherings, lectures, concerts, meetings, presentations, and days of poetry reading.", "" ]
Rules ----- [thumb\|300px\|Bloody Lethwei hand wraps](/wiki/File:Lethwei_bloody_handwraps.png "Lethwei bloody handwraps.png") **Permitted techniques** * Headbutts * All punches * All elbow strikes * All knee strikes * All kicks * Extensive clinching * Sweeps, throws and takedowns The use of the feet, hands, knees, elbows and head is permitted. **Rounds** Each bout can be booked as a 3, 4 or 5 round fight with 3 minutes per round and a 2\-minute break in between rounds. Championship bouts are 5 round fights with 3 minutes per round and a 2\-minute break between rounds. **Fighting attire** The Burmese bareknuckle boxing rules prohibits the use of gloves. * The fighters must only wear tape, gauze and electrical tape on their hands and feet. * The fighters shall wear only shorts, without a shirt or shoes. * The fighters must wear a groin protector. * The fighters must wear a [gum shield](/wiki/Mouthguard "Mouthguard"). The fighters are required to apply the wrapping in front of the fight officials, who will endorse the wraps. **Referee** One referee oversees the fight. The referee has the power to: * End the fight if he considers one fighter to be significantly outclassed by his opponent. * Stop the fight and refer to the doctor if a fighter is heavily wounded. * Warn the fighters. He makes sure the fight proceeds fairly and in compliance with the rules. ### Traditional rules The traditional rules, also known as *yoe yar* rules, which comes from the [Burmese](/wiki/Burmese_language "Burmese language") *Myanma yoe yar Latway*, which means *Myanmar traditional boxing*.{{cite news \|author\=Mark Schroeder\|date\=17 September 2019\|url\=https://www.thefight\-site.com/home/introduction\-to\-lethwei\-1\|title\=Introduction to Lethwei\|publisher\=The Fight Site}} Traditional matches are still fought throughout Myanmar, especially during festivals or celebrations like [Thingyan](/wiki/Thingyan "Thingyan"). Traditional Lethwei is notorious for not having a scoring system and for its controversial rule of **knock\-out only to win**. At the end of the match, in the eventuality that there is no knockout or stoppage, if the two fighters are still standing, even if one fighter dominated the fight, the match is declared a draw. Fighters can win by incapacitating their rivals in a few different ways. * A knock\-out (**KO**) is when a fighter falls to the ground, leans unconscious or if a fighter is unable to stand up or defend themself for 20 seconds (10 counts with 1 count every 2 seconds). * When 3 counts are performed in a single round, the fight is terminated and scored as knock\-out (count limit) (**KO**). * When 4 counts are performed during the entire duration of the fight, the match is terminated and scored as knock\-out (count limit) (**KO**). * A technical knock\-out (**TKO**) is when a fighter forfeits, has an injury or is in a position that can damage or severely harm them if the fight continues. The ring doctor is consulted and makes the decision.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.martialartsentertainment.com/born\-warriors\-documentarian\-vincent\-giordano\-interview\-part\-2/\|title\=Born Warriors: Documentarian Vincent Giordano Interview Part 2\|last1\=Xegarra\|first1\=Guillermo\|website\=Martial Arts Entertainment\|date\=7 June 2016}} **Promotions that use traditional rules** * Most Lethwei promotions in Myanmar * Annual Myanmar Lethwei World Championship * Air KBZ Aung Lan Championship * [International Lethwei Federation Japan](/wiki/International_Lethwei_Federation_Japan "International Lethwei Federation Japan") * Challenge fights * Flagship Tournaments * Festivals \& celebrations #### Special time\-out * If a knockout or injury occurs, the fighter can take a special 2 minute time\-out to recover. After the time\-out the fighter can choose whether he wishes to continue the bout or not. Each fighter may only do so once during the fight.{{cite news \|last\=Looi \|first\=Florence \|date\=8 September 2015 \|url\=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/09/myanmar\-lethwei\-fighters\-bare\-knuckles\-150908100052020\.html \|title\=Myanmar's Lethwei fighters bare their knuckles \|publisher\=\[\[Al Jazeera English\|Al Jazeera]]}} * The time\-out cannot be used in the fifth round. * The use of the time\-out is considered as 1 count. #### Golden Belt Not to be confused with the annual *Golden Belt Championship*, composed mostly of younger rising talent and using the [tournament rules](/wiki/%23Tournament_rules "#Tournament rules") point system, the traditional *Lethwei Golden Belt* is regarded as the highest and most prestigious award for Lethwei fighters.{{Cite web \|title\=Dave Leduc Vs Samnang to Headline MFC 2\|url\=https://www.combatsportsuk.co.uk/dave\-leduc\-vs\-samnang\-to\-headline\-mfc\-2\|date\=April 10, 2023\|author\=James Rees\|website\=Combat Sports UK\|quote\=The Openweight Lethwei World Championship is one of the most prestigious titles in combat sports.}}{{cite news\|author\=Kyaw Zin Hlaing\|url\=http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/sports/24187\-myanmar\-s\-lethwei\-goliath\-toppled\-by\-canadian\-dave.html\|title\=Myanmar's lethwei goliath toppled by Canadian 'Dave'\|date\=13 December 2016\|website\=\[\[Myanmar Times]]}} There is only one *Golden Belt* champion for each weight categories, with the openweight class champion being considered the strongest fighter in Myanmar.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.mmtimes.com/sports/18254\-a\-tun\-tun\-minute.html\|title\=A Tun Tun Minute\|last\=Hlaing\|first\=Kyaw Zin\|website\=\[\[Myanmar Times]]\|date\=22 December 2015}} The openweight Golden Belt champion is the equivalent of being pound\-for\-pound champion in the world of Lethwei.{{cite web\|title\=SONS OF LETHWEI LEGENDS TO MEET IN THE RING AT WLC: KING OF NINE LIMBS\|url\=https://apmma.net/sons\-of\-lethwei\-legends\-to\-meet\-in\-the\-ring\-at\-wlc\-king\-of\-nine\-limbs\|date\=22 June 2019\|publisher\=Asia Persuasian MMA}} *Win Zin Oo, Lethwei coach and gym owner explains*: {{cquote\|If you win the golden belt you are the national champion, there is only one champion in each division, but there is also an openweight champion who is considered to be the best fighter in Myanmar.{{cite web \|last\=Goyder\|first\=James\|date\=22 July 2015\|url\=http://fightland.vice.com/blog/inside\-a\-burmese\-lethwei\-gym \|title\=Inside a Burmese Lethwei Gym \|publisher\=\[\[Fightland\|VICE Fightland]]}}}} ### Tournament rules In 1996, the [Myanmar Traditional Lethwei Federation](/wiki/Myanmar_Traditional_Lethwei_Federation "Myanmar Traditional Lethwei Federation") created the tournament ruleset for the inaugural Golden Belt Championship tournament. The two\-minute injury timeout was removed and judges were added ringside to determine a winner in the event there was no knockout. This modified ruleset prevents the outcome of a draw and helped choose a winner to advance in the tournament. Myanmar's first international promotion, the [World Lethwei Championship](/wiki/World_Lethwei_Championship "World Lethwei Championship"), opted for this ruleset in order to follow international safety regulations and have clear winners. **Judging criteria** The knockout is still highly desired under this ruleset, but in the event that a bout goes the distance, judges will present a decision. The 3 judges should score the bout based on: * aggression * damage * amount of blood drawn * number of significant strikes per round Fighters have a maximum of 3 knockdowns per round and 4 knockdowns in the entire fight before the fight is ruled a knockout.
[ "Rules\n-----", "[thumb\\|300px\\|Bloody Lethwei hand wraps](/wiki/File:Lethwei_bloody_handwraps.png \"Lethwei bloody handwraps.png\")", "**Permitted techniques**", "* Headbutts\n* All punches\n* All elbow strikes\n* All knee strikes\n* All kicks\n* Extensive clinching\n* Sweeps, throws and takedowns", "The use of the feet, hands, knees, elbows and head is permitted.", "**Rounds**", "Each bout can be booked as a 3, 4 or 5 round fight with 3 minutes per round and a 2\\-minute break in between rounds. Championship bouts are 5 round fights with 3 minutes per round and a 2\\-minute break between rounds.", "**Fighting attire**", "The Burmese bareknuckle boxing rules prohibits the use of gloves.", "* The fighters must only wear tape, gauze and electrical tape on their hands and feet.\n* The fighters shall wear only shorts, without a shirt or shoes.\n* The fighters must wear a groin protector.\n* The fighters must wear a [gum shield](/wiki/Mouthguard \"Mouthguard\").", "The fighters are required to apply the wrapping in front of the fight officials, who will endorse the wraps.", "**Referee**", "One referee oversees the fight. The referee has the power to:\n* End the fight if he considers one fighter to be significantly outclassed by his opponent.\n* Stop the fight and refer to the doctor if a fighter is heavily wounded.\n* Warn the fighters. He makes sure the fight proceeds fairly and in compliance with the rules.", "### Traditional rules", "The traditional rules, also known as *yoe yar* rules, which comes from the [Burmese](/wiki/Burmese_language \"Burmese language\") *Myanma yoe yar Latway*, which means *Myanmar traditional boxing*.{{cite news \\|author\\=Mark Schroeder\\|date\\=17 September 2019\\|url\\=https://www.thefight\\-site.com/home/introduction\\-to\\-lethwei\\-1\\|title\\=Introduction to Lethwei\\|publisher\\=The Fight Site}} Traditional matches are still fought throughout Myanmar, especially during festivals or celebrations like [Thingyan](/wiki/Thingyan \"Thingyan\"). Traditional Lethwei is notorious for not having a scoring system and for its controversial rule of **knock\\-out only to win**.", "At the end of the match, in the eventuality that there is no knockout or stoppage, if the two fighters are still standing, even if one fighter dominated the fight, the match is declared a draw. Fighters can win by incapacitating their rivals in a few different ways.", "* A knock\\-out (**KO**) is when a fighter falls to the ground, leans unconscious or if a fighter is unable to stand up or defend themself for 20 seconds (10 counts with 1 count every 2 seconds).\n* When 3 counts are performed in a single round, the fight is terminated and scored as knock\\-out (count limit) (**KO**).\n* When 4 counts are performed during the entire duration of the fight, the match is terminated and scored as knock\\-out (count limit) (**KO**).\n* A technical knock\\-out (**TKO**) is when a fighter forfeits, has an injury or is in a position that can damage or severely harm them if the fight continues. The ring doctor is consulted and makes the decision.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.martialartsentertainment.com/born\\-warriors\\-documentarian\\-vincent\\-giordano\\-interview\\-part\\-2/\\|title\\=Born Warriors: Documentarian Vincent Giordano Interview Part 2\\|last1\\=Xegarra\\|first1\\=Guillermo\\|website\\=Martial Arts Entertainment\\|date\\=7 June 2016}}", "**Promotions that use traditional rules**\n* Most Lethwei promotions in Myanmar\n* Annual Myanmar Lethwei World Championship\n* Air KBZ Aung Lan Championship\n* [International Lethwei Federation Japan](/wiki/International_Lethwei_Federation_Japan \"International Lethwei Federation Japan\")\n* Challenge fights\n* Flagship Tournaments\n* Festivals \\& celebrations", "#### Special time\\-out", "* If a knockout or injury occurs, the fighter can take a special 2 minute time\\-out to recover. After the time\\-out the fighter can choose whether he wishes to continue the bout or not. Each fighter may only do so once during the fight.{{cite news \\|last\\=Looi \\|first\\=Florence \\|date\\=8 September 2015 \\|url\\=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/09/myanmar\\-lethwei\\-fighters\\-bare\\-knuckles\\-150908100052020\\.html \\|title\\=Myanmar's Lethwei fighters bare their knuckles \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Al Jazeera English\\|Al Jazeera]]}}\n* The time\\-out cannot be used in the fifth round.\n* The use of the time\\-out is considered as 1 count.", "#### Golden Belt", "Not to be confused with the annual *Golden Belt Championship*, composed mostly of younger rising talent and using the [tournament rules](/wiki/%23Tournament_rules \"#Tournament rules\") point system, the traditional *Lethwei Golden Belt* is regarded as the highest and most prestigious award for Lethwei fighters.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Dave Leduc Vs Samnang to Headline MFC 2\\|url\\=https://www.combatsportsuk.co.uk/dave\\-leduc\\-vs\\-samnang\\-to\\-headline\\-mfc\\-2\\|date\\=April 10, 2023\\|author\\=James Rees\\|website\\=Combat Sports UK\\|quote\\=The Openweight Lethwei World Championship is one of the most prestigious titles in combat sports.}}{{cite news\\|author\\=Kyaw Zin Hlaing\\|url\\=http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/sports/24187\\-myanmar\\-s\\-lethwei\\-goliath\\-toppled\\-by\\-canadian\\-dave.html\\|title\\=Myanmar's lethwei goliath toppled by Canadian 'Dave'\\|date\\=13 December 2016\\|website\\=\\[\\[Myanmar Times]]}} There is only one *Golden Belt* champion for each weight categories, with the openweight class champion being considered the strongest fighter in Myanmar.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.mmtimes.com/sports/18254\\-a\\-tun\\-tun\\-minute.html\\|title\\=A Tun Tun Minute\\|last\\=Hlaing\\|first\\=Kyaw Zin\\|website\\=\\[\\[Myanmar Times]]\\|date\\=22 December 2015}} The openweight Golden Belt champion is the equivalent of being pound\\-for\\-pound champion in the world of Lethwei.{{cite web\\|title\\=SONS OF LETHWEI LEGENDS TO MEET IN THE RING AT WLC: KING OF NINE LIMBS\\|url\\=https://apmma.net/sons\\-of\\-lethwei\\-legends\\-to\\-meet\\-in\\-the\\-ring\\-at\\-wlc\\-king\\-of\\-nine\\-limbs\\|date\\=22 June 2019\\|publisher\\=Asia Persuasian MMA}}", "*Win Zin Oo, Lethwei coach and gym owner explains*: {{cquote\\|If you win the golden belt you are the national champion, there is only one champion in each division, but there is also an openweight champion who is considered to be the best fighter in Myanmar.{{cite web \\|last\\=Goyder\\|first\\=James\\|date\\=22 July 2015\\|url\\=http://fightland.vice.com/blog/inside\\-a\\-burmese\\-lethwei\\-gym \\|title\\=Inside a Burmese Lethwei Gym \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fightland\\|VICE Fightland]]}}}}", "### Tournament rules", "In 1996, the [Myanmar Traditional Lethwei Federation](/wiki/Myanmar_Traditional_Lethwei_Federation \"Myanmar Traditional Lethwei Federation\") created the tournament ruleset for the inaugural Golden Belt Championship tournament. The two\\-minute injury timeout was removed and judges were added ringside to determine a winner in the event there was no knockout. This modified ruleset prevents the outcome of a draw and helped choose a winner to advance in the tournament. Myanmar's first international promotion, the [World Lethwei Championship](/wiki/World_Lethwei_Championship \"World Lethwei Championship\"), opted for this ruleset in order to follow international safety regulations and have clear winners.", "**Judging criteria**", "The knockout is still highly desired under this ruleset, but in the event that a bout goes the distance, judges will present a decision. The 3 judges should score the bout based on:", "* aggression\n* damage\n* amount of blood drawn\n* number of significant strikes per round", "Fighters have a maximum of 3 knockdowns per round and 4 knockdowns in the entire fight before the fight is ruled a knockout.", "" ]
Techniques ---------- Aside from punches, kicks, elbows and knee attacks, Burmese fighters also make use of head\-butts, raking knuckle strikes and take downs. File:lethwei\-Elbow.jpg\|Spinning elbow strike File:lethwei\-Hight\-kick.jpg\|Roundhouse kick File:lethwei\-Knee\-Elbow.jpg\|Knee and elbow strike File:lethwei\-Knee\-Hand.jpg\|Knee and punch File:Lethwei\-Step\-Elbow.jpg\|Jumping knee and elbow File:HookKick001\.jpg\|Back hook kick {{anchor\|Headbutt}} ### Headbutt (*Gowl Tite*) | English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System "MLC Transcription System") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA "IPA") | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Thrusting/Forward Headbutt** | ထိုးခေါင်းတိုက် | *Htoe Gowl Tite* | | | **Upward Headbutt** | ခေါင်းပင့်တိုက် | *Gowl Pint Tite* | | | **Side Headbutt** | ခေါင်းရိုက် | *Gowl yite* | | | **Clinching Headbutt** | ချုပ်ခေါင်းရိုက် | *Choke Gowl Yite* | | | **Flying/Diving Headbutt** | ခုန်ခေါင်းတိုက် | *Khnoe Gowl Tite* | | | **Rushing Headbutt** | ခေါင်းဆောင့်တိုက် | *Gowl Sount Tite* | | | **Downward Headbutt** | ခေါင်းစိုက်တိုက် | *Gowl Site Tite* | | {{anchor\|Punching}} ### Punching (*Let Thee*) [thumb\|300px\|Lethwei fighters landing a punch](/wiki/File:Lethwei_figths_in_Ye_city_Myanmar_2.png "Lethwei figths in Ye city Myanmar 2.png") | English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System "MLC Transcription System") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA "IPA") | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **[Jab](/wiki/Jab "Jab")** | ထောက်လက်သီး | *Htouk Let Thee* | | | **[Cross](/wiki/Cross_%28boxing%29 "Cross (boxing)")** | ဖြောင့်လက်သီး | *Fyount Let Thee* | | | **[Uppercut](/wiki/Uppercut "Uppercut")** | ပင့်လက်သီး | *Pint Let Thee* | | | **[Hook](/wiki/Hook_%28boxing%29 "Hook (boxing)")** | ဝိုက်လက်သီး | *Wide Let Thee* | | | **[Overhand (boxing)](/wiki/Overhand_%28boxing%29 "Overhand (boxing)")** | စိုက်လက်သီး | *Site Let Thee* | | | **[Backfist](/wiki/Backfist "Backfist")** | တွက်လက်သီး | *Twet Let Thee* | | | **[Spinning Backfist](/wiki/Punch_%28combat%29%23Basic_types "Punch (combat)#Basic types")** | လက်ပြန်ရိုက် | *Let Pyan Yite* | | | **[Hammer fist](/wiki/Hammer_Fist "Hammer Fist")** | ပင့်လက်သီး | *Pint Let Thee* | | | **[Superman punch](/wiki/Superman_punch "Superman punch")** | လက်သီးပျံ / ခုန်ထိုး လက်သီး | *Let Thee Pyan / Khone Htoe Let Thee* | | {{anchor\|Elbow}} ### Elbow (*Tel Daung*) The elbow can be used in several ways as a striking weapon: horizontal, diagonal\-upwards, diagonal\-downwards, uppercut, downward, backward\-spinning and flying. They can be used as either a finishing move or as a way to cut the opponent's eyebrow to draw blood. | English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System "MLC Transcription System") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA "IPA") | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Horizontal Elbow** | ဝိုက်တံတောင် | *Wide Tel Daung* | | | **Upward Elbow** | ပင့်တံတောင် | *Pint Tel Daung* | | | **Downward Elbow** | ထောင်းတံတောင် | *Htoung Tel Daung* | | | **Jumping Downward Elbow** | တံတောင် ခုန်ထောင်း | *Tel Daung Khone Htoung* | | | **Elbow Thrust** | ထိုးတံတောင် | *Htoe Tel Daung* | | | **Reverse Horizontal Elbow** | တွက်တံတောင် | *Twet Tel Daung* | | | **Flying Elbow** | တံတောင်ပျံ | *Tel Daung Pyan* | | | **Spinning Elbow** | ပတ်တံတောင် / ခါးလှည့်တံတောင် | *Pat Tel Daung / Khar Hlet Tel Daung* | | Elbows can be used to great effect as blocks or defenses against, for example, spring knees, side body knees, body kicks or punches. When well connected, an elbow strike can cause serious damage to the opponent, including cuts or even a knockout. ### Kicking (*Kan*) | English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System "MLC Transcription System") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA "IPA") | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **[Roundhouse Kick](/wiki/Roundhouse_Kick "Roundhouse Kick")** | ခြေဝိုက်ကန် / ဝိုက်ခတ် | *Chay Wide Kan / Wide Khat* | | | **[Spinning back Kick](/wiki/Kicking%23Back_kick "Kicking#Back kick")** | နောက်ပေါက်ကန် | *Nout Pouk Kan* | | | **Outside low kick** | အပြင်ခတ် | *Al Pyin Khat* | | | **Inside low kick** | အတွင်းခတ် | *Al Twin Khat* | | | **Hook kick** | ချိတ်ကန် | *Chate Kan* | | | **Side kick** | ခြေစောင်းကန် | *Chay zoung Kan* | | | **Axe Kick** | ခုတ်ကန် / ပုဆိန်ပေါက်ကန် | *Khote Kan / Pal Sain Pouk Kan* | | | **[Jump round Kick](/wiki/Kicking%23Flying_kicks "Kicking#Flying kicks")** | ခုန်ဝိုက်ခတ် | *Khone Wide Kan* | | | **Step\-Up Kick** | ပေါင်နင်းကန် | *Pound Nin Kan* | | ### Knee (*Doo*) | English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System "MLC Transcription System") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA "IPA") | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **[Straight Knee Strike](/wiki/Knee_%28strike%29%23Straight "Knee (strike)#Straight")** | တဲ့ထိုးဒူး | *Delt Htoe Doo* | | | **Spear Knee** | လှံစိုက်ဒူ | *Hlan Site Doo* | | | **[Side Knee Strike](/wiki/Curved_knee "Curved knee")** | ဝိုက်ဒူး | *Wide Doo* | | | **Upward Knee** | ပင့်ဒူး | *Pint Doo* | | | **Downward Knee** | ခုတ်ဒူး | *Khote Doo* | | | **Knee Slap** | ရိုက်ဒူး | *Yite Doo* | | | **Double Flying Knee / Elephant Tusks flying Knee** | စုံဒူးပျံ / ဆင်စွယ်ဒူးပျံ | *Sone Doo Pyan / Sin Swal Doo Pyan* | | | **[Jumping Knee](/wiki/Flying_knee "Flying knee")** | ခုန်ဒူး | *Khone Doo* | | | **Step\-Up Knee Strike** | ပေါင်နင်းဒူး | *Pound Nin Doo* | | ### Foot\-thrust The foot\-thrust is one of the techniques in Lethwei. It is used as a defensive technique to control distance or block attacks and as a way to set up attack. Foot\-thrusts should be thrown quickly but with enough force to knock an opponent off balance. | English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System "MLC Transcription System") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA "IPA") | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **[Push Kick](/wiki/Front_kick "Front kick")** | နင်းခြေ / တားခြေ | *Nin Chay / Tar Chay* | | | **Toe Push Kick** | ခြေဦးထိုးကန် | *Chay Oo Htoe Kan* | | | **Jumping Push Kick** | ခုန်ဆောင့်ကန် | *Khone Sount Kan* | | Note \- The [Myanglish](/wiki/Myanmar_English "Myanmar English") spelling and phonetics based spelling are two different things. The words used are phonetics based words which are more friendly and easy to pronounce for non\-Myanmar speaking people. The phonetics wording is provided by Liger Paing from [United Myanmar Bando Nation](/wiki/Bando "Bando"). ### Weight classes |Weight class name Upper limit Gender | | | in [pounds](/wiki/Pound_%28mass%29 "Pound (mass)") (lb) | in [kilograms](/wiki/Kilogram "Kilogram") (kg) | in [stone](/wiki/Stone_%28unit%29 "Stone (unit)") (st) | |[Light flyweight](/wiki/Light_flyweight "Light flyweight") 105 | 48 | 7\.6 | Female | |[Flyweight](/wiki/Flyweight "Flyweight") 112 | 51 | 8 | Male / female | |[Bantamweight](/wiki/Bantamweight "Bantamweight") 119 | 54 | 8\.5 | Male / female | |[Featherweight](/wiki/Featherweight "Featherweight") 126 | 57 | 9 | Male / female | |[Lightweight](/wiki/Lightweight "Lightweight") 132 | 60 | 9\.5 | Male / female | |[Light welterweight](/wiki/Light_welterweight "Light welterweight") 140 | 63\.5 | 10 | Male / female | |[Welterweight](/wiki/Welterweight "Welterweight") 148 | 67 | 10\.5 | Male | |[Light middleweight](/wiki/Light_middleweight "Light middleweight") 157 | 71 | 11\.1 | Male | |[Middleweight](/wiki/Middleweight "Middleweight") 165 | 75 | 11\.8 | Male | |[Super middleweight](/wiki/Super_middleweight "Super middleweight") 174 | 79 | 12\.4 | Male | |[Cruiserweight](/wiki/Cruiserweight_%28MMA%29 "Cruiserweight (MMA)") 183 | 83 | 13 | Male |
[ "Techniques\n----------", "Aside from punches, kicks, elbows and knee attacks, Burmese fighters also make use of head\\-butts, raking knuckle strikes and take downs.", "File:lethwei\\-Elbow.jpg\\|Spinning elbow strike\nFile:lethwei\\-Hight\\-kick.jpg\\|Roundhouse kick\nFile:lethwei\\-Knee\\-Elbow.jpg\\|Knee and elbow strike\nFile:lethwei\\-Knee\\-Hand.jpg\\|Knee and punch\nFile:Lethwei\\-Step\\-Elbow.jpg\\|Jumping knee and elbow\nFile:HookKick001\\.jpg\\|Back hook kick", "", "{{anchor\\|Headbutt}}", "### Headbutt (*Gowl Tite*)", "", "| English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System \"MLC Transcription System\") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA \"IPA\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **Thrusting/Forward Headbutt** | ထိုးခေါင်းတိုက် | *Htoe Gowl Tite* | |\n| **Upward Headbutt** | ခေါင်းပင့်တိုက် | *Gowl Pint Tite* | |\n| **Side Headbutt** | ခေါင်းရိုက် | *Gowl yite* | |\n| **Clinching Headbutt** | ချုပ်ခေါင်းရိုက် | *Choke Gowl Yite* | |\n| **Flying/Diving Headbutt** | ခုန်ခေါင်းတိုက် | *Khnoe Gowl Tite* | |\n| **Rushing Headbutt** | ခေါင်းဆောင့်တိုက် | *Gowl Sount Tite* | |\n| **Downward Headbutt** | ခေါင်းစိုက်တိုက် | *Gowl Site Tite* | |", "{{anchor\\|Punching}}", "### Punching (*Let Thee*)", "[thumb\\|300px\\|Lethwei fighters landing a punch](/wiki/File:Lethwei_figths_in_Ye_city_Myanmar_2.png \"Lethwei figths in Ye city Myanmar 2.png\")", "", "| English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System \"MLC Transcription System\") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA \"IPA\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **[Jab](/wiki/Jab \"Jab\")** | ထောက်လက်သီး | *Htouk Let Thee* | |\n| **[Cross](/wiki/Cross_%28boxing%29 \"Cross (boxing)\")** | ဖြောင့်လက်သီး | *Fyount Let Thee* | |\n| **[Uppercut](/wiki/Uppercut \"Uppercut\")** | ပင့်လက်သီး | *Pint Let Thee* | |\n| **[Hook](/wiki/Hook_%28boxing%29 \"Hook (boxing)\")** | ဝိုက်လက်သီး | *Wide Let Thee* | |\n| **[Overhand (boxing)](/wiki/Overhand_%28boxing%29 \"Overhand (boxing)\")** | စိုက်လက်သီး | *Site Let Thee* | |\n| **[Backfist](/wiki/Backfist \"Backfist\")** | တွက်လက်သီး | *Twet Let Thee* | |\n| **[Spinning Backfist](/wiki/Punch_%28combat%29%23Basic_types \"Punch (combat)#Basic types\")** | လက်ပြန်ရိုက် | *Let Pyan Yite* | |\n| **[Hammer fist](/wiki/Hammer_Fist \"Hammer Fist\")** | ပင့်လက်သီး | *Pint Let Thee* | |\n| **[Superman punch](/wiki/Superman_punch \"Superman punch\")** | လက်သီးပျံ / ခုန်ထိုး လက်သီး | *Let Thee Pyan / Khone Htoe Let Thee* | |", "{{anchor\\|Elbow}}", "### Elbow (*Tel Daung*)", "The elbow can be used in several ways as a striking weapon: horizontal, diagonal\\-upwards, diagonal\\-downwards, uppercut, downward, backward\\-spinning and flying. They can be used as either a finishing move or as a way to cut the opponent's eyebrow to draw blood.", "", "| English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System \"MLC Transcription System\") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA \"IPA\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **Horizontal Elbow** | ဝိုက်တံတောင် | *Wide Tel Daung* | |\n| **Upward Elbow** | ပင့်တံတောင် | *Pint Tel Daung* | |\n| **Downward Elbow** | ထောင်းတံတောင် | *Htoung Tel Daung* | |\n| **Jumping Downward Elbow** | တံတောင် ခုန်ထောင်း | *Tel Daung Khone Htoung* | |\n| **Elbow Thrust** | ထိုးတံတောင် | *Htoe Tel Daung* | |\n| **Reverse Horizontal Elbow** | တွက်တံတောင် | *Twet Tel Daung* | |\n| **Flying Elbow** | တံတောင်ပျံ | *Tel Daung Pyan* | |\n| **Spinning Elbow** | ပတ်တံတောင် / ခါးလှည့်တံတောင် | *Pat Tel Daung / Khar Hlet Tel Daung* | |", "Elbows can be used to great effect as blocks or defenses against, for example, spring knees, side body knees, body kicks or punches. When well connected, an elbow strike can cause serious damage to the opponent, including cuts or even a knockout.", "### Kicking (*Kan*)", "", "| English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System \"MLC Transcription System\") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA \"IPA\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **[Roundhouse Kick](/wiki/Roundhouse_Kick \"Roundhouse Kick\")** | ခြေဝိုက်ကန် / ဝိုက်ခတ် | *Chay Wide Kan / Wide Khat* | |\n| **[Spinning back Kick](/wiki/Kicking%23Back_kick \"Kicking#Back kick\")** | နောက်ပေါက်ကန် | *Nout Pouk Kan* | |\n| **Outside low kick** | အပြင်ခတ် | *Al Pyin Khat* | |\n| **Inside low kick** | အတွင်းခတ် | *Al Twin Khat* | |\n| **Hook kick** | ချိတ်ကန် | *Chate Kan* | |\n| **Side kick** | ခြေစောင်းကန် | *Chay zoung Kan* | |\n| **Axe Kick** | ခုတ်ကန် / ပုဆိန်ပေါက်ကန် | *Khote Kan / Pal Sain Pouk Kan* | |\n| **[Jump round Kick](/wiki/Kicking%23Flying_kicks \"Kicking#Flying kicks\")** | ခုန်ဝိုက်ခတ် | *Khone Wide Kan* | |\n| **Step\\-Up Kick** | ပေါင်နင်းကန် | *Pound Nin Kan* | |", "### Knee (*Doo*)", "", "| English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System \"MLC Transcription System\") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA \"IPA\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **[Straight Knee Strike](/wiki/Knee_%28strike%29%23Straight \"Knee (strike)#Straight\")** | တဲ့ထိုးဒူး | *Delt Htoe Doo* | |\n| **Spear Knee** | လှံစိုက်ဒူ | *Hlan Site Doo* | |\n| **[Side Knee Strike](/wiki/Curved_knee \"Curved knee\")** | ဝိုက်ဒူး | *Wide Doo* | |\n| **Upward Knee** | ပင့်ဒူး | *Pint Doo* | |\n| **Downward Knee** | ခုတ်ဒူး | *Khote Doo* | |\n| **Knee Slap** | ရိုက်ဒူး | *Yite Doo* | |\n| **Double Flying Knee / Elephant Tusks flying Knee** | စုံဒူးပျံ / ဆင်စွယ်ဒူးပျံ | *Sone Doo Pyan / Sin Swal Doo Pyan* | |\n| **[Jumping Knee](/wiki/Flying_knee \"Flying knee\")** | ခုန်ဒူး | *Khone Doo* | |\n| **Step\\-Up Knee Strike** | ပေါင်နင်းဒူး | *Pound Nin Doo* | |", "### Foot\\-thrust", "The foot\\-thrust is one of the techniques in Lethwei. It is used as a defensive technique to control distance or block attacks and as a way to set up attack. Foot\\-thrusts should be thrown quickly but with enough force to knock an opponent off balance.", "", "| English | Burmese | [Romanization](/wiki/MLC_Transcription_System \"MLC Transcription System\") | [IPA](/wiki/help:IPA \"IPA\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **[Push Kick](/wiki/Front_kick \"Front kick\")** | နင်းခြေ / တားခြေ | *Nin Chay / Tar Chay* | |\n| **Toe Push Kick** | ခြေဦးထိုးကန် | *Chay Oo Htoe Kan* | |\n| **Jumping Push Kick** | ခုန်ဆောင့်ကန် | *Khone Sount Kan* | |", "Note \\- The [Myanglish](/wiki/Myanmar_English \"Myanmar English\") spelling and phonetics based spelling are two different things. The words used are phonetics based words which are more friendly and easy to pronounce for non\\-Myanmar speaking people. The phonetics wording is provided by Liger Paing from [United Myanmar Bando Nation](/wiki/Bando \"Bando\").", "### Weight classes", "", "|Weight class name", "Upper limit", "Gender", "| |\n| in [pounds](/wiki/Pound_%28mass%29 \"Pound (mass)\") (lb) | in [kilograms](/wiki/Kilogram \"Kilogram\") (kg) | in [stone](/wiki/Stone_%28unit%29 \"Stone (unit)\") (st) |\n|[Light flyweight](/wiki/Light_flyweight \"Light flyweight\")", "105 | 48 | 7\\.6 | Female |\n|[Flyweight](/wiki/Flyweight \"Flyweight\")", "112 | 51 | 8 | Male / female |\n|[Bantamweight](/wiki/Bantamweight \"Bantamweight\")", "119 | 54 | 8\\.5 | Male / female |\n|[Featherweight](/wiki/Featherweight \"Featherweight\")", "126 | 57 | 9 | Male / female |\n|[Lightweight](/wiki/Lightweight \"Lightweight\")", "132 | 60 | 9\\.5 | Male / female |\n|[Light welterweight](/wiki/Light_welterweight \"Light welterweight\")", "140 | 63\\.5 | 10 | Male / female |\n|[Welterweight](/wiki/Welterweight \"Welterweight\")", "148 | 67 | 10\\.5 | Male |\n|[Light middleweight](/wiki/Light_middleweight \"Light middleweight\")", "157 | 71 | 11\\.1 | Male |\n|[Middleweight](/wiki/Middleweight \"Middleweight\")", "165 | 75 | 11\\.8 | Male |\n|[Super middleweight](/wiki/Super_middleweight \"Super middleweight\")", "174 | 79 | 12\\.4 | Male |\n|[Cruiserweight](/wiki/Cruiserweight_%28MMA%29 \"Cruiserweight (MMA)\")", "183 | 83 | 13 | Male |", "" ]
Plot ---- Gadappa is a corrupt politician who has been resorting to dirty tricks in order to win. When he again wins the elections, and the village landlord's son loses, he proceeds to kill the reporter who was about to expose him to the general public. Kalyan is a young man who gets a job at his brother in law's office and falls for Indu, his chairman's daughter, upon seeing her good qualities and tries to convince her to reciprocate, but she doesn't. One day, when Marthaali, a local goon and his henchmen, beat up his company's employees and snatch their land, Kalyan accepts the challenge to bring back the stolen land in exchange for reciprocation from Indu. Kalyan and his team bring Pattabhi, a cunning lawyer, to support them in court. Knowing that Marthaali and his wife love each other deeply, Kalyan and Indu act like a couple and film everything, later replacing the background with Marthaali's house using [chroma key](/wiki/Chroma_key "Chroma key"). A legal notice is sent, due to which Marthaali and his wife go to the court, where the fabricated footage shown by Kalyan proves him and Indu to be the owners. However, Marthaali accepts he forcefully took away Kalyan's company's land, causing Pattabhi to close the case and send Marthaali to jail. Indu privately meets Kalyan and thanks to him but also tells him that due to her background, they won't be able to live together. Kalyan apologizes instead for chasing her all the time and confesses his love for her, before getting attacked by goons who try to kidnap Indu. Kalyan gets up and fights them all using improvised weapons. After beating down the final goon, he tells him to go and inform Marthaali he's not going to let him get away with this, before the goon reveals he doesn't know any Marthaali and that Indu isn't the chairman's daughter. She reveals she swapped her post with the chairman's daughter because her father, the landlord whose son lost, was forcing her to marry Gadappa for political power. She finally reciprocates, following which Kalyan takes her back to her village and patiently explains the value of parents and his love for Indu, which impresses her family. However, her father challenges him to become an MLA and defeat Gadappa in the upcoming elections. Kalyan accepts the challenge and is joined by Gadappa's ex\-PA, who was loyal but fired for making a small mistake. They team up and introduce a lot of reforms, but that doesn't convince the public. Kalyan tricks Gadappa's new PA into believing he knows what the public wants instead of water, due to which Gadappa sends a truck full of alcohol for the men. The men drink and hit their wives, due to which Kalyan decides to help them and wins their support. However, a child worker dies from the chemical infection in a glass bottle factory, causing an enraged Kalyan to fight Gadappa's goons, free all the children and blackmail Gadappa into giving him 60 lakh rupees for educating the children, using the slain reporter's pen drive containing the evidence. He emotionally convinces the parents to stop sending their kids to factories and instead to schools. The school, too, is attacked, but Kalyan encourages everyone to fight back and eventually wins their support. Soon, Kalyan is attacked on a bridge and left severely wounded, following which he is admitted to the hospital. He is saved, but Gadappa threatens to destroy everyone's lives by all dirty means possible. In order to save them, he instructs Kalyan to destroy his reputation with his own hands in front of the public. Kalyan lies that he was doing all the service for money and his girlfriend, further asking everyone not to vote for him. The next day, the voting begins, and Kalyan starts getting higher votes, due to which Gadappa's henchmen try to attack the polling booth. He himself decides to come there, and on the way, is attacked by numerous schoolkids who throw stones at him. They are joined by Kalyan, who, again using improvised weapons, manages to fight and defeat Gadappa. The police arrive, and having seen all the evidence against him given to them by Kalyan's PA, arrest Gadappa. Kalyan wins the elections, and the public reveals he did a lot for them, and thus they made him win. Kalyan marries Indu, whose father gives up the lust for power and instead values public love.
[ "Plot\n----", "Gadappa is a corrupt politician who has been resorting to dirty tricks in order to win. When he again wins the elections, and the village landlord's son loses, he proceeds to kill the reporter who was about to expose him to the general public.", "Kalyan is a young man who gets a job at his brother in law's office and falls for Indu, his chairman's daughter, upon seeing her good qualities and tries to convince her to reciprocate, but she doesn't. One day, when Marthaali, a local goon and his henchmen, beat up his company's employees and snatch their land, Kalyan accepts the challenge to bring back the stolen land in exchange for reciprocation from Indu. Kalyan and his team bring Pattabhi, a cunning lawyer, to support them in court. Knowing that Marthaali and his wife love each other deeply, Kalyan and Indu act like a couple and film everything, later replacing the background with Marthaali's house using [chroma key](/wiki/Chroma_key \"Chroma key\"). A legal notice is sent, due to which Marthaali and his wife go to the court, where the fabricated footage shown by Kalyan proves him and Indu to be the owners. However, Marthaali accepts he forcefully took away Kalyan's company's land, causing Pattabhi to close the case and send Marthaali to jail.", "Indu privately meets Kalyan and thanks to him but also tells him that due to her background, they won't be able to live together. Kalyan apologizes instead for chasing her all the time and confesses his love for her, before getting attacked by goons who try to kidnap Indu. Kalyan gets up and fights them all using improvised weapons. After beating down the final goon, he tells him to go and inform Marthaali he's not going to let him get away with this, before the goon reveals he doesn't know any Marthaali and that Indu isn't the chairman's daughter. She reveals she swapped her post with the chairman's daughter because her father, the landlord whose son lost, was forcing her to marry Gadappa for political power. She finally reciprocates, following which Kalyan takes her back to her village and patiently explains the value of parents and his love for Indu, which impresses her family. However, her father challenges him to become an MLA and defeat Gadappa in the upcoming elections.", "Kalyan accepts the challenge and is joined by Gadappa's ex\\-PA, who was loyal but fired for making a small mistake. They team up and introduce a lot of reforms, but that doesn't convince the public. Kalyan tricks Gadappa's new PA into believing he knows what the public wants instead of water, due to which Gadappa sends a truck full of alcohol for the men. The men drink and hit their wives, due to which Kalyan decides to help them and wins their support. However, a child worker dies from the chemical infection in a glass bottle factory, causing an enraged Kalyan to fight Gadappa's goons, free all the children and blackmail Gadappa into giving him 60 lakh rupees for educating the children, using the slain reporter's pen drive containing the evidence. He emotionally convinces the parents to stop sending their kids to factories and instead to schools. The school, too, is attacked, but Kalyan encourages everyone to fight back and eventually wins their support.", "Soon, Kalyan is attacked on a bridge and left severely wounded, following which he is admitted to the hospital. He is saved, but Gadappa threatens to destroy everyone's lives by all dirty means possible. In order to save them, he instructs Kalyan to destroy his reputation with his own hands in front of the public. Kalyan lies that he was doing all the service for money and his girlfriend, further asking everyone not to vote for him. The next day, the voting begins, and Kalyan starts getting higher votes, due to which Gadappa's henchmen try to attack the polling booth. He himself decides to come there, and on the way, is attacked by numerous schoolkids who throw stones at him. They are joined by Kalyan, who, again using improvised weapons, manages to fight and defeat Gadappa. The police arrive, and having seen all the evidence against him given to them by Kalyan's PA, arrest Gadappa. Kalyan wins the elections, and the public reveals he did a lot for them, and thus they made him win. Kalyan marries Indu, whose father gives up the lust for power and instead values public love.", "" ]
History ------- ### Origins {{See also\|National Football Championship (Pakistan)}} Pakistan's first highest level football competition began on 28 May 1948 as the [National Football Championship](/wiki/National_Football_Championship_%28Pakistan%29 "National Football Championship (Pakistan)"), which ended with Sindh Red being crowned champions. The league was a knock\-out competition, which remained the top football league in the country until 2004 when the Pakistan Premier League was introduced.{{Cite web \|last\=Ahsan \|first\=Ali \|date\=2011\-02\-02 \|title\=A history of football in Pakistan — Final part \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/2011/02/02/a\-history\-of\-football\-in\-pakistan\-final\-part/ \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-28 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=18 September 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918121012/http://dawn.com/2011/02/02/a\-history\-of\-football\-in\-pakistan\-final\-part/ \|url\-status\=live }} National Football Championship featured teams representing cities or provinces, including teams from [Dacca Division](/wiki/Dhaka_Division "Dhaka Division") and [Chittagong Division](/wiki/Chittagong_Division "Chittagong Division") from [East Pakistan](/wiki/East_Pakistan "East Pakistan") (now [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh")). Dacca Division won two back\-to\-back leagues, and Chittagong Division won the league only once. In its early years, domestic football in Pakistan was also mainly dominated by [departmental](/wiki/Works_team "Works team") and [armed forces](/wiki/Pakistan_Armed_Forces "Pakistan Armed Forces") teams, which hired footballers as employees and provided them with a basic wage to play for their sides and work full time in the off\-season.{{cite web \|last\=Ahsan \|first\=Ali \|date\=December 23, 2010 \|title\=A history of football in Pakistan — Part II \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/593096 \|access\-date\=October 8, 2018 \|website\=DAWN News \|publisher\=DAWN}} These government entities primarily used investment in sports as evidence of their [Corporate Social Responsibility](/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility "Corporate social responsibility"), with little incentive to develop talent or professionalise their set\-ups.{{Cite web \|last\=Sohail \|first\=Shahrukh \|date\=2020\-08\-09 \|title\=FOOTBALL: A LEAGUE FOR PAKISTAN FOOTBALL \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1573329 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628233042/https://www.dawn.com/news/1573329 \|archive\-date\=28 June 2023 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-28 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}} Similar system was also prevalent in several countries such as the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Football_in_the_Soviet_Union "Football in the Soviet Union"), and was abolished in these nations after the 1960s.{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-06\-26 \|title\=Rising Popularity of Football in Pakistan Reflects Growing Interest in the Sport \|url\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/1204028/rising\-popularity\-of\-football\-in\-pakistan\-reflects\-growing\-interest\-in\-the\-sport/ \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-11 \|website\=Daily Times \|language\=en\-US}} The National Football League era though saw [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi "Karachi") based [Pakistan Airlines](/wiki/PIA_F.C. "PIA F.C.") with most championships, winning the competition nine times with their first league title in 1971, with their last title win in the season of 1998–99\. ### Foundation [left\|thumb\|The 16 clubs of the [inaugural season](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_Pakistan_Premier_League "2004–05 Pakistan Premier League") of the National League Division A](/wiki/File:PakistanPremierLeagueMap2004.png "PakistanPremierLeagueMap2004.png") In August 2003, the PFF became under new management, as the politician [Faisal Saleh Hayat](/wiki/Makhdoom_Syed_Faisal_Saleh_Hayat "Makhdoom Syed Faisal Saleh Hayat") took over. Under new management, the Pakistan Football Federation phased out the National Football Championship and in 2004 introduced the National League Division A which contained 16 clubs, and the National League Division B with 5 clubs with promotion and relegation.{{Cite web \|title\=Pakistan 2004 \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesp/paki04\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203161954/https://www.rsssf.org/tablesp/paki04\.html \|archive\-date\=3 December 2022 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-28 \|website\=www.rsssf.org}}{{Cite web \|last\=Ahsan \|first\=Ali \|date\=2011\-02\-02 \|title\=A history of football in Pakistan — Final part \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/2011/02/02/a\-history\-of\-football\-in\-pakistan\-final\-part/ \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-02 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}} [WAPDA](/wiki/WAPDA_F.C. "WAPDA F.C.") became the inaugural champions with [Army](/wiki/Pakistan_Army_F.C. "Pakistan Army F.C.") finishing second and [KRL](/wiki/Khan_Research_Laboratories_FC "Khan Research Laboratories FC") third, thanks to the prolific scoring of striker [Arif Mehmood](/wiki/Arif_Mehmood "Arif Mehmood"). ### Pakistan Premier League (2006–present) In [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Pakistan_Premier_League "2006–07 Pakistan Premier League") season, the National League Division A Football League was renamed to the Pakistan Premier League while the National League Division B Football League was renamed to the [PFF League](/wiki/PFF_League "PFF League"). In the following [2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Pakistan_Premier_League "2007–08 Pakistan Premier League") season, the league was expanded to 14 clubs. For the [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Pakistan_Premier_League "2010–11 Pakistan Premier League") season the league was expanded to 16 clubs.{{cite web \|title\=PFF approves two more teams in Premier League \|date\=12 August 2010 \|url\=https://www.nation.com.pk/12\-Aug\-2010/pff\-approves\-two\-more\-teams\-in\-premier\-league \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930010538/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan\-news\-newspaper\-daily\-english\-online/Sports/12\-Aug\-2010/PFF\-approves\-two\-more\-teams\-in\-Premier\-League \|archive\-date\=30 September 2012 \|access\-date\=3 March 2014 \|publisher\=Nation.com.pk}} The two bottom teams at the end of each Pakistan Premier League season would to be relegated to the PFF League, while the top 2 teams in the Football Federation League would be promoted to the Pakistan Premier League. The [Geo Super Football League](/wiki/Geo_Super_Football_League "Geo Super Football League") of 2007, also ran as a parallel city\-based league to Pakistan Premier League, held in Karachi and saw record crowds at [Peoples Stadium](/wiki/People%27s_Football_Stadium "People's Football Stadium"). It wasn’t until 2010 with the next edition that the Geo League came back only to be discontinued due to differences with the PFF. Despite the revamp and introduction of the Pakistan Premier League in 2004, the domestic setup remained under severe criticism due to the precarious and unprofessional conditions and setup, and continuous domination of departments in the domestic competition, which poached talented players from clubs without any transfer fees or compensation involved.{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|date\=2013\-01\-13 \|title\=In\-depth: Pakistan football \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/2013/01/13/in\-depth\-pakistan\-football/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525043530/http://dawn.com/2013/01/13/in\-depth\-pakistan\-football/ \|archive\-date\=25 May 2013 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-28 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}} The teams essentially survived on their department sport budgets, with the players sidelined as permanent employees than as professional footballers. Since the PFF had not made serious attempts to lure large businesses to invest in and sponsor teams, the league had a dominance of department and armed forces teams, which resulted in poor attendances, with the best supported teams being the Balochistan clubs such as [Afghan Chaman](/wiki/Afghan_FC_Chaman "Afghan FC Chaman"), [Baloch Nushki](/wiki/Baloch_Nushki_F.C. "Baloch Nushki F.C.") and [Muslim FC](/wiki/Muslim_FC "Muslim FC"). In stark contrast, the [Karachi Football League](/wiki/Karachi_Football_League "Karachi Football League"), despite being a regional parallel competition, routinely attracted healthy audiences with the highlight being the 2008–09 final between Shahzad Mohammadan and Nazimabad FC where a huge crowd of over 18,000 witnessed the match at the [KMC Stadium](/wiki/KMC_Football_Stadium "KMC Football Stadium"). Private football clubs are severely strapped for cash and barely surviving a season. #### Inactivity and suspensions (2015–present) [thumb\|[Afghan Chaman](/wiki/Afghan_FC_Chaman "Afghan FC Chaman") against the Ashraf Sugar Mills departmental team during the [2018–19 Pakistan Premier League](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Pakistan_Premier_League "2018–19 Pakistan Premier League")](/wiki/File:Afghan_FC_Chaman_vs_Ashraf_Sugar_Mills%2C_2018%E2%80%9319_Pakistan_Premier_League.png "Afghan FC Chaman vs Ashraf Sugar Mills, 2018–19 Pakistan Premier League.png") The league was suspended in 2015 due to the [Pakistan Football Federation](/wiki/Pakistan_Football_Federation "Pakistan Football Federation") crisis,{{Cite news \|last\=Din \|first\=Tusdiq \|title\=Three years without any football \- can Pakistan recover? \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=BBC Sport \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/45390976 \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-28 \|archive\-date\=28 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628222820/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/45390976 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Maryam \|first\=Hajira \|title\='Dark day': Pakistan football HQ attacked, women's event scrapped \|url\=https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2021/3/28/pakistan\-football\-federation\-office\-attacked \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-28 \|website\=www.aljazeera.com \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=24 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624154803/https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2021/3/28/pakistan\-football\-federation\-office\-attacked \|url\-status\=live }} until the lift on suspension by [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA "FIFA") on 13 March 2018\.{{Cite news \|date\=13 March 2018 \|title\=FIFA lifts suspension on Pakistan Football Federation \|newspaper\=\[\[The Express Tribune]] \|url\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1658977/1\-fifa\-lifts\-suspension\-pakistan\-football\-federation/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=13 March 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313225724/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1658977/1\-fifa\-lifts\-suspension\-pakistan\-football\-federation/ \|archive\-date\=13 March 2018}} The [2018–19 season](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Pakistan_Premier_League "2018–19 Pakistan Premier League") was organised by two different federations, and was reportedly not recognised by [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA "FIFA") and [AFC](/wiki/Asian_Football_Confederation "Asian Football Confederation"). [Faisal Saleh Hayat](/wiki/Faisal_Saleh_Hayat "Faisal Saleh Hayat")\-led [Pakistan Football Federation](/wiki/Pakistan_Football_Federation "Pakistan Football Federation"), which was internationally recognised, started the league and non\-FIFA recognised Ashfaq Hussain Shah group, which formed a parallel PFF, coming into power by third\-party interference through the PFF elections conducted by the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan "Supreme Court of Pakistan") a month before the termination of the season completed the event.{{Cite web \|last\=Wasim \|first\=Umaid \|date\=2019\-01\-14 \|title\=Contentious PPFL season ends with controversially\-promoted team denied title \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1457350 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|date\=2019\-01\-23 \|title\=The balance sheet {{!}} TNS \- The News on Sunday \|url\=http://tns.thenews.com.pk/balance\-sheet/\#.XEivBS3P32c \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123181411/http://tns.thenews.com.pk/balance\-sheet/\#.XEivBS3P32c \|archive\-date\=23 January 2019 }}{{Cite web \|title\=The need for domestic football league {{!}} Sports {{!}} thenews.com.pk \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/1173900\-the\-need\-for\-domestic\-football\-league \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} After the suspension once again from all football activities by FIFA on 7 April 2021,{{cite web \|last\= \|date\=7 April 2021 \|title\=FIFA suspends Chad and Pakistan football associations \|url\=https://www.fifa.com/who\-we\-are/news/fifa\-suspends\-chad\-and\-pakistan\-football\-associations \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407143916/https://www.fifa.com/who\-we\-are/news/fifa\-suspends\-chad\-and\-pakistan\-football\-associations \|archive\-date\=7 April 2021 \|access\-date\=14 April 2021 \|website\=\[\[FIFA]]}}{{cite web \|last\= \|date\=7 April 2021 \|title\=FIFA suspends Pakistan Football Federation \|url\=https://www.the\-afc.com/news/afcsection/fifa\-suspends\-pakistan\-football\-association \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414160732/https://www.the\-afc.com/news/afcsection/fifa\-suspends\-pakistan\-football\-association \|archive\-date\=14 April 2021 \|access\-date\=14 April 2021 \|website\=\[\[Asian Football Confederation]]}} the [2021–22 season](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Pakistan_Premier_League "2021–22 Pakistan Premier League") was initially organised by the Ashfaq Hussain Shah group, who again came to power after attacking and taking charge of the PFF office.{{Cite web \|title\=PPFL to begin in Multan from August 14 \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/871489\-ppfl\-to\-begin\-in\-multan\-from\-august\-14 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} The tournament was suspended after a few months into the season and then cancelled.{{Cite web \|title\=Pakistan 2021/22 \|url\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesp/paki2022\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-07 \|website\=www.rsssf.org}} Majority of the departmental clubs were also disbanded following the shutdown of departmental sports in Pakistan in September 2021\.{{Cite web \|title\=Department players, officials remain apprehensive \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/896068\-department\-players\-officials\-remain\-apprehensive \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=Footballers plan protest to get departmental teams back \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/949482\-footballers\-plan\-protest\-to\-get\-departmental\-teams\-back \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Sohail \|first\=Shahrukh \|date\=2022\-07\-10 \|title\=FOOTBALL: GETTING THE BALL ROLLING \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1699026 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Sohail \|first\=Shahrukh \|date\=2022\-03\-27 \|title\=FOOTBALL: FOOTBALL’S FORWARD PASS? \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1681763 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}} Departmental sports in Pakistan were restored in August 2022\.{{Cite web \|title\=Departmental sports restoration widely welcomed \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/985455\-departmental\-sports\-restoration\-widely\-welcomed \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=Departments reluctant to form teams before NC calendar \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/1001929\-departments\-reluctant\-to\-form\-teams\-before\-nc\-calendar \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} As of July 2023 however, few departments reportedly remained active in football,{{Cite web \|title\=Pakistan Premier Football League must be held now, demand officials \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/1090593\-pakistan\-premier\-football\-league\-must\-be\-held\-now\-demand\-officials \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} and since then became restricted to the [PFF National Challenge Cup](/wiki/PFF_National_Challenge_Cup "PFF National Challenge Cup").{{Cite web \|last\=Wasim \|first\=Umaid \|date\=2023\-01\-25 \|title\=Domestic football returns as Challenge Cup kicks off \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1733459 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=PFF National Challenge Cup kicks off today \|url\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/1033655\-pff\-national\-challenge\-cup\-kicks\-off\-today \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-30 \|website\=www.thenews.com.pk \|language\=en}} ##### Expected revamp The upcoming season is expected to include only club sides, excluding the departmental teams which would not be able to take part from now on. The expected revamp is followed by the initial first round in the shape of district club championships, which also served as club scrutiny of the elections of the Pakistan Football Federation in 2024\.{{Cite web \|title\=PFF considering holding club, departmental leagues \|url\=https://e.thenews.com.pk/detail?id\=316030 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=e.thenews.com.pk}} After a second round throughout the country, the district champions clubs would go through the third round at the provincial level, featuring top clubs of the federating units. Following, one or two top clubs from each province and regions are expected to feature in the season. However following the controversial tenure of the interim normalisation committee installed by FIFA, reportedly a parallel short\-term franchise based league has also been discussed.{{Cite web \|last\=Wasim \|first\=Umaid \|date\=2024\-05\-12 \|title\=FIFA’S FOUL ON PAKISTAN FOOTBALL \|url\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1833021 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=DAWN.COM \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=Michael Owen thinks Pakistani football is onto a winner – DW – 06/06/2024 \|url\=https://www.dw.com/en/michael\-owen\-thinks\-pakistani\-football\-is\-onto\-a\-winner/a\-69276922 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-07 \|website\=dw.com \|language\=en}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Origins", "{{See also\\|National Football Championship (Pakistan)}}", "Pakistan's first highest level football competition began on 28 May 1948 as the [National Football Championship](/wiki/National_Football_Championship_%28Pakistan%29 \"National Football Championship (Pakistan)\"), which ended with Sindh Red being crowned champions. The league was a knock\\-out competition, which remained the top football league in the country until 2004 when the Pakistan Premier League was introduced.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ahsan \\|first\\=Ali \\|date\\=2011\\-02\\-02 \\|title\\=A history of football in Pakistan — Final part \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/2011/02/02/a\\-history\\-of\\-football\\-in\\-pakistan\\-final\\-part/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-28 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=18 September 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918121012/http://dawn.com/2011/02/02/a\\-history\\-of\\-football\\-in\\-pakistan\\-final\\-part/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} National Football Championship featured teams representing cities or provinces, including teams from [Dacca Division](/wiki/Dhaka_Division \"Dhaka Division\") and [Chittagong Division](/wiki/Chittagong_Division \"Chittagong Division\") from [East Pakistan](/wiki/East_Pakistan \"East Pakistan\") (now [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\")). Dacca Division won two back\\-to\\-back leagues, and Chittagong Division won the league only once.", "In its early years, domestic football in Pakistan was also mainly dominated by [departmental](/wiki/Works_team \"Works team\") and [armed forces](/wiki/Pakistan_Armed_Forces \"Pakistan Armed Forces\") teams, which hired footballers as employees and provided them with a basic wage to play for their sides and work full time in the off\\-season.{{cite web \\|last\\=Ahsan \\|first\\=Ali \\|date\\=December 23, 2010 \\|title\\=A history of football in Pakistan — Part II \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/593096 \\|access\\-date\\=October 8, 2018 \\|website\\=DAWN News \\|publisher\\=DAWN}} These government entities primarily used investment in sports as evidence of their [Corporate Social Responsibility](/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility \"Corporate social responsibility\"), with little incentive to develop talent or professionalise their set\\-ups.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sohail \\|first\\=Shahrukh \\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-09 \\|title\\=FOOTBALL: A LEAGUE FOR PAKISTAN FOOTBALL \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1573329 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628233042/https://www.dawn.com/news/1573329 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 June 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-28 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}} Similar system was also prevalent in several countries such as the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Football_in_the_Soviet_Union \"Football in the Soviet Union\"), and was abolished in these nations after the 1960s.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-06\\-26 \\|title\\=Rising Popularity of Football in Pakistan Reflects Growing Interest in the Sport \\|url\\=https://dailytimes.com.pk/1204028/rising\\-popularity\\-of\\-football\\-in\\-pakistan\\-reflects\\-growing\\-interest\\-in\\-the\\-sport/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-11 \\|website\\=Daily Times \\|language\\=en\\-US}} The National Football League era though saw [Karachi](/wiki/Karachi \"Karachi\") based [Pakistan Airlines](/wiki/PIA_F.C. \"PIA F.C.\") with most championships, winning the competition nine times with their first league title in 1971, with their last title win in the season of 1998–99\\.", "### Foundation", "[left\\|thumb\\|The 16 clubs of the [inaugural season](/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_Pakistan_Premier_League \"2004–05 Pakistan Premier League\") of the National League Division A](/wiki/File:PakistanPremierLeagueMap2004.png \"PakistanPremierLeagueMap2004.png\") \nIn August 2003, the PFF became under new management, as the politician [Faisal Saleh Hayat](/wiki/Makhdoom_Syed_Faisal_Saleh_Hayat \"Makhdoom Syed Faisal Saleh Hayat\") took over. Under new management, the Pakistan Football Federation phased out the National Football Championship and in 2004 introduced the National League Division A which contained 16 clubs, and the National League Division B with 5 clubs with promotion and relegation.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Pakistan 2004 \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesp/paki04\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203161954/https://www.rsssf.org/tablesp/paki04\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-28 \\|website\\=www.rsssf.org}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ahsan \\|first\\=Ali \\|date\\=2011\\-02\\-02 \\|title\\=A history of football in Pakistan — Final part \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/2011/02/02/a\\-history\\-of\\-football\\-in\\-pakistan\\-final\\-part/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-02 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}}", "[WAPDA](/wiki/WAPDA_F.C. \"WAPDA F.C.\") became the inaugural champions with [Army](/wiki/Pakistan_Army_F.C. \"Pakistan Army F.C.\") finishing second and [KRL](/wiki/Khan_Research_Laboratories_FC \"Khan Research Laboratories FC\") third, thanks to the prolific scoring of striker [Arif Mehmood](/wiki/Arif_Mehmood \"Arif Mehmood\").", "### Pakistan Premier League (2006–present)", "In [2006–07](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Pakistan_Premier_League \"2006–07 Pakistan Premier League\") season, the National League Division A Football League was renamed to the Pakistan Premier League while the National League Division B Football League was renamed to the [PFF League](/wiki/PFF_League \"PFF League\"). In the following [2007–08](/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Pakistan_Premier_League \"2007–08 Pakistan Premier League\") season, the league was expanded to 14 clubs. For the [2010–11](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Pakistan_Premier_League \"2010–11 Pakistan Premier League\") season the league was expanded to 16 clubs.{{cite web \\|title\\=PFF approves two more teams in Premier League \\|date\\=12 August 2010 \\|url\\=https://www.nation.com.pk/12\\-Aug\\-2010/pff\\-approves\\-two\\-more\\-teams\\-in\\-premier\\-league \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930010538/http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan\\-news\\-newspaper\\-daily\\-english\\-online/Sports/12\\-Aug\\-2010/PFF\\-approves\\-two\\-more\\-teams\\-in\\-Premier\\-League \\|archive\\-date\\=30 September 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2014 \\|publisher\\=Nation.com.pk}} The two bottom teams at the end of each Pakistan Premier League season would to be relegated to the PFF League, while the top 2 teams in the Football Federation League would be promoted to the Pakistan Premier League.", "The [Geo Super Football League](/wiki/Geo_Super_Football_League \"Geo Super Football League\") of 2007, also ran as a parallel city\\-based league to Pakistan Premier League, held in Karachi and saw record crowds at [Peoples Stadium](/wiki/People%27s_Football_Stadium \"People's Football Stadium\"). It wasn’t until 2010 with the next edition that the Geo League came back only to be discontinued due to differences with the PFF.", "Despite the revamp and introduction of the Pakistan Premier League in 2004, the domestic setup remained under severe criticism due to the precarious and unprofessional conditions and setup, and continuous domination of departments in the domestic competition, which poached talented players from clubs without any transfer fees or compensation involved.{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|date\\=2013\\-01\\-13 \\|title\\=In\\-depth: Pakistan football \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/2013/01/13/in\\-depth\\-pakistan\\-football/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525043530/http://dawn.com/2013/01/13/in\\-depth\\-pakistan\\-football/ \\|archive\\-date\\=25 May 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-28 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}} The teams essentially survived on their department sport budgets, with the players sidelined as permanent employees than as professional footballers. Since the PFF had not made serious attempts to lure large businesses to invest in and sponsor teams, the league had a dominance of department and armed forces teams, which resulted in poor attendances, with the best supported teams being the Balochistan clubs such as [Afghan Chaman](/wiki/Afghan_FC_Chaman \"Afghan FC Chaman\"), [Baloch Nushki](/wiki/Baloch_Nushki_F.C. \"Baloch Nushki F.C.\") and [Muslim FC](/wiki/Muslim_FC \"Muslim FC\"). In stark contrast, the [Karachi Football League](/wiki/Karachi_Football_League \"Karachi Football League\"), despite being a regional parallel competition, routinely attracted healthy audiences with the highlight being the 2008–09 final between Shahzad Mohammadan and Nazimabad FC where a huge crowd of over 18,000 witnessed the match at the [KMC Stadium](/wiki/KMC_Football_Stadium \"KMC Football Stadium\"). Private football clubs are severely strapped for cash and barely surviving a season.", "#### Inactivity and suspensions (2015–present)", "[thumb\\|[Afghan Chaman](/wiki/Afghan_FC_Chaman \"Afghan FC Chaman\") against the Ashraf Sugar Mills departmental team during the [2018–19 Pakistan Premier League](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Pakistan_Premier_League \"2018–19 Pakistan Premier League\")](/wiki/File:Afghan_FC_Chaman_vs_Ashraf_Sugar_Mills%2C_2018%E2%80%9319_Pakistan_Premier_League.png \"Afghan FC Chaman vs Ashraf Sugar Mills, 2018–19 Pakistan Premier League.png\")\nThe league was suspended in 2015 due to the [Pakistan Football Federation](/wiki/Pakistan_Football_Federation \"Pakistan Football Federation\") crisis,{{Cite news \\|last\\=Din \\|first\\=Tusdiq \\|title\\=Three years without any football \\- can Pakistan recover? \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/45390976 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-28 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628222820/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/45390976 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Maryam \\|first\\=Hajira \\|title\\='Dark day': Pakistan football HQ attacked, women's event scrapped \\|url\\=https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2021/3/28/pakistan\\-football\\-federation\\-office\\-attacked \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-28 \\|website\\=www.aljazeera.com \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624154803/https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2021/3/28/pakistan\\-football\\-federation\\-office\\-attacked \\|url\\-status\\=live }} until the lift on suspension by [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA \"FIFA\") on 13 March 2018\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=13 March 2018 \\|title\\=FIFA lifts suspension on Pakistan Football Federation \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Express Tribune]] \\|url\\=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1658977/1\\-fifa\\-lifts\\-suspension\\-pakistan\\-football\\-federation/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313225724/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1658977/1\\-fifa\\-lifts\\-suspension\\-pakistan\\-football\\-federation/ \\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2018}} The [2018–19 season](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Pakistan_Premier_League \"2018–19 Pakistan Premier League\") was organised by two different federations, and was reportedly not recognised by [FIFA](/wiki/FIFA \"FIFA\") and [AFC](/wiki/Asian_Football_Confederation \"Asian Football Confederation\"). [Faisal Saleh Hayat](/wiki/Faisal_Saleh_Hayat \"Faisal Saleh Hayat\")\\-led [Pakistan Football Federation](/wiki/Pakistan_Football_Federation \"Pakistan Football Federation\"), which was internationally recognised, started the league and non\\-FIFA recognised Ashfaq Hussain Shah group, which formed a parallel PFF, coming into power by third\\-party interference through the PFF elections conducted by the [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pakistan \"Supreme Court of Pakistan\") a month before the termination of the season completed the event.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Wasim \\|first\\=Umaid \\|date\\=2019\\-01\\-14 \\|title\\=Contentious PPFL season ends with controversially\\-promoted team denied title \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1457350 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2019\\-01\\-23 \\|title\\=The balance sheet {{!}} TNS \\- The News on Sunday \\|url\\=http://tns.thenews.com.pk/balance\\-sheet/\\#.XEivBS3P32c \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123181411/http://tns.thenews.com.pk/balance\\-sheet/\\#.XEivBS3P32c \\|archive\\-date\\=23 January 2019 }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=The need for domestic football league {{!}} Sports {{!}} thenews.com.pk \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/1173900\\-the\\-need\\-for\\-domestic\\-football\\-league \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}}", "After the suspension once again from all football activities by FIFA on 7 April 2021,{{cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=7 April 2021 \\|title\\=FIFA suspends Chad and Pakistan football associations \\|url\\=https://www.fifa.com/who\\-we\\-are/news/fifa\\-suspends\\-chad\\-and\\-pakistan\\-football\\-associations \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407143916/https://www.fifa.com/who\\-we\\-are/news/fifa\\-suspends\\-chad\\-and\\-pakistan\\-football\\-associations \\|archive\\-date\\=7 April 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[FIFA]]}}{{cite web \\|last\\= \\|date\\=7 April 2021 \\|title\\=FIFA suspends Pakistan Football Federation \\|url\\=https://www.the\\-afc.com/news/afcsection/fifa\\-suspends\\-pakistan\\-football\\-association \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414160732/https://www.the\\-afc.com/news/afcsection/fifa\\-suspends\\-pakistan\\-football\\-association \\|archive\\-date\\=14 April 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=14 April 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Asian Football Confederation]]}} the [2021–22 season](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Pakistan_Premier_League \"2021–22 Pakistan Premier League\") was initially organised by the Ashfaq Hussain Shah group, who again came to power after attacking and taking charge of the PFF office.{{Cite web \\|title\\=PPFL to begin in Multan from August 14 \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/871489\\-ppfl\\-to\\-begin\\-in\\-multan\\-from\\-august\\-14 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}} The tournament was suspended after a few months into the season and then cancelled.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Pakistan 2021/22 \\|url\\=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesp/paki2022\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-07 \\|website\\=www.rsssf.org}} Majority of the departmental clubs were also disbanded following the shutdown of departmental sports in Pakistan in September 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Department players, officials remain apprehensive \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/896068\\-department\\-players\\-officials\\-remain\\-apprehensive \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Footballers plan protest to get departmental teams back \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/949482\\-footballers\\-plan\\-protest\\-to\\-get\\-departmental\\-teams\\-back \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sohail \\|first\\=Shahrukh \\|date\\=2022\\-07\\-10 \\|title\\=FOOTBALL: GETTING THE BALL ROLLING \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1699026 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sohail \\|first\\=Shahrukh \\|date\\=2022\\-03\\-27 \\|title\\=FOOTBALL: FOOTBALL’S FORWARD PASS? \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1681763 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}} Departmental sports in Pakistan were restored in August 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Departmental sports restoration widely welcomed \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/985455\\-departmental\\-sports\\-restoration\\-widely\\-welcomed \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Departments reluctant to form teams before NC calendar \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/1001929\\-departments\\-reluctant\\-to\\-form\\-teams\\-before\\-nc\\-calendar \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}} As of July 2023 however, few departments reportedly remained active in football,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Pakistan Premier Football League must be held now, demand officials \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/1090593\\-pakistan\\-premier\\-football\\-league\\-must\\-be\\-held\\-now\\-demand\\-officials \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}} and since then became restricted to the [PFF National Challenge Cup](/wiki/PFF_National_Challenge_Cup \"PFF National Challenge Cup\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Wasim \\|first\\=Umaid \\|date\\=2023\\-01\\-25 \\|title\\=Domestic football returns as Challenge Cup kicks off \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1733459 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=PFF National Challenge Cup kicks off today \\|url\\=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/1033655\\-pff\\-national\\-challenge\\-cup\\-kicks\\-off\\-today \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-30 \\|website\\=www.thenews.com.pk \\|language\\=en}}", "##### Expected revamp", "The upcoming season is expected to include only club sides, excluding the departmental teams which would not be able to take part from now on. The expected revamp is followed by the initial first round in the shape of district club championships, which also served as club scrutiny of the elections of the Pakistan Football Federation in 2024\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=PFF considering holding club, departmental leagues \\|url\\=https://e.thenews.com.pk/detail?id\\=316030 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=e.thenews.com.pk}} After a second round throughout the country, the district champions clubs would go through the third round at the provincial level, featuring top clubs of the federating units. Following, one or two top clubs from each province and regions are expected to feature in the season. However following the controversial tenure of the interim normalisation committee installed by FIFA, reportedly a parallel short\\-term franchise based league has also been discussed.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Wasim \\|first\\=Umaid \\|date\\=2024\\-05\\-12 \\|title\\=FIFA’S FOUL ON PAKISTAN FOOTBALL \\|url\\=https://www.dawn.com/news/1833021 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=DAWN.COM \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Michael Owen thinks Pakistani football is onto a winner – DW – 06/06/2024 \\|url\\=https://www.dw.com/en/michael\\-owen\\-thinks\\-pakistani\\-football\\-is\\-onto\\-a\\-winner/a\\-69276922 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-07 \\|website\\=dw.com \\|language\\=en}}", "" ]
Biography --------- Putrov was born in Kyiv to parents who were both ballet dancers from the Ukrainian National Opera and Ballet Theatre, Natalia Berezina\-Putrova and Oleksandr Putrov.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703597804576194034122566862?mod\=googlenews\_wsj\|title\=Dancing to a New Tune\|last\=Frater\|first\=Sarah\|date\=18 March 2011\|work\=The Wall Street Journal\|accessdate\=20 March 2011}} He appeared on stage for the first time at the age of 10 in the ballet "The Forest Song". Educated at the Kyiv Ballet School, at the age of 15 Ivan Putrov won the [Prix de Lausanne](/wiki/Prix_de_Lausanne "Prix de Lausanne") competition (1996\),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.prixdelausanne.org/v4/index.php/View\-user\-profile.html?user\=285\|title\=Ivan Poutrov Profile Page\|publisher\=Prix de Lausanne official website\|accessdate\=20 March 2011\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721192456/http://www.prixdelausanne.org/v4/index.php/View\-user\-profile.html?user\=285\|archivedate\=21 July 2011}} where the then Royal Ballet School director [Merle Park](/wiki/Merle_Park "Merle Park") was a judge. Putrov spent 18 months at the [Royal Ballet School](/wiki/Royal_Ballet_School "Royal Ballet School") and on graduation in 1998 was invited by the Royal Ballet's director, [Anthony Dowell](/wiki/Anthony_Dowell "Anthony Dowell"), to join the company itself. He was offered a principal's contract with the Kyiv Ballet, but turned it down and decided to join the Royal Ballet, as an artist; he began to dance roles such as the Nutcracker prince, the Boy with the Matted Hair in *Shadowplay* and Benvolio in *Romeo and Juliet*.Jann Parry. Slaves to the rhythm. *The Observer*, 8 October 2000\. Having taken part in Royal Ballet School performances at Covent Garden in 1998 and 1999, in 1999\-2000 he took roles in *The Nutcracker*, *Les Rendezvous*, *Masquerade* and *Siren Song*.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.rohcollections.org.uk/SearchResults.aspx?person\=ivan%20putrov\&searchtype\=workprodperf \|title\=Performance database search for Ivan Putrov\|publisher\=Royal Opera House Collections Online \|accessdate\=18 November 2013 }} He danced many performances as the Nephew in Peter Wright's production of *The Nutcracker* and added roles in *Romeo and Juliet*, *The Concert*, and *Giselle* (Albrecht). He was coached by Dowell for his debut as Beliaev in *[A Month in the Country](/wiki/A_Month_in_the_Country_%28ballet%29 "A Month in the Country (ballet)")* in 2001 and also added Basilio in *Don Quixote* to his repertoire. In 2002 he danced in *[Onegin](/wiki/Onegin_%28Cranko%29 "Onegin (Cranko)")* (Lensky) and *[La Bayadère](/wiki/La_Bayad%C3%A8re "La Bayadère")* (The Golden Idol), as well as ballets such as *[The Vertiginous Thrill of Exactitude](/wiki/The_Vertiginous_Thrill_of_Exactitude "The Vertiginous Thrill of Exactitude")*, *Por Vos Muero*, and *The Leaves are Fading*. He became a principal with The Royal Ballet in 2002\. Putrov won the [National Dance Award](/wiki/National_Dance_Awards "National Dance Awards") for Outstanding Young Male Artist (Classical) the same year.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nationaldanceawards.com/past/2002\.htm\|title\=National Dance Awards 2002 Awards\|publisher\=National Dance Awards official website\|accessdate\=10 November 2009}} The following year Putrov danced in *[Coppélia](/wiki/Copp%C3%A9lia "Coppélia")*, *[Mayerling](/wiki/Mayerling_%28ballet%29 "Mayerling (ballet)")*, *Swan Lake* and *Scènes de ballet*. His debut as *[Le Spectre de la Rose](/wiki/Le_Spectre_de_la_Rose "Le Spectre de la Rose")* at the Royal Opera House was in May 2004 (which he also portrayed, as Nijinsky, in the 2005 film *Riot at the Rite*). In [Sam Taylor\-Wood](/wiki/Sam_Taylor-Wood "Sam Taylor-Wood")'s 2004 film installation "Strings", Putrov danced suspended by a harness above four musicians playing the slow movement from [Tchaikovsky's Second String Quartet](/wiki/String_Quartet_No._2_%28Tchaikovsky%29 "String Quartet No. 2 (Tchaikovsky)"), filmed in the Crush Bar of the Royal Opera House.[Burt, Ramsay. Sam Taylor\-Wood \- 'New Work' \- Art exhibition at White Cube November 2004\. Ballet Dance Magazine.](http://www.ballet-dance.com/200412/articles/TaylorWood20041100.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120726170803/http://www.ballet\-dance.com/200412/articles/TaylorWood20041100\.html \|date\=26 July 2012 }}, accessed 2 March 2017\. He also appeared (as the artist) in the film installation *The Butcher's Shop*, commissioned by [Kimbell Art Museum](/wiki/Kimbell_Art_Museum "Kimbell Art Museum"), in which [Philip Haas](/wiki/Philip_Haas "Philip Haas") recreated the 1582 [Annibale Carracci](/wiki/Annibale_Carracci "Annibale Carracci") [painting of the same name](/wiki/The_Butcher%27s_Shop "The Butcher's Shop"), first seen in 2008 at the [Sonnabend Gallery](/wiki/Sonnabend_Gallery "Sonnabend Gallery") of New York.[Kimbell Art Museum page for Butchers, Dragons, Gods, and Skeletons (still photo)](https://www.kimbellart.org/exhibition/butchers-dragons-gods-and-skeletons) accessed 13 September 2020\. In 2004\-2005 he danced in *Cinderella*, *[La Fille mal gardée](/wiki/La_fille_mal_gard%C3%A9e_%28Ashton%29 "La fille mal gardée (Ashton)")* (Colas), *[Rhapsody](/wiki/Rhapsody_%28Ashton%29 "Rhapsody (Ashton)")*, *[Symphonic Variations](/wiki/Symphonic_Variations_%28ballet%29 "Symphonic Variations (ballet)")* and *[Symphony in C](/wiki/Symphony_in_C_%28ballet%29 "Symphony in C (ballet)")*. In March 2005 he came on stage from the audience to dance the solos in *Rhapsody* after Carlos Acosta suffered a twisted ankle.[Daily Telegraph 19 March 2005\.](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1485970/Ankle-injury-to-dancer-halts-ballet.html) In 2006 Putrov himself suffered an injury in an onstage fall, which led to a lengthy leave from dancing.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml\=/arts/2007/02/12/btswan12\.xml\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415083041/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml\=/arts/2007/02/12/btswan12\.xml\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=15 April 2008\|title\= Russian aristocrat returns in beautiful and hungry form \|last\=Brown\|first\=Ismene\|date\=2 December 2007\|work\=The Telegraph\|accessdate\=8 October 2008}} He returned to the stage without apparent lasting effects, and received notices for roles such as Prince Siegfried in *[Swan Lake](/wiki/Swan_Lake "Swan Lake")* and Lensky in [John Cranko](/wiki/John_Cranko "John Cranko")'s *Onegin*, for which *The Guardian* praised his "captivating blitheness."{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2007/mar/19/dance\|title\=Onegin\|last\=Mackrell\|first\=Judith\|date\=19 March 2007\|work\=The Guardian\|accessdate\=8 October 2008}} He danced Beliaev alongside [Alexandra Ansanelli](/wiki/Alexandra_Ansanelli "Alexandra Ansanelli")'s Natalia Petrovna in *A Month in the Country* in her final appearances before retirement, in New York and Havana, and gave his own last performance with the Royal Ballet in May 2010 as the Prince in Ashton's *Cinderella*. He created the role of Karl in *[The Most Incredible Thing](/wiki/The_Most_Incredible_Thing%23Ballet "The Most Incredible Thing#Ballet")* at Sadler's Wells Theatre in 2011, and was also credited in the early development of the work.Cast biography in theatre programme for *The Most Incredible Thing*, Sadler's Wells Theatre, 2012\. In 2012 Putrov choreographed his first major creation for the stage entitled *Ithaca*, using *[La Péri](/wiki/La_P%C3%A9ri_%28Dukas%29 "La Péri (Dukas)")* by [Paul Dukas](/wiki/Paul_Dukas "Paul Dukas").Mackrell J. Ballet's men step out of the shadows. *The Guardian*, 15 January 2012\. Putrov has appeared with national ballet companies in Hungary, Lithuania and Ukraine, and appeared at the Vienna Staatsoper. Since leaving the Royal Ballet, Putrov has planned the 'Men in Motion' ballet programmes, which were originally mounted in London and have since toured to Warsaw, Moscow, Łodz and Milan.[Graham Watts : Ivan Putrov – Men in Motion – Lodz Ballet Festival, Dance Tabs 10 June 10, 2015\.](http://dancetabs.com/2015/06/ivan-putrov-men-in-motion-lodz-ballet-festival/) accessed 20 February 2017\. A 10th\-anniversary programme of 'Men in Motion' was produced by Putrov at the [London Coliseum](/wiki/London_Coliseum "London Coliseum") in November 2022; Putrov danced [Ashton](/wiki/Frederick_Ashton "Frederick Ashton")'s *Dance of the Blessed Spirits*.[Men in Motion: the male dance spectacular still delivers, ten years on, review by Matthew Paluch, 7 November 2022](https://www.gramilano.com/2022/11/review-men-in-motion-2022/) Gramilano Dance Opera Photography, accessed 15 December 2023\. In January 2014 he closed an edition of the BBC2 current affairs programme [Newsnight](/wiki/Newsnight "Newsnight") by dancing a solo to a song by Johnny Cash from Affi by [Marco Goecke](/wiki/Marco_Goecke "Marco Goecke").[Former Royal Ballet principal Ivan Putrov dances out the programme to Johnny Cash](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xgb8P5gpiyo), accessed 1 March 2017\. In 2019 Putrov produced a programme 'Against the Stream' designed as "a tribute to remarkable choreographers who changed the ecology of dance beyond recognition"; he also danced in the Ashton and Macmillan works performed.[Interview with Ivan Putrov about his 'Against the Stream' dance programme](https://dancetabs.com/2019/04/ivan-putrov-on-his-latest-night-of-ballet-against-the-stream/), accessed 8 July 2019\. He has danced the roles of the swan and the prince in the [Matthew Bourne](/wiki/Matthew_Bourne "Matthew Bourne") version of *[Swan Lake](/wiki/Swan_Lake_%28Bourne%29 "Swan Lake (Bourne)")*. On film and DVD, Putrov has featured in *The Nutcracker* (The Nutcracker/Hans\-Peter) and as a lead dancer in *Scènes de ballet* (Ashton) and danced *Le Spectre de la Rose* in the 2006 BBC film Riot at the Rite.[Radio Times entry for *Riot at the Rite* film](http://www.radiotimes.com/tv-programme/e/h8dkr/riot-at-the-rite.), accessed 2 March 2017\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Putrov was born in Kyiv to parents who were both ballet dancers from the Ukrainian National Opera and Ballet Theatre, Natalia Berezina\\-Putrova and Oleksandr Putrov.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703597804576194034122566862?mod\\=googlenews\\_wsj\\|title\\=Dancing to a New Tune\\|last\\=Frater\\|first\\=Sarah\\|date\\=18 March 2011\\|work\\=The Wall Street Journal\\|accessdate\\=20 March 2011}} He appeared on stage for the first time at the age of 10 in the ballet \"The Forest Song\".", "Educated at the Kyiv Ballet School, at the age of 15 Ivan Putrov won the [Prix de Lausanne](/wiki/Prix_de_Lausanne \"Prix de Lausanne\") competition (1996\\),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.prixdelausanne.org/v4/index.php/View\\-user\\-profile.html?user\\=285\\|title\\=Ivan Poutrov Profile Page\\|publisher\\=Prix de Lausanne official website\\|accessdate\\=20 March 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721192456/http://www.prixdelausanne.org/v4/index.php/View\\-user\\-profile.html?user\\=285\\|archivedate\\=21 July 2011}} where the then Royal Ballet School director [Merle Park](/wiki/Merle_Park \"Merle Park\") was a judge. Putrov spent 18 months at the [Royal Ballet School](/wiki/Royal_Ballet_School \"Royal Ballet School\") and on graduation in 1998 was invited by the Royal Ballet's director, [Anthony Dowell](/wiki/Anthony_Dowell \"Anthony Dowell\"), to join the company itself. He was offered a principal's contract with the Kyiv Ballet, but turned it down and decided to join the Royal Ballet, as an artist; he began to dance roles such as the Nutcracker prince, the Boy with the Matted Hair in *Shadowplay* and Benvolio in *Romeo and Juliet*.Jann Parry. Slaves to the rhythm. *The Observer*, 8 October 2000\\. Having taken part in Royal Ballet School performances at Covent Garden in 1998 and 1999, in 1999\\-2000 he took roles in *The Nutcracker*, *Les Rendezvous*, *Masquerade* and *Siren Song*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rohcollections.org.uk/SearchResults.aspx?person\\=ivan%20putrov\\&searchtype\\=workprodperf \\|title\\=Performance database search for Ivan Putrov\\|publisher\\=Royal Opera House Collections Online \\|accessdate\\=18 November 2013 }} He danced many performances as the Nephew in Peter Wright's production of *The Nutcracker* and added roles in *Romeo and Juliet*, *The Concert*, and *Giselle* (Albrecht).", "He was coached by Dowell for his debut as Beliaev in *[A Month in the Country](/wiki/A_Month_in_the_Country_%28ballet%29 \"A Month in the Country (ballet)\")* in 2001 and also added Basilio in *Don Quixote* to his repertoire. In 2002 he danced in *[Onegin](/wiki/Onegin_%28Cranko%29 \"Onegin (Cranko)\")* (Lensky) and *[La Bayadère](/wiki/La_Bayad%C3%A8re \"La Bayadère\")* (The Golden Idol), as well as ballets such as *[The Vertiginous Thrill of Exactitude](/wiki/The_Vertiginous_Thrill_of_Exactitude \"The Vertiginous Thrill of Exactitude\")*, *Por Vos Muero*, and *The Leaves are Fading*. He became a principal with The Royal Ballet in 2002\\. Putrov won the [National Dance Award](/wiki/National_Dance_Awards \"National Dance Awards\") for Outstanding Young Male Artist (Classical) the same year.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nationaldanceawards.com/past/2002\\.htm\\|title\\=National Dance Awards 2002 Awards\\|publisher\\=National Dance Awards official website\\|accessdate\\=10 November 2009}} The following year Putrov danced in *[Coppélia](/wiki/Copp%C3%A9lia \"Coppélia\")*, *[Mayerling](/wiki/Mayerling_%28ballet%29 \"Mayerling (ballet)\")*, *Swan Lake* and *Scènes de ballet*. His debut as *[Le Spectre de la Rose](/wiki/Le_Spectre_de_la_Rose \"Le Spectre de la Rose\")* at the Royal Opera House was in May 2004 (which he also portrayed, as Nijinsky, in the 2005 film *Riot at the Rite*).", "In [Sam Taylor\\-Wood](/wiki/Sam_Taylor-Wood \"Sam Taylor-Wood\")'s 2004 film installation \"Strings\", Putrov danced suspended by a harness above four musicians playing the slow movement from [Tchaikovsky's Second String Quartet](/wiki/String_Quartet_No._2_%28Tchaikovsky%29 \"String Quartet No. 2 (Tchaikovsky)\"), filmed in the Crush Bar of the Royal Opera House.[Burt, Ramsay. Sam Taylor\\-Wood \\- 'New Work' \\- Art exhibition at White Cube November 2004\\. Ballet Dance Magazine.](http://www.ballet-dance.com/200412/articles/TaylorWood20041100.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120726170803/http://www.ballet\\-dance.com/200412/articles/TaylorWood20041100\\.html \\|date\\=26 July 2012 }}, accessed 2 March 2017\\. He also appeared (as the artist) in the film installation *The Butcher's Shop*, commissioned by [Kimbell Art Museum](/wiki/Kimbell_Art_Museum \"Kimbell Art Museum\"), in which [Philip Haas](/wiki/Philip_Haas \"Philip Haas\") recreated the 1582 [Annibale Carracci](/wiki/Annibale_Carracci \"Annibale Carracci\") [painting of the same name](/wiki/The_Butcher%27s_Shop \"The Butcher's Shop\"), first seen in 2008 at the [Sonnabend Gallery](/wiki/Sonnabend_Gallery \"Sonnabend Gallery\") of New York.[Kimbell Art Museum page for Butchers, Dragons, Gods, and Skeletons (still photo)](https://www.kimbellart.org/exhibition/butchers-dragons-gods-and-skeletons) accessed 13 September 2020\\.", "In 2004\\-2005 he danced in *Cinderella*, *[La Fille mal gardée](/wiki/La_fille_mal_gard%C3%A9e_%28Ashton%29 \"La fille mal gardée (Ashton)\")* (Colas), *[Rhapsody](/wiki/Rhapsody_%28Ashton%29 \"Rhapsody (Ashton)\")*, *[Symphonic Variations](/wiki/Symphonic_Variations_%28ballet%29 \"Symphonic Variations (ballet)\")* and *[Symphony in C](/wiki/Symphony_in_C_%28ballet%29 \"Symphony in C (ballet)\")*. In March 2005 he came on stage from the audience to dance the solos in *Rhapsody* after Carlos Acosta suffered a twisted ankle.[Daily Telegraph 19 March 2005\\.](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1485970/Ankle-injury-to-dancer-halts-ballet.html) In 2006 Putrov himself suffered an injury in an onstage fall, which led to a lengthy leave from dancing.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml\\=/arts/2007/02/12/btswan12\\.xml\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415083041/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml\\=/arts/2007/02/12/btswan12\\.xml\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=15 April 2008\\|title\\= Russian aristocrat returns in beautiful and hungry form \\|last\\=Brown\\|first\\=Ismene\\|date\\=2 December 2007\\|work\\=The Telegraph\\|accessdate\\=8 October 2008}} He returned to the stage without apparent lasting effects, and received notices for roles such as Prince Siegfried in *[Swan Lake](/wiki/Swan_Lake \"Swan Lake\")* and Lensky in [John Cranko](/wiki/John_Cranko \"John Cranko\")'s *Onegin*, for which *The Guardian* praised his \"captivating blitheness.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2007/mar/19/dance\\|title\\=Onegin\\|last\\=Mackrell\\|first\\=Judith\\|date\\=19 March 2007\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|accessdate\\=8 October 2008}} He danced Beliaev alongside [Alexandra Ansanelli](/wiki/Alexandra_Ansanelli \"Alexandra Ansanelli\")'s Natalia Petrovna in *A Month in the Country* in her final appearances before retirement, in New York and Havana, and gave his own last performance with the Royal Ballet in May 2010 as the Prince in Ashton's *Cinderella*.", "He created the role of Karl in *[The Most Incredible Thing](/wiki/The_Most_Incredible_Thing%23Ballet \"The Most Incredible Thing#Ballet\")* at Sadler's Wells Theatre in 2011, and was also credited in the early development of the work.Cast biography in theatre programme for *The Most Incredible Thing*, Sadler's Wells Theatre, 2012\\. In 2012 Putrov choreographed his first major creation for the stage entitled *Ithaca*, using *[La Péri](/wiki/La_P%C3%A9ri_%28Dukas%29 \"La Péri (Dukas)\")* by [Paul Dukas](/wiki/Paul_Dukas \"Paul Dukas\").Mackrell J. Ballet's men step out of the shadows. *The Guardian*, 15 January 2012\\.", "Putrov has appeared with national ballet companies in Hungary, Lithuania and Ukraine, and appeared at the Vienna Staatsoper.", "Since leaving the Royal Ballet, Putrov has planned the 'Men in Motion' ballet programmes, which were originally mounted in London and have since toured to Warsaw, Moscow, Łodz and Milan.[Graham Watts : Ivan Putrov – Men in Motion – Lodz Ballet Festival, Dance Tabs 10 June 10, 2015\\.](http://dancetabs.com/2015/06/ivan-putrov-men-in-motion-lodz-ballet-festival/) accessed 20 February 2017\\. A 10th\\-anniversary programme of 'Men in Motion' was produced by Putrov at the [London Coliseum](/wiki/London_Coliseum \"London Coliseum\") in November 2022; Putrov danced [Ashton](/wiki/Frederick_Ashton \"Frederick Ashton\")'s *Dance of the Blessed Spirits*.[Men in Motion: the male dance spectacular still delivers, ten years on, review by Matthew Paluch, 7 November 2022](https://www.gramilano.com/2022/11/review-men-in-motion-2022/) Gramilano Dance Opera Photography, accessed 15 December 2023\\. In January 2014 he closed an edition of the BBC2 current affairs programme [Newsnight](/wiki/Newsnight \"Newsnight\") by dancing a solo to a song by Johnny Cash from Affi by [Marco Goecke](/wiki/Marco_Goecke \"Marco Goecke\").[Former Royal Ballet principal Ivan Putrov dances out the programme to Johnny Cash](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xgb8P5gpiyo), accessed 1 March 2017\\. In 2019 Putrov produced a programme 'Against the Stream' designed as \"a tribute to remarkable choreographers who changed the ecology of dance beyond recognition\"; he also danced in the Ashton and Macmillan works performed.[Interview with Ivan Putrov about his 'Against the Stream' dance programme](https://dancetabs.com/2019/04/ivan-putrov-on-his-latest-night-of-ballet-against-the-stream/), accessed 8 July 2019\\.", "He has danced the roles of the swan and the prince in the [Matthew Bourne](/wiki/Matthew_Bourne \"Matthew Bourne\") version of *[Swan Lake](/wiki/Swan_Lake_%28Bourne%29 \"Swan Lake (Bourne)\")*.", "On film and DVD, Putrov has featured in *The Nutcracker* (The Nutcracker/Hans\\-Peter) and as a lead dancer in *Scènes de ballet* (Ashton) and danced *Le Spectre de la Rose* in the 2006 BBC film Riot at the Rite.[Radio Times entry for *Riot at the Rite* film](http://www.radiotimes.com/tv-programme/e/h8dkr/riot-at-the-rite.), accessed 2 March 2017\\.", "" ]
Regulations ----------- The Directive specifies a range of regulations which have to be transformed into national law by the [Member State](/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union "Member state of the European Union"), whereas the [Directive](/wiki/Directive_%28European_Union%29 "Directive (European Union)") only sets minimum standards. [Member State](/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union "Member state of the European Union") have the possibility to set up stricter rules. ### Scope This [Directive](/wiki/Directive_%28European_Union%29 "Directive (European Union)") is directed to [issuers](/wiki/Issuers "Issuers") whose [securities](/wiki/Security_%28finance%29 "Security (finance)") are admitted to trading on a regulated market situated or operating within a [Member State](/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union "Member state of the European Union") and regulates requirements regarding the disclosure of periodic and ongoing information. ### Definitions The [Directive](/wiki/Directive_%28European_Union%29 "Directive (European Union)") defines several terms, which are used in the new regulations, either by referring to other [Directives](/wiki/Directive_%28European_Union%29 "Directive (European Union)") or by its own definition. ### Periodic information #### Annual financial reports The [issuer](/wiki/Issuer "Issuer") has to publish its annual financial report not later than four monthsHutter, Dr. Stephan/Kaulamo, Dr. Katja (2007\): Das Transparenzrichtlinie\-Umsetzungsgesetz: Änderungen der Regelpublizität und das neue Veröffentlichungsregime für Kapitalmarktinformationen, in: NJW 2007, p. 551 after the end of the [fiscal year](/wiki/Fiscal_year "Fiscal year") and has to ensure that this report is accessible for at least five years. The annual financial report has to include the audited financial statements, a management report and a statement by officials that the financial statements were set up in compliance with the applicable accounting standards. In addition to the annual financial report the audit report should be published, as well. #### Half\-yearly financial reports The [issuer](/wiki/Issuer "Issuer") has to publish a financial report covering the first half of the [fiscal year](/wiki/Fiscal_year "Fiscal year") after the end of this relevant period. This report has to include the financial statements for the first half of the [fiscal year](/wiki/Fiscal_year "Fiscal year"), an interim management report (including major events in the first half\-year, a forecast for the next half\-year and their possible impacts and further financial statements) and a statement by officials that the financial statements were set up in compliance with the applicable accounting standards. In case this half\-yearly report gets audited, the audit report has to be published as well. ### Ongoing information #### Major Holdings of voting rights A [shareholder](/wiki/Shareholder "Shareholder"), acquiring or selling [shares](/wiki/Shares "Shares"), has to notify the [issuer](/wiki/Issuer "Issuer") of such transactions, as soon as the acquisition or disposal of shares results in an amount of voting rights, that exceeds, falls below or reaches the threshold of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 50% and 75%Hutter, Dr. Stephan/Kaulamo, Dr. Katja (2007\): Das Transparenzrichtlinie\-Umsetzungsgesetz: Änderungen der anlassabhängigen Publizität, in: NJW 2007, p. 474 of the total amount of voting rights issued. This notification requirement can also be based on the following cases: * Acting in concert with other [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders "Shareholders") * Voting rights are held by a third party and will be transferred temporarily to a different [shareholder](/wiki/Shareholder "Shareholder") * [Shares](/wiki/Shares "Shares") are lodged as [collateral](/wiki/Collateral_%28finance%29 "Collateral (finance)") * Life interest * Voting rights being held by a controlled undertaking * Voting rights be deposited with a third person (whereas the third person is allowed to exercise the voting rights on its own discretion) * Holding voting rights in behalf of the legal owner * Exercising voting rights as proxy This notification has to include the amount of voting rights held after acquisition/disposal, the day on which the event took place, the chain of controlled undertakings or the name of the (directly invested) [shareholder](/wiki/Shareholder "Shareholder") from which the notifying party gets attributed the voting rights. Furthermore, a notification is required when a natural person or legal entity holds [financial instruments](/wiki/Financial_instruments "Financial instruments"), which result in the entitlement to acquire voting rights, whereas the acquisition is based on the holder's initiative. These regulations should not apply for [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders "Shareholders"), holding the [shares](/wiki/Shares "Shares") as [market makers](/wiki/Market_makers "Market makers"), for [clearing](/wiki/Clearing_%28finance%29 "Clearing (finance)") and settlement purposes and credit institutions, holding the [shares](/wiki/Shares "Shares") in their trading book, and holding less than 10% of the total amount of voting rights issued. #### Information requirements for issuers Issuers are obliged to treat those [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders "Shareholders") equally, which are in the same position. Furthermore [issuers](/wiki/Issuers "Issuers") have to make all available all kinds of information that are necessary for the [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders "Shareholders") to ensure the exercise of their rights.Hutter, Dr. Stephan/Kaulamo, Dr. Katja (2007\): Das Transparenzrichtlinie\-Umsetzungsgesetz: Änderungen der anlassabhängigen Publizität, in: NJW 2007, p. 477 person to exercise their voting and/or financial rights, either in paper or electronic form. After the [annual general meeting](/wiki/Annual_general_meeting "Annual general meeting") the issuer has to publish decisions made at the [annual general meeting](/wiki/Annual_general_meeting "Annual general meeting"), if applicable, which are: payment of [dividends](/wiki/Dividends "Dividends") and issue of new [shares](/wiki/Share_%28finance%29 "Share (finance)"), including allotment\-, subscription\-, cancellation\- and conversion rights of the new [shares](/wiki/Share_%28finance%29 "Share (finance)"). ### General obligations As long as [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders "Shareholders") or [issuers](/wiki/Issuers "Issuers") have to provide information to each other, e.g. disclose the holding of voting rights, this information has to be filed with the state authority at the same time as well. The same applies for issuers, who propose the annual meeting to change their articles of incorporation. ### Competent authorities and their power Each [Member State](/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union "Member state of the European Union") of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") has to designate a state authority, which should be responsible for carrying out the obligations regarding [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders "Shareholders") and [issuers](/wiki/Issuers "Issuers"). Therefore, the [Member States](/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union "Member state of the European Union") have to empower the authorities to achieve the aims of the [Directive](/wiki/Directive_%28European_Union%29 "Directive (European Union)"). Especially the authorities should be able to require involved parties to provide them with information and documents regarding each single case or require the [issuers](/wiki/Issuers "Issuers") and [shareholder](/wiki/Shareholder "Shareholder") to disclose such information, which is necessary to fulfill their requirements. Additionally the authorities shall be empowered to carry out on\-site inspection, to verify compliance with the statutory requirements.
[ "Regulations\n-----------", "The Directive specifies a range of regulations which have to be transformed into national law by the [Member State](/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union \"Member state of the European Union\"), whereas the [Directive](/wiki/Directive_%28European_Union%29 \"Directive (European Union)\") only sets minimum standards. [Member State](/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union \"Member state of the European Union\") have the possibility to set up stricter rules.", "### Scope", "This [Directive](/wiki/Directive_%28European_Union%29 \"Directive (European Union)\") is directed to [issuers](/wiki/Issuers \"Issuers\") whose [securities](/wiki/Security_%28finance%29 \"Security (finance)\") are admitted to trading on a regulated market situated or operating within a [Member State](/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union \"Member state of the European Union\") and regulates requirements regarding the disclosure of periodic and ongoing information.", "### Definitions", "The [Directive](/wiki/Directive_%28European_Union%29 \"Directive (European Union)\") defines several terms, which are used in the new regulations, either by referring to other [Directives](/wiki/Directive_%28European_Union%29 \"Directive (European Union)\") or by its own definition.", "### Periodic information", "#### Annual financial reports", "The [issuer](/wiki/Issuer \"Issuer\") has to publish its annual financial report not later than four monthsHutter, Dr. Stephan/Kaulamo, Dr. Katja (2007\\): Das Transparenzrichtlinie\\-Umsetzungsgesetz: Änderungen der Regelpublizität und das neue Veröffentlichungsregime für Kapitalmarktinformationen, in: NJW 2007, p. 551 after the end of the [fiscal year](/wiki/Fiscal_year \"Fiscal year\") and has to ensure that this report is accessible for at least five years. The annual financial report has to include the audited financial statements, a management report and a statement by officials that the financial statements were set up in compliance with the applicable accounting standards. In addition to the annual financial report the audit report should be published, as well.", "#### Half\\-yearly financial reports", "The [issuer](/wiki/Issuer \"Issuer\") has to publish a financial report covering the first half of the [fiscal year](/wiki/Fiscal_year \"Fiscal year\") after the end of this relevant period. This report has to include the financial statements for the first half of the [fiscal year](/wiki/Fiscal_year \"Fiscal year\"), an interim management report (including major events in the first half\\-year, a forecast for the next half\\-year and their possible impacts and further financial statements) and a statement by officials that the financial statements were set up in compliance with the applicable accounting standards. In case this half\\-yearly report gets audited, the audit report has to be published as well.", "### Ongoing information", "#### Major Holdings of voting rights", "A [shareholder](/wiki/Shareholder \"Shareholder\"), acquiring or selling [shares](/wiki/Shares \"Shares\"), has to notify the [issuer](/wiki/Issuer \"Issuer\") of such transactions, as soon as the acquisition or disposal of shares results in an amount of voting rights, that exceeds, falls below or reaches the threshold of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 50% and 75%Hutter, Dr. Stephan/Kaulamo, Dr. Katja (2007\\): Das Transparenzrichtlinie\\-Umsetzungsgesetz: Änderungen der anlassabhängigen Publizität, in: NJW 2007, p. 474 of the total amount of voting rights issued.", "This notification requirement can also be based on the following cases:\n* Acting in concert with other [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders \"Shareholders\")\n* Voting rights are held by a third party and will be transferred temporarily to a different [shareholder](/wiki/Shareholder \"Shareholder\")\n* [Shares](/wiki/Shares \"Shares\") are lodged as [collateral](/wiki/Collateral_%28finance%29 \"Collateral (finance)\")\n* Life interest\n* Voting rights being held by a controlled undertaking\n* Voting rights be deposited with a third person (whereas the third person is allowed to exercise the voting rights on its own discretion)\n* Holding voting rights in behalf of the legal owner\n* Exercising voting rights as proxy", "This notification has to include the amount of voting rights held after acquisition/disposal, the day on which the event took place, the chain of controlled undertakings or the name of the (directly invested) [shareholder](/wiki/Shareholder \"Shareholder\") from which the notifying party gets attributed the voting rights.\nFurthermore, a notification is required when a natural person or legal entity holds [financial instruments](/wiki/Financial_instruments \"Financial instruments\"), which result in the entitlement to acquire voting rights, whereas the acquisition is based on the holder's initiative.\nThese regulations should not apply for [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders \"Shareholders\"), holding the [shares](/wiki/Shares \"Shares\") as [market makers](/wiki/Market_makers \"Market makers\"), for [clearing](/wiki/Clearing_%28finance%29 \"Clearing (finance)\") and settlement purposes and credit institutions, holding the [shares](/wiki/Shares \"Shares\") in their trading book, and holding less than 10% of the total amount of voting rights issued.", "#### Information requirements for issuers", "Issuers are obliged to treat those [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders \"Shareholders\") equally, which are in the same position. Furthermore [issuers](/wiki/Issuers \"Issuers\") have to make all available all kinds of information that are necessary for the [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders \"Shareholders\") to ensure the exercise of their rights.Hutter, Dr. Stephan/Kaulamo, Dr. Katja (2007\\): Das Transparenzrichtlinie\\-Umsetzungsgesetz: Änderungen der anlassabhängigen Publizität, in: NJW 2007, p. 477 person to exercise their voting and/or financial rights, either in paper or electronic form. After the [annual general meeting](/wiki/Annual_general_meeting \"Annual general meeting\") the issuer has to publish decisions made at the [annual general meeting](/wiki/Annual_general_meeting \"Annual general meeting\"), if applicable, which are: payment of [dividends](/wiki/Dividends \"Dividends\") and issue of new [shares](/wiki/Share_%28finance%29 \"Share (finance)\"), including allotment\\-, subscription\\-, cancellation\\- and conversion rights of the new [shares](/wiki/Share_%28finance%29 \"Share (finance)\").", "### General obligations", "As long as [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders \"Shareholders\") or [issuers](/wiki/Issuers \"Issuers\") have to provide information to each other, e.g. disclose the holding of voting rights, this information has to be filed with the state authority at the same time as well. The same applies for issuers, who propose the annual meeting to change their articles of incorporation.", "### Competent authorities and their power", "Each [Member State](/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union \"Member state of the European Union\") of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") has to designate a state authority, which should be responsible for carrying out the obligations regarding [shareholders](/wiki/Shareholders \"Shareholders\") and [issuers](/wiki/Issuers \"Issuers\"). Therefore, the [Member States](/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union \"Member state of the European Union\") have to empower the authorities to achieve the aims of the [Directive](/wiki/Directive_%28European_Union%29 \"Directive (European Union)\"). Especially the authorities should be able to require involved parties to provide them with information and documents regarding each single case or require the [issuers](/wiki/Issuers \"Issuers\") and [shareholder](/wiki/Shareholder \"Shareholder\") to disclose such information, which is necessary to fulfill their requirements. Additionally the authorities shall be empowered to carry out on\\-site inspection, to verify compliance with the statutory requirements.", "" ]
Playing career -------------- ### Early career Grant was born in [Bedlington](/wiki/Bedlington "Bedlington") and as a youth played for [Morpeth Town](/wiki/Morpeth_Town_F.C. "Morpeth Town F.C.") before joining [Newcastle United](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. "Newcastle United F.C.") as a trainee in 1937\. His career was interrupted by the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") when he joined the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force"). Towards the end of the war he signed professional papers with [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. "Manchester City F.C."), but continued with the RAF. Whilst stationed at [Wareham](/wiki/Wareham%2C_Dorset "Wareham, Dorset") he guested for [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. "Southampton F.C.");{{cite book \| first1\=Duncan\|last1\= Holley \|first2\=Gary \|last2\=Chalk \| title\=The Alphabet of the Saints\| publisher\= ACL \& Polar Publishing \| year\=1992\|pages\=146–147\| isbn\=0\-9514862\-3\-3}} as he had a brother working for [Southern Railway](/wiki/Southern_Railway_%28Great_Britain%29 "Southern Railway (Great Britain)") at [Eastleigh](/wiki/Eastleigh "Eastleigh") he was keen to remain in [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire "Hampshire") and after the cessation of hostilities Southampton bought him out of his Manchester City contract for £1,000\. ### Southampton He made his debut for the "Saints" in a [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division "Football League Second Division") game away to [West Bromwich Albion](/wiki/West_Bromwich_Albion_F.C. "West Bromwich Albion F.C.") on 5 October 1946 on the [left wing](/wiki/Winger_%28sport%29 "Winger (sport)"), where he soon became settled, scoring a brace in a 5–1 victory over [Plymouth Argyle](/wiki/Plymouth_Argyle_F.C. "Plymouth Argyle F.C.") on 26 October. Manager [Bill Dodgin](/wiki/Bill_Dodgin%2C_Sr. "Bill Dodgin, Sr.") preferred him on the right, however, (where he replaced [Billy Bevis](/wiki/Billy_Bevis "Billy Bevis")), teaming up with the ageing [Bill Rochford](/wiki/Bill_Rochford "Bill Rochford"). This role was not to Grant's liking and his form slumped. Although he was transfer\-listed in August 1948,{{cite book \| first1\=Duncan \|last1\=Holley \|first2\= Gary \|last2\=Chalk \| title\=In That Number – A post\-war chronicle of Southampton FC \| publisher\=Hagiology Publishing \| year\=2003\|pages\=519–520\| isbn\=0\-9534474\-3\-X}} he remained with Southampton for the next two seasons, used occasionally as replacement for [Eric Day](/wiki/Eric_Day "Eric Day"). In 1948–49 he seemed settled back on the left before he lost his place to [Bill Heaton](/wiki/Bill_Heaton "Bill Heaton"). After a rather frustrating time, he joined [Cardiff City](/wiki/Cardiff_City_F.C. "Cardiff City F.C.") in March 1950 with [Ernie Stevenson](/wiki/Ernie_Stevenson "Ernie Stevenson") coming to the south coast in exchange. In his four seasons at [The Dell](/wiki/The_Dell_%28Southampton%29 "The Dell (Southampton)") he made 64 appearances scoring 13 goals. ### Cardiff City Soon after his move to [Ninian Park](/wiki/Ninian_Park "Ninian Park"), manager [Cyril Spiers](/wiki/Cyril_Spiers "Cyril Spiers") moved him to [centre forward](/wiki/Centre_forward "Centre forward") following the arrival of [Mike Tiddy](/wiki/Mike_Tiddy "Mike Tiddy"), where his devastating turn of speed immediately produced instant rewards, with 14 goals coming in the [1950–51 season](/wiki/1950-51_in_English_football%23Second_Division "1950-51 in English football#Second Division") as Cardiff finished in third place in the Second Division. [The following season](/wiki/1951-52_in_English_football%23Second_Division "1951-52 in English football#Second Division") Cardiff went one better finishing in second place, thus gaining promotion to [the First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division "Football League First Division"). During Cardiff's promotion season Grant was top scorer with 26 goals, the first 19 of which were at home. Shortly after Cardiff secured their place in the top flight, Grant's superb form earned him a call up to the [England 'B'](/wiki/England_B_national_football_team "England B national football team") team for a match against their [French](/wiki/France_B_national_football_team "France B national football team") equivalents on 22 May 1952\. Unfortunately for Grant the match ended in a resounding 7–1 victory for the French which brought his international career to an end. He spent two further seasons with Cardiff in the First Division where, jointly with [Ken Chisholm](/wiki/Ken_Chisholm "Ken Chisholm"), he was again top scorer in [1953–54](/wiki/1953-54_in_English_football%23First_Division "1953-54 in English football#First Division") with 12 goals as Cardiff reached tenth place in the league table. After four and a half seasons at Cardiff City, Grant was sold to [Ipswich Town](/wiki/Ipswich_Town_F.C. "Ipswich Town F.C.") in October 1954 for a fee of £7,500\. In his career at Cardiff, Grant made a total of 159 league and [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") appearances scoring 67 goals. ### Ipswich Town At Ipswich he was manager [Scott Duncan](/wiki/Scott_Duncan_%28footballer%29 "Scott Duncan (footballer)")'s most expensive signing at £7,500\. At the end of Grant's [first season](/wiki/1954-55_in_English_football%23Second_Division "1954-55 in English football#Second Division") at [Portman Road](/wiki/Portman_Road "Portman Road"), Ipswich were relegated to the [Third Division South](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division_South "Football League Third Division South"). In August 1955 Duncan resigned and was replaced as manager by Grant's former Southampton teammate, [Alf Ramsey](/wiki/Alf_Ramsey "Alf Ramsey"). In [1955–56](/wiki/1955-56_in_English_football%23Third_Division_South "1955-56 in English football#Third Division South") Grant contributed 16 goals (including two [hat\-tricks](/wiki/Hat-trick "Hat-trick") against [Millwall](/wiki/Millwall_F.C. "Millwall F.C."){{cite web \| title\=Millwall 1945 – 1964 \| work\= www.millwall\-history.co.uk\| url\=http://www.millwall\-history.co.uk/Origins\-5\.htm\| access\-date\=5 January 2008}}) as Town finished in third place, missing promotion by one point. Injuries and loss of form restricted Grant to 12 appearances in [1956–57](/wiki/1956-57_in_English_football%23Third_Division_South "1956-57 in English football#Third Division South") (at the end of which Ipswich were promoted as Champions). After three years with Ipswich, Grant (now 37\) dropped out of [the Football League](/wiki/The_Football_League "The Football League") to join [Llanelli](/wiki/Llanelli_A.F.C. "Llanelli A.F.C.") as player\-manager.
[ "Playing career\n--------------", "### Early career", "Grant was born in [Bedlington](/wiki/Bedlington \"Bedlington\") and as a youth played for [Morpeth Town](/wiki/Morpeth_Town_F.C. \"Morpeth Town F.C.\") before joining [Newcastle United](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. \"Newcastle United F.C.\") as a trainee in 1937\\. His career was interrupted by the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") when he joined the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\"). Towards the end of the war he signed professional papers with [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. \"Manchester City F.C.\"), but continued with the RAF. Whilst stationed at [Wareham](/wiki/Wareham%2C_Dorset \"Wareham, Dorset\") he guested for [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. \"Southampton F.C.\");{{cite book \\| first1\\=Duncan\\|last1\\= Holley \\|first2\\=Gary \\|last2\\=Chalk \\| title\\=The Alphabet of the Saints\\| publisher\\= ACL \\& Polar Publishing \\| year\\=1992\\|pages\\=146–147\\| isbn\\=0\\-9514862\\-3\\-3}} as he had a brother working for [Southern Railway](/wiki/Southern_Railway_%28Great_Britain%29 \"Southern Railway (Great Britain)\") at [Eastleigh](/wiki/Eastleigh \"Eastleigh\") he was keen to remain in [Hampshire](/wiki/Hampshire \"Hampshire\") and after the cessation of hostilities Southampton bought him out of his Manchester City contract for £1,000\\.", "### Southampton", "He made his debut for the \"Saints\" in a [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division \"Football League Second Division\") game away to [West Bromwich Albion](/wiki/West_Bromwich_Albion_F.C. \"West Bromwich Albion F.C.\") on 5 October 1946 on the [left wing](/wiki/Winger_%28sport%29 \"Winger (sport)\"), where he soon became settled, scoring a brace in a 5–1 victory over [Plymouth Argyle](/wiki/Plymouth_Argyle_F.C. \"Plymouth Argyle F.C.\") on 26 October. Manager [Bill Dodgin](/wiki/Bill_Dodgin%2C_Sr. \"Bill Dodgin, Sr.\") preferred him on the right, however, (where he replaced [Billy Bevis](/wiki/Billy_Bevis \"Billy Bevis\")), teaming up with the ageing [Bill Rochford](/wiki/Bill_Rochford \"Bill Rochford\"). This role was not to Grant's liking and his form slumped. Although he was transfer\\-listed in August 1948,{{cite book \\| first1\\=Duncan \\|last1\\=Holley \\|first2\\= Gary \\|last2\\=Chalk \\| title\\=In That Number – A post\\-war chronicle of Southampton FC \\| publisher\\=Hagiology Publishing \\| year\\=2003\\|pages\\=519–520\\| isbn\\=0\\-9534474\\-3\\-X}} he remained with Southampton for the next two seasons, used occasionally as replacement for [Eric Day](/wiki/Eric_Day \"Eric Day\"). In 1948–49 he seemed settled back on the left before he lost his place to [Bill Heaton](/wiki/Bill_Heaton \"Bill Heaton\"). After a rather frustrating time, he joined [Cardiff City](/wiki/Cardiff_City_F.C. \"Cardiff City F.C.\") in March 1950 with [Ernie Stevenson](/wiki/Ernie_Stevenson \"Ernie Stevenson\") coming to the south coast in exchange. In his four seasons at [The Dell](/wiki/The_Dell_%28Southampton%29 \"The Dell (Southampton)\") he made 64 appearances scoring 13 goals.", "### Cardiff City", "Soon after his move to [Ninian Park](/wiki/Ninian_Park \"Ninian Park\"), manager [Cyril Spiers](/wiki/Cyril_Spiers \"Cyril Spiers\") moved him to [centre forward](/wiki/Centre_forward \"Centre forward\") following the arrival of [Mike Tiddy](/wiki/Mike_Tiddy \"Mike Tiddy\"), where his devastating turn of speed immediately produced instant rewards, with 14 goals coming in the [1950–51 season](/wiki/1950-51_in_English_football%23Second_Division \"1950-51 in English football#Second Division\") as Cardiff finished in third place in the Second Division. [The following season](/wiki/1951-52_in_English_football%23Second_Division \"1951-52 in English football#Second Division\") Cardiff went one better finishing in second place, thus gaining promotion to [the First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division \"Football League First Division\"). During Cardiff's promotion season Grant was top scorer with 26 goals, the first 19 of which were at home. Shortly after Cardiff secured their place in the top flight, Grant's superb form earned him a call up to the [England 'B'](/wiki/England_B_national_football_team \"England B national football team\") team for a match against their [French](/wiki/France_B_national_football_team \"France B national football team\") equivalents on 22 May 1952\\. Unfortunately for Grant the match ended in a resounding 7–1 victory for the French which brought his international career to an end.", "He spent two further seasons with Cardiff in the First Division where, jointly with [Ken Chisholm](/wiki/Ken_Chisholm \"Ken Chisholm\"), he was again top scorer in [1953–54](/wiki/1953-54_in_English_football%23First_Division \"1953-54 in English football#First Division\") with 12 goals as Cardiff reached tenth place in the league table. After four and a half seasons at Cardiff City, Grant was sold to [Ipswich Town](/wiki/Ipswich_Town_F.C. \"Ipswich Town F.C.\") in October 1954 for a fee of £7,500\\. In his career at Cardiff, Grant made a total of 159 league and [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") appearances scoring 67 goals.", "### Ipswich Town", "At Ipswich he was manager [Scott Duncan](/wiki/Scott_Duncan_%28footballer%29 \"Scott Duncan (footballer)\")'s most expensive signing at £7,500\\. At the end of Grant's [first season](/wiki/1954-55_in_English_football%23Second_Division \"1954-55 in English football#Second Division\") at [Portman Road](/wiki/Portman_Road \"Portman Road\"), Ipswich were relegated to the [Third Division South](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division_South \"Football League Third Division South\"). In August 1955 Duncan resigned and was replaced as manager by Grant's former Southampton teammate, [Alf Ramsey](/wiki/Alf_Ramsey \"Alf Ramsey\"). In [1955–56](/wiki/1955-56_in_English_football%23Third_Division_South \"1955-56 in English football#Third Division South\") Grant contributed 16 goals (including two [hat\\-tricks](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\") against [Millwall](/wiki/Millwall_F.C. \"Millwall F.C.\"){{cite web \\| title\\=Millwall 1945 – 1964 \\| work\\= www.millwall\\-history.co.uk\\| url\\=http://www.millwall\\-history.co.uk/Origins\\-5\\.htm\\| access\\-date\\=5 January 2008}}) as Town finished in third place, missing promotion by one point. Injuries and loss of form restricted Grant to 12 appearances in [1956–57](/wiki/1956-57_in_English_football%23Third_Division_South \"1956-57 in English football#Third Division South\") (at the end of which Ipswich were promoted as Champions). After three years with Ipswich, Grant (now 37\\) dropped out of [the Football League](/wiki/The_Football_League \"The Football League\") to join [Llanelli](/wiki/Llanelli_A.F.C. \"Llanelli A.F.C.\") as player\\-manager.", "" ]
Plot ---- Emily Jenkins is a social worker assigned to investigate the family of 10\-year\-old Lillith Sullivan, as her grades have declined and an emotional rift with her parents has emerged. Emily suspects that the parents have been [abusing](/wiki/Abuse "Abuse") and overprotecting Lillith since the day she was born and proposes to her department to take the child away from her parents' custody. Eventually, Emily's suspicions are confirmed when Lillith's parents try to kill her by roasting her alive in their oven. Emily saves Lillith with the help of Detective Mike Barron. Lillith is to be sent to a children's home, but she begs Emily to look after her instead. With the agreement of the board, Emily is assigned to take care of Lillith until a suitable foster family comes along. In the meantime, Lillith's parents are placed in a [mental institution](/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital "Psychiatric hospital") since they are no longer fit for their parental responsibility for the girl according to court. After Lillith moves in, strange things begin to happen around Emily. Two weeks later another of Emily's cases, a boy named Diego, murders his parents, and Barron informs Emily that somebody phoned Diego from her house the night before the crime. As she is suspected of involvement in the incident, Lillith undergoes a [psychiatric evaluation](/wiki/Psychological_evaluation "Psychological evaluation") by Emily's best friend, Dr. Douglas J. Ames. During the session, Lillith turns the evaluation around, asking Douglas what his fears are and subtly threatening him. That night, after receiving a "strange phone call" at his apartment, Douglas is panicked by the sight of a mass of [hornets](/wiki/Hornet "Hornet") coming out of his body and kills himself by snapping his own neck. Emily becomes suspicious of having Lillith in her home, so she heads to the mental asylum for answers from Lillith's parents. They tell her that Lillith is a [demon](/wiki/Demon "Demon") who feeds on feelings, and that they tried to kill her in an attempt to save themselves and others. Lillith's father tells Emily that the only way to kill Lillith is to get her to sleep. Shortly after Emily leaves the asylum, both parents die; her mother is fatally burnt, and her father is stabbed in the eye with a fork. Barron thinks Emily should seek psychiatric help but is later convinced when he receives a similar strange phone call in his home from Emily's cellphone, which is being used by Lillith. He arms himself at the police precinct to aid Emily in handling Lillith, however, he inadvertently and fatally shoots himself in the head with a shotgun when Lillith makes him imagine he is being attacked by permanently ferocious dogs. After realizing that her closest colleagues have been eliminated, and that the rest of her cases will be next, that night, Emily has Lillith drink tea spiked with [sedative](/wiki/Sedative "Sedative"), and while Lillith is asleep, Emily [sets fire to her house](/wiki/Arson "Arson"), hoping and attempting to get rid of her, however, the girl escapes unharmed. The police offer to escort Emily and Lillith to a temporary place to stay. As Emily is following the police cars, she suddenly takes a different route and drives her car at a high speed, hoping to bring fear to Lillith. She then drives the car off a [pier](/wiki/Pier "Pier"). As the car sinks, Emily struggles to lock Lillith (now in her true demon form) in the trunk. Emily then exits the car, but as she swims away, the surviving Lillith grabs her leg after punching a hole through the car's taillight, in an attempt to prevent her escape. Emily struggles to break free until Lillith overcomes her strengths and fears, which causes Lilith to finally let go of Emily as the car continues to sink, finally defeating Lillith from the inside. As Emily climbs back ashore, she is relieved to be rid of Lillith, hence bringing the case itself to a close. ### Alternate ending On the DVD as a deleted scene in the Special Features section, when the car sinks to the bottom, a man swims down to the car and rescues both Lillith and Emily. Emily is later seen in handcuffs, frantically pleading with her lawyer to tell her where Lillith is. Her lawyer orders for Emily to be shipped off to the asylum for [schizophrenia](/wiki/Schizophrenia "Schizophrenia"), unfazed by her innocence. Meanwhile, Lillith arrives at the home of her new foster family (as mentioned in the film earlier) and turns to wink at the camera sadistically as her cycle of cruelty begins to repeat itself.
[ "Plot\n----", "Emily Jenkins is a social worker assigned to investigate the family of 10\\-year\\-old Lillith Sullivan, as her grades have declined and an emotional rift with her parents has emerged. Emily suspects that the parents have been [abusing](/wiki/Abuse \"Abuse\") and overprotecting Lillith since the day she was born and proposes to her department to take the child away from her parents' custody. Eventually, Emily's suspicions are confirmed when Lillith's parents try to kill her by roasting her alive in their oven. Emily saves Lillith with the help of Detective Mike Barron.", "Lillith is to be sent to a children's home, but she begs Emily to look after her instead. With the agreement of the board, Emily is assigned to take care of Lillith until a suitable foster family comes along. In the meantime, Lillith's parents are placed in a [mental institution](/wiki/Psychiatric_hospital \"Psychiatric hospital\") since they are no longer fit for their parental responsibility for the girl according to court.", "After Lillith moves in, strange things begin to happen around Emily. Two weeks later another of Emily's cases, a boy named Diego, murders his parents, and Barron informs Emily that somebody phoned Diego from her house the night before the crime. As she is suspected of involvement in the incident, Lillith undergoes a [psychiatric evaluation](/wiki/Psychological_evaluation \"Psychological evaluation\") by Emily's best friend, Dr. Douglas J. Ames. During the session, Lillith turns the evaluation around, asking Douglas what his fears are and subtly threatening him. That night, after receiving a \"strange phone call\" at his apartment, Douglas is panicked by the sight of a mass of [hornets](/wiki/Hornet \"Hornet\") coming out of his body and kills himself by snapping his own neck.", "Emily becomes suspicious of having Lillith in her home, so she heads to the mental asylum for answers from Lillith's parents. They tell her that Lillith is a [demon](/wiki/Demon \"Demon\") who feeds on feelings, and that they tried to kill her in an attempt to save themselves and others. Lillith's father tells Emily that the only way to kill Lillith is to get her to sleep. Shortly after Emily leaves the asylum, both parents die; her mother is fatally burnt, and her father is stabbed in the eye with a fork.", "Barron thinks Emily should seek psychiatric help but is later convinced when he receives a similar strange phone call in his home from Emily's cellphone, which is being used by Lillith. He arms himself at the police precinct to aid Emily in handling Lillith, however, he inadvertently and fatally shoots himself in the head with a shotgun when Lillith makes him imagine he is being attacked by permanently ferocious dogs.", "After realizing that her closest colleagues have been eliminated, and that the rest of her cases will be next, that night, Emily has Lillith drink tea spiked with [sedative](/wiki/Sedative \"Sedative\"), and while Lillith is asleep, Emily [sets fire to her house](/wiki/Arson \"Arson\"), hoping and attempting to get rid of her, however, the girl escapes unharmed.", "The police offer to escort Emily and Lillith to a temporary place to stay. As Emily is following the police cars, she suddenly takes a different route and drives her car at a high speed, hoping to bring fear to Lillith. She then drives the car off a [pier](/wiki/Pier \"Pier\").", "As the car sinks, Emily struggles to lock Lillith (now in her true demon form) in the trunk. Emily then exits the car, but as she swims away, the surviving Lillith grabs her leg after punching a hole through the car's taillight, in an attempt to prevent her escape. Emily struggles to break free until Lillith overcomes her strengths and fears, which causes Lilith to finally let go of Emily as the car continues to sink, finally defeating Lillith from the inside. As Emily climbs back ashore, she is relieved to be rid of Lillith, hence bringing the case itself to a close.", "### Alternate ending", "On the DVD as a deleted scene in the Special Features section, when the car sinks to the bottom, a man swims down to the car and rescues both Lillith and Emily. Emily is later seen in handcuffs, frantically pleading with her lawyer to tell her where Lillith is. Her lawyer orders for Emily to be shipped off to the asylum for [schizophrenia](/wiki/Schizophrenia \"Schizophrenia\"), unfazed by her innocence.", "Meanwhile, Lillith arrives at the home of her new foster family (as mentioned in the film earlier) and turns to wink at the camera sadistically as her cycle of cruelty begins to repeat itself.", "" ]
Biography / Career ------------------ Mikhail Horowitz was born in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn"), New York. He graduated from [Erasmus Hall High School](/wiki/Erasmus_Hall_High_School "Erasmus Hall High School") in 1967 and went on to attend [State University of New York at New Paltz](/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_at_New_Paltz "State University of New York at New Paltz") where he performed in a production of [Carlo Gozzi](/wiki/Carlo_Gozzi "Carlo Gozzi")'s *[Turandot](/wiki/Turandot_%28Gozzi%29 "Turandot (Gozzi)").* He frequented on and off\-campus poetry readings and performance gigs, reading his own poetry, playing the recorder and harmonica, and performing with local musicians, including Raoul Vezina, Richard J. (Rich) Rizzi, and others. In classic '60s style, he dropped out of college in 1970 to work full\-time on the *Gargoyle,* the Hudson Valley's first alternative or "underground" newspaper, which he helped to start in 1969 in [New Paltz](/wiki/New_Paltz "New Paltz"), Ulster County, NY – then a major center of student action, antiwar protest, assisted psychotropics, and artistic renaissance. While working on the *Gargoyle* Horowitz changed his name to Mikhail ("Mik") Horowitz, as he was often confused with [Michael Horovitz](/wiki/Michael_Horovitz "Michael Horovitz"), a widely published post\-Beat British poet who was enamored of jazz and who orchestrated the Poetry Olympics in London, and [Michael Horowitz](/wiki/Michael_D._Horowitz "Michael D. Horowitz"), author, activist, a friend of [Timothy Leary](/wiki/Timothy_Leary "Timothy Leary") and later the father of [Winona Ryder](/wiki/Winona_Ryder "Winona Ryder"). The deciding straw was receiving a mistakenly delivered packet of galley proofs from one of [Michael Horovitz](/wiki/Michael_Horovitz "Michael Horovitz")’s publishers. Beginning in 1973, Horowitz spent five years on the road, mainly on the West Coast, as the 'Null' half of the comic duo Null and Void. 'Void' was his comedic partner Francesco (Frank) Patricolo. Horowitz referred to this collaboration as "a metaphysical stand\-up tragedy team."{{Cite web \|last\=Samuels \|first\=Renee \|title\=Conversation with Mikhail Horowitz \|url\=http://www.catskillmtn.org/guide\-magazine/articles/2005\-01\-conversation\-with\-mikhail\-horowitz.html \|access\-date\=November 1, 2010 \|publisher\=Catskill Mountain Foundation}} The partnership, but not the friendship, broke up in 1978\. After this, he continued to perform on his own, with musicians and a variety of performance artists in the Mid\-Hudson Valley, New York. In 1989, he teamed up with Paris born/American\-raised [Gilles Malkine](/wiki/Gilles_Malkine "Gilles Malkine"), a musician and composer. Malkine performed with [Tim Hardin](/wiki/Tim_Hardin "Tim Hardin") at the original [Woodstock Festival](/wiki/Woodstock_Festival "Woodstock Festival"), 1969; through the years he worked with many other musicians, including [John Sebastian](/wiki/John_Sebastian "John Sebastian") and [Billy Faier](/wiki/Billy_Faier "Billy Faier"). Horowitz and Malkine continue to perform together actively into 2009\. They have presented more than 750 performances in New York, New England, Michigan, Maryland, New Mexico, Oregon, Washington (state), Ohio, and Ontario to date. Their repertoire varies greatly but often contains audience favorites, particularly routines with literary motifs and references to American culture, particularly the 60s/70s and \[Jewish culture]. In 1978 City Lights books published *Big League Poets*, baseball card collages of imaginary historical and literary baseball players. From 1986 through 1999, Horowitz's principal occupation was as a journalist, first with the *Daily Freeman,* a daily serving Kingston, N. Y., and then the *Woodstock Times,* whereas arts editor he was listed on the masthead as "Cultural Czar." From early in his career Horowitz was performing music. He plays blues harmonica and alto, soprano, and sopranino recorders, and occasionally blows [kazoo](/wiki/Kazoo "Kazoo"), [pennywhistle](/wiki/Pennywhistle "Pennywhistle"), and various wooden flutes. These instruments are a regular part of his performances. He maintains a singularly unique style of recorder playing, as it is cocked to the side of his mouth as one might imagine impish [Pan](/wiki/Pan_%28mythology%29 "Pan (mythology)") might hold it. As a performance poet and stand\-up cultural commentator/singer, Horowitz has performed at hundreds of diverse venues, from the [Village Gate](/wiki/Village_Gate "Village Gate"), [Westbeth Theater](/wiki/Westbeth_Theater "Westbeth Theater"), and the [Image Theater](/wiki/Image_Theater "Image Theater"), in New York City with repeated visits to the [92nd Street Y](/wiki/92nd_Street_Y "92nd Street Y"); the [Bumbershoot Festival](/wiki/Bumbershoot_Festival "Bumbershoot Festival"), [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle"), Washington, the Taos Poetry Circus, [Taos, New Mexico](/wiki/Taos%2C_New_Mexico "Taos, New Mexico"), a variety of not\-so orthodox synagogues; the Rosendale Caves, [Rosendale, New York](/wiki/Rosendale%2C_New_York "Rosendale, New York"); a headliner at several the Woodstock Poetry Festivals and many other events in Woodstock; Unison, New Paltz, NY; Clearwater Great Hudson River Revival Festival in Croton, New York; and many other locales. His solo poetry, prose, and artwork continue to be published in numerous anthologies, including *City Lights Journal, The Stiffest of the Corpse, The Outlaw Bible of American Poetry,* *Brilliant Corners,* *Elysian Fields Quarterly,* and *Yellow Silk Anthology.* He has collaborated with or shared the bill with, [Charles Mingus](/wiki/Charles_Mingus "Charles Mingus"), [Peter "P.D.Q. Bach" Schickele](/wiki/Peter_Schickele "Peter Schickele"), [Allen Ginsberg](/wiki/Allen_Ginsberg "Allen Ginsberg"), [Ed Sanders](/wiki/Ed_Sanders "Ed Sanders") \& [The Fugs](/wiki/The_Fugs "The Fugs"), [Robert Bly](/wiki/Robert_Bly "Robert Bly"), [Bob Holman](/wiki/Bob_Holman "Bob Holman"), [David Amram](/wiki/David_Amram "David Amram"), [Marilyn Crispell](/wiki/Marilyn_Crispell "Marilyn Crispell"), [Andrei Codrescu](/wiki/Andrei_Codrescu "Andrei Codrescu"), [Artie Traum](/wiki/Artie_Traum "Artie Traum") and [Happy Traum](/wiki/Happy_Traum "Happy Traum"), [Jay Ungar](/wiki/Jay_Ungar "Jay Ungar"), [Molly Mason](/wiki/Molly_Mason "Molly Mason"), [Phil Donahue](/wiki/Phil_Donahue "Phil Donahue"), [Amy Goodman](/wiki/Amy_Goodman "Amy Goodman"), [Natalie Merchant](/wiki/Natalie_Merchant "Natalie Merchant"), [Kate Pierson](/wiki/Kate_Pierson "Kate Pierson") (B\-52s), [Raoul Vezina](/wiki/Raoul_Vezina "Raoul Vezina"), and [Ron Whiteurs](/wiki/Ron_Whiteurs "Ron Whiteurs"), among many others. Through the years, Horowitz's stage style and content have been compared to [Lenny Bruce](/wiki/Lenny_Bruce "Lenny Bruce"), [Lord Buckley](/wiki/Lord_Buckley "Lord Buckley"), and sometimes, mistakenly, to Brother Theodore. Horowitz's style is both more playful and erudite, with a [Shakespearian](/wiki/Shakespearian "Shakespearian") penchant for satisfying the audience's predilection for the bawdy. As of 1989, Horowitz lived in [Saugerties, New York](/wiki/Saugerties_%28village%29%2C_New_York "Saugerties (village), New York") with his partner of over 20 years, artist/illustrator Carol Zaloom. He has for several years remained on the editorial staff of Bard College Publications, [Bard College](/wiki/Bard_College "Bard College"), [Annandale\-on\-Hudson](/wiki/Annandale-on-Hudson "Annandale-on-Hudson"), NY. He is a member of Actors \& Writers, based in [Olivebridge, New York](/wiki/Olivebridge%2C_New_York "Olivebridge, New York").
[ "Biography / Career\n------------------", "Mikhail Horowitz was born in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\"), New York. He graduated from [Erasmus Hall High School](/wiki/Erasmus_Hall_High_School \"Erasmus Hall High School\") in 1967 and went on to attend [State University of New York at New Paltz](/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_at_New_Paltz \"State University of New York at New Paltz\") where he performed in a production of [Carlo Gozzi](/wiki/Carlo_Gozzi \"Carlo Gozzi\")'s *[Turandot](/wiki/Turandot_%28Gozzi%29 \"Turandot (Gozzi)\").* He frequented on and off\\-campus poetry readings and performance gigs, reading his own poetry, playing the recorder and harmonica, and performing with local musicians, including Raoul Vezina, Richard J. (Rich) Rizzi, and others. In classic '60s style, he dropped out of college in 1970 to work full\\-time on the *Gargoyle,* the Hudson Valley's first alternative or \"underground\" newspaper, which he helped to start in 1969 in [New Paltz](/wiki/New_Paltz \"New Paltz\"), Ulster County, NY – then a major center of student action, antiwar protest, assisted psychotropics, and artistic renaissance.", "While working on the *Gargoyle* Horowitz changed his name to Mikhail (\"Mik\") Horowitz, as he was often confused with [Michael Horovitz](/wiki/Michael_Horovitz \"Michael Horovitz\"), a widely published post\\-Beat British poet who was enamored of jazz and who orchestrated the Poetry Olympics in London, and [Michael Horowitz](/wiki/Michael_D._Horowitz \"Michael D. Horowitz\"), author, activist, a friend of [Timothy Leary](/wiki/Timothy_Leary \"Timothy Leary\") and later the father of [Winona Ryder](/wiki/Winona_Ryder \"Winona Ryder\"). The deciding straw was receiving a mistakenly delivered packet of galley proofs from one of [Michael Horovitz](/wiki/Michael_Horovitz \"Michael Horovitz\")’s publishers.", "Beginning in 1973, Horowitz spent five years on the road, mainly on the West Coast, as the 'Null' half of the comic duo Null and Void. 'Void' was his comedic partner Francesco (Frank) Patricolo. Horowitz referred to this collaboration as \"a metaphysical stand\\-up tragedy team.\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Samuels \\|first\\=Renee \\|title\\=Conversation with Mikhail Horowitz \\|url\\=http://www.catskillmtn.org/guide\\-magazine/articles/2005\\-01\\-conversation\\-with\\-mikhail\\-horowitz.html \\|access\\-date\\=November 1, 2010 \\|publisher\\=Catskill Mountain Foundation}} The partnership, but not the friendship, broke up in 1978\\. After this, he continued to perform on his own, with musicians and a variety of performance artists in the Mid\\-Hudson Valley, New York. In 1989, he teamed up with Paris born/American\\-raised [Gilles Malkine](/wiki/Gilles_Malkine \"Gilles Malkine\"), a musician and composer. Malkine performed with [Tim Hardin](/wiki/Tim_Hardin \"Tim Hardin\") at the original [Woodstock Festival](/wiki/Woodstock_Festival \"Woodstock Festival\"), 1969; through the years he worked with many other musicians, including [John Sebastian](/wiki/John_Sebastian \"John Sebastian\") and [Billy Faier](/wiki/Billy_Faier \"Billy Faier\"). Horowitz and Malkine continue to perform together actively into 2009\\. They have presented more than 750 performances in New York, New England, Michigan, Maryland, New Mexico, Oregon, Washington (state), Ohio, and Ontario to date. Their repertoire varies greatly but often contains audience favorites, particularly routines with literary motifs and references to American culture, particularly the 60s/70s and \\[Jewish culture]. In 1978 City Lights books published *Big League Poets*, baseball card collages of imaginary historical and literary baseball players.", "From 1986 through 1999, Horowitz's principal occupation was as a journalist, first with the *Daily Freeman,* a daily serving Kingston, N. Y., and then the *Woodstock Times,* whereas arts editor he was listed on the masthead as \"Cultural Czar.\" From early in his career Horowitz was performing music. He plays blues harmonica and alto, soprano, and sopranino recorders, and occasionally blows [kazoo](/wiki/Kazoo \"Kazoo\"), [pennywhistle](/wiki/Pennywhistle \"Pennywhistle\"), and various wooden flutes. These instruments are a regular part of his performances. He maintains a singularly unique style of recorder playing, as it is cocked to the side of his mouth as one might imagine impish [Pan](/wiki/Pan_%28mythology%29 \"Pan (mythology)\") might hold it.", "As a performance poet and stand\\-up cultural commentator/singer, Horowitz has performed at hundreds of diverse venues, from the [Village Gate](/wiki/Village_Gate \"Village Gate\"), [Westbeth Theater](/wiki/Westbeth_Theater \"Westbeth Theater\"), and the [Image Theater](/wiki/Image_Theater \"Image Theater\"), in New York City with repeated visits to the [92nd Street Y](/wiki/92nd_Street_Y \"92nd Street Y\"); the [Bumbershoot Festival](/wiki/Bumbershoot_Festival \"Bumbershoot Festival\"), [Seattle](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\"), Washington, the Taos Poetry Circus, [Taos, New Mexico](/wiki/Taos%2C_New_Mexico \"Taos, New Mexico\"), a variety of not\\-so orthodox synagogues; the Rosendale Caves, [Rosendale, New York](/wiki/Rosendale%2C_New_York \"Rosendale, New York\"); a headliner at several the Woodstock Poetry Festivals and many other events in Woodstock; Unison, New Paltz, NY; Clearwater Great Hudson River Revival Festival in Croton, New York; and many other locales. His solo poetry, prose, and artwork continue to be published in numerous anthologies, including *City Lights Journal, The Stiffest of the Corpse, The Outlaw Bible of American Poetry,* *Brilliant Corners,* *Elysian Fields Quarterly,* and *Yellow Silk Anthology.* He has collaborated with or shared the bill with, [Charles Mingus](/wiki/Charles_Mingus \"Charles Mingus\"), [Peter \"P.D.Q. Bach\" Schickele](/wiki/Peter_Schickele \"Peter Schickele\"), [Allen Ginsberg](/wiki/Allen_Ginsberg \"Allen Ginsberg\"), [Ed Sanders](/wiki/Ed_Sanders \"Ed Sanders\") \\& [The Fugs](/wiki/The_Fugs \"The Fugs\"), [Robert Bly](/wiki/Robert_Bly \"Robert Bly\"), [Bob Holman](/wiki/Bob_Holman \"Bob Holman\"), [David Amram](/wiki/David_Amram \"David Amram\"), [Marilyn Crispell](/wiki/Marilyn_Crispell \"Marilyn Crispell\"), [Andrei Codrescu](/wiki/Andrei_Codrescu \"Andrei Codrescu\"), [Artie Traum](/wiki/Artie_Traum \"Artie Traum\") and [Happy Traum](/wiki/Happy_Traum \"Happy Traum\"), [Jay Ungar](/wiki/Jay_Ungar \"Jay Ungar\"), [Molly Mason](/wiki/Molly_Mason \"Molly Mason\"), [Phil Donahue](/wiki/Phil_Donahue \"Phil Donahue\"), [Amy Goodman](/wiki/Amy_Goodman \"Amy Goodman\"), [Natalie Merchant](/wiki/Natalie_Merchant \"Natalie Merchant\"), [Kate Pierson](/wiki/Kate_Pierson \"Kate Pierson\") (B\\-52s), [Raoul Vezina](/wiki/Raoul_Vezina \"Raoul Vezina\"), and [Ron Whiteurs](/wiki/Ron_Whiteurs \"Ron Whiteurs\"), among many others. Through the years, Horowitz's stage style and content have been compared to [Lenny Bruce](/wiki/Lenny_Bruce \"Lenny Bruce\"), [Lord Buckley](/wiki/Lord_Buckley \"Lord Buckley\"), and sometimes, mistakenly, to Brother Theodore. Horowitz's style is both more playful and erudite, with a [Shakespearian](/wiki/Shakespearian \"Shakespearian\") penchant for satisfying the audience's predilection for the bawdy.", "As of 1989, Horowitz lived in [Saugerties, New York](/wiki/Saugerties_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Saugerties (village), New York\") with his partner of over 20 years, artist/illustrator Carol Zaloom. He has for several years remained on the editorial staff of Bard College Publications, [Bard College](/wiki/Bard_College \"Bard College\"), [Annandale\\-on\\-Hudson](/wiki/Annandale-on-Hudson \"Annandale-on-Hudson\"), NY. He is a member of Actors \\& Writers, based in [Olivebridge, New York](/wiki/Olivebridge%2C_New_York \"Olivebridge, New York\").", "" ]
Playing career -------------- ### Junior Huberdeau played Midget AAA hockey with the Ste. Eustache Vikings of the Quebec Midget League. He led the league in scoring during the 2008–09 season. After his performance, he was drafted in the first round, 18th overall, in the 2009 [Quebec Major Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Quebec_Major_Junior_Hockey_League "Quebec Major Junior Hockey League") (QMJHL) Midget draft by the [Saint John Sea Dogs](/wiki/Saint_John_Sea_Dogs "Saint John Sea Dogs"). He scored a goal in his first QMJHL game, against the [Acadie–Bathurst Titan](/wiki/Acadie%E2%80%93Bathurst_Titan "Acadie–Bathurst Titan").{{cite web\|title\=Jonathan Huberdeau\|url\=http://www.saintjohnseadogs.com/roster/show/id/7483\|publisher\=Saint John Sea Dogs\|access\-date\=June 3, 2011\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527073133/http://www.saintjohnseadogs.com/roster/show/id/7483\|archive\-date\=May 27, 2011}} Huberdeau was the leading scorer among 16\-year\-olds in the QMJHL for the 2009–10 season, and scored on all six of his shootout attempts. In January 2010, he was named the QMJHL's scholastic player of the month.{{cite web\|title\=National Men's Summer U\-18 Team\|publisher\=\[\[Hockey Canada]]\|format\=pdf\|page\=21\|url\=http://www.hockeycanada.ca/index.php/ci\_id/121838/la\_id/1\.htm\|access\-date\=June 3, 2011}} The Sea Dogs reached the QMJHL finals during Huberdeau's rookie season.{{cite web\|title\=Huberdeau, Jonathan\|url\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/draftprospectdetail.htm?dpid\=9543\|publisher\=\[\[National Hockey League]]\|access\-date\=June 3, 2011}} Prior to the start of the [2010–11 season](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_QMJHL_season "2010–11 QMJHL season"), Huberdeau was 1 of 33 prospects selected to attend the [NHL Research, Development and Orientation Camp](/wiki/NHL_Research%2C_Development_and_Orientation_Camp "NHL Research, Development and Orientation Camp") in August. The prospects were invited to participate to try out potential rule changes the NHL was considering, and also to be briefed with information on security and professionalism to assist with their future careers in the public eye.{{cite web\|title\=Sea Dogs, Rangers Head Prospect List\|url\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/news.htm?id\=536011\|publisher\=\[\[National Hockey League]]\|access\-date\=June 3, 2011}} Huberdeau was considered a solid prospect for the [2011 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2011_NHL_Entry_Draft "2011 NHL Entry Draft") at the start of the 2010–11 QMJHL season, and his strong play helped him move up the rankings. He scored 43 goals and added 62 assists in 67 games for the Sea Dogs. At the end of the 2010–11 season, [NHL Central Scouting](/wiki/NHL_Central_Scouting_Bureau "NHL Central Scouting Bureau") ranked him third among North American skaters, moving up one spot from the mid\-season rankings. Ahead of the NHL draft, Russian\-based club [Vityaz Chekhov](/wiki/HC_Vityaz "HC Vityaz") made Huberdeau the fifth overall selection in the [2011 Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) Junior Draft](/wiki/2011_KHL_Junior_Draft "2011 KHL Junior Draft").{{cite web\|title\=Sea Dogs' Huberdeau chosen fifth in KHL draft\|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=367173\|publisher\=\[\[The Sports Network]]\|date\=May 28, 2011\|access\-date\=June 3, 2011}} After being informed of his selection, Huberdeau said, "For sure, I don't want to go there. I didn't talk to anybody about that."{{cite web\|title\=Huberdeau scratching his head over KHL draft\|url\=http://sports.nationalpost.com/2011/05/29/huberdeau\-scratching\-his\-head\-over\-khl\-draft/\|work\=The National Post\|date\=May 29, 2011\|access\-date\=June 3, 2011\|last\=Fitz\-Gerald\|first\=Sean\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120722023302/http://sports.nationalpost.com/2011/05/29/huberdeau\-scratching\-his\-head\-over\-khl\-draft/\|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-22\|url\-status\=dead}} The Sea Dogs captured the 2011 QMJHL championship and represented the league at the [2011 Memorial Cup](/wiki/2011_Memorial_Cup "2011 Memorial Cup"). At the Memorial Cup tournament, the Sea Dogs earned a bye to the final game after victories in their first two round\-robin games. In the final against the [Mississauga Majors](/wiki/Mississauga_Steelheads "Mississauga Steelheads"), Huberdeau recorded a goal and an assist, helping the Sea Dogs to a 3–1 victory. He was awarded the [Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Stafford_Smythe_Memorial_Trophy "Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy") as the tournament's Most Valuable Player,{{cite web\|title\=Sea Dogs claim the Memorial Cup\|url\=http://www.calgarysun.com/2011/05/29/sea\-dogs\-claim\-the\-memorial\-cup\|work\=Calgary Sun\|last\=Pyette\|first\=Ryan\|date\=May 29, 2011\|access\-date\=June 3, 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601171616/http://www.calgarysun.com/2011/05/29/sea\-dogs\-claim\-the\-memorial\-cup\|archive\-date\=June 1, 2012\|url\-status\=dead}} and was named to the tournament's All\-Star Team.{{cite web\|title\=2011 Mastercard Memorial Cup Individual Award Winners\|url\=http://www.mastercardmemorialcup.com/article/2011\-mastercard\-memorial\-cup\-individual\-award\-winners/99301\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110602010100/http://www.mastercardmemorialcup.com/article/2011\-mastercard\-memorial\-cup\-individual\-award\-winners/99301\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=June 2, 2011\|publisher\=\[\[Canadian Hockey League]]\|date\=May 29, 2011\|access\-date\=June 3, 2011}} Huberdeau was nominated for three QMJHL awards at the end of the season, including the [Michel Brière Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Michel_Bri%C3%A8re_Memorial_Trophy "Michel Brière Memorial Trophy") for Most Valuable Player, the [Mike Bossy Trophy](/wiki/Mike_Bossy_Trophy "Mike Bossy Trophy") as top professional prospect and the [Paul Dumont Trophy](/wiki/Paul_Dumont_Trophy "Paul Dumont Trophy") as the QMJHL's personality of the year.{{cite web\|title\=QMJHL announces finalists for Golden Puck awards\|url\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/blogpost.htm?id\=544\|publisher\=\[\[National Hockey League]]\|date\=March 22, 2011\|access\-date\=June 3, 2011\|last\=Morreale\|first\=Mike G.}} He did not win any of the awards – [Sean Couturier](/wiki/Sean_Couturier "Sean Couturier") was named MVP and top prospect, while [Louis Leblanc](/wiki/Louis_Leblanc "Louis Leblanc") captured the award for personality of the year. Huberdeau was named to the league's First All\-Star Team.{{cite web\|title\=Islanders, Rocket goalie among QMJHL award winners\|url\=http://www.theguardian.pe.ca/Sports/2011\-04\-07/article\-2407976/Islanders,\-Rocket\-goalie\-among\-QMJHL\-award\-winners/1\|work\=The Guardian\|date\=April 7, 2011\|access\-date\=June 3, 2011\|last\=Beacon\|first\=Bill}} ### Professional #### Florida Panthers (2013–2022\) On September 20, 2011, playing in his second NHL pre\-season game for the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers "Florida Panthers"), Huberdeau scored a goal against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators "Nashville Predators"). He played five pre\-season games with the Panthers, tallying three goals and one assist to lead the team in pre\-season scoring before being sent back to Saint John on October 3\. Following the conclusion of the [2012–13 NHL lockout](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_lockout "2012–13 NHL lockout"), Huberdeau made the Panthers starting roster for the [2012–13 season](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_season "2012–13 NHL season"). He scored his first NHL goal on January 19, 2013, against [Cam Ward](/wiki/Cam_Ward "Cam Ward") of the [Carolina Hurricanes](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes "Carolina Hurricanes") on the second shift and first shot of his NHL career. Huberdeau would add two assists in the 5–1 victory to earn the first star of the game in his NHL debut. NHL regulations allowed the Panthers to keep Huberdeau in their lineup for a maximum of five games before they could either return him to his junior team or keep him in Florida. On January 28, 2013, after registering a goal and two assists in five games, the Panthers announced Huberdeau would remain with the Panthers for the remainder of the NHL season.PANTHERS ANNOUNCE HUBERDEAU TO STICK WITH CLUB [https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=414681](https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id=414681) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403173136/http://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=414681\# \|date\=2013\-04\-03 }} As a result of his outstanding rookie season, Huberdeau won the 2013 [Calder Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Calder_Memorial_Trophy "Calder Memorial Trophy").{{cite web\|title\=Panthers F Jonathan Huberdeau Awarded Calder Memorial Trophy\|url\=https://www.nhl.com/panthers/news/panthers\-f\-jonathan\-huberdeau\-awarded\-calder\-memorial\-trophy/c\-674051\|website\=nhl.com\|publisher\=Florida Panthers\|access\-date\=January 31, 2018\|location\=Sunrise, FL\|date\=June 13, 2013}} In the [2014–15 season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_NHL_season "2014–15 NHL season"), Huberdeau scored a career\-high 15 goals and 39 assists (54 points) in 77 games played. After Florida's late\-season acquisition of forward [Jaromír Jágr](/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr_J%C3%A1gr "Jaromír Jágr") from the [New Jersey Devils](/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils "New Jersey Devils"), who was placed on Florida's top line alongside Huberdeau and [Aleksander Barkov](/wiki/Aleksander_Barkov "Aleksander Barkov"), Huberdeau recorded 6 goals and 15 assists (21 points) in 20 games played to finish the season.{{cite news \| last\= Olive \| first\= Jameson \| url\= http://www.foxsports.com/florida/story/florida\-panthers\-jonathan\-huberdeau\-offseason\-player\-profile\-050215 \| title\= Jonathan Huberdeau confident about future after solid season for Panthers \| publisher\= FOX \| date\= May 2, 2015 \| access\-date\= May 30, 2015 }} Huberdeau's assists total (39\) was the most for a Panther since [Stephen Weiss](/wiki/Stephen_Weiss "Stephen Weiss") in [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season "2008–09 NHL season"). At the conclusion of the season, Huberdeau was set to become a restricted free agent. On September 6, 2016, the Panthers signed Huberdeau to a six\-year, $35\.4 million contract averaging $5\.9 million per season. Panthers president of hockey operations [Dale Tallon](/wiki/Dale_Tallon "Dale Tallon") spoke very highly of Huberdeau after the signing, saying, "Jonathan is a highly talented and dynamic player who is another important piece of our team's young core. In each of his last two seasons, he has posted over 50 points and has developed into a key component of our team's offense."{{cite web\|title\=Jonathan Huberdeau signs extension with Panthers\|url\=https://www.nhl.com/news/jonathan\-huberdeau\-signs\-extension\-with\-florida\-panthers/c\-281594998\|website\=NHL.com\|access\-date\=January 31, 2018\|date\=September 7, 2016}} On November 16, 2019, Huberdeau surpassed Stephen Weiss to become the all\-time leader for the Florida Panthers in assists. On April 1, 2022, Huberdeau picked up his 71st assist in the Panthers' 4–0 win over the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks "Chicago Blackhawks"). In doing so, he surpassed [Joé Juneau](/wiki/Jo%C3%A9_Juneau "Joé Juneau")'s previous NHL record (70\) for most assists in a single season by a left\-winger. On April 5, 2022, Huberdeau became the first Panthers player to reach 100 points in a season in the Panthers' 7–6 comeback win against the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs"), with Huberdeau scoring the overtime goal. #### Calgary Flames (2022–present) [thumb\|Huberdeau (right) and [Jamie Oleksiak](/wiki/Jamie_Oleksiak "Jamie Oleksiak") (left) of the [Seattle Kraken](/wiki/Seattle_Kraken "Seattle Kraken") in 2023\.](/wiki/File:Calgary_Flames_at_Seattle_Kraken_-_November_4%2C_2023_-_Jamie_Oleksiak_and_Jonathan_Huberdeau_%2853312068821%29.jpg "Calgary Flames at Seattle Kraken - November 4, 2023 - Jamie Oleksiak and Jonathan Huberdeau (53312068821).jpg") On July 22, 2022, Huberdeau, along with [MacKenzie Weegar](/wiki/MacKenzie_Weegar "MacKenzie Weegar"), [Cole Schwindt](/wiki/Cole_Schwindt "Cole Schwindt"), and a 2025 conditional first\-round draft pick, were traded to the [Calgary Flames](/wiki/Calgary_Flames "Calgary Flames") for [Matthew Tkachuk](/wiki/Matthew_Tkachuk "Matthew Tkachuk") and a conditional fourth\-round draft pick.{{cite web\| url \= https://www.tsn.ca/matthew\-tkachuk\-trade\-florida\-panthers\-calgary\-flames\-1\.1828430 \| title \= Panthers acquire Tkachuk from Flames in blockbuster for Huberdeau, Weegar \| publisher \= \[\[The Sports Network]] \| date \= July 22, 2022 \| accessdate \= July 22, 2022}} On August 3, Huberdeau signed an eight\-year, $84 million contract extension with the Flames, carrying an average annual value of $10\.5 million.{{Cite web \|author\=TSN ca Staff \|date\=2022\-08\-04 \|title\=Flames sign Huberdeau to eight\-year, $84 million contract \- TSN.ca \|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/jonathan\-huberdeau\-calgary\-flames\-contract\-1\.1833048 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-05 \|website\=TSN \|language\=en}} It was the largest contract in Flames' franchise history, surpassing [Sean Monahan](/wiki/Sean_Monahan "Sean Monahan")'s $44\.625 million contract signed in 2016\. Huberdeau's point production during the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_NHL_season "2022–23 NHL season") took a significant dip from his previous season with the Florida Panthers, setting an NHL record for the biggest point drop off in NHL history between seasons; falling from 115 points in [2021–22](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_NHL_season "2021–22 NHL season"), to 55 points the next season{{snd}}his lowest points production for a full season since {{nhly\|2014}}.{{efn\|Huberdeau missed more than half of the {{nhly\|2016\|app\=season}}, scoring just 26 points.}}{{cite web \|last1\=MacKinnon \|first1\=John \|title\=Jonathan Huberdeau sets tragic NHL record for biggest point drop between seasons \|url\=https://thewincolumn.ca/2023/04/12/jonathan\-huberdeau\-sets\-tragic\-nhl\-record\-for\-biggest\-point\-drop\-between\-seasons/ \|access\-date\=October 20, 2023 \|date\=April 12, 2023}}
[ "Playing career\n--------------", "### Junior", "Huberdeau played Midget AAA hockey with the Ste. Eustache Vikings of the Quebec Midget League. He led the league in scoring during the 2008–09 season. After his performance, he was drafted in the first round, 18th overall, in the 2009 [Quebec Major Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Quebec_Major_Junior_Hockey_League \"Quebec Major Junior Hockey League\") (QMJHL) Midget draft by the [Saint John Sea Dogs](/wiki/Saint_John_Sea_Dogs \"Saint John Sea Dogs\"). He scored a goal in his first QMJHL game, against the [Acadie–Bathurst Titan](/wiki/Acadie%E2%80%93Bathurst_Titan \"Acadie–Bathurst Titan\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Jonathan Huberdeau\\|url\\=http://www.saintjohnseadogs.com/roster/show/id/7483\\|publisher\\=Saint John Sea Dogs\\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527073133/http://www.saintjohnseadogs.com/roster/show/id/7483\\|archive\\-date\\=May 27, 2011}} Huberdeau was the leading scorer among 16\\-year\\-olds in the QMJHL for the 2009–10 season, and scored on all six of his shootout attempts. In January 2010, he was named the QMJHL's scholastic player of the month.{{cite web\\|title\\=National Men's Summer U\\-18 Team\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Hockey Canada]]\\|format\\=pdf\\|page\\=21\\|url\\=http://www.hockeycanada.ca/index.php/ci\\_id/121838/la\\_id/1\\.htm\\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2011}} The Sea Dogs reached the QMJHL finals during Huberdeau's rookie season.{{cite web\\|title\\=Huberdeau, Jonathan\\|url\\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/draftprospectdetail.htm?dpid\\=9543\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Hockey League]]\\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2011}}", "Prior to the start of the [2010–11 season](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_QMJHL_season \"2010–11 QMJHL season\"), Huberdeau was 1 of 33 prospects selected to attend the [NHL Research, Development and Orientation Camp](/wiki/NHL_Research%2C_Development_and_Orientation_Camp \"NHL Research, Development and Orientation Camp\") in August. The prospects were invited to participate to try out potential rule changes the NHL was considering, and also to be briefed with information on security and professionalism to assist with their future careers in the public eye.{{cite web\\|title\\=Sea Dogs, Rangers Head Prospect List\\|url\\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/news.htm?id\\=536011\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Hockey League]]\\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2011}}", "Huberdeau was considered a solid prospect for the [2011 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/2011_NHL_Entry_Draft \"2011 NHL Entry Draft\") at the start of the 2010–11 QMJHL season, and his strong play helped him move up the rankings. He scored 43 goals and added 62 assists in 67 games for the Sea Dogs. At the end of the 2010–11 season, [NHL Central Scouting](/wiki/NHL_Central_Scouting_Bureau \"NHL Central Scouting Bureau\") ranked him third among North American skaters, moving up one spot from the mid\\-season rankings. Ahead of the NHL draft, Russian\\-based club [Vityaz Chekhov](/wiki/HC_Vityaz \"HC Vityaz\") made Huberdeau the fifth overall selection in the [2011 Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) Junior Draft](/wiki/2011_KHL_Junior_Draft \"2011 KHL Junior Draft\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Sea Dogs' Huberdeau chosen fifth in KHL draft\\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=367173\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Sports Network]]\\|date\\=May 28, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2011}} After being informed of his selection, Huberdeau said, \"For sure, I don't want to go there. I didn't talk to anybody about that.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Huberdeau scratching his head over KHL draft\\|url\\=http://sports.nationalpost.com/2011/05/29/huberdeau\\-scratching\\-his\\-head\\-over\\-khl\\-draft/\\|work\\=The National Post\\|date\\=May 29, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2011\\|last\\=Fitz\\-Gerald\\|first\\=Sean\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120722023302/http://sports.nationalpost.com/2011/05/29/huberdeau\\-scratching\\-his\\-head\\-over\\-khl\\-draft/\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-22\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "The Sea Dogs captured the 2011 QMJHL championship and represented the league at the [2011 Memorial Cup](/wiki/2011_Memorial_Cup \"2011 Memorial Cup\"). At the Memorial Cup tournament, the Sea Dogs earned a bye to the final game after victories in their first two round\\-robin games. In the final against the [Mississauga Majors](/wiki/Mississauga_Steelheads \"Mississauga Steelheads\"), Huberdeau recorded a goal and an assist, helping the Sea Dogs to a 3–1 victory. He was awarded the [Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Stafford_Smythe_Memorial_Trophy \"Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy\") as the tournament's Most Valuable Player,{{cite web\\|title\\=Sea Dogs claim the Memorial Cup\\|url\\=http://www.calgarysun.com/2011/05/29/sea\\-dogs\\-claim\\-the\\-memorial\\-cup\\|work\\=Calgary Sun\\|last\\=Pyette\\|first\\=Ryan\\|date\\=May 29, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601171616/http://www.calgarysun.com/2011/05/29/sea\\-dogs\\-claim\\-the\\-memorial\\-cup\\|archive\\-date\\=June 1, 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} and was named to the tournament's All\\-Star Team.{{cite web\\|title\\=2011 Mastercard Memorial Cup Individual Award Winners\\|url\\=http://www.mastercardmemorialcup.com/article/2011\\-mastercard\\-memorial\\-cup\\-individual\\-award\\-winners/99301\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110602010100/http://www.mastercardmemorialcup.com/article/2011\\-mastercard\\-memorial\\-cup\\-individual\\-award\\-winners/99301\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=June 2, 2011\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Canadian Hockey League]]\\|date\\=May 29, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2011}}", "Huberdeau was nominated for three QMJHL awards at the end of the season, including the [Michel Brière Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Michel_Bri%C3%A8re_Memorial_Trophy \"Michel Brière Memorial Trophy\") for Most Valuable Player, the [Mike Bossy Trophy](/wiki/Mike_Bossy_Trophy \"Mike Bossy Trophy\") as top professional prospect and the [Paul Dumont Trophy](/wiki/Paul_Dumont_Trophy \"Paul Dumont Trophy\") as the QMJHL's personality of the year.{{cite web\\|title\\=QMJHL announces finalists for Golden Puck awards\\|url\\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/blogpost.htm?id\\=544\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Hockey League]]\\|date\\=March 22, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2011\\|last\\=Morreale\\|first\\=Mike G.}} He did not win any of the awards – [Sean Couturier](/wiki/Sean_Couturier \"Sean Couturier\") was named MVP and top prospect, while [Louis Leblanc](/wiki/Louis_Leblanc \"Louis Leblanc\") captured the award for personality of the year. Huberdeau was named to the league's First All\\-Star Team.{{cite web\\|title\\=Islanders, Rocket goalie among QMJHL award winners\\|url\\=http://www.theguardian.pe.ca/Sports/2011\\-04\\-07/article\\-2407976/Islanders,\\-Rocket\\-goalie\\-among\\-QMJHL\\-award\\-winners/1\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|date\\=April 7, 2011\\|access\\-date\\=June 3, 2011\\|last\\=Beacon\\|first\\=Bill}}", "### Professional", "#### Florida Panthers (2013–2022\\)", "On September 20, 2011, playing in his second NHL pre\\-season game for the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers \"Florida Panthers\"), Huberdeau scored a goal against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators \"Nashville Predators\"). He played five pre\\-season games with the Panthers, tallying three goals and one assist to lead the team in pre\\-season scoring before being sent back to Saint John on October 3\\.", "Following the conclusion of the [2012–13 NHL lockout](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_lockout \"2012–13 NHL lockout\"), Huberdeau made the Panthers starting roster for the [2012–13 season](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_season \"2012–13 NHL season\"). He scored his first NHL goal on January 19, 2013, against [Cam Ward](/wiki/Cam_Ward \"Cam Ward\") of the [Carolina Hurricanes](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes \"Carolina Hurricanes\") on the second shift and first shot of his NHL career. Huberdeau would add two assists in the 5–1 victory to earn the first star of the game in his NHL debut. NHL regulations allowed the Panthers to keep Huberdeau in their lineup for a maximum of five games before they could either return him to his junior team or keep him in Florida. On January 28, 2013, after registering a goal and two assists in five games, the Panthers announced Huberdeau would remain with the Panthers for the remainder of the NHL season.PANTHERS ANNOUNCE HUBERDEAU TO STICK WITH CLUB [https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=414681](https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id=414681) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403173136/http://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=414681\\# \\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-03 }} As a result of his outstanding rookie season, Huberdeau won the 2013 [Calder Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Calder_Memorial_Trophy \"Calder Memorial Trophy\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Panthers F Jonathan Huberdeau Awarded Calder Memorial Trophy\\|url\\=https://www.nhl.com/panthers/news/panthers\\-f\\-jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-awarded\\-calder\\-memorial\\-trophy/c\\-674051\\|website\\=nhl.com\\|publisher\\=Florida Panthers\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2018\\|location\\=Sunrise, FL\\|date\\=June 13, 2013}}", "In the [2014–15 season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_NHL_season \"2014–15 NHL season\"), Huberdeau scored a career\\-high 15 goals and 39 assists (54 points) in 77 games played. After Florida's late\\-season acquisition of forward [Jaromír Jágr](/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr_J%C3%A1gr \"Jaromír Jágr\") from the [New Jersey Devils](/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils \"New Jersey Devils\"), who was placed on Florida's top line alongside Huberdeau and [Aleksander Barkov](/wiki/Aleksander_Barkov \"Aleksander Barkov\"), Huberdeau recorded 6 goals and 15 assists (21 points) in 20 games played to finish the season.{{cite news \\| last\\= Olive \\| first\\= Jameson \\| url\\= http://www.foxsports.com/florida/story/florida\\-panthers\\-jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-offseason\\-player\\-profile\\-050215 \\| title\\= Jonathan Huberdeau confident about future after solid season for Panthers \\| publisher\\= FOX \\| date\\= May 2, 2015 \\| access\\-date\\= May 30, 2015 }} Huberdeau's assists total (39\\) was the most for a Panther since [Stephen Weiss](/wiki/Stephen_Weiss \"Stephen Weiss\") in [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season \"2008–09 NHL season\"). At the conclusion of the season, Huberdeau was set to become a restricted free agent.", "On September 6, 2016, the Panthers signed Huberdeau to a six\\-year, $35\\.4 million contract averaging $5\\.9 million per season. Panthers president of hockey operations [Dale Tallon](/wiki/Dale_Tallon \"Dale Tallon\") spoke very highly of Huberdeau after the signing, saying, \"Jonathan is a highly talented and dynamic player who is another important piece of our team's young core. In each of his last two seasons, he has posted over 50 points and has developed into a key component of our team's offense.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Jonathan Huberdeau signs extension with Panthers\\|url\\=https://www.nhl.com/news/jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-signs\\-extension\\-with\\-florida\\-panthers/c\\-281594998\\|website\\=NHL.com\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2018\\|date\\=September 7, 2016}}", "On November 16, 2019, Huberdeau surpassed Stephen Weiss to become the all\\-time leader for the Florida Panthers in assists.", "On April 1, 2022, Huberdeau picked up his 71st assist in the Panthers' 4–0 win over the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks \"Chicago Blackhawks\"). In doing so, he surpassed [Joé Juneau](/wiki/Jo%C3%A9_Juneau \"Joé Juneau\")'s previous NHL record (70\\) for most assists in a single season by a left\\-winger.", "On April 5, 2022, Huberdeau became the first Panthers player to reach 100 points in a season in the Panthers' 7–6 comeback win against the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\"), with Huberdeau scoring the overtime goal.", "#### Calgary Flames (2022–present)", "[thumb\\|Huberdeau (right) and [Jamie Oleksiak](/wiki/Jamie_Oleksiak \"Jamie Oleksiak\") (left) of the [Seattle Kraken](/wiki/Seattle_Kraken \"Seattle Kraken\") in 2023\\.](/wiki/File:Calgary_Flames_at_Seattle_Kraken_-_November_4%2C_2023_-_Jamie_Oleksiak_and_Jonathan_Huberdeau_%2853312068821%29.jpg \"Calgary Flames at Seattle Kraken - November 4, 2023 - Jamie Oleksiak and Jonathan Huberdeau (53312068821).jpg\")\nOn July 22, 2022, Huberdeau, along with [MacKenzie Weegar](/wiki/MacKenzie_Weegar \"MacKenzie Weegar\"), [Cole Schwindt](/wiki/Cole_Schwindt \"Cole Schwindt\"), and a 2025 conditional first\\-round draft pick, were traded to the [Calgary Flames](/wiki/Calgary_Flames \"Calgary Flames\") for [Matthew Tkachuk](/wiki/Matthew_Tkachuk \"Matthew Tkachuk\") and a conditional fourth\\-round draft pick.{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.tsn.ca/matthew\\-tkachuk\\-trade\\-florida\\-panthers\\-calgary\\-flames\\-1\\.1828430 \\| title \\= Panthers acquire Tkachuk from Flames in blockbuster for Huberdeau, Weegar \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[The Sports Network]] \\| date \\= July 22, 2022 \\| accessdate \\= July 22, 2022}} On August 3, Huberdeau signed an eight\\-year, $84 million contract extension with the Flames, carrying an average annual value of $10\\.5 million.{{Cite web \\|author\\=TSN ca Staff \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-04 \\|title\\=Flames sign Huberdeau to eight\\-year, $84 million contract \\- TSN.ca \\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-calgary\\-flames\\-contract\\-1\\.1833048 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-05 \\|website\\=TSN \\|language\\=en}} It was the largest contract in Flames' franchise history, surpassing [Sean Monahan](/wiki/Sean_Monahan \"Sean Monahan\")'s $44\\.625 million contract signed in 2016\\.", "Huberdeau's point production during the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_NHL_season \"2022–23 NHL season\") took a significant dip from his previous season with the Florida Panthers, setting an NHL record for the biggest point drop off in NHL history between seasons; falling from 115 points in [2021–22](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_NHL_season \"2021–22 NHL season\"), to 55 points the next season{{snd}}his lowest points production for a full season since {{nhly\\|2014}}.{{efn\\|Huberdeau missed more than half of the {{nhly\\|2016\\|app\\=season}}, scoring just 26 points.}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=MacKinnon \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=Jonathan Huberdeau sets tragic NHL record for biggest point drop between seasons \\|url\\=https://thewincolumn.ca/2023/04/12/jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-sets\\-tragic\\-nhl\\-record\\-for\\-biggest\\-point\\-drop\\-between\\-seasons/ \\|access\\-date\\=October 20, 2023 \\|date\\=April 12, 2023}}", "" ]
### Professional #### Florida Panthers (2013–2022\) On September 20, 2011, playing in his second NHL pre\-season game for the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers "Florida Panthers"), Huberdeau scored a goal against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators "Nashville Predators"). He played five pre\-season games with the Panthers, tallying three goals and one assist to lead the team in pre\-season scoring before being sent back to Saint John on October 3\. Following the conclusion of the [2012–13 NHL lockout](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_lockout "2012–13 NHL lockout"), Huberdeau made the Panthers starting roster for the [2012–13 season](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_season "2012–13 NHL season"). He scored his first NHL goal on January 19, 2013, against [Cam Ward](/wiki/Cam_Ward "Cam Ward") of the [Carolina Hurricanes](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes "Carolina Hurricanes") on the second shift and first shot of his NHL career. Huberdeau would add two assists in the 5–1 victory to earn the first star of the game in his NHL debut. NHL regulations allowed the Panthers to keep Huberdeau in their lineup for a maximum of five games before they could either return him to his junior team or keep him in Florida. On January 28, 2013, after registering a goal and two assists in five games, the Panthers announced Huberdeau would remain with the Panthers for the remainder of the NHL season.PANTHERS ANNOUNCE HUBERDEAU TO STICK WITH CLUB [https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=414681](https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id=414681) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403173136/http://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=414681\# \|date\=2013\-04\-03 }} As a result of his outstanding rookie season, Huberdeau won the 2013 [Calder Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Calder_Memorial_Trophy "Calder Memorial Trophy").{{cite web\|title\=Panthers F Jonathan Huberdeau Awarded Calder Memorial Trophy\|url\=https://www.nhl.com/panthers/news/panthers\-f\-jonathan\-huberdeau\-awarded\-calder\-memorial\-trophy/c\-674051\|website\=nhl.com\|publisher\=Florida Panthers\|access\-date\=January 31, 2018\|location\=Sunrise, FL\|date\=June 13, 2013}} In the [2014–15 season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_NHL_season "2014–15 NHL season"), Huberdeau scored a career\-high 15 goals and 39 assists (54 points) in 77 games played. After Florida's late\-season acquisition of forward [Jaromír Jágr](/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr_J%C3%A1gr "Jaromír Jágr") from the [New Jersey Devils](/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils "New Jersey Devils"), who was placed on Florida's top line alongside Huberdeau and [Aleksander Barkov](/wiki/Aleksander_Barkov "Aleksander Barkov"), Huberdeau recorded 6 goals and 15 assists (21 points) in 20 games played to finish the season.{{cite news \| last\= Olive \| first\= Jameson \| url\= http://www.foxsports.com/florida/story/florida\-panthers\-jonathan\-huberdeau\-offseason\-player\-profile\-050215 \| title\= Jonathan Huberdeau confident about future after solid season for Panthers \| publisher\= FOX \| date\= May 2, 2015 \| access\-date\= May 30, 2015 }} Huberdeau's assists total (39\) was the most for a Panther since [Stephen Weiss](/wiki/Stephen_Weiss "Stephen Weiss") in [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season "2008–09 NHL season"). At the conclusion of the season, Huberdeau was set to become a restricted free agent. On September 6, 2016, the Panthers signed Huberdeau to a six\-year, $35\.4 million contract averaging $5\.9 million per season. Panthers president of hockey operations [Dale Tallon](/wiki/Dale_Tallon "Dale Tallon") spoke very highly of Huberdeau after the signing, saying, "Jonathan is a highly talented and dynamic player who is another important piece of our team's young core. In each of his last two seasons, he has posted over 50 points and has developed into a key component of our team's offense."{{cite web\|title\=Jonathan Huberdeau signs extension with Panthers\|url\=https://www.nhl.com/news/jonathan\-huberdeau\-signs\-extension\-with\-florida\-panthers/c\-281594998\|website\=NHL.com\|access\-date\=January 31, 2018\|date\=September 7, 2016}} On November 16, 2019, Huberdeau surpassed Stephen Weiss to become the all\-time leader for the Florida Panthers in assists. On April 1, 2022, Huberdeau picked up his 71st assist in the Panthers' 4–0 win over the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks "Chicago Blackhawks"). In doing so, he surpassed [Joé Juneau](/wiki/Jo%C3%A9_Juneau "Joé Juneau")'s previous NHL record (70\) for most assists in a single season by a left\-winger. On April 5, 2022, Huberdeau became the first Panthers player to reach 100 points in a season in the Panthers' 7–6 comeback win against the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs"), with Huberdeau scoring the overtime goal. #### Calgary Flames (2022–present) [thumb\|Huberdeau (right) and [Jamie Oleksiak](/wiki/Jamie_Oleksiak "Jamie Oleksiak") (left) of the [Seattle Kraken](/wiki/Seattle_Kraken "Seattle Kraken") in 2023\.](/wiki/File:Calgary_Flames_at_Seattle_Kraken_-_November_4%2C_2023_-_Jamie_Oleksiak_and_Jonathan_Huberdeau_%2853312068821%29.jpg "Calgary Flames at Seattle Kraken - November 4, 2023 - Jamie Oleksiak and Jonathan Huberdeau (53312068821).jpg") On July 22, 2022, Huberdeau, along with [MacKenzie Weegar](/wiki/MacKenzie_Weegar "MacKenzie Weegar"), [Cole Schwindt](/wiki/Cole_Schwindt "Cole Schwindt"), and a 2025 conditional first\-round draft pick, were traded to the [Calgary Flames](/wiki/Calgary_Flames "Calgary Flames") for [Matthew Tkachuk](/wiki/Matthew_Tkachuk "Matthew Tkachuk") and a conditional fourth\-round draft pick.{{cite web\| url \= https://www.tsn.ca/matthew\-tkachuk\-trade\-florida\-panthers\-calgary\-flames\-1\.1828430 \| title \= Panthers acquire Tkachuk from Flames in blockbuster for Huberdeau, Weegar \| publisher \= \[\[The Sports Network]] \| date \= July 22, 2022 \| accessdate \= July 22, 2022}} On August 3, Huberdeau signed an eight\-year, $84 million contract extension with the Flames, carrying an average annual value of $10\.5 million.{{Cite web \|author\=TSN ca Staff \|date\=2022\-08\-04 \|title\=Flames sign Huberdeau to eight\-year, $84 million contract \- TSN.ca \|url\=https://www.tsn.ca/jonathan\-huberdeau\-calgary\-flames\-contract\-1\.1833048 \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-05 \|website\=TSN \|language\=en}} It was the largest contract in Flames' franchise history, surpassing [Sean Monahan](/wiki/Sean_Monahan "Sean Monahan")'s $44\.625 million contract signed in 2016\. Huberdeau's point production during the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_NHL_season "2022–23 NHL season") took a significant dip from his previous season with the Florida Panthers, setting an NHL record for the biggest point drop off in NHL history between seasons; falling from 115 points in [2021–22](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_NHL_season "2021–22 NHL season"), to 55 points the next season{{snd}}his lowest points production for a full season since {{nhly\|2014}}.{{efn\|Huberdeau missed more than half of the {{nhly\|2016\|app\=season}}, scoring just 26 points.}}{{cite web \|last1\=MacKinnon \|first1\=John \|title\=Jonathan Huberdeau sets tragic NHL record for biggest point drop between seasons \|url\=https://thewincolumn.ca/2023/04/12/jonathan\-huberdeau\-sets\-tragic\-nhl\-record\-for\-biggest\-point\-drop\-between\-seasons/ \|access\-date\=October 20, 2023 \|date\=April 12, 2023}}
[ "### Professional", "#### Florida Panthers (2013–2022\\)", "On September 20, 2011, playing in his second NHL pre\\-season game for the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers \"Florida Panthers\"), Huberdeau scored a goal against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators \"Nashville Predators\"). He played five pre\\-season games with the Panthers, tallying three goals and one assist to lead the team in pre\\-season scoring before being sent back to Saint John on October 3\\.", "Following the conclusion of the [2012–13 NHL lockout](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_lockout \"2012–13 NHL lockout\"), Huberdeau made the Panthers starting roster for the [2012–13 season](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_season \"2012–13 NHL season\"). He scored his first NHL goal on January 19, 2013, against [Cam Ward](/wiki/Cam_Ward \"Cam Ward\") of the [Carolina Hurricanes](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes \"Carolina Hurricanes\") on the second shift and first shot of his NHL career. Huberdeau would add two assists in the 5–1 victory to earn the first star of the game in his NHL debut. NHL regulations allowed the Panthers to keep Huberdeau in their lineup for a maximum of five games before they could either return him to his junior team or keep him in Florida. On January 28, 2013, after registering a goal and two assists in five games, the Panthers announced Huberdeau would remain with the Panthers for the remainder of the NHL season.PANTHERS ANNOUNCE HUBERDEAU TO STICK WITH CLUB [https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=414681](https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id=414681) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403173136/http://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=414681\\# \\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-03 }} As a result of his outstanding rookie season, Huberdeau won the 2013 [Calder Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Calder_Memorial_Trophy \"Calder Memorial Trophy\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Panthers F Jonathan Huberdeau Awarded Calder Memorial Trophy\\|url\\=https://www.nhl.com/panthers/news/panthers\\-f\\-jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-awarded\\-calder\\-memorial\\-trophy/c\\-674051\\|website\\=nhl.com\\|publisher\\=Florida Panthers\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2018\\|location\\=Sunrise, FL\\|date\\=June 13, 2013}}", "In the [2014–15 season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_NHL_season \"2014–15 NHL season\"), Huberdeau scored a career\\-high 15 goals and 39 assists (54 points) in 77 games played. After Florida's late\\-season acquisition of forward [Jaromír Jágr](/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr_J%C3%A1gr \"Jaromír Jágr\") from the [New Jersey Devils](/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils \"New Jersey Devils\"), who was placed on Florida's top line alongside Huberdeau and [Aleksander Barkov](/wiki/Aleksander_Barkov \"Aleksander Barkov\"), Huberdeau recorded 6 goals and 15 assists (21 points) in 20 games played to finish the season.{{cite news \\| last\\= Olive \\| first\\= Jameson \\| url\\= http://www.foxsports.com/florida/story/florida\\-panthers\\-jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-offseason\\-player\\-profile\\-050215 \\| title\\= Jonathan Huberdeau confident about future after solid season for Panthers \\| publisher\\= FOX \\| date\\= May 2, 2015 \\| access\\-date\\= May 30, 2015 }} Huberdeau's assists total (39\\) was the most for a Panther since [Stephen Weiss](/wiki/Stephen_Weiss \"Stephen Weiss\") in [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season \"2008–09 NHL season\"). At the conclusion of the season, Huberdeau was set to become a restricted free agent.", "On September 6, 2016, the Panthers signed Huberdeau to a six\\-year, $35\\.4 million contract averaging $5\\.9 million per season. Panthers president of hockey operations [Dale Tallon](/wiki/Dale_Tallon \"Dale Tallon\") spoke very highly of Huberdeau after the signing, saying, \"Jonathan is a highly talented and dynamic player who is another important piece of our team's young core. In each of his last two seasons, he has posted over 50 points and has developed into a key component of our team's offense.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Jonathan Huberdeau signs extension with Panthers\\|url\\=https://www.nhl.com/news/jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-signs\\-extension\\-with\\-florida\\-panthers/c\\-281594998\\|website\\=NHL.com\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2018\\|date\\=September 7, 2016}}", "On November 16, 2019, Huberdeau surpassed Stephen Weiss to become the all\\-time leader for the Florida Panthers in assists.", "On April 1, 2022, Huberdeau picked up his 71st assist in the Panthers' 4–0 win over the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks \"Chicago Blackhawks\"). In doing so, he surpassed [Joé Juneau](/wiki/Jo%C3%A9_Juneau \"Joé Juneau\")'s previous NHL record (70\\) for most assists in a single season by a left\\-winger.", "On April 5, 2022, Huberdeau became the first Panthers player to reach 100 points in a season in the Panthers' 7–6 comeback win against the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\"), with Huberdeau scoring the overtime goal.", "#### Calgary Flames (2022–present)", "[thumb\\|Huberdeau (right) and [Jamie Oleksiak](/wiki/Jamie_Oleksiak \"Jamie Oleksiak\") (left) of the [Seattle Kraken](/wiki/Seattle_Kraken \"Seattle Kraken\") in 2023\\.](/wiki/File:Calgary_Flames_at_Seattle_Kraken_-_November_4%2C_2023_-_Jamie_Oleksiak_and_Jonathan_Huberdeau_%2853312068821%29.jpg \"Calgary Flames at Seattle Kraken - November 4, 2023 - Jamie Oleksiak and Jonathan Huberdeau (53312068821).jpg\")\nOn July 22, 2022, Huberdeau, along with [MacKenzie Weegar](/wiki/MacKenzie_Weegar \"MacKenzie Weegar\"), [Cole Schwindt](/wiki/Cole_Schwindt \"Cole Schwindt\"), and a 2025 conditional first\\-round draft pick, were traded to the [Calgary Flames](/wiki/Calgary_Flames \"Calgary Flames\") for [Matthew Tkachuk](/wiki/Matthew_Tkachuk \"Matthew Tkachuk\") and a conditional fourth\\-round draft pick.{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.tsn.ca/matthew\\-tkachuk\\-trade\\-florida\\-panthers\\-calgary\\-flames\\-1\\.1828430 \\| title \\= Panthers acquire Tkachuk from Flames in blockbuster for Huberdeau, Weegar \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[The Sports Network]] \\| date \\= July 22, 2022 \\| accessdate \\= July 22, 2022}} On August 3, Huberdeau signed an eight\\-year, $84 million contract extension with the Flames, carrying an average annual value of $10\\.5 million.{{Cite web \\|author\\=TSN ca Staff \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-04 \\|title\\=Flames sign Huberdeau to eight\\-year, $84 million contract \\- TSN.ca \\|url\\=https://www.tsn.ca/jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-calgary\\-flames\\-contract\\-1\\.1833048 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-05 \\|website\\=TSN \\|language\\=en}} It was the largest contract in Flames' franchise history, surpassing [Sean Monahan](/wiki/Sean_Monahan \"Sean Monahan\")'s $44\\.625 million contract signed in 2016\\.", "Huberdeau's point production during the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_NHL_season \"2022–23 NHL season\") took a significant dip from his previous season with the Florida Panthers, setting an NHL record for the biggest point drop off in NHL history between seasons; falling from 115 points in [2021–22](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_NHL_season \"2021–22 NHL season\"), to 55 points the next season{{snd}}his lowest points production for a full season since {{nhly\\|2014}}.{{efn\\|Huberdeau missed more than half of the {{nhly\\|2016\\|app\\=season}}, scoring just 26 points.}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=MacKinnon \\|first1\\=John \\|title\\=Jonathan Huberdeau sets tragic NHL record for biggest point drop between seasons \\|url\\=https://thewincolumn.ca/2023/04/12/jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-sets\\-tragic\\-nhl\\-record\\-for\\-biggest\\-point\\-drop\\-between\\-seasons/ \\|access\\-date\\=October 20, 2023 \\|date\\=April 12, 2023}}", "" ]
#### Florida Panthers (2013–2022\) On September 20, 2011, playing in his second NHL pre\-season game for the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers "Florida Panthers"), Huberdeau scored a goal against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators "Nashville Predators"). He played five pre\-season games with the Panthers, tallying three goals and one assist to lead the team in pre\-season scoring before being sent back to Saint John on October 3\. Following the conclusion of the [2012–13 NHL lockout](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_lockout "2012–13 NHL lockout"), Huberdeau made the Panthers starting roster for the [2012–13 season](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_season "2012–13 NHL season"). He scored his first NHL goal on January 19, 2013, against [Cam Ward](/wiki/Cam_Ward "Cam Ward") of the [Carolina Hurricanes](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes "Carolina Hurricanes") on the second shift and first shot of his NHL career. Huberdeau would add two assists in the 5–1 victory to earn the first star of the game in his NHL debut. NHL regulations allowed the Panthers to keep Huberdeau in their lineup for a maximum of five games before they could either return him to his junior team or keep him in Florida. On January 28, 2013, after registering a goal and two assists in five games, the Panthers announced Huberdeau would remain with the Panthers for the remainder of the NHL season.PANTHERS ANNOUNCE HUBERDEAU TO STICK WITH CLUB [https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=414681](https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id=414681) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403173136/http://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=414681\# \|date\=2013\-04\-03 }} As a result of his outstanding rookie season, Huberdeau won the 2013 [Calder Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Calder_Memorial_Trophy "Calder Memorial Trophy").{{cite web\|title\=Panthers F Jonathan Huberdeau Awarded Calder Memorial Trophy\|url\=https://www.nhl.com/panthers/news/panthers\-f\-jonathan\-huberdeau\-awarded\-calder\-memorial\-trophy/c\-674051\|website\=nhl.com\|publisher\=Florida Panthers\|access\-date\=January 31, 2018\|location\=Sunrise, FL\|date\=June 13, 2013}} In the [2014–15 season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_NHL_season "2014–15 NHL season"), Huberdeau scored a career\-high 15 goals and 39 assists (54 points) in 77 games played. After Florida's late\-season acquisition of forward [Jaromír Jágr](/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr_J%C3%A1gr "Jaromír Jágr") from the [New Jersey Devils](/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils "New Jersey Devils"), who was placed on Florida's top line alongside Huberdeau and [Aleksander Barkov](/wiki/Aleksander_Barkov "Aleksander Barkov"), Huberdeau recorded 6 goals and 15 assists (21 points) in 20 games played to finish the season.{{cite news \| last\= Olive \| first\= Jameson \| url\= http://www.foxsports.com/florida/story/florida\-panthers\-jonathan\-huberdeau\-offseason\-player\-profile\-050215 \| title\= Jonathan Huberdeau confident about future after solid season for Panthers \| publisher\= FOX \| date\= May 2, 2015 \| access\-date\= May 30, 2015 }} Huberdeau's assists total (39\) was the most for a Panther since [Stephen Weiss](/wiki/Stephen_Weiss "Stephen Weiss") in [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season "2008–09 NHL season"). At the conclusion of the season, Huberdeau was set to become a restricted free agent. On September 6, 2016, the Panthers signed Huberdeau to a six\-year, $35\.4 million contract averaging $5\.9 million per season. Panthers president of hockey operations [Dale Tallon](/wiki/Dale_Tallon "Dale Tallon") spoke very highly of Huberdeau after the signing, saying, "Jonathan is a highly talented and dynamic player who is another important piece of our team's young core. In each of his last two seasons, he has posted over 50 points and has developed into a key component of our team's offense."{{cite web\|title\=Jonathan Huberdeau signs extension with Panthers\|url\=https://www.nhl.com/news/jonathan\-huberdeau\-signs\-extension\-with\-florida\-panthers/c\-281594998\|website\=NHL.com\|access\-date\=January 31, 2018\|date\=September 7, 2016}} On November 16, 2019, Huberdeau surpassed Stephen Weiss to become the all\-time leader for the Florida Panthers in assists. On April 1, 2022, Huberdeau picked up his 71st assist in the Panthers' 4–0 win over the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks "Chicago Blackhawks"). In doing so, he surpassed [Joé Juneau](/wiki/Jo%C3%A9_Juneau "Joé Juneau")'s previous NHL record (70\) for most assists in a single season by a left\-winger. On April 5, 2022, Huberdeau became the first Panthers player to reach 100 points in a season in the Panthers' 7–6 comeback win against the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs"), with Huberdeau scoring the overtime goal.
[ "#### Florida Panthers (2013–2022\\)", "On September 20, 2011, playing in his second NHL pre\\-season game for the [Florida Panthers](/wiki/Florida_Panthers \"Florida Panthers\"), Huberdeau scored a goal against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators \"Nashville Predators\"). He played five pre\\-season games with the Panthers, tallying three goals and one assist to lead the team in pre\\-season scoring before being sent back to Saint John on October 3\\.", "Following the conclusion of the [2012–13 NHL lockout](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_lockout \"2012–13 NHL lockout\"), Huberdeau made the Panthers starting roster for the [2012–13 season](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_NHL_season \"2012–13 NHL season\"). He scored his first NHL goal on January 19, 2013, against [Cam Ward](/wiki/Cam_Ward \"Cam Ward\") of the [Carolina Hurricanes](/wiki/Carolina_Hurricanes \"Carolina Hurricanes\") on the second shift and first shot of his NHL career. Huberdeau would add two assists in the 5–1 victory to earn the first star of the game in his NHL debut. NHL regulations allowed the Panthers to keep Huberdeau in their lineup for a maximum of five games before they could either return him to his junior team or keep him in Florida. On January 28, 2013, after registering a goal and two assists in five games, the Panthers announced Huberdeau would remain with the Panthers for the remainder of the NHL season.PANTHERS ANNOUNCE HUBERDEAU TO STICK WITH CLUB [https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=414681](https://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id=414681) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403173136/http://www.tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=414681\\# \\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-03 }} As a result of his outstanding rookie season, Huberdeau won the 2013 [Calder Memorial Trophy](/wiki/Calder_Memorial_Trophy \"Calder Memorial Trophy\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Panthers F Jonathan Huberdeau Awarded Calder Memorial Trophy\\|url\\=https://www.nhl.com/panthers/news/panthers\\-f\\-jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-awarded\\-calder\\-memorial\\-trophy/c\\-674051\\|website\\=nhl.com\\|publisher\\=Florida Panthers\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2018\\|location\\=Sunrise, FL\\|date\\=June 13, 2013}}", "In the [2014–15 season](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_NHL_season \"2014–15 NHL season\"), Huberdeau scored a career\\-high 15 goals and 39 assists (54 points) in 77 games played. After Florida's late\\-season acquisition of forward [Jaromír Jágr](/wiki/Jarom%C3%ADr_J%C3%A1gr \"Jaromír Jágr\") from the [New Jersey Devils](/wiki/New_Jersey_Devils \"New Jersey Devils\"), who was placed on Florida's top line alongside Huberdeau and [Aleksander Barkov](/wiki/Aleksander_Barkov \"Aleksander Barkov\"), Huberdeau recorded 6 goals and 15 assists (21 points) in 20 games played to finish the season.{{cite news \\| last\\= Olive \\| first\\= Jameson \\| url\\= http://www.foxsports.com/florida/story/florida\\-panthers\\-jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-offseason\\-player\\-profile\\-050215 \\| title\\= Jonathan Huberdeau confident about future after solid season for Panthers \\| publisher\\= FOX \\| date\\= May 2, 2015 \\| access\\-date\\= May 30, 2015 }} Huberdeau's assists total (39\\) was the most for a Panther since [Stephen Weiss](/wiki/Stephen_Weiss \"Stephen Weiss\") in [2008–09](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season \"2008–09 NHL season\"). At the conclusion of the season, Huberdeau was set to become a restricted free agent.", "On September 6, 2016, the Panthers signed Huberdeau to a six\\-year, $35\\.4 million contract averaging $5\\.9 million per season. Panthers president of hockey operations [Dale Tallon](/wiki/Dale_Tallon \"Dale Tallon\") spoke very highly of Huberdeau after the signing, saying, \"Jonathan is a highly talented and dynamic player who is another important piece of our team's young core. In each of his last two seasons, he has posted over 50 points and has developed into a key component of our team's offense.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Jonathan Huberdeau signs extension with Panthers\\|url\\=https://www.nhl.com/news/jonathan\\-huberdeau\\-signs\\-extension\\-with\\-florida\\-panthers/c\\-281594998\\|website\\=NHL.com\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2018\\|date\\=September 7, 2016}}", "On November 16, 2019, Huberdeau surpassed Stephen Weiss to become the all\\-time leader for the Florida Panthers in assists.", "On April 1, 2022, Huberdeau picked up his 71st assist in the Panthers' 4–0 win over the [Chicago Blackhawks](/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks \"Chicago Blackhawks\"). In doing so, he surpassed [Joé Juneau](/wiki/Jo%C3%A9_Juneau \"Joé Juneau\")'s previous NHL record (70\\) for most assists in a single season by a left\\-winger.", "On April 5, 2022, Huberdeau became the first Panthers player to reach 100 points in a season in the Panthers' 7–6 comeback win against the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\"), with Huberdeau scoring the overtime goal.", "" ]
Cold\-cathode devices --------------------- [thumb\|upright\| The stacked digit arrangement in a [Nixie tube](/wiki/Nixie_tube "Nixie tube") is visible here](/wiki/Image:ZM1210-operating_edit2.jpg "ZM1210-operating edit2.jpg") A cold\-cathode vacuum tube does not rely on external heating of an electrode to provide [thermionic emission](/wiki/Thermionic_emission "Thermionic emission") of electrons. Early cold\-cathode devices included the [Geissler tube](/wiki/Geissler_tube "Geissler tube") and [Plucker tube](/wiki/Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker "Julius Plücker"), and early [cathode\-ray tubes](/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube "Cathode-ray tube"). Study of the phenomena in these devices led to the discovery of the electron. [Neon lamps](/wiki/Neon_lamp "Neon lamp") are used both to produce light as indicators and for special\-purpose illumination, and also as circuit elements displaying [negative resistance](/wiki/Negative_resistance "Negative resistance"). Addition of a trigger electrode to a device allowed the glow discharge to be initiated by an external control circuit; [Bell Laboratories](/wiki/Bell_Laboratories "Bell Laboratories") developed a "trigger tube" cold\-cathode device in 1936\.D. M. Neale, *Cold Cathode Tube Circuit Design*, Francis and Taylor, 1964\. pp. 1–7\. Many types of cold\-cathode switching tube were developed, including various types of [thyratron](/wiki/Thyratron "Thyratron"), the [krytron](/wiki/Krytron "Krytron"), cold\-cathode displays ([Nixie tube](/wiki/Nixie_tube "Nixie tube")) and others. [Voltage regulator](/wiki/Voltage_regulator "Voltage regulator") tubes rely on the relatively constant voltage of a [glow discharge](/wiki/Glow_discharge "Glow discharge") over a range of current and were used to stabilize power\-supply voltages in tube\-based instruments. A [Dekatron](/wiki/Dekatron "Dekatron") is a cold\-cathode tube with multiple electrodes that is used for counting. Each time a pulse is applied to a control electrode, a glow discharge moves to a step electrode; by providing ten electrodes in each tube and cascading the tubes, a counter system can be developed and the count observed by the position of the glow discharges. Counter tubes were used widely before development of [integrated circuit](/wiki/Integrated_circuit "Integrated circuit") counter devices. The [flash tube](/wiki/Flash_tube "Flash tube") is a cold\-cathode device filled with [xenon](/wiki/Xenon "Xenon") gas, used to produce an intense short pulse of light for photography or to act as a [stroboscope](/wiki/Stroboscope "Stroboscope") to examine the motion of moving parts. ### Lamps Cold\-cathode lamps include [cold\-cathode fluorescent lamps](/wiki/Cold-cathode_fluorescent_lamp "Cold-cathode fluorescent lamp") (CCFLs) and [neon lamps](/wiki/Neon_lamp "Neon lamp"). Neon lamps primarily rely on excitation of gas molecules to emit light; CCFLs use a discharge in mercury vapor to develop ultraviolet light, which in turn causes a [fluorescent](/wiki/Fluorescence "Fluorescence") coating on the inside of the lamp to emit visible light. Cold\-cathode fluorescent lamps were used for [backlighting](/wiki/Backlight "Backlight") of [LCDs](/wiki/LCD "LCD"), for example computer monitors and television screens. In the lighting industry, “cold cathode” historically refers to luminous tubing larger than 20 mm in diameter and operating on a current of 120 to 240 milliamperes. This larger\-diameter tubing is often used for interior alcove and general lighting.{{cite web \| title \= Ifay guide info electric discharge lighting systems, cold cathode\| url \=http://database.ul.com/cgi\-bin/XYV/template/LISEXT/1FRAME/showpage.html?name\=IFAY.GuideInfo\&ccnshorttitle\=Electric\+Discharge\+Lighting\+Systems,\+Cold\+Cathode\&objid\=1074096534\&cfgid\=1073741824\&version\=versionless\&parent\_id\=1073988136\&sequence\=1}}{{cite web\|title\=EGL lighting products \|url\=http://www.egl\-lighting.com/products.html \|access\-date\=9 February 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026042259/http://www.egl\-lighting.com/products.html \|archive\-date\=October 26, 2010 }} The term "neon lamp" refers to tubing that is smaller than 15 mm in diameter{{citation needed\|date\=September 2015}} and typically operates at approximately 40 milliamperes. These lamps are commonly used for neon signs.
[ "Cold\\-cathode devices\n---------------------", "[thumb\\|upright\\|\nThe stacked digit arrangement in a [Nixie tube](/wiki/Nixie_tube \"Nixie tube\") is visible here](/wiki/Image:ZM1210-operating_edit2.jpg \"ZM1210-operating edit2.jpg\")", "A cold\\-cathode vacuum tube does not rely on external heating of an electrode to provide [thermionic emission](/wiki/Thermionic_emission \"Thermionic emission\") of electrons. Early cold\\-cathode devices included the [Geissler tube](/wiki/Geissler_tube \"Geissler tube\") and [Plucker tube](/wiki/Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker \"Julius Plücker\"), and early [cathode\\-ray tubes](/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube \"Cathode-ray tube\"). Study of the phenomena in these devices led to the discovery of the electron.", "[Neon lamps](/wiki/Neon_lamp \"Neon lamp\") are used both to produce light as indicators and for special\\-purpose illumination, and also as circuit elements displaying [negative resistance](/wiki/Negative_resistance \"Negative resistance\"). Addition of a trigger electrode to a device allowed the glow discharge to be initiated by an external control circuit; [Bell Laboratories](/wiki/Bell_Laboratories \"Bell Laboratories\") developed a \"trigger tube\" cold\\-cathode device in 1936\\.D. M. Neale, *Cold Cathode Tube Circuit Design*, Francis and Taylor, 1964\\. pp. 1–7\\.", "Many types of cold\\-cathode switching tube were developed, including various types of [thyratron](/wiki/Thyratron \"Thyratron\"), the [krytron](/wiki/Krytron \"Krytron\"), cold\\-cathode displays ([Nixie tube](/wiki/Nixie_tube \"Nixie tube\")) and others. [Voltage regulator](/wiki/Voltage_regulator \"Voltage regulator\") tubes rely on the relatively constant voltage of a [glow discharge](/wiki/Glow_discharge \"Glow discharge\") over a range of current and were used to stabilize power\\-supply voltages in tube\\-based instruments. A [Dekatron](/wiki/Dekatron \"Dekatron\") is a cold\\-cathode tube with multiple electrodes that is used for counting. Each time a pulse is applied to a control electrode, a glow discharge moves to a step electrode; by providing ten electrodes in each tube and cascading the tubes, a counter system can be developed and the count observed by the position of the glow discharges. Counter tubes were used widely before development of [integrated circuit](/wiki/Integrated_circuit \"Integrated circuit\") counter devices.", "The [flash tube](/wiki/Flash_tube \"Flash tube\") is a cold\\-cathode device filled with [xenon](/wiki/Xenon \"Xenon\") gas, used to produce an intense short pulse of light for photography or to act as a [stroboscope](/wiki/Stroboscope \"Stroboscope\") to examine the motion of moving parts.", "### Lamps", "Cold\\-cathode lamps include [cold\\-cathode fluorescent lamps](/wiki/Cold-cathode_fluorescent_lamp \"Cold-cathode fluorescent lamp\") (CCFLs) and [neon lamps](/wiki/Neon_lamp \"Neon lamp\"). Neon lamps primarily rely on excitation of gas molecules to emit light; CCFLs use a discharge in mercury vapor to develop ultraviolet light, which in turn causes a [fluorescent](/wiki/Fluorescence \"Fluorescence\") coating on the inside of the lamp to emit visible light.", "Cold\\-cathode fluorescent lamps were used for [backlighting](/wiki/Backlight \"Backlight\") of [LCDs](/wiki/LCD \"LCD\"), for example computer monitors and television screens.", "In the lighting industry, “cold cathode” historically refers to luminous tubing larger than 20 mm in diameter and operating on a current of 120 to 240 milliamperes. This larger\\-diameter tubing is often used for interior alcove and general lighting.{{cite web \\| title \\= Ifay guide info electric discharge lighting systems, cold cathode\\| url \\=http://database.ul.com/cgi\\-bin/XYV/template/LISEXT/1FRAME/showpage.html?name\\=IFAY.GuideInfo\\&ccnshorttitle\\=Electric\\+Discharge\\+Lighting\\+Systems,\\+Cold\\+Cathode\\&objid\\=1074096534\\&cfgid\\=1073741824\\&version\\=versionless\\&parent\\_id\\=1073988136\\&sequence\\=1}}{{cite web\\|title\\=EGL lighting products \\|url\\=http://www.egl\\-lighting.com/products.html \\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026042259/http://www.egl\\-lighting.com/products.html \\|archive\\-date\\=October 26, 2010 }}\nThe term \"neon lamp\" refers to tubing that is smaller than 15 mm in diameter{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2015}} and typically operates at approximately 40 milliamperes. These lamps are commonly used for neon signs.", "" ]
Details ------- The cathode is the negative electrode. Any gas\-discharge lamp has a positive (anode) and a negative electrode. Both electrodes alternate between acting as an anode and a cathode when these devices run with [alternating current](/wiki/Alternating_current "Alternating current"). [thumb\|A standard computer case fitted with blue and green cold\-cathode tubes](/wiki/File:Cold_Cathodes.jpg "Cold Cathodes.jpg") [thumb\|Cold\-cathode fluorescent lamp backlight](/wiki/File:Cold_Cathode_Fluorescent_Lamp.JPG "Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp.JPG") A *cold cathode* is distinguished from a [hot cathode](/wiki/Hot_cathode "Hot cathode") that is heated to induce [thermionic emission](/wiki/Thermionic_emission "Thermionic emission") of [electrons](/wiki/Electron "Electron"). Discharge tubes with hot cathodes have an envelope filled with low\-pressure gas and containing two electrodes. Hot cathode devices include common [vacuum tubes](/wiki/Vacuum_tube "Vacuum tube"), [fluorescent lamps](/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp "Fluorescent lamp"), high\-pressure discharge lamps and [vacuum fluorescent displays](/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display "Vacuum fluorescent display"). The surface of cold cathodes can emit [secondary electrons](/wiki/Secondary_electrons "Secondary electrons") at a ratio greater than unity (breakdown). An electron that leaves the cathode will collide with neutral gas molecules. The collision may just excite the molecule, but sometimes it will knock an electron free to create a positive ion. The original electron and the freed electron continue toward the anode and may create more positive ions (see [Townsend avalanche](/wiki/Townsend_avalanche "Townsend avalanche")). The result is for each electron that leaves the cathode, several positive ions are generated that eventually crash onto the cathode. Some crashing positive ions may generate a secondary electron. The discharge is self\-sustaining when for each electron that leaves the cathode, enough positive ions hit the cathode to free, on average, another electron. External circuitry limits the discharge current. Cold\-cathode discharge lamps use higher voltages than hot\-cathode ones. The resulting strong electric field near the cathode accelerates ions to a sufficient velocity to create free electrons from the cathode material. Another mechanism to generate free electrons from a cold metallic surface is [field electron emission](/wiki/Field_electron_emission "Field electron emission"). It is used in some [x\-ray tubes](/wiki/X-ray_tube "X-ray tube"), the [field\-electron microscope](/wiki/Field-emission_microscopy "Field-emission microscopy") (FEM), and [field\-emission displays](/wiki/Field-emission_display "Field-emission display") (FEDs). Cold cathodes sometimes have a [rare\-earth](/wiki/Rare-earth "Rare-earth") coating to enhance electron emission. Some types contain a source of [beta radiation](/wiki/Beta_radiation "Beta radiation") to start [ionization](/wiki/Ionization "Ionization") of the gas that fills the tube.{{US Patent\|1860149}}, Discharge tube. In some tubes, [glow discharge](/wiki/Glow_discharge "Glow discharge") around the cathode is usually minimized; instead there is a so\-called positive column, filling the tube.{{US Patent\|2103033}}, Electron emissive electrode.{{US Patent\|1316967}}, Gaseous\-conduction lamp.Positive column is part of a glow discharge, such as in the [Moore lamp](/wiki/Moore_lamp "Moore lamp"). Examples are the [neon lamp](/wiki/Neon_lamp "Neon lamp") and [nixie tubes](/wiki/Nixie_tube "Nixie tube"). Nixie tubes too are cold\-cathode neon displays that are in\-line, but not in\-plane, display devices. Cold\-cathode devices typically use a complex [high\-voltage power supply](/wiki/High-voltage_power_supply "High-voltage power supply") with some mechanism for limiting current. Although creating the initial space charge and the first arc of current through the tube may require a very high voltage, once the tube begins to heat up, the electrical resistance drops, thus increasing the [electric current](/wiki/Electric_current "Electric current") through the lamp. To offset this effect and maintain normal operation, the supply voltage is gradually lowered. In the case of tubes with an ionizing gas, the gas can become a very hot [plasma](/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29 "Plasma (physics)"), and electrical resistance is greatly reduced. If operated from a simple power supply without current limiting, this reduction in resistance would lead to damage to the power supply and overheating of the tube electrodes.
[ "Details\n-------", "The cathode is the negative electrode. Any gas\\-discharge lamp has a positive (anode) and a negative electrode. Both electrodes alternate between acting as an anode and a cathode when these devices run with [alternating current](/wiki/Alternating_current \"Alternating current\").", "[thumb\\|A standard computer case fitted with blue and green cold\\-cathode tubes](/wiki/File:Cold_Cathodes.jpg \"Cold Cathodes.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Cold\\-cathode fluorescent lamp backlight](/wiki/File:Cold_Cathode_Fluorescent_Lamp.JPG \"Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp.JPG\")", "A *cold cathode* is distinguished from a [hot cathode](/wiki/Hot_cathode \"Hot cathode\") that is heated to induce [thermionic emission](/wiki/Thermionic_emission \"Thermionic emission\") of [electrons](/wiki/Electron \"Electron\"). Discharge tubes with hot cathodes have an envelope filled with low\\-pressure gas and containing two electrodes. Hot cathode devices include common [vacuum tubes](/wiki/Vacuum_tube \"Vacuum tube\"), [fluorescent lamps](/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp \"Fluorescent lamp\"), high\\-pressure discharge lamps and [vacuum fluorescent displays](/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display \"Vacuum fluorescent display\").", "The surface of cold cathodes can emit [secondary electrons](/wiki/Secondary_electrons \"Secondary electrons\") at a ratio greater than unity (breakdown). An electron that leaves the cathode will collide with neutral gas molecules. The collision may just excite the molecule, but sometimes it will knock an electron free to create a positive ion. The original electron and the freed electron continue toward the anode and may create more positive ions (see [Townsend avalanche](/wiki/Townsend_avalanche \"Townsend avalanche\")). The result is for each electron that leaves the cathode, several positive ions are generated that eventually crash onto the cathode. Some crashing positive ions may generate a secondary electron. The discharge is self\\-sustaining when for each electron that leaves the cathode, enough positive ions hit the cathode to free, on average, another electron. External circuitry limits the discharge current. Cold\\-cathode discharge lamps use higher voltages than hot\\-cathode ones. The resulting strong electric field near the cathode accelerates ions to a sufficient velocity to create free electrons from the cathode material.", "Another mechanism to generate free electrons from a cold metallic surface is [field electron emission](/wiki/Field_electron_emission \"Field electron emission\"). It is used in some [x\\-ray tubes](/wiki/X-ray_tube \"X-ray tube\"), the [field\\-electron microscope](/wiki/Field-emission_microscopy \"Field-emission microscopy\") (FEM), and [field\\-emission displays](/wiki/Field-emission_display \"Field-emission display\") (FEDs).", "Cold cathodes sometimes have a [rare\\-earth](/wiki/Rare-earth \"Rare-earth\") coating to enhance electron emission. Some types contain a source of [beta radiation](/wiki/Beta_radiation \"Beta radiation\") to start [ionization](/wiki/Ionization \"Ionization\") of the gas that fills the tube.{{US Patent\\|1860149}}, Discharge tube. In some tubes, [glow discharge](/wiki/Glow_discharge \"Glow discharge\") around the cathode is usually minimized; instead there is a so\\-called positive column, filling the tube.{{US Patent\\|2103033}}, Electron emissive electrode.{{US Patent\\|1316967}}, Gaseous\\-conduction lamp.Positive column is part of a glow discharge, such as in the [Moore lamp](/wiki/Moore_lamp \"Moore lamp\"). Examples are the [neon lamp](/wiki/Neon_lamp \"Neon lamp\") and [nixie tubes](/wiki/Nixie_tube \"Nixie tube\"). Nixie tubes too are cold\\-cathode neon displays that are in\\-line, but not in\\-plane, display devices.", "Cold\\-cathode devices typically use a complex [high\\-voltage power supply](/wiki/High-voltage_power_supply \"High-voltage power supply\") with some mechanism for limiting current. Although creating the initial space charge and the first arc of current through the tube may require a very high voltage, once the tube begins to heat up, the electrical resistance drops, thus increasing the [electric current](/wiki/Electric_current \"Electric current\") through the lamp. To offset this effect and maintain normal operation, the supply voltage is gradually lowered. In the case of tubes with an ionizing gas, the gas can become a very hot [plasma](/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29 \"Plasma (physics)\"), and electrical resistance is greatly reduced. If operated from a simple power supply without current limiting, this reduction in resistance would lead to damage to the power supply and overheating of the tube electrodes.", "" ]
Career ------ Jupp won *So You Think You're Funny?, Leicester Mercury Comedian of the Year* in 2001 and was a [Perrier Award](/wiki/Edinburgh_Comedy_Awards "Edinburgh Comedy Awards") Best Newcomer nominee in 2003 for his show *Gentlemen Prefer Brogues*. During his appearance on *Celebrity Mastermind* and *[Test Match Special](/wiki/Test_Match_Special "Test Match Special")* in 2011, he claimed to have bluffed his way onto an England cricket tour to India as the cricket correspondent for both [BBC Scotland](/wiki/BBC_Scotland "BBC Scotland") and the *[Western Mail](/wiki/Western_Mail_%28Wales%29 "Western Mail (Wales)")*. He wrote *Fibber in the Heat,* a book about his adventures as a cricket journalist in India.{{cite book\|last1\=Jupp\|first1\=Miles\|title\=Fibber in the heat\|date\=2013\|publisher\=Ebury Press\|isbn\=978\-0091943134}} ### Television and film Jupp played Archie, the Inventor in [CBeebies](/wiki/CBeebies "CBeebies")' *[Balamory](/wiki/Balamory "Balamory")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2010/jun/05/this\-weeks\-new\-comedy\|title\=This week's new comedy\|last\=Kettle\|first\=James\|date\=2010\-06\-04\|website\=The Guardian\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-09\-07}} He also had a role in the BBC Scotland comedy programme, *[Live Floor Show](/wiki/Live_Floor_Show "Live Floor Show"),* where he played an eccentric, foul\-mouthed comedian. In 2007, Jupp appeared fleetingly in *[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Order_of_the_Phoenix_%28film%29 "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (film)")* as a television weatherman who complained about a hot [drought](/wiki/Drought "Drought"). Jupp appeared in Series 3 and 4 of the political comedy, *[The Thick of It](/wiki/The_Thick_of_It "The Thick of It"),* as John Duggan, an incompetent [press officer](/wiki/Press_officer "Press officer") with a habit of making inappropriate comments.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/tv\-and\-radio/tvandradioblog/2012/sep/29/thick\-of\-it\-episode\-four\|title\=The Thick of It – Lines of the Week\|last\=Heritage\|first\=Stuart\|date\=2012\-09\-29\|work\=The Guardian\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-12\|language\=en\-GB\|issn\=0261\-3077}} He appeared in BBC Scotland's comedy *[Gary: Tank Commander](/wiki/Gary:Tank_Commander "Tank Commander")* as Captain Fanshaw. In 2009, he appeared briefly in the film *[Sherlock Holmes](/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes_%282009_film%29 "Sherlock Holmes (2009 film)")* as a waiter. In the same year, he also appeared in *[Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle](/wiki/Stewart_Lee%27s_Comedy_Vehicle "Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle")*. In 2010, Jupp appeared on *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week "Mock the Week")* and *[Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow](/wiki/Michael_McIntyre%27s_Comedy_Roadshow "Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow").* He performed as Nigel, a [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England "Church of England") [Lay Reader](/wiki/Reader_%28Anglican_Church%29 "Reader (Anglican Church)"), in the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") sitcom *[Rev.](/wiki/Rev._%28TV_series%29 "Rev. (TV series)")* He also appeared as an under\-secretary in the film *[Made in Dagenham](/wiki/Made_in_Dagenham "Made in Dagenham")* (2010\). In January 2011, Jupp was a team member alongside [Goldie](/wiki/Goldie "Goldie") and [Phill Jupitus](/wiki/Phill_Jupitus "Phill Jupitus") on the music quiz *[Never Mind The Buzzcocks](/wiki/Never_Mind_The_Buzzcocks "Never Mind The Buzzcocks")*. In May 2011, November 2011, and April 2012, he was a panelist on *[Have I Got News for You](/wiki/Have_I_Got_News_for_You "Have I Got News for You")* and *[Would I Lie To You?](/wiki/Would_I_Lie_to_You%3F_%28British_game_show%29 "Would I Lie to You? (British game show)")* (BBC). On 22 August 2011, he was a lunchtime guest on *[Test Match Special](/wiki/Test_Match_Special "Test Match Special")*, where he revealed a love of cricket and that he had previously worked with the *Test Match Special* team, who had no idea who he was. This became the basis of the book *Fibber in the Heat*.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/9347256/Fibber\-in\-the\-Heat\-by\-Miles\-Jupp\-review.html\|title\=Fibber in the Heat by Miles Jupp: review\|first\=Nicholas\|last\=Blincoe\|date\=26 June 2012\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=London}} {{subscription required\|s}} In October 2011, he again appeared in *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week "Mock the Week")*. Jupp had a cameo role in *[Johnny English Reborn](/wiki/Johnny_English_Reborn "Johnny English Reborn")* in 2011 as an employee of MI7\. He appeared in Series 4, Episode 4 of the comedy [panel game](/wiki/Panel_game "Panel game") *[Argumental](/wiki/Argumental "Argumental")*, which aired on 24 November 2011\. In 2012, he appeared on *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week "Mock the Week")*. In January 2012, he won on *[Celebrity Mastermind](/wiki/Celebrity_Mastermind "Celebrity Mastermind")*. In February 2012, he appeared on BBC *[Let's Dance for Sport Relief](/wiki/Let%27s_Dance_for_Sport_Relief "Let's Dance for Sport Relief")* and danced to [The Prodigy](/wiki/The_Prodigy "The Prodigy")'s "[Firestarter](/wiki/Firestarter_%28The_Prodigy_song%29 "Firestarter (The Prodigy song)")". In March 2012, he appeared in an episode of the televised *45th Anniversary* series of BBC Radio 4's *[Just a Minute](/wiki/Just_a_Minute "Just a Minute")* quiz show, alongside [Paul Merton](/wiki/Paul_Merton "Paul Merton"), [Gyles Brandreth](/wiki/Gyles_Brandreth "Gyles Brandreth") and [Liza Tarbuck](/wiki/Liza_Tarbuck "Liza Tarbuck"). In July 2013, he appeared in an episode of *[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue](/wiki/I%27m_Sorry_I_Haven%27t_a_Clue "I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue")* on BBC Radio 4\. He was featured in the 2014 [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") film, *[The Monuments Men](/wiki/The_Monuments_Men "The Monuments Men")*, as British officer Major Fielding. Jupp has also appeared eight times on *[8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown](/wiki/8_Out_of_10_Cats_Does_Countdown "8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown")* between 2014 and 2021\. In 2014, Jupp narrated the BBC television documentary series, *Building Dream Homes*. In 2016, he appeared in *[Grimsby](/wiki/Grimsby_%28film%29 "Grimsby (film)")* as a police officer. On 27 April 2016, it was announced that Jupp would voice Blackberry in the forthcoming adaptation of *[Watership Down](/wiki/Watership_Down_%28miniseries%29 "Watership Down (miniseries)")*. In 2015, Jupp appeared as a team captain on *The Really Welsh Christmas Quiz*, alongside comedians [Chris Corcoran](/wiki/Chris_Corcoran "Chris Corcoran"), [Elis James](/wiki/Elis_James "Elis James"), and [Omar Hamdi](/wiki/Omar_Hamdi "Omar Hamdi").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06tm80y\|title\=Christmas, The Really Welsh Quiz – BBC One\|publisher\=BBC\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-27}} In October 2016, Jupp appeared as Giles, the chairman of the residents' committee, in the sitcom from [BBC Three](/wiki/BBC_Three "BBC Three") *[Josh](/wiki/Josh_%28TV_series%29 "Josh (TV series)")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p049tvpb\|title\=BBC Three – Josh, Series 2, Sex \& Politics\|publisher\=BBC\|access\-date\=7 February 2019}} In 2017, he appeared as Hardy in the film, *[Journey's End](/wiki/Journey%27s_End_%282017_film%29 "Journey's End (2017 film)").* He played auction house appraiser Winford Collins in the episode "The Tanganyika Green" of *[Father Brown](/wiki/Father_Brown_%282013_TV_series%29 "Father Brown (2013 TV series)")*. In 2018, Jupp made guest appearances as Basil, an incompetent lawyer, in the television drama by ITV *[The Durrells](/wiki/The_Durrells "The Durrells")*. ### Radio Jupp was the narrator of the radio show *[The Penny Dreadfuls Present...The Brothers Faversham](/wiki/The_Penny_Dreadfuls_Present...The_Brothers_Faversham "The Penny Dreadfuls Present...The Brothers Faversham")* by [the Penny Dreadfuls](/wiki/The_Penny_Dreadfuls "The Penny Dreadfuls"), which was broadcast at the beginning of 2008 on [BBC Radio 7](/wiki/BBC_Radio_7 "BBC Radio 7"). In 2009, Jupp became the host of BBC Radio 7 satirical comedy series *[Newsjack](/wiki/Newsjack "Newsjack")* and the host of [BBC Radio Scotland](/wiki/BBC_Radio_Scotland "BBC Radio Scotland") comedy quiz show *[Swots](/wiki/Swots "Swots")*. In February 2011, he appeared as a panelist on BBC Radio 4's panel show *[It's Your Round](/wiki/It%27s_Your_Round "It's Your Round")*. Starting in February 2012, Jupp hosted three series of a BBC Radio 4 panel show *[It's Not What You Know](/wiki/It%27s_Not_What_You_Know_%28radio_series%29 "It's Not What You Know (radio series)")* (based on his suggestion for a round on *It's Your Round*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b036wvkd\|title\=BBC Radio 4 – It's Not What You Know\|publisher\=BBC\|access\-date\=7 February 2019}}), before handing the job over to [Joe Lycett](/wiki/Joe_Lycett "Joe Lycett"). In 2011, he starred in the self\-penned BBC Radio 4 comedy, *[In and Out of the Kitchen](/wiki/In_and_Out_of_the_Kitchen "In and Out of the Kitchen")*, "the diary, written for publication, of a somewhat minor celebrity chef, Damien Trench".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.comedy.co.uk/guide/radio/in\_and\_out\_of\_the\_kitchen/press/\|title\=In And Out of the Kitchen\|work\=comedy.co.uk}} A second series followed in 2013, and continued with a third series in 2014\. The show had a short\-lived television version in 2015\. A six\-part fourth series aired on [BBC Radio 4](/wiki/BBC_Radio_4 "BBC Radio 4") in August and September 2015\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b065z39r\|title\=In and Out of the Kitchen Series 4\|publisher\=BBC}} He played the title character in BBC Radio 4 comedy *Boswell's Lives* (written by [Jon Canter](/wiki/Jon_Canter "Jon Canter")) which ran for four series, 2015–2018\. Jupp appeared as a contestant on [BBC Radio 4](/wiki/BBC_Radio_4 "BBC Radio 4")'s *[The News Quiz](/wiki/The_News_Quiz "The News Quiz")* in April 2012 (Series 77; Episode 1\). In June 2015 he became the new presenter of the show, replacing [Sandi Toksvig](/wiki/Sandi_Toksvig "Sandi Toksvig").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/r4seasonlaunch/comedy\#heading\-miles\-jupp\-announced\-as\-host\-of\-the\-news\-quiz\|title\=BBC – Comedy – Media Centre\|publisher\=BBC}} He chaired the show for 12 series, with his last appearance on 31 May 2019 (Series 99; Episode 8\).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2019/miles\-jupp\-news\-quiz\|title\=BBC Media Centre – Miles Jupp signs off from The News Quiz\|publisher\=BBC}} Jupp appears as retired Prime Minister Henry Tobin in *Party's Over* from 2019 to 2022 (12 episodes). In 2022, his four\-episode sketch show, *Whatever Next? With Miles Jupp* was broadcast on Radio 4\.[https://www.comedy.co.uk/radio/whatever\-next\-with\-miles\-jupp/](https://www.comedy.co.uk/radio/whatever-next-with-miles-jupp/) ### Live In March 2008, Jupp performed his third solo show, *Everyday Rage and Dinner Party Chit Chat*, at the [Etcetera Theatre](/wiki/Etcetera_Theatre "Etcetera Theatre") in [Camden](/wiki/Camden_Town "Camden Town"). He presented *Live at [the Gilded Balloon](/wiki/The_Gilded_Balloon "The Gilded Balloon")* podcast for *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")* newspaper's coverage of the 2008 and 2009 [Edinburgh Fringe](/wiki/Edinburgh_Festival_Fringe "Edinburgh Festival Fringe").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/profile/milesjupp\|title\=Miles Jupp \|website\=The Guardian\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-12}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts\-entertainment/comedy/features/my\-edinburgmiles\-jupp\-comedian\-1776599\.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220514/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts\-entertainment/comedy/features/my\-edinburgh\-miles\-jupp\-comedian\-1776599\.html \|archive\-date\=14 May 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live\|title\=My Edinburgh: Miles Jupp, comedian\|date\=2009\-08\-24\|website\=The Independent\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-12}} In 2019, Jupp played the role of actor [David Tomlinson](/wiki/David_Tomlinson "David Tomlinson") in *The Life I Live*, a one\-man show at the [Salisbury Playhouse](/wiki/Salisbury_Playhouse "Salisbury Playhouse") and other theatres.
[ "Career\n------", "Jupp won *So You Think You're Funny?, Leicester Mercury Comedian of the Year* in 2001 and was a [Perrier Award](/wiki/Edinburgh_Comedy_Awards \"Edinburgh Comedy Awards\") Best Newcomer nominee in 2003 for his show *Gentlemen Prefer Brogues*. During his appearance on *Celebrity Mastermind* and *[Test Match Special](/wiki/Test_Match_Special \"Test Match Special\")* in 2011, he claimed to have bluffed his way onto an England cricket tour to India as the cricket correspondent for both [BBC Scotland](/wiki/BBC_Scotland \"BBC Scotland\") and the *[Western Mail](/wiki/Western_Mail_%28Wales%29 \"Western Mail (Wales)\")*. He wrote *Fibber in the Heat,* a book about his adventures as a cricket journalist in India.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Jupp\\|first1\\=Miles\\|title\\=Fibber in the heat\\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Ebury Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0091943134}}", "### Television and film", "Jupp played Archie, the Inventor in [CBeebies](/wiki/CBeebies \"CBeebies\")' *[Balamory](/wiki/Balamory \"Balamory\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2010/jun/05/this\\-weeks\\-new\\-comedy\\|title\\=This week's new comedy\\|last\\=Kettle\\|first\\=James\\|date\\=2010\\-06\\-04\\|website\\=The Guardian\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-07}} He also had a role in the BBC Scotland comedy programme, *[Live Floor Show](/wiki/Live_Floor_Show \"Live Floor Show\"),* where he played an eccentric, foul\\-mouthed comedian. In 2007, Jupp appeared fleetingly in *[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Order_of_the_Phoenix_%28film%29 \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (film)\")* as a television weatherman who complained about a hot [drought](/wiki/Drought \"Drought\").", "Jupp appeared in Series 3 and 4 of the political comedy, *[The Thick of It](/wiki/The_Thick_of_It \"The Thick of It\"),* as John Duggan, an incompetent [press officer](/wiki/Press_officer \"Press officer\") with a habit of making inappropriate comments.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/tv\\-and\\-radio/tvandradioblog/2012/sep/29/thick\\-of\\-it\\-episode\\-four\\|title\\=The Thick of It – Lines of the Week\\|last\\=Heritage\\|first\\=Stuart\\|date\\=2012\\-09\\-29\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-12\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} He appeared in BBC Scotland's comedy *[Gary: Tank Commander](/wiki/Gary:Tank_Commander \"Tank Commander\")* as Captain Fanshaw. In 2009, he appeared briefly in the film *[Sherlock Holmes](/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes_%282009_film%29 \"Sherlock Holmes (2009 film)\")* as a waiter. In the same year, he also appeared in *[Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle](/wiki/Stewart_Lee%27s_Comedy_Vehicle \"Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle\")*.", "In 2010, Jupp appeared on *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week \"Mock the Week\")* and *[Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow](/wiki/Michael_McIntyre%27s_Comedy_Roadshow \"Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow\").* He performed as Nigel, a [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England \"Church of England\") [Lay Reader](/wiki/Reader_%28Anglican_Church%29 \"Reader (Anglican Church)\"), in the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") sitcom *[Rev.](/wiki/Rev._%28TV_series%29 \"Rev. (TV series)\")* He also appeared as an under\\-secretary in the film *[Made in Dagenham](/wiki/Made_in_Dagenham \"Made in Dagenham\")* (2010\\).", "In January 2011, Jupp was a team member alongside [Goldie](/wiki/Goldie \"Goldie\") and [Phill Jupitus](/wiki/Phill_Jupitus \"Phill Jupitus\") on the music quiz *[Never Mind The Buzzcocks](/wiki/Never_Mind_The_Buzzcocks \"Never Mind The Buzzcocks\")*. In May 2011, November 2011, and April 2012, he was a panelist on *[Have I Got News for You](/wiki/Have_I_Got_News_for_You \"Have I Got News for You\")* and *[Would I Lie To You?](/wiki/Would_I_Lie_to_You%3F_%28British_game_show%29 \"Would I Lie to You? (British game show)\")* (BBC). On 22 August 2011, he was a lunchtime guest on *[Test Match Special](/wiki/Test_Match_Special \"Test Match Special\")*, where he revealed a love of cricket and that he had previously worked with the *Test Match Special* team, who had no idea who he was. This became the basis of the book *Fibber in the Heat*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/9347256/Fibber\\-in\\-the\\-Heat\\-by\\-Miles\\-Jupp\\-review.html\\|title\\=Fibber in the Heat by Miles Jupp: review\\|first\\=Nicholas\\|last\\=Blincoe\\|date\\=26 June 2012\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=London}} {{subscription required\\|s}}", "In October 2011, he again appeared in *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week \"Mock the Week\")*. Jupp had a cameo role in *[Johnny English Reborn](/wiki/Johnny_English_Reborn \"Johnny English Reborn\")* in 2011 as an employee of MI7\\. He appeared in Series 4, Episode 4 of the comedy [panel game](/wiki/Panel_game \"Panel game\") *[Argumental](/wiki/Argumental \"Argumental\")*, which aired on 24 November 2011\\. In 2012, he appeared on *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week \"Mock the Week\")*.", "In January 2012, he won on *[Celebrity Mastermind](/wiki/Celebrity_Mastermind \"Celebrity Mastermind\")*. In February 2012, he appeared on BBC *[Let's Dance for Sport Relief](/wiki/Let%27s_Dance_for_Sport_Relief \"Let's Dance for Sport Relief\")* and danced to [The Prodigy](/wiki/The_Prodigy \"The Prodigy\")'s \"[Firestarter](/wiki/Firestarter_%28The_Prodigy_song%29 \"Firestarter (The Prodigy song)\")\". In March 2012, he appeared in an episode of the televised *45th Anniversary* series of BBC Radio 4's *[Just a Minute](/wiki/Just_a_Minute \"Just a Minute\")* quiz show, alongside [Paul Merton](/wiki/Paul_Merton \"Paul Merton\"), [Gyles Brandreth](/wiki/Gyles_Brandreth \"Gyles Brandreth\") and [Liza Tarbuck](/wiki/Liza_Tarbuck \"Liza Tarbuck\"). In July 2013, he appeared in an episode of *[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue](/wiki/I%27m_Sorry_I_Haven%27t_a_Clue \"I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue\")* on BBC Radio 4\\. He was featured in the 2014 [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") film, *[The Monuments Men](/wiki/The_Monuments_Men \"The Monuments Men\")*, as British officer Major Fielding. Jupp has also appeared eight times on *[8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown](/wiki/8_Out_of_10_Cats_Does_Countdown \"8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown\")* between 2014 and 2021\\.", "In 2014, Jupp narrated the BBC television documentary series, *Building Dream Homes*. In 2016, he appeared in *[Grimsby](/wiki/Grimsby_%28film%29 \"Grimsby (film)\")* as a police officer. On 27 April 2016, it was announced that Jupp would voice Blackberry in the forthcoming adaptation of *[Watership Down](/wiki/Watership_Down_%28miniseries%29 \"Watership Down (miniseries)\")*. In 2015, Jupp appeared as a team captain on *The Really Welsh Christmas Quiz*, alongside comedians [Chris Corcoran](/wiki/Chris_Corcoran \"Chris Corcoran\"), [Elis James](/wiki/Elis_James \"Elis James\"), and [Omar Hamdi](/wiki/Omar_Hamdi \"Omar Hamdi\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06tm80y\\|title\\=Christmas, The Really Welsh Quiz – BBC One\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-27}}", "In October 2016, Jupp appeared as Giles, the chairman of the residents' committee, in the sitcom from [BBC Three](/wiki/BBC_Three \"BBC Three\") *[Josh](/wiki/Josh_%28TV_series%29 \"Josh (TV series)\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p049tvpb\\|title\\=BBC Three – Josh, Series 2, Sex \\& Politics\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=7 February 2019}} In 2017, he appeared as Hardy in the film, *[Journey's End](/wiki/Journey%27s_End_%282017_film%29 \"Journey's End (2017 film)\").* He played auction house appraiser Winford Collins in the episode \"The Tanganyika Green\" of *[Father Brown](/wiki/Father_Brown_%282013_TV_series%29 \"Father Brown (2013 TV series)\")*. In 2018, Jupp made guest appearances as Basil, an incompetent lawyer, in the television drama by ITV *[The Durrells](/wiki/The_Durrells \"The Durrells\")*.", "### Radio", "Jupp was the narrator of the radio show *[The Penny Dreadfuls Present...The Brothers Faversham](/wiki/The_Penny_Dreadfuls_Present...The_Brothers_Faversham \"The Penny Dreadfuls Present...The Brothers Faversham\")* by [the Penny Dreadfuls](/wiki/The_Penny_Dreadfuls \"The Penny Dreadfuls\"), which was broadcast at the beginning of 2008 on [BBC Radio 7](/wiki/BBC_Radio_7 \"BBC Radio 7\").", "In 2009, Jupp became the host of BBC Radio 7 satirical comedy series *[Newsjack](/wiki/Newsjack \"Newsjack\")* and the host of [BBC Radio Scotland](/wiki/BBC_Radio_Scotland \"BBC Radio Scotland\") comedy quiz show *[Swots](/wiki/Swots \"Swots\")*. In February 2011, he appeared as a panelist on BBC Radio 4's panel show *[It's Your Round](/wiki/It%27s_Your_Round \"It's Your Round\")*. Starting in February 2012, Jupp hosted three series of a BBC Radio 4 panel show *[It's Not What You Know](/wiki/It%27s_Not_What_You_Know_%28radio_series%29 \"It's Not What You Know (radio series)\")* (based on his suggestion for a round on *It's Your Round*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b036wvkd\\|title\\=BBC Radio 4 – It's Not What You Know\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=7 February 2019}}), before handing the job over to [Joe Lycett](/wiki/Joe_Lycett \"Joe Lycett\").", "In 2011, he starred in the self\\-penned BBC Radio 4 comedy, *[In and Out of the Kitchen](/wiki/In_and_Out_of_the_Kitchen \"In and Out of the Kitchen\")*, \"the diary, written for publication, of a somewhat minor celebrity chef, Damien Trench\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.comedy.co.uk/guide/radio/in\\_and\\_out\\_of\\_the\\_kitchen/press/\\|title\\=In And Out of the Kitchen\\|work\\=comedy.co.uk}} A second series followed in 2013, and continued with a third series in 2014\\. The show had a short\\-lived television version in 2015\\. A six\\-part fourth series aired on [BBC Radio 4](/wiki/BBC_Radio_4 \"BBC Radio 4\") in August and September 2015\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b065z39r\\|title\\=In and Out of the Kitchen Series 4\\|publisher\\=BBC}}", "He played the title character in BBC Radio 4 comedy *Boswell's Lives* (written by [Jon Canter](/wiki/Jon_Canter \"Jon Canter\")) which ran for four series, 2015–2018\\.", "Jupp appeared as a contestant on [BBC Radio 4](/wiki/BBC_Radio_4 \"BBC Radio 4\")'s *[The News Quiz](/wiki/The_News_Quiz \"The News Quiz\")* in April 2012 (Series 77; Episode 1\\). In June 2015 he became the new presenter of the show, replacing [Sandi Toksvig](/wiki/Sandi_Toksvig \"Sandi Toksvig\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/r4seasonlaunch/comedy\\#heading\\-miles\\-jupp\\-announced\\-as\\-host\\-of\\-the\\-news\\-quiz\\|title\\=BBC – Comedy – Media Centre\\|publisher\\=BBC}} He chaired the show for 12 series, with his last appearance on 31 May 2019 (Series 99; Episode 8\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2019/miles\\-jupp\\-news\\-quiz\\|title\\=BBC Media Centre – Miles Jupp signs off from The News Quiz\\|publisher\\=BBC}}", "Jupp appears as retired Prime Minister Henry Tobin in *Party's Over* from 2019 to 2022 (12 episodes). In 2022, his four\\-episode sketch show, *Whatever Next? With Miles Jupp* was broadcast on Radio 4\\.[https://www.comedy.co.uk/radio/whatever\\-next\\-with\\-miles\\-jupp/](https://www.comedy.co.uk/radio/whatever-next-with-miles-jupp/)", "", "### Live", "In March 2008, Jupp performed his third solo show, *Everyday Rage and Dinner Party Chit Chat*, at the [Etcetera Theatre](/wiki/Etcetera_Theatre \"Etcetera Theatre\") in [Camden](/wiki/Camden_Town \"Camden Town\"). He presented *Live at [the Gilded Balloon](/wiki/The_Gilded_Balloon \"The Gilded Balloon\")* podcast for *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\")* newspaper's coverage of the 2008 and 2009 [Edinburgh Fringe](/wiki/Edinburgh_Festival_Fringe \"Edinburgh Festival Fringe\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/profile/milesjupp\\|title\\=Miles Jupp \\|website\\=The Guardian\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-12}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts\\-entertainment/comedy/features/my\\-edinburgmiles\\-jupp\\-comedian\\-1776599\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220514/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts\\-entertainment/comedy/features/my\\-edinburgh\\-miles\\-jupp\\-comedian\\-1776599\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=14 May 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=My Edinburgh: Miles Jupp, comedian\\|date\\=2009\\-08\\-24\\|website\\=The Independent\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-12}} In 2019, Jupp played the role of actor [David Tomlinson](/wiki/David_Tomlinson \"David Tomlinson\") in *The Life I Live*, a one\\-man show at the [Salisbury Playhouse](/wiki/Salisbury_Playhouse \"Salisbury Playhouse\") and other theatres.", "" ]
### Television and film Jupp played Archie, the Inventor in [CBeebies](/wiki/CBeebies "CBeebies")' *[Balamory](/wiki/Balamory "Balamory")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2010/jun/05/this\-weeks\-new\-comedy\|title\=This week's new comedy\|last\=Kettle\|first\=James\|date\=2010\-06\-04\|website\=The Guardian\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-09\-07}} He also had a role in the BBC Scotland comedy programme, *[Live Floor Show](/wiki/Live_Floor_Show "Live Floor Show"),* where he played an eccentric, foul\-mouthed comedian. In 2007, Jupp appeared fleetingly in *[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Order_of_the_Phoenix_%28film%29 "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (film)")* as a television weatherman who complained about a hot [drought](/wiki/Drought "Drought"). Jupp appeared in Series 3 and 4 of the political comedy, *[The Thick of It](/wiki/The_Thick_of_It "The Thick of It"),* as John Duggan, an incompetent [press officer](/wiki/Press_officer "Press officer") with a habit of making inappropriate comments.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/tv\-and\-radio/tvandradioblog/2012/sep/29/thick\-of\-it\-episode\-four\|title\=The Thick of It – Lines of the Week\|last\=Heritage\|first\=Stuart\|date\=2012\-09\-29\|work\=The Guardian\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-12\|language\=en\-GB\|issn\=0261\-3077}} He appeared in BBC Scotland's comedy *[Gary: Tank Commander](/wiki/Gary:Tank_Commander "Tank Commander")* as Captain Fanshaw. In 2009, he appeared briefly in the film *[Sherlock Holmes](/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes_%282009_film%29 "Sherlock Holmes (2009 film)")* as a waiter. In the same year, he also appeared in *[Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle](/wiki/Stewart_Lee%27s_Comedy_Vehicle "Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle")*. In 2010, Jupp appeared on *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week "Mock the Week")* and *[Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow](/wiki/Michael_McIntyre%27s_Comedy_Roadshow "Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow").* He performed as Nigel, a [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England "Church of England") [Lay Reader](/wiki/Reader_%28Anglican_Church%29 "Reader (Anglican Church)"), in the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") sitcom *[Rev.](/wiki/Rev._%28TV_series%29 "Rev. (TV series)")* He also appeared as an under\-secretary in the film *[Made in Dagenham](/wiki/Made_in_Dagenham "Made in Dagenham")* (2010\). In January 2011, Jupp was a team member alongside [Goldie](/wiki/Goldie "Goldie") and [Phill Jupitus](/wiki/Phill_Jupitus "Phill Jupitus") on the music quiz *[Never Mind The Buzzcocks](/wiki/Never_Mind_The_Buzzcocks "Never Mind The Buzzcocks")*. In May 2011, November 2011, and April 2012, he was a panelist on *[Have I Got News for You](/wiki/Have_I_Got_News_for_You "Have I Got News for You")* and *[Would I Lie To You?](/wiki/Would_I_Lie_to_You%3F_%28British_game_show%29 "Would I Lie to You? (British game show)")* (BBC). On 22 August 2011, he was a lunchtime guest on *[Test Match Special](/wiki/Test_Match_Special "Test Match Special")*, where he revealed a love of cricket and that he had previously worked with the *Test Match Special* team, who had no idea who he was. This became the basis of the book *Fibber in the Heat*.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/9347256/Fibber\-in\-the\-Heat\-by\-Miles\-Jupp\-review.html\|title\=Fibber in the Heat by Miles Jupp: review\|first\=Nicholas\|last\=Blincoe\|date\=26 June 2012\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=London}} {{subscription required\|s}} In October 2011, he again appeared in *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week "Mock the Week")*. Jupp had a cameo role in *[Johnny English Reborn](/wiki/Johnny_English_Reborn "Johnny English Reborn")* in 2011 as an employee of MI7\. He appeared in Series 4, Episode 4 of the comedy [panel game](/wiki/Panel_game "Panel game") *[Argumental](/wiki/Argumental "Argumental")*, which aired on 24 November 2011\. In 2012, he appeared on *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week "Mock the Week")*. In January 2012, he won on *[Celebrity Mastermind](/wiki/Celebrity_Mastermind "Celebrity Mastermind")*. In February 2012, he appeared on BBC *[Let's Dance for Sport Relief](/wiki/Let%27s_Dance_for_Sport_Relief "Let's Dance for Sport Relief")* and danced to [The Prodigy](/wiki/The_Prodigy "The Prodigy")'s "[Firestarter](/wiki/Firestarter_%28The_Prodigy_song%29 "Firestarter (The Prodigy song)")". In March 2012, he appeared in an episode of the televised *45th Anniversary* series of BBC Radio 4's *[Just a Minute](/wiki/Just_a_Minute "Just a Minute")* quiz show, alongside [Paul Merton](/wiki/Paul_Merton "Paul Merton"), [Gyles Brandreth](/wiki/Gyles_Brandreth "Gyles Brandreth") and [Liza Tarbuck](/wiki/Liza_Tarbuck "Liza Tarbuck"). In July 2013, he appeared in an episode of *[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue](/wiki/I%27m_Sorry_I_Haven%27t_a_Clue "I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue")* on BBC Radio 4\. He was featured in the 2014 [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") film, *[The Monuments Men](/wiki/The_Monuments_Men "The Monuments Men")*, as British officer Major Fielding. Jupp has also appeared eight times on *[8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown](/wiki/8_Out_of_10_Cats_Does_Countdown "8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown")* between 2014 and 2021\. In 2014, Jupp narrated the BBC television documentary series, *Building Dream Homes*. In 2016, he appeared in *[Grimsby](/wiki/Grimsby_%28film%29 "Grimsby (film)")* as a police officer. On 27 April 2016, it was announced that Jupp would voice Blackberry in the forthcoming adaptation of *[Watership Down](/wiki/Watership_Down_%28miniseries%29 "Watership Down (miniseries)")*. In 2015, Jupp appeared as a team captain on *The Really Welsh Christmas Quiz*, alongside comedians [Chris Corcoran](/wiki/Chris_Corcoran "Chris Corcoran"), [Elis James](/wiki/Elis_James "Elis James"), and [Omar Hamdi](/wiki/Omar_Hamdi "Omar Hamdi").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06tm80y\|title\=Christmas, The Really Welsh Quiz – BBC One\|publisher\=BBC\|access\-date\=2017\-12\-27}} In October 2016, Jupp appeared as Giles, the chairman of the residents' committee, in the sitcom from [BBC Three](/wiki/BBC_Three "BBC Three") *[Josh](/wiki/Josh_%28TV_series%29 "Josh (TV series)")*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p049tvpb\|title\=BBC Three – Josh, Series 2, Sex \& Politics\|publisher\=BBC\|access\-date\=7 February 2019}} In 2017, he appeared as Hardy in the film, *[Journey's End](/wiki/Journey%27s_End_%282017_film%29 "Journey's End (2017 film)").* He played auction house appraiser Winford Collins in the episode "The Tanganyika Green" of *[Father Brown](/wiki/Father_Brown_%282013_TV_series%29 "Father Brown (2013 TV series)")*. In 2018, Jupp made guest appearances as Basil, an incompetent lawyer, in the television drama by ITV *[The Durrells](/wiki/The_Durrells "The Durrells")*.
[ "### Television and film", "Jupp played Archie, the Inventor in [CBeebies](/wiki/CBeebies \"CBeebies\")' *[Balamory](/wiki/Balamory \"Balamory\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2010/jun/05/this\\-weeks\\-new\\-comedy\\|title\\=This week's new comedy\\|last\\=Kettle\\|first\\=James\\|date\\=2010\\-06\\-04\\|website\\=The Guardian\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-07}} He also had a role in the BBC Scotland comedy programme, *[Live Floor Show](/wiki/Live_Floor_Show \"Live Floor Show\"),* where he played an eccentric, foul\\-mouthed comedian. In 2007, Jupp appeared fleetingly in *[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Order_of_the_Phoenix_%28film%29 \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (film)\")* as a television weatherman who complained about a hot [drought](/wiki/Drought \"Drought\").", "Jupp appeared in Series 3 and 4 of the political comedy, *[The Thick of It](/wiki/The_Thick_of_It \"The Thick of It\"),* as John Duggan, an incompetent [press officer](/wiki/Press_officer \"Press officer\") with a habit of making inappropriate comments.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/tv\\-and\\-radio/tvandradioblog/2012/sep/29/thick\\-of\\-it\\-episode\\-four\\|title\\=The Thick of It – Lines of the Week\\|last\\=Heritage\\|first\\=Stuart\\|date\\=2012\\-09\\-29\\|work\\=The Guardian\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-12\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} He appeared in BBC Scotland's comedy *[Gary: Tank Commander](/wiki/Gary:Tank_Commander \"Tank Commander\")* as Captain Fanshaw. In 2009, he appeared briefly in the film *[Sherlock Holmes](/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes_%282009_film%29 \"Sherlock Holmes (2009 film)\")* as a waiter. In the same year, he also appeared in *[Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle](/wiki/Stewart_Lee%27s_Comedy_Vehicle \"Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle\")*.", "In 2010, Jupp appeared on *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week \"Mock the Week\")* and *[Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow](/wiki/Michael_McIntyre%27s_Comedy_Roadshow \"Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow\").* He performed as Nigel, a [Church of England](/wiki/Church_of_England \"Church of England\") [Lay Reader](/wiki/Reader_%28Anglican_Church%29 \"Reader (Anglican Church)\"), in the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") sitcom *[Rev.](/wiki/Rev._%28TV_series%29 \"Rev. (TV series)\")* He also appeared as an under\\-secretary in the film *[Made in Dagenham](/wiki/Made_in_Dagenham \"Made in Dagenham\")* (2010\\).", "In January 2011, Jupp was a team member alongside [Goldie](/wiki/Goldie \"Goldie\") and [Phill Jupitus](/wiki/Phill_Jupitus \"Phill Jupitus\") on the music quiz *[Never Mind The Buzzcocks](/wiki/Never_Mind_The_Buzzcocks \"Never Mind The Buzzcocks\")*. In May 2011, November 2011, and April 2012, he was a panelist on *[Have I Got News for You](/wiki/Have_I_Got_News_for_You \"Have I Got News for You\")* and *[Would I Lie To You?](/wiki/Would_I_Lie_to_You%3F_%28British_game_show%29 \"Would I Lie to You? (British game show)\")* (BBC). On 22 August 2011, he was a lunchtime guest on *[Test Match Special](/wiki/Test_Match_Special \"Test Match Special\")*, where he revealed a love of cricket and that he had previously worked with the *Test Match Special* team, who had no idea who he was. This became the basis of the book *Fibber in the Heat*.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/9347256/Fibber\\-in\\-the\\-Heat\\-by\\-Miles\\-Jupp\\-review.html\\|title\\=Fibber in the Heat by Miles Jupp: review\\|first\\=Nicholas\\|last\\=Blincoe\\|date\\=26 June 2012\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=London}} {{subscription required\\|s}}", "In October 2011, he again appeared in *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week \"Mock the Week\")*. Jupp had a cameo role in *[Johnny English Reborn](/wiki/Johnny_English_Reborn \"Johnny English Reborn\")* in 2011 as an employee of MI7\\. He appeared in Series 4, Episode 4 of the comedy [panel game](/wiki/Panel_game \"Panel game\") *[Argumental](/wiki/Argumental \"Argumental\")*, which aired on 24 November 2011\\. In 2012, he appeared on *[Mock the Week](/wiki/Mock_the_Week \"Mock the Week\")*.", "In January 2012, he won on *[Celebrity Mastermind](/wiki/Celebrity_Mastermind \"Celebrity Mastermind\")*. In February 2012, he appeared on BBC *[Let's Dance for Sport Relief](/wiki/Let%27s_Dance_for_Sport_Relief \"Let's Dance for Sport Relief\")* and danced to [The Prodigy](/wiki/The_Prodigy \"The Prodigy\")'s \"[Firestarter](/wiki/Firestarter_%28The_Prodigy_song%29 \"Firestarter (The Prodigy song)\")\". In March 2012, he appeared in an episode of the televised *45th Anniversary* series of BBC Radio 4's *[Just a Minute](/wiki/Just_a_Minute \"Just a Minute\")* quiz show, alongside [Paul Merton](/wiki/Paul_Merton \"Paul Merton\"), [Gyles Brandreth](/wiki/Gyles_Brandreth \"Gyles Brandreth\") and [Liza Tarbuck](/wiki/Liza_Tarbuck \"Liza Tarbuck\"). In July 2013, he appeared in an episode of *[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue](/wiki/I%27m_Sorry_I_Haven%27t_a_Clue \"I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue\")* on BBC Radio 4\\. He was featured in the 2014 [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") film, *[The Monuments Men](/wiki/The_Monuments_Men \"The Monuments Men\")*, as British officer Major Fielding. Jupp has also appeared eight times on *[8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown](/wiki/8_Out_of_10_Cats_Does_Countdown \"8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown\")* between 2014 and 2021\\.", "In 2014, Jupp narrated the BBC television documentary series, *Building Dream Homes*. In 2016, he appeared in *[Grimsby](/wiki/Grimsby_%28film%29 \"Grimsby (film)\")* as a police officer. On 27 April 2016, it was announced that Jupp would voice Blackberry in the forthcoming adaptation of *[Watership Down](/wiki/Watership_Down_%28miniseries%29 \"Watership Down (miniseries)\")*. In 2015, Jupp appeared as a team captain on *The Really Welsh Christmas Quiz*, alongside comedians [Chris Corcoran](/wiki/Chris_Corcoran \"Chris Corcoran\"), [Elis James](/wiki/Elis_James \"Elis James\"), and [Omar Hamdi](/wiki/Omar_Hamdi \"Omar Hamdi\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06tm80y\\|title\\=Christmas, The Really Welsh Quiz – BBC One\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-12\\-27}}", "In October 2016, Jupp appeared as Giles, the chairman of the residents' committee, in the sitcom from [BBC Three](/wiki/BBC_Three \"BBC Three\") *[Josh](/wiki/Josh_%28TV_series%29 \"Josh (TV series)\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p049tvpb\\|title\\=BBC Three – Josh, Series 2, Sex \\& Politics\\|publisher\\=BBC\\|access\\-date\\=7 February 2019}} In 2017, he appeared as Hardy in the film, *[Journey's End](/wiki/Journey%27s_End_%282017_film%29 \"Journey's End (2017 film)\").* He played auction house appraiser Winford Collins in the episode \"The Tanganyika Green\" of *[Father Brown](/wiki/Father_Brown_%282013_TV_series%29 \"Father Brown (2013 TV series)\")*. In 2018, Jupp made guest appearances as Basil, an incompetent lawyer, in the television drama by ITV *[The Durrells](/wiki/The_Durrells \"The Durrells\")*.", "" ]
Research and areas of interest ------------------------------ Muñoz challenges and questions contemporary mainstream gay and lesbian politics. He argues that present gay and lesbian politics, whose political goal is [gay rights](/wiki/Gay_Rights "Gay Rights"), [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States "Same-sex marriage in the United States"), and [gays in the military](/wiki/Sexual_orientation_and_military_service "Sexual orientation and military service"), are trapped within the limiting normative time and present. Following [Ernst Bloch's](/wiki/Ernst_Bloch "Ernst Bloch") *The Principle of Hope*, Muñoz is interested in the socially symbolic dimension of certain aesthetic processes that promote [political idealism](/wiki/Political_idealism "Political idealism").{{Cite journal\|last\=Muñoz\|first\=José Esteban\|date\=2007\|title\=Cruising the Toilet: LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka, Radical Black TRaditions, and Queer Futurity\|journal\=GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies}} Muñoz re\-articulates queerness as something "not yet here." Queerness "is that thing that lets us feel that this world is not enough." Muñoz reconceptualizes queerness from [identity politics](/wiki/Identity_politics "Identity politics") and brings it into the field of [aesthetics](/wiki/Aesthetics "Aesthetics"). For Muñoz, queer aesthetics, such as the visual artwork of [Vaginal Davis](/wiki/Vaginal_Davis "Vaginal Davis"), offers a blueprint to map future social relations. Queerness in Muñoz's conceptualization, is a rejection of "straight time", the "here and now" and an insistence of the "then and there."{{Cite book\|title\=Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Queer Futurity\|last\=Muñoz\|first\=Jose Esteban\|publisher\=NYU Press\|year\=2009}} Muñoz proposes the concept of "disidentificatory performances," as acts of transgression and creation, by which racial and sexual minorities, or minoritarian subjects articulate the truth about [cultural hegemony](/wiki/Cultural_hegemony "Cultural hegemony"). Muñoz critiques [Lee Edelman](/wiki/Lee_Edelman "Lee Edelman")'s book "No Future" and the concept of queer death drive that results in Muñoz theorization of queer futurity or queer sociality. Queer futurity thus "illuminates a landscape of possibility for minoritarian subjects through the aesthetic\-strategies for surviving and imagining utopian modes of being in the world."{{Cite journal\|last\=Alvarado\|first\=Leticia\|date\=July 2015\|title\="What Comes after Loss?": Ana Mendieta after José\|journal\=Small Axe \|volume\=19 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=104–110\|doi\=10\.1215/07990537\-3139418\|s2cid\=145733915}} ### Ephemera as evidence Muñoz first introduced his concept of ephemera as evidence in the 1996 issue of *Women \& Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory.* The idea that performance is ephemeral is essential to the field of [performance studies](/wiki/Performance_studies "Performance studies").{{Cite book\|title\=Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage\|last\=Kirshenblatt\-Gimblett\|first\=Barbara\|publisher\=University of California Press\|year\=1998\|location\=Berkeley, CA}} In this essay, Muñoz claims that [ephemera](/wiki/Ephemerality "Ephemerality") does not disappear.{{Cite book\|title\=Perform, Repeat, Record: Live Art in History\|publisher\=Intellect Books\|year\=2012\|isbn\=978\-1\-84150\-489\-6}} Ephemera in the Muñozian sense, is a modality of "anti\-rigor" and "anti\-evidence" that reformulates understandings of [materiality](/wiki/The_Materiality_Turn "The Materiality Turn"). Building on [Raymond Williams](/wiki/Raymond_Williams "Raymond Williams")' concept of "structures of feeling",{{Cite book\|title\=Marxism and Literature\|last\=Williams\|first\=Raymond\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=1977}} Muñoz claims that the ephemeral, "traces, glimmers, residues, and specks of things," is distinctly material, though not always solid. Framing the performative as both an intellectual and discursive event, he begins by defining queerness as a possibility, a modality, of the social and the relational, a sense of self\-knowing. He argues that queerness is passed on surreptitiously due to the fact that the trace of queerness often leaves the queer subject vulnerable for attack.{{cite journal \|last1\=Muñoz \|first1\=José Esteban \|title\=Ephemera as Evidence: Introductory Notes to Queer Acts \|journal\=Women \& Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory \|date\=January 1996 \|volume\=8 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=5–16 \|doi\=10\.1080/07407709608571228 }} Muñoz's definition of ephemera is influenced by Paul Gilroy's *The Black Atlantic* "as part of the exchange of ephemera that connects and makes concert a community." As a result, Muñoz states, queerness has not been able to exist as "visible evidence" rather it has had to exist in fleeting moments. Thus, queer performances stand as [evidence](/wiki/Evidence "Evidence") of queer possibilities and queer worldmaking. Muñoz understands [Marlon Riggs](/wiki/Marlon_Riggs "Marlon Riggs")' documentary films *[Tongues Untied](/wiki/Tongues_Untied "Tongues Untied")* and *Black Is, Black Ain't* as examples of an ephemeral witnessing of Black queer identity. In 2013, Muñoz was a collaborator on the exhibit, *An Unhappy Archive* at [Les Complices in Zurich](http://www.lescomplices.ch/recollect/the-alphabet-of-feeling-bad/). The goal of the exhibit was to question the normative definition of happiness through the use of texts, posters, books, and drawings. The title of the project is a reference to [Sara Ahmed](/wiki/Sara_Ahmed "Sara Ahmed")'s concept of the "unhappy archive." According to Ahmed, the unhappy archive is a collective project rooted in [feminist](/wiki/Feminist_theory "Feminist theory")\-queer and [anti\-racist](/wiki/Anti-racism "Anti-racism") politics. Other collaborators include [Ann Cvetkovich](/wiki/Ann_Cvetkovich "Ann Cvetkovich"), Karin Michalski, Sabian Baumann, [Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick](/wiki/Eve_Kosofsky_Sedgwick "Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/feminist\_art\_base/sabian\-baumann\|title\=Brooklyn Museum: Sabian Baumann\|website\=www.brooklynmuseum.org\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-18}} Muñoz departs from [Peggy Phelan](/wiki/Peggy_Phelan "Peggy Phelan")'s argument that the ontology of performance lies in its disappearance.{{Cite book\|title\=Unmarked: The Politics of Performance\|last\=Phelan\|first\=Peggy\|date\=1993\-02\-19\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-06822\-2\|edition\=1}} Muñoz parts from this view as it is confined to a narrow view of time. He suggests live performance exists ephemerally then without completely disappearing after it vanishes. ### Disidentification Muñoz's theory of disidentification builds on [Michel Pêcheux](/wiki/Michel_P%C3%AAcheux "Michel Pêcheux")'s understanding of disidentification and subject formation by examining how minoritarian subjects whose identities render them a minority (e.g. [queer](/wiki/Queer "Queer") [people of color](/wiki/People_of_color "People of color")), negotiate identity in a majoritarian world that punishes and attempts to erase the existence of those who do not fit the normative subject (i.e. [heterosexual](/wiki/Heterosexuality "Heterosexuality"), [cisgender](/wiki/Cisgender "Cisgender"), [white](/wiki/White_people "White people"), [middle class](/wiki/Middle_class "Middle class"), [male](/wiki/Male "Male")). Muñoz notes how queer people of color, as a result of the effects of [colonialism](/wiki/Colonialism "Colonialism"), have been placed outside dominant racial and sexual ideology, namely white normativity{{cite journal \|last1\=Ward \|first1\=Jane \|title\=White Normativity: The Cultural Dimensions of Whiteness in a Racially Diverse LGBT Organization \|journal\=Sociological Perspectives \|date\=September 2008 \|volume\=51 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=563–586 \|doi\=10\.1525/sop.2008\.51\.3\.563 \|s2cid\=144021623 }} and [heteronormativity](/wiki/Heteronormativity "Heteronormativity"). In his own words, "disidentification is about managing and negotiating historical trauma and systemic violence." The disidentificatory subject does not assimilate (identify) nor reject (counter identify) dominant ideology. Rather, the disidentificatory subject employs a third strategy,{{Cite journal\|last\=Pérez\|first\=Emma\|date\=2003\-01\-01\|title\=Queering the Borderlands: The Challenges of Excavating the Invisible and Unheard\|jstor\=3347351\|journal\=Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies\|volume\=24\|issue\=2/3\|pages\=122–131\|doi\=10\.1353/fro.2004\.0021\|s2cid\=144589440}} and, "tactically and simultaneously works on, with, and against, a cultural form."{{Cite book\|title\=Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics\|last\=Muñoz\|first\=José Esteban\|publisher\=University of Minnesota Press\|year\=1999\|isbn\=978\-0\-8166\-3015\-8\|location\=Minnesota}} Aside from being a process of identification,{{cite journal \|last1\=Case \|first1\=Sue‐Ellen \|last2\=Abbitt \|first2\=Erica Stevens \|title\=Disidentifications, Diaspora, and Desire: Questions on the Future of the Feminist Critique of Performance \|journal\=Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society \|date\=March 2004 \|volume\=29 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=925–938 \|doi\=10\.1086/380627 \|s2cid\=144745049 }} disidentification is also a survival strategy. Through disidentification, the disidentifying subject is able to rework the cultural codes of the mainstream to read themselves into the mainstream,{{Cite journal\|last\=Shaked\|first\=Nizan\|date\=2008\-01\-01\|title\=Phantom Sightings: Art after the Chicano Movement\|jstor\=40068561\|journal\=American Quarterly\|volume\=60\|issue\=4\|pages\=1057–1072\|doi\=10\.1353/aq.0\.0043\|s2cid\=144620841}} a simultaneous insertion and subversion. By the mode of disidentification, queer subjects are directed towards the future. Through the use of shame and "misrecognition through failed [interpellation](/wiki/Interpellation_%28philosophy%29 "Interpellation (philosophy)"), queer collectivity neither assimilates nor strictly opposes the dominant regime," but works on strategies that result in queer counterpublics. His theory of disidentification is foundational to understandings of queer of color performance art and has proved indispensable across a wide variety of disciplines. Muñoz's argument is in conversation with [Stefan Brecht](/wiki/Stefan_Brecht "Stefan Brecht")'s theory of "queer theater." Brecht argues that queer theater inevitably turns into humor and passive repetition, ultimately, falling apart.{{Cite book\|title\=Queer Theatre, The original theatre of the City of New York, From the mid\-60s to the mid\-70s, Book 2\.\|last\=Brecht\|first\=Stefan\|publisher\=New York/London: Methuen\|year\=1986}} Muñoz is wary of Brecht's theory, as it doesn't seem to consider the work of artists of color and also ignores the use of humor as a didactic and political project. Muñoz argues that the work of queer artists of color is political and will remain political as long as the logic of dominant ideology exists. ### Counterpublics In *Disidentifications,* drawing from [Nancy Fraser's](/wiki/Nancy_Fraser "Nancy Fraser") notion of "counterpublics," which she states "contest the exclusionary norms of the 'official' bourgeois public sphere, elaborating alternative styles of political behavior and alternative forms of speech," Muñoz defines his own invocation of counterpublics as "communities and relational chains of resistance that contest the dominant public sphere." Counterpublics have the capacity of world\-making through a series of cultural performances that disidentify with the normative scripts of [whiteness](/wiki/Whiteness_studies "Whiteness studies"), [heternormativity](/wiki/Heteronormativity "Heteronormativity"), and [misogyny](/wiki/Misogyny "Misogyny").{{Cite journal\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/7538901\|title\=Locating Hope and Futurity in the Anticipatory Illumination of Queer Performance. Book review of José Muñoz's Cruising Utopia: the Then and There of Queer Futurity\|website\=www.academia.edu\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-05\|last1\=Pakis\|first1\=Elisavet}} Counterpublics disrupt social scripts and create through their work an opening of possibility for other visions of the world that map different, utopian social relations. Muñoz suggests that such work is vital for queer people of color subjects survival and possibilities for another world. At the center of counterpublic performances is the idea of educated hope, "which is both critical affect and methodology." [Jack Halberstam](/wiki/Jack_Halberstam "Jack Halberstam") in the book *In a Queer Time \& Place,* discusses the role of [drag king](/wiki/Drag_king "Drag king") culture as a form of counterpublics that validate and produce "minoritarian public spheres" at the same time they challenge white heteronormativity.{{Cite book\|title\=In a Queer Time and Place: Transgender Bodies, Subcultural Lives\|url\=https://archive.org/details/queertimeplacetr00halb\|url\-access\=limited\|last\=Halberstam\|first\=Judith "Jack"\|publisher\=NYU Press\|year\=2005\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/queertimeplacetr00halb/page/n114 128]}} Examples of counterpublics includes visual performances like {{Proper name\|Xandra Ibarra "La Chica Boom" spictacles}},{{Cite web\|url\=http://hemisphericinstitute.org/hemi/en/enc14\-trasnocheo/item/2467\-enc14\-trasnocheo\-ibarra\-spictacle\|title\=La Chica Boom\|website\=hemisphericinstitute.org\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-04\|archive\-date\=2016\-06\-04\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604100218/http://hemisphericinstitute.org/hemi/en/enc14\-trasnocheo/item/2467\-enc14\-trasnocheo\-ibarra\-spictacle}} [Vaginal Davis](/wiki/Vaginal_Davis "Vaginal Davis"), and Cuban [activist](/wiki/Activism "Activism") and *[The Real World: San Francisco](/wiki/The_Real_World:San_Francisco "San Francisco")* cast\-member [Pedro Zamora](/wiki/Pedro_Zamora "Pedro Zamora"). ### Queer futurity and optimism Queer futurity is a literary and queer cultural theory that combines elements of [utopianism](/wiki/Utopia "Utopia"), [historicism](/wiki/Historicism "Historicism"), [speech act theory](/wiki/Speech_act "Speech act"), and [political idealism](/wiki/Ideal_%28ethics%29 "Ideal (ethics)") in order to critique the present and current dilemmas faced by queer people of color, but also to revise, interrogate, and re\-examine the [death drive](/wiki/Death_drive "Death drive") in [queer theory](/wiki/Queer_theory "Queer theory"). Queer futurity or "queer sociability" addresses themes and concerns of minoritarian subjects through a [performance](/wiki/Performance "Performance") and [aesthetics](/wiki/Aesthetics "Aesthetics") lens, encompassing a range of media and artists with a shared interest in envisioning queer futures that stem from minoritarian subject experiences. The study of queer sociability has expanded beyond the fields of [Performance Studies](/wiki/Performance_studies "Performance studies"), [Queer Theory](/wiki/Queer_theory "Queer theory"), and [Gender](/wiki/Gender_studies "Gender studies") and [Women's Studies](/wiki/Women%27s_studies "Women's studies") and has been used by various scholars to address issues of [Black Diaspora Studies](/wiki/Africana_studies "Africana studies"),{{Cite book\|last\=Ellis\|first\=Nadia\|title\=Territories of the Soul\|publisher\=Duke University Press\|year\=2015}} [Caribbean Studies](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean"),{{Cite web\|last\=Stadler\|first\=Gustavus\|date\=March 10, 2016\|title\=Listening, Ephemerality, and Queer Fidelity\|url\=http://www.boundary2\.org/2014/03/listening\-ephemerality\-and\-queer\-fidelity/\|website\=boundary2\.org\|publisher\=The B2 Review}} and [musicology](/wiki/Musicology "Musicology"),{{Cite news\|last\=boundary2\|date\=2014\-03\-10\|title\=Listening, Ephemerality, and Queer Fidelity {{!}} boundary 2\|url\=http://www.boundary2\.org/2014/03/listening\-ephemerality\-and\-queer\-fidelity/\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-06\|newspaper\=Boundary 2}} and has also led to the field of [queer of color critique](/wiki/Queer_of_color_critique "Queer of color critique").{{Cite web\|title\=Virtual Special Issue: José Esteban Muñoz\|url\=http://explore.tandfonline.com/page/ah/rwap\-vsi\|website\=Queer Acts\|publisher\=Women \& Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-04\|archive\-date\=2016\-09\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924060044/http://explore.tandfonline.com/page/ah/rwap\-vsi}} In *[Cruising Utopia](/wiki/Cruising_Utopia "Cruising Utopia")*, José Muñoz develops a critical methodology of hope to question the present and open up the future. He draws on Ernst Bloch's Marxist inspired analysis of hope, [temporality](/wiki/Temporality "Temporality"), and [utopia](/wiki/Utopia "Utopia"), and looks at "inspirational moments from the past in order to (re)imagine the future."{{Cite web\|title\=Review of Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Queer Futurity : Mediations: Journal of the Marxist Literary Group\|url\=http://www.mediationsjournal.org/articles/queer\-principles\-of\-hope\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-05\|website\=www.mediationsjournal.org}} In the book, Muñoz revisits a series of queer art works from the past to envision the political potentiality within them. He draws on the queer work of [Frank O'Hara](/wiki/Frank_O%27Hara "Frank O'Hara"), [Andy Warhol](/wiki/Andy_Warhol "Andy Warhol"), [Fred Herko](/wiki/Fred_Herko "Fred Herko"), [LeRoi Jones](/wiki/Amiri_Baraka "Amiri Baraka"), [Ray Johnson](/wiki/Ray_Johnson "Ray Johnson"), [Jill Johnston](/wiki/Jill_Johnston "Jill Johnston"), [Jack Smith](/wiki/Jack_Smith_%28film_director%29 "Jack Smith (film director)"), [James Schulyer](/wiki/James_Schuyler "James Schuyler"), [Elizabeth Bishop](/wiki/Elizabeth_Bishop "Elizabeth Bishop") and [Samuel Delany's](/wiki/Samuel_R._Delany "Samuel R. Delany") and [Eileen Myles](/wiki/Eileen_Myles "Eileen Myles") queer memoirs of the 60s and 70s. Muñoz develops a hermeneutics of "trace and residue to read the mattering of these works, their influence and world\-making capacity." This world\-making capacity allows for a queer futurity. Muñoz develops an argument for queerness as horizon, hope, and futurity. According to [Fred Moten](/wiki/Fred_Moten "Fred Moten"), "Jose's queerness is a utopian project whose temporal dimensionality is manifest not only as projection into the future but also as projection of a certain futurity into and onto the present and the past."{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.boundary2\.org/2014/03/the\-beauty\-of\-jose\-esteban\-munoz/\|title\=The Beauty of José Esteban Muñoz {{!}} boundary 2\|last\=boundary2\|website\=www.boundary2\.org\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-05\|date\=2014\-03\-10}} ### Chusma Muñoz theorizes chusmeria or chusma, as a form of behavior that is in excess of normative comportment. Chusmeria is "a form of behavior that refuses bourgeois comportment and suggests Latinos should not be too black, too poor, or too sexual, among other characteristics that exceed normativity." Queer theorist Deborah Vargas uses chusmeria to inform her theory of *lo sucio*, "the dirty, nasty, and filthy" of society.{{Cite journal\|last\=Vargas\|first\=Deborah\|title\=Ruminations of Lo Sucio as a Latino Queer Analytic\|journal\=American Quarterly \|volume\=66 \|issue\=3 }} In the Muñozian sense, "lo sucio" persistently lingers as the "yet to be". ### Sense of feeling brown Muñoz began to theorize on brown affect in his piece "Feeling Brown: Ethnicity and Affect" in Ricardo Bracho's *The Sweetest Hangover (and Other STDs)*. In this article, Muñoz wanted to focus on ethnicity, affect, and performance in order to question the U.S. national affect and highlight the affective struggles that keep minoritarian subjects from accessing normative identity politics.{{Cite journal\|last\=Muñoz\|first\=José Esteban Muñoz\|date\=2000\|title\=Feeling Brown: Ethnicity and Affect in Ricardo Bracho's "The Sweetest Hangover (And Other STDS)\|journal\=Theatre Journal \|volume\=52 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=67–79\|doi\=10\.1353/tj.2000\.0020\|s2cid\=143419651}} Muñoz's undertaking was to move beyond notions of ethnicity as "what people are" and instead understand it as a performative "what people do." Muñoz describes how race and ethnicity are to be understood as "affective" differences. Affective differences are the "ways in which different historically coherent groups 'feel' differently and navigate the material world on a different emotional register." In the piece "Feeling Brown", Muñoz discussed the notion of racial performativity as a form of political doing based on the recognition of the effects of race. Thus, "feeling brown" is a modality of recognizing the affective particularities coded to specific historical subjects, like the term [Latina](/wiki/Latino_%28demonym%29 "Latino (demonym)"). He emphasized that Brown feelings "are not individualized affective particularity" but rather is a collective mapping of self and others. The turn from identity to affect resulted in Muñoz's conceptualization of the "Brown Commons" as the key point in which race is experienced as a feeling, as an affective specificity. Licia Fiol\-Matta describes Jose's "Cubanity" as a "disidentity, a feeling brown, part of a brown undercommons and as an artistic manifestation of the sense of brown."{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.boundary2\.org/2014/03/the\-sense\-of\-jose/\|title\=The Sense of José {{!}} boundary 2\|last\=boundary2\|website\=www.boundary2\.org\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-05\|date\=2014\-03\-10}} With Latinidad as an affective difference, "José gave us a road map or toolkit to point us in the direction of the gap, wound, or hole of displacement as a necessary condition for interpretation to take place."{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.boundary2\.org/2014/03/the\-sense\-of\-jose/\|title\=The Sense of José {{!}} boundary 2\|last\=boundary2\|website\=www.boundary2\.org\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-06\|date\=2014\-03\-10}}
[ "Research and areas of interest\n------------------------------", "Muñoz challenges and questions contemporary mainstream gay and lesbian politics. He argues that present gay and lesbian politics, whose political goal is [gay rights](/wiki/Gay_Rights \"Gay Rights\"), [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States \"Same-sex marriage in the United States\"), and [gays in the military](/wiki/Sexual_orientation_and_military_service \"Sexual orientation and military service\"), are trapped within the limiting normative time and present. Following [Ernst Bloch's](/wiki/Ernst_Bloch \"Ernst Bloch\") *The Principle of Hope*, Muñoz is interested in the socially symbolic dimension of certain aesthetic processes that promote [political idealism](/wiki/Political_idealism \"Political idealism\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Muñoz\\|first\\=José Esteban\\|date\\=2007\\|title\\=Cruising the Toilet: LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka, Radical Black TRaditions, and Queer Futurity\\|journal\\=GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies}} Muñoz re\\-articulates queerness as something \"not yet here.\" Queerness \"is that thing that lets us feel that this world is not enough.\" Muñoz reconceptualizes queerness from [identity politics](/wiki/Identity_politics \"Identity politics\") and brings it into the field of [aesthetics](/wiki/Aesthetics \"Aesthetics\"). For Muñoz, queer aesthetics, such as the visual artwork of [Vaginal Davis](/wiki/Vaginal_Davis \"Vaginal Davis\"), offers a blueprint to map future social relations. Queerness in Muñoz's conceptualization, is a rejection of \"straight time\", the \"here and now\" and an insistence of the \"then and there.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Queer Futurity\\|last\\=Muñoz\\|first\\=Jose Esteban\\|publisher\\=NYU Press\\|year\\=2009}} Muñoz proposes the concept of \"disidentificatory performances,\" as acts of transgression and creation, by which racial and sexual minorities, or minoritarian subjects articulate the truth about [cultural hegemony](/wiki/Cultural_hegemony \"Cultural hegemony\"). Muñoz critiques [Lee Edelman](/wiki/Lee_Edelman \"Lee Edelman\")'s book \"No Future\" and the concept of queer death drive that results in Muñoz theorization of queer futurity or queer sociality. Queer futurity thus \"illuminates a landscape of possibility for minoritarian subjects through the aesthetic\\-strategies for surviving and imagining utopian modes of being in the world.\"{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Alvarado\\|first\\=Leticia\\|date\\=July 2015\\|title\\=\"What Comes after Loss?\": Ana Mendieta after José\\|journal\\=Small Axe \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=104–110\\|doi\\=10\\.1215/07990537\\-3139418\\|s2cid\\=145733915}}", "### Ephemera as evidence", "Muñoz first introduced his concept of ephemera as evidence in the 1996 issue of *Women \\& Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory.* The idea that performance is ephemeral is essential to the field of [performance studies](/wiki/Performance_studies \"Performance studies\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage\\|last\\=Kirshenblatt\\-Gimblett\\|first\\=Barbara\\|publisher\\=University of California Press\\|year\\=1998\\|location\\=Berkeley, CA}} In this essay, Muñoz claims that [ephemera](/wiki/Ephemerality \"Ephemerality\") does not disappear.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Perform, Repeat, Record: Live Art in History\\|publisher\\=Intellect Books\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-84150\\-489\\-6}} Ephemera in the Muñozian sense, is a modality of \"anti\\-rigor\" and \"anti\\-evidence\" that reformulates understandings of [materiality](/wiki/The_Materiality_Turn \"The Materiality Turn\"). Building on [Raymond Williams](/wiki/Raymond_Williams \"Raymond Williams\")' concept of \"structures of feeling\",{{Cite book\\|title\\=Marxism and Literature\\|last\\=Williams\\|first\\=Raymond\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=1977}} Muñoz claims that the ephemeral, \"traces, glimmers, residues, and specks of things,\" is distinctly material, though not always solid. Framing the performative as both an intellectual and discursive event, he begins by defining queerness as a possibility, a modality, of the social and the relational, a sense of self\\-knowing. He argues that queerness is passed on surreptitiously due to the fact that the trace of queerness often leaves the queer subject vulnerable for attack.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Muñoz \\|first1\\=José Esteban \\|title\\=Ephemera as Evidence: Introductory Notes to Queer Acts \\|journal\\=Women \\& Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory \\|date\\=January 1996 \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=5–16 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/07407709608571228 }} Muñoz's definition of ephemera is influenced by Paul Gilroy's *The Black Atlantic* \"as part of the exchange of ephemera that connects and makes concert a community.\" As a result, Muñoz states, queerness has not been able to exist as \"visible evidence\" rather it has had to exist in fleeting moments. Thus, queer performances stand as [evidence](/wiki/Evidence \"Evidence\") of queer possibilities and queer worldmaking. Muñoz understands [Marlon Riggs](/wiki/Marlon_Riggs \"Marlon Riggs\")' documentary films *[Tongues Untied](/wiki/Tongues_Untied \"Tongues Untied\")* and *Black Is, Black Ain't* as examples of an ephemeral witnessing of Black queer identity. In 2013, Muñoz was a collaborator on the exhibit, *An Unhappy Archive* at [Les Complices in Zurich](http://www.lescomplices.ch/recollect/the-alphabet-of-feeling-bad/). The goal of the exhibit was to question the normative definition of happiness through the use of texts, posters, books, and drawings. The title of the project is a reference to [Sara Ahmed](/wiki/Sara_Ahmed \"Sara Ahmed\")'s concept of the \"unhappy archive.\" According to Ahmed, the unhappy archive is a collective project rooted in [feminist](/wiki/Feminist_theory \"Feminist theory\")\\-queer and [anti\\-racist](/wiki/Anti-racism \"Anti-racism\") politics. Other collaborators include [Ann Cvetkovich](/wiki/Ann_Cvetkovich \"Ann Cvetkovich\"), Karin Michalski, Sabian Baumann, [Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick](/wiki/Eve_Kosofsky_Sedgwick \"Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/feminist\\_art\\_base/sabian\\-baumann\\|title\\=Brooklyn Museum: Sabian Baumann\\|website\\=www.brooklynmuseum.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-18}} Muñoz departs from [Peggy Phelan](/wiki/Peggy_Phelan \"Peggy Phelan\")'s argument that the ontology of performance lies in its disappearance.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Unmarked: The Politics of Performance\\|last\\=Phelan\\|first\\=Peggy\\|date\\=1993\\-02\\-19\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-06822\\-2\\|edition\\=1}} Muñoz parts from this view as it is confined to a narrow view of time. He suggests live performance exists ephemerally then without completely disappearing after it vanishes.", "### Disidentification", "Muñoz's theory of disidentification builds on [Michel Pêcheux](/wiki/Michel_P%C3%AAcheux \"Michel Pêcheux\")'s understanding of disidentification and subject formation by examining how minoritarian subjects whose identities render them a minority (e.g. [queer](/wiki/Queer \"Queer\") [people of color](/wiki/People_of_color \"People of color\")), negotiate identity in a majoritarian world that punishes and attempts to erase the existence of those who do not fit the normative subject (i.e. [heterosexual](/wiki/Heterosexuality \"Heterosexuality\"), [cisgender](/wiki/Cisgender \"Cisgender\"), [white](/wiki/White_people \"White people\"), [middle class](/wiki/Middle_class \"Middle class\"), [male](/wiki/Male \"Male\")). Muñoz notes how queer people of color, as a result of the effects of [colonialism](/wiki/Colonialism \"Colonialism\"), have been placed outside dominant racial and sexual ideology, namely white normativity{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Ward \\|first1\\=Jane \\|title\\=White Normativity: The Cultural Dimensions of Whiteness in a Racially Diverse LGBT Organization \\|journal\\=Sociological Perspectives \\|date\\=September 2008 \\|volume\\=51 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=563–586 \\|doi\\=10\\.1525/sop.2008\\.51\\.3\\.563 \\|s2cid\\=144021623 }} and [heteronormativity](/wiki/Heteronormativity \"Heteronormativity\"). In his own words, \"disidentification is about managing and negotiating historical trauma and systemic violence.\" The disidentificatory subject does not assimilate (identify) nor reject (counter identify) dominant ideology. Rather, the disidentificatory subject employs a third strategy,{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Pérez\\|first\\=Emma\\|date\\=2003\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=Queering the Borderlands: The Challenges of Excavating the Invisible and Unheard\\|jstor\\=3347351\\|journal\\=Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies\\|volume\\=24\\|issue\\=2/3\\|pages\\=122–131\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/fro.2004\\.0021\\|s2cid\\=144589440}} and, \"tactically and simultaneously works on, with, and against, a cultural form.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics\\|last\\=Muñoz\\|first\\=José Esteban\\|publisher\\=University of Minnesota Press\\|year\\=1999\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8166\\-3015\\-8\\|location\\=Minnesota}} Aside from being a process of identification,{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Case \\|first1\\=Sue‐Ellen \\|last2\\=Abbitt \\|first2\\=Erica Stevens \\|title\\=Disidentifications, Diaspora, and Desire: Questions on the Future of the Feminist Critique of Performance \\|journal\\=Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society \\|date\\=March 2004 \\|volume\\=29 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=925–938 \\|doi\\=10\\.1086/380627 \\|s2cid\\=144745049 }} disidentification is also a survival strategy. Through disidentification, the disidentifying subject is able to rework the cultural codes of the mainstream to read themselves into the mainstream,{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Shaked\\|first\\=Nizan\\|date\\=2008\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=Phantom Sightings: Art after the Chicano Movement\\|jstor\\=40068561\\|journal\\=American Quarterly\\|volume\\=60\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1057–1072\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/aq.0\\.0043\\|s2cid\\=144620841}} a simultaneous insertion and subversion. By the mode of disidentification, queer subjects are directed towards the future. Through the use of shame and \"misrecognition through failed [interpellation](/wiki/Interpellation_%28philosophy%29 \"Interpellation (philosophy)\"), queer collectivity neither assimilates nor strictly opposes the dominant regime,\" but works on strategies that result in queer counterpublics.", "His theory of disidentification is foundational to understandings of queer of color performance art and has proved indispensable across a wide variety of disciplines. Muñoz's argument is in conversation with [Stefan Brecht](/wiki/Stefan_Brecht \"Stefan Brecht\")'s theory of \"queer theater.\" Brecht argues that queer theater inevitably turns into humor and passive repetition, ultimately, falling apart.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Queer Theatre, The original theatre of the City of New York, From the mid\\-60s to the mid\\-70s, Book 2\\.\\|last\\=Brecht\\|first\\=Stefan\\|publisher\\=New York/London: Methuen\\|year\\=1986}} Muñoz is wary of Brecht's theory, as it doesn't seem to consider the work of artists of color and also ignores the use of humor as a didactic and political project. Muñoz argues that the work of queer artists of color is political and will remain political as long as the logic of dominant ideology exists.", "### Counterpublics", "In *Disidentifications,* drawing from [Nancy Fraser's](/wiki/Nancy_Fraser \"Nancy Fraser\") notion of \"counterpublics,\" which she states \"contest the exclusionary norms of the 'official' bourgeois public sphere, elaborating alternative styles of political behavior and alternative forms of speech,\" Muñoz defines his own invocation of counterpublics as \"communities and relational chains of resistance that contest the dominant public sphere.\" Counterpublics have the capacity of world\\-making through a series of cultural performances that disidentify with the normative scripts of [whiteness](/wiki/Whiteness_studies \"Whiteness studies\"), [heternormativity](/wiki/Heteronormativity \"Heteronormativity\"), and [misogyny](/wiki/Misogyny \"Misogyny\").{{Cite journal\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/7538901\\|title\\=Locating Hope and Futurity in the Anticipatory Illumination of Queer Performance. Book review of José Muñoz's Cruising Utopia: the Then and There of Queer Futurity\\|website\\=www.academia.edu\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-05\\|last1\\=Pakis\\|first1\\=Elisavet}} Counterpublics disrupt social scripts and create through their work an opening of possibility for other visions of the world that map different, utopian social relations. Muñoz suggests that such work is vital for queer people of color subjects survival and possibilities for another world. At the center of counterpublic performances is the idea of educated hope, \"which is both critical affect and methodology.\" [Jack Halberstam](/wiki/Jack_Halberstam \"Jack Halberstam\") in the book *In a Queer Time \\& Place,* discusses the role of [drag king](/wiki/Drag_king \"Drag king\") culture as a form of counterpublics that validate and produce \"minoritarian public spheres\" at the same time they challenge white heteronormativity.{{Cite book\\|title\\=In a Queer Time and Place: Transgender Bodies, Subcultural Lives\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/queertimeplacetr00halb\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last\\=Halberstam\\|first\\=Judith \"Jack\"\\|publisher\\=NYU Press\\|year\\=2005\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/queertimeplacetr00halb/page/n114 128]}} Examples of counterpublics includes visual performances like {{Proper name\\|Xandra Ibarra \"La Chica Boom\" spictacles}},{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://hemisphericinstitute.org/hemi/en/enc14\\-trasnocheo/item/2467\\-enc14\\-trasnocheo\\-ibarra\\-spictacle\\|title\\=La Chica Boom\\|website\\=hemisphericinstitute.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-04\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-04\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604100218/http://hemisphericinstitute.org/hemi/en/enc14\\-trasnocheo/item/2467\\-enc14\\-trasnocheo\\-ibarra\\-spictacle}} [Vaginal Davis](/wiki/Vaginal_Davis \"Vaginal Davis\"), and Cuban [activist](/wiki/Activism \"Activism\") and *[The Real World: San Francisco](/wiki/The_Real_World:San_Francisco \"San Francisco\")* cast\\-member [Pedro Zamora](/wiki/Pedro_Zamora \"Pedro Zamora\").", "### Queer futurity and optimism", "Queer futurity is a literary and queer cultural theory that combines elements of [utopianism](/wiki/Utopia \"Utopia\"), [historicism](/wiki/Historicism \"Historicism\"), [speech act theory](/wiki/Speech_act \"Speech act\"), and [political idealism](/wiki/Ideal_%28ethics%29 \"Ideal (ethics)\") in order to critique the present and current dilemmas faced by queer people of color, but also to revise, interrogate, and re\\-examine the [death drive](/wiki/Death_drive \"Death drive\") in [queer theory](/wiki/Queer_theory \"Queer theory\"). Queer futurity or \"queer sociability\" addresses themes and concerns of minoritarian subjects through a [performance](/wiki/Performance \"Performance\") and [aesthetics](/wiki/Aesthetics \"Aesthetics\") lens, encompassing a range of media and artists with a shared interest in envisioning queer futures that stem from minoritarian subject experiences. The study of queer sociability has expanded beyond the fields of [Performance Studies](/wiki/Performance_studies \"Performance studies\"), [Queer Theory](/wiki/Queer_theory \"Queer theory\"), and [Gender](/wiki/Gender_studies \"Gender studies\") and [Women's Studies](/wiki/Women%27s_studies \"Women's studies\") and has been used by various scholars to address issues of [Black Diaspora Studies](/wiki/Africana_studies \"Africana studies\"),{{Cite book\\|last\\=Ellis\\|first\\=Nadia\\|title\\=Territories of the Soul\\|publisher\\=Duke University Press\\|year\\=2015}} [Caribbean Studies](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\"),{{Cite web\\|last\\=Stadler\\|first\\=Gustavus\\|date\\=March 10, 2016\\|title\\=Listening, Ephemerality, and Queer Fidelity\\|url\\=http://www.boundary2\\.org/2014/03/listening\\-ephemerality\\-and\\-queer\\-fidelity/\\|website\\=boundary2\\.org\\|publisher\\=The B2 Review}} and [musicology](/wiki/Musicology \"Musicology\"),{{Cite news\\|last\\=boundary2\\|date\\=2014\\-03\\-10\\|title\\=Listening, Ephemerality, and Queer Fidelity {{!}} boundary 2\\|url\\=http://www.boundary2\\.org/2014/03/listening\\-ephemerality\\-and\\-queer\\-fidelity/\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-06\\|newspaper\\=Boundary 2}} and has also led to the field of [queer of color critique](/wiki/Queer_of_color_critique \"Queer of color critique\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Virtual Special Issue: José Esteban Muñoz\\|url\\=http://explore.tandfonline.com/page/ah/rwap\\-vsi\\|website\\=Queer Acts\\|publisher\\=Women \\& Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-04\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924060044/http://explore.tandfonline.com/page/ah/rwap\\-vsi}}", "In *[Cruising Utopia](/wiki/Cruising_Utopia \"Cruising Utopia\")*, José Muñoz develops a critical methodology of hope to question the present and open up the future. He draws on Ernst Bloch's Marxist inspired analysis of hope, [temporality](/wiki/Temporality \"Temporality\"), and [utopia](/wiki/Utopia \"Utopia\"), and looks at \"inspirational moments from the past in order to (re)imagine the future.\"{{Cite web\\|title\\=Review of Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Queer Futurity : Mediations: Journal of the Marxist Literary Group\\|url\\=http://www.mediationsjournal.org/articles/queer\\-principles\\-of\\-hope\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-05\\|website\\=www.mediationsjournal.org}} In the book, Muñoz revisits a series of queer art works from the past to envision the political potentiality within them. He draws on the queer work of [Frank O'Hara](/wiki/Frank_O%27Hara \"Frank O'Hara\"), [Andy Warhol](/wiki/Andy_Warhol \"Andy Warhol\"), [Fred Herko](/wiki/Fred_Herko \"Fred Herko\"), [LeRoi Jones](/wiki/Amiri_Baraka \"Amiri Baraka\"), [Ray Johnson](/wiki/Ray_Johnson \"Ray Johnson\"), [Jill Johnston](/wiki/Jill_Johnston \"Jill Johnston\"), [Jack Smith](/wiki/Jack_Smith_%28film_director%29 \"Jack Smith (film director)\"), [James Schulyer](/wiki/James_Schuyler \"James Schuyler\"), [Elizabeth Bishop](/wiki/Elizabeth_Bishop \"Elizabeth Bishop\") and [Samuel Delany's](/wiki/Samuel_R._Delany \"Samuel R. Delany\") and [Eileen Myles](/wiki/Eileen_Myles \"Eileen Myles\") queer memoirs of the 60s and 70s. Muñoz develops a hermeneutics of \"trace and residue to read the mattering of these works, their influence and world\\-making capacity.\" This world\\-making capacity allows for a queer futurity. Muñoz develops an argument for queerness as horizon, hope, and futurity. According to [Fred Moten](/wiki/Fred_Moten \"Fred Moten\"), \"Jose's queerness is a utopian project whose temporal dimensionality is manifest not only as projection into the future but also as projection of a certain futurity into and onto the present and the past.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.boundary2\\.org/2014/03/the\\-beauty\\-of\\-jose\\-esteban\\-munoz/\\|title\\=The Beauty of José Esteban Muñoz {{!}} boundary 2\\|last\\=boundary2\\|website\\=www.boundary2\\.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-05\\|date\\=2014\\-03\\-10}}", "### Chusma", "Muñoz theorizes chusmeria or chusma, as a form of behavior that is in excess of normative comportment. Chusmeria is \"a form of behavior that refuses bourgeois comportment and suggests Latinos should not be too black, too poor, or too sexual, among other characteristics that exceed normativity.\" Queer theorist Deborah Vargas uses chusmeria to inform her theory of *lo sucio*, \"the dirty, nasty, and filthy\" of society.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Vargas\\|first\\=Deborah\\|title\\=Ruminations of Lo Sucio as a Latino Queer Analytic\\|journal\\=American Quarterly \\|volume\\=66 \\|issue\\=3 }} In the Muñozian sense, \"lo sucio\" persistently lingers as the \"yet to be\".", "### Sense of feeling brown", "Muñoz began to theorize on brown affect in his piece \"Feeling Brown: Ethnicity and Affect\" in Ricardo Bracho's *The Sweetest Hangover (and Other STDs)*. In this article, Muñoz wanted to focus on ethnicity, affect, and performance in order to question the U.S. national affect and highlight the affective struggles that keep minoritarian subjects from accessing normative identity politics.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Muñoz\\|first\\=José Esteban Muñoz\\|date\\=2000\\|title\\=Feeling Brown: Ethnicity and Affect in Ricardo Bracho's \"The Sweetest Hangover (And Other STDS)\\|journal\\=Theatre Journal \\|volume\\=52 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=67–79\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/tj.2000\\.0020\\|s2cid\\=143419651}} Muñoz's undertaking was to move beyond notions of ethnicity as \"what people are\" and instead understand it as a performative \"what people do.\" Muñoz describes how race and ethnicity are to be understood as \"affective\" differences. Affective differences are the \"ways in which different historically coherent groups 'feel' differently and navigate the material world on a different emotional register.\" In the piece \"Feeling Brown\", Muñoz discussed the notion of racial performativity as a form of political doing based on the recognition of the effects of race. Thus, \"feeling brown\" is a modality of recognizing the affective particularities coded to specific historical subjects, like the term [Latina](/wiki/Latino_%28demonym%29 \"Latino (demonym)\"). He emphasized that Brown feelings \"are not individualized affective particularity\" but rather is a collective mapping of self and others. The turn from identity to affect resulted in Muñoz's conceptualization of the \"Brown Commons\" as the key point in which race is experienced as a feeling, as an affective specificity. Licia Fiol\\-Matta describes Jose's \"Cubanity\" as a \"disidentity, a feeling brown, part of a brown undercommons and as an artistic manifestation of the sense of brown.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.boundary2\\.org/2014/03/the\\-sense\\-of\\-jose/\\|title\\=The Sense of José {{!}} boundary 2\\|last\\=boundary2\\|website\\=www.boundary2\\.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-05\\|date\\=2014\\-03\\-10}} With Latinidad as an affective difference, \"José gave us a road map or toolkit to point us in the direction of the gap, wound, or hole of displacement as a necessary condition for interpretation to take place.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.boundary2\\.org/2014/03/the\\-sense\\-of\\-jose/\\|title\\=The Sense of José {{!}} boundary 2\\|last\\=boundary2\\|website\\=www.boundary2\\.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-06\\|date\\=2014\\-03\\-10}}", "" ]
Mixing of ideal species at constant temperature and pressure ------------------------------------------------------------ In ideal species, intermolecular forces are the same between every pair of molecular kinds, so that a molecule "feels" no difference between itself and its molecular neighbors. This is the reference case for examining corresponding mixing of non\-ideal species. For example, two ideal gases, at the same temperature and pressure, are initially separated by a dividing partition. Upon removal of the dividing partition, they expand into a final common volume (the sum of the two initial volumes), and the entropy of mixing \\Delta S\_{mix} is given by \\Delta S\_{mix} \= \-nR(x\_1\\ln x\_1 \+ x\_2\\ln x\_2\)\\,. where R is the [gas constant](/wiki/Gas_constant "Gas constant"), n the total number of [moles](/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29 "Mole (unit)") and x\_i the [mole fraction](/wiki/Mole_fraction "Mole fraction") of component i\\,, which initially occupies volume V\_i \= x\_iV\\,. After the removal of the partition, the n\_i \= nx\_i moles of component i may explore the combined volume V\\,, which causes an entropy increase equal to nx\_i R \\ln(V/V\_i) \= \- nR x\_i \\ln x\_i for each component gas. In this case, the increase in entropy is entirely due to the irreversible processes of expansion of the two gases, and involves no heat or work flow between the system and its surroundings. ### Gibbs free energy of mixing The [Gibbs free energy](/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy "Gibbs free energy") change \\Delta G\_\\text{mix} \= \\Delta H\_\\text{mix} \- T\\Delta S\_\\text{mix} determines whether mixing at constant (absolute) temperature T and pressure p is a [spontaneous process](/wiki/Spontaneous_process "Spontaneous process"). This quantity combines two physical effects—the [enthalpy of mixing](/wiki/Enthalpy_of_mixing "Enthalpy of mixing"), which is a measure of the energy change, and the entropy of mixing considered here. For an [ideal gas](/wiki/Ideal_gas "Ideal gas") mixture or an [ideal solution](/wiki/Ideal_solution "Ideal solution"), there is no enthalpy of mixing (\\Delta H\_\\text{mix} \\,), so that the Gibbs free energy of mixing is given by the entropy term only: \\Delta G\_\\text{mix} \= \- T\\Delta S\_\\text{mix} For an ideal solution, the Gibbs free energy of mixing is always negative, meaning that mixing of ideal solutions is always spontaneous. The lowest value is when the mole fraction is 0\.5 for a mixture of two components, or 1/n for a mixture of n components. [thumb\|The entropy of mixing for an ideal solution of two species is maximized when the mole fraction of each species is 0\.5\.](/wiki/File:Entropy_of_Mixing.jpg "Entropy of Mixing.jpg")
[ "Mixing of ideal species at constant temperature and pressure\n------------------------------------------------------------", "In ideal species, intermolecular forces are the same between every pair of molecular kinds, so that a molecule \"feels\" no difference between itself and its molecular neighbors. This is the reference case for examining corresponding mixing of non\\-ideal species.", "For example, two ideal gases, at the same temperature and pressure, are initially separated by a dividing partition.", "Upon removal of the dividing partition, they expand into a final common volume (the sum of the two initial volumes), and the entropy of mixing \n\\\\Delta S\\_{mix} is given by \n\\\\Delta S\\_{mix} \\= \\-nR(x\\_1\\\\ln x\\_1 \\+ x\\_2\\\\ln x\\_2\\)\\\\,.", "where R is the [gas constant](/wiki/Gas_constant \"Gas constant\"), n the total number of [moles](/wiki/Mole_%28unit%29 \"Mole (unit)\") and x\\_i the [mole fraction](/wiki/Mole_fraction \"Mole fraction\") of component i\\\\,, which initially occupies volume V\\_i \\= x\\_iV\\\\,. After the removal of the partition, the n\\_i \\= nx\\_i moles of component i may explore the combined volume V\\\\,, which causes an entropy increase equal to nx\\_i R \\\\ln(V/V\\_i) \\= \\- nR x\\_i \\\\ln x\\_i for each component gas.", "In this case, the increase in entropy is entirely due to the irreversible processes of expansion of the two gases, and involves no heat or work flow between the system and its surroundings.", "### Gibbs free energy of mixing", "The [Gibbs free energy](/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy \"Gibbs free energy\") change \\\\Delta G\\_\\\\text{mix} \\= \\\\Delta H\\_\\\\text{mix} \\- T\\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix} determines whether mixing at constant (absolute) temperature T and pressure p is a [spontaneous process](/wiki/Spontaneous_process \"Spontaneous process\"). This quantity combines two physical effects—the [enthalpy of mixing](/wiki/Enthalpy_of_mixing \"Enthalpy of mixing\"), which is a measure of the energy change, and the entropy of mixing considered here.", "For an [ideal gas](/wiki/Ideal_gas \"Ideal gas\") mixture or an [ideal solution](/wiki/Ideal_solution \"Ideal solution\"), there is no enthalpy of mixing (\\\\Delta H\\_\\\\text{mix} \\\\,), so that the Gibbs free energy of mixing is given by the entropy term only: \n\\\\Delta G\\_\\\\text{mix} \\= \\- T\\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix}", "For an ideal solution, the Gibbs free energy of mixing is always negative, meaning that mixing of ideal solutions is always spontaneous. The lowest value is when the mole fraction is 0\\.5 for a mixture of two components, or 1/n for a mixture of n components.", "[thumb\\|The entropy of mixing for an ideal solution of two species is maximized when the mole fraction of each species is 0\\.5\\.](/wiki/File:Entropy_of_Mixing.jpg \"Entropy of Mixing.jpg\")", "" ]
Solutions and temperature dependence of miscibility --------------------------------------------------- ### Ideal and regular solutions The above equation for the entropy of mixing of ideal gases is valid also for certain liquid (or solid) solutions—those formed by completely random mixing so that the components move independently in the total volume. Such random mixing of solutions occurs if the interaction energies between unlike molecules are similar to the average interaction energies between like molecules.[Atkins, P.W.](/wiki/Peter_Atkins "Peter Atkins"), de Paula, J. (2006\). *Atkins' Physical Chemistry*, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman, New York, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7167\-8759\-4}}.{{rp\|p\=149}}K. Denbigh, "The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium" (3rd ed., Cambridge University Press 1971\) p.432 The value of the entropy corresponds exactly to random mixing for [ideal solutions](/wiki/Ideal_solution "Ideal solution") and for [regular solutions](/wiki/Regular_solution "Regular solution"), and approximately so for many real solutions.P.A. Rock "Chemical Thermodynamics. Principles and Applications.(MacMillan 1969\) p.263 For binary mixtures the entropy of random mixing can be considered as a function of the mole fraction of one component. \\Delta S\_\\text{mix} \= \-nR(x\_1\\ln x\_1 \+ x\_2\\ln x\_2\) \= \-nR\[x\\ln x \+ (1\-x) \\ln (1\-x)] For all possible mixtures, 0 \< x \< 1, so that \\ln x and \\ln (1\-x) are both negative and the entropy of mixing \\Delta S\_\\text{mix} is positive and favors mixing of the pure components. The curvature of \\Delta S\_\\text{mix} as a function of x is given by the second derivative \\left(\\frac{\\partial^2 \\Delta S\_\\text{mix}}{\\partial x^2}\\right)\_{T,P} \= \-nR\\left( \\frac{1}{x} \+\\frac{1}{1\-x} \\right) This curvature is negative for all possible mixtures (0 \< x \< 1\), so that mixing two solutions to form a solution of intermediate composition also increases the entropy of the system. Random mixing therefore always favors miscibility and opposes phase separation. For ideal solutions, the enthalpy of mixing is zero so that the components are miscible in all proportions. For regular solutions a positive enthalpy of mixing may cause incomplete miscibility ([phase separation](/wiki/Phase_separation "Phase separation") for some compositions) at temperatures below the [upper critical solution temperature](/wiki/Upper_critical_solution_temperature "Upper critical solution temperature") (UCST).{{rp\|p\=186}} This is the minimum temperature at which the \-T \\Delta S\_{mix} term in the Gibbs energy of mixing is sufficient to produce miscibility in all proportions. ### Systems with a lower critical solution temperature Nonrandom mixing with a lower entropy of mixing can occur when the attractive interactions between unlike molecules are significantly stronger (or weaker) than the mean interactions between like molecules. For some systems this can lead to a [lower critical solution temperature](/wiki/Lower_critical_solution_temperature "Lower critical solution temperature") (LCST) or lower limiting temperature for phase separation. For example, [triethylamine](/wiki/Triethylamine "Triethylamine") and water are miscible in all proportions below 19 °C, but above this critical temperature, solutions of certain compositions separate into two phases at equilibrium with each other.{{rp\|p\=187}}M.A. White, "Properties of Materials" (Oxford University Press 1999\) p.175 This means that \\Delta G\_\\text{mix} is negative for mixing of the two phases below 19 °C and positive above this temperature. Therefore, \\Delta S\_\\text{mix} \= \-\\left(\\frac{\\partial \\Delta G\_\\text{mix}}{\\partial T}\\right)\_P is negative for mixing of these two equilibrium phases. This is due to the formation of attractive [hydrogen bonds](/wiki/Hydrogen_bond "Hydrogen bond") between the two components that prevent random mixing. Triethylamine molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds with each other but only with water molecules, so in solution they remain associated to water molecules with loss of entropy. The mixing that occurs below 19 °C is due not to entropy but to the enthalpy of formation of the hydrogen bonds. Lower critical solution temperatures also occur in many polymer\-solvent mixtures.Cowie, J.M.G. "Polymers: Chemistry and Physics of Modern Materials" (2nd edn, Blackie 1991\) p.174\-176 For polar systems such as [polyacrylic acid](/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid "Polyacrylic acid") in [1,4\-dioxane](/wiki/1%2C4-dioxane "1,4-dioxane"), this is often due to the formation of hydrogen bonds between polymer and solvent. For nonpolar systems such as [polystyrene](/wiki/Polystyrene "Polystyrene") in [cyclohexane](/wiki/Cyclohexane "Cyclohexane"), phase separation has been observed in sealed tubes (at high pressure) at temperatures approaching the liquid\-vapor [critical point](/wiki/Critical_point_%28thermodynamics%29 "Critical point (thermodynamics)") of the solvent. At such temperatures the solvent expands much more rapidly than the polymer, whose segments are covalently linked. Mixing therefore requires contraction of the solvent for compatibility of the polymer, resulting in a loss of entropy.
[ "Solutions and temperature dependence of miscibility\n---------------------------------------------------", "### Ideal and regular solutions", "The above equation for the entropy of mixing of ideal gases is valid also for certain liquid (or solid) solutions—those formed by completely random mixing so that the components move independently in the total volume. Such random mixing of solutions occurs if the interaction energies between unlike molecules are similar to the average interaction energies between like molecules.[Atkins, P.W.](/wiki/Peter_Atkins \"Peter Atkins\"), de Paula, J. (2006\\). *Atkins' Physical Chemistry*, eighth edition, W.H. Freeman, New York, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7167\\-8759\\-4}}.{{rp\\|p\\=149}}K. Denbigh, \"The Principles of Chemical Equilibrium\" (3rd ed., Cambridge University Press 1971\\) p.432 The value of the entropy corresponds exactly to random mixing for [ideal solutions](/wiki/Ideal_solution \"Ideal solution\") and for [regular solutions](/wiki/Regular_solution \"Regular solution\"), and approximately so for many real solutions.P.A. Rock \"Chemical Thermodynamics. Principles and Applications.(MacMillan 1969\\) p.263", "For binary mixtures the entropy of random mixing can be considered as a function of the mole fraction of one component. \n\\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix} \\= \\-nR(x\\_1\\\\ln x\\_1 \\+ x\\_2\\\\ln x\\_2\\) \\= \\-nR\\[x\\\\ln x \\+ (1\\-x) \\\\ln (1\\-x)]\nFor all possible mixtures, 0 \\< x \\< 1, so that \\\\ln x and \\\\ln (1\\-x) are both negative and the entropy of mixing \\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix} is positive and favors mixing of the pure components.", "The curvature of \\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix} as a function of x is given by the second derivative", "\\\\left(\\\\frac{\\\\partial^2 \\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix}}{\\\\partial x^2}\\\\right)\\_{T,P} \\= \\-nR\\\\left( \\\\frac{1}{x} \\+\\\\frac{1}{1\\-x} \\\\right)\nThis curvature is negative for all possible mixtures (0 \\< x \\< 1\\), so that mixing two solutions to form a solution of intermediate composition also increases the entropy of the system. Random mixing therefore always favors miscibility and opposes phase separation.", "For ideal solutions, the enthalpy of mixing is zero so that the components are miscible in all proportions. For regular solutions a positive enthalpy of mixing may cause incomplete miscibility ([phase separation](/wiki/Phase_separation \"Phase separation\") for some compositions) at temperatures below the [upper critical solution temperature](/wiki/Upper_critical_solution_temperature \"Upper critical solution temperature\") (UCST).{{rp\\|p\\=186}} This is the minimum temperature at which the \\-T \\\\Delta S\\_{mix} term in the Gibbs energy of mixing is sufficient to produce miscibility in all proportions.", "### Systems with a lower critical solution temperature", "Nonrandom mixing with a lower entropy of mixing can occur when the attractive interactions between unlike molecules are significantly stronger (or weaker) than the mean interactions between like molecules. For some systems this can lead to a [lower critical solution temperature](/wiki/Lower_critical_solution_temperature \"Lower critical solution temperature\") (LCST) or lower limiting temperature for phase separation.", "For example, [triethylamine](/wiki/Triethylamine \"Triethylamine\") and water are miscible in all proportions below 19 °C, but above this critical temperature, solutions of certain compositions separate into two phases at equilibrium with each other.{{rp\\|p\\=187}}M.A. White, \"Properties of Materials\" (Oxford University Press 1999\\) p.175 This means that \\\\Delta G\\_\\\\text{mix} is negative for mixing of the two phases below 19 °C and positive above this temperature. Therefore, \\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix} \\= \\-\\\\left(\\\\frac{\\\\partial \\\\Delta G\\_\\\\text{mix}}{\\\\partial T}\\\\right)\\_P is negative for mixing of these two equilibrium phases. This is due to the formation of attractive [hydrogen bonds](/wiki/Hydrogen_bond \"Hydrogen bond\") between the two components that prevent random mixing. Triethylamine molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds with each other but only with water molecules, so in solution they remain associated to water molecules with loss of entropy. The mixing that occurs below 19 °C is due not to entropy but to the enthalpy of formation of the hydrogen bonds.", "Lower critical solution temperatures also occur in many polymer\\-solvent mixtures.Cowie, J.M.G. \"Polymers: Chemistry and Physics of Modern Materials\" (2nd edn, Blackie 1991\\) p.174\\-176 For polar systems such as [polyacrylic acid](/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid \"Polyacrylic acid\") in [1,4\\-dioxane](/wiki/1%2C4-dioxane \"1,4-dioxane\"), this is often due to the formation of hydrogen bonds between polymer and solvent. For nonpolar systems such as [polystyrene](/wiki/Polystyrene \"Polystyrene\") in [cyclohexane](/wiki/Cyclohexane \"Cyclohexane\"), phase separation has been observed in sealed tubes (at high pressure) at temperatures approaching the liquid\\-vapor [critical point](/wiki/Critical_point_%28thermodynamics%29 \"Critical point (thermodynamics)\") of the solvent. At such temperatures the solvent expands much more rapidly than the polymer, whose segments are covalently linked. Mixing therefore requires contraction of the solvent for compatibility of the polymer, resulting in a loss of entropy.", "" ]
Statistical thermodynamical explanation of the entropy of mixing of ideal gases ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Since thermodynamic entropy can be related to [statistical mechanics](/wiki/Entropy_%28statistical_thermodynamics%29 "Entropy (statistical thermodynamics)") or to [information theory](/wiki/Entropy_%28information_theory%29 "Entropy (information theory)"), it is possible to calculate the entropy of mixing using these two approaches. Here we consider the simple case of mixing ideal gases. ### Proof from statistical mechanics Assume that the molecules of two different substances are approximately the same size, and regard space as subdivided into a [square lattice](/wiki/lattice_%28group%29%23Lattices_in_two_dimensions:Detailed_discussion "Detailed discussion") whose cells are the size of the molecules. (In fact, any lattice would do, including [close packing](/wiki/Close-packing "Close-packing").) This is a [crystal](/wiki/Crystal "Crystal")\-like [conceptual model](/wiki/Mathematical_model "Mathematical model") to identify the molecular [centers of mass](/wiki/Center_of_mass "Center of mass"). If the two [phases](/wiki/Phase_%28matter%29 "Phase (matter)") are liquids, there is no spatial uncertainty in each one individually. (This is, of course, an approximation. Liquids have a "free volume". This is why they are (usually) less [dense](/wiki/Density "Density") than [solids](/wiki/Solid "Solid").) Everywhere we look in component 1, there is a molecule present, and likewise for component 2\. After the two different substances are intermingled (assuming they are miscible), the liquid is still dense with molecules, but now there is uncertainty about what kind of molecule is in which location. {{anchor\|Identifying molecules in given locations}}Of course, any idea of identifying molecules in given locations is a [thought experiment](/wiki/Thought_experiment "Thought experiment"), not something one could do, but the calculation of the uncertainty is well\-defined. We can use [Boltzmann's equation](/wiki/Boltzmann%27s_entropy_formula "Boltzmann's entropy formula") for the entropy change as applied to the mixing process \\Delta S\_\\text{mix}\= k\_\\text{B} \\ln\\Omega where k\_\\text{B} is the [Boltzmann constant](/wiki/Boltzmann_constant "Boltzmann constant"). We then calculate the number of ways \\Omega of arranging N\_1 molecules of component 1 and N\_2 molecules of component 2 on a lattice, where N \= N\_1 \+ N\_2 is the total number of molecules, and therefore the number of lattice sites. Calculating the number of [permutations](/wiki/Permutation%23Counting_permutations "Permutation#Counting permutations") of N objects, correcting for the fact that N\_1 of them are *identical* to one another, and likewise for N\_2, \\Omega \= N!/N\_1!N\_2! After applying [Stirling's approximation](/wiki/Stirling%27s_approximation "Stirling's approximation") for the [factorial](/wiki/Factorial "Factorial") of a large integer m: \\ln m! \= \\sum\_k \\ln k \\approx \\int\_{1}^{m}dk \\ln k \= m\\ln m \- m \+ 1 \\approx m\\ln m \- m, the result is \\Delta S\_{mix} \= \-k\_\\text{B}\[N\_1\\ln(N\_1/N) \+ N\_2\\ln(N\_2/N)] \= \-k\_\\text{B} N\[x\_1\\ln x\_1 \+ x\_2\\ln x\_2] where we have introduced the [mole fractions](/wiki/Mole_fraction "Mole fraction"), which are also the [probabilities](/wiki/Probability "Probability") of finding any particular component in a given lattice site. x\_1 \= N\_1/N \= p\_1 \\;\\;\\text{and} \\;\\;x\_2 \= N\_2/N \= p\_2 Since the Boltzmann constant k\_\\text{B} \= R / N\_\\text{A}, where N\_\\text{A} is the Avogadro constant, and the number of molecules N \= nN\_\\text{A}, we recover the thermodynamic expression for the mixing of two ideal gases, \\Delta S\_\\text{mix} \= \-nR\[x\_1\\ln x\_1 \+ x\_2\\ln x\_2] This expression can be generalized to a mixture of r components, N\_i, with i \= 1, 2, 3,\\ldots, r \\Delta S\_\\text{mix} \=\-k\_\\text{B}\\sum\_{i\=1}^r N\_i\\ln(N\_i/N) \= \-N k\_\\text{B}\\sum\_{i\=1}^r x\_i\\ln x\_i \= \-n R\\sum\_{i\=1}^r x\_i\\ln x\_i The [Flory–Huggins solution theory](/wiki/Flory%E2%80%93Huggins_solution_theory "Flory–Huggins solution theory") is an example of a more detailed model along these lines. ### Relationship to information theory The entropy of mixing is also proportional to the [Shannon entropy](/wiki/Entropy_%28information_theory%29 "Entropy (information theory)") or compositional uncertainty of [information theory](/wiki/Information_theory "Information theory"), which is defined without requiring Stirling's approximation. [Claude Shannon](/wiki/Claude_Elwood_Shannon "Claude Elwood Shannon") introduced [this expression](/wiki/Information_entropy%23Formal_definitions "Information entropy#Formal definitions") for use in [information theory](/wiki/Information_theory "Information theory"), but similar formulas can be found as far back as the work of [Ludwig Boltzmann](/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann "Ludwig Boltzmann") and [J. Willard Gibbs](/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs "Josiah Willard Gibbs"). The Shannon uncertainty is not the same as the [Heisenberg](/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg "Werner Heisenberg") [uncertainty principle](/wiki/Uncertainty_principle "Uncertainty principle") in [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics "Quantum mechanics") which is based on variance. The Shannon entropy is defined as: H \= \- \\sum\_{i\=1}^r p\_i \\ln (p\_i) where *pi* is the probability that an information source will produce the *i*th symbol from an *r*\-symbol alphabet and is independent of previous symbols. (thus *i* runs from 1 to *r* ). *H* is then a measure of the expected amount of information (log *pi*) missing before the symbol is known or measured, or, alternatively, the expected amount of information supplied when the symbol becomes known. The set of messages of length *N* symbols from the source will then have an entropy of *NH*. The thermodynamic entropy is only due to positional uncertainty, so we may take the "alphabet" to be any of the *r* different species in the gas, and, at equilibrium, the probability that a given particle is of type *i* is simply the mole fraction *xi* for that particle. Since we are dealing with ideal gases, the identity of nearby particles is irrelevant. Multiplying by the number of particles *N* yields the change in entropy of the entire system from the unmixed case in which all of the *pi* were either 1 or 0\. We again obtain the entropy of mixing on multiplying by the Boltzmann constant k\_\\text{B}. \\Delta S\_\\text{mix} \= \-N k\_\\text{B}\\sum\_{i\=1}^r x\_i\\ln x\_i So thermodynamic entropy with *r* chemical species with a total of *N* particles has a parallel to an information source that has *r* distinct symbols with messages that are *N* symbols long. ### Application to gases In gases there is a lot more spatial uncertainty because most of their volume is merely empty space. We can regard the mixing process as allowing the contents of the two originally separate contents to expand into the combined volume of the two conjoined containers. The two lattices that allow us to conceptually localize molecular [centers of mass](/wiki/Center_of_mass "Center of mass") also join. The total number of empty cells is the sum of the numbers of empty cells in the two components prior to mixing. Consequently, that part of the spatial uncertainty concerning whether *any* molecule is present in a lattice cell is the sum of the initial values, and does not increase upon "mixing". Almost everywhere we look, we find empty lattice cells. Nevertheless, we do find molecules in a few occupied cells. When there is real mixing, for each of those few occupied cells, there is a contingent uncertainty about which kind of molecule it is. When there is no real mixing because the two substances are identical, there is no uncertainty about which kind of molecule it is. Using [conditional probabilities](/wiki/Information_theory%23Conditional_entropy_%28equivocation%29 "Information theory#Conditional entropy (equivocation)"), it turns out that the analytical problem for the small [subset](/wiki/Subset "Subset") of occupied cells is exactly the same as for mixed liquids, and the *increase* in the entropy, or spatial uncertainty, has exactly the same form as obtained previously. Obviously the subset of occupied cells is not the same at different times. But only when there is real mixing and an occupied cell is found do we ask which kind of molecule is there. See also: [Gibbs paradox](/wiki/Gibbs_paradox "Gibbs paradox"), in which it would seem that "mixing" two samples of the *same* gas would produce entropy. ### Application to solutions If the [solute](/wiki/Solute "Solute") is a [crystalline](/wiki/Crystal "Crystal") [solid](/wiki/Solid "Solid"), the argument is much the same. A crystal has no spatial uncertainty at all, except for [crystallographic defects](/wiki/Crystallographic_defect "Crystallographic defect"), and a (perfect) crystal allows us to localize the molecules using the crystal [symmetry group](/wiki/Symmetry_group "Symmetry group"). The fact that volumes do not add when dissolving a solid in a liquid is not important for condensed [phases](/wiki/Phase_%28matter%29 "Phase (matter)"). If the solute is not crystalline, we can still use a spatial lattice, as good an approximation for an amorphous solid as it is for a liquid. The [Flory–Huggins solution theory](/wiki/Flory%E2%80%93Huggins_solution_theory "Flory–Huggins solution theory") provides the entropy of mixing for [polymer](/wiki/Polymer "Polymer") solutions, in which the [macromolecules](/wiki/Macromolecule "Macromolecule") are huge compared to the solvent molecules. In this case, the assumption is made that each [monomer](/wiki/Monomer "Monomer") subunit in the polymer chain occupies a lattice site. Note that solids in contact with each other also slowly [interdiffuse](/wiki/Diffusion "Diffusion"), and solid mixtures of two or more components may be made at will ([alloys](/wiki/Alloy "Alloy"), [semiconductors](/wiki/Semiconductor "Semiconductor"), etc.). Again, the same equations for the entropy of mixing apply, but only for homogeneous, uniform phases.
[ "Statistical thermodynamical explanation of the entropy of mixing of ideal gases\n-------------------------------------------------------------------------------", "Since thermodynamic entropy can be related to [statistical mechanics](/wiki/Entropy_%28statistical_thermodynamics%29 \"Entropy (statistical thermodynamics)\") or to [information theory](/wiki/Entropy_%28information_theory%29 \"Entropy (information theory)\"), it is possible to calculate the entropy of mixing using these two approaches. Here we consider the simple case of mixing ideal gases.", "### Proof from statistical mechanics", "Assume that the molecules of two different substances are approximately the same size, and regard space as subdivided into a [square lattice](/wiki/lattice_%28group%29%23Lattices_in_two_dimensions:Detailed_discussion \"Detailed discussion\") whose cells are the size of the molecules. (In fact, any lattice would do, including [close packing](/wiki/Close-packing \"Close-packing\").) This is a [crystal](/wiki/Crystal \"Crystal\")\\-like [conceptual model](/wiki/Mathematical_model \"Mathematical model\") to identify the molecular [centers of mass](/wiki/Center_of_mass \"Center of mass\"). If the two [phases](/wiki/Phase_%28matter%29 \"Phase (matter)\") are liquids, there is no spatial uncertainty in each one individually. (This is, of course, an approximation. Liquids have a \"free volume\". This is why they are (usually) less [dense](/wiki/Density \"Density\") than [solids](/wiki/Solid \"Solid\").) Everywhere we look in component 1, there is a molecule present, and likewise for component 2\\. After the two different substances are intermingled (assuming they are miscible), the liquid is still dense with molecules, but now there is uncertainty about what kind of molecule is in which location. {{anchor\\|Identifying molecules in given locations}}Of course, any idea of identifying molecules in given locations is a [thought experiment](/wiki/Thought_experiment \"Thought experiment\"), not something one could do, but the calculation of the uncertainty is well\\-defined.", "We can use [Boltzmann's equation](/wiki/Boltzmann%27s_entropy_formula \"Boltzmann's entropy formula\") for the entropy change as applied to the mixing process", "\\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix}\\= k\\_\\\\text{B} \\\\ln\\\\Omega\nwhere k\\_\\\\text{B} is the [Boltzmann constant](/wiki/Boltzmann_constant \"Boltzmann constant\"). We then calculate the number of ways \\\\Omega of arranging N\\_1 molecules of component 1 and N\\_2 molecules of component 2 on a lattice, where", "N \\= N\\_1 \\+ N\\_2\nis the total number of molecules, and therefore the number of lattice sites.\nCalculating the number of [permutations](/wiki/Permutation%23Counting_permutations \"Permutation#Counting permutations\") of N objects, correcting for the fact that N\\_1 of them are *identical* to one another, and likewise for N\\_2,", "\\\\Omega \\= N!/N\\_1!N\\_2!\nAfter applying [Stirling's approximation](/wiki/Stirling%27s_approximation \"Stirling's approximation\") for the [factorial](/wiki/Factorial \"Factorial\") of a large integer m: \n\\\\ln m! \\= \\\\sum\\_k \\\\ln k \\\\approx \\\\int\\_{1}^{m}dk \\\\ln k \\= m\\\\ln m \\- m \\+ 1 \\\\approx m\\\\ln m \\- m,", "the result is \\\\Delta S\\_{mix} \\= \\-k\\_\\\\text{B}\\[N\\_1\\\\ln(N\\_1/N) \\+ N\\_2\\\\ln(N\\_2/N)] \\= \\-k\\_\\\\text{B} N\\[x\\_1\\\\ln x\\_1 \\+ x\\_2\\\\ln x\\_2]", "where we have introduced the [mole fractions](/wiki/Mole_fraction \"Mole fraction\"), which are also the [probabilities](/wiki/Probability \"Probability\") of finding any particular component in a given lattice site.", "x\\_1 \\= N\\_1/N \\= p\\_1 \\\\;\\\\;\\\\text{and} \\\\;\\\\;x\\_2 \\= N\\_2/N \\= p\\_2\nSince the Boltzmann constant k\\_\\\\text{B} \\= R / N\\_\\\\text{A}, where N\\_\\\\text{A} is the Avogadro constant, and the number of molecules N \\= nN\\_\\\\text{A}, we recover the thermodynamic expression for the mixing of two ideal gases, \\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix} \\= \\-nR\\[x\\_1\\\\ln x\\_1 \\+ x\\_2\\\\ln x\\_2]", "This expression can be generalized to a mixture of r components, N\\_i, with i \\= 1, 2, 3,\\\\ldots, r", "\\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix} \\=\\-k\\_\\\\text{B}\\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^r N\\_i\\\\ln(N\\_i/N) \\= \\-N k\\_\\\\text{B}\\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^r x\\_i\\\\ln x\\_i \\= \\-n R\\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^r x\\_i\\\\ln x\\_i\nThe [Flory–Huggins solution theory](/wiki/Flory%E2%80%93Huggins_solution_theory \"Flory–Huggins solution theory\") is an example of a more detailed model along these lines.", "### Relationship to information theory", "The entropy of mixing is also proportional to the [Shannon entropy](/wiki/Entropy_%28information_theory%29 \"Entropy (information theory)\") or compositional uncertainty of [information theory](/wiki/Information_theory \"Information theory\"), which is defined without requiring Stirling's approximation. [Claude Shannon](/wiki/Claude_Elwood_Shannon \"Claude Elwood Shannon\") introduced [this expression](/wiki/Information_entropy%23Formal_definitions \"Information entropy#Formal definitions\") for use in [information theory](/wiki/Information_theory \"Information theory\"), but similar formulas can be found as far back as the work of [Ludwig Boltzmann](/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann \"Ludwig Boltzmann\") and [J. Willard Gibbs](/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs \"Josiah Willard Gibbs\"). The Shannon uncertainty is not the same as the [Heisenberg](/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg \"Werner Heisenberg\") [uncertainty principle](/wiki/Uncertainty_principle \"Uncertainty principle\") in [quantum mechanics](/wiki/Quantum_mechanics \"Quantum mechanics\") which is based on variance. The Shannon entropy is defined as:", "H \\= \\- \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^r p\\_i \\\\ln (p\\_i)\nwhere *pi* is the probability that an information source will produce the *i*th symbol from an *r*\\-symbol alphabet and is independent of previous symbols. (thus *i* runs from 1 to *r* ). *H* is then a measure of the expected amount of information (log *pi*) missing before the symbol is known or measured, or, alternatively, the expected amount of information supplied when the symbol becomes known. The set of messages of length *N* symbols from the source will then have an entropy of *NH*.", "The thermodynamic entropy is only due to positional uncertainty, so we may take the \"alphabet\" to be any of the *r* different species in the gas, and, at equilibrium, the probability that a given particle is of type *i* is simply the mole fraction *xi* for that particle. Since we are dealing with ideal gases, the identity of nearby particles is irrelevant. Multiplying by the number of particles *N* yields the change in entropy of the entire system from the unmixed case in which all of the *pi* were either 1 or 0\\. We again obtain the entropy of mixing on multiplying by the Boltzmann constant k\\_\\\\text{B}.", "\\\\Delta S\\_\\\\text{mix} \\= \\-N k\\_\\\\text{B}\\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^r x\\_i\\\\ln x\\_i\nSo thermodynamic entropy with *r* chemical species with a total of *N* particles has a parallel to an information source that has *r* distinct symbols with messages that are *N* symbols long.", "### Application to gases", "In gases there is a lot more spatial uncertainty because most of their volume is merely empty space. We can regard the mixing process as allowing the contents of the two originally separate contents to expand into the combined volume of the two conjoined containers. The two lattices that allow us to conceptually localize molecular [centers of mass](/wiki/Center_of_mass \"Center of mass\") also join. The total number of empty cells is the sum of the numbers of empty cells in the two components prior to mixing. Consequently, that part of the spatial uncertainty concerning whether *any* molecule is present in a lattice cell is the sum of the initial values, and does not increase upon \"mixing\".", "Almost everywhere we look, we find empty lattice cells. Nevertheless, we do find molecules in a few occupied cells. When there is real mixing, for each of those few occupied cells, there is a contingent uncertainty about which kind of molecule it is. When there is no real mixing because the two substances are identical, there is no uncertainty about which kind of molecule it is. Using [conditional probabilities](/wiki/Information_theory%23Conditional_entropy_%28equivocation%29 \"Information theory#Conditional entropy (equivocation)\"), it turns out that the analytical problem for the small [subset](/wiki/Subset \"Subset\") of occupied cells is exactly the same as for mixed liquids, and the *increase* in the entropy, or spatial uncertainty, has exactly the same form as obtained previously. Obviously the subset of occupied cells is not the same at different times. But only when there is real mixing and an occupied cell is found do we ask which kind of molecule is there.", "See also: [Gibbs paradox](/wiki/Gibbs_paradox \"Gibbs paradox\"), in which it would seem that \"mixing\" two samples of the *same* gas would produce entropy.", "### Application to solutions", "If the [solute](/wiki/Solute \"Solute\") is a [crystalline](/wiki/Crystal \"Crystal\") [solid](/wiki/Solid \"Solid\"), the argument is much the same. A crystal has no spatial uncertainty at all, except for [crystallographic defects](/wiki/Crystallographic_defect \"Crystallographic defect\"), and a (perfect) crystal allows us to localize the molecules using the crystal [symmetry group](/wiki/Symmetry_group \"Symmetry group\"). The fact that volumes do not add when dissolving a solid in a liquid is not important for condensed [phases](/wiki/Phase_%28matter%29 \"Phase (matter)\"). If the solute is not crystalline, we can still use a spatial lattice, as good an approximation for an amorphous solid as it is for a liquid.", "The [Flory–Huggins solution theory](/wiki/Flory%E2%80%93Huggins_solution_theory \"Flory–Huggins solution theory\") provides the entropy of mixing for [polymer](/wiki/Polymer \"Polymer\") solutions, in which the [macromolecules](/wiki/Macromolecule \"Macromolecule\") are huge compared to the solvent molecules. In this case, the assumption is made that each [monomer](/wiki/Monomer \"Monomer\") subunit in the polymer chain occupies a lattice site.", "Note that solids in contact with each other also slowly [interdiffuse](/wiki/Diffusion \"Diffusion\"), and solid mixtures of two or more components may be made at will ([alloys](/wiki/Alloy \"Alloy\"), [semiconductors](/wiki/Semiconductor \"Semiconductor\"), etc.). Again, the same equations for the entropy of mixing apply, but only for homogeneous, uniform phases.", "" ]
Club career ----------- A winger, Morgan started his career with [Burnley](/wiki/Burnley_F.C. "Burnley F.C."), making his first\-team debut against [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. "Sheffield Wednesday F.C.") at [Hillsborough](/wiki/Hillsborough_Stadium "Hillsborough Stadium") in 1963\. He took over from [John Connelly](/wiki/John_Connelly_%28footballer%2C_born_1938%29 "John Connelly (footballer, born 1938)") who was transferred to Manchester United and scored his first Burnley goal, when he scored twice in a Boxing Day demolition of Manchester United in a 6–1 win at [Turf Moor](/wiki/Turf_Moor "Turf Moor"). He made his [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland_national_football_team "Scotland national football team") debut against [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_national_football_team "Northern Ireland national football team") at [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast")'s [Windsor Park](/wiki/Windsor_Park "Windsor Park") in 1967\. He was transferred to [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C.") early in the 1968/9 League season, after Utd's John Aston had broken a leg. He scored 34 goals for United and led them to promotion in 1975 after one season in the Second Division. He played in the World Cup Finals of 1974, which took place in West Germany. With [Steve Coppell](/wiki/Steve_Coppell "Steve Coppell")'s signing in 1975, Morgan lost his place in the Manchester United team and returned to Burnley. His second spell at [Turf Moor](/wiki/Turf_Moor "Turf Moor") lasted less than a year. He moved to [Bolton Wanderers](/wiki/Bolton_Wanderers_F.C. "Bolton Wanderers F.C."), enjoying a successful spell at [Burnden Park](/wiki/Burnden_Park "Burnden Park") before finishing his career at [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_F.C. "Blackpool F.C."). Morgan played summers on loan in the [North American Soccer League](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%281968%E2%80%9384%29 "North American Soccer League (1968–84)") in the late 1970s, playing for the [Chicago Sting](/wiki/Chicago_Sting "Chicago Sting") in 1977 and [Minnesota Kicks](/wiki/Minnesota_Kicks "Minnesota Kicks") the following three summers.[NASL Player Profile – Willie Morgan](http://www.nasljerseys.com/Players/M/Morgan.Willie.htm) During his time at Manchester United, the band Tristar Airbus, a pseudonym for the future members of [10cc](/wiki/10cc "10cc"), recorded the song "Willie Morgan" in tribute to the footballer.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.footballandmusic.co.uk/willie\-the\-wingman/\|title \= Willie the Wingman \| Football and Music\|date \= 30 September 2009}}{{YouTube\|Qe5sRFOpKf4}} It would later appear on the compilation *[Strawberry Bubblegum: A Collection of Pre\-10CC Strawberry Studio Recordings 1969–1972](/wiki/Strawberry_Bubblegum:A_Collection_of_Pre-10CC_Strawberry_Studio_Recordings_1969%E2%80%931972 "A Collection of Pre-10CC Strawberry Studio Recordings 1969–1972")*.
[ "Club career\n-----------", "A winger, Morgan started his career with [Burnley](/wiki/Burnley_F.C. \"Burnley F.C.\"), making his first\\-team debut against [Sheffield Wednesday](/wiki/Sheffield_Wednesday_F.C. \"Sheffield Wednesday F.C.\") at [Hillsborough](/wiki/Hillsborough_Stadium \"Hillsborough Stadium\") in 1963\\. He took over from [John Connelly](/wiki/John_Connelly_%28footballer%2C_born_1938%29 \"John Connelly (footballer, born 1938)\") who was transferred to Manchester United and scored his first Burnley goal, when he scored twice in a Boxing Day demolition of Manchester United in a 6–1 win at [Turf Moor](/wiki/Turf_Moor \"Turf Moor\").", "He made his [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland_national_football_team \"Scotland national football team\") debut against [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland_national_football_team \"Northern Ireland national football team\") at [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\")'s [Windsor Park](/wiki/Windsor_Park \"Windsor Park\") in 1967\\.", "He was transferred to [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\") early in the 1968/9 League season, after Utd's John Aston had broken a leg. He scored 34 goals for United and led them to promotion in 1975 after one season in the Second Division. He played in the World Cup Finals of 1974, which took place in West Germany.", "With [Steve Coppell](/wiki/Steve_Coppell \"Steve Coppell\")'s signing in 1975, Morgan lost his place in the Manchester United team and returned to Burnley. His second spell at [Turf Moor](/wiki/Turf_Moor \"Turf Moor\") lasted less than a year. He moved to [Bolton Wanderers](/wiki/Bolton_Wanderers_F.C. \"Bolton Wanderers F.C.\"), enjoying a successful spell at [Burnden Park](/wiki/Burnden_Park \"Burnden Park\") before finishing his career at [Blackpool](/wiki/Blackpool_F.C. \"Blackpool F.C.\").", "Morgan played summers on loan in the [North American Soccer League](/wiki/North_American_Soccer_League_%281968%E2%80%9384%29 \"North American Soccer League (1968–84)\") in the late 1970s, playing for the [Chicago Sting](/wiki/Chicago_Sting \"Chicago Sting\") in 1977 and [Minnesota Kicks](/wiki/Minnesota_Kicks \"Minnesota Kicks\") the following three summers.[NASL Player Profile – Willie Morgan](http://www.nasljerseys.com/Players/M/Morgan.Willie.htm)", "During his time at Manchester United, the band Tristar Airbus, a pseudonym for the future members of [10cc](/wiki/10cc \"10cc\"), recorded the song \"Willie Morgan\" in tribute to the footballer.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.footballandmusic.co.uk/willie\\-the\\-wingman/\\|title \\= Willie the Wingman \\| Football and Music\\|date \\= 30 September 2009}}{{YouTube\\|Qe5sRFOpKf4}} It would later appear on the compilation *[Strawberry Bubblegum: A Collection of Pre\\-10CC Strawberry Studio Recordings 1969–1972](/wiki/Strawberry_Bubblegum:A_Collection_of_Pre-10CC_Strawberry_Studio_Recordings_1969%E2%80%931972 \"A Collection of Pre-10CC Strawberry Studio Recordings 1969–1972\")*.", "" ]
History ------- *Young* was laid down on 28 January 1919 at [San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California"), by the [Union Iron Works](/wiki/Union_Iron_Works "Union Iron Works") Plant of the [Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation](/wiki/Bethlehem_Shipbuilding_Corporation "Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation"); launched on 8 May 1919; sponsored by Mrs. John R. Nolan; designated DD\-312 on 17 July 1920; and commissioned on 29 November 1920\. *Young* fitted out at the [Mare Island Navy Yard](/wiki/Mare_Island_Navy_Yard "Mare Island Navy Yard") into December. Assigned to Division 34, Squadron 2, [Pacific Fleet](/wiki/U.S._Pacific_Fleet "U.S. Pacific Fleet") Destroyer Force, the destroyer remained inactive in the [San Diego, California](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California "San Diego, California") area through the end of 1921\. *Young* departed San Diego on 14 January 1922, bound for [Bremerton, Washington](/wiki/Bremerton%2C_Washington "Bremerton, Washington"), and, proceeding via [San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California"), reached the [Puget Sound Navy Yard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Navy_Yard "Puget Sound Navy Yard") on the 18th. Overhauled at Puget Sound, the destroyer departed the yard on 3 April and arrived at her home port, San Diego, on the 8th. The remainder of the year passed fairly uneventfully, with the destroyer continuing her largely anchored existence in San Diego harbor. However, she did fire short\-range battle practices, operated briefly off the Mexican Coronados Islands, and recovered torpedoes for {{USS\|Idaho\|BB\-42\|3}} during the autumn of the year 1922\. The in\-port routine changed the following year, when *Young* departed San Diego on 6 February 1923 and headed for [Panama](/wiki/Panama "Panama"). En route, she stopped briefly at [Magdalena Bay](/wiki/Magdalena_Bay "Magdalena Bay"), the traditional target practice grounds for the Pacific Fleet, and fueled from {{USS\|Cuyama\|AO\-3\|3}} before proceeding on south to the Pacific side of the Panama Canal Zone. *Young* participated in [Fleet Problem I](/wiki/Fleet_Problem_I "Fleet Problem I") over the ensuing weeks. In this, the first Fleet Problem held by the United States Navy, the [Battle Fleet](/wiki/Battle_Fleet "Battle Fleet") was pitted against the [Scouting Fleet](/wiki/Scouting_Fleet "Scouting Fleet") augmented by a division of battleships. During the war games, *Young* performed antisubmarine screening for the dreadnoughts of the Battle Fleet and, when the scenario of exercises called for it, dashed in and made simulated torpedo attacks on the "enemy" battlewagons of the augmented Scouting Fleet. Upon completion of one phase of the exercises, she was present in Panama Bay when [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy "United States Secretary of the Navy") [Edwin C. Denby](/wiki/Edwin_C._Denby "Edwin C. Denby"), accompanied by a party of congressmen embarked in the transport {{USS\|Henderson\|AP\-1\|3}}, reviewed the Fleet on 14 March. *Young* later departed Panamanian waters on 31 March and arrived back at San Diego on 11 April. She remained there until 25 June, when she headed north. She called at San Francisco from the 27th to the 29th and arrived at [Tacoma, Washington](/wiki/Tacoma%2C_Washington "Tacoma, Washington"), on 2 July. Two days later, in keeping with the occasion, *Young* sent her landing force ashore to march in Tacoma's Independence Day parade. After shifting to Seattle, *Young* underwent a period of upkeep alongside {{USS\|Melville\|AD\-2\|3}} between 16 July and 17 August. During that time, on 23 July, [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") [Warren G. Harding](/wiki/Warren_G._Harding "Warren G. Harding"), on a cruise to [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska") in *Henderson*, reviewed the Fleet \- one of his last official acts before his death a short time later. After spending a few days at [Lake Washington](/wiki/Lake_Washington "Lake Washington") following her upkeep period alongside *Melville*, *Young* underwent a brief yard period at the Puget Sound Navy Yard before she sailed south, escorting Battle Division 4 to San Francisco Bay at the end of August. En route, *Young* practiced torpedo attacks through smoke screens as part of the slate of tactical exercises. Following a brief period moored at Pier 15, San Francisco, Division 11 got underway to return to San Diego on the morning of 8 September. As the ships made passage down the California coast, they conducted tactical and gunnery exercises in the course of what was also a competitive speed run of {{convert\|20\|kn\|km/h}}. Ultimately, when the weather worsened, the ships formed column on the squadron leader, {{USS\|Delphy\|DD\-261\|3}}. Unfortunately, through an error in navigation, the column swung east at about 2100, unaware of the danger that lurked in the fog dead ahead of them. At 2105, *Delphy* \- still steaming at {{convert\|20\|kn\|km/h}} \- ran hard aground off Padernales Point, followed, in succession, by 6 other ships steaming in follow\-the\-leader fashion. Only quick action by the ships farthest astern prevented the total loss of the entire group. *Young*, however, became one of the casualties. Her hull was torn by a jagged pinnacle, but she also ran into the still revolving propellers of the {{USS\|Delphy\|DD\-261\|3}} which did further damage to her hull. {{cite book \|author\=Charles Hocking \|title\=Dictionary of Disasters at Sea During The Age of Steam \|publisher\=The London Stamp Exchange, London \|isbn\=0\-948130\-68\-7 \|year\=1990}}184 (See Delphy). She swiftly capsized, heeling over on her starboard side within a minute and a half, trapping many of her engine and fire room personnel below. Lt. Cmdr. [William L. Calhoun](/wiki/William_L._Calhoun_%28admiral%29 "William L. Calhoun (admiral)"), *Young's* commanding officer, knew that there was no time to launch boats or rafts as the ship's list increased alarmingly following the grounding. Calhoun accordingly passed the word, through his executive officer, Lt. E. C. Herzinger, and Chief Boatswain's Mate Arthur Peterson, to make for the port side, to stick with the ship, and to not jump. While the survivors clung to their precarious, oily, surf\-battered refuge, Boatswain's Mate Peterson proposed to swim 100 yards to a rocky outcropping to the eastward known as Bridge Rock. Before he could do so, however, {{USS\|Chauncey\|DD\-296\|3}} providentially grounded between *Young* and Bridge Rock, shortening the escape route considerably. The two ships were about 75 yards apart. At that juncture, Peterson dived into the sea and swam through the tumbling surf with a line to the nearby *Chauncey*, which was also aground but in a far better predicament since she had remained on a comparatively even keel. The crew of *Chauncey* hauled Peterson aboard and made the line fast. Soon, a seven\-man life raft from the *Chauncey* was on its way to *Young* as a makeshift ferry. The raft ultimately made 11 trips bringing the 70 *Young* survivors to safety. By 2330, the last men of the crew were on board *Chauncey*; at that point, Lt. Cmdr. Calhoun and Lt. Herzinger (the latter having returned to the ship after having been in the first raft across) left 'Young's' battered hull. [thumb\|The capsized USS *Young* (center) at Honda Point.](/wiki/File:Point_Honda_wrecks%2C_vessels_-_NARA_-_295529.tiff "Point Honda wrecks, vessels - NARA - 295529.tiff") In the subsequent investigation of the [Honda Point Disaster](/wiki/Honda_Point_Disaster "Honda Point Disaster") the Board of Investigation commended Lt. Cmdr. Calhoun for his "coolness, intelligence, and seamanlike ability" that was directly responsible for the "greatly reduced loss of life." The Board also cited Boatswain's Mate Peterson for his "extraordinary heroism" in swimming through the turbulent seas with a line to Chauncey; Lt. Herzinger drew praise for his "especially meritorious conduct" in helping to save the majority of the ship's crew. Rear Admiral [S. E. W. Kittelle](/wiki/Sumner_Ely_Wetmore_Kittelle "Sumner Ely Wetmore Kittelle"), Commander, Destroyer Squadrons, subsequently cited Lt. Cmdr. Calhoun's display of leadership and personality that saved "three\-quarters of the crew of the *Young*" and Lt. Herzinger for his "coolness and great assistance in the face of grave danger." Also commended by the admiral was Fireman First Class J. T. Scott, who attempted to close off the master oil valve to prevent a boiler explosion, volunteering to go below to the fireroom and go below the floor plates. The water, rapidly rising through the gashes in the ship's hull, however, prevented Scott from completing the task. He survived. Twenty men were lost in *Young*, the highest death toll of any of the ships lost in the disaster at Point Honda. Decommissioned on 26 October 1923, *Young* was stricken from the [Navy list](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register "Naval Vessel Register") on 20 November 1923 and ordered sold as a hulk.
[ "History\n-------", "*Young* was laid down on 28 January 1919 at [San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\"), by the [Union Iron Works](/wiki/Union_Iron_Works \"Union Iron Works\") Plant of the [Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation](/wiki/Bethlehem_Shipbuilding_Corporation \"Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation\"); launched on 8 May 1919; sponsored by Mrs. John R. Nolan; designated DD\\-312 on 17 July 1920; and commissioned on 29 November 1920\\.", "*Young* fitted out at the [Mare Island Navy Yard](/wiki/Mare_Island_Navy_Yard \"Mare Island Navy Yard\") into December. Assigned to Division 34, Squadron 2, [Pacific Fleet](/wiki/U.S._Pacific_Fleet \"U.S. Pacific Fleet\") Destroyer Force, the destroyer remained inactive in the [San Diego, California](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California \"San Diego, California\") area through the end of 1921\\.", "*Young* departed San Diego on 14 January 1922, bound for [Bremerton, Washington](/wiki/Bremerton%2C_Washington \"Bremerton, Washington\"), and, proceeding via [San Francisco, California](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\"), reached the [Puget Sound Navy Yard](/wiki/Puget_Sound_Navy_Yard \"Puget Sound Navy Yard\") on the 18th. Overhauled at Puget Sound, the destroyer departed the yard on 3 April and arrived at her home port, San Diego, on the 8th. The remainder of the year passed fairly uneventfully, with the destroyer continuing her largely anchored existence in San Diego harbor. However, she did fire short\\-range battle practices, operated briefly off the Mexican Coronados Islands, and recovered torpedoes for {{USS\\|Idaho\\|BB\\-42\\|3}} during the autumn of the year 1922\\.", "The in\\-port routine changed the following year, when *Young* departed San Diego on 6 February 1923 and headed for [Panama](/wiki/Panama \"Panama\"). En route, she stopped briefly at [Magdalena Bay](/wiki/Magdalena_Bay \"Magdalena Bay\"), the traditional target practice grounds for the Pacific Fleet, and fueled from {{USS\\|Cuyama\\|AO\\-3\\|3}} before proceeding on south to the Pacific side of the Panama Canal Zone.", "*Young* participated in [Fleet Problem I](/wiki/Fleet_Problem_I \"Fleet Problem I\") over the ensuing weeks. In this, the first Fleet Problem held by the United States Navy, the [Battle Fleet](/wiki/Battle_Fleet \"Battle Fleet\") was pitted against the [Scouting Fleet](/wiki/Scouting_Fleet \"Scouting Fleet\") augmented by a division of battleships. During the war games, *Young* performed antisubmarine screening for the dreadnoughts of the Battle Fleet and, when the scenario of exercises called for it, dashed in and made simulated torpedo attacks on the \"enemy\" battlewagons of the augmented Scouting Fleet. Upon completion of one phase of the exercises, she was present in Panama Bay when [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy \"United States Secretary of the Navy\") [Edwin C. Denby](/wiki/Edwin_C._Denby \"Edwin C. Denby\"), accompanied by a party of congressmen embarked in the transport {{USS\\|Henderson\\|AP\\-1\\|3}}, reviewed the Fleet on 14 March.", "*Young* later departed Panamanian waters on 31 March and arrived back at San Diego on 11 April. She remained there until 25 June, when she headed north. She called at San Francisco from the 27th to the 29th and arrived at [Tacoma, Washington](/wiki/Tacoma%2C_Washington \"Tacoma, Washington\"), on 2 July. Two days later, in keeping with the occasion, *Young* sent her landing force ashore to march in Tacoma's Independence Day parade.", "After shifting to Seattle, *Young* underwent a period of upkeep alongside {{USS\\|Melville\\|AD\\-2\\|3}} between 16 July and 17 August. During that time, on 23 July, [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [Warren G. Harding](/wiki/Warren_G._Harding \"Warren G. Harding\"), on a cruise to [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\") in *Henderson*, reviewed the Fleet \\- one of his last official acts before his death a short time later.", "After spending a few days at [Lake Washington](/wiki/Lake_Washington \"Lake Washington\") following her upkeep period alongside *Melville*, *Young* underwent a brief yard period at the Puget Sound Navy Yard before she sailed south, escorting Battle Division 4 to San Francisco Bay at the end of August. En route, *Young* practiced torpedo attacks through smoke screens as part of the slate of tactical exercises.", "Following a brief period moored at Pier 15, San Francisco, Division 11 got underway to return to San Diego on the morning of 8 September. As the ships made passage down the California coast, they conducted tactical and gunnery exercises in the course of what was also a competitive speed run of {{convert\\|20\\|kn\\|km/h}}. Ultimately, when the weather worsened, the ships formed column on the squadron leader, {{USS\\|Delphy\\|DD\\-261\\|3}}. Unfortunately, through an error in navigation, the column swung east at about 2100, unaware of the danger that lurked in the fog dead ahead of them.", "At 2105, *Delphy* \\- still steaming at {{convert\\|20\\|kn\\|km/h}} \\- ran hard aground off Padernales Point, followed, in succession, by 6 other ships steaming in follow\\-the\\-leader fashion. Only quick action by the ships farthest astern prevented the total loss of the entire group.", "*Young*, however, became one of the casualties. Her hull was torn by a jagged pinnacle, but she also ran into the still revolving propellers of the {{USS\\|Delphy\\|DD\\-261\\|3}} which did further damage to her hull.\n{{cite book\n\\|author\\=Charles Hocking\n\\|title\\=Dictionary of Disasters at Sea During The Age of Steam\n\\|publisher\\=The London Stamp Exchange, London\n\\|isbn\\=0\\-948130\\-68\\-7\n\\|year\\=1990}}184 (See Delphy). She swiftly capsized, heeling over on her starboard side within a minute and a half, trapping many of her engine and fire room personnel below. Lt. Cmdr. [William L. Calhoun](/wiki/William_L._Calhoun_%28admiral%29 \"William L. Calhoun (admiral)\"), *Young's* commanding officer, knew that there was no time to launch boats or rafts as the ship's list increased alarmingly following the grounding. Calhoun accordingly passed the word, through his \nexecutive officer, Lt. E. C. Herzinger, and Chief Boatswain's Mate Arthur Peterson, to make for the port side, to stick with the ship, and to not jump.", "While the survivors clung to their precarious, oily, surf\\-battered refuge, Boatswain's Mate Peterson proposed to swim 100 yards to a rocky outcropping to the eastward known as Bridge Rock. Before he could do so, however, {{USS\\|Chauncey\\|DD\\-296\\|3}} providentially grounded between *Young* and Bridge Rock, shortening the escape route considerably. The two ships were about 75 yards apart.", "At that juncture, Peterson dived into the sea and swam through the tumbling surf with a line to the nearby *Chauncey*, which was also aground but in a far better predicament since she had remained on a comparatively even keel. The crew of *Chauncey* hauled Peterson aboard and made the line fast. Soon, a seven\\-man life raft from the *Chauncey* was on its way to *Young* as a makeshift ferry. The raft ultimately made 11 trips bringing the 70 *Young* survivors to safety. By 2330, the last men of the crew were on board *Chauncey*; at that point, Lt. Cmdr. Calhoun and Lt. Herzinger (the latter having returned to the ship after having been in the first raft across) left 'Young's' battered hull.", "[thumb\\|The capsized USS *Young* (center) at Honda Point.](/wiki/File:Point_Honda_wrecks%2C_vessels_-_NARA_-_295529.tiff \"Point Honda wrecks, vessels - NARA - 295529.tiff\")", "In the subsequent investigation of the [Honda Point Disaster](/wiki/Honda_Point_Disaster \"Honda Point Disaster\") the Board of Investigation commended Lt. Cmdr. Calhoun for his \"coolness, intelligence, and seamanlike ability\" that was directly responsible for the \"greatly reduced loss of life.\" The Board also cited Boatswain's Mate Peterson for his \"extraordinary heroism\" in swimming through the turbulent seas with a line to Chauncey; Lt. Herzinger drew praise for his \"especially meritorious conduct\" in helping to save the majority of the ship's crew.", "Rear Admiral [S. E. W. Kittelle](/wiki/Sumner_Ely_Wetmore_Kittelle \"Sumner Ely Wetmore Kittelle\"), Commander, Destroyer Squadrons, subsequently cited Lt. Cmdr. Calhoun's display of leadership and personality that saved \"three\\-quarters of the crew of the *Young*\" and Lt. Herzinger for his \"coolness and great assistance in the face of grave danger.\" Also commended by the admiral was Fireman First Class J. T. Scott, who attempted to close off the master oil valve to prevent a boiler explosion, volunteering to go below to the fireroom and go below the floor plates. The water, rapidly rising through the gashes in the ship's hull, however, prevented Scott from completing the task. He survived.", "Twenty men were lost in *Young*, the highest death toll of any of the ships lost in the disaster at Point Honda.", "Decommissioned on 26 October 1923, *Young* was stricken from the [Navy list](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\") on 20 November 1923 and ordered sold as a hulk.", "" ]
Career ------ In March 2000, Gasser was hired by Savage Beast Technologies (today [Pandora Media, Inc.](/wiki/Pandora_Radio "Pandora Radio")), where he helped flesh out the [Music Genome Project](/wiki/Music_Genome_Project "Music Genome Project"). Gasser became the Chief Musicologist at Pandora, and is the architect of all five Music Genomes (Pop/Rock, Jazz, Hip\-hop/Electronica; World Music; Classical); he also helped design the means of analysis and training by which the company continues to this day, as the hugely successful Pandora Radio service. In April 2003, Gasser became the Artistic Director of the Classical Archives website, which in May 2009 re\-launched as a streaming and download service with classical content from most labels. Gasser designed for the site a proprietary database to properly categorize and display classical recordings, and runs the editorial operation – including conducting interviews with classical artists and composers such as [Renée Fleming](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9e_Fleming "Renée Fleming"), [Hilary Hahn](/wiki/Hilary_Hahn "Hilary Hahn"), [Alan Gilbert](/wiki/Alan_Gilbert_%28conductor%29 "Alan Gilbert (conductor)"), [Hélène Grimaud](/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Grimaud "Hélène Grimaud"), [Vladimir Ashkenazy](/wiki/Vladimir_Ashkenazy "Vladimir Ashkenazy"), [Jeremy Denk](/wiki/Jeremy_Denk "Jeremy Denk"), [Daniel Hope](/wiki/Daniel_Hope_%28violinist%29 "Daniel Hope (violinist)"), [David Lang](/wiki/David_Lang_%28composer%29 "David Lang (composer)"), [Eric Whitacre](/wiki/Eric_Whitacre "Eric Whitacre"), and [John Corigliano](/wiki/John_Corigliano "John Corigliano").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.classicalarchives.com/features/\|title\=Classical Archives: Exclusive Presentations\|website\=www.classicalarchives.com}} Gasser is active as a pianist and bandleader, especially in jazz and popular styles – including with the San Francisco Jazz Quartet;.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.sfjazzquartet.com/\|title\=San Francisco Jazz Quartet Bios\|website\=www.sfjazzquartet.com}} He is an occasional adjunct professor in Medieval\-Renaissance music history at [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University "Stanford University"). He periodically gives lectures, such as at the [Carmel Authors and Ideas Festival](/wiki/Carmel_Authors_and_Ideas_Festival "Carmel Authors and Ideas Festival") in 2010,{{Cite web\|url\=http://carmelauthors.com/festival/\|title\=Carmel Authors \& Ideas Festival website}} at the [University of California, Santa Barbara](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Santa_Barbara "University of California, Santa Barbara") in February 2011, and at a joint meeting of the [National Endowment for the Arts](/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts "National Endowment for the Arts") and the [United States Department of Health and Human Services](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services "United States Department of Health and Human Services") in Washington, D.C., regarding arts education. ### Composition Gasser's shift in focus to musicology, beginning in 1991, led to an extended disruption in his compositional output, with only a handful of works written before his graduation from Stanford in 2001\. Since 2003, however, composition has become a principal focus of his career. Among his substantial works include *American Festivals* – a four\-movement work with poetry by [Robert Trent Jones Jr.](/wiki/Robert_Trent_Jones_Jr. "Robert Trent Jones Jr."); each movement is dedicated to a distinct and quintessential American holiday: "Oration on July 4th" (2004\), "Black Suite Blues" (for Martin Luther King Jr. Day; 2005\); "Memorial Day" (2006\); and "Thanksgiving" (2007\). The work has been performed – in part and whole – numerous times by several orchestras (e.g., [Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_Symphony_Orchestra "Charleston Symphony Orchestra"), Memphis, Arkansas, and [Oakland East Bay Symphonies](/wiki/Oakland_East_Bay_Symphony "Oakland East Bay Symphony")), including a complete performance at the 2008 IMG Festival del sole (Napa Valley, CA.).{{Cite journal \| last \= Carson \| first \= Pierce \| title \= Brilliant young pianist, stirring world premiere provide symphonic fireworks \| journal \= \[\[Napa Valley Register]] \| volume \= \| issue \= \| pages \= \| publisher \= Lee Enterprises, Inc. \| location \= Napa, CA \| date \= July 7, 2008 \| url \= http://napavalleyregister.com/entertainment/arts\-and\-theatre/brilliant\-young\-pianist\-stirring\-world\-premiere\-provide\-symphonic\-fireworks/article\_24519bbe\-1f58\-5aa9\-afc2\-76797b2582fa.html \| issn \= \| doi \= \| id \= \| access\-date \= August 5, 2011}} Gasser's most ambitious composition project in recent years has been a pair of works written in conjunction with [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA")'s [Fermi Gamma\-Ray Space Telescope](/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope "Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope") (formerly GLAST) – launched June 8, 2008\. The first work, the *GLAST Prelude*, for brass quintet (2007\), was recorded by the [American Brass Quintet](/wiki/American_Brass_Quintet "American Brass Quintet"), and presented at a pre\-launch party in [Cocoa Beach](/wiki/Cocoa_Beach "Cocoa Beach"),["The Symphony of Solar Science"](http://news.cnet.com/8301-11386_3-10010988-76.html) by Holly Jackson, [CNET News](/wiki/CNET_News "CNET News") (August 26, 2008\) the live premiere took place on November 2, 2009, at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C., and the work was released on the ABQ's 50th Anniversary CD on Summit Records. The same Kennedy Center concert also saw the premiere of the second Fermi\-related work, the narrated symphony *Cosmic Reflection*, with narration by Pierre Schwob and physicist [Lawrence Krauss](/wiki/Lawrence_Krauss "Lawrence Krauss") that tells the full history of the [Universe](/wiki/Universe "Universe").["The Really Big Picture"](http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/opinion/blogs/SharpSticks/The-really-big-picture--68920872.html) by Barbara Hollingsworth, *[The Washington Examiner](/wiki/The_Washington_Examiner "The Washington Examiner")* (November 3, 2009\) The work was recorded by the [Baltimore Symphony](/wiki/Baltimore_Symphony "Baltimore Symphony") under [Marin Alsop](/wiki/Marin_Alsop "Marin Alsop"), and will be subsequently released as a full\-feature DVD. Among other serious works include his *World Cello for Cello and Orchestra* (2008\), which was premiered by cellist [Maya Beiser](/wiki/Maya_Beiser "Maya Beiser") and the Oakland East Bay Symphony under [Michael Morgan](/wiki/Michael_Morgan_%28conductor%29 "Michael Morgan (conductor)"), along with three "world" soloists: [Jiebing Chen](/wiki/Jiebing_Chen "Jiebing Chen"), [erhu](/wiki/Erhu "Erhu"); Aruna Narayan, [sarangi](/wiki/Sarangi "Sarangi"); and Bassam Saba, [oud](/wiki/Oud "Oud").["World Concerto Premieres"](http://articles.sfgate.com/2009-01-27/entertainment/17198636_1_oud-cello-world-concerto) by Joshua Kosman, *[San Francisco Chronicle](/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle "San Francisco Chronicle")* (January 29, 2009\) His *3 Jazz Preludes* (2007\) were performed at Carnegie Hall by pianist Kimball Gallagher in March 2008\. His opera *[The Secret Garden](/wiki/The_Secret_Garden_%28opera%29 "The Secret Garden (opera)")*, commissioned by the [San Francisco Opera](/wiki/San_Francisco_Opera "San Francisco Opera"), premiered on 1 March 2013; the opera was also performed at Opera Theater of Weston (Vermont) in January 2015\. Gasser wrote the opening movement of the choral song cycle *Tyler's Suite*, about the tragic story of Tyler Clementi (with other movements by [Stephen Schwartz](/wiki/Stephen_Schwartz_%28composer%29 "Stephen Schwartz (composer)"), [John Corigliano](/wiki/John_Corigliano "John Corigliano"), and [Jake Heggie](/wiki/Jake_Heggie "Jake Heggie"), among others), which was premiered in March 2014 by the [San Francisco Gay Men's Chorus](/wiki/San_Francisco_Gay_Men%27s_Chorus "San Francisco Gay Men's Chorus") at Davies Symphony Hall in San Francisco, and which will be performed subsequently in Los Angeles, Dallas, and New York. His song cycle *Repast: An Oratorio*, about the life and career of civil rights figure Booker Wright, with text by [Kevin Young](/wiki/Kevin_Young_%28poet%29 "Kevin Young (poet)"), will be premiered on October 26, 2014, by bass\-baritone Justin Hopkins at the [Southern Foodways Alliance](/wiki/Southern_Foodways_Alliance "Southern Foodways Alliance") Symposium in Oxford, Mississippi ### Publications Gasser's book, *Why You Like It: The Science and Culture of Musical Taste* ([Macmillan Publishing](/wiki/Macmillan_Publishing "Macmillan Publishing")) was released on April 30, 2019\.{{cite web\|title\=Why You Like It\|url\=https://us.macmillan.com/books/9781250057198\|access\-date\=May 7, 2019}}
[ "Career\n------", "In March 2000, Gasser was hired by Savage Beast Technologies (today [Pandora Media, Inc.](/wiki/Pandora_Radio \"Pandora Radio\")), where he helped flesh out the [Music Genome Project](/wiki/Music_Genome_Project \"Music Genome Project\"). Gasser became the Chief Musicologist at Pandora, and is the architect of all five Music Genomes (Pop/Rock, Jazz, Hip\\-hop/Electronica; World Music; Classical); he also helped design the means of analysis and training by which the company continues to this day, as the hugely successful Pandora Radio service.", "In April 2003, Gasser became the Artistic Director of the Classical Archives website, which in May 2009 re\\-launched as a streaming and download service with classical content from most labels. Gasser designed for the site a proprietary database to properly categorize and display classical recordings, and runs the editorial operation – including conducting interviews with classical artists and composers such as [Renée Fleming](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9e_Fleming \"Renée Fleming\"), [Hilary Hahn](/wiki/Hilary_Hahn \"Hilary Hahn\"), [Alan Gilbert](/wiki/Alan_Gilbert_%28conductor%29 \"Alan Gilbert (conductor)\"), [Hélène Grimaud](/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Grimaud \"Hélène Grimaud\"), [Vladimir Ashkenazy](/wiki/Vladimir_Ashkenazy \"Vladimir Ashkenazy\"), [Jeremy Denk](/wiki/Jeremy_Denk \"Jeremy Denk\"), [Daniel Hope](/wiki/Daniel_Hope_%28violinist%29 \"Daniel Hope (violinist)\"), [David Lang](/wiki/David_Lang_%28composer%29 \"David Lang (composer)\"), [Eric Whitacre](/wiki/Eric_Whitacre \"Eric Whitacre\"), and [John Corigliano](/wiki/John_Corigliano \"John Corigliano\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.classicalarchives.com/features/\\|title\\=Classical Archives: Exclusive Presentations\\|website\\=www.classicalarchives.com}}", "Gasser is active as a pianist and bandleader, especially in jazz and popular styles – including with the San Francisco Jazz Quartet;.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sfjazzquartet.com/\\|title\\=San Francisco Jazz Quartet Bios\\|website\\=www.sfjazzquartet.com}} He is an occasional adjunct professor in Medieval\\-Renaissance music history at [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\"). He periodically gives lectures, such as at the [Carmel Authors and Ideas Festival](/wiki/Carmel_Authors_and_Ideas_Festival \"Carmel Authors and Ideas Festival\") in 2010,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://carmelauthors.com/festival/\\|title\\=Carmel Authors \\& Ideas Festival website}} at the [University of California, Santa Barbara](/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Santa_Barbara \"University of California, Santa Barbara\") in February 2011, and at a joint meeting of the [National Endowment for the Arts](/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts \"National Endowment for the Arts\") and the [United States Department of Health and Human Services](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services \"United States Department of Health and Human Services\") in Washington, D.C., regarding arts education.", "### Composition", "Gasser's shift in focus to musicology, beginning in 1991, led to an extended disruption in his compositional output, with only a handful of works written before his graduation from Stanford in 2001\\. Since 2003, however, composition has become a principal focus of his career.", "Among his substantial works include *American Festivals* – a four\\-movement work with poetry by [Robert Trent Jones Jr.](/wiki/Robert_Trent_Jones_Jr. \"Robert Trent Jones Jr.\"); each movement is dedicated to a distinct and quintessential American holiday: \"Oration on July 4th\" (2004\\), \"Black Suite Blues\" (for Martin Luther King Jr. Day; 2005\\); \"Memorial Day\" (2006\\); and \"Thanksgiving\" (2007\\). The work has been performed – in part and whole – numerous times by several orchestras (e.g., [Charleston](/wiki/Charleston_Symphony_Orchestra \"Charleston Symphony Orchestra\"), Memphis, Arkansas, and [Oakland East Bay Symphonies](/wiki/Oakland_East_Bay_Symphony \"Oakland East Bay Symphony\")), including a complete performance at the 2008 IMG Festival del sole (Napa Valley, CA.).{{Cite journal\n\\| last \\= Carson\n\\| first \\= Pierce\n\\| title \\= Brilliant young pianist, stirring world premiere provide symphonic fireworks\n\\| journal \\= \\[\\[Napa Valley Register]]\n\\| volume \\= \n\\| issue \\= \n\\| pages \\= \n\\| publisher \\= Lee Enterprises, Inc.\n\\| location \\= Napa, CA\n\\| date \\= July 7, 2008\n\\| url \\= http://napavalleyregister.com/entertainment/arts\\-and\\-theatre/brilliant\\-young\\-pianist\\-stirring\\-world\\-premiere\\-provide\\-symphonic\\-fireworks/article\\_24519bbe\\-1f58\\-5aa9\\-afc2\\-76797b2582fa.html\n\\| issn \\= \n\\| doi \\= \n\\| id \\= \n\\| access\\-date \\= August 5, 2011}}", "Gasser's most ambitious composition project in recent years has been a pair of works written in conjunction with [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\")'s [Fermi Gamma\\-Ray Space Telescope](/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope \"Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope\") (formerly GLAST) – launched June 8, 2008\\. The first work, the *GLAST Prelude*, for brass quintet (2007\\), was recorded by the [American Brass Quintet](/wiki/American_Brass_Quintet \"American Brass Quintet\"), and presented at a pre\\-launch party in [Cocoa Beach](/wiki/Cocoa_Beach \"Cocoa Beach\"),[\"The Symphony of Solar Science\"](http://news.cnet.com/8301-11386_3-10010988-76.html) by Holly Jackson, [CNET News](/wiki/CNET_News \"CNET News\") (August 26, 2008\\) the live premiere took place on November 2, 2009, at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C., and the work was released on the ABQ's 50th Anniversary CD on Summit Records.", "The same Kennedy Center concert also saw the premiere of the second Fermi\\-related work, the narrated symphony *Cosmic Reflection*, with narration by Pierre Schwob and physicist [Lawrence Krauss](/wiki/Lawrence_Krauss \"Lawrence Krauss\") that tells the full history of the [Universe](/wiki/Universe \"Universe\").[\"The Really Big Picture\"](http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/opinion/blogs/SharpSticks/The-really-big-picture--68920872.html) by Barbara Hollingsworth, *[The Washington Examiner](/wiki/The_Washington_Examiner \"The Washington Examiner\")* (November 3, 2009\\) The work was recorded by the [Baltimore Symphony](/wiki/Baltimore_Symphony \"Baltimore Symphony\") under [Marin Alsop](/wiki/Marin_Alsop \"Marin Alsop\"), and will be subsequently released as a full\\-feature DVD.", "Among other serious works include his *World Cello for Cello and Orchestra* (2008\\), which was premiered by cellist [Maya Beiser](/wiki/Maya_Beiser \"Maya Beiser\") and the Oakland East Bay Symphony under [Michael Morgan](/wiki/Michael_Morgan_%28conductor%29 \"Michael Morgan (conductor)\"), along with three \"world\" soloists: [Jiebing Chen](/wiki/Jiebing_Chen \"Jiebing Chen\"), [erhu](/wiki/Erhu \"Erhu\"); Aruna Narayan, [sarangi](/wiki/Sarangi \"Sarangi\"); and Bassam Saba, [oud](/wiki/Oud \"Oud\").[\"World Concerto Premieres\"](http://articles.sfgate.com/2009-01-27/entertainment/17198636_1_oud-cello-world-concerto) by Joshua Kosman, *[San Francisco Chronicle](/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle \"San Francisco Chronicle\")* (January 29, 2009\\) His *3 Jazz Preludes* (2007\\) were performed at Carnegie Hall by pianist Kimball Gallagher in March 2008\\. His opera *[The Secret Garden](/wiki/The_Secret_Garden_%28opera%29 \"The Secret Garden (opera)\")*, commissioned by the [San Francisco Opera](/wiki/San_Francisco_Opera \"San Francisco Opera\"), premiered on 1 March 2013; the opera was also performed at Opera Theater of Weston (Vermont) in January 2015\\. Gasser wrote the opening movement of the choral song cycle *Tyler's Suite*, about the tragic story of Tyler Clementi (with other movements by [Stephen Schwartz](/wiki/Stephen_Schwartz_%28composer%29 \"Stephen Schwartz (composer)\"), [John Corigliano](/wiki/John_Corigliano \"John Corigliano\"), and [Jake Heggie](/wiki/Jake_Heggie \"Jake Heggie\"), among others), which was premiered in March 2014 by the [San Francisco Gay Men's Chorus](/wiki/San_Francisco_Gay_Men%27s_Chorus \"San Francisco Gay Men's Chorus\") at Davies Symphony Hall in San Francisco, and which will be performed subsequently in Los Angeles, Dallas, and New York. His song cycle *Repast: An Oratorio*, about the life and career of civil rights figure Booker Wright, with text by [Kevin Young](/wiki/Kevin_Young_%28poet%29 \"Kevin Young (poet)\"), will be premiered on October 26, 2014, by bass\\-baritone Justin Hopkins at the [Southern Foodways Alliance](/wiki/Southern_Foodways_Alliance \"Southern Foodways Alliance\") Symposium in Oxford, Mississippi", "### Publications", "Gasser's book, *Why You Like It: The Science and Culture of Musical Taste* ([Macmillan Publishing](/wiki/Macmillan_Publishing \"Macmillan Publishing\")) was released on April 30, 2019\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Why You Like It\\|url\\=https://us.macmillan.com/books/9781250057198\\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2019}}", "" ]
Conventional standard states ---------------------------- Many standard states are non\-physical states, often referred to as "hypothetical states". Nevertheless, their thermodynamic properties are well\-defined, usually by an extrapolation from some limiting condition, such as zero pressure or zero concentration, to a specified condition (usually unit concentration or pressure) using an ideal extrapolating function, such as ideal solution or ideal gas behavior, or by empirical measurements. Strictly speaking, temperature is not part of the definition of a standard state. However, most tables of thermodynamic quantities are compiled at specific temperatures, most commonly [room temperature](/wiki/Room_temperature%23Definitions_in_science_and_industry "Room temperature#Definitions in science and industry") ({{convert\|298\.15\|K\|C F\|0\|disp\=comma}}), or, somewhat less commonly, the [freezing point](/wiki/Freezing_point "Freezing point") of [water](/wiki/Water "Water") ({{convert\|273\.15\|K\|C F\|0\|disp\=comma}}). ### Gases The standard state for a gas is the hypothetical state it would have as a pure substance obeying the [ideal gas equation](/wiki/Ideal_gas_equation "Ideal gas equation") at standard pressure. IUPAC recommends using a standard pressure *p*⦵ or P° equal to {{val\|e\=5\|u\=Pa}}, or 1 bar.{{GoldBookRef\| file\=S05921 \| title \= standard pressure}}{{cite web \|title\=Activities and their Effects on Equilibria \|url\=https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical\_and\_Theoretical\_Chemistry\_Textbook\_Maps/Supplemental\_Modules\_(Physical\_and\_Theoretical\_Chemistry)/Physical\_Properties\_of\_Matter/Solutions\_and\_Mixtures/Nonideal\_Solutions/Activities\_and\_their\_Effects\_on\_Equilibria \|website\=Chemistry LibreTexts \|language\=en \|date\=29 January 2016}} No real gas has perfectly ideal behavior, but this definition of the standard state allows corrections for non\-ideality to be made consistently for all the different gases. ### Liquids and solids The standard state for liquids and solids is simply the state of the pure substance subjected to a total pressure of {{val\|e\=5\|u\=Pa}} (or 1 [bar](/wiki/Bar_%28unit%29 "Bar (unit)")). For most elements, the reference point of Δf*H*⦵ \= 0 is defined for the most stable [allotrope](/wiki/Allotrope "Allotrope") of the element, such as [graphite](/wiki/Graphite "Graphite") in the case of [carbon](/wiki/Carbon "Carbon"), and the β\-phase ([white tin](/wiki/White_tin "White tin")) in the case of [tin](/wiki/Tin "Tin"). An exception is white [phosphorus](/wiki/Phosphorus "Phosphorus"), the most common allotrope of phosphorus, which is defined as the standard state despite the fact that it is only [metastable](/wiki/Metastability "Metastability").Housecroft C.E. and Sharpe A.G., *Inorganic Chemistry* (2nd ed., Pearson Prentice\-Hall 2005\) p.392 This is because the thermodynamically stable black allotrope is difficult to prepare pure.{{cite journal \|last1\=Rard \|first1\=Joseph A. \|last2\=Wolery \|first2\=Thomas J. \|date\=2007 \|title\=The Standard Chemical\-Thermodynamic Properties of Phosphorus and Some of its Key Compounds and Aqueous Species: An Evaluation of Differences between the Previous Recommendations of NBS/NIST and CODATA \|url\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\.1007/s10953\-007\-9205\-7 \|journal\=Journal of Solution Chemistry \|volume\=36 \|issue\= \|pages\=1585–1599 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10953\-007\-9205\-7 \|access\-date\=24 December 2023 \|quote\=Although white phosphorus is not the thermodynamically stable allotrope, the red and black forms are difficult to prepare in pure form, which makes them less suitable for quantitative thermodynamic measurements.}} ### Solutes For a substance in solution (solute), the standard state {{not a typo\|C°}} is usually chosen as the hypothetical state it would have at the standard state [molality](/wiki/Molality "Molality") or [amount concentration](/wiki/Amount_concentration "Amount concentration") but exhibiting infinite\-dilution behavior (where there are no solute\-solute interactions, but solute\-solvent interactions are present). The reason for this unusual definition is that the behavior of a solute at the limit of infinite dilution is described by equations which are very similar to the equations for ideal gases. Hence taking infinite\-dilution behavior to be the standard state allows corrections for non\-ideality to be made consistently for all the different solutes. The standard state molality is {{val\|1\|u\=mol/kg}}, while the standard state molarity is {{val\|1\|u\=mol/dm3}}. Other choices are possible. For example, the use of a standard state concentration of 10−7 mol/L for the hydrogen ion in a real, aqueous solution is common in the field of [biochemistry](/wiki/Biochemistry "Biochemistry").{{cite book \|last1\=Chang \|first1\=Raymond \| last2\=Thoman \| first2\=John W. Jr. \|title\=Physical Chemistry for the Chemical Sciences \|date\=2014\|publisher\=University Science Books \|location\=New York \|pages\=346–347}}{{cite book \|last1\=Sherwood \|first1\=Dennis \|last2\=Dalby \|first2\=Paul \|title\=Modern Thermodynamics for Chemists and Biochemists \|date\=2018 \|publisher\=Oxford Scholarship Online \|doi\=10\.1093/oso/9780198782957\.003\.0023 \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-878295\-7 \|url\=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10\.1093/oso/9780198782957\.001\.0001/oso\-9780198782957\-chapter\-23 \|access\-date\=18 May 2021}} In other application areas such as [electrochemistry](/wiki/Electrochemistry "Electrochemistry"), the standard state is sometimes chosen as the actual state of the real solution at a standard concentration (often {{val\|1\|u\=mol/dm3}}).{{cite book \|last1\=Chang \|first1\=Raymond \| last2\=Thoman \| first2\=John W. Jr. \|title\=Physical Chemistry for the Chemical Sciences \|date\=2014 \|publisher\=University Science Books \|location\=New York \|pages\=228–231}} The [activity coefficients](/wiki/Activity_coefficients "Activity coefficients") will not transfer from convention to convention and so it is very important to know and understand what conventions were used in the construction of tables of standard thermodynamic properties before using them to describe solutions. ### Adsorbates For molecules adsorbed on surfaces there have been various conventions proposed based on hypothetical standard states. For adsorption that occurs on specific sites ([Langmuir adsorption isotherm](/wiki/Langmuir_adsorption_model "Langmuir adsorption model")) the most common standard state is a relative coverage of {{nowrap\|''θ''° {{\=}} 0\.5}}, as this choice results in a cancellation of the [configurational entropy](/wiki/Configuration_entropy "Configuration entropy") term and is also consistent with neglecting to include the standard state (which is a common error).{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1021/jp404398z \|title\=Standard States for Adsorption on Solid Surfaces: 2D Gases, Surface Liquids, and Langmuir Adsorbates \|journal\=J. Phys. Chem. C \|volume\=117 \|pages\=15710–15715 \|year\=2013 \|last1\=Savara \|first1\=Aditya \|issue\=30 \|doi\-access\= }} The advantage of using {{nowrap\|''θ''° {{\=}} 0\.5}} is that the configurational term cancels and the [entropy](/wiki/Entropy "Entropy") extracted from thermodynamic analyses is thus reflective of intra\-molecular changes between the bulk phase (such as gas or liquid) and the adsorbed state. There may be benefit to tabulating values based on both the relative coverage based standard state and in an additional column the absolute coverage based standard state. For 2D gas states, the complication of discrete states does not arise and an absolute density base standard state has been proposed, similar for the 3D gas phase.
[ "Conventional standard states\n----------------------------", "Many standard states are non\\-physical states, often referred to as \"hypothetical states\". Nevertheless, their thermodynamic properties are well\\-defined, usually by an extrapolation from some limiting condition, such as zero pressure or zero concentration, to a specified condition (usually unit concentration or pressure) using an ideal extrapolating function, such as ideal solution or ideal gas behavior, or by empirical measurements. Strictly speaking, temperature is not part of the definition of a standard state. However, most tables of thermodynamic quantities are compiled at specific temperatures, most commonly [room temperature](/wiki/Room_temperature%23Definitions_in_science_and_industry \"Room temperature#Definitions in science and industry\") ({{convert\\|298\\.15\\|K\\|C F\\|0\\|disp\\=comma}}), or, somewhat less commonly, the [freezing point](/wiki/Freezing_point \"Freezing point\") of [water](/wiki/Water \"Water\") ({{convert\\|273\\.15\\|K\\|C F\\|0\\|disp\\=comma}}).", "### Gases", "The standard state for a gas is the hypothetical state it would have as a pure substance obeying the [ideal gas equation](/wiki/Ideal_gas_equation \"Ideal gas equation\") at standard pressure. IUPAC recommends using a standard pressure *p*⦵ or P° equal to {{val\\|e\\=5\\|u\\=Pa}}, or 1 bar.{{GoldBookRef\\| file\\=S05921 \\| title \\= standard pressure}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Activities and their Effects on Equilibria \\|url\\=https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical\\_and\\_Theoretical\\_Chemistry\\_Textbook\\_Maps/Supplemental\\_Modules\\_(Physical\\_and\\_Theoretical\\_Chemistry)/Physical\\_Properties\\_of\\_Matter/Solutions\\_and\\_Mixtures/Nonideal\\_Solutions/Activities\\_and\\_their\\_Effects\\_on\\_Equilibria \\|website\\=Chemistry LibreTexts \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=29 January 2016}} No real gas has perfectly ideal behavior, but this definition of the standard state allows corrections for non\\-ideality to be made consistently for all the different gases.", "### Liquids and solids", "The standard state for liquids and solids is simply the state of the pure substance subjected to a total pressure of {{val\\|e\\=5\\|u\\=Pa}} (or 1 [bar](/wiki/Bar_%28unit%29 \"Bar (unit)\")). For most elements, the reference point of Δf*H*⦵ \\= 0 is defined for the most stable [allotrope](/wiki/Allotrope \"Allotrope\") of the element, such as [graphite](/wiki/Graphite \"Graphite\") in the case of [carbon](/wiki/Carbon \"Carbon\"), and the β\\-phase ([white tin](/wiki/White_tin \"White tin\")) in the case of [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\"). An exception is white [phosphorus](/wiki/Phosphorus \"Phosphorus\"), the most common allotrope of phosphorus, which is defined as the standard state despite the fact that it is only [metastable](/wiki/Metastability \"Metastability\").Housecroft C.E. and Sharpe A.G., *Inorganic Chemistry* (2nd ed., Pearson Prentice\\-Hall 2005\\) p.392 This is because the thermodynamically stable black allotrope is difficult to prepare pure.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Rard \\|first1\\=Joseph A. \\|last2\\=Wolery \\|first2\\=Thomas J. \\|date\\=2007 \\|title\\=The Standard Chemical\\-Thermodynamic Properties of Phosphorus and Some of its Key Compounds and Aqueous Species: An Evaluation of Differences between the Previous Recommendations of NBS/NIST and CODATA \\|url\\=https://link.springer.com/article/10\\.1007/s10953\\-007\\-9205\\-7 \\|journal\\=Journal of Solution Chemistry \\|volume\\=36 \\|issue\\= \\|pages\\=1585–1599 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10953\\-007\\-9205\\-7 \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2023 \\|quote\\=Although white phosphorus is not the thermodynamically stable allotrope, the red and black forms are difficult to prepare in pure form, which makes them less suitable for quantitative thermodynamic measurements.}}", "### Solutes", "For a substance in solution (solute), the standard state {{not a typo\\|C°}} is usually chosen as the hypothetical state it would have at the standard state [molality](/wiki/Molality \"Molality\") or [amount concentration](/wiki/Amount_concentration \"Amount concentration\") but exhibiting infinite\\-dilution behavior (where there are no solute\\-solute interactions, but solute\\-solvent interactions are present). The reason for this unusual definition is that the behavior of a solute at the limit of infinite dilution is described by equations which are very similar to the equations for ideal gases. Hence taking infinite\\-dilution behavior to be the standard state allows corrections for non\\-ideality to be made consistently for all the different solutes. The standard state molality is {{val\\|1\\|u\\=mol/kg}}, while the standard state molarity is {{val\\|1\\|u\\=mol/dm3}}.", "Other choices are possible. For example, the use of a standard state concentration of 10−7 mol/L for the hydrogen ion in a real, aqueous solution is common in the field of [biochemistry](/wiki/Biochemistry \"Biochemistry\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Chang \\|first1\\=Raymond \\| last2\\=Thoman \\| first2\\=John W. Jr. \\|title\\=Physical Chemistry for the Chemical Sciences \\|date\\=2014\\|publisher\\=University Science Books \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=346–347}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Sherwood \\|first1\\=Dennis \\|last2\\=Dalby \\|first2\\=Paul \\|title\\=Modern Thermodynamics for Chemists and Biochemists \\|date\\=2018 \\|publisher\\=Oxford Scholarship Online \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/oso/9780198782957\\.003\\.0023 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-878295\\-7 \\|url\\=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10\\.1093/oso/9780198782957\\.001\\.0001/oso\\-9780198782957\\-chapter\\-23 \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2021}} In other application areas such as [electrochemistry](/wiki/Electrochemistry \"Electrochemistry\"), the standard state is sometimes chosen as the actual state of the real solution at a standard concentration (often {{val\\|1\\|u\\=mol/dm3}}).{{cite book \\|last1\\=Chang \\|first1\\=Raymond \\| last2\\=Thoman \\| first2\\=John W. Jr. \\|title\\=Physical Chemistry for the Chemical Sciences \\|date\\=2014 \\|publisher\\=University Science Books \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=228–231}} The [activity coefficients](/wiki/Activity_coefficients \"Activity coefficients\") will not transfer from convention to convention and so it is very important to know and understand what conventions were used in the construction of tables of standard thermodynamic properties before using them to describe solutions.", "### Adsorbates", "For molecules adsorbed on surfaces there have been various conventions proposed based on hypothetical standard states. For adsorption that occurs on specific sites ([Langmuir adsorption isotherm](/wiki/Langmuir_adsorption_model \"Langmuir adsorption model\")) the most common standard state is a relative coverage of {{nowrap\\|''θ''° {{\\=}} 0\\.5}}, as this choice results in a cancellation of the [configurational entropy](/wiki/Configuration_entropy \"Configuration entropy\") term and is also consistent with neglecting to include the standard state (which is a common error).{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1021/jp404398z \\|title\\=Standard States for Adsorption on Solid Surfaces: 2D Gases, Surface Liquids, and Langmuir Adsorbates \\|journal\\=J. Phys. Chem. C \\|volume\\=117 \\|pages\\=15710–15715 \\|year\\=2013 \\|last1\\=Savara \\|first1\\=Aditya \\|issue\\=30 \\|doi\\-access\\= }} The advantage of using {{nowrap\\|''θ''° {{\\=}} 0\\.5}} is that the configurational term cancels and the [entropy](/wiki/Entropy \"Entropy\") extracted from thermodynamic analyses is thus reflective of intra\\-molecular changes between the bulk phase (such as gas or liquid) and the adsorbed state. There may be benefit to tabulating values based on both the relative coverage based standard state and in an additional column the absolute coverage based standard state. For 2D gas states, the complication of discrete states does not arise and an absolute density base standard state has been proposed, similar for the 3D gas phase.", "" ]
Procedure --------- * Make graph + Determine starting makespan * Determine optimal sequence for bottleneck machine (considering precedence constraints) + Perform an iteration - Solve lowest maximum lateness problem - Include optimal sequence in graph * Determine optimal sequences for remaining machines (considering precedence and machine constraints) + Perform further iterations - Conduct iterations until all machines have been accounted for - Draw out final graph - Determine final makespan ### First graph [thumb\|right\|Original drawing](/wiki/File:OriginalDrawing.png "OriginalDrawing.png") The first step is to draw out the precedence constraints in a graphical form called a [graph](/wiki/Graph_%28discrete_mathematics%29 "Graph (discrete mathematics)") (See Original Drawing picture). Each job originates at the "source", which we will label U on the graph. Each job will finish in a "sink" of jobs, which we will label V on the graph. Each row of nodes in the graph represents a job. Each node on the graph represents a task that is part of the job, the second number confirms the job being performed and the first number indicates what machine is being used for this task. At this point, the initial throughput time of each job should be calculated by adding up the processing times that the job takes on each of the machines (or rows). After the throughput time for each job has been calculated, the makespan for the system is determined by the longest throughput time of any individual job. This assumes no resource conflicts and gives a makespan of 22\. ### First iteration [thumb\|right\|Machine 1](/wiki/File:Mach1.png "Mach1.png") [thumb\|right\|Iteration 1](/wiki/File:TheFirstIteration1.jpg "TheFirstIteration1.jpg") The next step is to determine which resource/machine is currently the [bottleneck](/wiki/Bottleneck_%28engineering%29 "Bottleneck (engineering)"). This is done by considering the production time, denoted *pij*, that each job takes on each machine, the release time of each job on each respective machine, and the due date of each job for each respective machine. The release time, denoted *rij*, is determined by adding up the processing times of job *j* on the machines that precede machine *i* in the job order of job *j*. The due date, denoted *dij*, is determined by subtracting the processing times of job *j* on the machines succeeding the machine *i* in the job order from the makespan. Once all of this is determined, the minimum lateness for each machine needs to be determined. This is accomplished by finding the path for each machine that reduces the maximum lateness seen for all jobs on the respective machine. This can be done using a [branch and bound](/wiki/Branch_and_bound "Branch and bound") technique for example. It can also be approximated using an other heuristic such as the [earliest due date heuristic](/wiki/Single-machine_scheduling "Single-machine scheduling"). Once the maximum lateness is determined for each of the respective machines, the machine with the largest maximum lateness is the bottleneck. If there is no maximum lateness on any of the machines, one can draw all of the machines’ optimal sequences in the job diagram. If there are two machines with the same maximum lateness, either one can be chosen for the bottleneck. All of this work is considered the first iteration. Once the [bottleneck](/wiki/Bottleneck_%28engineering%29 "Bottleneck (engineering)") has been determined, the path for the machine needs to be included in the graph of jobs (See Iteration 1 Drawing, where the colored arrows represent disjunctive constraints). These new paths can be considered the disjunctive constraints and they need to be taken into consideration when determining the new makespan. The disjunctive constraints are the machine constraints in our [job shop](/wiki/Job_shop "Job shop"). The new makespan will be the old makespan plus the maximum lateness of the machine determined to be the bottleneck. ### Second iteration [thumb\|right\|Iteration 2](/wiki/File:Iteration2.png "Iteration2.png") The next step is to perform a new analysis for each of the remaining machines. The differences now are there is a new makespan, and the precedence constraints need to be considered as well as the disjunctive constraints when determining the release date of each job on the machine. The longest path to get from the "source" U to the respective job, coming from comparing the release times of the preceding jobs for disjunctive constraints and precedence constraints, will be the new release date. The due dates will be the time that the given job needs be finished on the respective machine to still have enough time to finish the job on the proceeding machines within the makespan. This is the length of the longest path from the job to the "sink" V. The proceeding jobs are known from the precedence constraints. Again, determine which machine is the new [bottleneck](/wiki/Bottleneck_%28engineering%29 "Bottleneck (engineering)"). Add the new disjunctive constraints to the graph (see Iteration 2\). This is considered the second iteration. The new makespan is the old makespan plus the maximum lateness from the new bottleneck. Again, if the maximum lateness on all machines is zero then use all the paths for the disjunctive constraints on the drawing and the makespan is still the same as it was before. ### Further iterations [thumb\|right\|Iteration 3](/wiki/File:Iteration3.png "Iteration3.png") This process is repeated until all machines have been accounted for or the maximum lateness is zero on all respective remaining machines. Each time the process is repeated, it is considered an iteration and all of the disjunctive constraints may be drawn on the job and machine diagram. For our example, the next iteration provided us with zero for the maximum lateness on machines 3 and 4, so their optimal sequences can be included in the drawing (see Iteration 3\). At this point the Shifting [Bottleneck](/wiki/Bottleneck_%28engineering%29 "Bottleneck (engineering)") [Heuristic](/wiki/Heuristic "Heuristic") is complete. The drawing should now include all precedence constraints and all disjunctive constraints. The final makespan is the original makespan plus all of the maximum latenesses from each of the respective bottlenecks. It is the lowest amount of time needed complete all of the jobs given these machine and precedence constraints.
[ "Procedure\n---------", "* Make graph\n\t+ Determine starting makespan\n* Determine optimal sequence for bottleneck machine (considering precedence constraints)\n\t+ Perform an iteration\n\t\t- Solve lowest maximum lateness problem\n\t\t- Include optimal sequence in graph\n* Determine optimal sequences for remaining machines (considering precedence and machine constraints)\n\t+ Perform further iterations\n\t\t- Conduct iterations until all machines have been accounted for\n\t\t- Draw out final graph\n\t\t- Determine final makespan", "### First graph", "[thumb\\|right\\|Original drawing](/wiki/File:OriginalDrawing.png \"OriginalDrawing.png\")", "The first step is to draw out the precedence constraints in a graphical form called a [graph](/wiki/Graph_%28discrete_mathematics%29 \"Graph (discrete mathematics)\") (See Original Drawing picture). Each job originates at the \"source\", which we will label U on the graph. Each job will finish in a \"sink\" of jobs, which we will label V on the graph. Each row of nodes in the graph represents a job. Each node on the graph represents a task that is part of the job, the second number confirms the job being performed and the first number indicates what machine is being used for this task. At this point, the initial throughput time of each job should be calculated by adding up the processing times that the job takes on each of the machines (or rows). After the throughput time for each job has been calculated, the makespan for the system is determined by the longest throughput time of any individual job. This assumes no resource conflicts and gives a makespan of 22\\.", "### First iteration", "[thumb\\|right\\|Machine 1](/wiki/File:Mach1.png \"Mach1.png\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Iteration 1](/wiki/File:TheFirstIteration1.jpg \"TheFirstIteration1.jpg\")", "The next step is to determine which resource/machine is currently the [bottleneck](/wiki/Bottleneck_%28engineering%29 \"Bottleneck (engineering)\"). This is done by considering the production time, denoted *pij*, that each job takes on each machine, the release time of each job on each respective machine, and the due date of each job for each respective machine. The release time, denoted *rij*, is determined by adding up the processing times of job *j* on the machines that precede machine *i* in the job order of job *j*. The due date, denoted *dij*, is determined by subtracting the processing times of job *j* on the machines succeeding the machine *i* in the job order from the makespan. Once all of this is determined, the minimum lateness for each machine needs to be determined. This is accomplished by finding the path for each machine that reduces the maximum lateness seen for all jobs on the respective machine. This can be done using a [branch and bound](/wiki/Branch_and_bound \"Branch and bound\") technique for example. It can also be approximated using an other heuristic such as the [earliest due date heuristic](/wiki/Single-machine_scheduling \"Single-machine scheduling\"). Once the maximum lateness is determined for each of the respective machines, the machine with the largest maximum lateness is the bottleneck. If there is no maximum lateness on any of the machines, one can draw all of the machines’ optimal sequences in the job diagram. If there are two machines with the same maximum lateness, either one can be chosen for the bottleneck. All of this work is considered the first iteration.", "Once the [bottleneck](/wiki/Bottleneck_%28engineering%29 \"Bottleneck (engineering)\") has been determined, the path for the machine needs to be included in the graph of jobs (See Iteration 1 Drawing, where the colored arrows represent disjunctive constraints). These new paths can be considered the disjunctive constraints and they need to be taken into consideration when determining the new makespan. The disjunctive constraints are the machine constraints in our [job shop](/wiki/Job_shop \"Job shop\"). The new makespan will be the old makespan plus the maximum lateness of the machine determined to be the bottleneck.", "### Second iteration", "[thumb\\|right\\|Iteration 2](/wiki/File:Iteration2.png \"Iteration2.png\")", "The next step is to perform a new analysis for each of the remaining machines. The differences now are there is a new makespan, and the precedence constraints need to be considered as well as the disjunctive constraints when determining the release date of each job on the machine. The longest path to get from the \"source\" U to the respective job, coming from comparing the release times of the preceding jobs for disjunctive constraints and precedence constraints, will be the new release date. The due dates will be the time that the given job needs be finished on the respective machine to still have enough time to finish the job on the proceeding machines within the makespan. This is the length of the longest path from the job to the \"sink\" V. The proceeding jobs are known from the precedence constraints.", "Again, determine which machine is the new [bottleneck](/wiki/Bottleneck_%28engineering%29 \"Bottleneck (engineering)\"). Add the new disjunctive constraints to the graph (see Iteration 2\\). This is considered the second iteration. The new makespan is the old makespan plus the maximum lateness from the new bottleneck. Again, if the maximum lateness on all machines is zero then use all the paths for the disjunctive constraints on the drawing and the makespan is still the same as it was before.", "### Further iterations", "[thumb\\|right\\|Iteration 3](/wiki/File:Iteration3.png \"Iteration3.png\")", "This process is repeated until all machines have been accounted for or the maximum lateness is zero on all respective remaining machines. Each time the process is repeated, it is considered an iteration and all of the disjunctive constraints may be drawn on the job and machine diagram. For our example, the next iteration provided us with zero for the maximum lateness on machines 3 and 4, so their optimal sequences can be included in the drawing (see Iteration 3\\).", "At this point the Shifting [Bottleneck](/wiki/Bottleneck_%28engineering%29 \"Bottleneck (engineering)\") [Heuristic](/wiki/Heuristic \"Heuristic\") is complete. The drawing should now include all precedence constraints and all disjunctive constraints. The final makespan is the original makespan plus all of the maximum latenesses from each of the respective bottlenecks. It is the lowest amount of time needed complete all of the jobs given these machine and precedence constraints.", "" ]
History ------- ### Medieval In medieval times, the *Mac Shamhráin* (anglicised as [McGovern](/wiki/McGovern_%28name%29 "McGovern (name)") or Magauran) Robert Bell, *The Book of Ulster Surnames*, p. 163\. The Ulster Historical Foundation (U.H.F.), [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"), 2021 (2022 reprint; originally published by [The Blackstaff Press](/wiki/The_Blackstaff_Press "The Blackstaff Press"), Belfast, 1988\). *[túath](/wiki/T%C3%BAath "Túath")* of *Teallach Eachdhach* ([Tullyhaw](/wiki/Tullyhaw "Tullyhaw")), then part of [West Bréifne](/wiki/West_Breifne "West Breifne") in [Connacht](/wiki/Connacht "Connacht"), was divided into economic taxation areas called ballibetoes, from the Irish *Baile Biataigh* (anglicised as 'Ballybetagh'), meaning 'A Provisioner's Town or Settlement' (Tullyhaw is now a [barony](/wiki/Barony_%28Ireland%29 "Barony (Ireland)") in County Cavan). The original purpose of a ballybetagh was to enable the farmer, who controlled the *baile*, to provide hospitality for those who needed it, such as poor people and travellers. The ballybetagh was further divided into townlands farmed by individual families who paid a tribute or tax to the head of the ballybetagh, who in turn paid a similar tribute to the clan chief. The steward of the ballybetagh would have been the secular equivalent of the [erenagh](/wiki/Erenagh "Erenagh") in charge of church lands. There were seven ballibetoes in the parish of Templeport. Ballymagauran was located in the ballybetagh named after it. The historical spellings of the ballybetagh are Ballymackgawran \& Ballimacgawran (Irish \= *Baile Mhic Shamhráin* \= McGovern's Town or Magauran's Town). After 1400 A.D., Ballymagauran became the chief seat of the *Mac Shamhráin* ([McGovern](/wiki/McGovern_%28name%29 "McGovern (name)") or Magauran) clan, who were the lords of *Teallach Eachdhach* (Tullyhaw).{{cite web \| url\=https://www.geograph.ie/photo/2869030 \| title\=H2113 : Ballymagovern Castle \| publisher\=geograph.ie \| access\-date\=8 December 2019 }} Their previous seats were in [Coologe](/wiki/Coologe "Coologe") and [Killywillin](/wiki/Killywillin "Killywillin"). A medieval Duanaire or Poembook belonging to them is the oldest such surviving book in [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") and describes various incidents at Ballymagauran.{{Citation \|author\= L. McKenna \|title\=The Book of Magauran \|year\=1947 \|ref\=BM}} The [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings "Vikings") may also have been in the area as the pommel of an inlaid Viking sword (Petersen Type H) dating from *c.* 900 A.D. has been excavated from a fort on the shore of Ballymagauran Lake.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=a\_1fAgAAQBAJ\&q\=ballymagauran\+%22jp\+type\+h%22\&pg\=PA178\|title\=Celtic\-Norse Relationships in the Irish Sea in the Middle Ages 800–1200\|date\=29 November 2013\|publisher\=BRILL\|isbn\=9789004255128\|via\=Google Books}} The earliest surviving mention of the placename is in the *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters "Annals of the Four Masters")* under the year 1431 A.D., which states that *Thomas, proceeded with a great host into Teallach Eachdhach, to take vengeance on the inhabitants for the death of his kinsman. He plundered, spoiled, and ravaged the territory, and slew many of the chiefs of it. He also burned Ballymagauran, and then he returned home in triumph*.{{Citation \|author\= Margo R. Griffin\-Wilson \|title\= Sidelights on History: The Book of Magauran and the Annals \|year\= 1982 \|ref\= Sidelights}} In 1455, the Annals state that a war broke out between Philip, the son of Thomas Maguire, heir to the lordship of Fermanagh, and Magauran. Philip pitched his camp at Beann\-Eachlabhra and Brian and Tuathal, Philip's sons, *went forth with twelve horsemen and thirty\-seven infantry, burned Magauran's town (Ballymagauran), and the greater part of his territory, and killed Melaghlin Duv Magauran and a great number of his people; after which he returned home triumphantly*. In 1459, the village was burnt down by Thomas Oge Maguire, after seizing the area. The *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters "Annals of the Four Masters")* state\- *The spoils of Magh Slecht were seized on by Maguire (Thomas Oge); and Ballymagauran was burned by him on this occasion*. It was burnt again on Tuesday 27 September 1485 by Turlough O'Reilly, son of John. On the following day Magauran *with his kinsmen, went in pursuit of the army, and deprived them of sixteen men, who were killed or taken prisoners, and two hundred horses*. On 28 September 1498, Ballymagauran was raided by the Maguire clan. The *[Annals of Ulster](/wiki/Annals_of_Ulster "Annals of Ulster")* for 1498 state\- *Philip, son of Toirdelbach, son of Philip Mag Uidhir, went on an inroad into Tellach\-Eathach (Tullyhaw) and the sons of Edmond Mag Uidhir and the sons of Gilla\-Padraig Mag Uidhir went with him thither and the country was traversed by them to Snam\-na\-neach. And the town of Mag Samradhain (Ballymagauran) was burned by them and they turned back and came not on cattle\-spoils or chattels. And the worthies of the country overtook them on that retreat with a very large pursuing party and those nobles turned on the pursuing party and defeated them spiritedly, successfully then and slew three and twenty of the pursuing party in that rout, two sons of Aedh, son of Eogan Mag Samradhain, namely, Tadhg and Maghnus (that is, the cleric). And the other portion of them slain were of the Clann\-Imair and of the Clan of Mac\-in\-taisigh and of the muster of Tellach\-Eathach also. And there was slain also by the Fir\-Manach in the heat of that rout Flaithbertach, son of Donn, son of Edmond Mag Uidhir. And on the vigil of Michaelmas precisely those deeds were done.* In 1512, the *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters "Annals of the Four Masters")* state\- *Philip, the son of Turlough Maguire and Thomas, son of Manus Magauran went to Teallach Eachdhach and killed Turlough. They then proceeded to the Crannog of Magauran and took Magauran prisoner, only to set him free and leave him behind as he had become sick, making transport inconvenient. The son of O'Reilly, Edmond Roe then came up with these men of Fermanagh, and with the son recte grandsons of Manus, defeated them, and slew Donough, the son of Redmond, son of Philip Maguire; Philip, the son of Owen, son of Donnell Ballagh Maguire; Hugh, the son of Owen, son of Turlough Maguire; Murtough Roe, son of Murrough; and James, the son of Magrath Maguire, besides many others; and many horses were taken from them on that day*. On 19 January 1586, [Queen Elizabeth I of England](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England") granted a pardon to *Thomas oge m'Brien m'Thomas Magawran, of Magawranstowne*, for fighting against the Queen's forces.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/reportofdeputyke1416irel\|title\=The ... report of the Deputy Keeper of the Public Records in Ireland / presented to both houses of the Parliament by command of Her Majesty\|date\=24 July 1882\|publisher\=Dublin : Printed by Alexander Thom for Her Majesty's Stationery Offic\|via\=Internet Archive}} ### 17th century Ballymagauran, along with the rest of [Tullyhaw](/wiki/Tullyhaw "Tullyhaw"), was transferred from [County Leitrim](/wiki/County_Leitrim "County Leitrim") in [Connacht](/wiki/Connacht "Connacht") to County Cavan in [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster "Ulster") in the early seventeenth century. At the start of the [Plantation of Ulster](/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster "Plantation of Ulster") in 1609, the lands of the McGoverns were confiscated, but some were later regranted to them. The Manor of Ballymagauran was regranted to the chief of the clan, [Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin](/wiki/Feidhlimidh_M%C3%A1g_Samhradh%C3%A1in "Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin") (anglicised as Phelim Magauran, Phelim McGovern or Phelim Magawrane), on 29 April 1611\. It seems that it was Feidhlimidh who had Ballymagauran 'Castle' constructed at this time, probably at the start of the Plantation of Ulster. Templeport Development Association \- History: Ballymagauran Castle. [https://www.templeport.ie/pages/ballymagauran\-castle2\.html](https://www.templeport.ie/pages/ballymagauran-castle2.html) His 'castle' was in reality a modest, stone\-built [fortified house](/wiki/Fortified_house "Fortified house"). The modern townland of Killyran formed part of Ballymagauran until the 18th century. The name of the townland in which Ballymagauran village was situated was called Drumcorke or Drumhirk at that time and was only renamed as Ballymagauran in the Ordnance Survey of 1836\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/mpf1\-58\.pdf\|title\=National Archives Dublin}} The grant to Felim McGovern included *Dromcorcke, 1 poll*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XD5JAAAAcAAJ\&q\=Ballymagirrell\&pg\=PA211\|title\=Calendar of the Patent Rolls of the Chancery of Ireland\|first\=Ireland\|last\=Chancery\|date\=24 July 1800\|publisher\=A. Thom\|via\=Google Books}} In a visitation by [Lord Carew](/wiki/George_Carew%2C_1st_Earl_of_Totnes "George Carew, 1st Earl of Totnes") in autumn 1611 he states that *Magauran had his own land given him on this division*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=I\_RZmjcJYV0C\&pg\=PA96\|title\=Calendar of the Carew Manuscripts: Miscellaneous papers: The book of Howth. The conquest of Ireland, by Thomas Bray, etc\|first\=Lambeth Palace\|last\=Library\|date\=24 July 1873\|publisher\=Longmans, Green, Reader, \& Dyer\|via\=Google Books}} By 1613, Magauran had progressed with building work. [Sir Josias Bodley](/wiki/Josias_Bodley "Josias Bodley") reported on 6 February 1613\-*Proportion No. 31: 1,000 acres. Magauran is strongly seated, and near to his Irish house by a lough's side hath begun an English building of lime and stone of 40 feet long and 20 broad, not yet raised above the first story, but with this season intendeth to set it forward: There is round about it a trench and dike of earth and sod, which with little labour may be made of good strength, and that, it seemeth, by his beginning, he hath a purpose to do*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\.282710\|title\=Report On The Manuscripts Of The Late Reginald Rawdon Hastings Vol. Iv : Her Majesty's Stationery Office London : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\|website\=Internet Archive\|year\=1947}} By 1619, *Pynnar's Survey of Land Holders* found that Magauran had built a castle on his holdings.{{Cite book \|title\=A Special Census of Northern Ireland, Pynnars Survey of Land Holders \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=tW6edf\-80pIC\&q\=Inquisitions\+of\+Ulster,\+Cavan,\+(29\)\+Car.\+I.\+%22walter\+talbot%22\&pg\=PA447\|isbn\=9780940134652\|last1\=Hill\|first1\=George\|year\=2003}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wYNYAAAAcAAJ\&pg\=PA73\|title\=Hibernica: Or, Some Ancient Pieces Relating to Ireland, Never Hitherto Made Publick ...\|first\=Walter\|last\=Harris\|date\=24 July 1747\|publisher\=E. Bates\|via\=Google Books}} A survey taken in August 1622 stated that\- {{lang\|enm\|Brian Magauran hath 1,000 acres in which is a bawn of sodds and within it a stone howse thatched, with chymneys and a part of it lofted. He setts his land from yeare to yeare to ye Irish, who plowgh by ye taile}}. An Inquisition ordered by [King Charles I of England](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England "Charles I of England"), held in [Cavan Town](/wiki/Cavan_Town "Cavan Town") on 4 October 1626, stated that the aforesaid Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin (Phelim Magawrane or Phelim Magauran) died on 20 January 1622 and his lands, including two polls of *Dromcorck*, went to his son, the McGovern chief [Brian Magauran](/wiki/Brian_Magauran "Brian Magauran"), who was aged 30 (born 1592\) and married.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=WUepqE\-K4PAC\&q\=dromcorck\&pg\=PR113\|title\=Inquisitionum in Officio Rotulorum Cancellariae Hiberniae Asservatarum Repertorium\|date\=24 July 1829\|publisher\=command of his majesty King George IV. In pursuance of an address of the house of Commons of Great Britain (an Ireland)\|via\=Google Books}} Brian was married to Mary O'Brien and he died in 1631 leaving the estate to his son and heir Edward Magauran, who was born in 1616\. The 'castle' that Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin erected after 1611 was supposedly besieged and destroyed by [Oliver Cromwell](/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell "Oliver Cromwell")'s army in 1649\. After the Irish Rebellion, Ballymagauran was confiscated from the Magaurans and was distributed to the English settlers as follows.\- The 1652 Commonwealth Survey lists the townland as *Dromcorchae* and the proprietor as *Ensigne Walter Reece*. [Sir William Petty](/wiki/William_Petty "William Petty")'s [Down Survey](/wiki/Down_Survey "Down Survey") map of 1659 shows the castle in the townland of Dromkirke with inscription "Stone house in repair".Trinity College Dublin: [The Down Survey of Ireland.](http://downsurvey.tcd.ie/down-survey-maps.php#bm=Tullaghhagh&c=Cavan&indexOfObjectValue=-1&indexOfObjectValueSubstring=-1) In the Hearth Money Rolls of 1663 there were only three houses in Templeport with two hearths, at\- Lissanover, Munlough and Sruagh, indicating that the castle had been abandoned by that time. In the Hearth Money Rolls compiled on 29 September 1663,*The Hearth Money Rolls for the Baronies of Tullyhunco and Tullyhaw, County Cavan*, edited by Rev. Francis J. McKiernan, in Breifne Journal. Vol. I, No. 3 (1960\), pp. 247–263 there was one Hearth Tax payer in *Ballimagowran – John Forman*. A grant dated 3 November 1666 was made by [King Charles II of England](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England") to [Sir Tristram Beresford, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Tristram_Beresford%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir Tristram Beresford, 1st Baronet"), which included, inter alia, the lands of *Ballymagowran alias Drumherk comprising 121 acres*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/op1244157\-1001\|title\=Commissioners of Public Records in Ireland : fourteenth and fifteenth reports with appendix, 1824–25\|date\=24 July 1825\|publisher\=HMSO\|via\=Internet Archive}} On 11 September 1670, [King Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England") created the 'Manor of Beresford' out of lands in Tullyhaw which Beresford acquired, including *Ballymagowran alias Drumherke*, at a rent of £0\-6s–8d per annum for each fair \& market held there.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/cu31924091769590\|title\=Calendar of the state papers relating to Ireland preserved in the Public Record Office. 1625\-\[1670] : Great Britain. Public Record Office : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\|website\=Internet Archive\|year\=1900}} Beresford died on 15 January 1673 and was succeeded by his son, [Sir Randal Beresford](/wiki/Randal_Beresford "Randal Beresford"). ### After 1700 [Major](/wiki/Major_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Major (United Kingdom)") Edward Magauran was born in Ballymagauran on 16 April 1746, the grandson of [Colonel Bryan Magauran](/wiki/Colonel_Bryan_Magauran "Colonel Bryan Magauran"), the Chief of the Clan McGovern who fought at the [Battle of the Boyne](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Boyne "Battle of the Boyne") for [King James II](/wiki/James_II_of_England "James II of England") against [King William III](/wiki/William_III_of_England "William III of England") ('William of Orange'). In his autobiography he states: *I was born in 1746 at the residence of the M'Gauran family, called from them Balli M’Gauran. It is a market town of some note, wherein four considerable fairs are annually held. During their prosperous days, a stately castle reared its head, adjoining to the town, and was the abode of the Barons, but it was dismantled by order of Oliver Cromwell, and now lies in ruins*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofmajore\_01mgau\|title\=The memoirs of Major Edward M'Gauran : interspersed with many interesting anecdotes relative to the military transactions in which he was concerned; and characters of the most distinguished personages, in a series of letters : M'Gauran, Edward : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\|website\=Internet Archive\|year\=1786}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofmajored02mgau\|title\=The memoirs of Major Edward M'Gauran : interspersed with many interesting anecdotes relative to the military transactions in which he was concerned; and characters of the most distinguished personages, in a series of letters : M'Gauran, Edward : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\|website\=Internet Archive\|year\=1786}} The ruined castle is described and pictured as 'Site No.1846, Tower House, Ballymagauran townland' in the *Archaeological Inventory of County Cavan*, where it is described as\- *Remains of rectangular building (int. dims. 9\.5m E\-W; 5\.9m N\-S) of rough, uncoursed limestone masonry. Plain splayed window in W end of S wall. Fireplace and chimney in E end of S wall. The structure was apparently two stories in height. Lying on the ground is half of the doorway arch. Dressed stone indicates a late 16th or early 17th\-century date. Remains of a largely destroyed stone head at NW angle. Davies (1947a, 94\-5\) recorded that this 'although barbarously mutilated in recent years, looks from the grooves under the chin to have been a grotesque of a type not likely to have been made after 1600'. (Wilsdon 2010, 184–6\)*"{{Citation \|author\= Patrick O'Donovan\|title\=Archaeological Inventory of County Cavan \|year\= 1995 \|ref\=Arch}} and in "The Castles of County Cavan", page 94\.{{Citation \|author\= O.Davies\|title\=The Castles of County Cavan \|year\= 1947}} An earthen ringfort in the townland may have been the previous residence before the castle was built (Site No. 243 in aforesaid Inventory book, where it is described as\- *Raised circular area (int. diam. 18\.2m) enclosed by a very low earthen bank and vague traces of a fosse identifiable only from SW\-W\-N. An earlier report (OPW 1969\) suggested that the original entrance may have been at SSE*). By deed dated 19 October 1749, Frederick Lawder of Ballymagauran sold his leasehold estate of six poles of the lands of Ballymagauran and a half pole in Derryragh (which he held on lease from [the 1st Earl of Tyrone](/wiki/Marcus_Beresford%2C_1st_Earl_of_Tyrone "Marcus Beresford, 1st Earl of Tyrone") (by the third creation)) to Randal Slack, of Dublin and Lakefield, County Leitrim, gentleman, for the sum of £504\-3s–3d. Slack then sold part of the estate to Arthur Ellis of Ballyheady. A deed dated 27 October 1750, now in the Cavan Archives Service (ref P017/0014\), is described as\- *Document which relates to the division of the lands of **Ballymagauran** between Randal Slack and Arthur Ellis. Ballymagauran was divided into two sections, one westward and the other eastward of the great road. Lots were cast to decide who was to acquire which section. Ellis won the casting of lots and chose the eastward division. In consideration of the privilege of choice, Ellis paid £10 to Slack, over and above half of the rents, fees and duties payable to the Early of Tyrone and subject to Slack's agreement made with Frederick Lawder. On verso of document is information relating to the rental and use of land in the two sections of Ballymagauran with the names of land occupiers present*.[Private collections](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Archives/small%20private%20collections.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115175537/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\-Studies/Archives/small%20private%20collections.pdf \|date\=15 November 2017 }} Cavan Library Administration of Slack's will, dated 23 March 1763, was granted to his widow Anne after his death. In the Templeport Poll Book of 1761, there were six voters in *Ballymagaveran* in the [1761 Irish general election](/wiki/1761_Irish_general_election "1761 Irish general election"){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.bawnboy.com/local\-genealogy/templeport\-poll\-book\-1761\.html\|title\=Bawnboy and Templeport – Poll Book 1761\|website\=bawnboy.com}} – Michael Banagher who lived in [Corran](/wiki/Corran%2C_County_Cavan "Corran, County Cavan") but who also had a freehold in Ballymagauran; Thomas Blashford who lived in Ballymagauran but who also owned a freehold in [Lissanover](/wiki/Lissanover "Lissanover"); Edward Ellis, Thomas Finlay, William Johnston and James Thompson, who all lived in Ballymagauran. Randall Slack of Larkfield, County Leitrim, was also entitled to vote.{{Cite web\|url\=https://pdfslide.net/documents/1761\-co\-cavan\-poll\-book.html\|title \= 1761 Co Cavan Poll Book}} They were each entitled to cast two votes. The four election candidates were: [Charles Coote](/wiki/Charles_Coote%2C_1st_Earl_of_Bellomont "Charles Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont") (who later succeeded, in 1766, as the 5th [Baron Coote](/wiki/Earl_of_Bellomont "Earl of Bellomont") and who was later created, in 1767, the 1st [Earl of Bellomont](/wiki/Earl_of_Bellomont "Earl of Bellomont") (by the third creation)) and Lord Newtown\-Butler (who later succeeded as [the 2nd Earl of Lanesborough](/wiki/Brinsley_Butler%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Lanesborough "Brinsley Butler, 2nd Earl of Lanesborough")), both of whom were then elected to the [Irish Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland "Parliament of Ireland") as a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament "Member of Parliament") (MP) for [Cavan County](/wiki/Cavan_County "Cavan County"). The losing candidates were: [George Montgomery](/wiki/George_Montgomery_%28MP%29 "George Montgomery (MP)") of [Ballyconnell](/wiki/Ballyconnell "Ballyconnell") and [The Hon.](/wiki/The_Honourable "The Honourable") [Barry Maxwell](/wiki/Barry_Maxwell%2C_1st_Earl_of_Farnham "Barry Maxwell, 1st Earl of Farnham") (who later succeeded, in 1779, as the 3rd [Baron Farnham](/wiki/Baron_Farnham "Baron Farnham") and who was later created the 1st [Earl of Farnham](/wiki/Baron_Farnham "Baron Farnham")). Banagher, Finlay and Johnston all voted for Coote and Maxwell. Blashford voted for Lord Newtown\-Butler and Coote. Ellis voted for Newtown\-Butler and Montgomery. Thompson voted for Coote and Montgomery. Absence from the poll book either meant a resident did not vote or, more likely, was not a freeholder entitled to vote, which would mean most of the inhabitants of Ballymagauran. A deed by Arthur Ellis dated 19 Mar 1768 includes the lands of *Ballymagauran*.{{cite web \| url\=https://irishdeedsindex.net/mem.php?memorial\=200198 \| title\=Memorial extract — Registry of Deeds Index Project }} A deed by Gore Ellis dated 24 Feb 1776 includes the lands of *Ballymagauran*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://irishdeedsindex.net/mem.php?memorial\=207291\|title \= Memorial extract — Registry of Deeds Index Project}} In the book *Alwyn: or the gentleman comedian* written in 1780 by [Thomas Holcroft](/wiki/Thomas_Holcroft "Thomas Holcroft"), a character therein states\- *You know I had £500 left me by my old aunt Phabe Tullaghan of Ballimagowran in the county of Cavan, and the province of Ulster, about two years before her death*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://ota.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/repository/xmlui/\|title\=OTA Home\|publisher\=University of Oxford}} In the Fermanagh Poll of Electors 1788, there was one Ballymagauran resident, Edward Ellis, who was entitled to vote as he owned land in Drumreask townland in Inishmacsaint parish.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.genuki.org.uk/big/irl/CAV/1788Fermanagh\|title \= Genuki: Cavan Residents in the Fermanagh Poll of Electors 1788, Cavan}} The 1790 Cavan Carvaghs list spells the village name as *Ballemagawran*.[The Carvaghs A List of the Several Baronies and Parishes in the County of Cavan](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Library-Scanned-Docs/The-Carvaghs-A-List-Of-The-Several-Baronies-And-Parishes-in-the-County-Of-Cavan.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406193619/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\-Studies/Library\-Scanned\-Docs/The\-Carvaghs\-A\-List\-Of\-The\-Several\-Baronies\-And\-Parishes\-in\-the\-County\-Of\-Cavan.pdf \|date\=6 April 2016 }} Cavan Library In 1810, [Nicholas Carlisle](/wiki/Nicholas_Carlisle "Nicholas Carlisle") stated that *Ballymagauran, in the Barony of Tullaghagh, Co. of CAVAN, and Province of Ulster. It is 4 in. N. E. from Ballynamore. The Fairs are holden on the 23d of May, 12 August, and 23d of November*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=k9k\-AAAAYAAJ\&q\=Topographical\+Dictionary\+of\+Ireland\+carlisle\+%22ballymagauran%22\&pg\=PT108\|title\=A Topographical Dictionary of Ireland: Exhibiting the Names of the Several Cities, Towns, Parishes, and Villages ... Collected from the Most Authentic Documents, and Arranged in Alphabetical Order. Being a Continuation of the Topography of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland\|first\=Nicholas\|last\=Carlisle\|date\=24 July 1810\|publisher\=W. Miller\|via\=Google Books}} A deed dated 18 October 1814 includes lands belonging to John Mills in *Ballymagauran*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://irishdeedsindex.net/mem.php?memorial\=467851\|title\=Memorial extract — Registry of Deeds Index Project\|website\=irishdeedsindex.net}} The *Newry Magazine* for 1816 reported that\- *Some time ago, a young man, we lament to state, was killed, leaving the town of Ballymagaurin, in the county of Cavan. During the day some persons had manifested a disposition to violence and riot, and a desperate quarrel ensued, in which, however, the unfortunate victim, we learn, took no part or concern. On his way out of the fair he was attacked, and beaten so inhumanly that he survived but a short time*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=72w3AQAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA346\|title\=The Newry Magazine; Or, Literary \& Political Register\|date\=24 July 1816\|publisher\=A. Wilkinson\|via\=Google Books}} The 1821 Census of Ireland states that the population of the village was 195\. In the 1825 Registry of Freeholders for County Cavan there were three freeholders registered in Ballymagauran\- John Brooke, Thomas Finley and Fred M'Dermott. They were all [Forty\-shilling freeholders](/wiki/Forty-shilling_freeholders "Forty-shilling freeholders") holding a lease for lives from their landlords. Brooke's freehold was in [Killyran](/wiki/Killyran "Killyran") and his landlord was [Lord John Beresford](/wiki/Lord_John_Beresford "Lord John Beresford"), the [Church of Ireland](/wiki/Church_of_Ireland "Church of Ireland") [Archbishop of Armagh](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Armagh_%28Church_of_Ireland%29 "Archbishop of Armagh (Church of Ireland)"). Finley's landlord was Arthur Ellis and M'Dermott's landlord was Thomas Slack.[Registry of freeholders in the County of Cavan](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Library-Scanned-Docs/Registry-of-Freeholders-in-the-County-of-Cavan.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115190841/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\-Studies/Library\-Scanned\-Docs/Registry\-of\-Freeholders\-in\-the\-County\-of\-Cavan.pdf \|date\=15 November 2017 }} Cavan Library The Tithe Applotment Books for 1827 list the following tithepayers in the townland\- Alexton, Stocks, Brookes, Dermott, Donachy, Hunnan, McGauran, Reynolds, Whelan, Collins, Roycroft, Costello.[http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county\=Cavan\&parish\=Templeport\&townland\=Balimagauran\&search\=Search](http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county=Cavan&parish=Templeport&townland=Balimagauran&search=Search) and [http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?surname\=\&firstname\=\&county\=Cavan\&townland\=Balinagauran\&parish\=Templeport\&search\=Search\&sort\=\&pageSize\=\&pager.offset\=10](http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?surname=&firstname=&county=Cavan&townland=Balinagauran&parish=Templeport&search=Search&sort=&pageSize=&pager.offset=10)*Tithe Applotment Books 1827* In the early nineteenth century, a Sunday school was kept in the townland, funded by the Hibernian Sunday School Society.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PioEAAAAQAAJ\&q\=templeport\+portarlin\&pg\=RA2\-PA64\|title\=The report of the Hibernian Sunday school society for 1810 (−1837\).\|first\=Hibernian Sunday school\|last\=society\|date\=24 July 1818\|via\=Google Books}} The 1831 Census of Ireland states that there were 20 houses in the village, of which 3 were unoccupied. The population was 89, of which 38 were males and 51 females, so the population had dropped by 106 since 1821\. The occupations were 3 female servants, 3 male servants, 3 retailers or craftsmen, 5 agricultural labourers, 7 farmers.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.histpop.org/ohpr/servlet/PageBrowser?path\=Browse/Census\+(by\+geography)/Ireland/1831\&active\=yes\&mno\=355\&tocstate\=expandnew\&display\=sections\&display\=tables\&display\=pagetitles\&pageseq\=244\|title\=HISTPOP.ORG – Browse \> Census \> Ireland \> 1831 \> Abstract, Ireland, 1831 Page 240\|website\=histpop.org}} In 1833, two people in Ballymagauran were registered as a keeper of weapons\- Farrell Kiernan and David Veitch.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.bawnboy.com/local\-genealogy/arms\-keepers\-templeport\-1833\.html\|title\=Templeport Registered to keep Arms\|website\=bawnboy.com}} The Ordnance Survey Namebooks for 1836 state\- *The small village of Ballymaguaran is situated near the centre of the townland...also the ruins of an old building said to have been a distillery*. The Ballymagauran Valuation Office Field books are available for 1839–1840\.[Ireland census](http://census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/vob/IRE_CENSUS_1821-51_007246947_00318.pdf) National Archives[Ireland census](http://census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/vob/IRE_CENSUS_1821-51_007246947_00319.pdf) National Archives{{Cite web\|url\=http://census.nationalarchives.ie/search/vob/results.jsp?surname\=\&firstname\=\&year\_from\=\&year\_to\=ⅆ\_dd\=ⅆ\_mm\=ⅆ\_yyyy\=\&book\=\&county\=cavan\&barony\=\&parish\=\&townland\=ballymagauran\&last\_name\_other\_or\_lessor\=\&first\_name\_other\_or\_lessor\=\&search\=Search\|title\=Valuation Office Books\|website\=census.nationalarchives.ie}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://census.nationalarchives.ie/search/vob/results.jsp?surname\=\&firstname\=\&year\_from\=\&year\_to\=ⅆ\_dd\=ⅆ\_mm\=ⅆ\_yyyy\=\&book\=\&county\=cavan\&barony\=\&parish\=\&townland\=ballymagaman\&last\_name\_other\_or\_lessor\=\&first\_name\_other\_or\_lessor\=\&search\=Search\|title\=Valuation Office Books\|website\=census.nationalarchives.ie}} In 1840, [Samuel Lewis](/wiki/Samuel_Lewis_%28publisher%29 "Samuel Lewis (publisher)") described it as *Ballymagauran, a village, in the parish of TEMPLEPORT, barony of TALLAGHAGH, county of CAVAN, and province of ULSTER, 4 miles (N. E.) from Ballinamore, on the road to Killesandra; containing 20 houses and 89 inhabitants. Fairs are held on 23 May 12 Aug., and 23 Nov., of which the last is a good fair for cattle. Some remains of the old castle, which was destroyed by Cromwell, yet exist*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=xTu3hzcKVRYC\&q\=lewis\+%22Ballymagauran,\+a\+village,\+in\+the\+parish\+of\+TEMPLEPORT,\+barony\+of\+TALLAGHAGH%22\&pg\=PA146\|title\=A Topographical Dictionary of Ireland ... with engravings. With an appendix describing the electoral boundaries of the several boroughs, as defined by the act of the 2d.\&3d. of William IV.\|first\=Samuel\|last\=Lewis\|date\=24 July 1840\|publisher\=S. Lewis\&Company\|via\=Google Books}}{{cite book\|title\=A topographical dictionary of Ireland: comprising the several counties, cities, boroughs corporate, market, and post towns, parishes and villages ... : With an appendix describing the electoral boundaries of the several boroughs as defined by the act of the 2d. and 3d. of William IV.\|author\=Lewis, S.\|date\=1840\|publisher\=Lewis\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=3MQ\_AAAAcAAJ\|access\-date\=14 September 2015}} In 1841 the population of the townland was 166, being 73 males and 93 females. There were thirty\-one houses in the townland, all of which were inhabited.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=96RbAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA95\|title\=Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons\|first\=Great Britain Parliament House of\|last\=Commons\|date\=24 July 1853\|publisher\=Ordered to be printed\|via\=Google Books}} The *Parliamentary Gazetteer of Ireland* for 1845 noted that Ballymagauran was *A hamlet in the parish of Templeport, barony of Tullaghagh. Co.Cavan, Ulster* and that *It stands on the western frontier of the county, four miles north\-east of Ballinamore. Fairs are held on 23 May 12 Aug and Nov.23\. Population in 1831 was 89*.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=X4RQAQAAIAAJ\&q\=%22The\+Parliamentary\+Gazetteer\+of\+Ireland%22\+ballymagauran\&pg\=PA181\|title\=The Parliamentary Gazetteer of Ireland: Adapted to the New Poor\-law, Franchise, Municipal and Ecclesiastical Arrangements, and Compiled with a Special Reference to the Lines of Railroad and Canal Communication as Existing in 1843–44; Illustrated by a Series of Maps, and Other Plates; and Presenting the Results, in Detail, of the Census of 1841, Compared with that of 1831\|date\=24 July 1846\|publisher\=A. Fullarton\|via\=Google Books}} In 1851 the population of the townland was 126, being 66 males and 60 females, the reduction being due to the Great Famine (Ireland). There were twenty\-five houses in the townland, of which one was uninhabited. [Griffith's Valuation](/wiki/Griffith%27s_Valuation "Griffith's Valuation") of 1857 lists thirty\-six landholders in the townland.[http://www.askaboutireland.ie/griffith\-valuation/index.xml?action\=doNameSearch\&familyname\=\&firstname\=\&offset\=0\&countyname\=\&parishname\=\&unionname\=\&baronyname\=\&totalrows\=36\&PlaceID\=189980\&wildcard\=](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/griffith-valuation/index.xml?action=doNameSearch&familyname=&firstname=&offset=0&countyname=&parishname=&unionname=&baronyname=&totalrows=36&PlaceID=189980&wildcard=) *Griffith's Valuation 1857* In 1861 the population of the townland was 143, being 70 males and 73 females. There were twenty\-seven houses in the townland and all were inhabited.{{Cite book\|url\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\=umn.31951p00771975o;view\=1up;seq\=107;size\=175\|title \= The census of Ireland for the year 1861\|publisher \= Printed by A. Thom for H.M. Stationery Off.}} A deed dated 20 July 1865, now in the Cavan Archives Service (ref P017/0077\), is described as\- *Draft reconveyance of mortgage made between Francis Armstrong, esquire, of the first part, Reverend Thomas Crawford, clerk, Rector of Drumcliffe, County Sligo, and Anne Crawford otherwise Armstrong, his wife, of the second part, \[Adan] Crawford, Cockspin Street, Middlesex, esquire, medical doctor, and George Kenny Sawtell, John Street, Bedford Row, London, gentleman, of the third part, Thomas Slack, esquire, and Susanna Slack, his wife, Marshwood, Newtowngore, County Cavan, of the fourth part, and John Ouseley Bansale, 1 Eldon terrace, South Circular Road, City of Dublin, esquire, and Arthur John Vesey Lindsay Birchall, esquire, Blackrock, County Leitrim, esquire, of the fifth part. Relates to reconveyance of lands secured by mortgage dated 12 July 1823\. Lands affected are the six poles of Ballymcgouran otherwise Ballymagouran otherwise **Ballymagauran** containing around 64 acres and 3 roods; the halfpole of Derryragh otherwise Derrinagh with the subdenominations of Killywilly containing 111 acres; Cappy containing around 20 acres; and the Common containing around 4 acres and 36 perches, all in the parish of Templeport, barony of Tullyhaw, County Cavan. Principal, interest and costs on the mortgage amount to £461\.10\.9\. Details of other relevant deeds are recited*. In 1871 the population of the townland was 115, being 45 males and 70 females. There were twenty\-five houses in the townland, of which one was uninhabited.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/op1250167\-1001\|title\=Census of Ireland 1871 : Part I, Area, Population, and Number of Houses; Occupations, Religion and Education volume III, Province of Ulster; Summary Tables, Indexes : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\|website\=Internet Archive\|year\=1874}} In 1881 the population of the townland was 95, being 41 males and 54 females. There were twenty houses in the townland, all were inhabited.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/op1251357\-1001\|title\=Census of Ireland 1881 : Area, Population and Number of Houses; Occupations, Religion and Education volume III, Province of Ulster\|date\=24 July 1882\|publisher\=HMSO\|via\=Internet Archive}} In 1891 the population of the townland was 77, being 39 males and 38 females. There were eighteen houses in the townland, of which three were uninhabited.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.histpop.org/ohpr/servlet/PageBrowser?path\=Browse/Census\+(by\+geography)/Ireland/1891\&active\=yes\&mno\=442\&tocstate\=expandnew\&display\=sections\&display\=tables\&display\=pagetitles\&pageseq\=296\&zoom\=4\|title\=HISTPOP.ORG – Browse \> Census \> Ireland \> 1891 \> Area, houses, and population, Vol. III, Ireland, 1891 Page 294\|website\=histpop.org}} In the [1901 census of Ireland](/wiki/Census_of_Ireland%2C_1901 "Census of Ireland, 1901"), there are nineteen families listed in the townland.<http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/1901/Cavan/Ballymagauran/Ballymagauran//> *Census of Ireland 1901* In the [1911 census of Ireland](/wiki/Census_of_Ireland%2C_1911 "Census of Ireland, 1911"), there are twenty\-one families listed in the townland.<http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/1911/Cavan/Ballymagauran/Ballymagauran/> *Census of Ireland 1911* In the [Dúchas](/wiki/D%C3%BAchas "Dúchas") Schools' Collection there is a description of Ballymagauran in 1938 by Mrs Cosgrove.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/5044791/5038519\|title\=Porturlan \| The Schools' Collection\|website\=dúchas.ie}} ### School The Second Report from the Commissioners of Irish Education Inquiry dated 1826 stated that James Lynch, a Catholic, was the headmaster of the pay school, charging a fee of £5 per annum. The schoolhouse was built of stone and lime to hold 26 boys and 13 girls, all of whom were Roman Catholics.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.bawnboy.com/History\-Heritage\-Folklore/pages/education\-enquiry.html\|title\=Bawnboy and Templeport History Heritage and Folklore \- Past and Present\|website\=www.bawnboy.com\|accessdate\=23 May 2023}} It closed before 1900\.
[ "History\n-------", "### Medieval", "In medieval times, the *Mac Shamhráin* (anglicised as [McGovern](/wiki/McGovern_%28name%29 \"McGovern (name)\") or Magauran) Robert Bell, *The Book of Ulster Surnames*, p. 163\\. The Ulster Historical Foundation (U.H.F.), [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\"), 2021 (2022 reprint; originally published by [The Blackstaff Press](/wiki/The_Blackstaff_Press \"The Blackstaff Press\"), Belfast, 1988\\). *[túath](/wiki/T%C3%BAath \"Túath\")* of *Teallach Eachdhach* ([Tullyhaw](/wiki/Tullyhaw \"Tullyhaw\")), then part of [West Bréifne](/wiki/West_Breifne \"West Breifne\") in [Connacht](/wiki/Connacht \"Connacht\"), was divided into economic taxation areas called ballibetoes, from the Irish *Baile Biataigh* (anglicised as 'Ballybetagh'), meaning 'A Provisioner's Town or Settlement' (Tullyhaw is now a [barony](/wiki/Barony_%28Ireland%29 \"Barony (Ireland)\") in County Cavan). The original purpose of a ballybetagh was to enable the farmer, who controlled the *baile*, to provide hospitality for those who needed it, such as poor people and travellers. The ballybetagh was further divided into townlands farmed by individual families who paid a tribute or tax to the head of the ballybetagh, who in turn paid a similar tribute to the clan chief. The steward of the ballybetagh would have been the secular equivalent of the [erenagh](/wiki/Erenagh \"Erenagh\") in charge of church lands. There were seven ballibetoes in the parish of Templeport. Ballymagauran was located in the ballybetagh named after it. The historical spellings of the ballybetagh are Ballymackgawran \\& Ballimacgawran (Irish \\= *Baile Mhic Shamhráin* \\= McGovern's Town or Magauran's Town).", "After 1400 A.D., Ballymagauran became the chief seat of the *Mac Shamhráin* ([McGovern](/wiki/McGovern_%28name%29 \"McGovern (name)\") or Magauran) clan, who were the lords of *Teallach Eachdhach* (Tullyhaw).{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.geograph.ie/photo/2869030 \\| title\\=H2113 : Ballymagovern Castle \\| publisher\\=geograph.ie \\| access\\-date\\=8 December 2019 }} Their previous seats were in [Coologe](/wiki/Coologe \"Coologe\") and [Killywillin](/wiki/Killywillin \"Killywillin\"). A medieval Duanaire or Poembook belonging to them is the oldest such surviving book in [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") and describes various incidents at Ballymagauran.{{Citation \\|author\\= L. McKenna \\|title\\=The Book of Magauran \\|year\\=1947 \\|ref\\=BM}} The [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings \"Vikings\") may also have been in the area as the pommel of an inlaid Viking sword (Petersen Type H) dating from *c.* 900 A.D. has been excavated from a fort on the shore of Ballymagauran Lake.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=a\\_1fAgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=ballymagauran\\+%22jp\\+type\\+h%22\\&pg\\=PA178\\|title\\=Celtic\\-Norse Relationships in the Irish Sea in the Middle Ages 800–1200\\|date\\=29 November 2013\\|publisher\\=BRILL\\|isbn\\=9789004255128\\|via\\=Google Books}}", "The earliest surviving mention of the placename is in the *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters \"Annals of the Four Masters\")* under the year 1431 A.D., which states that *Thomas, proceeded with a great host into Teallach Eachdhach, to take vengeance on the inhabitants for the death of his kinsman. He plundered, spoiled, and ravaged the territory, and slew many of the chiefs of it. He also burned Ballymagauran, and then he returned home in triumph*.{{Citation \\|author\\= Margo R. Griffin\\-Wilson \\|title\\= Sidelights on History: The Book of Magauran and the Annals \\|year\\= 1982 \\|ref\\= Sidelights}}", "In 1455, the Annals state that a war broke out between Philip, the son of Thomas Maguire, heir to the lordship of Fermanagh, and Magauran. Philip pitched his camp at Beann\\-Eachlabhra and Brian and Tuathal, Philip's sons, *went forth with twelve horsemen and thirty\\-seven infantry, burned Magauran's town (Ballymagauran), and the greater part of his territory, and killed Melaghlin Duv Magauran and a great number of his people; after which he returned home triumphantly*.", "In 1459, the village was burnt down by Thomas Oge Maguire, after seizing the area. The *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters \"Annals of the Four Masters\")* state\\- *The spoils of Magh Slecht were seized on by Maguire (Thomas Oge); and Ballymagauran was burned by him on this occasion*.", "It was burnt again on Tuesday 27 September 1485 by Turlough O'Reilly, son of John. On the following day Magauran *with his kinsmen, went in pursuit of the army, and deprived them of sixteen men, who were killed or taken prisoners, and two hundred horses*.", "On 28 September 1498, Ballymagauran was raided by the Maguire clan.", "The *[Annals of Ulster](/wiki/Annals_of_Ulster \"Annals of Ulster\")* for 1498 state\\-", "*Philip, son of Toirdelbach, son of Philip Mag Uidhir, went on an inroad into Tellach\\-Eathach (Tullyhaw) and the sons of Edmond Mag Uidhir and the sons of Gilla\\-Padraig Mag Uidhir went with him thither and the country was traversed by them to Snam\\-na\\-neach. And the town of Mag Samradhain (Ballymagauran) was burned by them and they turned back and came not on cattle\\-spoils or chattels. And the worthies of the country overtook them on that retreat with a very large pursuing party and those nobles turned on the pursuing party and defeated them spiritedly, successfully then and slew three and twenty of the pursuing party in that rout, two sons of Aedh, son of Eogan Mag Samradhain, namely, Tadhg and Maghnus (that is, the cleric). And the other portion of them slain were of the Clann\\-Imair and of the Clan of Mac\\-in\\-taisigh and of the muster of Tellach\\-Eathach also. And there was slain also by the Fir\\-Manach in the heat of that rout Flaithbertach, son of Donn, son of Edmond Mag Uidhir. And on the vigil of Michaelmas precisely those deeds were done.*", "In 1512, the *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters \"Annals of the Four Masters\")* state\\- *Philip, the son of Turlough Maguire and Thomas, son of Manus Magauran went to Teallach Eachdhach and killed Turlough. They then proceeded to the Crannog of Magauran and took Magauran prisoner, only to set him free and leave him behind as he had become sick, making transport inconvenient. The son of O'Reilly, Edmond Roe then came up with these men of Fermanagh, and with the son recte grandsons of Manus, defeated them, and slew Donough, the son of Redmond, son of Philip Maguire; Philip, the son of Owen, son of Donnell Ballagh Maguire; Hugh, the son of Owen, son of Turlough Maguire; Murtough Roe, son of Murrough; and James, the son of Magrath Maguire, besides many others; and many horses were taken from them on that day*.", "On 19 January 1586, [Queen Elizabeth I of England](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\") granted a pardon to *Thomas oge m'Brien m'Thomas Magawran, of Magawranstowne*, for fighting against the Queen's forces.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/reportofdeputyke1416irel\\|title\\=The ... report of the Deputy Keeper of the Public Records in Ireland / presented to both houses of the Parliament by command of Her Majesty\\|date\\=24 July 1882\\|publisher\\=Dublin : Printed by Alexander Thom for Her Majesty's Stationery Offic\\|via\\=Internet Archive}}", "### 17th century", "Ballymagauran, along with the rest of [Tullyhaw](/wiki/Tullyhaw \"Tullyhaw\"), was transferred from [County Leitrim](/wiki/County_Leitrim \"County Leitrim\") in [Connacht](/wiki/Connacht \"Connacht\") to County Cavan in [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster \"Ulster\") in the early seventeenth century. At the start of the [Plantation of Ulster](/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster \"Plantation of Ulster\") in 1609, the lands of the McGoverns were confiscated, but some were later regranted to them. The Manor of Ballymagauran was regranted to the chief of the clan, [Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin](/wiki/Feidhlimidh_M%C3%A1g_Samhradh%C3%A1in \"Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin\") (anglicised as Phelim Magauran, Phelim McGovern or Phelim Magawrane), on 29 April 1611\\. It seems that it was Feidhlimidh who had Ballymagauran 'Castle' constructed at this time, probably at the start of the Plantation of Ulster. Templeport Development Association \\- History: Ballymagauran Castle. [https://www.templeport.ie/pages/ballymagauran\\-castle2\\.html](https://www.templeport.ie/pages/ballymagauran-castle2.html) His 'castle' was in reality a modest, stone\\-built [fortified house](/wiki/Fortified_house \"Fortified house\"). The modern townland of Killyran formed part of Ballymagauran until the 18th century. The name of the townland in which Ballymagauran village was situated was called Drumcorke or Drumhirk at that time and was only renamed as Ballymagauran in the Ordnance Survey of 1836\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/mpf1\\-58\\.pdf\\|title\\=National Archives Dublin}} The grant to Felim McGovern included *Dromcorcke, 1 poll*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XD5JAAAAcAAJ\\&q\\=Ballymagirrell\\&pg\\=PA211\\|title\\=Calendar of the Patent Rolls of the Chancery of Ireland\\|first\\=Ireland\\|last\\=Chancery\\|date\\=24 July 1800\\|publisher\\=A. Thom\\|via\\=Google Books}} In a visitation by [Lord Carew](/wiki/George_Carew%2C_1st_Earl_of_Totnes \"George Carew, 1st Earl of Totnes\") in autumn 1611 he states that *Magauran had his own land given him on this division*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=I\\_RZmjcJYV0C\\&pg\\=PA96\\|title\\=Calendar of the Carew Manuscripts: Miscellaneous papers: The book of Howth. The conquest of Ireland, by Thomas Bray, etc\\|first\\=Lambeth Palace\\|last\\=Library\\|date\\=24 July 1873\\|publisher\\=Longmans, Green, Reader, \\& Dyer\\|via\\=Google Books}}", "By 1613, Magauran had progressed with building work. [Sir Josias Bodley](/wiki/Josias_Bodley \"Josias Bodley\") reported on 6 February 1613\\-*Proportion No. 31: 1,000 acres. Magauran is strongly seated, and near to his Irish house by a lough's side hath begun an English building of lime and stone of 40 feet long and 20 broad, not yet raised above the first story, but with this season intendeth to set it forward: There is round about it a trench and dike of earth and sod, which with little labour may be made of good strength, and that, it seemeth, by his beginning, he hath a purpose to do*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\\.282710\\|title\\=Report On The Manuscripts Of The Late Reginald Rawdon Hastings Vol. Iv : Her Majesty's Stationery Office London : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\\|website\\=Internet Archive\\|year\\=1947}}", "By 1619, *Pynnar's Survey of Land Holders* found that Magauran had built a castle on his holdings.{{Cite book \\|title\\=A Special Census of Northern Ireland, Pynnars Survey of Land Holders \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=tW6edf\\-80pIC\\&q\\=Inquisitions\\+of\\+Ulster,\\+Cavan,\\+(29\\)\\+Car.\\+I.\\+%22walter\\+talbot%22\\&pg\\=PA447\\|isbn\\=9780940134652\\|last1\\=Hill\\|first1\\=George\\|year\\=2003}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wYNYAAAAcAAJ\\&pg\\=PA73\\|title\\=Hibernica: Or, Some Ancient Pieces Relating to Ireland, Never Hitherto Made Publick ...\\|first\\=Walter\\|last\\=Harris\\|date\\=24 July 1747\\|publisher\\=E. Bates\\|via\\=Google Books}} A survey taken in August 1622 stated that\\- {{lang\\|enm\\|Brian Magauran hath 1,000 acres in which is a bawn of sodds and within it a stone howse thatched, with chymneys and a part of it lofted. He setts his land from yeare to yeare to ye Irish, who plowgh by ye taile}}. An Inquisition ordered by [King Charles I of England](/wiki/Charles_I_of_England \"Charles I of England\"), held in [Cavan Town](/wiki/Cavan_Town \"Cavan Town\") on 4 October 1626, stated that the aforesaid Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin (Phelim Magawrane or Phelim Magauran) died on 20 January 1622 and his lands, including two polls of *Dromcorck*, went to his son, the McGovern chief [Brian Magauran](/wiki/Brian_Magauran \"Brian Magauran\"), who was aged 30 (born 1592\\) and married.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=WUepqE\\-K4PAC\\&q\\=dromcorck\\&pg\\=PR113\\|title\\=Inquisitionum in Officio Rotulorum Cancellariae Hiberniae Asservatarum Repertorium\\|date\\=24 July 1829\\|publisher\\=command of his majesty King George IV. In pursuance of an address of the house of Commons of Great Britain (an Ireland)\\|via\\=Google Books}} Brian was married to Mary O'Brien and he died in 1631 leaving the estate to his son and heir Edward Magauran, who was born in 1616\\.", "The 'castle' that Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin erected after 1611 was supposedly besieged and destroyed by [Oliver Cromwell](/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell \"Oliver Cromwell\")'s army in 1649\\. After the Irish Rebellion, Ballymagauran was confiscated from the Magaurans and was distributed to the English settlers as follows.\\-", "The 1652 Commonwealth Survey lists the townland as *Dromcorchae* and the proprietor as *Ensigne Walter Reece*. [Sir William Petty](/wiki/William_Petty \"William Petty\")'s [Down Survey](/wiki/Down_Survey \"Down Survey\") map of 1659 shows the castle in the townland of Dromkirke with inscription \"Stone house in repair\".Trinity College Dublin: [The Down Survey of Ireland.](http://downsurvey.tcd.ie/down-survey-maps.php#bm=Tullaghhagh&c=Cavan&indexOfObjectValue=-1&indexOfObjectValueSubstring=-1) In the Hearth Money Rolls of 1663 there were only three houses in Templeport with two hearths, at\\- Lissanover, Munlough and Sruagh, indicating that the castle had been abandoned by that time.", "In the Hearth Money Rolls compiled on 29 September 1663,*The Hearth Money Rolls for the Baronies of Tullyhunco and Tullyhaw, County Cavan*, edited by Rev. Francis J. McKiernan, in Breifne Journal. Vol. I, No. 3 (1960\\), pp. 247–263 there was one Hearth Tax payer in *Ballimagowran – John Forman*.", "A grant dated 3 November 1666 was made by [King Charles II of England](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\") to [Sir Tristram Beresford, 1st Baronet](/wiki/Sir_Tristram_Beresford%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Tristram Beresford, 1st Baronet\"), which included, inter alia, the lands of *Ballymagowran alias Drumherk comprising 121 acres*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/op1244157\\-1001\\|title\\=Commissioners of Public Records in Ireland : fourteenth and fifteenth reports with appendix, 1824–25\\|date\\=24 July 1825\\|publisher\\=HMSO\\|via\\=Internet Archive}} On 11 September 1670, [King Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\") created the 'Manor of Beresford' out of lands in Tullyhaw which Beresford acquired, including *Ballymagowran alias Drumherke*, at a rent of £0\\-6s–8d per annum for each fair \\& market held there.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/cu31924091769590\\|title\\=Calendar of the state papers relating to Ireland preserved in the Public Record Office. 1625\\-\\[1670] : Great Britain. Public Record Office : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\\|website\\=Internet Archive\\|year\\=1900}} Beresford died on 15 January 1673 and was succeeded by his son, [Sir Randal Beresford](/wiki/Randal_Beresford \"Randal Beresford\").", "### After 1700", "[Major](/wiki/Major_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Major (United Kingdom)\") Edward Magauran was born in Ballymagauran on 16 April 1746, the grandson of [Colonel Bryan Magauran](/wiki/Colonel_Bryan_Magauran \"Colonel Bryan Magauran\"), the Chief of the Clan McGovern who fought at the [Battle of the Boyne](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Boyne \"Battle of the Boyne\") for [King James II](/wiki/James_II_of_England \"James II of England\") against [King William III](/wiki/William_III_of_England \"William III of England\") ('William of Orange'). In his autobiography he states: *I was born in 1746 at the residence of the M'Gauran family, called from them Balli M’Gauran. It is a market town of some note, wherein four considerable fairs are annually held. During their prosperous days, a stately castle reared its head, adjoining to the town, and was the abode of the Barons, but it was dismantled by order of Oliver Cromwell, and now lies in ruins*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofmajore\\_01mgau\\|title\\=The memoirs of Major Edward M'Gauran : interspersed with many interesting anecdotes relative to the military transactions in which he was concerned; and characters of the most distinguished personages, in a series of letters : M'Gauran, Edward : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\\|website\\=Internet Archive\\|year\\=1786}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofmajored02mgau\\|title\\=The memoirs of Major Edward M'Gauran : interspersed with many interesting anecdotes relative to the military transactions in which he was concerned; and characters of the most distinguished personages, in a series of letters : M'Gauran, Edward : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\\|website\\=Internet Archive\\|year\\=1786}}", "The ruined castle is described and pictured as 'Site No.1846, Tower House, Ballymagauran townland' in the *Archaeological Inventory of County Cavan*, where it is described as\\- *Remains of rectangular building (int. dims. 9\\.5m E\\-W; 5\\.9m N\\-S) of rough, uncoursed limestone masonry. Plain splayed window in W end of S wall. Fireplace and chimney in E end of S wall. The structure was apparently two stories in height. Lying on the ground is half of the doorway arch. Dressed stone indicates a late 16th or early 17th\\-century date. Remains of a largely destroyed stone head at NW angle. Davies (1947a, 94\\-5\\) recorded that this 'although barbarously mutilated in recent years, looks from the grooves under the chin to have been a grotesque of a type not likely to have been made after 1600'. (Wilsdon 2010, 184–6\\)*\"{{Citation \\|author\\= Patrick O'Donovan\\|title\\=Archaeological Inventory of County Cavan \\|year\\= 1995 \\|ref\\=Arch}} and in \"The Castles of County Cavan\", page 94\\.{{Citation \\|author\\= O.Davies\\|title\\=The Castles of County Cavan \\|year\\= 1947}} An earthen ringfort in the townland may have been the previous residence before the castle was built (Site No. 243 in aforesaid Inventory book, where it is described as\\- *Raised circular area (int. diam. 18\\.2m) enclosed by a very low earthen bank and vague traces of a fosse identifiable only from SW\\-W\\-N. An earlier report (OPW 1969\\) suggested that the original entrance may have been at SSE*).", "By deed dated 19 October 1749, Frederick Lawder of Ballymagauran sold his leasehold estate of six poles of the lands of Ballymagauran and a half pole in Derryragh (which he held on lease from [the 1st Earl of Tyrone](/wiki/Marcus_Beresford%2C_1st_Earl_of_Tyrone \"Marcus Beresford, 1st Earl of Tyrone\") (by the third creation)) to Randal Slack, of Dublin and Lakefield, County Leitrim, gentleman, for the sum of £504\\-3s–3d. Slack then sold part of the estate to Arthur Ellis of Ballyheady. A deed dated 27 October 1750, now in the Cavan Archives Service (ref P017/0014\\), is described as\\-", "*Document which relates to the division of the lands of **Ballymagauran** between Randal Slack and Arthur Ellis. Ballymagauran was divided into two sections, one westward and the other eastward of the great road. Lots were cast to decide who was to acquire which section. Ellis won the casting of lots and chose the eastward division. In consideration of the privilege of choice, Ellis paid £10 to Slack, over and above half of the rents, fees and duties payable to the Early of Tyrone and subject to Slack's agreement made with Frederick Lawder. On verso of document is information relating to the rental and use of land in the two sections of Ballymagauran with the names of land occupiers present*.[Private collections](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Archives/small%20private%20collections.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115175537/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\\-Studies/Archives/small%20private%20collections.pdf \\|date\\=15 November 2017 }} Cavan Library", "Administration of Slack's will, dated 23 March 1763, was granted to his widow Anne after his death.", "In the Templeport Poll Book of 1761, there were six voters in *Ballymagaveran* in the [1761 Irish general election](/wiki/1761_Irish_general_election \"1761 Irish general election\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bawnboy.com/local\\-genealogy/templeport\\-poll\\-book\\-1761\\.html\\|title\\=Bawnboy and Templeport – Poll Book 1761\\|website\\=bawnboy.com}} – Michael Banagher who lived in [Corran](/wiki/Corran%2C_County_Cavan \"Corran, County Cavan\") but who also had a freehold in Ballymagauran; Thomas Blashford who lived in Ballymagauran but who also owned a freehold in [Lissanover](/wiki/Lissanover \"Lissanover\"); Edward Ellis, Thomas Finlay, William Johnston and James Thompson, who all lived in Ballymagauran. Randall Slack of Larkfield, County Leitrim, was also entitled to vote.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://pdfslide.net/documents/1761\\-co\\-cavan\\-poll\\-book.html\\|title \\= 1761 Co Cavan Poll Book}} They were each entitled to cast two votes. The four election candidates were: [Charles Coote](/wiki/Charles_Coote%2C_1st_Earl_of_Bellomont \"Charles Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont\") (who later succeeded, in 1766, as the 5th [Baron Coote](/wiki/Earl_of_Bellomont \"Earl of Bellomont\") and who was later created, in 1767, the 1st [Earl of Bellomont](/wiki/Earl_of_Bellomont \"Earl of Bellomont\") (by the third creation)) and Lord Newtown\\-Butler (who later succeeded as [the 2nd Earl of Lanesborough](/wiki/Brinsley_Butler%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Lanesborough \"Brinsley Butler, 2nd Earl of Lanesborough\")), both of whom were then elected to the [Irish Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland \"Parliament of Ireland\") as a [Member of Parliament](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament \"Member of Parliament\") (MP) for [Cavan County](/wiki/Cavan_County \"Cavan County\"). The losing candidates were: [George Montgomery](/wiki/George_Montgomery_%28MP%29 \"George Montgomery (MP)\") of [Ballyconnell](/wiki/Ballyconnell \"Ballyconnell\") and [The Hon.](/wiki/The_Honourable \"The Honourable\") [Barry Maxwell](/wiki/Barry_Maxwell%2C_1st_Earl_of_Farnham \"Barry Maxwell, 1st Earl of Farnham\") (who later succeeded, in 1779, as the 3rd [Baron Farnham](/wiki/Baron_Farnham \"Baron Farnham\") and who was later created the 1st [Earl of Farnham](/wiki/Baron_Farnham \"Baron Farnham\")). Banagher, Finlay and Johnston all voted for Coote and Maxwell. Blashford voted for Lord Newtown\\-Butler and Coote. Ellis voted for Newtown\\-Butler and Montgomery. Thompson voted for Coote and Montgomery. Absence from the poll book either meant a resident did not vote or, more likely, was not a freeholder entitled to vote, which would mean most of the inhabitants of Ballymagauran.", "A deed by Arthur Ellis dated 19 Mar 1768 includes the lands of *Ballymagauran*.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://irishdeedsindex.net/mem.php?memorial\\=200198 \\| title\\=Memorial extract — Registry of Deeds Index Project }}", "A deed by Gore Ellis dated 24 Feb 1776 includes the lands of *Ballymagauran*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://irishdeedsindex.net/mem.php?memorial\\=207291\\|title \\= Memorial extract — Registry of Deeds Index Project}}", "In the book *Alwyn: or the gentleman comedian* written in 1780 by [Thomas Holcroft](/wiki/Thomas_Holcroft \"Thomas Holcroft\"), a character therein states\\- *You know I had £500 left me by my old aunt Phabe Tullaghan of Ballimagowran in the county of Cavan, and the province of Ulster, about two years before her death*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://ota.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/repository/xmlui/\\|title\\=OTA Home\\|publisher\\=University of Oxford}}", "In the Fermanagh Poll of Electors 1788, there was one Ballymagauran resident, Edward Ellis, who was entitled to vote as he owned land in Drumreask townland in Inishmacsaint parish.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.genuki.org.uk/big/irl/CAV/1788Fermanagh\\|title \\= Genuki: Cavan Residents in the Fermanagh Poll of Electors 1788, Cavan}}", "The 1790 Cavan Carvaghs list spells the village name as *Ballemagawran*.[The Carvaghs A List of the Several Baronies and Parishes in the County of Cavan](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Library-Scanned-Docs/The-Carvaghs-A-List-Of-The-Several-Baronies-And-Parishes-in-the-County-Of-Cavan.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406193619/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\\-Studies/Library\\-Scanned\\-Docs/The\\-Carvaghs\\-A\\-List\\-Of\\-The\\-Several\\-Baronies\\-And\\-Parishes\\-in\\-the\\-County\\-Of\\-Cavan.pdf \\|date\\=6 April 2016 }} Cavan Library", "In 1810, [Nicholas Carlisle](/wiki/Nicholas_Carlisle \"Nicholas Carlisle\") stated that *Ballymagauran, in the Barony of Tullaghagh, Co. of CAVAN, and Province of Ulster. It is 4 in. N. E. from Ballynamore. The Fairs are holden on the 23d of May, 12 August, and 23d of November*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=k9k\\-AAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=Topographical\\+Dictionary\\+of\\+Ireland\\+carlisle\\+%22ballymagauran%22\\&pg\\=PT108\\|title\\=A Topographical Dictionary of Ireland: Exhibiting the Names of the Several Cities, Towns, Parishes, and Villages ... Collected from the Most Authentic Documents, and Arranged in Alphabetical Order. Being a Continuation of the Topography of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland\\|first\\=Nicholas\\|last\\=Carlisle\\|date\\=24 July 1810\\|publisher\\=W. Miller\\|via\\=Google Books}}", "A deed dated 18 October 1814 includes lands belonging to John Mills in *Ballymagauran*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://irishdeedsindex.net/mem.php?memorial\\=467851\\|title\\=Memorial extract — Registry of Deeds Index Project\\|website\\=irishdeedsindex.net}}", "The *Newry Magazine* for 1816 reported that\\- *Some time ago, a young man, we lament to state, was killed, leaving the town of Ballymagaurin, in the county of Cavan. During the day some persons had manifested a disposition to violence and riot, and a desperate quarrel ensued, in which, however, the unfortunate victim, we learn, took no part or concern. On his way out of the fair he was attacked, and beaten so inhumanly that he survived but a short time*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=72w3AQAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA346\\|title\\=The Newry Magazine; Or, Literary \\& Political Register\\|date\\=24 July 1816\\|publisher\\=A. Wilkinson\\|via\\=Google Books}}", "The 1821 Census of Ireland states that the population of the village was 195\\.", "In the 1825 Registry of Freeholders for County Cavan there were three freeholders registered in Ballymagauran\\- John Brooke, Thomas Finley and Fred M'Dermott. They were all [Forty\\-shilling freeholders](/wiki/Forty-shilling_freeholders \"Forty-shilling freeholders\") holding a lease for lives from their landlords. Brooke's freehold was in [Killyran](/wiki/Killyran \"Killyran\") and his landlord was [Lord John Beresford](/wiki/Lord_John_Beresford \"Lord John Beresford\"), the [Church of Ireland](/wiki/Church_of_Ireland \"Church of Ireland\") [Archbishop of Armagh](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Armagh_%28Church_of_Ireland%29 \"Archbishop of Armagh (Church of Ireland)\"). Finley's landlord was Arthur Ellis and M'Dermott's landlord was Thomas Slack.[Registry of freeholders in the County of Cavan](http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local-Studies/Library-Scanned-Docs/Registry-of-Freeholders-in-the-County-of-Cavan.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115190841/http://www.cavanlibrary.ie/file/Local\\-Studies/Library\\-Scanned\\-Docs/Registry\\-of\\-Freeholders\\-in\\-the\\-County\\-of\\-Cavan.pdf \\|date\\=15 November 2017 }} Cavan Library", "The Tithe Applotment Books for 1827 list the following tithepayers in the townland\\- Alexton, Stocks, Brookes, Dermott, Donachy, Hunnan, McGauran, Reynolds, Whelan, Collins, Roycroft, Costello.[http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county\\=Cavan\\&parish\\=Templeport\\&townland\\=Balimagauran\\&search\\=Search](http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?county=Cavan&parish=Templeport&townland=Balimagauran&search=Search) and [http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?surname\\=\\&firstname\\=\\&county\\=Cavan\\&townland\\=Balinagauran\\&parish\\=Templeport\\&search\\=Search\\&sort\\=\\&pageSize\\=\\&pager.offset\\=10](http://titheapplotmentbooks.nationalarchives.ie/search/tab/results.jsp?surname=&firstname=&county=Cavan&townland=Balinagauran&parish=Templeport&search=Search&sort=&pageSize=&pager.offset=10)*Tithe Applotment Books 1827*", "In the early nineteenth century, a Sunday school was kept in the townland, funded by the Hibernian Sunday School Society.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PioEAAAAQAAJ\\&q\\=templeport\\+portarlin\\&pg\\=RA2\\-PA64\\|title\\=The report of the Hibernian Sunday school society for 1810 (−1837\\).\\|first\\=Hibernian Sunday school\\|last\\=society\\|date\\=24 July 1818\\|via\\=Google Books}}", "The 1831 Census of Ireland states that there were 20 houses in the village, of which 3 were unoccupied. The population was 89, of which 38 were males and 51 females, so the population had dropped by 106 since 1821\\. The occupations were 3 female servants, 3 male servants, 3 retailers or craftsmen, 5 agricultural labourers, 7 farmers.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.histpop.org/ohpr/servlet/PageBrowser?path\\=Browse/Census\\+(by\\+geography)/Ireland/1831\\&active\\=yes\\&mno\\=355\\&tocstate\\=expandnew\\&display\\=sections\\&display\\=tables\\&display\\=pagetitles\\&pageseq\\=244\\|title\\=HISTPOP.ORG – Browse \\> Census \\> Ireland \\> 1831 \\> Abstract, Ireland, 1831 Page 240\\|website\\=histpop.org}}", "In 1833, two people in Ballymagauran were registered as a keeper of weapons\\- Farrell Kiernan and David Veitch.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bawnboy.com/local\\-genealogy/arms\\-keepers\\-templeport\\-1833\\.html\\|title\\=Templeport Registered to keep Arms\\|website\\=bawnboy.com}}", "The Ordnance Survey Namebooks for 1836 state\\- *The small village of Ballymaguaran is situated near the centre of the townland...also the ruins of an old building said to have been a distillery*.", "The Ballymagauran Valuation Office Field books are available for 1839–1840\\.[Ireland census](http://census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/vob/IRE_CENSUS_1821-51_007246947_00318.pdf) National Archives[Ireland census](http://census.nationalarchives.ie/reels/vob/IRE_CENSUS_1821-51_007246947_00319.pdf) National Archives{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://census.nationalarchives.ie/search/vob/results.jsp?surname\\=\\&firstname\\=\\&year\\_from\\=\\&year\\_to\\=ⅆ\\_dd\\=ⅆ\\_mm\\=ⅆ\\_yyyy\\=\\&book\\=\\&county\\=cavan\\&barony\\=\\&parish\\=\\&townland\\=ballymagauran\\&last\\_name\\_other\\_or\\_lessor\\=\\&first\\_name\\_other\\_or\\_lessor\\=\\&search\\=Search\\|title\\=Valuation Office Books\\|website\\=census.nationalarchives.ie}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://census.nationalarchives.ie/search/vob/results.jsp?surname\\=\\&firstname\\=\\&year\\_from\\=\\&year\\_to\\=ⅆ\\_dd\\=ⅆ\\_mm\\=ⅆ\\_yyyy\\=\\&book\\=\\&county\\=cavan\\&barony\\=\\&parish\\=\\&townland\\=ballymagaman\\&last\\_name\\_other\\_or\\_lessor\\=\\&first\\_name\\_other\\_or\\_lessor\\=\\&search\\=Search\\|title\\=Valuation Office Books\\|website\\=census.nationalarchives.ie}}", "In 1840, [Samuel Lewis](/wiki/Samuel_Lewis_%28publisher%29 \"Samuel Lewis (publisher)\") described it as *Ballymagauran, a village, in the parish of TEMPLEPORT, barony of TALLAGHAGH, county of CAVAN, and province of ULSTER, 4 miles (N. E.) from Ballinamore, on the road to Killesandra; containing 20 houses and 89 inhabitants. Fairs are held on 23 May 12 Aug., and 23 Nov., of which the last is a good fair for cattle. Some remains of the old castle, which was destroyed by Cromwell, yet exist*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=xTu3hzcKVRYC\\&q\\=lewis\\+%22Ballymagauran,\\+a\\+village,\\+in\\+the\\+parish\\+of\\+TEMPLEPORT,\\+barony\\+of\\+TALLAGHAGH%22\\&pg\\=PA146\\|title\\=A Topographical Dictionary of Ireland ... with engravings. With an appendix describing the electoral boundaries of the several boroughs, as defined by the act of the 2d.\\&3d. of William IV.\\|first\\=Samuel\\|last\\=Lewis\\|date\\=24 July 1840\\|publisher\\=S. Lewis\\&Company\\|via\\=Google Books}}{{cite book\\|title\\=A topographical dictionary of Ireland: comprising the several counties, cities, boroughs corporate, market, and post towns, parishes and villages ... : With an appendix describing the electoral boundaries of the several boroughs as defined by the act of the 2d. and 3d. of William IV.\\|author\\=Lewis, S.\\|date\\=1840\\|publisher\\=Lewis\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=3MQ\\_AAAAcAAJ\\|access\\-date\\=14 September 2015}}", "In 1841 the population of the townland was 166, being 73 males and 93 females. There were thirty\\-one houses in the townland, all of which were inhabited.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=96RbAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA95\\|title\\=Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons\\|first\\=Great Britain Parliament House of\\|last\\=Commons\\|date\\=24 July 1853\\|publisher\\=Ordered to be printed\\|via\\=Google Books}}", "The *Parliamentary Gazetteer of Ireland* for 1845 noted that Ballymagauran was *A hamlet in the parish of Templeport, barony of Tullaghagh. Co.Cavan, Ulster* and that *It stands on the western frontier of the county, four miles north\\-east of Ballinamore. Fairs are held on 23 May 12 Aug and Nov.23\\. Population in 1831 was 89*.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=X4RQAQAAIAAJ\\&q\\=%22The\\+Parliamentary\\+Gazetteer\\+of\\+Ireland%22\\+ballymagauran\\&pg\\=PA181\\|title\\=The Parliamentary Gazetteer of Ireland: Adapted to the New Poor\\-law, Franchise, Municipal and Ecclesiastical Arrangements, and Compiled with a Special Reference to the Lines of Railroad and Canal Communication as Existing in 1843–44; Illustrated by a Series of Maps, and Other Plates; and Presenting the Results, in Detail, of the Census of 1841, Compared with that of 1831\\|date\\=24 July 1846\\|publisher\\=A. Fullarton\\|via\\=Google Books}}", "In 1851 the population of the townland was 126, being 66 males and 60 females, the reduction being due to the Great Famine (Ireland). There were twenty\\-five houses in the townland, of which one was uninhabited.", "[Griffith's Valuation](/wiki/Griffith%27s_Valuation \"Griffith's Valuation\") of 1857 lists thirty\\-six landholders in the townland.[http://www.askaboutireland.ie/griffith\\-valuation/index.xml?action\\=doNameSearch\\&familyname\\=\\&firstname\\=\\&offset\\=0\\&countyname\\=\\&parishname\\=\\&unionname\\=\\&baronyname\\=\\&totalrows\\=36\\&PlaceID\\=189980\\&wildcard\\=](http://www.askaboutireland.ie/griffith-valuation/index.xml?action=doNameSearch&familyname=&firstname=&offset=0&countyname=&parishname=&unionname=&baronyname=&totalrows=36&PlaceID=189980&wildcard=) *Griffith's Valuation 1857*", "In 1861 the population of the townland was 143, being 70 males and 73 females. There were twenty\\-seven houses in the townland and all were inhabited.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id\\=umn.31951p00771975o;view\\=1up;seq\\=107;size\\=175\\|title \\= The census of Ireland for the year 1861\\|publisher \\= Printed by A. Thom for H.M. Stationery Off.}}", "A deed dated 20 July 1865, now in the Cavan Archives Service (ref P017/0077\\), is described as\\-", "*Draft reconveyance of mortgage made between Francis Armstrong, esquire, of the first part, Reverend Thomas Crawford, clerk, Rector of Drumcliffe, County Sligo, and Anne Crawford otherwise Armstrong, his wife, of the second part, \\[Adan] Crawford, Cockspin Street, Middlesex, esquire, medical doctor, and George Kenny Sawtell, John Street, Bedford Row, London, gentleman, of the third part, Thomas Slack, esquire, and Susanna Slack, his wife, Marshwood, Newtowngore, County Cavan, of the fourth part, and John Ouseley Bansale, 1 Eldon terrace, South Circular Road, City of Dublin, esquire, and Arthur John Vesey Lindsay Birchall, esquire, Blackrock, County Leitrim, esquire, of the fifth part. Relates to reconveyance of lands secured by mortgage dated 12 July 1823\\. Lands affected are the six poles of Ballymcgouran otherwise Ballymagouran otherwise **Ballymagauran** containing around 64 acres and 3 roods; the halfpole of Derryragh otherwise Derrinagh with the subdenominations of Killywilly containing 111 acres; Cappy containing around 20 acres; and the Common containing around 4 acres and 36 perches, all in the parish of Templeport, barony of Tullyhaw, County Cavan. Principal, interest and costs on the mortgage amount to £461\\.10\\.9\\. Details of other relevant deeds are recited*.", "In 1871 the population of the townland was 115, being 45 males and 70 females. There were twenty\\-five houses in the townland, of which one was uninhabited.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/op1250167\\-1001\\|title\\=Census of Ireland 1871 : Part I, Area, Population, and Number of Houses; Occupations, Religion and Education volume III, Province of Ulster; Summary Tables, Indexes : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming\\|website\\=Internet Archive\\|year\\=1874}}", "In 1881 the population of the townland was 95, being 41 males and 54 females. There were twenty houses in the townland, all were inhabited.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/op1251357\\-1001\\|title\\=Census of Ireland 1881 : Area, Population and Number of Houses; Occupations, Religion and Education volume III, Province of Ulster\\|date\\=24 July 1882\\|publisher\\=HMSO\\|via\\=Internet Archive}}", "In 1891 the population of the townland was 77, being 39 males and 38 females. There were eighteen houses in the townland, of which three were uninhabited.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.histpop.org/ohpr/servlet/PageBrowser?path\\=Browse/Census\\+(by\\+geography)/Ireland/1891\\&active\\=yes\\&mno\\=442\\&tocstate\\=expandnew\\&display\\=sections\\&display\\=tables\\&display\\=pagetitles\\&pageseq\\=296\\&zoom\\=4\\|title\\=HISTPOP.ORG – Browse \\> Census \\> Ireland \\> 1891 \\> Area, houses, and population, Vol. III, Ireland, 1891 Page 294\\|website\\=histpop.org}}", "In the [1901 census of Ireland](/wiki/Census_of_Ireland%2C_1901 \"Census of Ireland, 1901\"), there are nineteen families listed in the townland.<http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/1901/Cavan/Ballymagauran/Ballymagauran//> *Census of Ireland 1901*", "In the [1911 census of Ireland](/wiki/Census_of_Ireland%2C_1911 \"Census of Ireland, 1911\"), there are twenty\\-one families listed in the townland.<http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie/pages/1911/Cavan/Ballymagauran/Ballymagauran/> *Census of Ireland 1911*", "In the [Dúchas](/wiki/D%C3%BAchas \"Dúchas\") Schools' Collection there is a description of Ballymagauran in 1938 by Mrs Cosgrove.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/5044791/5038519\\|title\\=Porturlan \\| The Schools' Collection\\|website\\=dúchas.ie}}", "### School", "The Second Report from the Commissioners of Irish Education Inquiry dated 1826 stated that James Lynch, a Catholic, was the headmaster of the pay school, charging a fee of £5 per annum. The schoolhouse was built of stone and lime to hold 26 boys and 13 girls, all of whom were Roman Catholics.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bawnboy.com/History\\-Heritage\\-Folklore/pages/education\\-enquiry.html\\|title\\=Bawnboy and Templeport History Heritage and Folklore \\- Past and Present\\|website\\=www.bawnboy.com\\|accessdate\\=23 May 2023}} It closed before 1900\\.", "" ]
### Medieval In medieval times, the *Mac Shamhráin* (anglicised as [McGovern](/wiki/McGovern_%28name%29 "McGovern (name)") or Magauran) Robert Bell, *The Book of Ulster Surnames*, p. 163\. The Ulster Historical Foundation (U.H.F.), [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast "Belfast"), 2021 (2022 reprint; originally published by [The Blackstaff Press](/wiki/The_Blackstaff_Press "The Blackstaff Press"), Belfast, 1988\). *[túath](/wiki/T%C3%BAath "Túath")* of *Teallach Eachdhach* ([Tullyhaw](/wiki/Tullyhaw "Tullyhaw")), then part of [West Bréifne](/wiki/West_Breifne "West Breifne") in [Connacht](/wiki/Connacht "Connacht"), was divided into economic taxation areas called ballibetoes, from the Irish *Baile Biataigh* (anglicised as 'Ballybetagh'), meaning 'A Provisioner's Town or Settlement' (Tullyhaw is now a [barony](/wiki/Barony_%28Ireland%29 "Barony (Ireland)") in County Cavan). The original purpose of a ballybetagh was to enable the farmer, who controlled the *baile*, to provide hospitality for those who needed it, such as poor people and travellers. The ballybetagh was further divided into townlands farmed by individual families who paid a tribute or tax to the head of the ballybetagh, who in turn paid a similar tribute to the clan chief. The steward of the ballybetagh would have been the secular equivalent of the [erenagh](/wiki/Erenagh "Erenagh") in charge of church lands. There were seven ballibetoes in the parish of Templeport. Ballymagauran was located in the ballybetagh named after it. The historical spellings of the ballybetagh are Ballymackgawran \& Ballimacgawran (Irish \= *Baile Mhic Shamhráin* \= McGovern's Town or Magauran's Town). After 1400 A.D., Ballymagauran became the chief seat of the *Mac Shamhráin* ([McGovern](/wiki/McGovern_%28name%29 "McGovern (name)") or Magauran) clan, who were the lords of *Teallach Eachdhach* (Tullyhaw).{{cite web \| url\=https://www.geograph.ie/photo/2869030 \| title\=H2113 : Ballymagovern Castle \| publisher\=geograph.ie \| access\-date\=8 December 2019 }} Their previous seats were in [Coologe](/wiki/Coologe "Coologe") and [Killywillin](/wiki/Killywillin "Killywillin"). A medieval Duanaire or Poembook belonging to them is the oldest such surviving book in [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") and describes various incidents at Ballymagauran.{{Citation \|author\= L. McKenna \|title\=The Book of Magauran \|year\=1947 \|ref\=BM}} The [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings "Vikings") may also have been in the area as the pommel of an inlaid Viking sword (Petersen Type H) dating from *c.* 900 A.D. has been excavated from a fort on the shore of Ballymagauran Lake.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=a\_1fAgAAQBAJ\&q\=ballymagauran\+%22jp\+type\+h%22\&pg\=PA178\|title\=Celtic\-Norse Relationships in the Irish Sea in the Middle Ages 800–1200\|date\=29 November 2013\|publisher\=BRILL\|isbn\=9789004255128\|via\=Google Books}} The earliest surviving mention of the placename is in the *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters "Annals of the Four Masters")* under the year 1431 A.D., which states that *Thomas, proceeded with a great host into Teallach Eachdhach, to take vengeance on the inhabitants for the death of his kinsman. He plundered, spoiled, and ravaged the territory, and slew many of the chiefs of it. He also burned Ballymagauran, and then he returned home in triumph*.{{Citation \|author\= Margo R. Griffin\-Wilson \|title\= Sidelights on History: The Book of Magauran and the Annals \|year\= 1982 \|ref\= Sidelights}} In 1455, the Annals state that a war broke out between Philip, the son of Thomas Maguire, heir to the lordship of Fermanagh, and Magauran. Philip pitched his camp at Beann\-Eachlabhra and Brian and Tuathal, Philip's sons, *went forth with twelve horsemen and thirty\-seven infantry, burned Magauran's town (Ballymagauran), and the greater part of his territory, and killed Melaghlin Duv Magauran and a great number of his people; after which he returned home triumphantly*. In 1459, the village was burnt down by Thomas Oge Maguire, after seizing the area. The *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters "Annals of the Four Masters")* state\- *The spoils of Magh Slecht were seized on by Maguire (Thomas Oge); and Ballymagauran was burned by him on this occasion*. It was burnt again on Tuesday 27 September 1485 by Turlough O'Reilly, son of John. On the following day Magauran *with his kinsmen, went in pursuit of the army, and deprived them of sixteen men, who were killed or taken prisoners, and two hundred horses*. On 28 September 1498, Ballymagauran was raided by the Maguire clan. The *[Annals of Ulster](/wiki/Annals_of_Ulster "Annals of Ulster")* for 1498 state\- *Philip, son of Toirdelbach, son of Philip Mag Uidhir, went on an inroad into Tellach\-Eathach (Tullyhaw) and the sons of Edmond Mag Uidhir and the sons of Gilla\-Padraig Mag Uidhir went with him thither and the country was traversed by them to Snam\-na\-neach. And the town of Mag Samradhain (Ballymagauran) was burned by them and they turned back and came not on cattle\-spoils or chattels. And the worthies of the country overtook them on that retreat with a very large pursuing party and those nobles turned on the pursuing party and defeated them spiritedly, successfully then and slew three and twenty of the pursuing party in that rout, two sons of Aedh, son of Eogan Mag Samradhain, namely, Tadhg and Maghnus (that is, the cleric). And the other portion of them slain were of the Clann\-Imair and of the Clan of Mac\-in\-taisigh and of the muster of Tellach\-Eathach also. And there was slain also by the Fir\-Manach in the heat of that rout Flaithbertach, son of Donn, son of Edmond Mag Uidhir. And on the vigil of Michaelmas precisely those deeds were done.* In 1512, the *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters "Annals of the Four Masters")* state\- *Philip, the son of Turlough Maguire and Thomas, son of Manus Magauran went to Teallach Eachdhach and killed Turlough. They then proceeded to the Crannog of Magauran and took Magauran prisoner, only to set him free and leave him behind as he had become sick, making transport inconvenient. The son of O'Reilly, Edmond Roe then came up with these men of Fermanagh, and with the son recte grandsons of Manus, defeated them, and slew Donough, the son of Redmond, son of Philip Maguire; Philip, the son of Owen, son of Donnell Ballagh Maguire; Hugh, the son of Owen, son of Turlough Maguire; Murtough Roe, son of Murrough; and James, the son of Magrath Maguire, besides many others; and many horses were taken from them on that day*. On 19 January 1586, [Queen Elizabeth I of England](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England") granted a pardon to *Thomas oge m'Brien m'Thomas Magawran, of Magawranstowne*, for fighting against the Queen's forces.{{Cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/reportofdeputyke1416irel\|title\=The ... report of the Deputy Keeper of the Public Records in Ireland / presented to both houses of the Parliament by command of Her Majesty\|date\=24 July 1882\|publisher\=Dublin : Printed by Alexander Thom for Her Majesty's Stationery Offic\|via\=Internet Archive}}
[ "### Medieval", "In medieval times, the *Mac Shamhráin* (anglicised as [McGovern](/wiki/McGovern_%28name%29 \"McGovern (name)\") or Magauran) Robert Bell, *The Book of Ulster Surnames*, p. 163\\. The Ulster Historical Foundation (U.H.F.), [Belfast](/wiki/Belfast \"Belfast\"), 2021 (2022 reprint; originally published by [The Blackstaff Press](/wiki/The_Blackstaff_Press \"The Blackstaff Press\"), Belfast, 1988\\). *[túath](/wiki/T%C3%BAath \"Túath\")* of *Teallach Eachdhach* ([Tullyhaw](/wiki/Tullyhaw \"Tullyhaw\")), then part of [West Bréifne](/wiki/West_Breifne \"West Breifne\") in [Connacht](/wiki/Connacht \"Connacht\"), was divided into economic taxation areas called ballibetoes, from the Irish *Baile Biataigh* (anglicised as 'Ballybetagh'), meaning 'A Provisioner's Town or Settlement' (Tullyhaw is now a [barony](/wiki/Barony_%28Ireland%29 \"Barony (Ireland)\") in County Cavan). The original purpose of a ballybetagh was to enable the farmer, who controlled the *baile*, to provide hospitality for those who needed it, such as poor people and travellers. The ballybetagh was further divided into townlands farmed by individual families who paid a tribute or tax to the head of the ballybetagh, who in turn paid a similar tribute to the clan chief. The steward of the ballybetagh would have been the secular equivalent of the [erenagh](/wiki/Erenagh \"Erenagh\") in charge of church lands. There were seven ballibetoes in the parish of Templeport. Ballymagauran was located in the ballybetagh named after it. The historical spellings of the ballybetagh are Ballymackgawran \\& Ballimacgawran (Irish \\= *Baile Mhic Shamhráin* \\= McGovern's Town or Magauran's Town).", "After 1400 A.D., Ballymagauran became the chief seat of the *Mac Shamhráin* ([McGovern](/wiki/McGovern_%28name%29 \"McGovern (name)\") or Magauran) clan, who were the lords of *Teallach Eachdhach* (Tullyhaw).{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.geograph.ie/photo/2869030 \\| title\\=H2113 : Ballymagovern Castle \\| publisher\\=geograph.ie \\| access\\-date\\=8 December 2019 }} Their previous seats were in [Coologe](/wiki/Coologe \"Coologe\") and [Killywillin](/wiki/Killywillin \"Killywillin\"). A medieval Duanaire or Poembook belonging to them is the oldest such surviving book in [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") and describes various incidents at Ballymagauran.{{Citation \\|author\\= L. McKenna \\|title\\=The Book of Magauran \\|year\\=1947 \\|ref\\=BM}} The [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings \"Vikings\") may also have been in the area as the pommel of an inlaid Viking sword (Petersen Type H) dating from *c.* 900 A.D. has been excavated from a fort on the shore of Ballymagauran Lake.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=a\\_1fAgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=ballymagauran\\+%22jp\\+type\\+h%22\\&pg\\=PA178\\|title\\=Celtic\\-Norse Relationships in the Irish Sea in the Middle Ages 800–1200\\|date\\=29 November 2013\\|publisher\\=BRILL\\|isbn\\=9789004255128\\|via\\=Google Books}}", "The earliest surviving mention of the placename is in the *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters \"Annals of the Four Masters\")* under the year 1431 A.D., which states that *Thomas, proceeded with a great host into Teallach Eachdhach, to take vengeance on the inhabitants for the death of his kinsman. He plundered, spoiled, and ravaged the territory, and slew many of the chiefs of it. He also burned Ballymagauran, and then he returned home in triumph*.{{Citation \\|author\\= Margo R. Griffin\\-Wilson \\|title\\= Sidelights on History: The Book of Magauran and the Annals \\|year\\= 1982 \\|ref\\= Sidelights}}", "In 1455, the Annals state that a war broke out between Philip, the son of Thomas Maguire, heir to the lordship of Fermanagh, and Magauran. Philip pitched his camp at Beann\\-Eachlabhra and Brian and Tuathal, Philip's sons, *went forth with twelve horsemen and thirty\\-seven infantry, burned Magauran's town (Ballymagauran), and the greater part of his territory, and killed Melaghlin Duv Magauran and a great number of his people; after which he returned home triumphantly*.", "In 1459, the village was burnt down by Thomas Oge Maguire, after seizing the area. The *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters \"Annals of the Four Masters\")* state\\- *The spoils of Magh Slecht were seized on by Maguire (Thomas Oge); and Ballymagauran was burned by him on this occasion*.", "It was burnt again on Tuesday 27 September 1485 by Turlough O'Reilly, son of John. On the following day Magauran *with his kinsmen, went in pursuit of the army, and deprived them of sixteen men, who were killed or taken prisoners, and two hundred horses*.", "On 28 September 1498, Ballymagauran was raided by the Maguire clan.", "The *[Annals of Ulster](/wiki/Annals_of_Ulster \"Annals of Ulster\")* for 1498 state\\-", "*Philip, son of Toirdelbach, son of Philip Mag Uidhir, went on an inroad into Tellach\\-Eathach (Tullyhaw) and the sons of Edmond Mag Uidhir and the sons of Gilla\\-Padraig Mag Uidhir went with him thither and the country was traversed by them to Snam\\-na\\-neach. And the town of Mag Samradhain (Ballymagauran) was burned by them and they turned back and came not on cattle\\-spoils or chattels. And the worthies of the country overtook them on that retreat with a very large pursuing party and those nobles turned on the pursuing party and defeated them spiritedly, successfully then and slew three and twenty of the pursuing party in that rout, two sons of Aedh, son of Eogan Mag Samradhain, namely, Tadhg and Maghnus (that is, the cleric). And the other portion of them slain were of the Clann\\-Imair and of the Clan of Mac\\-in\\-taisigh and of the muster of Tellach\\-Eathach also. And there was slain also by the Fir\\-Manach in the heat of that rout Flaithbertach, son of Donn, son of Edmond Mag Uidhir. And on the vigil of Michaelmas precisely those deeds were done.*", "In 1512, the *[Annals of the Four Masters](/wiki/Annals_of_the_Four_Masters \"Annals of the Four Masters\")* state\\- *Philip, the son of Turlough Maguire and Thomas, son of Manus Magauran went to Teallach Eachdhach and killed Turlough. They then proceeded to the Crannog of Magauran and took Magauran prisoner, only to set him free and leave him behind as he had become sick, making transport inconvenient. The son of O'Reilly, Edmond Roe then came up with these men of Fermanagh, and with the son recte grandsons of Manus, defeated them, and slew Donough, the son of Redmond, son of Philip Maguire; Philip, the son of Owen, son of Donnell Ballagh Maguire; Hugh, the son of Owen, son of Turlough Maguire; Murtough Roe, son of Murrough; and James, the son of Magrath Maguire, besides many others; and many horses were taken from them on that day*.", "On 19 January 1586, [Queen Elizabeth I of England](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\") granted a pardon to *Thomas oge m'Brien m'Thomas Magawran, of Magawranstowne*, for fighting against the Queen's forces.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/reportofdeputyke1416irel\\|title\\=The ... report of the Deputy Keeper of the Public Records in Ireland / presented to both houses of the Parliament by command of Her Majesty\\|date\\=24 July 1882\\|publisher\\=Dublin : Printed by Alexander Thom for Her Majesty's Stationery Offic\\|via\\=Internet Archive}}", "" ]
History ------- ### De Graeff In the middle of the seventeenth century, the country house on the [Zoestdijk](/wiki/Zoestdijk "Zoestdijk") was built for [Cornelis de Graeff](/wiki/Cornelis_de_Graeff "Cornelis de Graeff"). In the years 1655–1660, de Graeff was involved in the education of [William III of Orange](/wiki/William_III_of_Orange "William III of Orange"), as can be seen from his letters in Soestdijk to the [States General](/wiki/States_General_of_the_Netherlands "States General of the Netherlands") and his nephew [Johan de Witt](/wiki/Johan_de_Witt "Johan de Witt"). During the summers, the family spent a lot of their time at the palace, and de Graeff's sons\-[Pieter](/wiki/Pieter_de_Graeff "Pieter de Graeff") and [Jacob de Graeff](/wiki/Jacob_de_Graeff "Jacob de Graeff")\-played with the young William. In 1674, after the *[rampjaar](/wiki/Rampjaar "Rampjaar")*, Jacob de Graeff sold it for the low price of 18,755 [guilders](/wiki/Dutch_guilder "Dutch guilder") to [Stadtholder](/wiki/Stadtholder "Stadtholder") William III. ### Orange\-Nassau Then the palace originally started as a hunting lodge that was built between 1674 and 1678 by [Maurits Post](/wiki/Maurits_Post "Maurits Post"), who was also involved in building two other royal palaces, [Huis ten Bosch Palace](/wiki/Huis_ten_Bosch_Palace "Huis ten Bosch Palace") and [Noordeinde Palace](/wiki/Noordeinde_Palace "Noordeinde Palace"). William left the Netherlands in 1688 to reside in [London](/wiki/London "London") as William III of England. During the French invasion in 1795, the palace was seized as a spoil of war and turned into an inn for French troops. When [Louis Bonaparte](/wiki/Louis_Bonaparte "Louis Bonaparte") became King of [Holland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland "Kingdom of Holland"), he took possession of it and had it extended and refurnished. It was presented to [William II of the Netherlands](/wiki/William_II_of_the_Netherlands "William II of the Netherlands") in 1815 in recognition of his services at the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo "Battle of Waterloo"). From 1816 to 1821, the palace was significantly expanded by adding two wings, the northern or Baarn wing, and the southern or Soest wing. In 1842 its contents were enriched by the addition of the [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture "Neoclassical architecture") furnishings of his former palace in Brussels, today the [Palais des Académies](/wiki/Palais_des_Acad%C3%A9mies "Palais des Académies"). Soestdijk became the property of the state of the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") in 1971, although it was used by [Princess Juliana](/wiki/Princess_Juliana "Princess Juliana") (Queen of the Netherlands from 1948 to 1980\) and [Prince Bernhard](/wiki/Prince_Bernhard "Prince Bernhard") as their official residence until both of their deaths in 2004\. Soestdijk Palace then remained empty and unused for over a year before its opening to the public. From Spring 2006 to 2017, it was possible to visit, pending a decision about its future use. ### Investors In 2017, the palace was sold to Made in Holland who plan on developing a hotel, event centre and 65 houses on the grounds.{{Cite news\|url\=https://nltimes.nl/2017/06/08/dutch\-royal\-palace\-converted\-hotel\|title\=Dutch royal palace to be converted into hotel\|date\=2017\-06\-08\|work\=NL Times\|access\-date\=2018\-08\-23\|language\=en}} A forest, the [Baarnse Bos](/wiki/Baarnse_Bos "Baarnse Bos"), is adjacent to the palace. It was developed as a [French landscape garden](/wiki/French_landscape_garden "French landscape garden") between 1733 and 1758\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.provincie\-utrecht.nl/onderwerpen/alle\-onderwerpen/erfgoedparels/buitenplaatsen/\|title\=Erfgoedparels\|publisher\=Province of Utrecht\|language\=Dutch\|accessdate\=12 September 2016}} | File:Front side of Soestdijk Palace.jpg\|Front of the palace File:De werkkamer van Prins Bernhard 1938\.jpg\|''The elephant room'' ({{lang\-nl\|De olifantenkamer}}), the sitting room of \[\[Prince Bernhard of Lippe\-Biesterfeld\|Prince Bernhard]] in 1938\. File:Interieur, overzicht van de Waterloozaal met schilderij, plafond met stucwerk en kroonluchter, gelegen aan de voorzijde van het corps de logis \- Soestdijk \- 20403600 \- RCE.jpg\|Waterloo Room File:Werkkamer van Koningin Juliana met raamconstructie en met zicht op het terras en park, gelegen aan de achterzijde van het corps de logis \- Soestdijk \- 20403649 \- RCE.jpg\|The sitting room of \[\[Juliana of the Netherlands\|Queen Juliana]] in 2006\. File:Interieur, overzicht van de antichambre met kroonluchter, plafondschildering en wandbespanning, gelegen aan de voorzijde van het corps de logis \- Soestdijk \- 20403419 \- RCE.jpg\|Anteroom richly decorated. File:Interieur, overzicht van de Stuczaal met gebogen plafond met cassetten, gelegen aan de achterzijde van het corps de logis \- Soestdijk \- 20403464 \- RCE.jpg\|Ballroom File:Interieur, overzicht van de Witte eetzaal met kroonluchters, meubilair en albasten vazen, gelegen aan de achterzijde van het middengedeelte, tussen het corps de logis en de Soester vleugel \- Soestdijk \- 20403189 \- RCE.jpg\|White Dinner Room File:Interieur, overzicht van de Empire salon met plafondschildering en kroonluchter, gelegen aan de achterzijde van het corps de logis \- Soestdijk \- 20404612 \- RCE.jpg\|Empire Room | | --- | {{Rijksmonument\|34110}}
[ "History\n-------", "### De Graeff", "In the middle of the seventeenth century, the country house on the [Zoestdijk](/wiki/Zoestdijk \"Zoestdijk\") was built for [Cornelis de Graeff](/wiki/Cornelis_de_Graeff \"Cornelis de Graeff\"). In the years 1655–1660, de Graeff was involved in the education of [William III of Orange](/wiki/William_III_of_Orange \"William III of Orange\"), as can be seen from his letters in Soestdijk to the [States General](/wiki/States_General_of_the_Netherlands \"States General of the Netherlands\") and his nephew [Johan de Witt](/wiki/Johan_de_Witt \"Johan de Witt\"). During the summers, the family spent a lot of their time at the palace, and de Graeff's sons\\-[Pieter](/wiki/Pieter_de_Graeff \"Pieter de Graeff\") and [Jacob de Graeff](/wiki/Jacob_de_Graeff \"Jacob de Graeff\")\\-played with the young William. In 1674, after the *[rampjaar](/wiki/Rampjaar \"Rampjaar\")*, Jacob de Graeff sold it for the low price of 18,755 [guilders](/wiki/Dutch_guilder \"Dutch guilder\") to [Stadtholder](/wiki/Stadtholder \"Stadtholder\") William III.", "### Orange\\-Nassau", "Then the palace originally started as a hunting lodge that was built between 1674 and 1678 by [Maurits Post](/wiki/Maurits_Post \"Maurits Post\"), who was also involved in building two other royal palaces, [Huis ten Bosch Palace](/wiki/Huis_ten_Bosch_Palace \"Huis ten Bosch Palace\") and [Noordeinde Palace](/wiki/Noordeinde_Palace \"Noordeinde Palace\"). William left the Netherlands in 1688 to reside in [London](/wiki/London \"London\") as William III of England.", "During the French invasion in 1795, the palace was seized as a spoil of war and turned into an inn for French troops. When [Louis Bonaparte](/wiki/Louis_Bonaparte \"Louis Bonaparte\") became King of [Holland](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland \"Kingdom of Holland\"), he took possession of it and had it extended and refurnished.", "It was presented to [William II of the Netherlands](/wiki/William_II_of_the_Netherlands \"William II of the Netherlands\") in 1815 in recognition of his services at the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo \"Battle of Waterloo\"). From 1816 to 1821, the palace was significantly expanded by adding two wings, the northern or Baarn wing, and the southern or Soest wing. In 1842 its contents were enriched by the addition of the [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture \"Neoclassical architecture\") furnishings of his former palace in Brussels, today the [Palais des Académies](/wiki/Palais_des_Acad%C3%A9mies \"Palais des Académies\").", "Soestdijk became the property of the state of the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") in 1971, although it was used by [Princess Juliana](/wiki/Princess_Juliana \"Princess Juliana\") (Queen of the Netherlands from 1948 to 1980\\) and [Prince Bernhard](/wiki/Prince_Bernhard \"Prince Bernhard\") as their official residence until both of their deaths in 2004\\. Soestdijk Palace then remained empty and unused for over a year before its opening to the public. From Spring 2006 to 2017, it was possible to visit, pending a decision about its future use.", "### Investors", "In 2017, the palace was sold to Made in Holland who plan on developing a hotel, event centre and 65 houses on the grounds.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://nltimes.nl/2017/06/08/dutch\\-royal\\-palace\\-converted\\-hotel\\|title\\=Dutch royal palace to be converted into hotel\\|date\\=2017\\-06\\-08\\|work\\=NL Times\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-23\\|language\\=en}} A forest, the [Baarnse Bos](/wiki/Baarnse_Bos \"Baarnse Bos\"), is adjacent to the palace. It was developed as a [French landscape garden](/wiki/French_landscape_garden \"French landscape garden\") between 1733 and 1758\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.provincie\\-utrecht.nl/onderwerpen/alle\\-onderwerpen/erfgoedparels/buitenplaatsen/\\|title\\=Erfgoedparels\\|publisher\\=Province of Utrecht\\|language\\=Dutch\\|accessdate\\=12 September 2016}}", "| File:Front side of Soestdijk Palace.jpg\\|Front of the palace File:De werkkamer van Prins Bernhard 1938\\.jpg\\|''The elephant room'' ({{lang\\-nl\\|De olifantenkamer}}), the sitting room of \\[\\[Prince Bernhard of Lippe\\-Biesterfeld\\|Prince Bernhard]] in 1938\\. File:Interieur, overzicht van de Waterloozaal met schilderij, plafond met stucwerk en kroonluchter, gelegen aan de voorzijde van het corps de logis \\- Soestdijk \\- 20403600 \\- RCE.jpg\\|Waterloo Room File:Werkkamer van Koningin Juliana met raamconstructie en met zicht op het terras en park, gelegen aan de achterzijde van het corps de logis \\- Soestdijk \\- 20403649 \\- RCE.jpg\\|The sitting room of \\[\\[Juliana of the Netherlands\\|Queen Juliana]] in 2006\\. File:Interieur, overzicht van de antichambre met kroonluchter, plafondschildering en wandbespanning, gelegen aan de voorzijde van het corps de logis \\- Soestdijk \\- 20403419 \\- RCE.jpg\\|Anteroom richly decorated. File:Interieur, overzicht van de Stuczaal met gebogen plafond met cassetten, gelegen aan de achterzijde van het corps de logis \\- Soestdijk \\- 20403464 \\- RCE.jpg\\|Ballroom File:Interieur, overzicht van de Witte eetzaal met kroonluchters, meubilair en albasten vazen, gelegen aan de achterzijde van het middengedeelte, tussen het corps de logis en de Soester vleugel \\- Soestdijk \\- 20403189 \\- RCE.jpg\\|White Dinner Room File:Interieur, overzicht van de Empire salon met plafondschildering en kroonluchter, gelegen aan de achterzijde van het corps de logis \\- Soestdijk \\- 20404612 \\- RCE.jpg\\|Empire Room |\n| --- |", "{{Rijksmonument\\|34110}}", "" ]
History ------- In the early 1800s, this area was part of the hunting grounds of the [Osage nation](/wiki/Osage_nation "Osage nation") and other Plains tribes, some of whom had migrated west from other areas. Members of the [Cherokee Nation](/wiki/Cherokee_Nation "Cherokee Nation") began moving into the area during the 1830s, particularly after [Indian Removal](/wiki/Indian_Removal "Indian Removal") by the US government, which forced them on the "Trail of Tears" to west of the Mississippi River, when they were given land by the United States in exchange for their territory in the Southeast. The area was sparsely populated until after the Civil War. The [Texas Road](/wiki/Texas_Road "Texas Road") and the [East Shawnee Cattle Trail](/wiki/Shawnee_Cattle_Trail "Shawnee Cattle Trail"), used for cattle drives from Texas, ran through the eastern part of the present\-day Craig County. Between 1867 and 1870, the U. S. government moved the [Shawnee](/wiki/Shawnee "Shawnee") and [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware "Delaware") tribes into this area from Kansas, another section of Indian Territory. Then the area was assigned as part of the Delaware and Cooweescoowee districts of the [Cherokee Nation](/wiki/Cherokee_Nation "Cherokee Nation"), Indian Territory, after the US government had made new treaties with the tribes that had allied with the Confederacy during the Civil War. In 1871, the federal government took Cherokee land for the [Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad](/wiki/Missouri%2C_Kansas_and_Texas_Railroad "Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad") to construct a north–south railroad through this area, while the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad (later acquired by the [St. Louis and San Francisco Railway](/wiki/St._Louis_and_San_Francisco_Railway "St. Louis and San Francisco Railway")) was allowed to build an east–west line that ran through Vinita in the same year. This line was extended through [Tulsa, Oklahoma](/wiki/Tulsa%2C_Oklahoma "Tulsa, Oklahoma") in 1881–2\. Coal mining began in this area after the Civil War. Mine companies used both tunnel and strip mines, but they did not begin major production until about 1900\. Production has continued into the 21st century. Other resource exploitation was based on oil, and the first oil refinery began operations by 1911; it was operated by [Sinclair Oil](/wiki/Sinclair_Oil "Sinclair Oil") until the 1920s. Otherwise, farming and ranching were the mainstays of the county economy. The county was organized in 1907, at the Oklahoma Statehood Convention. It was named for Granville Craig, a prominent Cherokee farmer of [mixed race](/wiki/Mixed_race "Mixed race") who had property near Bluejacket.
[ "History\n-------", "In the early 1800s, this area was part of the hunting grounds of the [Osage nation](/wiki/Osage_nation \"Osage nation\") and other Plains tribes, some of whom had migrated west from other areas. Members of the [Cherokee Nation](/wiki/Cherokee_Nation \"Cherokee Nation\") began moving into the area during the 1830s, particularly after [Indian Removal](/wiki/Indian_Removal \"Indian Removal\") by the US government, which forced them on the \"Trail of Tears\" to west of the Mississippi River, when they were given land by the United States in exchange for their territory in the Southeast. The area was sparsely populated until after the Civil War. The [Texas Road](/wiki/Texas_Road \"Texas Road\") and the [East Shawnee Cattle Trail](/wiki/Shawnee_Cattle_Trail \"Shawnee Cattle Trail\"), used for cattle drives from Texas, ran through the eastern part of the present\\-day Craig County.", "Between 1867 and 1870, the U. S. government moved the [Shawnee](/wiki/Shawnee \"Shawnee\") and [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware \"Delaware\") tribes into this area from Kansas, another section of Indian Territory. Then the area was assigned as part of the Delaware and Cooweescoowee districts of the [Cherokee Nation](/wiki/Cherokee_Nation \"Cherokee Nation\"), Indian Territory, after the US government had made new treaties with the tribes that had allied with the Confederacy during the Civil War.", "In 1871, the federal government took Cherokee land for the [Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad](/wiki/Missouri%2C_Kansas_and_Texas_Railroad \"Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad\") to construct a north–south railroad through this area, while the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad (later acquired by the [St. Louis and San Francisco Railway](/wiki/St._Louis_and_San_Francisco_Railway \"St. Louis and San Francisco Railway\")) was allowed to build an east–west line that ran through Vinita in the same year. This line was extended through [Tulsa, Oklahoma](/wiki/Tulsa%2C_Oklahoma \"Tulsa, Oklahoma\") in 1881–2\\.", "Coal mining began in this area after the Civil War. Mine companies used both tunnel and strip mines, but they did not begin major production until about 1900\\. Production has continued into the 21st century.", "Other resource exploitation was based on oil, and the first oil refinery began operations by 1911; it was operated by [Sinclair Oil](/wiki/Sinclair_Oil \"Sinclair Oil\") until the 1920s. Otherwise, farming and ranching were the mainstays of the county economy.", "The county was organized in 1907, at the Oklahoma Statehood Convention. It was named for Granville Craig, a prominent Cherokee farmer of [mixed race](/wiki/Mixed_race \"Mixed race\") who had property near Bluejacket.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population\|align\=left \|1890\= 412 \|1900\= 579 \|1910\= 645 \|1920\= 695 \|1930\= 622 \|1940\= 569 \|1950\= 593 \|1960\= 740 \|1970\= 910 \|1980\= 1117 \|1990\= 1178 \|2000\= 1197 \|2010\= 1243 \|2020\= 1300 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=June 24, 2012}} of 2010, there were 1,243 people, 495 households, and 344 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|2071\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 524 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|873\.3\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 97\.9% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.7% of the population. There were 495 households, of which 38\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 8\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30\.5% were non\-families. 27\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.51 and the average family size was 3\.06\. The median age in the village was 38\.3 years. 28\.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\.7% were from 25 to 44; 25\.1% were from 45 to 64; and 15\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48\.7% male and 51\.3% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 1,197 people, 475 households, and 342 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\|2,104\.3\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 492 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|864\.9\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 98\.75% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.08% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.17% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.08% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.17% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.75% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.09% of the population. There were 475 households, out of which 36\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27\.8% were non\-families. 25\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.52 and the average family size was 3\.01\. In the village, the population was spread out, with 27\.7% under the age of 18, 6\.9% from 18 to 24, 28\.4% from 25 to 44, 23\.1% from 45 to 64, and 14\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89\.5 males. As of 2000 the median income for a household in the village was $45,365, and the median income for a family was $51,250\. Males had a median income of $35,083 versus $24,615 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $19,453\. About 3\.3% of families and 3\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 5\.5% of those under age 18 and 3\.5% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\\|align\\=left\n\\|1890\\= 412\n\\|1900\\= 579\n\\|1910\\= 645\n\\|1920\\= 695\n\\|1930\\= 622\n\\|1940\\= 569\n\\|1950\\= 593\n\\|1960\\= 740\n\\|1970\\= 910\n\\|1980\\= 1117\n\\|1990\\= 1178\n\\|2000\\= 1197\n\\|2010\\= 1243\n\\|2020\\= 1300\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=June 24, 2012}} of 2010, there were 1,243 people, 495 households, and 344 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|2071\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 524 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|873\\.3\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 97\\.9% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.5% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.7% of the population.", "There were 495 households, of which 38\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 8\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30\\.5% were non\\-families. 27\\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.51 and the average family size was 3\\.06\\.", "The median age in the village was 38\\.3 years. 28\\.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\\.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\\.7% were from 25 to 44; 25\\.1% were from 45 to 64; and 15\\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48\\.7% male and 51\\.3% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 1,197 people, 475 households, and 342 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\\|2,104\\.3\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 492 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|864\\.9\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 98\\.75% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.08% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.17% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.08% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.17% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.75% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.09% of the population.", "There were 475 households, out of which 36\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59\\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27\\.8% were non\\-families. 25\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.52 and the average family size was 3\\.01\\.", "In the village, the population was spread out, with 27\\.7% under the age of 18, 6\\.9% from 18 to 24, 28\\.4% from 25 to 44, 23\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 14\\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\\.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89\\.5 males.", "As of 2000 the median income for a household in the village was $45,365, and the median income for a family was $51,250\\. Males had a median income of $35,083 versus $24,615 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $19,453\\. About 3\\.3% of families and 3\\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 5\\.5% of those under age 18 and 3\\.5% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Professional career ------------------- ### San Francisco 49ers Brown was selected by the [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers "San Francisco 49ers") in the fifth round (148th overall) of the [2007 NFL draft](/wiki/2007_NFL_draft "2007 NFL draft").{{Cite web \|title\=2007 NFL Draft Listing \|url\=https://www.pro\-football\-reference.com/years/2007/draft.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-11 \|website\=Pro\-Football\-Reference.com \|language\=en}} During his rookie season, he played in nine games, particularly on special teams and finished the season with two tackles. Brown partially tore his [Anterior Cruciate Ligament](/wiki/Anterior_Cruciate_Ligament "Anterior Cruciate Ligament") and tore his [Medial collateral ligament](/wiki/Medial_collateral_ligament "Medial collateral ligament") completely in Week 17\. He was recovered by the start of training camp. In 2008 Brown got his first start in week 10\. In week 16 he intercepted a pass from Rams quarterback [Marc Bulger](/wiki/Marc_Bulger "Marc Bulger") in the final minute of the game, capping off a come\-from\-behind win in the fourth quarter. It was one of two interceptions for the season. In 2009, he played in ever game and started four, with 2 more interceptions including one he returned for 51 yards to set up the game winning touchdown against Chicago. In 2010 he saw less playing time and didn't start all season, but in 2011, he was named the starter at Right Cornerback taking the spot from [Shawntae Spencer](/wiki/Shawntae_Spencer "Shawntae Spencer"). He started all sixteen games and had career\-highs with 4 interceptions and 14 pass deflections as he helped the 49ers become one of the elite defenses in the NFL. He scored his only career touchdown on a career long 62 yard interception return in the final game against the [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins "Washington Redskins"). In the 2012 season, Brown again started every game all the way to [Super Bowl XLVII](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLVII "Super Bowl XLVII"). In the game, he had three combined tackles, a forced fumble, and a fumble recovery as the 49ers fell to the [Baltimore Ravens](/wiki/Baltimore_Ravens "Baltimore Ravens") by a score of 34–31\.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.pro\-football\-reference.com/boxscores/201302030sfo.htm \|title\=Super Bowl XLVII \- San Francisco 49ers vs. Baltimore Ravens \- February 3rd, 2013 \|website\=Pro\-Football\-Reference.com \|language\=en \|access\-date\=December 2, 2017}} He had a career high 57 combined tackles that year. During the 2013 offseason, Brown skipped the 49ers' voluntary offseason workout program, which would have paid him an additional $2 million in wages for the 2013 season. Brown fired his agent, Brian Overstreet, saying Overstreet failed to spot an [escalation clause](/wiki/Escalation_clause "Escalation clause") in Brown's contract which would have awarded him the pay increase simply for showing up to the offseason workout.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.nbcsports.com/nfl/profootballtalk/rumor\-mill/news/tarell\-brown\-says\-hes\-fired\-agent\-after\-losing\-2\-million\-salary\-increase \| title\=Tarell Brown says he's fired agent after losing $2 million salary increase \| date\=July 25, 2013 }} Brown started the first ten games of 2013, but then missed the next three following a rib injury during a game against New Orleans. In the last three games his playing time was reduced, but for the three playoff games \- including the NFC Championship \- he was back to playing full time.{{cite news \|title\=Tarell Brown injury: 49ers expect CB to return this season \|url\=https://www.sbnation.com/nfl/2013/11/21/5130958/tarell\-brown\-injury\-update\-ribs\-49ers \|access\-date\=19 May 2023 \|date\=21 November 2013}} After the season was over he signed a one\-year deal with the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/Oakland_Raiders "Oakland Raiders").{{cite news \|title\=Tarell Brown Signs with the Oakland Raiders \|url\=https://www.49ers.com/news/tarell\-brown\-signs\-with\-the\-oakland\-raiders\-12758853 \|access\-date\=19 May 2023 \|date\=14 March 2014}} Brown started 14 games with Oakland in 2014, before ending the season on the injured reserve list. In 2015, Brown was signed, just before camp began, by the New England Patriots. He played in 3 of the first 4 games before being placed on the injured reserve with a foot injury for the rest of the season. His contract expired at the end of the season. ### Oakland Raiders Brown agreed to a one\-year deal worth $3\.5 million for the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/Oakland_Raiders "Oakland Raiders") in March 2014\.[Raiders Add Tarell Brown](http://www.raiders.com/news/article-1/Raiders-Add-Tarell-Brown/1f7550bd-c600-454f-b3c5-6c42b316ce1d) He started 14 games with the Raiders, recording 55 tackles and 4 deflected passes. ### New England Patriots Brown agreed to terms with the [New England Patriots](/wiki/New_England_Patriots "New England Patriots") on July 23, 2015\.{{cite web\|work\=NFL.com\|url\=https://www.nfl.com/news/patriots\-reach\-1\-year\-deal\-with\-cb\-tarell\-brown\-0ap3000000503243\|title\=Patriots reach 1\-year deal with CB Tarell Brown\|first\=Kevin\|last\=Patra\|date\=July 23, 2015\|access\-date\=July 23, 2015}} On October 17, Brown was placed on injured reserve with a foot injury.
[ "Professional career\n-------------------", "### San Francisco 49ers", "Brown was selected by the [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers \"San Francisco 49ers\") in the fifth round (148th overall) of the [2007 NFL draft](/wiki/2007_NFL_draft \"2007 NFL draft\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=2007 NFL Draft Listing \\|url\\=https://www.pro\\-football\\-reference.com/years/2007/draft.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-11 \\|website\\=Pro\\-Football\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}} During his rookie season, he played in nine games, particularly on special teams and finished the season with two tackles. Brown partially tore his [Anterior Cruciate Ligament](/wiki/Anterior_Cruciate_Ligament \"Anterior Cruciate Ligament\") and tore his [Medial collateral ligament](/wiki/Medial_collateral_ligament \"Medial collateral ligament\") completely in Week 17\\. He was recovered by the start of training camp.", "In 2008 Brown got his first start in week 10\\. In week 16 he intercepted a pass from Rams quarterback [Marc Bulger](/wiki/Marc_Bulger \"Marc Bulger\") in the final minute of the game, capping off a come\\-from\\-behind win in the fourth quarter. It was one of two interceptions for the season.", "In 2009, he played in ever game and started four, with 2 more interceptions including one he returned for 51 yards to set up the game winning touchdown against Chicago.", "In 2010 he saw less playing time and didn't start all season, but in 2011, he was named the starter at Right Cornerback taking the spot from [Shawntae Spencer](/wiki/Shawntae_Spencer \"Shawntae Spencer\"). He started all sixteen games and had career\\-highs with 4 interceptions and 14 pass deflections as he helped the 49ers become one of the elite defenses in the NFL. He scored his only career touchdown on a career long 62 yard interception return in the final game against the [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins \"Washington Redskins\").", "In the 2012 season, Brown again started every game all the way to [Super Bowl XLVII](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLVII \"Super Bowl XLVII\"). In the game, he had three combined tackles, a forced fumble, and a fumble recovery as the 49ers fell to the [Baltimore Ravens](/wiki/Baltimore_Ravens \"Baltimore Ravens\") by a score of 34–31\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.pro\\-football\\-reference.com/boxscores/201302030sfo.htm \\|title\\=Super Bowl XLVII \\- San Francisco 49ers vs. Baltimore Ravens \\- February 3rd, 2013 \\|website\\=Pro\\-Football\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=December 2, 2017}} He had a career high 57 combined tackles that year.", "During the 2013 offseason, Brown skipped the 49ers' voluntary offseason workout program, which would have paid him an additional $2 million in wages for the 2013 season. Brown fired his agent, Brian Overstreet, saying Overstreet failed to spot an [escalation clause](/wiki/Escalation_clause \"Escalation clause\") in Brown's contract which would have awarded him the pay increase simply for showing up to the offseason workout.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.nbcsports.com/nfl/profootballtalk/rumor\\-mill/news/tarell\\-brown\\-says\\-hes\\-fired\\-agent\\-after\\-losing\\-2\\-million\\-salary\\-increase \\| title\\=Tarell Brown says he's fired agent after losing $2 million salary increase \\| date\\=July 25, 2013 }} Brown started the first ten games of 2013, but then missed the next three following a rib injury during a game against New Orleans. In the last three games his playing time was reduced, but for the three playoff games \\- including the NFC Championship \\- he was back to playing full time.{{cite news \\|title\\=Tarell Brown injury: 49ers expect CB to return this season \\|url\\=https://www.sbnation.com/nfl/2013/11/21/5130958/tarell\\-brown\\-injury\\-update\\-ribs\\-49ers \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2023 \\|date\\=21 November 2013}} After the season was over he signed a one\\-year deal with the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/Oakland_Raiders \"Oakland Raiders\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Tarell Brown Signs with the Oakland Raiders \\|url\\=https://www.49ers.com/news/tarell\\-brown\\-signs\\-with\\-the\\-oakland\\-raiders\\-12758853 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2023 \\|date\\=14 March 2014}}", "Brown started 14 games with Oakland in 2014, before ending the season on the injured reserve list.", "In 2015, Brown was signed, just before camp began, by the New England Patriots. He played in 3 of the first 4 games before being placed on the injured reserve with a foot injury for the rest of the season. His contract expired at the end of the season.", "### Oakland Raiders", "Brown agreed to a one\\-year deal worth $3\\.5 million for the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/Oakland_Raiders \"Oakland Raiders\") in March 2014\\.[Raiders Add Tarell Brown](http://www.raiders.com/news/article-1/Raiders-Add-Tarell-Brown/1f7550bd-c600-454f-b3c5-6c42b316ce1d) He started 14 games with the Raiders, recording 55 tackles and 4 deflected passes.", "### New England Patriots", "Brown agreed to terms with the [New England Patriots](/wiki/New_England_Patriots \"New England Patriots\") on July 23, 2015\\.{{cite web\\|work\\=NFL.com\\|url\\=https://www.nfl.com/news/patriots\\-reach\\-1\\-year\\-deal\\-with\\-cb\\-tarell\\-brown\\-0ap3000000503243\\|title\\=Patriots reach 1\\-year deal with CB Tarell Brown\\|first\\=Kevin\\|last\\=Patra\\|date\\=July 23, 2015\\|access\\-date\\=July 23, 2015}} On October 17, Brown was placed on injured reserve with a foot injury.", "" ]
### San Francisco 49ers Brown was selected by the [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers "San Francisco 49ers") in the fifth round (148th overall) of the [2007 NFL draft](/wiki/2007_NFL_draft "2007 NFL draft").{{Cite web \|title\=2007 NFL Draft Listing \|url\=https://www.pro\-football\-reference.com/years/2007/draft.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-11 \|website\=Pro\-Football\-Reference.com \|language\=en}} During his rookie season, he played in nine games, particularly on special teams and finished the season with two tackles. Brown partially tore his [Anterior Cruciate Ligament](/wiki/Anterior_Cruciate_Ligament "Anterior Cruciate Ligament") and tore his [Medial collateral ligament](/wiki/Medial_collateral_ligament "Medial collateral ligament") completely in Week 17\. He was recovered by the start of training camp. In 2008 Brown got his first start in week 10\. In week 16 he intercepted a pass from Rams quarterback [Marc Bulger](/wiki/Marc_Bulger "Marc Bulger") in the final minute of the game, capping off a come\-from\-behind win in the fourth quarter. It was one of two interceptions for the season. In 2009, he played in ever game and started four, with 2 more interceptions including one he returned for 51 yards to set up the game winning touchdown against Chicago. In 2010 he saw less playing time and didn't start all season, but in 2011, he was named the starter at Right Cornerback taking the spot from [Shawntae Spencer](/wiki/Shawntae_Spencer "Shawntae Spencer"). He started all sixteen games and had career\-highs with 4 interceptions and 14 pass deflections as he helped the 49ers become one of the elite defenses in the NFL. He scored his only career touchdown on a career long 62 yard interception return in the final game against the [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins "Washington Redskins"). In the 2012 season, Brown again started every game all the way to [Super Bowl XLVII](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLVII "Super Bowl XLVII"). In the game, he had three combined tackles, a forced fumble, and a fumble recovery as the 49ers fell to the [Baltimore Ravens](/wiki/Baltimore_Ravens "Baltimore Ravens") by a score of 34–31\.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.pro\-football\-reference.com/boxscores/201302030sfo.htm \|title\=Super Bowl XLVII \- San Francisco 49ers vs. Baltimore Ravens \- February 3rd, 2013 \|website\=Pro\-Football\-Reference.com \|language\=en \|access\-date\=December 2, 2017}} He had a career high 57 combined tackles that year. During the 2013 offseason, Brown skipped the 49ers' voluntary offseason workout program, which would have paid him an additional $2 million in wages for the 2013 season. Brown fired his agent, Brian Overstreet, saying Overstreet failed to spot an [escalation clause](/wiki/Escalation_clause "Escalation clause") in Brown's contract which would have awarded him the pay increase simply for showing up to the offseason workout.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.nbcsports.com/nfl/profootballtalk/rumor\-mill/news/tarell\-brown\-says\-hes\-fired\-agent\-after\-losing\-2\-million\-salary\-increase \| title\=Tarell Brown says he's fired agent after losing $2 million salary increase \| date\=July 25, 2013 }} Brown started the first ten games of 2013, but then missed the next three following a rib injury during a game against New Orleans. In the last three games his playing time was reduced, but for the three playoff games \- including the NFC Championship \- he was back to playing full time.{{cite news \|title\=Tarell Brown injury: 49ers expect CB to return this season \|url\=https://www.sbnation.com/nfl/2013/11/21/5130958/tarell\-brown\-injury\-update\-ribs\-49ers \|access\-date\=19 May 2023 \|date\=21 November 2013}} After the season was over he signed a one\-year deal with the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/Oakland_Raiders "Oakland Raiders").{{cite news \|title\=Tarell Brown Signs with the Oakland Raiders \|url\=https://www.49ers.com/news/tarell\-brown\-signs\-with\-the\-oakland\-raiders\-12758853 \|access\-date\=19 May 2023 \|date\=14 March 2014}} Brown started 14 games with Oakland in 2014, before ending the season on the injured reserve list. In 2015, Brown was signed, just before camp began, by the New England Patriots. He played in 3 of the first 4 games before being placed on the injured reserve with a foot injury for the rest of the season. His contract expired at the end of the season.
[ "### San Francisco 49ers", "Brown was selected by the [San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/San_Francisco_49ers \"San Francisco 49ers\") in the fifth round (148th overall) of the [2007 NFL draft](/wiki/2007_NFL_draft \"2007 NFL draft\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=2007 NFL Draft Listing \\|url\\=https://www.pro\\-football\\-reference.com/years/2007/draft.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-11 \\|website\\=Pro\\-Football\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}} During his rookie season, he played in nine games, particularly on special teams and finished the season with two tackles. Brown partially tore his [Anterior Cruciate Ligament](/wiki/Anterior_Cruciate_Ligament \"Anterior Cruciate Ligament\") and tore his [Medial collateral ligament](/wiki/Medial_collateral_ligament \"Medial collateral ligament\") completely in Week 17\\. He was recovered by the start of training camp.", "In 2008 Brown got his first start in week 10\\. In week 16 he intercepted a pass from Rams quarterback [Marc Bulger](/wiki/Marc_Bulger \"Marc Bulger\") in the final minute of the game, capping off a come\\-from\\-behind win in the fourth quarter. It was one of two interceptions for the season.", "In 2009, he played in ever game and started four, with 2 more interceptions including one he returned for 51 yards to set up the game winning touchdown against Chicago.", "In 2010 he saw less playing time and didn't start all season, but in 2011, he was named the starter at Right Cornerback taking the spot from [Shawntae Spencer](/wiki/Shawntae_Spencer \"Shawntae Spencer\"). He started all sixteen games and had career\\-highs with 4 interceptions and 14 pass deflections as he helped the 49ers become one of the elite defenses in the NFL. He scored his only career touchdown on a career long 62 yard interception return in the final game against the [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins \"Washington Redskins\").", "In the 2012 season, Brown again started every game all the way to [Super Bowl XLVII](/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLVII \"Super Bowl XLVII\"). In the game, he had three combined tackles, a forced fumble, and a fumble recovery as the 49ers fell to the [Baltimore Ravens](/wiki/Baltimore_Ravens \"Baltimore Ravens\") by a score of 34–31\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.pro\\-football\\-reference.com/boxscores/201302030sfo.htm \\|title\\=Super Bowl XLVII \\- San Francisco 49ers vs. Baltimore Ravens \\- February 3rd, 2013 \\|website\\=Pro\\-Football\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=December 2, 2017}} He had a career high 57 combined tackles that year.", "During the 2013 offseason, Brown skipped the 49ers' voluntary offseason workout program, which would have paid him an additional $2 million in wages for the 2013 season. Brown fired his agent, Brian Overstreet, saying Overstreet failed to spot an [escalation clause](/wiki/Escalation_clause \"Escalation clause\") in Brown's contract which would have awarded him the pay increase simply for showing up to the offseason workout.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.nbcsports.com/nfl/profootballtalk/rumor\\-mill/news/tarell\\-brown\\-says\\-hes\\-fired\\-agent\\-after\\-losing\\-2\\-million\\-salary\\-increase \\| title\\=Tarell Brown says he's fired agent after losing $2 million salary increase \\| date\\=July 25, 2013 }} Brown started the first ten games of 2013, but then missed the next three following a rib injury during a game against New Orleans. In the last three games his playing time was reduced, but for the three playoff games \\- including the NFC Championship \\- he was back to playing full time.{{cite news \\|title\\=Tarell Brown injury: 49ers expect CB to return this season \\|url\\=https://www.sbnation.com/nfl/2013/11/21/5130958/tarell\\-brown\\-injury\\-update\\-ribs\\-49ers \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2023 \\|date\\=21 November 2013}} After the season was over he signed a one\\-year deal with the [Oakland Raiders](/wiki/Oakland_Raiders \"Oakland Raiders\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Tarell Brown Signs with the Oakland Raiders \\|url\\=https://www.49ers.com/news/tarell\\-brown\\-signs\\-with\\-the\\-oakland\\-raiders\\-12758853 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2023 \\|date\\=14 March 2014}}", "Brown started 14 games with Oakland in 2014, before ending the season on the injured reserve list.", "In 2015, Brown was signed, just before camp began, by the New England Patriots. He played in 3 of the first 4 games before being placed on the injured reserve with a foot injury for the rest of the season. His contract expired at the end of the season.", "" ]
History ------- After several years of failed albums and singles, America returned to the top ten in 1982 with their [Russ Ballard](/wiki/Russ_Ballard "Russ Ballard")\-penned single, "[You Can Do Magic](/wiki/You_Can_Do_Magic_%28song%29 "You Can Do Magic (song)")". In an effort to recreate this success, America had Ballard produce their 1983 album, *[Your Move](/wiki/Your_Move_%28album%29 "Your Move (album)")*. The results of that collaboration, however, were not altogether successful on an artistic or a commercial level. On America's next album, *Perspective*, the group went in a radically different direction. The album, featuring three different producers — [Matthew McCauley](/wiki/Matthew_McCauley_%28producer%29 "Matthew McCauley (producer)"), [Richie Zito](/wiki/Richie_Zito "Richie Zito") and [Richard James Burgess](/wiki/Richard_James_Burgess "Richard James Burgess") — and a multitude of prominent session musicians, represented America's foray into the [synthesizer](/wiki/Synthesizer "Synthesizer")\-laden music popular in the mid\-1980s, including the use of [DMX Drums](/wiki/Oberheim_DMX "Oberheim DMX"). Band members [Gerry Beckley](/wiki/Gerry_Beckley "Gerry Beckley") and [Dewey Bunnell](/wiki/Dewey_Bunnell "Dewey Bunnell") were credited as executive producers on the project. It reached \#185 on the *Billboard* pop album charts in November 1984, and was the last America album to make the charts at all until *[The Complete Greatest Hits](/wiki/The_Complete_Greatest_Hits_%28America_album%29 "The Complete Greatest Hits (America album)")* did so in 2001\. It was America's last studio album for Capitol Records, the last full\-length studio album from the group until *[Hourglass](/wiki/Hourglass_%28America_album%29 "Hourglass (America album)")* was released in 1994, and the group's last major\-label studio album until *[Here \& Now](/wiki/Here_%26_Now_%28America_album%29 "Here & Now (America album)")* in 2007\. *Perspective* contains two minor hit singles, "[Special Girl](/wiki/Special_Girl_%28song%29 "Special Girl (song)")" and "Can't Fall Asleep to a Lullabye". "Special Girl", with lead vocals by Beckley, reached number 106 on *Billboard*{{'}}s [Bubbling Under](/wiki/Bubbling_Under_Hot_100_Singles "Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles") and number 15 on its adult contemporary charts in October 1984\. "Can't Fall Asleep to a Lullaby" (misspelled as "Lullabye" on the album cover) features lead vocals by Bunnell and backing vocals by [Steve Perry](/wiki/Steve_Perry_%28musician%29 "Steve Perry (musician)") of [Journey](/wiki/Journey_%28band%29 "Journey (band)"). It reached number 26 on the *Billboard* adult contemporary charts in January 1985\. Perry returned the favor by featuring Bunnell in a brief cameo appearance in the video for his 1984 hit single, "[Oh Sherrie](/wiki/Oh_Sherrie "Oh Sherrie")". The album also features "Stereo", a collaboration between Beckley and songwriter [Jimmy Webb](/wiki/Jimmy_Webb "Jimmy Webb"), and the [reggae](/wiki/Reggae "Reggae")\-influenced "Lady with a Bluebird", co\-written by Bunnell, [Bill Mumy](/wiki/Bill_Mumy "Bill Mumy") and [Robert Haimer](/wiki/Robert_Haimer "Robert Haimer"). Mumy and Haimer (known for their novelty recording act, [Barnes \& Barnes](/wiki/Barnes_%26_Barnes "Barnes & Barnes")) also shared writing credits on "(Can't Fall Asleep to A) Lullaby" with Bunnell and Perry. [Timothy B. Schmit](/wiki/Timothy_B._Schmit "Timothy B. Schmit") (of [Poco](/wiki/Poco_%28band%29 "Poco (band)") and the [Eagles](/wiki/Eagles_%28band%29 "Eagles (band)")) provided backing vocals on "Cinderella". *Perspective* was recorded, engineered and mixed in a number of locations around [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), including at Amigo Studios in [North Hollywood](/wiki/North_Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles "North Hollywood, Los Angeles"), Oasis Recording Studio in [Universal City](/wiki/Universal_City%2C_California "Universal City, California"), United Western Studios in [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles "Hollywood, Los Angeles") and Larrabee Sound in [West Hollywood](/wiki/West_Hollywood%2C_California "West Hollywood, California"). The front cover of the album shows Beckley and Bunnel standing in front of 100 Wilshire, located at the intersection of [Wilshire Boulevard](/wiki/Wilshire_Boulevard "Wilshire Boulevard") and [Ocean Avenue](/wiki/Ocean_Avenue_%28Santa_Monica%29 "Ocean Avenue (Santa Monica)") in [Santa Monica](/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California "Santa Monica, California"), [California](/wiki/California "California"). Completed in 1971, it is the tallest building in Santa Monica. A longer version of "Can't Fall Asleep To A Lullaby" was included on *[Encore: More Greatest Hits](/wiki/Encore:More_Greatest_Hits "More Greatest Hits")*, released in 1991\. Originally released only on [vinyl](/wiki/Gramophone_record "Gramophone record") and [cassette](/wiki/Compact_Cassette "Compact Cassette"), *Perspective* was first issued in the [CD](/wiki/Compact_Disc "Compact Disc") format in the United States by the now\-defunct One Way Records in 1998\.
[ "History\n-------", "After several years of failed albums and singles, America returned to the top ten in 1982 with their [Russ Ballard](/wiki/Russ_Ballard \"Russ Ballard\")\\-penned single, \"[You Can Do Magic](/wiki/You_Can_Do_Magic_%28song%29 \"You Can Do Magic (song)\")\". In an effort to recreate this success, America had Ballard produce their 1983 album, *[Your Move](/wiki/Your_Move_%28album%29 \"Your Move (album)\")*. The results of that collaboration, however, were not altogether successful on an artistic or a commercial level. On America's next album, *Perspective*, the group went in a radically different direction.", "The album, featuring three different producers — [Matthew McCauley](/wiki/Matthew_McCauley_%28producer%29 \"Matthew McCauley (producer)\"), [Richie Zito](/wiki/Richie_Zito \"Richie Zito\") and [Richard James Burgess](/wiki/Richard_James_Burgess \"Richard James Burgess\") — and a multitude of prominent session musicians, represented America's foray into the [synthesizer](/wiki/Synthesizer \"Synthesizer\")\\-laden music popular in the mid\\-1980s, including the use of [DMX Drums](/wiki/Oberheim_DMX \"Oberheim DMX\"). Band members [Gerry Beckley](/wiki/Gerry_Beckley \"Gerry Beckley\") and [Dewey Bunnell](/wiki/Dewey_Bunnell \"Dewey Bunnell\") were credited as executive producers on the project. It reached \\#185 on the *Billboard* pop album charts in November 1984, and was the last America album to make the charts at all until *[The Complete Greatest Hits](/wiki/The_Complete_Greatest_Hits_%28America_album%29 \"The Complete Greatest Hits (America album)\")* did so in 2001\\. It was America's last studio album for Capitol Records, the last full\\-length studio album from the group until *[Hourglass](/wiki/Hourglass_%28America_album%29 \"Hourglass (America album)\")* was released in 1994, and the group's last major\\-label studio album until *[Here \\& Now](/wiki/Here_%26_Now_%28America_album%29 \"Here & Now (America album)\")* in 2007\\.", "*Perspective* contains two minor hit singles, \"[Special Girl](/wiki/Special_Girl_%28song%29 \"Special Girl (song)\")\" and \"Can't Fall Asleep to a Lullabye\". \"Special Girl\", with lead vocals by Beckley, reached number 106 on *Billboard*{{'}}s [Bubbling Under](/wiki/Bubbling_Under_Hot_100_Singles \"Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles\") and number 15 on its adult contemporary charts in October 1984\\. \"Can't Fall Asleep to a Lullaby\" (misspelled as \"Lullabye\" on the album cover) features lead vocals by Bunnell and backing vocals by [Steve Perry](/wiki/Steve_Perry_%28musician%29 \"Steve Perry (musician)\") of [Journey](/wiki/Journey_%28band%29 \"Journey (band)\"). It reached number 26 on the *Billboard* adult contemporary charts in January 1985\\. Perry returned the favor by featuring Bunnell in a brief cameo appearance in the video for his 1984 hit single, \"[Oh Sherrie](/wiki/Oh_Sherrie \"Oh Sherrie\")\".", "The album also features \"Stereo\", a collaboration between Beckley and songwriter [Jimmy Webb](/wiki/Jimmy_Webb \"Jimmy Webb\"), and the [reggae](/wiki/Reggae \"Reggae\")\\-influenced \"Lady with a Bluebird\", co\\-written by Bunnell, [Bill Mumy](/wiki/Bill_Mumy \"Bill Mumy\") and [Robert Haimer](/wiki/Robert_Haimer \"Robert Haimer\"). Mumy and Haimer (known for their novelty recording act, [Barnes \\& Barnes](/wiki/Barnes_%26_Barnes \"Barnes & Barnes\")) also shared writing credits on \"(Can't Fall Asleep to A) Lullaby\" with Bunnell and Perry. [Timothy B. Schmit](/wiki/Timothy_B._Schmit \"Timothy B. Schmit\") (of [Poco](/wiki/Poco_%28band%29 \"Poco (band)\") and the [Eagles](/wiki/Eagles_%28band%29 \"Eagles (band)\")) provided backing vocals on \"Cinderella\".", "*Perspective* was recorded, engineered and mixed in a number of locations around [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), including at Amigo Studios in [North Hollywood](/wiki/North_Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"North Hollywood, Los Angeles\"), Oasis Recording Studio in [Universal City](/wiki/Universal_City%2C_California \"Universal City, California\"), United Western Studios in [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"Hollywood, Los Angeles\") and Larrabee Sound in [West Hollywood](/wiki/West_Hollywood%2C_California \"West Hollywood, California\").", "The front cover of the album shows Beckley and Bunnel standing in front of 100 Wilshire, located at the intersection of [Wilshire Boulevard](/wiki/Wilshire_Boulevard \"Wilshire Boulevard\") and [Ocean Avenue](/wiki/Ocean_Avenue_%28Santa_Monica%29 \"Ocean Avenue (Santa Monica)\") in [Santa Monica](/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California \"Santa Monica, California\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\"). Completed in 1971, it is the tallest building in Santa Monica.", "A longer version of \"Can't Fall Asleep To A Lullaby\" was included on *[Encore: More Greatest Hits](/wiki/Encore:More_Greatest_Hits \"More Greatest Hits\")*, released in 1991\\. Originally released only on [vinyl](/wiki/Gramophone_record \"Gramophone record\") and [cassette](/wiki/Compact_Cassette \"Compact Cassette\"), *Perspective* was first issued in the [CD](/wiki/Compact_Disc \"Compact Disc\") format in the United States by the now\\-defunct One Way Records in 1998\\.", "" ]
History ------- ### Formation of the first Macmillan ministry [Sir Anthony Eden](/wiki/Sir_Anthony_Eden "Sir Anthony Eden") resigned from his positions of [Leader of the Conservative Party](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 "Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)") and [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom") on 10 January 1957\. This was mainly a consequence of the [Suez Crisis](/wiki/Suez_Crisis "Suez Crisis") fiasco of the previous autumn, but was also owing to his increasingly failing health. [Harold Macmillan](/wiki/Harold_Macmillan "Harold Macmillan"), formerly [Foreign Secretary](/wiki/Foreign_Secretary "Foreign Secretary") and [Chancellor of the Exchequer](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer "Chancellor of the Exchequer"), was chosen over [Rab Butler](/wiki/Rab_Butler "Rab Butler") as the new party leader and consequently as Prime Minister. [Harold Macmillan](/wiki/Harold_Macmillan "Harold Macmillan") tried to placate Butler, who had stood against Macmillan as leader, by appointing him to the senior position of [Home Secretary](/wiki/Home_Secretary "Home Secretary"). [Peter Thorneycroft](/wiki/Peter_Thorneycroft "Peter Thorneycroft") became Chancellor of the Exchequer, but caused embarrassment for Macmillan when he resigned only a year later. He was replaced by [Derick Heathcoat Amory](/wiki/Derick_Heathcoat_Amory "Derick Heathcoat Amory"), previously [Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food](/wiki/Minister_of_Agriculture%2C_Fisheries_and_Food "Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food"). Selwyn Lloyd was retained as Foreign Secretary, a post he held until 1960, when he succeeded Heathcoat Amory as Chancellor. [Ernest Marples](/wiki/Ernest_Marples "Ernest Marples") became Minister for Transport and the [Earl of Home](/wiki/Alec_Douglas-Home "Alec Douglas-Home") was promoted to [Leader of the House of Lords](/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_of_Lords "Leader of the House of Lords") and also continued as [Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Commonwealth_Affairs "Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs"), before replacing Lloyd as Foreign Secretary in 1960\. [Lord Kilmuir](/wiki/Lord_Kilmuir "Lord Kilmuir") and [Alan Lennox\-Boyd](/wiki/Alan_Lennox-Boyd "Alan Lennox-Boyd") retained their offices of [Lord Chancellor](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor "Lord Chancellor") and [Secretary of State for the Colonies](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies "Secretary of State for the Colonies") respectively, while [Lord Hailsham](/wiki/Quintin_Hogg%2C_Baron_Hailsham_of_St_Marylebone "Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone") became a member of the cabinet for the first time as [Minister of Education](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Education_and_Skills "Secretary of State for Education and Skills"). Future Chancellor [Iain Macleod](/wiki/Iain_Macleod "Iain Macleod") was appointed [Minister of Labour and National Service](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Employment "Secretary of State for Employment") and succeeded Lennox\-Boyd as Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1961\. ### 1959 general election and second Macmillan ministry The Conservatives comfortably won the [1959 general election](/wiki/1959_United_Kingdom_general_election "1959 United Kingdom general election"), increasing their majority in the House of Commons, following a campaign slogan "Life's better with the Conservatives". This centred on the consistently low unemployment, strong economy and rising standard of living that much of the British population was enjoying in the late 1950s. However, a series of economic measures in the early 1960s caused the popularity of the Conservative Party to decline. Macmillan tried to remedy this by a major cabinet reshuffle in July 1962\. Seven cabinet members were sacked in what became nicknamed the "[Night of the Long Knives](/wiki/Night_of_the_Long_Knives_%281962%29 "Night of the Long Knives (1962)")". Notably, the emerging [Reginald Maudling](/wiki/Reginald_Maudling "Reginald Maudling") replaced Selwyn Lloyd as Chancellor, and Lord Kilmuir was replaced as Lord Chancellor by [Lord Dilhorne](/wiki/Reginald_Manningham-Buller%2C_1st_Viscount_Dilhorne "Reginald Manningham-Buller, 1st Viscount Dilhorne"), while Peter Thorneycroft returned to the cabinet as [Minister of Defence](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28UK%29 "Minister of Defence (UK)"). Rab Butler was also promoted to the office of [First Secretary of State](/wiki/First_Secretary_of_State "First Secretary of State"). The reshuffle was controversial within the Conservative Party, and was seen as a betrayal by many. Macmillan's credibility was also affected by the 1963 [Profumo affair](/wiki/Profumo_affair "Profumo affair"); he was now in his 69th year, and had until after his 70th birthday to call the next general election. The election of [Harold Wilson](/wiki/Harold_Wilson "Harold Wilson") as [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 "Labour Party (UK)") leader early in the year, following the sudden death of [Hugh Gaitskell](/wiki/Hugh_Gaitskell "Hugh Gaitskell"), was well received by voters, with opinion polls showing the Labour Party ascendant. However, it was still considered a surprise when Macmillan resigned in October 1963\. ### Douglas\-Home becomes Prime Minister Macmillan's resignation saw a three\-way tussle for the party leadership and premiership. Given that it was not considered appropriate for a Prime Minister to be a member of the [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords "House of Lords"), the Earl of Home and Lord Hailsham both disclaimed their peerages under the [Peerage Act 1963](/wiki/Peerage_Act_1963 "Peerage Act 1963"), and became known respectively as Sir Alec Douglas\-Home and Quintin Hogg. Rab Butler was also in the running for the post, but Douglas\-Home was finally chosen to succeed Macmillan. This was seen as controversial, for it was alleged that Macmillan had pulled strings and used the party's grandees, nicknamed "The Magic Circle", to ensure that Butler was once again overlooked. In the Douglas\-Home ministry, Rab Butler became Foreign Secretary, and [Henry Brooke](/wiki/Henry_Brooke%2C_Baron_Brooke_of_Cumnor "Henry Brooke, Baron Brooke of Cumnor") replaced Butler as Home Secretary. Reginald Maudling continued as Chancellor, while Quintin Hogg remained as Lord President of the Council and Minister for Sports. He could not continue as Leader of the House of Lords, having ceased to be a member of it, but was made Minister for Education in April 1964\. Selwyn Lloyd also returned to the government after a one\-year absence, as Leader of the House of Commons. Douglas\-Home's government was defeated in the [October 1964 general election](/wiki/1964_United_Kingdom_general_election "1964 United Kingdom general election"). He remained party leader until July 1965\. The 1957–1964 Conservative government saw several emerging figures who would later attain high office. Future Prime Minister [Edward Heath](/wiki/Edward_Heath "Edward Heath") became a member of the cabinet for the first time as Minister of Labour and National Service in 1959, while another future Prime Minister, [Margaret Thatcher](/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher "Margaret Thatcher"), held her first government post in 1961 as [Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Pensions](/wiki/Parliamentary_Secretary_to_the_Ministry_of_Pensions "Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Pensions"). The government also included future Chancellor [Anthony Barber](/wiki/Anthony_Barber "Anthony Barber"), future Home Secretary and Deputy Prime Minister [William Whitelaw](/wiki/William_Whitelaw "William Whitelaw") and future [Secretary of State for Education and Science](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Education_and_Science "Secretary of State for Education and Science") [Sir Keith Joseph](/wiki/Sir_Keith_Joseph "Sir Keith Joseph"). Other notable government members included [Enoch Powell](/wiki/Enoch_Powell "Enoch Powell"), [Lord Carrington](/wiki/Lord_Carrington "Lord Carrington"), [David Ormsby\-Gore](/wiki/David_Ormsby-Gore "David Ormsby-Gore"), [John Profumo](/wiki/John_Profumo "John Profumo"), [Christopher Soames](/wiki/Christopher_Soames "Christopher Soames"), [Bill Deedes](/wiki/Bill_Deedes "Bill Deedes"), [Airey Neave](/wiki/Airey_Neave "Airey Neave") and the [Marquess of Salisbury](/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil%2C_5th_Marquess_of_Salisbury "Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury").
[ "History\n-------", "### Formation of the first Macmillan ministry", "[Sir Anthony Eden](/wiki/Sir_Anthony_Eden \"Sir Anthony Eden\") resigned from his positions of [Leader of the Conservative Party](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Leader of the Conservative Party (UK)\") and [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom\") on 10 January 1957\\. This was mainly a consequence of the [Suez Crisis](/wiki/Suez_Crisis \"Suez Crisis\") fiasco of the previous autumn, but was also owing to his increasingly failing health. [Harold Macmillan](/wiki/Harold_Macmillan \"Harold Macmillan\"), formerly [Foreign Secretary](/wiki/Foreign_Secretary \"Foreign Secretary\") and [Chancellor of the Exchequer](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Exchequer \"Chancellor of the Exchequer\"), was chosen over [Rab Butler](/wiki/Rab_Butler \"Rab Butler\") as the new party leader and consequently as Prime Minister.", "[Harold Macmillan](/wiki/Harold_Macmillan \"Harold Macmillan\") tried to placate Butler, who had stood against Macmillan as leader, by appointing him to the senior position of [Home Secretary](/wiki/Home_Secretary \"Home Secretary\"). [Peter Thorneycroft](/wiki/Peter_Thorneycroft \"Peter Thorneycroft\") became Chancellor of the Exchequer, but caused embarrassment for Macmillan when he resigned only a year later. He was replaced by [Derick Heathcoat Amory](/wiki/Derick_Heathcoat_Amory \"Derick Heathcoat Amory\"), previously [Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food](/wiki/Minister_of_Agriculture%2C_Fisheries_and_Food \"Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food\"). Selwyn Lloyd was retained as Foreign Secretary, a post he held until 1960, when he succeeded Heathcoat Amory as Chancellor. [Ernest Marples](/wiki/Ernest_Marples \"Ernest Marples\") became Minister for Transport and the [Earl of Home](/wiki/Alec_Douglas-Home \"Alec Douglas-Home\") was promoted to [Leader of the House of Lords](/wiki/Leader_of_the_House_of_Lords \"Leader of the House of Lords\") and also continued as [Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Commonwealth_Affairs \"Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs\"), before replacing Lloyd as Foreign Secretary in 1960\\. [Lord Kilmuir](/wiki/Lord_Kilmuir \"Lord Kilmuir\") and [Alan Lennox\\-Boyd](/wiki/Alan_Lennox-Boyd \"Alan Lennox-Boyd\") retained their offices of [Lord Chancellor](/wiki/Lord_Chancellor \"Lord Chancellor\") and [Secretary of State for the Colonies](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies \"Secretary of State for the Colonies\") respectively, while [Lord Hailsham](/wiki/Quintin_Hogg%2C_Baron_Hailsham_of_St_Marylebone \"Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone\") became a member of the cabinet for the first time as [Minister of Education](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Education_and_Skills \"Secretary of State for Education and Skills\"). Future Chancellor [Iain Macleod](/wiki/Iain_Macleod \"Iain Macleod\") was appointed [Minister of Labour and National Service](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Employment \"Secretary of State for Employment\") and succeeded Lennox\\-Boyd as Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1961\\.", "### 1959 general election and second Macmillan ministry", "The Conservatives comfortably won the [1959 general election](/wiki/1959_United_Kingdom_general_election \"1959 United Kingdom general election\"), increasing their majority in the House of Commons, following a campaign slogan \"Life's better with the Conservatives\". This centred on the consistently low unemployment, strong economy and rising standard of living that much of the British population was enjoying in the late 1950s.", "However, a series of economic measures in the early 1960s caused the popularity of the Conservative Party to decline. Macmillan tried to remedy this by a major cabinet reshuffle in July 1962\\. Seven cabinet members were sacked in what became nicknamed the \"[Night of the Long Knives](/wiki/Night_of_the_Long_Knives_%281962%29 \"Night of the Long Knives (1962)\")\". Notably, the emerging [Reginald Maudling](/wiki/Reginald_Maudling \"Reginald Maudling\") replaced Selwyn Lloyd as Chancellor, and Lord Kilmuir was replaced as Lord Chancellor by [Lord Dilhorne](/wiki/Reginald_Manningham-Buller%2C_1st_Viscount_Dilhorne \"Reginald Manningham-Buller, 1st Viscount Dilhorne\"), while Peter Thorneycroft returned to the cabinet as [Minister of Defence](/wiki/Minister_of_Defence_%28UK%29 \"Minister of Defence (UK)\"). Rab Butler was also promoted to the office of [First Secretary of State](/wiki/First_Secretary_of_State \"First Secretary of State\"). The reshuffle was controversial within the Conservative Party, and was seen as a betrayal by many. Macmillan's credibility was also affected by the 1963 [Profumo affair](/wiki/Profumo_affair \"Profumo affair\"); he was now in his 69th year, and had until after his 70th birthday to call the next general election. The election of [Harold Wilson](/wiki/Harold_Wilson \"Harold Wilson\") as [Labour Party](/wiki/Labour_Party_%28UK%29 \"Labour Party (UK)\") leader early in the year, following the sudden death of [Hugh Gaitskell](/wiki/Hugh_Gaitskell \"Hugh Gaitskell\"), was well received by voters, with opinion polls showing the Labour Party ascendant.", "However, it was still considered a surprise when Macmillan resigned in October 1963\\.", "### Douglas\\-Home becomes Prime Minister", "Macmillan's resignation saw a three\\-way tussle for the party leadership and premiership. Given that it was not considered appropriate for a Prime Minister to be a member of the [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords \"House of Lords\"), the Earl of Home and Lord Hailsham both disclaimed their peerages under the [Peerage Act 1963](/wiki/Peerage_Act_1963 \"Peerage Act 1963\"), and became known respectively as Sir Alec Douglas\\-Home and Quintin Hogg. Rab Butler was also in the running for the post, but Douglas\\-Home was finally chosen to succeed Macmillan. This was seen as controversial, for it was alleged that Macmillan had pulled strings and used the party's grandees, nicknamed \"The Magic Circle\", to ensure that Butler was once again overlooked.", "In the Douglas\\-Home ministry, Rab Butler became Foreign Secretary, and [Henry Brooke](/wiki/Henry_Brooke%2C_Baron_Brooke_of_Cumnor \"Henry Brooke, Baron Brooke of Cumnor\") replaced Butler as Home Secretary. Reginald Maudling continued as Chancellor, while Quintin Hogg remained as Lord President of the Council and Minister for Sports. He could not continue as Leader of the House of Lords, having ceased to be a member of it, but was made Minister for Education in April 1964\\. Selwyn Lloyd also returned to the government after a one\\-year absence, as Leader of the House of Commons. Douglas\\-Home's government was defeated in the [October 1964 general election](/wiki/1964_United_Kingdom_general_election \"1964 United Kingdom general election\"). He remained party leader until July 1965\\.", "The 1957–1964 Conservative government saw several emerging figures who would later attain high office. Future Prime Minister [Edward Heath](/wiki/Edward_Heath \"Edward Heath\") became a member of the cabinet for the first time as Minister of Labour and National Service in 1959, while another future Prime Minister, [Margaret Thatcher](/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher \"Margaret Thatcher\"), held her first government post in 1961 as [Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Pensions](/wiki/Parliamentary_Secretary_to_the_Ministry_of_Pensions \"Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Pensions\"). The government also included future Chancellor [Anthony Barber](/wiki/Anthony_Barber \"Anthony Barber\"), future Home Secretary and Deputy Prime Minister [William Whitelaw](/wiki/William_Whitelaw \"William Whitelaw\") and future [Secretary of State for Education and Science](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Education_and_Science \"Secretary of State for Education and Science\") [Sir Keith Joseph](/wiki/Sir_Keith_Joseph \"Sir Keith Joseph\"). Other notable government members included [Enoch Powell](/wiki/Enoch_Powell \"Enoch Powell\"), [Lord Carrington](/wiki/Lord_Carrington \"Lord Carrington\"), [David Ormsby\\-Gore](/wiki/David_Ormsby-Gore \"David Ormsby-Gore\"), [John Profumo](/wiki/John_Profumo \"John Profumo\"), [Christopher Soames](/wiki/Christopher_Soames \"Christopher Soames\"), [Bill Deedes](/wiki/Bill_Deedes \"Bill Deedes\"), [Airey Neave](/wiki/Airey_Neave \"Airey Neave\") and the [Marquess of Salisbury](/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil%2C_5th_Marquess_of_Salisbury \"Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury\").", "" ]
History ------- The station was opened on 10 July 1877 under the name Hermsdorf (Mark) as a ground\-level station of the northern railway. First, only long\-distance trains drove the route, a first suburban traffic with steam trains developed around the year 1900\. Since in Hermsdorf at that time developed extensive residential district and the place developed into one of the largest along the route, the long\-distance service remained nonetheless. However, the mixed operation between the two classes of trains proved to be a permanent problem, which is why in 1908 the four\-track extension of the line to Hermsdorf was decided. Between 1909 and 1910, work was carried out to build the track; Most stations were completed by 1912\. Since the station in Hermsdorf should be moved further north in order to be able to open up the villa area better, first the old platform had to be used. While the work was still under way, it was decided to continue the suburban railroad to Frohnau, where another villa settlement was built. Under these circumstances, the work dragged on until April 1913\. The new station had two middle platforms for suburban traffic, connected to a three\-track sweeper and a small freight yard. At the end of the 1910s, the Prussian government decided to electrify the three northern sections of Berlin \- the Stettiner, Kremmener and Nordbahn \- the latter to Hermsdorf. First, the AC operation over overhead line was given preference. In 1922, however, the Free State decided in favor of the DC operation via lateral busbar. In addition, the electrical operation should be extended to Oranienburg. After the Szczecin Railway initially took up electrical operation on 8 August 1924 \- today's S\-Bahn \- the Northern Railway on the section Gesundbrunnen\-Hermsdorf\-Birkenwerder followed on 5 June 1925\. The remaining piece to Oranienburg followed on 3 October the same year. As the suburban trains operated on schedule at least to Birkenwerder, the long\-distance transport was omitted, the platform was demolished in 1933\. Since the Berlin city limits on 1 October 1920 extended as a result of the Greater Berlin Act to behind Frohnau, followed in 1937/1938 renaming the still valid name Berlin\-Hermsdorf. After 1945, the section Wilhelmsruh\-Birkenwerder was reduced to one track each for long\-distance and commuter rail. Since there were no deviations along the route, the trains could only run at hourly intervals. Only in 1948 was the clock by two dodges in Waidmannslust and Frohnau compressed to 20 minutes, Hermsdorf, however, remained single\-tracked. After 1952, in addition, the long\-distance traffic in the Berlin area, since the route was now in the western part of the city, abandoned, the tracks were not used for the expansion of the S \-Bahn line. Despite the shrinking passenger numbers as a result of the S\-Bahn boycott, which began after 1961, operations along the northern runway were maintained and continued even after the Reichsbahn strike in 1980\. Only with the assumption of the operating rights by the BVG on 9 January 1984 was the short\-term decommissioning. Since the passengers after the takeover with massive protests for an operation pronounced, was already on 1 October 1984 the traffic resumed until Frohnau. However, this only lasted until May 1986, the route was then shut down, removed and rebuilt double track. The also decommissioned freight yard was not put back into operation after completion of the work. On 22 December 1986 the work was completed. After German reunification, traffic was resumed via the West Berlin city border as far as Oranienburg. Since December 2014, the train driver takes place by means of the driver's cab monitor (ZAT\-FM), previously the station was occupied by a local supervision.
[ "History\n-------", "The station was opened on 10 July 1877 under the name Hermsdorf (Mark) as a ground\\-level station of the northern railway. First, only long\\-distance trains drove the route, a first suburban traffic with steam trains developed around the year 1900\\. Since in Hermsdorf at that time developed extensive residential district and the place developed into one of the largest along the route, the long\\-distance service remained nonetheless. However, the mixed operation between the two classes of trains proved to be a permanent problem, which is why in 1908 the four\\-track extension of the line to Hermsdorf was decided. Between 1909 and 1910, work was carried out to build the track; Most stations were completed by 1912\\.", "Since the station in Hermsdorf should be moved further north in order to be able to open up the villa area better, first the old platform had to be used. While the work was still under way, it was decided to continue the suburban railroad to Frohnau, where another villa settlement was built. Under these circumstances, the work dragged on until April 1913\\. The new station had two middle platforms for suburban traffic, connected to a three\\-track sweeper and a small freight yard.", "At the end of the 1910s, the Prussian government decided to electrify the three northern sections of Berlin \\- the Stettiner, Kremmener and Nordbahn \\- the latter to Hermsdorf. First, the AC operation over overhead line was given preference. In 1922, however, the Free State decided in favor of the DC operation via lateral busbar. In addition, the electrical operation should be extended to Oranienburg. After the Szczecin Railway initially took up electrical operation on 8 August 1924 \\- today's S\\-Bahn \\- the Northern Railway on the section Gesundbrunnen\\-Hermsdorf\\-Birkenwerder followed on 5 June 1925\\. The remaining piece to Oranienburg followed on 3 October the same year. As the suburban trains operated on schedule at least to Birkenwerder, the long\\-distance transport was omitted, the platform was demolished in 1933\\.", "Since the Berlin city limits on 1 October 1920 extended as a result of the Greater Berlin Act to behind Frohnau, followed in 1937/1938 renaming the still valid name Berlin\\-Hermsdorf.", "After 1945, the section Wilhelmsruh\\-Birkenwerder was reduced to one track each for long\\-distance and commuter rail. Since there were no deviations along the route, the trains could only run at hourly intervals. Only in 1948 was the clock by two dodges in Waidmannslust and Frohnau compressed to 20 minutes, Hermsdorf, however, remained single\\-tracked. After 1952, in addition, the long\\-distance traffic in the Berlin area, since the route was now in the western part of the city, abandoned, the tracks were not used for the expansion of the S \\-Bahn line.", "Despite the shrinking passenger numbers as a result of the S\\-Bahn boycott, which began after 1961, operations along the northern runway were maintained and continued even after the Reichsbahn strike in 1980\\. Only with the assumption of the operating rights by the BVG on 9 January 1984 was the short\\-term decommissioning. Since the passengers after the takeover with massive protests for an operation pronounced, was already on 1 October 1984 the traffic resumed until Frohnau. However, this only lasted until May 1986, the route was then shut down, removed and rebuilt double track. The also decommissioned freight yard was not put back into operation after completion of the work. On 22 December 1986 the work was completed. After German reunification, traffic was resumed via the West Berlin city border as far as Oranienburg.", "Since December 2014, the train driver takes place by means of the driver's cab monitor (ZAT\\-FM), previously the station was occupied by a local supervision.", "" ]
Career ------ On 1 January 1964, Hink was hired as first violinist in the [Vienna State Opera](/wiki/Vienna_State_Opera "Vienna State Opera")'s orchestra. By November 1965, he had been accepted into the Association of the [Vienna Philharmonic](/wiki/Vienna_Philharmonic "Vienna Philharmonic"). After successful probationary work, he advanced in 1967 to [Principal](/wiki/Principal_%28music%29 "Principal (music)") of the First Violinists' Group. In 1974, he was named to the Vienna Philharmonic [Concertmaster](/wiki/Concertmaster "Concertmaster")'s post, which he held until he retired in 2008\. He played there with all the great conductors of his time, from [Herbert von Karajan](/wiki/Herbert_von_Karajan "Herbert von Karajan"), [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein "Leonard Bernstein") and [Carlos Kleiber](/wiki/Carlos_Kleiber "Carlos Kleiber") to [GMJO](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler_Jugendorchester "Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester") founder and music director [Claudio Abbado](/wiki/Claudio_Abbado "Claudio Abbado") and many others. ### Chamber music Alongside his activity with the orchestra, Hink also devoted himself to [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music "Chamber music"). In 1964 he founded the *Wiener Streichquartett*, with whom he performed concerts throughout the world and made many records. Further, he enjoyed great international success with the *Wiener Oktett*, which he also founded, and with the piano trio with Jasminka Stančul and Fritz Dolezal. From 1974 onwards, Hink was a member of the [Wiener Hofmusikkapelle](/wiki/Wiener_Hofmusikkapelle "Wiener Hofmusikkapelle"), and from 1982 Professor for Violin at the [Music and Arts University of the City of Vienna](/wiki/Music_and_Arts_University_of_the_City_of_Vienna "Music and Arts University of the City of Vienna"), succeeding his former teacher, Franz Samohyl. ### Teaching Beginning in 1982, Hink held a violin class at the Vienna Conservatory, where he trained many pupils and shared his musical knowledge. From 1991 to 2010, Hink taught at the [Pacific Music Festival](/wiki/Pacific_Music_Festival "Pacific Music Festival") (PMF) in [Sapporo](/wiki/Sapporo "Sapporo"), Japan. In 2009, Hink became violin teacher for the [Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler_Jugendorchester "Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester") (GMJO); he was leader of the [string section](/wiki/String_section "String section") and a member of the examining panel of judges, as well as a member of the orchestra's board of directors, thus holding for many years a key role in the GMJO's development and success.
[ "Career\n------", "On 1 January 1964, Hink was hired as first violinist in the [Vienna State Opera](/wiki/Vienna_State_Opera \"Vienna State Opera\")'s orchestra. By November 1965, he had been accepted into the Association of the [Vienna Philharmonic](/wiki/Vienna_Philharmonic \"Vienna Philharmonic\"). After successful probationary work, he advanced in 1967 to [Principal](/wiki/Principal_%28music%29 \"Principal (music)\") of the First Violinists' Group. In 1974, he was named to the Vienna Philharmonic [Concertmaster](/wiki/Concertmaster \"Concertmaster\")'s post, which he held until he retired in 2008\\. He played there with all the great conductors of his time, from [Herbert von Karajan](/wiki/Herbert_von_Karajan \"Herbert von Karajan\"), [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\") and [Carlos Kleiber](/wiki/Carlos_Kleiber \"Carlos Kleiber\") to [GMJO](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler_Jugendorchester \"Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester\") founder and music director [Claudio Abbado](/wiki/Claudio_Abbado \"Claudio Abbado\") and many others.", "### Chamber music", "Alongside his activity with the orchestra, Hink also devoted himself to [chamber music](/wiki/Chamber_music \"Chamber music\"). In 1964 he founded the *Wiener Streichquartett*, with whom he performed concerts throughout the world and made many records. Further, he enjoyed great international success with the *Wiener Oktett*, which he also founded, and with the piano trio with Jasminka Stančul and Fritz Dolezal. From 1974 onwards, Hink was a member of the [Wiener Hofmusikkapelle](/wiki/Wiener_Hofmusikkapelle \"Wiener Hofmusikkapelle\"), and from 1982 Professor for Violin at the [Music and Arts University of the City of Vienna](/wiki/Music_and_Arts_University_of_the_City_of_Vienna \"Music and Arts University of the City of Vienna\"), succeeding his former teacher, Franz Samohyl.", "### Teaching", "Beginning in 1982, Hink held a violin class at the Vienna Conservatory, where he trained many pupils and shared his musical knowledge.", "From 1991 to 2010, Hink taught at the [Pacific Music Festival](/wiki/Pacific_Music_Festival \"Pacific Music Festival\") (PMF) in [Sapporo](/wiki/Sapporo \"Sapporo\"), Japan.", "In 2009, Hink became violin teacher for the [Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler_Jugendorchester \"Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester\") (GMJO); he was leader of the [string section](/wiki/String_section \"String section\") and a member of the examining panel of judges, as well as a member of the orchestra's board of directors, thus holding for many years a key role in the GMJO's development and success.", "" ]
Biography --------- John Pourdehnad graduated in 1971 from the [Brunel University](/wiki/Brunel_University "Brunel University"), Uxbridge, Middlesex, England as B.S. in Mechanical and Production Engineering. He received a Ph.D. in Social Systems Sciences at the [University of Pennsylvania](/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania "University of Pennsylvania"). In 1971 he started his career in [British Leyland](/wiki/British_Leyland "British Leyland") in [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire "Lancashire"), England as Design Engineer. After one year he joined General Industrial Group in [Teheran](/wiki/Teheran "Teheran"), [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") as Vice\-President responsible for Manufacturing. After that he became Senior Consultant and project Manager in the Industrial Management Institute of Iran. For a short period he returned to the commercial setting in 1978\-1979 as a President of Systems Development Company, called "Micro\-Data", in Teheran. In 1980 he becomes a System Research Associate and Project Manager in the Busch Center of The Wharton School in the [University of Pennsylvania](/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania "University of Pennsylvania"), Philadelphia. Since 2000 he has been a Professor and Associate Director of the Ackoff Center for Advancement of Systems Approaches (A\-CASA) which is a part of the Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering in the same university. Since 1979, John Pourdehnad, mostly as associate of [Russell Ackoff](/wiki/Russell_Ackoff "Russell Ackoff"), worked as a consultant in a broad range of industries including aerospace, chemicals, computer equipment, data services and software, electronics, energy, food and beverages, healthcare, hospitality, industrial equipment, automotive, insurance, metals, mining, pharmaceuticals, telecommunications, utilities, and transportation. John Pourdehnad is a Member of the Editorial Board, [Systems Research and Behavioral Science](/wiki/Systems_Research_and_Behavioral_Science "Systems Research and Behavioral Science") Journal, a John Wiley Publication and Member of the Academy of Management and journal of "Problems of Governance," Tomsk State University, Russia. He is an honorary member of the Society for Organizational Excellence.[Society for Organizational Excellence](http://www.excellence-bulgaria.org) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827205634/http://www.excellence\-bulgaria.org/ \|date\=2008\-08\-27 }}.
[ "Biography\n---------", "John Pourdehnad graduated in 1971 from the [Brunel University](/wiki/Brunel_University \"Brunel University\"), Uxbridge, Middlesex, England as B.S. in Mechanical and Production Engineering. He received a Ph.D. in Social Systems Sciences at the [University of Pennsylvania](/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania \"University of Pennsylvania\").", "In 1971 he started his career in [British Leyland](/wiki/British_Leyland \"British Leyland\") in [Lancashire](/wiki/Lancashire \"Lancashire\"), England as Design Engineer. After one year he joined General Industrial Group in [Teheran](/wiki/Teheran \"Teheran\"), [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") as Vice\\-President responsible for Manufacturing. After that he became Senior Consultant and project Manager in the Industrial Management Institute of Iran. For a short period he returned to the commercial setting in 1978\\-1979 as a President of Systems Development Company, called \"Micro\\-Data\", in Teheran.", "In 1980 he becomes a System Research Associate and Project Manager in the Busch Center of The Wharton School in the [University of Pennsylvania](/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania \"University of Pennsylvania\"), Philadelphia. Since 2000 he has been a Professor and Associate Director of the Ackoff Center for Advancement of Systems Approaches (A\\-CASA) which is a part of the Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering in the same university.", "Since 1979, John Pourdehnad, mostly as associate of [Russell Ackoff](/wiki/Russell_Ackoff \"Russell Ackoff\"), worked as a consultant in a broad range of industries including aerospace, chemicals, computer equipment, data services and software, electronics, energy, food and beverages, healthcare, hospitality, industrial equipment, automotive, insurance, metals, mining, pharmaceuticals, telecommunications, utilities, and transportation.", "John Pourdehnad is a Member of the Editorial Board, [Systems Research and Behavioral Science](/wiki/Systems_Research_and_Behavioral_Science \"Systems Research and Behavioral Science\") Journal, a John Wiley Publication and Member of the Academy of Management and journal of \"Problems of Governance,\" Tomsk State University, Russia. He is an honorary member of the Society for Organizational Excellence.[Society for Organizational Excellence](http://www.excellence-bulgaria.org) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827205634/http://www.excellence\\-bulgaria.org/ \\|date\\=2008\\-08\\-27 }}.", "" ]
Background ---------- Castrilli was educated at the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto "University of Toronto"), receiving a [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts "Bachelor of Arts") degree in 1969, a [Master of Arts](/wiki/Master_of_Arts "Master of Arts") degree in 1970, and a [Ph.D.](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy "Doctor of Philosophy") in 1977\.{{cite news\|last\=Wright\|first\=Lisa\|title\=Trilingual lawyer defies gender jinx\|newspaper\=The Toronto Star\|date\=1996\-10\-16\|location\=Toronto\|page\=A21}} She subsequently attended [Osgoode Hall Law School](/wiki/Osgoode_Hall_Law_School "Osgoode Hall Law School"), receiving an [LL.B.](/wiki/LL.B. "LL.B.") in 1984\.{{cite journal\|title\=Biographical Sketches. "Elsa Amadio, Annamarie Castrilli and Maria Minna\|journal\=Italian Canadiana\|year\=1995\|volume\=11\|pages\=10–16\|publisher\=Frank Iacobucci Centre for Italian Canadian Studies, University of Toronto\|location\=Toronto}} She began her law career with the firm of Harries, Hauser, Loudon \& Syron from 1985 to 1989 and was a Tax Partner with Bratty and Partners in 1990\. From 1991 to 1995, she ran a private practice as a corporate lawyer. Castrilli also served on the Governing Council of the University of Toronto from 1989 to 1995 (including two years as its chair), was a trustee with the [Sunnybrook Hospital](/wiki/Sunnybrook_Health_Sciences_Centre "Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre") from 1993 to 1995, and was a director of the [Royal Ontario Museum](/wiki/Royal_Ontario_Museum "Royal Ontario Museum"), also from 1993 to 1995\. She was a founding member of the Italian Canadian Women's Alliance in 1976, and of the Women's Intercultural Council in 1988\. Her other achievements include serving as National President of the National Congress of Italian Canadians; President of the Universal Youth Foundation; Member of the Canada 21 Council; Member of the Ontario Lieutenant Governor's Board of Review; a Director of the Legal Education Action Fund Foundation; member of Canadian Friends of Hebrew University; a Director of North York Branson Hospital; a Director of The John Cabot (1997\) 500th Anniversary Corporation; a Director of the Integrated Growth Fund; Chair of the Canadian Centre for Italian Culture and Education; a Director and then Chair of the Association of Chairs of Colleges and Universities; Member of the Board of Presidents, Canadian Ethnocultural Council; founding member and then President of the Women's Intercultural Network; Vice\-Magister, [Phi Delta Phi](/wiki/Phi_Delta_Phi "Phi Delta Phi"), Osgoode Inn; a Director of The Canadian Stage Company; Governor of the YMCA; founder and member of the Advisory Board of Amani Canada, an organization dedicated to supporting the work of Amani, which runs homes and schools for street children in Tanzania, Africa. During her mandate as President of the National Congress of Italian Canadians she led the fight to have the Government of Canada acknowledge the injustice done to Italian Canadians during World War II. In 1990 at an evening organized by the National Congress of Italian Canadians, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney apologized for the internment of Italian Canadians during World War II and other acts of injustice directed at them. Before entering politics, she had written a great deal on multiculturalism, women's issues, constitutional, civil and human rights. She had also been involved in the constitutional debate in Canada. She was a member of the National Coalition on the Constitution; Member of the Council for Canadian Unity; a member of the Federal Task Force on Multiculturalism; a member of the Premier of Ontario's Advisory Group on the Constitution (Charlottetown Accord) and Vice\-Chair of the Ontario Canada Committee (the “Yes Committee”) in the Charlottetown Referendum.
[ "Background\n----------", "Castrilli was educated at the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto \"University of Toronto\"), receiving a [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") degree in 1969, a [Master of Arts](/wiki/Master_of_Arts \"Master of Arts\") degree in 1970, and a [Ph.D.](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy \"Doctor of Philosophy\") in 1977\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Wright\\|first\\=Lisa\\|title\\=Trilingual lawyer defies gender jinx\\|newspaper\\=The Toronto Star\\|date\\=1996\\-10\\-16\\|location\\=Toronto\\|page\\=A21}} She subsequently attended [Osgoode Hall Law School](/wiki/Osgoode_Hall_Law_School \"Osgoode Hall Law School\"), receiving an [LL.B.](/wiki/LL.B. \"LL.B.\") in 1984\\.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Biographical Sketches. \"Elsa Amadio, Annamarie Castrilli and Maria Minna\\|journal\\=Italian Canadiana\\|year\\=1995\\|volume\\=11\\|pages\\=10–16\\|publisher\\=Frank Iacobucci Centre for Italian Canadian Studies, University of Toronto\\|location\\=Toronto}} She began her law career with the firm of Harries, Hauser, Loudon \\& Syron from 1985 to 1989 and was a Tax Partner with Bratty and Partners in 1990\\. From 1991 to 1995, she ran a private practice as a corporate lawyer.", "Castrilli also served on the Governing Council of the University of Toronto from 1989 to 1995 (including two years as its chair), was a trustee with the [Sunnybrook Hospital](/wiki/Sunnybrook_Health_Sciences_Centre \"Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre\") from 1993 to 1995, and was a director of the [Royal Ontario Museum](/wiki/Royal_Ontario_Museum \"Royal Ontario Museum\"), also from 1993 to 1995\\. She was a founding member of the Italian Canadian Women's Alliance in 1976, and of the Women's Intercultural Council in 1988\\.", "Her other achievements include serving as National President of the National Congress of Italian Canadians; President of the Universal Youth Foundation; Member of the Canada 21 Council; Member of the Ontario Lieutenant Governor's Board of Review; a Director of the Legal Education Action Fund Foundation; member of Canadian Friends of Hebrew University; a Director of North York Branson Hospital; a Director of The John Cabot (1997\\) 500th Anniversary Corporation; a Director of the Integrated Growth Fund; Chair of the Canadian Centre for Italian Culture and Education; a Director and then Chair of the Association of Chairs of Colleges and Universities; Member of the Board of Presidents, Canadian Ethnocultural Council; founding member and then President of the Women's Intercultural Network; Vice\\-Magister, [Phi Delta Phi](/wiki/Phi_Delta_Phi \"Phi Delta Phi\"), Osgoode Inn; a Director of The Canadian Stage Company; Governor of the YMCA; founder and member of the Advisory Board of Amani Canada, an organization dedicated to supporting the work of Amani, which runs homes and schools for street children in Tanzania, Africa.", "During her mandate as President of the National Congress of Italian Canadians she led the fight to have the Government of Canada acknowledge the injustice done to Italian Canadians during World War II. In 1990 at an evening organized by the National Congress of Italian Canadians, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney apologized for the internment of Italian Canadians during World War II and other acts of injustice directed at them.", "Before entering politics, she had written a great deal on multiculturalism, women's issues, constitutional, civil and human rights. She had also been involved in the constitutional debate in Canada. She was a member of the National Coalition on the Constitution; Member of the Council for Canadian Unity; a member of the Federal Task Force on Multiculturalism; a member of the Premier of Ontario's Advisory Group on the Constitution (Charlottetown Accord) and Vice\\-Chair of the Ontario Canada Committee (the “Yes Committee”) in the Charlottetown Referendum.", "" ]
Collections ----------- [thumb\|Corban's library houses the museum](/wiki/File:Corban_College_Library.JPG "Corban College Library.JPG") [thumb\|Mummified falcon on display at the museum](/wiki/File:Prewitt-Allen_Archaeological_Museum_falcon_mummy.JPG "Prewitt-Allen Archaeological Museum falcon mummy.JPG") The Prewitt–Allen Archaeological Museum is situated inside Corban University's library. Located on the second floor, the displays line the hallway of the library.{{cite news\|title\= Life: Library at Corban College has a surprising museum \|last\= Hamlin \|first\= Holly \|date\= January 27, 2009 \|work\=\[\[Statesman Journal]]\|page\=1}} The museum is open the same hours as the library, with free admission. Artifacts in the collections come primarily from the region around the [Eastern](/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean "Eastern Mediterranean") [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea"). This includes the modern nations of Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, and Egypt among others, as well as the ancient lands of [Sumeria](/wiki/Sumer "Sumer"), [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia "Mesopotamia") and [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 "Palestine (region)").{{cite news\|title\= Saddam's land houses rich Babylon history \|last\=Evans\|first\=Sarah\|date\= March 26, 2003 \|work\=\[\[Statesman Journal]]\|page\=3A}} According to the museum it is the only museum of its kind between [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver "Vancouver"), B.C. and [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco"). The museum includes a collection of oil lamps that date back as far as the [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age") . This collection shows the evolution of the lamp and includes newer versions dating from the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") and [Medieval times](/wiki/Medieval_times "Medieval times"). Other everyday items held by the museum include hand tools, scrapers, pottery, arrowheads, tear bottles, cups (including a [kylix](/wiki/Kylix_%28drinking_cup%29 "Kylix (drinking cup)")), perfume bottles, coins, and [clay tablet](/wiki/Clay_tablet "Clay tablet") writings. These pieces demonstrate what life was like in antiquity in [Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt"), [Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece"), Palestine, and Mesopotamia. A [palimpsest](/wiki/Palimpsest "Palimpsest") parchment from around 700 A.D. is the most prized piece in the museum’s collection. Palimpsests are documents whose original text was erased and a new recording was written over the older text. This artifact has [Coptic](/wiki/Coptic_language "Coptic language") writings concerning the [Wisdom of Solomon](/wiki/Wisdom_of_Solomon "Wisdom of Solomon") overwriting older writings of a glossary of Virgil’s Georgics written in Greek. Known as the Allen Papyrus or Allen Palimpsest, the original writings date from the 5th century A.D., and is named after the museum founder who acquired it in Egypt. The museum’s other significant pieces date back as far as 3000 BC. Pottery shards dating to this time are the oldest pieces in the collection. Other pottery pieces include a tablet from 2700 B.C. written in [Samarian](/wiki/Samaria "Samaria") that came from [Beersheba](/wiki/Beersheba "Beersheba") to items as recent as the 1st century AD. Another is an [Amphora](/wiki/Amphora "Amphora") that came from a shipwreck in the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea"). Other items on display include several related to [mummification](/wiki/Mummy "Mummy") in ancient Egypt. One is a display of alabaster [Canopic jars](/wiki/Canopic_jar "Canopic jar") used for storing the [internal organs](/wiki/Viscus "Viscus") of mummies that are in the shape of a gorilla. Another is a mummy of falcon that dates back to 1500 BC. This includes a casket, with the falcon wrapped up into the shape of Osiris, an Egyptian god. Prewitt/Allen includes several large replicas in its collections. This includes a full\-size copy of the [Rosetta Stone](/wiki/Rosetta_Stone "Rosetta Stone") that was cast from a mold created from the original. Another replica is of the [Code of Hammurabi](/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi "Code of Hammurabi") that stands {{convert\|6\|ft}} tall. The copy is based on the law of the Babylonian King and is inscribed into black basalt. Other replicas include the [Obelisk of Shalmaneser](/wiki/Shalmaneser_III "Shalmaneser III"), jewelry of [Queen Nefertiti](/wiki/Nefertiti "Nefertiti"), and a gold bust of the [Pharaoh](/wiki/Pharaoh "Pharaoh") [Tutankhamun](/wiki/Tutankhamun "Tutankhamun"). In addition to artifacts, the museum has copies of all the pages of the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament "New Testament") from all the main manuscripts of that work.
[ "Collections\n-----------", "[thumb\\|Corban's library houses the museum](/wiki/File:Corban_College_Library.JPG \"Corban College Library.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Mummified falcon on display at the museum](/wiki/File:Prewitt-Allen_Archaeological_Museum_falcon_mummy.JPG \"Prewitt-Allen Archaeological Museum falcon mummy.JPG\")\nThe Prewitt–Allen Archaeological Museum is situated inside Corban University's library. Located on the second floor, the displays line the hallway of the library.{{cite news\\|title\\= Life: Library at Corban College has a surprising museum \\|last\\= Hamlin \\|first\\= Holly \\|date\\= January 27, 2009 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Statesman Journal]]\\|page\\=1}} The museum is open the same hours as the library, with free admission. Artifacts in the collections come primarily from the region around the [Eastern](/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean \"Eastern Mediterranean\") [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\"). This includes the modern nations of Greece, Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, and Egypt among others, as well as the ancient lands of [Sumeria](/wiki/Sumer \"Sumer\"), [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\") and [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 \"Palestine (region)\").{{cite news\\|title\\= Saddam's land houses rich Babylon history \\|last\\=Evans\\|first\\=Sarah\\|date\\= March 26, 2003 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Statesman Journal]]\\|page\\=3A}} According to the museum it is the only museum of its kind between [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver \"Vancouver\"), B.C. and [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\").", "The museum includes a collection of oil lamps that date back as far as the [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\") . This collection shows the evolution of the lamp and includes newer versions dating from the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") and [Medieval times](/wiki/Medieval_times \"Medieval times\"). Other everyday items held by the museum include hand tools, scrapers, pottery, arrowheads, tear bottles, cups (including a [kylix](/wiki/Kylix_%28drinking_cup%29 \"Kylix (drinking cup)\")), perfume bottles, coins, and [clay tablet](/wiki/Clay_tablet \"Clay tablet\") writings. These pieces demonstrate what life was like in antiquity in [Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\"), [Greece](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\"), Palestine, and Mesopotamia.", "A [palimpsest](/wiki/Palimpsest \"Palimpsest\") parchment from around 700 A.D. is the most prized piece in the museum’s collection. Palimpsests are documents whose original text was erased and a new recording was written over the older text. This artifact has [Coptic](/wiki/Coptic_language \"Coptic language\") writings concerning the [Wisdom of Solomon](/wiki/Wisdom_of_Solomon \"Wisdom of Solomon\") overwriting older writings of a glossary of Virgil’s Georgics written in Greek. Known as the Allen Papyrus or Allen Palimpsest, the original writings date from the 5th century A.D., and is named after the museum founder who acquired it in Egypt.", "The museum’s other significant pieces date back as far as 3000 BC. Pottery shards dating to this time are the oldest pieces in the collection. Other pottery pieces include a tablet from 2700 B.C. written in [Samarian](/wiki/Samaria \"Samaria\") that came from [Beersheba](/wiki/Beersheba \"Beersheba\") to items as recent as the 1st century AD. Another is an [Amphora](/wiki/Amphora \"Amphora\") that came from a shipwreck in the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\").", "Other items on display include several related to [mummification](/wiki/Mummy \"Mummy\") in ancient Egypt. One is a display of alabaster [Canopic jars](/wiki/Canopic_jar \"Canopic jar\") used for storing the [internal organs](/wiki/Viscus \"Viscus\") of mummies that are in the shape of a gorilla. Another is a mummy of falcon that dates back to 1500 BC. This includes a casket, with the falcon wrapped up into the shape of Osiris, an Egyptian god.", "Prewitt/Allen includes several large replicas in its collections. This includes a full\\-size copy of the [Rosetta Stone](/wiki/Rosetta_Stone \"Rosetta Stone\") that was cast from a mold created from the original. Another replica is of the [Code of Hammurabi](/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi \"Code of Hammurabi\") that stands {{convert\\|6\\|ft}} tall. The copy is based on the law of the Babylonian King and is inscribed into black basalt. Other replicas include the [Obelisk of Shalmaneser](/wiki/Shalmaneser_III \"Shalmaneser III\"), jewelry of [Queen Nefertiti](/wiki/Nefertiti \"Nefertiti\"), and a gold bust of the [Pharaoh](/wiki/Pharaoh \"Pharaoh\") [Tutankhamun](/wiki/Tutankhamun \"Tutankhamun\"). In addition to artifacts, the museum has copies of all the pages of the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament \"New Testament\") from all the main manuscripts of that work.", "" ]
Political career ---------------- ### Early political career In January 2011, Steven was appointed as a member of the [Seberang Perai Municipal Council](/wiki/Seberang_Perai_Municipal_Council "Seberang Perai Municipal Council") (MPSP), one of the largest local governments of [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia"). In 2012, he was named as a [Young Global Leader](/wiki/Young_Global_Leader "Young Global Leader") of the Geneva\-based [World Economic Forum](/wiki/World_Economic_Forum "World Economic Forum").{{cite news\|title\=Penang Institute's Steven Sim awarded Young Global Leader by WEF\|url\=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/316774\|access\-date\=23 September 2012\|newspaper\=The Sun Daily\|date\=8 March 2012}}{{Dead link\|date\=June 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=no }} He is also a member of the Board of Directors of Penang Institute, a public policy think\-tank based in [Penang](/wiki/Penang "Penang"). Steven writes regularly for Penang Monthly (formerly Penang Economic Monthly) as well as contributing opinion pieces to prominent Malaysian online news portals such as [Malaysiakini](/wiki/Malaysiakini "Malaysiakini") and the [Malaysian Insider](/wiki/Malaysian_Insider "Malaysian Insider"). He has authored 4 books, including "*A contemporary socio\-political critique of the Malay classic Hikayat Hang Tuah, Hang Tuah: Adiwira Bangsa*" in 2021\. Steven was [elected into the DAP central executive committee (CEC) in 2022](/wiki/2022_Democratic_Action_Party_National_Congress "2022 Democratic Action Party National Congress"). ### Minister of Human Resources (since 2023\) In a [cabinet reshuffle](/wiki/2023_Malaysian_cabinet_reshuffle "2023 Malaysian cabinet reshuffle") on 12 December 2023, Steven was promoted to a Cabinet minister and assigned a new portfolio. He was appointed as the Minister of Human Resources to replace [V. Sivakumar](/wiki/V._Sivakumar "V. Sivakumar"), who was the only Cabinet minister to be dropped in the reshuffle and whose aides were facing corruption charges. ### State Chairman of DAP Penang (since 2024\) In the 2024 DAP Penang state party elections, Steven was appointed as the Penang DAP chairman for the 2024 \- 2027 term.[https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2024/09/22/steven\-sim\-new\-penang\-dap\-chief\-ramkarpal\-as\-deputy/](https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2024/09/22/steven-sim-new-penang-dap-chief-ramkarpal-as-deputy/)
[ "Political career\n----------------", "### Early political career", "In January 2011, Steven was appointed as a member of the [Seberang Perai Municipal Council](/wiki/Seberang_Perai_Municipal_Council \"Seberang Perai Municipal Council\") (MPSP), one of the largest local governments of [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\").", "In 2012, he was named as a [Young Global Leader](/wiki/Young_Global_Leader \"Young Global Leader\") of the Geneva\\-based [World Economic Forum](/wiki/World_Economic_Forum \"World Economic Forum\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Penang Institute's Steven Sim awarded Young Global Leader by WEF\\|url\\=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/316774\\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2012\\|newspaper\\=The Sun Daily\\|date\\=8 March 2012}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=June 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=no }} He is also a member of the Board of Directors of Penang Institute, a public policy think\\-tank based in [Penang](/wiki/Penang \"Penang\").", "Steven writes regularly for Penang Monthly (formerly Penang Economic Monthly) as well as contributing opinion pieces to prominent Malaysian online news portals such as [Malaysiakini](/wiki/Malaysiakini \"Malaysiakini\") and the [Malaysian Insider](/wiki/Malaysian_Insider \"Malaysian Insider\"). He has authored 4 books, including \"*A contemporary socio\\-political critique of the Malay classic Hikayat Hang Tuah, Hang Tuah: Adiwira Bangsa*\" in 2021\\.", "Steven was [elected into the DAP central executive committee (CEC) in 2022](/wiki/2022_Democratic_Action_Party_National_Congress \"2022 Democratic Action Party National Congress\").", "### Minister of Human Resources (since 2023\\)", "In a [cabinet reshuffle](/wiki/2023_Malaysian_cabinet_reshuffle \"2023 Malaysian cabinet reshuffle\") on 12 December 2023, Steven was promoted to a Cabinet minister and assigned a new portfolio. He was appointed as the Minister of Human Resources to replace [V. Sivakumar](/wiki/V._Sivakumar \"V. Sivakumar\"), who was the only Cabinet minister to be dropped in the reshuffle and whose aides were facing corruption charges.", "### State Chairman of DAP Penang (since 2024\\)", "In the 2024 DAP Penang state party elections, Steven was appointed as the Penang DAP chairman for the 2024 \\- 2027 term.[https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2024/09/22/steven\\-sim\\-new\\-penang\\-dap\\-chief\\-ramkarpal\\-as\\-deputy/](https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2024/09/22/steven-sim-new-penang-dap-chief-ramkarpal-as-deputy/)", "" ]
Plot ---- A young blond\-haired man, having washed himself, listens to his recorded conversations with various girls he was having affairs with, while one of them, Mirka unsuccessfully tries to get to his apartment. As he waits for her to leave, his friend Edmund arrives. He drives him to the [sports venue](/wiki/Hale_Mirowskie "Hale Mirowskie"), where we learn that the still unnamed main protagonist is a [doctor](/wiki/Sports_medicine "Sports medicine") who qualifies young men for participation in boxing tournaments. He talks with his ex\-lover and nurse – Teresa. In the evening, he plays [drums](/wiki/Drum_kit "Drum kit") in a jazz band led by a [bassist](/wiki/Double_bass "Double bass") Dudek "Polo". The group takes part in a music competition, heavily attended by many young people, including Mirka. After the successful performance (still described by Dudek as "crap" and "fairground music"), he flirts with a journalist. Seeing this, Mirka leaves upset. Later that evening he meets with Edmund at the club, where, infatuated by the charm of a young girl, Edmund wants to get rid of her partner by driving him out of the city, pretending to be a taxi driver. Doing that, the main protagonist's task would be to take the girl back to the club, where they would wait for Edmund to join them. However, the plan fails when the "kidnapped" girl makes the protagonist go for a night walk around [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw") with her. He feels sorry for her so he tries to help her catch the train back home. The girl, however, being in no hurry, missed the train on purpose. Feeling confused and guilty, he takes her to his apartment. Apparently attracted to each other, they write down a "contract" dedicated to their acquaintance. Introducing themselves with made\-up names (she says her name is "[Pelagia](/wiki/Pelagia_%28Vorname%29 "Pelagia (Vorname)")", while he introduces himself as "[Bazyli](/wiki/Basil_%28name%29 "Basil (name)")") they make fun of the social norms imposed on people by society as well as the very situation in which they both found themselves. Throughout the night, Bazyli and Pelagia perform all sorts of platonic activities, such as chatting and playing games, finally falling asleep on separate beds. In the morning, Bazyli's bandmates wake him up to go outside. He comes out of his apartment to greet them, leaving Pelagia alone. When he returns, Bazyli finds out she's no longer there. Desperately looking for his newly met girlfriend, he arrives at the boxing arena, where he hopelessly asks Edmund if he knows anything about her. Edmund, confused by seeing his friend being in love, calls the main protagonist for the first time by his real name – "Andrzej". As he leaves the place, Andrzej is attacked by the boxer who resents the doctor for not allowing him to start in the tournament and has been heavily drinking while waiting for him. Andrzej easily defeats him and slowly returns to his apartment. As the resigned Andrzej opens the door, he is surprised to see a delighted Pelagia offering him tea and telling him she went for a walk. Humiliated by his feelings, he acts as if nothing serious happened and pretends to fall asleep. At that very moment, hearing on the radio what time is it, the girl sadly announces she has to go. Andrzej doesn't stop her. She leaves the apartment but after a short thought, before even going downstairs, she returns to it.
[ "Plot\n----", "A young blond\\-haired man, having washed himself, listens to his recorded conversations with various girls he was having affairs with, while one of them, Mirka unsuccessfully tries to get to his apartment. As he waits for her to leave, his friend Edmund arrives. He drives him to the [sports venue](/wiki/Hale_Mirowskie \"Hale Mirowskie\"), where we learn that the still unnamed main protagonist is a [doctor](/wiki/Sports_medicine \"Sports medicine\") who qualifies young men for participation in boxing tournaments. He talks with his ex\\-lover and nurse – Teresa. In the evening, he plays [drums](/wiki/Drum_kit \"Drum kit\") in a jazz band led by a [bassist](/wiki/Double_bass \"Double bass\") Dudek \"Polo\". The group takes part in a music competition, heavily attended by many young people, including Mirka. After the successful performance (still described by Dudek as \"crap\" and \"fairground music\"), he flirts with a journalist. Seeing this, Mirka leaves upset.", "Later that evening he meets with Edmund at the club, where, infatuated by the charm of a young girl, Edmund wants to get rid of her partner by driving him out of the city, pretending to be a taxi driver. Doing that, the main protagonist's task would be to take the girl back to the club, where they would wait for Edmund to join them. However, the plan fails when the \"kidnapped\" girl makes the protagonist go for a night walk around [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\") with her. He feels sorry for her so he tries to help her catch the train back home. The girl, however, being in no hurry, missed the train on purpose. Feeling confused and guilty, he takes her to his apartment.", "Apparently attracted to each other, they write down a \"contract\" dedicated to their acquaintance. Introducing themselves with made\\-up names (she says her name is \"[Pelagia](/wiki/Pelagia_%28Vorname%29 \"Pelagia (Vorname)\")\", while he introduces himself as \"[Bazyli](/wiki/Basil_%28name%29 \"Basil (name)\")\") they make fun of the social norms imposed on people by society as well as the very situation in which they both found themselves. Throughout the night, Bazyli and Pelagia perform all sorts of platonic activities, such as chatting and playing games, finally falling asleep on separate beds.", "In the morning, Bazyli's bandmates wake him up to go outside. He comes out of his apartment to greet them, leaving Pelagia alone. When he returns, Bazyli finds out she's no longer there. Desperately looking for his newly met girlfriend, he arrives at the boxing arena, where he hopelessly asks Edmund if he knows anything about her. Edmund, confused by seeing his friend being in love, calls the main protagonist for the first time by his real name – \"Andrzej\". As he leaves the place, Andrzej is attacked by the boxer who resents the doctor for not allowing him to start in the tournament and has been heavily drinking while waiting for him. Andrzej easily defeats him and slowly returns to his apartment.", "As the resigned Andrzej opens the door, he is surprised to see a delighted Pelagia offering him tea and telling him she went for a walk. Humiliated by his feelings, he acts as if nothing serious happened and pretends to fall asleep. At that very moment, hearing on the radio what time is it, the girl sadly announces she has to go. Andrzej doesn't stop her. She leaves the apartment but after a short thought, before even going downstairs, she returns to it.", "" ]
Design, test and initial production ----------------------------------- In 1983 General Dynamics Convair Division (GD/C) was awarded a development contract for the AGM\-129A (the losing design was [Lockheed Corporation](/wiki/Lockheed_Corporation "Lockheed Corporation")'s [Senior Prom](/wiki/Senior_Prom "Senior Prom")). The AGM\-129A incorporated body shaping and [forward swept wings](/wiki/Forward_swept_wings "Forward swept wings") to reduce the missile's [radar cross section](/wiki/Radar_cross_section "Radar cross section"). The engine air intake was flush mounted on the bottom of the missile to further improve radar cross section. The jet engine exhaust was shielded by the tail and cooled by a diffuser to reduce the [infrared signature](/wiki/Infrared_signature "Infrared signature") of the missile. To reduce electronic emissions from the missile, the radar used in the AGM\-86B was replaced with a combination of inertial navigation and terrain contour matching ([TERCOM](/wiki/TERCOM "TERCOM")) enhanced with highly accurate speed updates provided by a [Lidar](/wiki/Lidar "Lidar") [Doppler velocimeter](/wiki/Laser_Doppler_velocimetry "Laser Doppler velocimetry"). These changes made the AGM\-129A more difficult to detect and allowed the missile to be flown at higher altitude. The newer [Williams International](/wiki/Williams_International "Williams International") [F112\-WR\-100](/wiki/Williams_F112 "Williams F112") turbofan engine increased range by about 50%. The newer guidance system increased accuracy to a quoted figure of between 30 m (100 ft) and 90 m (300 ft). The AGM\-129A, like the AGM\-86B, is armed with a [W80](/wiki/W80_%28nuclear_warhead%29 "W80 (nuclear warhead)")\-1 [variable\-yield](/wiki/Variable_yield "Variable yield") nuclear warhead. The first test missile flew in July 1985, and the first production missiles were delivered to the US Air Force in 1987\. The development program experienced some hardware 'quality control' problems and testing mishaps. The flight test program took place during a period of high tension between the machinists' union and GDC management, with a {{frac\|3\|1\|2}}\-week\-long strike occurring in 1987\. US Congressman [Les Aspin](/wiki/Les_Aspin "Les Aspin") called the ACM a procurement disaster with the worst problems of any of the eight strategic weapons programs his committee had reviewed. The [US Congress](/wiki/US_Congress "US Congress") zeroed out funding for the ACM program in 1989\. Manufacturing 'quality' problems led the US Air Force to stop missile deliveries in 1989 and 1991\. [McDonnell Douglas](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas "McDonnell Douglas") was invited to qualify as a second source for missile production. In early 1989, the United States requested and received permission to test the AGM\-129A in Canada. Plans called for producing enough missiles to replace the approximately 1,461 AGM\-86B's at a rate of 200 missiles per year after full\-rate production was achieved in 1993\. In January 1992, the end of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") led US President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") to announce a major cutback in total ACM procurement. The President determined that only 640 missiles were needed. The ACM program was later reduced still further to 460 missiles. In August 1992 General Dynamics sold its missile business to [Hughes Aircraft](/wiki/Hughes_Aircraft "Hughes Aircraft") Corporation. Five years later in 1997, Hughes Aircraft Corporation sold its aerospace and defense business to the final production contractor [Raytheon](/wiki/Raytheon "Raytheon"). The US Air Force pushed for production of a **AGM\-129B** variant for targets for which the AGM\-129A was considered ineffective. The US Air Force submitted this requirement in 1985 and proposed to modify 120 missiles into the AGM\-129B variant. In 1991 the US Congress denied the request and the US Air Force was forced to terminate the program. In 1992, the US Air Force was directed by the [US Department of Defense](/wiki/US_Department_of_Defense "US Department of Defense") to restart the program, an effort which was opposed by the [General Accounting Office](/wiki/General_Accounting_Office "General Accounting Office") of the [US Congress](/wiki/US_Congress "US Congress"). Confusion exists as to precisely how this weapon is different from the original. The Department of Defense document DoD 4120\.15\-L "Model Designation of Military Aerospace Vehicles" states that the AGM\-129B was an AGM\-129A "modified with [structural](/wiki/Structure "Structure") and [software](/wiki/Software "Software") changes and an alternate nuclear warhead for accomplishing a classified cruise missile mission." However, Ozu states the AGM\-129B was intended to be a [non\-nuclear](/wiki/Conventional_weapons "Conventional weapons") version of the ACM, much as the nuclear AGM\-86B led to the conventional [AGM\-86C](/wiki/AGM-86B "AGM-86B").{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2011}} This role was instead filled by the [AGM\-158 JASSM](/wiki/AGM-158_JASSM "AGM-158 JASSM").
[ "Design, test and initial production\n-----------------------------------", "In 1983 General Dynamics Convair Division (GD/C) was awarded a development contract for the AGM\\-129A (the losing design was [Lockheed Corporation](/wiki/Lockheed_Corporation \"Lockheed Corporation\")'s [Senior Prom](/wiki/Senior_Prom \"Senior Prom\")). The AGM\\-129A incorporated body shaping and [forward swept wings](/wiki/Forward_swept_wings \"Forward swept wings\") to reduce the missile's [radar cross section](/wiki/Radar_cross_section \"Radar cross section\"). The engine air intake was flush mounted on the bottom of the missile to further improve radar cross section. The jet engine exhaust was shielded by the tail and cooled by a diffuser to reduce the [infrared signature](/wiki/Infrared_signature \"Infrared signature\") of the missile. To reduce electronic emissions from the missile, the radar used in the AGM\\-86B was replaced with a combination of inertial navigation and terrain contour matching ([TERCOM](/wiki/TERCOM \"TERCOM\")) enhanced with highly accurate speed updates provided by a [Lidar](/wiki/Lidar \"Lidar\") [Doppler velocimeter](/wiki/Laser_Doppler_velocimetry \"Laser Doppler velocimetry\").", "These changes made the AGM\\-129A more difficult to detect and allowed the missile to be flown at higher altitude. The newer [Williams International](/wiki/Williams_International \"Williams International\") [F112\\-WR\\-100](/wiki/Williams_F112 \"Williams F112\") turbofan engine increased range by about 50%. The newer guidance system increased accuracy to a quoted figure of between 30 m (100 ft) and 90 m (300 ft).", "The AGM\\-129A, like the AGM\\-86B, is armed with a [W80](/wiki/W80_%28nuclear_warhead%29 \"W80 (nuclear warhead)\")\\-1 [variable\\-yield](/wiki/Variable_yield \"Variable yield\") nuclear warhead.", "The first test missile flew in July 1985, and the first production missiles were delivered to the US Air Force in 1987\\. The development program experienced some hardware 'quality control' problems and testing mishaps. The flight test program took place during a period of high tension between the machinists' union and GDC management, with a {{frac\\|3\\|1\\|2}}\\-week\\-long strike occurring in 1987\\. US Congressman [Les Aspin](/wiki/Les_Aspin \"Les Aspin\") called the ACM a procurement disaster with the worst problems of any of the eight strategic weapons programs his committee had reviewed. The [US Congress](/wiki/US_Congress \"US Congress\") zeroed out funding for the ACM program in 1989\\. Manufacturing 'quality' problems led the US Air Force to stop missile deliveries in 1989 and 1991\\. [McDonnell Douglas](/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas \"McDonnell Douglas\") was invited to qualify as a second source for missile production. In early 1989, the United States requested and received permission to test the AGM\\-129A in Canada.", "Plans called for producing enough missiles to replace the approximately 1,461 AGM\\-86B's at a rate of 200 missiles per year after full\\-rate production was achieved in 1993\\. In January 1992, the end of the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") led US President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\") to announce a major cutback in total ACM procurement. The President determined that only 640 missiles were needed. The ACM program was later reduced still further to 460 missiles. In August 1992 General Dynamics sold its missile business to [Hughes Aircraft](/wiki/Hughes_Aircraft \"Hughes Aircraft\") Corporation. Five years later in 1997, Hughes Aircraft Corporation sold its aerospace and defense business to the final production contractor [Raytheon](/wiki/Raytheon \"Raytheon\").", "The US Air Force pushed for production of a **AGM\\-129B** variant for targets for which the AGM\\-129A was considered ineffective. The US Air Force submitted this requirement in 1985 and proposed to modify 120 missiles into the AGM\\-129B variant. In 1991 the US Congress denied the request and the US Air Force was forced to terminate the program. In 1992, the US Air Force was directed by the [US Department of Defense](/wiki/US_Department_of_Defense \"US Department of Defense\") to restart the program, an effort which was opposed by the [General Accounting Office](/wiki/General_Accounting_Office \"General Accounting Office\") of the [US Congress](/wiki/US_Congress \"US Congress\"). Confusion exists as to precisely how this weapon is different from the original. The Department of Defense document DoD 4120\\.15\\-L \"Model Designation of Military Aerospace Vehicles\" states that the AGM\\-129B was an AGM\\-129A \"modified with [structural](/wiki/Structure \"Structure\") and [software](/wiki/Software \"Software\") changes and an alternate nuclear warhead for accomplishing a classified cruise missile mission.\" However, Ozu states the AGM\\-129B was intended to be a [non\\-nuclear](/wiki/Conventional_weapons \"Conventional weapons\") version of the ACM, much as the nuclear AGM\\-86B led to the conventional [AGM\\-86C](/wiki/AGM-86B \"AGM-86B\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2011}} This role was instead filled by the [AGM\\-158 JASSM](/wiki/AGM-158_JASSM \"AGM-158 JASSM\").", "" ]
Plot ---- After forcing Hatch to flee the Elgen Academy in [Pasadena](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California "Pasadena, California"), the Electroclan, led by Michael, escapes back to Idaho, but Elgen guards are lurking around town. When they arrive at Jack's sister's tanning salon, they are forced to escape on a tip from a voice on a strange phone, who claims that the police (now controlled by the Elgen) are on their way to arrest them. The unidentified voice orders them to stay at a safe house that he owns. When that too is compromised, they camp out at Mitchell's house (who was one of Michael's old bullies). There, they use Grace, a "human flash drive" who has downloaded Elgen files before they were destroyed, to try to find Michael's mother. {{cite web\|title\=The Books\|url\=http://www.michaelvey.com/book\-2\.php\|publisher\=Strillogy\|accessdate\=7 July 2013}} They find that Michael's mother is being held captive at an Elgen\-owned power plant in Peru. The Elgen owns hundreds of renewable energy power plants, called "Starxource" plants, in different countries powered by rats that were tested on by the MEI. The Elgen plans to [take over](/wiki/Monopoly "Monopoly") the countries they've built plants in by controlling their electricity. Eventually, the Elgen capture the Electroclan, but the voice helps them escape during a car chase, making Michael realize the voice is the only one who can help them. He negotiates with the voice and exchanges Grace for a trip to Peru to try and rescue Michael's mother. After making it to Peru, the voice sends a guide, Jaime, to lead them through the Amazon to the Peruvian Starxource plant. Meanwhile, Hatch is forced by Elgen Inc.'s board of directors to shut down the NEOSpecies Genesis Program. Hatch reveals to his loyal electric children that he will disobey the board's plans and will be heading to the Peruvian Starxource Plant in [Puerto Maldonado](/wiki/Puerto_Maldonado "Puerto Maldonado") to gather loyal guards to overthrow the board. At a convention for the guards, Hatch announces they will soon take over the Elgen Corporation, and then, eventually, the world. The Electroclan disguises as Elgen guards and sneaks into the Peru Starxource plant. After being cornered, Dr. Hatch sends electric rats to eat them, but they manage to get away. They find Michael's mother in a cell, having been terrorized by Hatch. After the group rescues her and another Glow named Tanner who betrayed Dr. Hatch, Michael stays behind to allow the others to escape. Hatch catches Michael and tries to gain his loyalty back, which fails. Dr. Hatch, furious, declares that Michael will be fed to the electric rats. Outside the plant, the Electroclan plan to blow up the plant's cooling facility to try and save Michael. At the same time, Michael is lowered into the rat bowl, but he absorbs their electricity, killing most of the rats and escaping. This effectively shuts down the plant and the country's energy supply. Michael flees into the Amazon jungle to meet up with the Electroclan. He loses his way in the jungle and is nearly killed by Elgen helicopters, but Tanner takes the crafts down. Michael continues on his way, ignorant of where he is. He finally stumbles across a native tribe who tell him that he cannot go home.
[ "Plot\n----", "After forcing Hatch to flee the Elgen Academy in [Pasadena](/wiki/Pasadena%2C_California \"Pasadena, California\"), the Electroclan, led by Michael, escapes back to Idaho, but Elgen guards are lurking around town. When they arrive at Jack's sister's tanning salon, they are forced to escape on a tip from a voice on a strange phone, who claims that the police (now controlled by the Elgen) are on their way to arrest them. The unidentified voice orders them to stay at a safe house that he owns. When that too is compromised, they camp out at Mitchell's house (who was one of Michael's old bullies). There, they use Grace, a \"human flash drive\" who has downloaded Elgen files before they were destroyed, to try to find Michael's mother. {{cite web\\|title\\=The Books\\|url\\=http://www.michaelvey.com/book\\-2\\.php\\|publisher\\=Strillogy\\|accessdate\\=7 July 2013}} They find that Michael's mother is being held captive at an Elgen\\-owned power plant in Peru.", "The Elgen owns hundreds of renewable energy power plants, called \"Starxource\" plants, in different countries powered by rats that were tested on by the MEI. The Elgen plans to [take over](/wiki/Monopoly \"Monopoly\") the countries they've built plants in by controlling their electricity. Eventually, the Elgen capture the Electroclan, but the voice helps them escape during a car chase, making Michael realize the voice is the only one who can help them. He negotiates with the voice and exchanges Grace for a trip to Peru to try and rescue Michael's mother.", "After making it to Peru, the voice sends a guide, Jaime, to lead them through the Amazon to the Peruvian Starxource plant. Meanwhile, Hatch is forced by Elgen Inc.'s board of directors to shut down the NEOSpecies Genesis Program. Hatch reveals to his loyal electric children that he will disobey the board's plans and will be heading to the Peruvian Starxource Plant in [Puerto Maldonado](/wiki/Puerto_Maldonado \"Puerto Maldonado\") to gather loyal guards to overthrow the board. At a convention for the guards, Hatch announces they will soon take over the Elgen Corporation, and then, eventually, the world.", "The Electroclan disguises as Elgen guards and sneaks into the Peru Starxource plant. After being cornered, Dr. Hatch sends electric rats to eat them, but they manage to get away. They find Michael's mother in a cell, having been terrorized by Hatch. After the group rescues her and another Glow named Tanner who betrayed Dr. Hatch, Michael stays behind to allow the others to escape. Hatch catches Michael and tries to gain his loyalty back, which fails. Dr. Hatch, furious, declares that Michael will be fed to the electric rats.", "Outside the plant, the Electroclan plan to blow up the plant's cooling facility to try and save Michael. At the same time, Michael is lowered into the rat bowl, but he absorbs their electricity, killing most of the rats and escaping. This effectively shuts down the plant and the country's energy supply.", "Michael flees into the Amazon jungle to meet up with the Electroclan. He loses his way in the jungle and is nearly killed by Elgen helicopters, but Tanner takes the crafts down. Michael continues on his way, ignorant of where he is. He finally stumbles across a native tribe who tell him that he cannot go home.", "" ]
Music and rhythms ----------------- In the mid\-1970s, [Johnny Mori](/wiki/Johnny_Mori "Johnny Mori") and George Abe of [Kinnara](/wiki/Kinnara "Kinnara") Taiko taught members of Midwest Buddhist Temple how to make [drums](/wiki/Drums "Drums") with [barrels](/wiki/Barrels "Barrels") and car jacks. For performances today, they use any combination of four odaiko (thirty\-gallon), six jozuke (fifteen\-gallon), four [shime\-daiko](/wiki/Shime-daiko "Shime-daiko") (from [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), tightened with bolts, not ropes), and a mixture of [kane](/wiki/Kane_%28instrument%29 "Kane (instrument)"), chappa, [binzasara](/wiki/Binzasara "Binzasara") and two [conch](/wiki/Conch "Conch") shells (a Pacific Triton and an East Coast shell), as well as a mixture of old drums used for practice and workshops. Costumes include [happi](/wiki/Happi "Happi") coats with black pants, black t\-shirt, [hachimaki](/wiki/Hachimaki "Hachimaki") and [tabi](/wiki/Tabi "Tabi"). The group’s form and musicality depend on the piece, but they typically use the Kinnara stance: a 45\-degree body and legs equidistant outside of the shoulders with the left knee paramount to the stance and the back leg more straight. They also use the thrust stance that most taiko players use today. There is no master teacher, and the group describes itself as self\-governed. There is usually an elected practice leader, a business manager, a treasurer, and a historian. All members have the opportunity to teach a piece if they have expertise in it, and arrangements are considered a democratic group effort. Practices include a little opening, exercises, stretching, drilling, and one or two pieces. The group usually practices for two hours each week and holds more practices closer to the Ginza Holiday Festival. Although the group once practiced all year\-round, the group usually takes a break from [Thanksgiving](/wiki/Thanksgiving "Thanksgiving") to early January to feel refreshed for the new year. The Midwest Buddhist Temple taiko group performs at commercial events, business conferences, bars, nightclubs, and different ethnic fairs. The group has traveled as far as [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") to the east and [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis") and [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis") to the west. The Chicago\-based taiko group has its own venue to use as practice space and equipment storage, and the temple has contributed greatly to the group’s longevity.
[ "Music and rhythms\n-----------------", "In the mid\\-1970s, [Johnny Mori](/wiki/Johnny_Mori \"Johnny Mori\") and George Abe of [Kinnara](/wiki/Kinnara \"Kinnara\") Taiko taught members of Midwest Buddhist Temple how to make [drums](/wiki/Drums \"Drums\") with [barrels](/wiki/Barrels \"Barrels\") and car jacks. For performances today, they use any combination of four odaiko (thirty\\-gallon), six jozuke (fifteen\\-gallon), four [shime\\-daiko](/wiki/Shime-daiko \"Shime-daiko\") (from [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), tightened with bolts, not ropes), and a mixture of [kane](/wiki/Kane_%28instrument%29 \"Kane (instrument)\"), chappa, [binzasara](/wiki/Binzasara \"Binzasara\") and two [conch](/wiki/Conch \"Conch\") shells (a Pacific Triton and an East Coast shell), as well as a mixture of old drums used for practice and workshops. Costumes include [happi](/wiki/Happi \"Happi\") coats with black pants, black t\\-shirt, [hachimaki](/wiki/Hachimaki \"Hachimaki\") and [tabi](/wiki/Tabi \"Tabi\").", "The group’s form and musicality depend on the piece, but they typically use the Kinnara stance: a 45\\-degree body and legs equidistant outside of the shoulders with the left knee paramount to the stance and the back leg more straight. They also use the thrust stance that most taiko players use today.", "There is no master teacher, and the group describes itself as self\\-governed. There is usually an elected practice leader, a business manager, a treasurer, and a historian. All members have the opportunity to teach a piece if they have expertise in it, and arrangements are considered a democratic group effort.", "Practices include a little opening, exercises, stretching, drilling, and one or two pieces. The group usually practices for two hours each week and holds more practices closer to the Ginza Holiday Festival. Although the group once practiced all year\\-round, the group usually takes a break from [Thanksgiving](/wiki/Thanksgiving \"Thanksgiving\") to early January to feel refreshed for the new year.", "The Midwest Buddhist Temple taiko group performs at commercial events, business conferences, bars, nightclubs, and different ethnic fairs. The group has traveled as far as [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") to the east and [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\") and [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\") to the west. The Chicago\\-based taiko group has its own venue to use as practice space and equipment storage, and the temple has contributed greatly to the group’s longevity.", "" ]
Pre\-modern ----------- [thumb\|Chinese dice, [Warring States](/wiki/Warring_States "Warring States") (left), [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty") (right)](/wiki/File:Chinese_dices%2C_warring_states_%28left%29_and_Tang_%28right%29_period.jpg "Chinese dices, warring states (left) and Tang (right) period.jpg") Some of the most common pre\-historic and ancient gaming tools were made of bone, especially from the [Talus bone](/wiki/Talus_bone "Talus bone"), these have been found worldwide and are the ancestors of [knucklebones](/wiki/Knucklebones "Knucklebones") as well as [dice games](/wiki/List_of_dice_games "List of dice games").Koerper and Whitney\-Desautels; Astragalus bones, Artifacts or Ecofacts?, <http://www.pcas.org/vol35n23/3523koerper.pdf> Dice were invented at least 5,000 years ago and early [dice](/wiki/Dice "Dice") probably did not have six sides.{{Cite web \|last\=Park \|first\=William \|title\=The ancient invention that ignited game play \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210318\-the\-ancient\-invention\-that\-ignited\-game\-play \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-18 \|website\=www.bbc.com \|language\=en}} These bones were also sometimes used for oracular and divinatory functions. Other implements could have included shells, stones and sticks. ### Middle East and the Mediterranean Board games likely originate from the [ancient Near East](/wiki/Ancient_Near_East "Ancient Near East"), based on archeological findings. A series of 49 small carved painted figures found at the 5,000\-year\-old [Başur Höyük](/wiki/Ba%C5%9Fur_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk "Başur Höyük") burial mound in southeast [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") could represent the earliest gaming pieces ever found. Similar pieces have been found in [Tell Brak](/wiki/Tell_Brak "Tell Brak") and [Jemdet Nasr](/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr "Jemdet Nasr"), but they were isolated.{{Cite web \|last\=Lorenzi \|first\=Rossella \|date\=14 August 2013 \|title\=Oldest Gaming Tokens Found in Turkey \|url\=http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/oldest\-gaming\-tokens\-found\-130814\.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819061453/http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/oldest\-gaming\-tokens\-found\-130814\.htm \|archive\-date\=19 August 2013 \|access\-date\=18 October 2022 \|website\=Discovery News}} Researches have called the find Dogs and Pigs.{{Cite web \|title\=Ancient boardgames: Experts find the missing piece (but can't figure out how to play) \|url\=http://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/turkey\-ancient\-board\-games\-bronze\-age\-anatolia \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-18 \|website\=Middle East Eye \|language\=en}} The earliest board games were a pastime for the elite and were sometimes given as diplomatic gifts according to a study published in *[Antiquity](/wiki/Antiquity_%28journal%29 "Antiquity (journal)")*.{{Cite web \|last\=Viegas \|first\=Jennifer \|date\=27 November 2012 \|title\=Board Games Originated as Elite Pastime : Discovery News \|url\=http://news.discovery.com/history/art\-history/board\-games\-history\-romans\-egypt\-111206\.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115053823/http://news.discovery.com/history/art\-history/board\-games\-history\-romans\-egypt\-111206\.htm \|archive\-date\=15 January 2013 \|access\-date\=18 October 2022 \|website\=Discovery News}} Another possibility is that boards were reserved for the elite, but lower classes played on boards scratched into stone or on the ground. Some archeologists think that stones carved with long rows, dated between 7000 BC and 9000 BC, were used for a [mancala](/wiki/Mancala "Mancala")\-like game. The earliest known board games all used dice and were for two players. Among the earliest examples of a board game is *[senet](/wiki/Senet "Senet")*, a game found in [Predynastic](/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt "Predynastic Egypt") and [First Dynasty](/wiki/First_dynasty_of_Egypt "First dynasty of Egypt") burial sites in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") (circa 3500 BC and 3100 BC, respectively) and in [hieroglyphs](/wiki/Hieroglyphs "Hieroglyphs") dating to around 3100 BC.Piccaione, Peter A. [In Search of the Meaning of Senet](http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918080211/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html \|date\=18 September 2008 }} The game was played by moving draughtsmen on a board of 30 squares arranged into three parallel rows of ten squares each. The players strategically moved their pieces based on the throw of sticks or bones. The goal was to reach the edge of the board first. Senet slowly evolved to reflect the religious beliefs of the Egyptians. The pieces represented human souls and their movement was based on the journey of the soul in the afterlife. Each square had a distinct religious significance, with the final square being associated with the union of the soul with the sun god [Re\-Horakhty](/wiki/Re-Horakhty "Re-Horakhty"). Senet may have also been used in a ritual religious context. The [Royal Game of Ur](/wiki/Royal_Game_of_Ur "Royal Game of Ur"), or *Game of Twenty Squares* was played with a set of pawns on a richly decorated board and dates from 2600 to 2400 BC.{{Cite web \|title\=game\-board {{!}} British Museum \|url\=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W\_1928\-1009\-378 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-09 \|website\=The British Museum \|language\=en}} It was a [race game](/wiki/Race_game "Race game") which employed a set of knucklebone dice. This game was also known and played in Egypt. A Babylonian treatise on the game written on a clay tablet shows that the game had astronomical significance and that it could also be used to tell one's fortune.Green, William; Big Game Hunter [http://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747\_1815707\_1815665,00\.html](http://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747_1815707_1815665,00.html) The game of Ur was also popular with the lower classes, as attested by a 2,700\-year\-old graffiti version of the game, scratched onto a gateway to a palace in [Khorsabad](/wiki/Khorsabad "Khorsabad"). Similar games have been found in Iran, Crete, Cyprus, Sri Lanka, and Syria. Excavations at [Shahr\-e Sukhteh](/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh "Shahr-e Sukhteh") ("The Burnt City") in [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") have shown that the game also existed there around 3000 BCE. The artifacts include two dice and 60 checkers.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/dec/1029\.html \|title\=World's Oldest Backgammon Discovered in Burnt City \|work\=Payvand News \|date\=4 December 2004 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-07 \|archive\-date\=29 November 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129194822/http://www.payvand.com/news/04/dec/1029\.html \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite encyclopedia \|last\=Schädler, Dunn\-Vaturi \|first\=Ulrich, Anne\-Elizabeth \|title\=BOARD GAMES in pre\-Islamic Persia \|encyclopedia\=Encyclopædia Iranica \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-07\|url\=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/board\-games\-in\-pre\-islamic\-persia}} Games such as [Nard](/wiki/Nard_%28game%29 "Nard (game)") and the Roman game [Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum](/wiki/Ludus_Duodecim_Scriptorum "Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum") (game of 12 points, also known as simply "dice", lat. "alea") may have developed from this Iranian game. The Byzantine game [Tabula](/wiki/Tabula_%28game%29 "Tabula (game)") is a descendant of the game of twelve points. The other example of a board game in ancient Egypt is "[Hounds and Jackals](/wiki/Hounds_and_Jackals "Hounds and Jackals")", also known as 58 holes. Hounds and Jackals appeared in Egypt, around 2000 BC and was mainly popular in the [Middle Kingdom](/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt "Middle Kingdom of Egypt").{{cite web \|author\=Hirst \|first\=K. Kris \|title\=What? Snakes and Ladders is 4,000 Years Old? \|url\=https://www.thoughtco.com/50\-holes\-game\-169581 \|access\-date\=2018\-12\-23 \|website\=ThoughtCo}}{{cite web\|url\=http://wsbuzz.com/science/a\-4000\-year\-old\-bronze\-age\-game\-called\-58\-holes\-has\-been\-discovered\-in\-azerbaijan\-rock\-shelter/\|title\=A 4,000\-Year\-Old Bronze Age Game Called 58 Holes Has Been Discovered in Azerbaijan Rock Shelter\|date\=2018\-11\-18\|website\=WSBuzz.com\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-23}} The game was spread to Mesopotamia in the late 3rd millennium BC and was popular until the 1st millennium BC. More than 68 gameboards of Hounds and Jackals have been discovered in the archaeological excavations in various territories, including [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria") (Tell Ajlun, [Ras el\-Ain](/wiki/Ras_al-Ayn "Ras al-Ayn"), [Khafaje](/wiki/Khafajah "Khafajah")), Palestine ([Tel Beth Shean](/wiki/Beit_She%27an "Beit She'an"), Gezer), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") ([Uruk](/wiki/Uruk "Uruk"), [Nippur](/wiki/Nippur "Nippur"), [Ur](/wiki/Ur "Ur"), [Nineveh](/wiki/Nineveh "Nineveh"), [Ashur](/wiki/Assur "Assur"), [Babylon](/wiki/Babylon "Babylon")), [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") ([Tappeh Sialk](/wiki/Tepe_Sialk "Tepe Sialk"), Susa, [Luristan](/wiki/Lorestan_Province "Lorestan Province")), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") ([Karalhuyuk](/wiki/Karah%C3%BCy%C3%BCk%2C_Kalecik "Karahüyük, Kalecik"), Kultepe, [Acemhuyuk](/wiki/Acemh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk "Acemhöyük")), [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan") ([Gobustan](/wiki/Gobustan_National_Park "Gobustan National Park")) and [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") (Buhen, [El\-Lahun](/wiki/El_Lahun "El Lahun"), [Sedment](/wiki/Sedment "Sedment")).{{Cite journal\|last\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\-eight holes\|first\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\-eight holes\|date\=2012\|title\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\-eight holes\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/2543093\|journal\=Journal of Archaeological Science\|volume\=40\|issue\=4\|pages\=1715–1730\|doi\=10\.1016/j.jas.2012\.11\.008}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.livescience.com/64267\-ancient\-board\-game\-nomads\-discovered.html\|title\=4,000\-Year\-Old Game Board Carved into the Earth Shows How Nomads Had Fun\|website\=\[\[Live Science]]\|date\=10 December 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2022/01/archaeologists\-discover\-4000\-year\-old\-stone\-board\-game/142440\|title\=Archaeologists discover 4,000\-year\-old stone board game\|date\=7 January 2022}} It was a race game for two players. The gaming board consisted of two sets of 29 holes. Ten small pegs with either jackal or dog heads were used for playing.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.livescience.com/64266\-ancient\-board\-games.html\|title\=16 of the Most Interesting Ancient Board and Dice Games\|last1\=Metcalfe\|first1\=Tom\|website\=Live Science\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-23\|date\=10 December 2018}} It's believed that the aim of the game was to begin at one point on the board and to reach with all figures at the other point on the board.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ancientgames.org/hounds\-and\-jackals/\|title\=Hounds and Jackals\|last\=Eli\|date\=2017\-10\-15\|website\=Ancient Games – Playing the Board Games of the Ancient World\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-23}} In Ancient Greece and in the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"), popular games included ball games ([Episkyros](/wiki/Episkyros "Episkyros"), [Harpastum](/wiki/Harpastum "Harpastum"), Expulsim Ludere – a kind of [handball](/wiki/Handball "Handball")), dice games (Tesserae), [knucklebones](/wiki/Knucklebones "Knucklebones"), [Bear games](/wiki/Bear_games "Bear games"), [Tic\-tac\-toe](/wiki/Tic-tac-toe "Tic-tac-toe") (Terni Lapilli), [Nine men's morris](/wiki/Nine_men%27s_morris "Nine men's morris") (mola) and various types of board games similar to [checkers](/wiki/Checkers "Checkers"). Both Plato and Homer mention board games called 'petteia' (games played with 'pessoi', i.e. 'pieces' or 'men'). According to Plato, they are all Egyptian in origin. The name 'petteia' seems to be a generic term for board game and refers to various games. One such game was called 'poleis' (city states) and was a game of battle on a checkered board.{{cite journal\|last\=Austin\|first\=Roland G.\|date\=September 1940\|title\=Greek Board Games\|journal\=Antiquity\|volume\=14\|issue\=55\|pages\=257–271\|url\=http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090408090534/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html\|archive\-date\=8 April 2009\|doi\=10\.1017/S0003598X00015258\|s2cid\=163535077}} [thumb\|right\|Achilles and Ajax engaged in a game of petteia, {{Circa\|540–530 BC}}, [Vatican Museums](/wiki/Vatican_Museums "Vatican Museums")](/wiki/File:Exekias%2C_anfora_con_achille_e_aiace_che_giocano_a_dai%2C_castore_e_polluce%2C_da_vulci%2C_540-30_ac_ca._03.JPG "Exekias, anfora con achille e aiace che giocano a dai, castore e polluce, da vulci, 540-30 ac ca. 03.JPG") The Romans played a derivation of 'petteia' called 'latrunculin' or [Ludus latrunculorum](/wiki/Ludus_latrunculorum "Ludus latrunculorum") (the soldiers' game or the bandits' game). It is first mentioned by [Varro](/wiki/Varro "Varro") (116–27 BC) and alluded to by Martial and [Ovid](/wiki/Ovid "Ovid"). This game was extremely popular and was spread throughout Europe by the Romans. Boards have been found as far as [Roman Britain](/wiki/Roman_Britain "Roman Britain"). It was a war game for two players and included moving around counters representing soldiers, with 'custodian' captures made by getting one of the adversary's pieces between two of one's own.Schädler, Ulrich; Latrunculi, "A forgotten Roman game of strategy reconstructed"; in Homo Ludens. Der spielende Mensch IV, 1994, 47–66\. After the [Muslim conquest of Persia](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia "Muslim conquest of Persia") (638–651\) [Shatranj](/wiki/Shatranj "Shatranj") spread to the Arab world. While pre\-Islamic chess sets represented Elephants, Horses, Kings and Soldiers; the Islamic prohibition against image worship led to increasing abstraction in chess set design. Islamic chess pieces were therefore simple cylindrical and rectangular shapes. The game became immensely popular during [Abbasid Caliphate](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate "Abbasid Caliphate") of the 9th century. The Abbasid Caliphs [Harun al\-Rashid](/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid "Harun al-Rashid") and [Al\-Ma'mun](/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun "Al-Ma'mun") were avid Shatranj players.Shenk, David. *The Immortal Game*, page 2006, Anchor Books. During this period Muslim chess players published several treatises on [chess problems](/wiki/Chess_problems "Chess problems") (*mansubat*) and [chess openings](/wiki/Chess_openings "Chess openings") (*ta'biyat*). Elite players such as Al\-Adli, [al\-Suli](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_bin_Yahya_al-Suli "Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli") and Ar\-Razi were called *aliyat* or "grandees" and played at the courts of the [Caliphs](/wiki/Caliphs "Caliphs") and wrote about the game. Al\-Adli (800–870\) is known for writing Kitab ash\-shatranj (book of chess), a comprehensive work on the game, including history, openings, endgames and chess problems. Al\-Adli also developed a system for ranking players. During the reign of the [Turko\-Mongol](/wiki/Turko-Mongol "Turko-Mongol") conqueror [Timur](/wiki/Timur "Timur") (1336–1405\), a variant of chess known as [Tamerlane chess](/wiki/Tamerlane_chess "Tamerlane chess") was developed which some sources attribute to Timur himself who was known to be a fan of the game. [thumb\|upright\|A [Persian miniature](/wiki/Persian_miniature "Persian miniature") illustrating the poem *Guy\-o Chawgân* ("the Ball and the Polo\-mallet") from the [Safavid dynasty](/wiki/Safavid_dynasty "Safavid dynasty")](/wiki/File:Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan_2.jpg "Polo game from poem Guy u Chawgan 2.jpg") Various games in the [Tables family](/wiki/Tables_%28board_game%29 "Tables (board game)") were also quite popular and are known as *ifranjiah* in Arabic (meaning "Frankish") and as [Nard](/wiki/Nard_%28game%29 "Nard (game)") in Iran. Many of the early Arabic texts which refer to these games often debate the legality and morality of playing them. This debate was settled by the eighth century when all four Muslim schools of jurisprudence declared them to be [Haraam](/wiki/Haraam "Haraam") (forbidden), however they are still played today in many Arab countries. Other popular games included [Mancala](/wiki/Mancala "Mancala") and [Tâb](/wiki/T%C3%A2b "Tâb"). [Polo](/wiki/Polo "Polo") (Persian: *chawgan*, Arabic: *sawlajan*) was first played in [Sassanid Persia](/wiki/Sassanid_Persia "Sassanid Persia").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468128/polo \|title\=Polo \| sport\|date\=13 April 2024 }} It passed from Sassanid Persia to the neighboring [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") at an early date, and a [Tzykanisterion](/wiki/Tzykanisterion "Tzykanisterion") (stadium for playing polo) was built by emperor [Theodosius II](/wiki/Theodosius_II "Theodosius II") (r. 408–450\) inside the [Great Palace of Constantinople](/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople "Great Palace of Constantinople").Christopher Kelly. *Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity*, Cambridge University Press. 2013\. p. 4 After the [Muslim conquests](/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests "Early Muslim conquests"), it passed to the [Ayyubid](/wiki/Ayyubid "Ayyubid") and [Mameluke](/wiki/Mameluke "Mameluke") dynasties, whose elites favored it above all other sports. Notable [sultans](/wiki/Sultan "Sultan") such as [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin "Saladin") and [Baybars](/wiki/Baybars "Baybars") were known to play it and encourage it in their court.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/baybars.htm \|title\=Touregypt.net \|publisher\=Touregypt.net \|access\-date\=25 January 2012}} [Playing cards](/wiki/Playing_cards "Playing cards") were imported from Asia and India and were popular during [Mamluk dynasty](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 "Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)") Egypt, featuring polo sticks, coins, swords, and cups as suits. #### Gallery British Museum Royal Game of Ur.jpg\|\[\[Royal Game of Ur]] Senet game pieces (Tutankhamun).jpg\|A Senet game board and game pieces from the \[\[KV62]] tomb of \[\[Tutankhamun]]— originally from \[\[Thebes, Egypt\|Thebes]]. AMI \- Schachbrett.jpg\|Board game with inlays of ivory, rock crystal and glass paste, covered with gold and silver leaf, on a wooden base (\[\[Knossos]], \[\[Minoan chronology\|New Palace period]] 1600–1500 BCE, \[\[Heraklion]] Archaeological Museum, Crete) Xii scripta ephesus.jpg\|\[\[Ludus duodecim scriptorum]] table in the museum at \[\[Ephesus]], an ancestor of \[\[backgammon]]. Museum Quintana \- Räuberspiel.jpg\|Modern reconstruction of the Roman board game \[\[Ludus latrunculorum]] (the bandits' game or the soldier's game), Museum Quintana of Archaeology, in \[\[Künzing]], Germany Roman statue of girl playing astragaloi 14 aC.jpg\|Roman statue of a girl playing \[\[knucklebones\|astragaloi]], 150–130 BCE. Berlin, Antikenmuseum. File:Chess Set MET DP170393\.jpg\|Shatranj set, glazed fritware, 12th century ### India India saw a number of games in ancient period ranging from the various dice games to other board games. The use of cubical and oblong dice was common in the *Indus Valley* [Harappan civilization](/wiki/Harappan_civilization "Harappan civilization") (c. 2300 BC). Archaeological excavations have found gambling dice in monasteries and other Buddhist sites. The earliest textual mention of games in India is the [Rig\-Veda](/wiki/Rig-Veda "Rig-Veda")'s mention of the use of dice (c. 1000 BC). Texts such as the Mahabharata indicate that dice games were popular with Kings and royalty, and also had ceremonial purposes.Brown, W. Norman; The Indian Games of Pachisi, Chaupar, and Chausar, [http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the\-indian\-games\-of\-pachisi\-chaupar\-and\-chausar/](http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-indian-games-of-pachisi-chaupar-and-chausar/) [Cowry](/wiki/Cowry "Cowry") shells were also widely used. Another early reference is the [list of Buddha games](/wiki/List_of_Buddha_games "List of Buddha games") (circa 500 BC) which is a list from the [Pali Canon](/wiki/Pali_Canon "Pali Canon") that Buddhist monks were forbidden to play. This list mentions games on boards with 8 or 10 rows ([Ashtapada](/wiki/Ashtapada "Ashtapada") and Daśapada), games which use floor diagrams (one game called Parihâra\-patham is similar to [hop\-scotch](/wiki/Hop-scotch "Hop-scotch")), [dice games](/wiki/Dice_games "Dice games") and ball games. *Ashtapada and Daśapada* were [race games](/wiki/Race_games "Race games"). [Chaturanga](/wiki/Chaturanga "Chaturanga") (which means 'quadripartite' and also 'army'), the predecessor of chess, possibly developed in the [Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent "Indian subcontinent") or [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia") during the [Kushan](/wiki/Kushan_Empire "Kushan Empire") (30–375 AD) or [Gupta](/wiki/Gupta_Empire "Gupta Empire") (320–550 AD) periods from an amalgamation of other game features and was transmitted to [Sassanid Persia](/wiki/Sassanid_Persia "Sassanid Persia") (where it was known as [Shatranj](/wiki/Shatranj "Shatranj")) and China through the [Silk Road](/wiki/Silk_Road "Silk Road"). It was divided into four parts called angas, which were symbolic of the four branches of an army. Just like the real ancient Indian army, it had pieces called elephants, chariots, horses and soldiers, and was played to devise war strategies. [thumb\|Hindu deities [Shiva](/wiki/Shiva "Shiva") and [Parvati](/wiki/Parvati "Parvati") playing chaupar, ca 1694–95](/wiki/File:Shiva_parvati_chaupar_1694%E2%80%9395.jpg "Shiva parvati chaupar 1694–95.jpg") The word 'checkmate' comes from the Persian term in the game, ‘*shah mat*’, meaning 'the king is dead'.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.iranchamber.com/sport/chess/chess\_iranian\_invention.php\|title\=Iran Chamber Society: Sport in Iran: CHESS, Iranian or Indian Invention?\|website\=iranchamber.com\|access\-date\=29 May 2020}} Another game named [chaturaji](/wiki/Chaturaji "Chaturaji") was similar but played with four sides of differing colors instead of two, however the earliest source for this four sided board game is [Al\-Biruni](/wiki/Al-Biruni "Al-Biruni")'s 'India', circa 1030 AD. Historians of chess such as [Yuri Averbakh](/wiki/Yuri_Averbakh "Yuri Averbakh") have surmised that the Greek board game *[petteia](/wiki/Petteia "Petteia")* may have had an influence on the development of early chaturanga. *Petteia* games could have combined with other elements in the [Greco\-Bactrian](/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom") and [Indo\-Greek](/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom "Indo-Greek Kingdom") Kingdoms.Samsin, M. Pawns And Pieces: Towards The Prehistory of Chess, 2002\.Averbakh, Y. A History of Chess from Chaturanga to the Present Day, 2012, Russell Enterprises The game of [carrom](/wiki/Carrom "Carrom") is said to have originated in the Indian subcontinent. Though there isn't any particular proof, it is said that Indian Maharajas invented the game centuries ago. There was a finding of an ancient glass carrom board in Patiala, Punjab. Carrom gained popularity after World War I, and is still a widely popular board game in India.{{cite web \|url\=https://boardgametheories.com/most\-popular\-board\-games\-in\-other\-cultures/ \|website\=BoardGameTheories \|title\=The most popular board games in non\-Western cultures\|date\=12 September 2020 \| access\-date\=1 October 2020}} Adding on, the game of 'Snakes and Ladders', previously known as [vaikuntapaali](/wiki/Snakes_and_ladders "Snakes and ladders"), was originally a Hindu game. It has been speculated that this game was already being played in India as early as the 2nd century AD. Others have credited the invention of the game to [Dnyaneshwar](/wiki/Dnyaneshwar "Dnyaneshwar") (known also as Dnyandev), a Marathi saint who lived during the 13th century AD. This game is also known by names like *gyan chaupar* (meaning 'game of knowledge) or *mokshapat* and *moksha patamu* (both meaning 'way to deliverance'). The game now known as '[ludo](/wiki/Ludo "Ludo")' – was originally called [pachisi](/wiki/Pachisi "Pachisi") (/pəˈtʃiːzi/). The board was made out of cloth or jute. A depiction of pachisi is found in the caves of [Ajanta Caves](/wiki/Ajanta_Caves "Ajanta Caves") in Maharashtra, showing that the game was quite popular in the Medieval Era. [Cross and circle games](/wiki/Cross_and_circle_games "Cross and circle games") such as [chaupar](/wiki/Chaupar "Chaupar") and pachisi may be very old games, but so far their history has not been established prior to the 16th century. Chaupar was a popular gambling game at the court of [Mughal](/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") emperor [Akbar the Great](/wiki/Akbar_the_Great "Akbar the Great") (1556–1605\). The emperor himself was a fan of the game and was known to play on a courtyard of his palace using slaves as playing pieces. Karuna Sharma of Georgia State University noted the political side of these board games played at the court.Karuna Sharma (2009\), *A Visit to the Mughal Harem: Lives of Royal Women*, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 32:2, 155–169, DOI: 10\.1080/00856400903049457 The game of [seven stones](/wiki/Seven_stones "Seven stones") is mentioned in the [Bhāgvata Purāna](/wiki/Bh%C4%81gvata_Pur%C4%81na "Bhāgvata Purāna"), a text written in 1000 AD at the latest.{{Cite web \|last\=Sharma \|first\=Harshita \|date\=2021\-03\-10 \|title\=Lagori Sports {{!}} About {{!}} History {{!}} Rules \& Facts {{!}} How to Play \|url\=https://fancyodds.com/lagori\-sports\-about\-history\-rules\-facts\-how\-to\-play/ \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-24 \|website\=FancyOdds \|language\=en\-US}} Several variations of [tag](/wiki/Tag_%28game%29 "Tag (game)"), such as [kho kho](/wiki/Kho_kho "Kho kho"), [kabaddi](/wiki/Kabaddi "Kabaddi"), [atya patya](/wiki/Atya_patya "Atya patya"), and [langdi (sport)](/wiki/Langdi_%28sport%29 "Langdi (sport)"),{{Cite web \|title\=Langdi \|url\=https://www.ultimatefunzone.com/langdi.html \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-24 \|website\=ULTIMATE FUN ZONE \|language\=en}} are believed to be hundreds or thousands of years old (or even older as non\-human animals are known to play tag{{Cite web\|title\=Why Gorillas Play Tag\|url\=https://www.science.org/content/article/why\-gorillas\-play\-tag}}), with kho\-kho having been played since at least the fourth century BC,{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-05\-30 \|title\=The Evolution Of Kho Kho Mats In India: A Historical Overview \|url\=https://english.jagran.com/sports/the\-evolution\-of\-kho\-kho\-mats\-in\-india\-a\-historical\-overview\-10080405 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-06 \|website\=English Jagran \|language\=en}} certain aspects of kabaddi possibly being mentioned in the [Mahabharata](/wiki/Mahabharata "Mahabharata") (in or before 300 AD),[Kho Kho, a kabaddi\-like sport linked with Indian epic Mahabharata – know all about it](https://olympics.com/en/news/kho-kho-history-rules-how-to-play) Olympics olympics.com{{Cite web \|title\=kabaddi {{!}} sport {{!}} Britannica \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/sports/kabaddi \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-24 \|website\=www.britannica.com \|language\=en}} and atya\-patya being mentioned in the [Naṟṟiṇai](/wiki/Na%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fi%E1%B9%87ai "Naṟṟiṇai") (in or before 300 AD).{{Cite web \|last\=Arasu \|first\=S. T. \|date\=2020\-07\-04 \|title\=Galah Panjang and its Indian roots \|url\=https://www.gosports.com.my/news/galah\-panjang\-and\-its\-indian\-roots/ \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-24 \|website\=On the sport. Be part of it \|language\=en}} ### East Asia [thumb\|[Agate](/wiki/Agate "Agate") [Go](/wiki/Go_%28game%29 "Go (game)") pieces, [Liao dynasty](/wiki/Liao_dynasty "Liao dynasty")](/wiki/File:Liao_Agate_Encirclement_Chess_%2813969774457%29.jpg "Liao Agate Encirclement Chess (13969774457).jpg") The extinct Chinese board game *[liubo](/wiki/Liubo "Liubo")* was invented no later than the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, and was popular during the [Warring States period](/wiki/Warring_States_period "Warring States period") (476 BC – 221 BC) and the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD).{{cite web \| last\=Xu \| first\=Shen \| author\-link\=Xu Shen \| script\-title\=zh:說文解字/06 \|trans\-title\=Shuowen Jiezi vol. 7 \| publisher\=維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource) \| language\=zh \| url\=http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AA%AA%E6%96%87%E8%A7%A3%E5%AD%97/06 \| quote\=簙：局戲也。六箸十二棊也。从竹博聲。古者烏胄作簙。 \| access\-date\=26 June 2009}}{{cite web \| last\=Sima \| first\=Qian \| author\-link\=Sima Qian \| script\-title\=zh:史記/卷069 \|trans\-title\=Records of the Grand Historian vol.69 \| publisher\=維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource) \| language\=zh \| quote\=臨菑甚富而實，其民無不吹竽鼓瑟，彈琴擊築，鬥雞走狗，六博蹋鞠者。 \| url\=http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7069 \| access\-date\=26 June 2009}} Although the game's rules have been lost, it was apparently a [race game](/wiki/Race_game "Race game") not unlike [Senet](/wiki/Senet "Senet") in that playing pieces were moved about a board using sticks thrown to determine movement. [Go](/wiki/Go_%28game%29 "Go (game)"), also known as *Weiqi*, *Igo*, or *Baduk* (in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, respectively), is first mentioned in the historical annal *[Zuo Zhuan](/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan "Zuo Zhuan")*Potter 1985; [Fairbairn](/wiki/John_Fairbairn_%28writer%29 "John Fairbairn (writer)") 1995 (c. 4th century BCBrooks 2007). It is also mentioned in Book XVII of the *[Analects of Confucius](/wiki/Analects_of_Confucius "Analects of Confucius")* and in two of the books of [Mencius](/wiki/Mencius "Mencius")Potter 1984; [Fairbairn](/wiki/John_Fairbairn_%28writer%29 "John Fairbairn (writer)") 1995 (c. 3rd century BC). In ancient [China](/wiki/China "China"), Go was one of the [four cultivated arts](/wiki/Four_Arts_of_the_Chinese_Scholar "Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar") of the [Chinese scholar gentleman](/wiki/Junzi "Junzi"), along with [calligraphy](/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy "Chinese calligraphy"), [painting](/wiki/Chinese_painting "Chinese painting") and playing the musical instrument [guqin](/wiki/Guqin "Guqin"), and examinations of skill in those arts was used to qualify candidates for service in the [bureaucracy](/wiki/Bureaucracy "Bureaucracy"). Go was brought to Korea in the second century BC when the Han dynasty expanded into the Korean peninsula and it arrived in Japan in the 5th or 6th century AD and it quickly became a favorite aristocratic pastime. Chinese Chess or [Xiangqi](/wiki/Xiangqi "Xiangqi") seems to have been played during the [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty"), any earlier attestation is problematic. Several Xiangqi pieces are known from the Northern Song dynasty (960–1126\). It is unknown exactly how [Xiangqi](/wiki/Xiangqi "Xiangqi") developed. Other traditional East Asian Chess variants include [Shogi](/wiki/Shogi "Shogi") (Japan) and [Janggi](/wiki/Janggi "Janggi") (Korea). [Playing cards](/wiki/Playing_cards "Playing cards") or tiles were invented in China{{cite journal\|last\=Wilkinson \| first\=W.H. \| title\=Chinese Origin of Playing Cards \| journal\=\[\[American Anthropologist]] \| volume\=VIII \| issue\=1 \| year\=1895 \| pages\=61–78 \| doi\=10\.1525/aa.1895\.8\.1\.02a00070 \| url\=https://zenodo.org/record/1448960 \| doi\-access\=free }} as early as the 9th century [during the Tang dynasty](/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Tang_dynasty "Science and technology of the Tang dynasty") (618–907\).\* {{citation \|last\=Needham \|first\=Joseph \|title\=Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing \|year\=1986d \|publisher\=Caves Books \|location\=Taipei \|pages\=131–132}}{{Harvnb\|Needham\|1986d\|p\=328}} "it is also now rather well\-established that dominoes and playing\-cards were originally Chinese developments from dice."{{Harvnb\|Needham\|1986d\|p\=334}} "Numbered dice, anciently widespread, were on a related line of development which gave rise to dominoes and playing\-cards (\+9th\-century China)." The earliest unambiguous attestation of paper playing cards date back to 1294\.[Parlett, David](/wiki/David_Parlett "David Parlett"). [The Chinese "Leaf" Game](http://www.parlettgames.uk/histocs/leafgame.html) at parlett games. Retrieved 9 January 2016\. The modern game of [Dominoes](/wiki/Dominoes "Dominoes") developed from early Chinese [tile based games](/wiki/Tile_based_games "Tile based games"). What appears to have been the earliest references to gaming tiles are mentions of *kwat pai*, or "bone tiles", used in gambling, in Chinese writings no later than 900 AD.Schwartz, David G. *Roll the Bones: The History of Gambling*. Gotham, 2006\. {{ISBN\|978\-1\-59240\-208\-3}}. The earliest definite references to [Chinese dominoes](/wiki/Chinese_dominoes "Chinese dominoes") are found in the literature of the [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty "Song dynasty") (960–1279\), while [Western](/wiki/Western_world "Western world")\-style [dominoes](/wiki/Dominoes "Dominoes") are a more recent variation, with the earliest examples being of early\-18th century Italian design.Tidwell, Ken. <http://www.gamecabinet.com/rules/DominoIntro.html> The modern tile game [Mahjong](/wiki/Mahjong "Mahjong") is based on older Chinese [card games](/wiki/Card_game "Card game") like [Khanhoo](/wiki/Khanhoo "Khanhoo"), peng hu, and shi hu.Stanwick, Michael and Hongbin Xu [From Cards to Tiles: The Origin of Mahjong(g)’s Earliest Suit Names](http://www.themahjongtileset.co.uk/tile-set-history/earliest-suit-names/) at The Mahjong Tile Set. Retrieved 9 January 2016\. The pre\-modern Chinese also played [ball games](/wiki/Ball_games "Ball games") such as [Cuju](/wiki/Cuju "Cuju") which was a ball and net game similar to football, and [Chuiwan](/wiki/Chuiwan "Chuiwan"), which is similar to modern [golf](/wiki/Golf "Golf"). #### Gallery Met, Earthenware figures playing liubo, Han Dynasty.JPG\|A pair of \[\[Eastern Han dynasty]] (25–220 AD) ceramic tomb figurines of two gentlemen playing ''liubo'' Go Kano Eitoku2\.jpg\|A screen painting depicting people of the \[\[Ming dynasty]] playing Go, by Kanō Eitoku Song Dynasty Chinese chess set.JPG\|Xiangqi game pieces dated to the \[\[Song dynasty]] (960–1279\) 3 Brettspiele.jpg\|Shogi, Go and \[\[Sugoroku]]; Japan, 1780\. Hyewon\-Ssanguk.sammae.jpg\|Players and observers alike absorbed in a Ssangryuk game during the Joseon era. SsangLyuk game.jpg\|Late \[\[Joseon dynasty\|Joseon period]] \[\[Ssangnyuk]] board game set ### Africa The most widespread of the native African games is [Mancala](/wiki/Mancala "Mancala"). Mancala is a family of board games played around the world, sometimes called "[sowing](/wiki/Sowing "Sowing")" games, or "count\-and\-capture" games, which describes the gameplay. The word *mancala:منقلة* comes from the [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic_language "Arabic language") word *naqala:نقلة* meaning literally "to move". The earliest evidence of [Mancala](/wiki/Mancala "Mancala") consists of fragments of pottery boards and several rock cuts found in [Aksumite](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum "Kingdom of Aksum") in Ethiopia, [Matara](/wiki/Matara%2C_Eritrea "Matara, Eritrea") (now in [Eritrea](/wiki/Eritrea "Eritrea")), and [Yeha](/wiki/Yeha "Yeha") (also in Ethiopia), which have been dated by archaeologists to between the 6th and 7th century CE. More than 800 names of traditional mancala games are known, and almost 200 invented games have been described. However, some names denote the same game, while some names are used for more than one game. Today, the game is played worldwide, with [many distinct variants](/wiki/List_of_mancala_games "List of mancala games") representing different regions of the world. Some historians believe that mancala is the oldest game in the world based on the archaeological evidence found in [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan") that dates around 6000 BC. The game might have been played by ancient [Nabataeans](/wiki/Nabataeans "Nabataeans") and could have been an ancient version of the modern mancala game.{{cite book \|last1\=Bromiley \|first1\=Geoffrey \|title\=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Volume 2 \|date\=1979 \|publisher\=W. B. Eerdmans \|page\=397 \|edition\=Volume 2 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=yklDk6Vv0l4C\&q\=nabatean\+board\+games\&pg\=PA397 \|access\-date\=16 August 2018\|isbn\=9780802837820}} ### Americas [thumb\|right\|Patolli game being watched by [Macuilxochitl](/wiki/Xochipilli "Xochipilli") as depicted on page 048 of the [Codex Magliabechiano](/wiki/Codex_Magliabechiano "Codex Magliabechiano")](/wiki/File:Macuilxochitl_Patolli.png "Macuilxochitl Patolli.png") Archaeologist Barbara Voorhies has theorized that a series of holes on clay floors arranged in c shapes at the Tlacuachero archaeological site in Mexico's Chiapas state may be 5000\-year\-old dice\-game scoreboards. If so this would be the oldest archaeological evidence for a game in the Americas.Dell'Amore, Christine; 'Prehistoric Dice Boards Found—Oldest Games in Americas?', [https://web.archive.org/web/20101215155536/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/12/101210\-dice\-gaming\-gambling\-native\-american\-indian\-casinos\-science/](https://web.archive.org/web/20101215155536/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/12/101210-dice-gaming-gambling-native-american-indian-casinos-science/) [Dice games](/wiki/Dice_games "Dice games") were popular throughout the Americas. [Patolli](/wiki/Patolli "Patolli") was one of the most popular board games played by [Mesoamerican](/wiki/Mesoamerican "Mesoamerican") peoples such as the [Mayans](/wiki/Mayans "Mayans"), [Toltecs](/wiki/Toltecs "Toltecs") and [Aztecs](/wiki/Aztecs "Aztecs"), it was a [race game](/wiki/Race_game "Race game") played with beans or dice on square and oval\-shaped boards and gambling was a key aspect of it. The Andean peoples also played a dice game which is called by the [Quechua](/wiki/Quechua_languages "Quechua languages") word {{transliteration\|yum\|pichca}} or {{transliteration\|yum\|pisca}}. One of the oldest known ball games in history is the [Mesoamerican ballgame](/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballgame "Mesoamerican ballgame") (*Ōllamaliztli* in [Nahuatl](/wiki/Nahuatl "Nahuatl")). *Ōllamaliztli* was played as far back as 1,400 BC and had important religious significance for the [mesoamerican](/wiki/Mesoamerican "Mesoamerican") peoples such as the [Maya](/wiki/Maya_civilization "Maya civilization") and [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec "Aztec").Fox, John. [The Ball: Discovering the Object of the Game](https://books.google.com/books?id=LD6h3NHeHxgC) *The ball : discovering the object of the game*], 1st ed., New York : Harper, 2012\. {{ISBN\|9780061881794}}. Cf. Chapter 4: "Sudden Death in the New World" about the Ulama game. The game evolved over time, but the main goal was to keep a solid rubber ball in play by striking it with various parts of the body or with tools such as rackets. The game may have served as a proxy for warfare and also had a major religious function. Formal ballgames were held as ritual events, often featuring [human sacrifice](/wiki/Human_sacrifice "Human sacrifice"), though it was also played for leisure by children and even women. The [indigenous North American peoples](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas "Indigenous peoples of the Americas") played various kinds of [stickball games](/wiki/Indigenous_North_American_stickball "Indigenous North American stickball"), which are the ancestors of modern [lacrosse](/wiki/Lacrosse "Lacrosse"). Traditional stickball games were sometimes major events that could last several days. As many as 100 to 1,000 men from opposing villages or tribes would participate. The games were played in open plains located between villages, and the goals could range from {{convert\|500\|yd}} to {{convert\|6\|miles}} apart.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.stxlacrosse.com/theculture/history.cfm\|title\=Lacrosse History \|access\-date\=2007\-02\-24 \|publisher\=\[\[STX (sports manufacturer)\|STX]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524045912/http://www.stxlacrosse.com/theculture/history.cfm \|archive\-date\=24 May 2007 \|url\-status\=dead}} ### Europe The [Tafl games](/wiki/Tafl_games "Tafl games") were a family of ancient [Germanic](/wiki/Germanic_tribes "Germanic tribes") and [Celtic](/wiki/Celts "Celts") board games played across much of Northern Europe from earlier than 400 CE until the 12th century.Murray, H. J. R. (1951\). *A History of Board\-Games Other than Chess*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\|0\-19\-827401\-7}}. LCCN 52\-003975 OCLC 1350513, pp.56, 57\. Although the rules of the games were never explicitly recorded, it seems to have been a game with uneven forces (2:1 ratio) and the goal of one side was to escape to the side of the board with a King while the other side's goal was to capture him. Tafl was spread by the [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings "Vikings") throughout northern Europe, including [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland"), [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain"), [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland"), and [Lapland](/wiki/Lapland_%28region%29 "Lapland (region)").[Murray 1951](/wiki/%23Reference-idMurray1951 "#Reference-idMurray1951"), p. 56, [Helmfrid 2005](/wiki/%23Reference-idHelmfrid2005 "#Reference-idHelmfrid2005"), p. 2 Chess was introduced to the Iberian [emirate of Cordoba](/wiki/Emirate_of_Cordoba "Emirate of Cordoba") in 822 during the reign of [Abd ar\-Rahman II](/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II "Abd ar-Rahman II"). By the middle of the 10th century it was being played in Christian Spain, Italy and Southern Germany. By 1200, it had reached Britain and Scandinavia.Shenk, David. The immortal game, chapter 3, 2006, Anchor Books. Initially there were many differing local Chess games with varying rules or *assizes* such as [Short assize](/wiki/Short_assize "Short assize") chess, [Courier chess](/wiki/Courier_chess "Courier chess") and [Dice Chess](/wiki/Dice_Chess "Dice Chess"). An important source of medieval games is the *[Libro de los juegos](/wiki/Libro_de_los_juegos "Libro de los juegos")*, ("Book of games"), or *Libro de acedrex, dados e tablas*, ("Book of chess, dice and tables", in Old Spanish) which was commissioned by [Alfonso X](/wiki/Alfonso_X "Alfonso X") of Castile, Galicia and León in 1283\.Sonja Musser Golladay, ["Los Libros de Acedrex Dados E Tablas: Historical, Artistic and Metaphysical Dimensions of Alfonso X’s Book of Games"](http://etd.library.arizona.edu/etd/GetFileServlet?file=file:///data1/pdf/etd/azu_etd_2444_1_m.pdf&type=application/pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717133812/http://etd.library.arizona.edu/etd/GetFileServlet?file\=file%3A%2F%2F%2Fdata1%2Fpdf%2Fetd%2Fazu\_etd\_2444\_1\_m.pdf\&type\=application%2Fpdf \|date\=17 July 2011 }} (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2007\), 31\. Although Golladay is not the first to assert that 1283 is the finish date of the *Libro de Juegos*, the *a quo* information compiled in her dissertation consolidates the range of research concerning the initiation and completion dates of the *Libro de Juegos*. The manuscript contains descriptions and color illustrations of [dice games](/wiki/Dice_games "Dice games"), [chess](/wiki/Chess "Chess") and [tabula](/wiki/Tabula_%28game%29 "Tabula (game)"), a predecessor of [backgammon](/wiki/Backgammon "Backgammon"). The book portrays these games within an astrological context, and some game variants are astronomically designed, such as a game titled "[astronomical chess](/wiki/Astronomical_chess "Astronomical chess")", played on a board of seven concentric circles, divided radially into twelve areas, each associated with a constellation of the [Zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac "Zodiac"). The symbolism of the text indicates that some of these games were given metaphysical significance. Chess was also used to teach social and moral lessons by the Dominican friar [Jacobus de Cessolis](/wiki/Jacobus_de_Cessolis "Jacobus de Cessolis") in his *Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium super ludo scacchorum* ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'). Published circa 1300, the book was immensely popular. Other pre\-modern European board games include [Rithmomachy](/wiki/Rithmomachy "Rithmomachy") or "the philosophers game", [alquerque](/wiki/Alquerque "Alquerque"), [fox \& geese](/wiki/Fox_%26_geese "Fox & geese"), [nine men's morris](/wiki/Nine_men%27s_morris "Nine men's morris"), [draughts](/wiki/Draughts "Draughts"), [nim](/wiki/Nim "Nim"), [catch the hare](/wiki/Catch_the_hare "Catch the hare") and the [game of the goose](/wiki/Game_of_the_goose "Game of the goose"). [Dice games](/wiki/Dice_games "Dice games") were widely played throughout Europe and included [hazard](/wiki/Hazard_%28game%29 "Hazard (game)"), [chuck\-a\-luck](/wiki/Chuck-a-luck "Chuck-a-luck"), [Glückshaus](/wiki/Gl%C3%BCckshaus "Glückshaus"), [shut the box](/wiki/Shut_the_box "Shut the box") and [knucklebones](/wiki/Knucklebones "Knucklebones"). [Card games](/wiki/Card_games "Card games") first arrived in Italy from [Mamluk Egypt](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 "Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)") in the 14th century, with suits very similar to the Swords, Clubs, Cups and Coins and those still used in traditional [Italian](/wiki/Italian_playing_cards "Italian playing cards") and [Spanish decks](/wiki/Spanish_playing_cards "Spanish playing cards").[Donald Laycock](/wiki/Donald_Laycock "Donald Laycock") in *Skeptical—a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal*, ed [Donald Laycock](/wiki/Donald_Laycock "Donald Laycock"), [David Vernon](/wiki/David_Vernon_%28writer%29 "David Vernon (writer)"), [Colin Groves](/wiki/Colin_Groves "Colin Groves"), [Simon Brown](/wiki/Simon_Brown_%28author%29 "Simon Brown (author)"), Imagecraft, Canberra, 1989, {{ISBN\|0\-7316\-5794\-2}}, p. 67 The four [suits](/wiki/Suit_%28cards%29 "Suit (cards)") most commonly encountered today (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) appear to have originated in France circa 1480\.[Early Playing Cards Research](http://trionfi.com/0/p/16/). Trionfi. 2006\. 1440s Italy saw the rise of [tarot cards](/wiki/Tarot_cards "Tarot cards") and this led to the development of [tarot card games](/wiki/Tarot_card_games "Tarot card games") such as [tarocchini](/wiki/Tarocchini "Tarocchini"), [Königrufen](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigrufen "Königrufen") and [French tarot](/wiki/French_tarot "French tarot"). Outdoor games were very popular during holidays and fairs and were played by all classes. Many of these games are the predecessors of modern sports and [lawn games](/wiki/Lawn_game "Lawn game"). [Boules](/wiki/Boules "Boules"), [lawn billiards](/wiki/Trucco "Trucco") (later brought indoors as [billiards](/wiki/Billiards "Billiards")), [skittles](/wiki/Skittles_%28sport%29 "Skittles (sport)") (an ancestor of modern ten pin [bowling](/wiki/Bowling "Bowling")), [medieval football](/wiki/Medieval_football "Medieval football"), [kolven](/wiki/Kolven "Kolven"), [stoolball](/wiki/Stoolball "Stoolball") (an ancestor of [cricket](/wiki/Cricket "Cricket")), *[jeu de paume](/wiki/Jeu_de_paume "Jeu de paume")* (early racket\-less [tennis](/wiki/Tennis "Tennis")), [horseshoes](/wiki/Horseshoes_%28game%29 "Horseshoes (game)") and [quoits](/wiki/Quoits "Quoits") all predate the [early modern](/wiki/Early_modern "Early modern") era. #### Gallery GOADA 2008 (b) 272\.jpg\|Hnefatafl reconstruction ChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess.JPG\|Christian And Muslim playing chess. \[\[Libro de los juegos]]. Youths playing ball Gloucester Cathedral.jpg\|Wood carving of two youths playing ball on a misericord at Gloucester Cathedral, c. 1350\. ItalianSancaiBowlMid15thCentury.jpg\|Italian Sancai Bowl depicting a card game, mid 15th century 'Game of Skittles', copy of painting by Pieter de Hooch, Cincinnati Art Museum.JPG\|'\[\[Game of Skittles]]', copy of 1660\-68 painting by Pieter de Hooch in the Saint Louis Art Museum Wurfzabel.jpg\|Medieval illustration of tabula players from the 13th century \[\[Carmina Burana]].
[ "Pre\\-modern\n-----------", "[thumb\\|Chinese dice, [Warring States](/wiki/Warring_States \"Warring States\") (left), [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\") (right)](/wiki/File:Chinese_dices%2C_warring_states_%28left%29_and_Tang_%28right%29_period.jpg \"Chinese dices, warring states (left) and Tang (right) period.jpg\")\nSome of the most common pre\\-historic and ancient gaming tools were made of bone, especially from the [Talus bone](/wiki/Talus_bone \"Talus bone\"), these have been found worldwide and are the ancestors of [knucklebones](/wiki/Knucklebones \"Knucklebones\") as well as [dice games](/wiki/List_of_dice_games \"List of dice games\").Koerper and Whitney\\-Desautels; Astragalus bones, Artifacts or Ecofacts?, <http://www.pcas.org/vol35n23/3523koerper.pdf> Dice were invented at least 5,000 years ago and early [dice](/wiki/Dice \"Dice\") probably did not have six sides.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Park \\|first\\=William \\|title\\=The ancient invention that ignited game play \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210318\\-the\\-ancient\\-invention\\-that\\-ignited\\-game\\-play \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-18 \\|website\\=www.bbc.com \\|language\\=en}} These bones were also sometimes used for oracular and divinatory functions. Other implements could have included shells, stones and sticks.", "### Middle East and the Mediterranean", "Board games likely originate from the [ancient Near East](/wiki/Ancient_Near_East \"Ancient Near East\"), based on archeological findings. A series of 49 small carved painted figures found at the 5,000\\-year\\-old [Başur Höyük](/wiki/Ba%C5%9Fur_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk \"Başur Höyük\") burial mound in southeast [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") could represent the earliest gaming pieces ever found. Similar pieces have been found in [Tell Brak](/wiki/Tell_Brak \"Tell Brak\") and [Jemdet Nasr](/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr \"Jemdet Nasr\"), but they were isolated.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lorenzi \\|first\\=Rossella \\|date\\=14 August 2013 \\|title\\=Oldest Gaming Tokens Found in Turkey \\|url\\=http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/oldest\\-gaming\\-tokens\\-found\\-130814\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819061453/http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/oldest\\-gaming\\-tokens\\-found\\-130814\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=19 August 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=18 October 2022 \\|website\\=Discovery News}} Researches have called the find Dogs and Pigs.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Ancient boardgames: Experts find the missing piece (but can't figure out how to play) \\|url\\=http://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/turkey\\-ancient\\-board\\-games\\-bronze\\-age\\-anatolia \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-18 \\|website\\=Middle East Eye \\|language\\=en}} The earliest board games were a pastime for the elite and were sometimes given as diplomatic gifts according to a study published in *[Antiquity](/wiki/Antiquity_%28journal%29 \"Antiquity (journal)\")*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Viegas \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|date\\=27 November 2012 \\|title\\=Board Games Originated as Elite Pastime : Discovery News \\|url\\=http://news.discovery.com/history/art\\-history/board\\-games\\-history\\-romans\\-egypt\\-111206\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115053823/http://news.discovery.com/history/art\\-history/board\\-games\\-history\\-romans\\-egypt\\-111206\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=15 January 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=18 October 2022 \\|website\\=Discovery News}} Another possibility is that boards were reserved for the elite, but lower classes played on boards scratched into stone or on the ground. Some archeologists think that stones carved with long rows, dated between 7000 BC and 9000 BC, were used for a [mancala](/wiki/Mancala \"Mancala\")\\-like game.", "The earliest known board games all used dice and were for two players. Among the earliest examples of a board game is *[senet](/wiki/Senet \"Senet\")*, a game found in [Predynastic](/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt \"Predynastic Egypt\") and [First Dynasty](/wiki/First_dynasty_of_Egypt \"First dynasty of Egypt\") burial sites in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") (circa 3500 BC and 3100 BC, respectively) and in [hieroglyphs](/wiki/Hieroglyphs \"Hieroglyphs\") dating to around 3100 BC.Piccaione, Peter A. [In Search of the Meaning of Senet](http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918080211/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html \\|date\\=18 September 2008 }} The game was played by moving draughtsmen on a board of 30 squares arranged into three parallel rows of ten squares each. The players strategically moved their pieces based on the throw of sticks or bones. The goal was to reach the edge of the board first. Senet slowly evolved to reflect the religious beliefs of the Egyptians. The pieces represented human souls and their movement was based on the journey of the soul in the afterlife. Each square had a distinct religious significance, with the final square being associated with the union of the soul with the sun god [Re\\-Horakhty](/wiki/Re-Horakhty \"Re-Horakhty\"). Senet may have also been used in a ritual religious context.", "The [Royal Game of Ur](/wiki/Royal_Game_of_Ur \"Royal Game of Ur\"), or *Game of Twenty Squares* was played with a set of pawns on a richly decorated board and dates from 2600 to 2400 BC.{{Cite web \\|title\\=game\\-board {{!}} British Museum \\|url\\=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W\\_1928\\-1009\\-378 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-09 \\|website\\=The British Museum \\|language\\=en}} It was a [race game](/wiki/Race_game \"Race game\") which employed a set of knucklebone dice. This game was also known and played in Egypt. A Babylonian treatise on the game written on a clay tablet shows that the game had astronomical significance and that it could also be used to tell one's fortune.Green, William; Big Game Hunter [http://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747\\_1815707\\_1815665,00\\.html](http://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747_1815707_1815665,00.html) The game of Ur was also popular with the lower classes, as attested by a 2,700\\-year\\-old graffiti version of the game, scratched onto a gateway to a palace in [Khorsabad](/wiki/Khorsabad \"Khorsabad\"). Similar games have been found in Iran, Crete, Cyprus, Sri Lanka, and Syria. Excavations at [Shahr\\-e Sukhteh](/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh \"Shahr-e Sukhteh\") (\"The Burnt City\") in [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") have shown that the game also existed there around 3000 BCE. The artifacts include two dice and 60 checkers.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/dec/1029\\.html \\|title\\=World's Oldest Backgammon Discovered in Burnt City \\|work\\=Payvand News \\|date\\=4 December 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129194822/http://www.payvand.com/news/04/dec/1029\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite encyclopedia \\|last\\=Schädler, Dunn\\-Vaturi \\|first\\=Ulrich, Anne\\-Elizabeth \\|title\\=BOARD GAMES in pre\\-Islamic Persia \\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopædia Iranica \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-07\\|url\\=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/board\\-games\\-in\\-pre\\-islamic\\-persia}} Games such as [Nard](/wiki/Nard_%28game%29 \"Nard (game)\") and the Roman game [Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum](/wiki/Ludus_Duodecim_Scriptorum \"Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum\") (game of 12 points, also known as simply \"dice\", lat. \"alea\") may have developed from this Iranian game. The Byzantine game [Tabula](/wiki/Tabula_%28game%29 \"Tabula (game)\") is a descendant of the game of twelve points.", "The other example of a board game in ancient Egypt is \"[Hounds and Jackals](/wiki/Hounds_and_Jackals \"Hounds and Jackals\")\", also known as 58 holes. Hounds and Jackals appeared in Egypt, around 2000 BC and was mainly popular in the [Middle Kingdom](/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt \"Middle Kingdom of Egypt\").{{cite web \\|author\\=Hirst \\|first\\=K. Kris \\|title\\=What? Snakes and Ladders is 4,000 Years Old? \\|url\\=https://www.thoughtco.com/50\\-holes\\-game\\-169581 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=ThoughtCo}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://wsbuzz.com/science/a\\-4000\\-year\\-old\\-bronze\\-age\\-game\\-called\\-58\\-holes\\-has\\-been\\-discovered\\-in\\-azerbaijan\\-rock\\-shelter/\\|title\\=A 4,000\\-Year\\-Old Bronze Age Game Called 58 Holes Has Been Discovered in Azerbaijan Rock Shelter\\|date\\=2018\\-11\\-18\\|website\\=WSBuzz.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-23}} The game was spread to Mesopotamia in the late 3rd millennium BC and was popular until the 1st millennium BC. More than 68 gameboards of Hounds and Jackals have been discovered in the archaeological excavations in various territories, including [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\") (Tell Ajlun, [Ras el\\-Ain](/wiki/Ras_al-Ayn \"Ras al-Ayn\"), [Khafaje](/wiki/Khafajah \"Khafajah\")), Palestine ([Tel Beth Shean](/wiki/Beit_She%27an \"Beit She'an\"), Gezer), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") ([Uruk](/wiki/Uruk \"Uruk\"), [Nippur](/wiki/Nippur \"Nippur\"), [Ur](/wiki/Ur \"Ur\"), [Nineveh](/wiki/Nineveh \"Nineveh\"), [Ashur](/wiki/Assur \"Assur\"), [Babylon](/wiki/Babylon \"Babylon\")), [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") ([Tappeh Sialk](/wiki/Tepe_Sialk \"Tepe Sialk\"), Susa, [Luristan](/wiki/Lorestan_Province \"Lorestan Province\")), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") ([Karalhuyuk](/wiki/Karah%C3%BCy%C3%BCk%2C_Kalecik \"Karahüyük, Kalecik\"), Kultepe, [Acemhuyuk](/wiki/Acemh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk \"Acemhöyük\")), [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan \"Azerbaijan\") ([Gobustan](/wiki/Gobustan_National_Park \"Gobustan National Park\")) and [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") (Buhen, [El\\-Lahun](/wiki/El_Lahun \"El Lahun\"), [Sedment](/wiki/Sedment \"Sedment\")).{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\\-eight holes\\|first\\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\\-eight holes\\|date\\=2012\\|title\\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\\-eight holes\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/2543093\\|journal\\=Journal of Archaeological Science\\|volume\\=40\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1715–1730\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jas.2012\\.11\\.008}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.livescience.com/64267\\-ancient\\-board\\-game\\-nomads\\-discovered.html\\|title\\=4,000\\-Year\\-Old Game Board Carved into the Earth Shows How Nomads Had Fun\\|website\\=\\[\\[Live Science]]\\|date\\=10 December 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2022/01/archaeologists\\-discover\\-4000\\-year\\-old\\-stone\\-board\\-game/142440\\|title\\=Archaeologists discover 4,000\\-year\\-old stone board game\\|date\\=7 January 2022}} It was a race game for two players. The gaming board consisted of two sets of 29 holes. Ten small pegs with either jackal or dog heads were used for playing.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.livescience.com/64266\\-ancient\\-board\\-games.html\\|title\\=16 of the Most Interesting Ancient Board and Dice Games\\|last1\\=Metcalfe\\|first1\\=Tom\\|website\\=Live Science\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-23\\|date\\=10 December 2018}} It's believed that the aim of the game was to begin at one point on the board and to reach with all figures at the other point on the board.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ancientgames.org/hounds\\-and\\-jackals/\\|title\\=Hounds and Jackals\\|last\\=Eli\\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-15\\|website\\=Ancient Games – Playing the Board Games of the Ancient World\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-23}}", "In Ancient Greece and in the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\"), popular games included ball games ([Episkyros](/wiki/Episkyros \"Episkyros\"), [Harpastum](/wiki/Harpastum \"Harpastum\"), Expulsim Ludere – a kind of [handball](/wiki/Handball \"Handball\")), dice games (Tesserae), [knucklebones](/wiki/Knucklebones \"Knucklebones\"), [Bear games](/wiki/Bear_games \"Bear games\"), [Tic\\-tac\\-toe](/wiki/Tic-tac-toe \"Tic-tac-toe\") (Terni Lapilli), [Nine men's morris](/wiki/Nine_men%27s_morris \"Nine men's morris\") (mola) and various types of board games similar to [checkers](/wiki/Checkers \"Checkers\"). Both Plato and Homer mention board games called 'petteia' (games played with 'pessoi', i.e. 'pieces' or 'men'). According to Plato, they are all Egyptian in origin. The name 'petteia' seems to be a generic term for board game and refers to various games. One such game was called 'poleis' (city states) and was a game of battle on a checkered board.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Austin\\|first\\=Roland G.\\|date\\=September 1940\\|title\\=Greek Board Games\\|journal\\=Antiquity\\|volume\\=14\\|issue\\=55\\|pages\\=257–271\\|url\\=http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090408090534/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html\\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2009\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0003598X00015258\\|s2cid\\=163535077}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Achilles and Ajax engaged in a game of petteia, {{Circa\\|540–530 BC}}, [Vatican Museums](/wiki/Vatican_Museums \"Vatican Museums\")](/wiki/File:Exekias%2C_anfora_con_achille_e_aiace_che_giocano_a_dai%2C_castore_e_polluce%2C_da_vulci%2C_540-30_ac_ca._03.JPG \"Exekias, anfora con achille e aiace che giocano a dai, castore e polluce, da vulci, 540-30 ac ca. 03.JPG\")", "The Romans played a derivation of 'petteia' called 'latrunculin' or [Ludus latrunculorum](/wiki/Ludus_latrunculorum \"Ludus latrunculorum\") (the soldiers' game or the bandits' game). It is first mentioned by [Varro](/wiki/Varro \"Varro\") (116–27 BC) and alluded to by Martial and [Ovid](/wiki/Ovid \"Ovid\"). This game was extremely popular and was spread throughout Europe by the Romans. Boards have been found as far as [Roman Britain](/wiki/Roman_Britain \"Roman Britain\"). It was a war game for two players and included moving around counters representing soldiers, with 'custodian' captures made by getting one of the adversary's pieces between two of one's own.Schädler, Ulrich; Latrunculi, \"A forgotten Roman game of strategy reconstructed\"; in Homo Ludens. Der spielende Mensch IV, 1994, 47–66\\.", "After the [Muslim conquest of Persia](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia \"Muslim conquest of Persia\") (638–651\\) [Shatranj](/wiki/Shatranj \"Shatranj\") spread to the Arab world. While pre\\-Islamic chess sets represented Elephants, Horses, Kings and Soldiers; the Islamic prohibition against image worship led to increasing abstraction in chess set design. Islamic chess pieces were therefore simple cylindrical and rectangular shapes. The game became immensely popular during [Abbasid Caliphate](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate \"Abbasid Caliphate\") of the 9th century. The Abbasid Caliphs [Harun al\\-Rashid](/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid \"Harun al-Rashid\") and [Al\\-Ma'mun](/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun \"Al-Ma'mun\") were avid Shatranj players.Shenk, David. *The Immortal Game*, page 2006, Anchor Books. During this period Muslim chess players published several treatises on [chess problems](/wiki/Chess_problems \"Chess problems\") (*mansubat*) and [chess openings](/wiki/Chess_openings \"Chess openings\") (*ta'biyat*). Elite players such as Al\\-Adli, [al\\-Suli](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_bin_Yahya_al-Suli \"Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli\") and Ar\\-Razi were called *aliyat* or \"grandees\" and played at the courts of the [Caliphs](/wiki/Caliphs \"Caliphs\") and wrote about the game. Al\\-Adli (800–870\\) is known for writing Kitab ash\\-shatranj (book of chess), a comprehensive work on the game, including history, openings, endgames and chess problems. Al\\-Adli also developed a system for ranking players. During the reign of the [Turko\\-Mongol](/wiki/Turko-Mongol \"Turko-Mongol\") conqueror [Timur](/wiki/Timur \"Timur\") (1336–1405\\), a variant of chess known as [Tamerlane chess](/wiki/Tamerlane_chess \"Tamerlane chess\") was developed which some sources attribute to Timur himself who was known to be a fan of the game.\n[thumb\\|upright\\|A [Persian miniature](/wiki/Persian_miniature \"Persian miniature\") illustrating the poem *Guy\\-o Chawgân* (\"the Ball and the Polo\\-mallet\") from the [Safavid dynasty](/wiki/Safavid_dynasty \"Safavid dynasty\")](/wiki/File:Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan_2.jpg \"Polo game from poem Guy u Chawgan 2.jpg\")\nVarious games in the [Tables family](/wiki/Tables_%28board_game%29 \"Tables (board game)\") were also quite popular and are known as *ifranjiah* in Arabic (meaning \"Frankish\") and as [Nard](/wiki/Nard_%28game%29 \"Nard (game)\") in Iran. Many of the early Arabic texts which refer to these games often debate the legality and morality of playing them. This debate was settled by the eighth century when all four Muslim schools of jurisprudence declared them to be [Haraam](/wiki/Haraam \"Haraam\") (forbidden), however they are still played today in many Arab countries. Other popular games included [Mancala](/wiki/Mancala \"Mancala\") and [Tâb](/wiki/T%C3%A2b \"Tâb\").", "[Polo](/wiki/Polo \"Polo\") (Persian: *chawgan*, Arabic: *sawlajan*) was first played in [Sassanid Persia](/wiki/Sassanid_Persia \"Sassanid Persia\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468128/polo \\|title\\=Polo \\| sport\\|date\\=13 April 2024 }} It passed from Sassanid Persia to the neighboring [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") at an early date, and a [Tzykanisterion](/wiki/Tzykanisterion \"Tzykanisterion\") (stadium for playing polo) was built by emperor [Theodosius II](/wiki/Theodosius_II \"Theodosius II\") (r. 408–450\\) inside the [Great Palace of Constantinople](/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople \"Great Palace of Constantinople\").Christopher Kelly. *Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity*, Cambridge University Press. 2013\\. p. 4 After the [Muslim conquests](/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests \"Early Muslim conquests\"), it passed to the [Ayyubid](/wiki/Ayyubid \"Ayyubid\") and [Mameluke](/wiki/Mameluke \"Mameluke\") dynasties, whose elites favored it above all other sports. Notable [sultans](/wiki/Sultan \"Sultan\") such as [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin \"Saladin\") and [Baybars](/wiki/Baybars \"Baybars\") were known to play it and encourage it in their court.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/baybars.htm \\|title\\=Touregypt.net \\|publisher\\=Touregypt.net \\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2012}}", "[Playing cards](/wiki/Playing_cards \"Playing cards\") were imported from Asia and India and were popular during [Mamluk dynasty](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 \"Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)\") Egypt, featuring polo sticks, coins, swords, and cups as suits.", "#### Gallery", "", "British Museum Royal Game of Ur.jpg\\|\\[\\[Royal Game of Ur]]\nSenet game pieces (Tutankhamun).jpg\\|A Senet game board and game pieces from the \\[\\[KV62]] tomb of \\[\\[Tutankhamun]]— originally from \\[\\[Thebes, Egypt\\|Thebes]].\nAMI \\- Schachbrett.jpg\\|Board game with inlays of ivory, rock crystal and glass paste, covered with gold and silver leaf, on a wooden base (\\[\\[Knossos]], \\[\\[Minoan chronology\\|New Palace period]] 1600–1500 BCE, \\[\\[Heraklion]] Archaeological Museum, Crete)\nXii scripta ephesus.jpg\\|\\[\\[Ludus duodecim scriptorum]] table in the museum at \\[\\[Ephesus]], an ancestor of \\[\\[backgammon]].\nMuseum Quintana \\- Räuberspiel.jpg\\|Modern reconstruction of the Roman board game \\[\\[Ludus latrunculorum]] (the bandits' game or the soldier's game), Museum Quintana of Archaeology, in \\[\\[Künzing]], Germany\nRoman statue of girl playing astragaloi 14 aC.jpg\\|Roman statue of a girl playing \\[\\[knucklebones\\|astragaloi]], 150–130 BCE. Berlin, Antikenmuseum.\nFile:Chess Set MET DP170393\\.jpg\\|Shatranj set, glazed fritware, 12th century", "", "### India", "India saw a number of games in ancient period ranging from the various dice games to other board games. The use of cubical and oblong dice was common in the *Indus Valley* [Harappan civilization](/wiki/Harappan_civilization \"Harappan civilization\") (c. 2300 BC). Archaeological excavations have found gambling dice in monasteries and other Buddhist sites. The earliest textual mention of games in India is the [Rig\\-Veda](/wiki/Rig-Veda \"Rig-Veda\")'s mention of the use of dice (c. 1000 BC). Texts such as the Mahabharata indicate that dice games were popular with Kings and royalty, and also had ceremonial purposes.Brown, W. Norman; The Indian Games of Pachisi, Chaupar, and Chausar, [http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the\\-indian\\-games\\-of\\-pachisi\\-chaupar\\-and\\-chausar/](http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/the-indian-games-of-pachisi-chaupar-and-chausar/) [Cowry](/wiki/Cowry \"Cowry\") shells were also widely used.", "Another early reference is the [list of Buddha games](/wiki/List_of_Buddha_games \"List of Buddha games\") (circa 500 BC) which is a list from the [Pali Canon](/wiki/Pali_Canon \"Pali Canon\") that Buddhist monks were forbidden to play. This list mentions games on boards with 8 or 10 rows ([Ashtapada](/wiki/Ashtapada \"Ashtapada\") and Daśapada), games which use floor diagrams (one game called Parihâra\\-patham is similar to [hop\\-scotch](/wiki/Hop-scotch \"Hop-scotch\")), [dice games](/wiki/Dice_games \"Dice games\") and ball games. *Ashtapada and Daśapada* were [race games](/wiki/Race_games \"Race games\").", "[Chaturanga](/wiki/Chaturanga \"Chaturanga\") (which means 'quadripartite' and also 'army'), the predecessor of chess, possibly developed in the [Indian subcontinent](/wiki/Indian_subcontinent \"Indian subcontinent\") or [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\") during the [Kushan](/wiki/Kushan_Empire \"Kushan Empire\") (30–375 AD) or [Gupta](/wiki/Gupta_Empire \"Gupta Empire\") (320–550 AD) periods from an amalgamation of other game features and was transmitted to [Sassanid Persia](/wiki/Sassanid_Persia \"Sassanid Persia\") (where it was known as [Shatranj](/wiki/Shatranj \"Shatranj\")) and China through the [Silk Road](/wiki/Silk_Road \"Silk Road\"). It was divided into four parts called angas, which were symbolic of the four branches of an army. Just like the real ancient Indian army, it had pieces called elephants, chariots, horses and soldiers, and was played to devise war strategies.", "[thumb\\|Hindu deities [Shiva](/wiki/Shiva \"Shiva\") and [Parvati](/wiki/Parvati \"Parvati\") playing chaupar, ca 1694–95](/wiki/File:Shiva_parvati_chaupar_1694%E2%80%9395.jpg \"Shiva parvati chaupar 1694–95.jpg\")\nThe word 'checkmate' comes from the Persian term in the game, ‘*shah mat*’, meaning 'the king is dead'.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.iranchamber.com/sport/chess/chess\\_iranian\\_invention.php\\|title\\=Iran Chamber Society: Sport in Iran: CHESS, Iranian or Indian Invention?\\|website\\=iranchamber.com\\|access\\-date\\=29 May 2020}} Another game named [chaturaji](/wiki/Chaturaji \"Chaturaji\") was similar but played with four sides of differing colors instead of two, however the earliest source for this four sided board game is [Al\\-Biruni](/wiki/Al-Biruni \"Al-Biruni\")'s 'India', circa 1030 AD. Historians of chess such as [Yuri Averbakh](/wiki/Yuri_Averbakh \"Yuri Averbakh\") have surmised that the Greek board game *[petteia](/wiki/Petteia \"Petteia\")* may have had an influence on the development of early chaturanga. *Petteia* games could have combined with other elements in the [Greco\\-Bactrian](/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom \"Greco-Bactrian Kingdom\") and [Indo\\-Greek](/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom \"Indo-Greek Kingdom\") Kingdoms.Samsin, M. Pawns And Pieces: Towards The Prehistory of Chess, 2002\\.Averbakh, Y. A History of Chess from Chaturanga to the Present Day, 2012, Russell Enterprises", "The game of [carrom](/wiki/Carrom \"Carrom\") is said to have originated in the Indian subcontinent. Though there isn't any particular proof, it is said that Indian Maharajas invented the game centuries ago. There was a finding of an ancient glass carrom board in Patiala, Punjab. Carrom gained popularity after World War I, and is still a widely popular board game in India.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://boardgametheories.com/most\\-popular\\-board\\-games\\-in\\-other\\-cultures/ \\|website\\=BoardGameTheories \\|title\\=The most popular board games in non\\-Western cultures\\|date\\=12 September 2020 \\| access\\-date\\=1 October 2020}}", "Adding on, the game of 'Snakes and Ladders', previously known as [vaikuntapaali](/wiki/Snakes_and_ladders \"Snakes and ladders\"), was originally a Hindu game. It has been speculated that this game was already being played in India as early as the 2nd century AD. Others have credited the invention of the game to [Dnyaneshwar](/wiki/Dnyaneshwar \"Dnyaneshwar\") (known also as Dnyandev), a Marathi saint who lived during the 13th century AD. This game is also known by names like *gyan chaupar* (meaning 'game of knowledge) or *mokshapat* and *moksha patamu* (both meaning 'way to deliverance').", "The game now known as '[ludo](/wiki/Ludo \"Ludo\")' – was originally called [pachisi](/wiki/Pachisi \"Pachisi\") (/pəˈtʃiːzi/). The board was made out of cloth or jute. A depiction of pachisi is found in the caves of [Ajanta Caves](/wiki/Ajanta_Caves \"Ajanta Caves\") in Maharashtra, showing that the game was quite popular in the Medieval Era. [Cross and circle games](/wiki/Cross_and_circle_games \"Cross and circle games\") such as [chaupar](/wiki/Chaupar \"Chaupar\") and pachisi may be very old games, but so far their history has not been established prior to the 16th century. Chaupar was a popular gambling game at the court of [Mughal](/wiki/Mughal_Empire \"Mughal Empire\") emperor [Akbar the Great](/wiki/Akbar_the_Great \"Akbar the Great\") (1556–1605\\). The emperor himself was a fan of the game and was known to play on a courtyard of his palace using slaves as playing pieces. Karuna Sharma of Georgia State University noted the political side of these board games played at the court.Karuna Sharma (2009\\), *A Visit to the Mughal Harem: Lives of Royal Women*, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 32:2, 155–169, DOI: 10\\.1080/00856400903049457", "The game of [seven stones](/wiki/Seven_stones \"Seven stones\") is mentioned in the [Bhāgvata Purāna](/wiki/Bh%C4%81gvata_Pur%C4%81na \"Bhāgvata Purāna\"), a text written in 1000 AD at the latest.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sharma \\|first\\=Harshita \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-10 \\|title\\=Lagori Sports {{!}} About {{!}} History {{!}} Rules \\& Facts {{!}} How to Play \\|url\\=https://fancyodds.com/lagori\\-sports\\-about\\-history\\-rules\\-facts\\-how\\-to\\-play/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-24 \\|website\\=FancyOdds \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Several variations of [tag](/wiki/Tag_%28game%29 \"Tag (game)\"), such as [kho kho](/wiki/Kho_kho \"Kho kho\"), [kabaddi](/wiki/Kabaddi \"Kabaddi\"), [atya patya](/wiki/Atya_patya \"Atya patya\"), and [langdi (sport)](/wiki/Langdi_%28sport%29 \"Langdi (sport)\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=Langdi \\|url\\=https://www.ultimatefunzone.com/langdi.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-24 \\|website\\=ULTIMATE FUN ZONE \\|language\\=en}} are believed to be hundreds or thousands of years old (or even older as non\\-human animals are known to play tag{{Cite web\\|title\\=Why Gorillas Play Tag\\|url\\=https://www.science.org/content/article/why\\-gorillas\\-play\\-tag}}), with kho\\-kho having been played since at least the fourth century BC,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-30 \\|title\\=The Evolution Of Kho Kho Mats In India: A Historical Overview \\|url\\=https://english.jagran.com/sports/the\\-evolution\\-of\\-kho\\-kho\\-mats\\-in\\-india\\-a\\-historical\\-overview\\-10080405 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-06 \\|website\\=English Jagran \\|language\\=en}} certain aspects of kabaddi possibly being mentioned in the [Mahabharata](/wiki/Mahabharata \"Mahabharata\") (in or before 300 AD),[Kho Kho, a kabaddi\\-like sport linked with Indian epic Mahabharata – know all about it](https://olympics.com/en/news/kho-kho-history-rules-how-to-play) Olympics olympics.com{{Cite web \\|title\\=kabaddi {{!}} sport {{!}} Britannica \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/sports/kabaddi \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-24 \\|website\\=www.britannica.com \\|language\\=en}} and atya\\-patya being mentioned in the [Naṟṟiṇai](/wiki/Na%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fi%E1%B9%87ai \"Naṟṟiṇai\") (in or before 300 AD).{{Cite web \\|last\\=Arasu \\|first\\=S. T. \\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-04 \\|title\\=Galah Panjang and its Indian roots \\|url\\=https://www.gosports.com.my/news/galah\\-panjang\\-and\\-its\\-indian\\-roots/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-24 \\|website\\=On the sport. Be part of it \\|language\\=en}}", "### East Asia", "[thumb\\|[Agate](/wiki/Agate \"Agate\") [Go](/wiki/Go_%28game%29 \"Go (game)\") pieces, [Liao dynasty](/wiki/Liao_dynasty \"Liao dynasty\")](/wiki/File:Liao_Agate_Encirclement_Chess_%2813969774457%29.jpg \"Liao Agate Encirclement Chess (13969774457).jpg\")\nThe extinct Chinese board game *[liubo](/wiki/Liubo \"Liubo\")* was invented no later than the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, and was popular during the [Warring States period](/wiki/Warring_States_period \"Warring States period\") (476 BC – 221 BC) and the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD).{{cite web \\| last\\=Xu \\| first\\=Shen \\| author\\-link\\=Xu Shen \\| script\\-title\\=zh:說文解字/06 \\|trans\\-title\\=Shuowen Jiezi vol. 7 \\| publisher\\=維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource) \\| language\\=zh \\| url\\=http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AA%AA%E6%96%87%E8%A7%A3%E5%AD%97/06 \\| quote\\=簙：局戲也。六箸十二棊也。从竹博聲。古者烏胄作簙。 \\| access\\-date\\=26 June 2009}}{{cite web \\| last\\=Sima \\| first\\=Qian \\| author\\-link\\=Sima Qian \\| script\\-title\\=zh:史記/卷069 \\|trans\\-title\\=Records of the Grand Historian vol.69 \\| publisher\\=維基文庫 (Chinese Wikisource) \\| language\\=zh \\| quote\\=臨菑甚富而實，其民無不吹竽鼓瑟，彈琴擊築，鬥雞走狗，六博蹋鞠者。 \\| url\\=http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B2%E8%A8%98/%E5%8D%B7069 \\| access\\-date\\=26 June 2009}} Although the game's rules have been lost, it was apparently a [race game](/wiki/Race_game \"Race game\") not unlike [Senet](/wiki/Senet \"Senet\") in that playing pieces were moved about a board using sticks thrown to determine movement.", "[Go](/wiki/Go_%28game%29 \"Go (game)\"), also known as *Weiqi*, *Igo*, or *Baduk* (in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, respectively), is first mentioned in the historical annal *[Zuo Zhuan](/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan \"Zuo Zhuan\")*Potter 1985; [Fairbairn](/wiki/John_Fairbairn_%28writer%29 \"John Fairbairn (writer)\") 1995 (c. 4th century BCBrooks 2007). It is also mentioned in Book XVII of the *[Analects of Confucius](/wiki/Analects_of_Confucius \"Analects of Confucius\")* and in two of the books of [Mencius](/wiki/Mencius \"Mencius\")Potter 1984; [Fairbairn](/wiki/John_Fairbairn_%28writer%29 \"John Fairbairn (writer)\") 1995 (c. 3rd century BC). In ancient [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), Go was one of the [four cultivated arts](/wiki/Four_Arts_of_the_Chinese_Scholar \"Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar\") of the [Chinese scholar gentleman](/wiki/Junzi \"Junzi\"), along with [calligraphy](/wiki/Chinese_calligraphy \"Chinese calligraphy\"), [painting](/wiki/Chinese_painting \"Chinese painting\") and playing the musical instrument [guqin](/wiki/Guqin \"Guqin\"), and examinations of skill in those arts was used to qualify candidates for service in the [bureaucracy](/wiki/Bureaucracy \"Bureaucracy\"). Go was brought to Korea in the second century BC when the Han dynasty expanded into the Korean peninsula and it arrived in Japan in the 5th or 6th century AD and it quickly became a favorite aristocratic pastime.", "Chinese Chess or [Xiangqi](/wiki/Xiangqi \"Xiangqi\") seems to have been played during the [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\"), any earlier attestation is problematic. Several Xiangqi pieces are known from the Northern Song dynasty (960–1126\\). It is unknown exactly how [Xiangqi](/wiki/Xiangqi \"Xiangqi\") developed. Other traditional East Asian Chess variants include [Shogi](/wiki/Shogi \"Shogi\") (Japan) and [Janggi](/wiki/Janggi \"Janggi\") (Korea).", "[Playing cards](/wiki/Playing_cards \"Playing cards\") or tiles were invented in China{{cite journal\\|last\\=Wilkinson \\| first\\=W.H. \\| title\\=Chinese Origin of Playing Cards \\| journal\\=\\[\\[American Anthropologist]] \\| volume\\=VIII \\| issue\\=1 \\| year\\=1895 \\| pages\\=61–78 \\| doi\\=10\\.1525/aa.1895\\.8\\.1\\.02a00070 \\| url\\=https://zenodo.org/record/1448960 \\| doi\\-access\\=free }} as early as the 9th century [during the Tang dynasty](/wiki/Science_and_technology_of_the_Tang_dynasty \"Science and technology of the Tang dynasty\") (618–907\\).\\* {{citation \\|last\\=Needham \\|first\\=Joseph \\|title\\=Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing \\|year\\=1986d \\|publisher\\=Caves Books \\|location\\=Taipei \\|pages\\=131–132}}{{Harvnb\\|Needham\\|1986d\\|p\\=328}} \"it is also now rather well\\-established that dominoes and playing\\-cards were originally Chinese developments from dice.\"{{Harvnb\\|Needham\\|1986d\\|p\\=334}} \"Numbered dice, anciently widespread, were on a related line of development which gave rise to dominoes and playing\\-cards (\\+9th\\-century China).\" The earliest unambiguous attestation of paper playing cards date back to 1294\\.[Parlett, David](/wiki/David_Parlett \"David Parlett\"). [The Chinese \"Leaf\" Game](http://www.parlettgames.uk/histocs/leafgame.html) at parlett games. Retrieved 9 January 2016\\.", "The modern game of [Dominoes](/wiki/Dominoes \"Dominoes\") developed from early Chinese [tile based games](/wiki/Tile_based_games \"Tile based games\"). What appears to have been the earliest references to gaming tiles are mentions of *kwat pai*, or \"bone tiles\", used in gambling, in Chinese writings no later than 900 AD.Schwartz, David G. *Roll the Bones: The History of Gambling*. Gotham, 2006\\. {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-59240\\-208\\-3}}. The earliest definite references to [Chinese dominoes](/wiki/Chinese_dominoes \"Chinese dominoes\") are found in the literature of the [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty \"Song dynasty\") (960–1279\\), while [Western](/wiki/Western_world \"Western world\")\\-style [dominoes](/wiki/Dominoes \"Dominoes\") are a more recent variation, with the earliest examples being of early\\-18th century Italian design.Tidwell, Ken. <http://www.gamecabinet.com/rules/DominoIntro.html> The modern tile game [Mahjong](/wiki/Mahjong \"Mahjong\") is based on older Chinese [card games](/wiki/Card_game \"Card game\") like [Khanhoo](/wiki/Khanhoo \"Khanhoo\"), peng hu, and shi hu.Stanwick, Michael and Hongbin Xu [From Cards to Tiles: The Origin of Mahjong(g)’s Earliest Suit Names](http://www.themahjongtileset.co.uk/tile-set-history/earliest-suit-names/) at The Mahjong Tile Set. Retrieved 9 January 2016\\.", "The pre\\-modern Chinese also played [ball games](/wiki/Ball_games \"Ball games\") such as [Cuju](/wiki/Cuju \"Cuju\") which was a ball and net game similar to football, and [Chuiwan](/wiki/Chuiwan \"Chuiwan\"), which is similar to modern [golf](/wiki/Golf \"Golf\").", "#### Gallery", "", "", "Met, Earthenware figures playing liubo, Han Dynasty.JPG\\|A pair of \\[\\[Eastern Han dynasty]] (25–220 AD) ceramic tomb figurines of two gentlemen playing ''liubo''\nGo Kano Eitoku2\\.jpg\\|A screen painting depicting people of the \\[\\[Ming dynasty]] playing Go, by Kanō Eitoku\nSong Dynasty Chinese chess set.JPG\\|Xiangqi game pieces dated to the \\[\\[Song dynasty]] (960–1279\\)\n3 Brettspiele.jpg\\|Shogi, Go and \\[\\[Sugoroku]]; Japan, 1780\\.\nHyewon\\-Ssanguk.sammae.jpg\\|Players and observers alike absorbed in a Ssangryuk game during the Joseon era.\nSsangLyuk game.jpg\\|Late \\[\\[Joseon dynasty\\|Joseon period]] \\[\\[Ssangnyuk]] board game set", "### Africa", "The most widespread of the native African games is [Mancala](/wiki/Mancala \"Mancala\"). Mancala is a family of board games played around the world, sometimes called \"[sowing](/wiki/Sowing \"Sowing\")\" games, or \"count\\-and\\-capture\" games, which describes the gameplay. The word *mancala:منقلة* comes from the [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic_language \"Arabic language\") word *naqala:نقلة* meaning literally \"to move\". The earliest evidence of [Mancala](/wiki/Mancala \"Mancala\") consists of fragments of pottery boards and several rock cuts found in [Aksumite](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum \"Kingdom of Aksum\") in Ethiopia, [Matara](/wiki/Matara%2C_Eritrea \"Matara, Eritrea\") (now in [Eritrea](/wiki/Eritrea \"Eritrea\")), and [Yeha](/wiki/Yeha \"Yeha\") (also in Ethiopia), which have been dated by archaeologists to between the 6th and 7th century CE. More than 800 names of traditional mancala games are known, and almost 200 invented games have been described. However, some names denote the same game, while some names are used for more than one game. Today, the game is played worldwide, with [many distinct variants](/wiki/List_of_mancala_games \"List of mancala games\") representing different regions of the world. Some historians believe that mancala is the oldest game in the world based on the archaeological evidence found in [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\") that dates around 6000 BC. The game might have been played by ancient [Nabataeans](/wiki/Nabataeans \"Nabataeans\") and could have been an ancient version of the modern mancala game.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bromiley \\|first1\\=Geoffrey \\|title\\=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Volume 2 \\|date\\=1979 \\|publisher\\=W. B. Eerdmans \\|page\\=397 \\|edition\\=Volume 2 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=yklDk6Vv0l4C\\&q\\=nabatean\\+board\\+games\\&pg\\=PA397 \\|access\\-date\\=16 August 2018\\|isbn\\=9780802837820}}", "### Americas", "[thumb\\|right\\|Patolli game being watched by [Macuilxochitl](/wiki/Xochipilli \"Xochipilli\") as depicted on page 048 of the [Codex Magliabechiano](/wiki/Codex_Magliabechiano \"Codex Magliabechiano\")](/wiki/File:Macuilxochitl_Patolli.png \"Macuilxochitl Patolli.png\")", "Archaeologist Barbara Voorhies has theorized that a series of holes on clay floors arranged in c shapes at the Tlacuachero archaeological site in Mexico's Chiapas state may be 5000\\-year\\-old dice\\-game scoreboards. If so this would be the oldest archaeological evidence for a game in the Americas.Dell'Amore, Christine; 'Prehistoric Dice Boards Found—Oldest Games in Americas?', [https://web.archive.org/web/20101215155536/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/12/101210\\-dice\\-gaming\\-gambling\\-native\\-american\\-indian\\-casinos\\-science/](https://web.archive.org/web/20101215155536/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/12/101210-dice-gaming-gambling-native-american-indian-casinos-science/)", "[Dice games](/wiki/Dice_games \"Dice games\") were popular throughout the Americas. [Patolli](/wiki/Patolli \"Patolli\") was one of the most popular board games played by [Mesoamerican](/wiki/Mesoamerican \"Mesoamerican\") peoples such as the [Mayans](/wiki/Mayans \"Mayans\"), [Toltecs](/wiki/Toltecs \"Toltecs\") and [Aztecs](/wiki/Aztecs \"Aztecs\"), it was a [race game](/wiki/Race_game \"Race game\") played with beans or dice on square and oval\\-shaped boards and gambling was a key aspect of it. The Andean peoples also played a dice game which is called by the [Quechua](/wiki/Quechua_languages \"Quechua languages\") word {{transliteration\\|yum\\|pichca}} or {{transliteration\\|yum\\|pisca}}.", "One of the oldest known ball games in history is the [Mesoamerican ballgame](/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballgame \"Mesoamerican ballgame\") (*Ōllamaliztli* in [Nahuatl](/wiki/Nahuatl \"Nahuatl\")). *Ōllamaliztli* was played as far back as 1,400 BC and had important religious significance for the [mesoamerican](/wiki/Mesoamerican \"Mesoamerican\") peoples such as the [Maya](/wiki/Maya_civilization \"Maya civilization\") and [Aztec](/wiki/Aztec \"Aztec\").Fox, John. [The Ball: Discovering the Object of the Game](https://books.google.com/books?id=LD6h3NHeHxgC) *The ball : discovering the object of the game*], 1st ed., New York : Harper, 2012\\. {{ISBN\\|9780061881794}}. Cf. Chapter 4: \"Sudden Death in the New World\" about the Ulama game. The game evolved over time, but the main goal was to keep a solid rubber ball in play by striking it with various parts of the body or with tools such as rackets. The game may have served as a proxy for warfare and also had a major religious function. Formal ballgames were held as ritual events, often featuring [human sacrifice](/wiki/Human_sacrifice \"Human sacrifice\"), though it was also played for leisure by children and even women.", "The [indigenous North American peoples](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas \"Indigenous peoples of the Americas\") played various kinds of [stickball games](/wiki/Indigenous_North_American_stickball \"Indigenous North American stickball\"), which are the ancestors of modern [lacrosse](/wiki/Lacrosse \"Lacrosse\"). Traditional stickball games were sometimes major events that could last several days. As many as 100 to 1,000 men from opposing villages or tribes would participate. The games were played in open plains located between villages, and the goals could range from {{convert\\|500\\|yd}} to {{convert\\|6\\|miles}} apart.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.stxlacrosse.com/theculture/history.cfm\\|title\\=Lacrosse History \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-02\\-24 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[STX (sports manufacturer)\\|STX]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524045912/http://www.stxlacrosse.com/theculture/history.cfm \\|archive\\-date\\=24 May 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### Europe", "The [Tafl games](/wiki/Tafl_games \"Tafl games\") were a family of ancient [Germanic](/wiki/Germanic_tribes \"Germanic tribes\") and [Celtic](/wiki/Celts \"Celts\") board games played across much of Northern Europe from earlier than 400 CE until the 12th century.Murray, H. J. R. (1951\\). *A History of Board\\-Games Other than Chess*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\\|0\\-19\\-827401\\-7}}. LCCN 52\\-003975 OCLC 1350513, pp.56, 57\\. Although the rules of the games were never explicitly recorded, it seems to have been a game with uneven forces (2:1 ratio) and the goal of one side was to escape to the side of the board with a King while the other side's goal was to capture him. Tafl was spread by the [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings \"Vikings\") throughout northern Europe, including [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\"), [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\"), [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\"), and [Lapland](/wiki/Lapland_%28region%29 \"Lapland (region)\").[Murray 1951](/wiki/%23Reference-idMurray1951 \"#Reference-idMurray1951\"), p. 56, [Helmfrid 2005](/wiki/%23Reference-idHelmfrid2005 \"#Reference-idHelmfrid2005\"), p. 2", "Chess was introduced to the Iberian [emirate of Cordoba](/wiki/Emirate_of_Cordoba \"Emirate of Cordoba\") in 822 during the reign of [Abd ar\\-Rahman II](/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II \"Abd ar-Rahman II\"). By the middle of the 10th century it was being played in Christian Spain, Italy and Southern Germany. By 1200, it had reached Britain and Scandinavia.Shenk, David. The immortal game, chapter 3, 2006, Anchor Books. Initially there were many differing local Chess games with varying rules or *assizes* such as [Short assize](/wiki/Short_assize \"Short assize\") chess, [Courier chess](/wiki/Courier_chess \"Courier chess\") and [Dice Chess](/wiki/Dice_Chess \"Dice Chess\").", "An important source of medieval games is the *[Libro de los juegos](/wiki/Libro_de_los_juegos \"Libro de los juegos\")*, (\"Book of games\"), or *Libro de acedrex, dados e tablas*, (\"Book of chess, dice and tables\", in Old Spanish) which was commissioned by [Alfonso X](/wiki/Alfonso_X \"Alfonso X\") of Castile, Galicia and León in 1283\\.Sonja Musser Golladay, [\"Los Libros de Acedrex Dados E Tablas: Historical, Artistic and Metaphysical Dimensions of Alfonso X’s Book of Games\"](http://etd.library.arizona.edu/etd/GetFileServlet?file=file:///data1/pdf/etd/azu_etd_2444_1_m.pdf&type=application/pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717133812/http://etd.library.arizona.edu/etd/GetFileServlet?file\\=file%3A%2F%2F%2Fdata1%2Fpdf%2Fetd%2Fazu\\_etd\\_2444\\_1\\_m.pdf\\&type\\=application%2Fpdf \\|date\\=17 July 2011 }} (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2007\\), 31\\. Although Golladay is not the first to assert that 1283 is the finish date of the *Libro de Juegos*, the *a quo* information compiled in her dissertation consolidates the range of research concerning the initiation and completion dates of the *Libro de Juegos*. The manuscript contains descriptions and color illustrations of [dice games](/wiki/Dice_games \"Dice games\"), [chess](/wiki/Chess \"Chess\") and [tabula](/wiki/Tabula_%28game%29 \"Tabula (game)\"), a predecessor of [backgammon](/wiki/Backgammon \"Backgammon\"). The book portrays these games within an astrological context, and some game variants are astronomically designed, such as a game titled \"[astronomical chess](/wiki/Astronomical_chess \"Astronomical chess\")\", played on a board of seven concentric circles, divided radially into twelve areas, each associated with a constellation of the [Zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac \"Zodiac\"). The symbolism of the text indicates that some of these games were given metaphysical significance. Chess was also used to teach social and moral lessons by the Dominican friar [Jacobus de Cessolis](/wiki/Jacobus_de_Cessolis \"Jacobus de Cessolis\") in his *Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium super ludo scacchorum* ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'). Published circa 1300, the book was immensely popular.", "Other pre\\-modern European board games include [Rithmomachy](/wiki/Rithmomachy \"Rithmomachy\") or \"the philosophers game\", [alquerque](/wiki/Alquerque \"Alquerque\"), [fox \\& geese](/wiki/Fox_%26_geese \"Fox & geese\"), [nine men's morris](/wiki/Nine_men%27s_morris \"Nine men's morris\"), [draughts](/wiki/Draughts \"Draughts\"), [nim](/wiki/Nim \"Nim\"), [catch the hare](/wiki/Catch_the_hare \"Catch the hare\") and the [game of the goose](/wiki/Game_of_the_goose \"Game of the goose\"). [Dice games](/wiki/Dice_games \"Dice games\") were widely played throughout Europe and included [hazard](/wiki/Hazard_%28game%29 \"Hazard (game)\"), [chuck\\-a\\-luck](/wiki/Chuck-a-luck \"Chuck-a-luck\"), [Glückshaus](/wiki/Gl%C3%BCckshaus \"Glückshaus\"), [shut the box](/wiki/Shut_the_box \"Shut the box\") and [knucklebones](/wiki/Knucklebones \"Knucklebones\").", "[Card games](/wiki/Card_games \"Card games\") first arrived in Italy from [Mamluk Egypt](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 \"Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)\") in the 14th century, with suits very similar to the Swords, Clubs, Cups and Coins and those still used in traditional [Italian](/wiki/Italian_playing_cards \"Italian playing cards\") and [Spanish decks](/wiki/Spanish_playing_cards \"Spanish playing cards\").[Donald Laycock](/wiki/Donald_Laycock \"Donald Laycock\") in *Skeptical—a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal*, ed [Donald Laycock](/wiki/Donald_Laycock \"Donald Laycock\"), [David Vernon](/wiki/David_Vernon_%28writer%29 \"David Vernon (writer)\"), [Colin Groves](/wiki/Colin_Groves \"Colin Groves\"), [Simon Brown](/wiki/Simon_Brown_%28author%29 \"Simon Brown (author)\"), Imagecraft, Canberra, 1989, {{ISBN\\|0\\-7316\\-5794\\-2}}, p. 67 The four [suits](/wiki/Suit_%28cards%29 \"Suit (cards)\") most commonly encountered today (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) appear to have originated in France circa 1480\\.[Early Playing Cards Research](http://trionfi.com/0/p/16/). Trionfi. 2006\\. 1440s Italy saw the rise of [tarot cards](/wiki/Tarot_cards \"Tarot cards\") and this led to the development of [tarot card games](/wiki/Tarot_card_games \"Tarot card games\") such as [tarocchini](/wiki/Tarocchini \"Tarocchini\"), [Königrufen](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigrufen \"Königrufen\") and [French tarot](/wiki/French_tarot \"French tarot\").", "Outdoor games were very popular during holidays and fairs and were played by all classes. Many of these games are the predecessors of modern sports and [lawn games](/wiki/Lawn_game \"Lawn game\"). [Boules](/wiki/Boules \"Boules\"), [lawn billiards](/wiki/Trucco \"Trucco\") (later brought indoors as [billiards](/wiki/Billiards \"Billiards\")), [skittles](/wiki/Skittles_%28sport%29 \"Skittles (sport)\") (an ancestor of modern ten pin [bowling](/wiki/Bowling \"Bowling\")), [medieval football](/wiki/Medieval_football \"Medieval football\"), [kolven](/wiki/Kolven \"Kolven\"), [stoolball](/wiki/Stoolball \"Stoolball\") (an ancestor of [cricket](/wiki/Cricket \"Cricket\")), *[jeu de paume](/wiki/Jeu_de_paume \"Jeu de paume\")* (early racket\\-less [tennis](/wiki/Tennis \"Tennis\")), [horseshoes](/wiki/Horseshoes_%28game%29 \"Horseshoes (game)\") and [quoits](/wiki/Quoits \"Quoits\") all predate the [early modern](/wiki/Early_modern \"Early modern\") era.", "#### Gallery", "", "GOADA 2008 (b) 272\\.jpg\\|Hnefatafl reconstruction\nChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess.JPG\\|Christian And Muslim playing chess. \\[\\[Libro de los juegos]].\nYouths playing ball Gloucester Cathedral.jpg\\|Wood carving of two youths playing ball on a misericord at Gloucester Cathedral, c. 1350\\.\nItalianSancaiBowlMid15thCentury.jpg\\|Italian Sancai Bowl depicting a card game, mid 15th century\n'Game of Skittles', copy of painting by Pieter de Hooch, Cincinnati Art Museum.JPG\\|'\\[\\[Game of Skittles]]', copy of 1660\\-68 painting by Pieter de Hooch in the Saint Louis Art Museum\nWurfzabel.jpg\\|Medieval illustration of tabula players from the 13th century \\[\\[Carmina Burana]].", "", "" ]
### Middle East and the Mediterranean Board games likely originate from the [ancient Near East](/wiki/Ancient_Near_East "Ancient Near East"), based on archeological findings. A series of 49 small carved painted figures found at the 5,000\-year\-old [Başur Höyük](/wiki/Ba%C5%9Fur_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk "Başur Höyük") burial mound in southeast [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") could represent the earliest gaming pieces ever found. Similar pieces have been found in [Tell Brak](/wiki/Tell_Brak "Tell Brak") and [Jemdet Nasr](/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr "Jemdet Nasr"), but they were isolated.{{Cite web \|last\=Lorenzi \|first\=Rossella \|date\=14 August 2013 \|title\=Oldest Gaming Tokens Found in Turkey \|url\=http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/oldest\-gaming\-tokens\-found\-130814\.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819061453/http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/oldest\-gaming\-tokens\-found\-130814\.htm \|archive\-date\=19 August 2013 \|access\-date\=18 October 2022 \|website\=Discovery News}} Researches have called the find Dogs and Pigs.{{Cite web \|title\=Ancient boardgames: Experts find the missing piece (but can't figure out how to play) \|url\=http://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/turkey\-ancient\-board\-games\-bronze\-age\-anatolia \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-18 \|website\=Middle East Eye \|language\=en}} The earliest board games were a pastime for the elite and were sometimes given as diplomatic gifts according to a study published in *[Antiquity](/wiki/Antiquity_%28journal%29 "Antiquity (journal)")*.{{Cite web \|last\=Viegas \|first\=Jennifer \|date\=27 November 2012 \|title\=Board Games Originated as Elite Pastime : Discovery News \|url\=http://news.discovery.com/history/art\-history/board\-games\-history\-romans\-egypt\-111206\.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115053823/http://news.discovery.com/history/art\-history/board\-games\-history\-romans\-egypt\-111206\.htm \|archive\-date\=15 January 2013 \|access\-date\=18 October 2022 \|website\=Discovery News}} Another possibility is that boards were reserved for the elite, but lower classes played on boards scratched into stone or on the ground. Some archeologists think that stones carved with long rows, dated between 7000 BC and 9000 BC, were used for a [mancala](/wiki/Mancala "Mancala")\-like game. The earliest known board games all used dice and were for two players. Among the earliest examples of a board game is *[senet](/wiki/Senet "Senet")*, a game found in [Predynastic](/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt "Predynastic Egypt") and [First Dynasty](/wiki/First_dynasty_of_Egypt "First dynasty of Egypt") burial sites in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") (circa 3500 BC and 3100 BC, respectively) and in [hieroglyphs](/wiki/Hieroglyphs "Hieroglyphs") dating to around 3100 BC.Piccaione, Peter A. [In Search of the Meaning of Senet](http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918080211/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html \|date\=18 September 2008 }} The game was played by moving draughtsmen on a board of 30 squares arranged into three parallel rows of ten squares each. The players strategically moved their pieces based on the throw of sticks or bones. The goal was to reach the edge of the board first. Senet slowly evolved to reflect the religious beliefs of the Egyptians. The pieces represented human souls and their movement was based on the journey of the soul in the afterlife. Each square had a distinct religious significance, with the final square being associated with the union of the soul with the sun god [Re\-Horakhty](/wiki/Re-Horakhty "Re-Horakhty"). Senet may have also been used in a ritual religious context. The [Royal Game of Ur](/wiki/Royal_Game_of_Ur "Royal Game of Ur"), or *Game of Twenty Squares* was played with a set of pawns on a richly decorated board and dates from 2600 to 2400 BC.{{Cite web \|title\=game\-board {{!}} British Museum \|url\=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W\_1928\-1009\-378 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-09 \|website\=The British Museum \|language\=en}} It was a [race game](/wiki/Race_game "Race game") which employed a set of knucklebone dice. This game was also known and played in Egypt. A Babylonian treatise on the game written on a clay tablet shows that the game had astronomical significance and that it could also be used to tell one's fortune.Green, William; Big Game Hunter [http://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747\_1815707\_1815665,00\.html](http://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747_1815707_1815665,00.html) The game of Ur was also popular with the lower classes, as attested by a 2,700\-year\-old graffiti version of the game, scratched onto a gateway to a palace in [Khorsabad](/wiki/Khorsabad "Khorsabad"). Similar games have been found in Iran, Crete, Cyprus, Sri Lanka, and Syria. Excavations at [Shahr\-e Sukhteh](/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh "Shahr-e Sukhteh") ("The Burnt City") in [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") have shown that the game also existed there around 3000 BCE. The artifacts include two dice and 60 checkers.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/dec/1029\.html \|title\=World's Oldest Backgammon Discovered in Burnt City \|work\=Payvand News \|date\=4 December 2004 \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-07 \|archive\-date\=29 November 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129194822/http://www.payvand.com/news/04/dec/1029\.html \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite encyclopedia \|last\=Schädler, Dunn\-Vaturi \|first\=Ulrich, Anne\-Elizabeth \|title\=BOARD GAMES in pre\-Islamic Persia \|encyclopedia\=Encyclopædia Iranica \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-07\|url\=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/board\-games\-in\-pre\-islamic\-persia}} Games such as [Nard](/wiki/Nard_%28game%29 "Nard (game)") and the Roman game [Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum](/wiki/Ludus_Duodecim_Scriptorum "Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum") (game of 12 points, also known as simply "dice", lat. "alea") may have developed from this Iranian game. The Byzantine game [Tabula](/wiki/Tabula_%28game%29 "Tabula (game)") is a descendant of the game of twelve points. The other example of a board game in ancient Egypt is "[Hounds and Jackals](/wiki/Hounds_and_Jackals "Hounds and Jackals")", also known as 58 holes. Hounds and Jackals appeared in Egypt, around 2000 BC and was mainly popular in the [Middle Kingdom](/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt "Middle Kingdom of Egypt").{{cite web \|author\=Hirst \|first\=K. Kris \|title\=What? Snakes and Ladders is 4,000 Years Old? \|url\=https://www.thoughtco.com/50\-holes\-game\-169581 \|access\-date\=2018\-12\-23 \|website\=ThoughtCo}}{{cite web\|url\=http://wsbuzz.com/science/a\-4000\-year\-old\-bronze\-age\-game\-called\-58\-holes\-has\-been\-discovered\-in\-azerbaijan\-rock\-shelter/\|title\=A 4,000\-Year\-Old Bronze Age Game Called 58 Holes Has Been Discovered in Azerbaijan Rock Shelter\|date\=2018\-11\-18\|website\=WSBuzz.com\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-23}} The game was spread to Mesopotamia in the late 3rd millennium BC and was popular until the 1st millennium BC. More than 68 gameboards of Hounds and Jackals have been discovered in the archaeological excavations in various territories, including [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria") (Tell Ajlun, [Ras el\-Ain](/wiki/Ras_al-Ayn "Ras al-Ayn"), [Khafaje](/wiki/Khafajah "Khafajah")), Palestine ([Tel Beth Shean](/wiki/Beit_She%27an "Beit She'an"), Gezer), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") ([Uruk](/wiki/Uruk "Uruk"), [Nippur](/wiki/Nippur "Nippur"), [Ur](/wiki/Ur "Ur"), [Nineveh](/wiki/Nineveh "Nineveh"), [Ashur](/wiki/Assur "Assur"), [Babylon](/wiki/Babylon "Babylon")), [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran") ([Tappeh Sialk](/wiki/Tepe_Sialk "Tepe Sialk"), Susa, [Luristan](/wiki/Lorestan_Province "Lorestan Province")), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey") ([Karalhuyuk](/wiki/Karah%C3%BCy%C3%BCk%2C_Kalecik "Karahüyük, Kalecik"), Kultepe, [Acemhuyuk](/wiki/Acemh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk "Acemhöyük")), [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan") ([Gobustan](/wiki/Gobustan_National_Park "Gobustan National Park")) and [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") (Buhen, [El\-Lahun](/wiki/El_Lahun "El Lahun"), [Sedment](/wiki/Sedment "Sedment")).{{Cite journal\|last\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\-eight holes\|first\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\-eight holes\|date\=2012\|title\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\-eight holes\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/2543093\|journal\=Journal of Archaeological Science\|volume\=40\|issue\=4\|pages\=1715–1730\|doi\=10\.1016/j.jas.2012\.11\.008}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.livescience.com/64267\-ancient\-board\-game\-nomads\-discovered.html\|title\=4,000\-Year\-Old Game Board Carved into the Earth Shows How Nomads Had Fun\|website\=\[\[Live Science]]\|date\=10 December 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2022/01/archaeologists\-discover\-4000\-year\-old\-stone\-board\-game/142440\|title\=Archaeologists discover 4,000\-year\-old stone board game\|date\=7 January 2022}} It was a race game for two players. The gaming board consisted of two sets of 29 holes. Ten small pegs with either jackal or dog heads were used for playing.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.livescience.com/64266\-ancient\-board\-games.html\|title\=16 of the Most Interesting Ancient Board and Dice Games\|last1\=Metcalfe\|first1\=Tom\|website\=Live Science\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-23\|date\=10 December 2018}} It's believed that the aim of the game was to begin at one point on the board and to reach with all figures at the other point on the board.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ancientgames.org/hounds\-and\-jackals/\|title\=Hounds and Jackals\|last\=Eli\|date\=2017\-10\-15\|website\=Ancient Games – Playing the Board Games of the Ancient World\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-23}} In Ancient Greece and in the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"), popular games included ball games ([Episkyros](/wiki/Episkyros "Episkyros"), [Harpastum](/wiki/Harpastum "Harpastum"), Expulsim Ludere – a kind of [handball](/wiki/Handball "Handball")), dice games (Tesserae), [knucklebones](/wiki/Knucklebones "Knucklebones"), [Bear games](/wiki/Bear_games "Bear games"), [Tic\-tac\-toe](/wiki/Tic-tac-toe "Tic-tac-toe") (Terni Lapilli), [Nine men's morris](/wiki/Nine_men%27s_morris "Nine men's morris") (mola) and various types of board games similar to [checkers](/wiki/Checkers "Checkers"). Both Plato and Homer mention board games called 'petteia' (games played with 'pessoi', i.e. 'pieces' or 'men'). According to Plato, they are all Egyptian in origin. The name 'petteia' seems to be a generic term for board game and refers to various games. One such game was called 'poleis' (city states) and was a game of battle on a checkered board.{{cite journal\|last\=Austin\|first\=Roland G.\|date\=September 1940\|title\=Greek Board Games\|journal\=Antiquity\|volume\=14\|issue\=55\|pages\=257–271\|url\=http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090408090534/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html\|archive\-date\=8 April 2009\|doi\=10\.1017/S0003598X00015258\|s2cid\=163535077}} [thumb\|right\|Achilles and Ajax engaged in a game of petteia, {{Circa\|540–530 BC}}, [Vatican Museums](/wiki/Vatican_Museums "Vatican Museums")](/wiki/File:Exekias%2C_anfora_con_achille_e_aiace_che_giocano_a_dai%2C_castore_e_polluce%2C_da_vulci%2C_540-30_ac_ca._03.JPG "Exekias, anfora con achille e aiace che giocano a dai, castore e polluce, da vulci, 540-30 ac ca. 03.JPG") The Romans played a derivation of 'petteia' called 'latrunculin' or [Ludus latrunculorum](/wiki/Ludus_latrunculorum "Ludus latrunculorum") (the soldiers' game or the bandits' game). It is first mentioned by [Varro](/wiki/Varro "Varro") (116–27 BC) and alluded to by Martial and [Ovid](/wiki/Ovid "Ovid"). This game was extremely popular and was spread throughout Europe by the Romans. Boards have been found as far as [Roman Britain](/wiki/Roman_Britain "Roman Britain"). It was a war game for two players and included moving around counters representing soldiers, with 'custodian' captures made by getting one of the adversary's pieces between two of one's own.Schädler, Ulrich; Latrunculi, "A forgotten Roman game of strategy reconstructed"; in Homo Ludens. Der spielende Mensch IV, 1994, 47–66\. After the [Muslim conquest of Persia](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia "Muslim conquest of Persia") (638–651\) [Shatranj](/wiki/Shatranj "Shatranj") spread to the Arab world. While pre\-Islamic chess sets represented Elephants, Horses, Kings and Soldiers; the Islamic prohibition against image worship led to increasing abstraction in chess set design. Islamic chess pieces were therefore simple cylindrical and rectangular shapes. The game became immensely popular during [Abbasid Caliphate](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate "Abbasid Caliphate") of the 9th century. The Abbasid Caliphs [Harun al\-Rashid](/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid "Harun al-Rashid") and [Al\-Ma'mun](/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun "Al-Ma'mun") were avid Shatranj players.Shenk, David. *The Immortal Game*, page 2006, Anchor Books. During this period Muslim chess players published several treatises on [chess problems](/wiki/Chess_problems "Chess problems") (*mansubat*) and [chess openings](/wiki/Chess_openings "Chess openings") (*ta'biyat*). Elite players such as Al\-Adli, [al\-Suli](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_bin_Yahya_al-Suli "Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli") and Ar\-Razi were called *aliyat* or "grandees" and played at the courts of the [Caliphs](/wiki/Caliphs "Caliphs") and wrote about the game. Al\-Adli (800–870\) is known for writing Kitab ash\-shatranj (book of chess), a comprehensive work on the game, including history, openings, endgames and chess problems. Al\-Adli also developed a system for ranking players. During the reign of the [Turko\-Mongol](/wiki/Turko-Mongol "Turko-Mongol") conqueror [Timur](/wiki/Timur "Timur") (1336–1405\), a variant of chess known as [Tamerlane chess](/wiki/Tamerlane_chess "Tamerlane chess") was developed which some sources attribute to Timur himself who was known to be a fan of the game. [thumb\|upright\|A [Persian miniature](/wiki/Persian_miniature "Persian miniature") illustrating the poem *Guy\-o Chawgân* ("the Ball and the Polo\-mallet") from the [Safavid dynasty](/wiki/Safavid_dynasty "Safavid dynasty")](/wiki/File:Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan_2.jpg "Polo game from poem Guy u Chawgan 2.jpg") Various games in the [Tables family](/wiki/Tables_%28board_game%29 "Tables (board game)") were also quite popular and are known as *ifranjiah* in Arabic (meaning "Frankish") and as [Nard](/wiki/Nard_%28game%29 "Nard (game)") in Iran. Many of the early Arabic texts which refer to these games often debate the legality and morality of playing them. This debate was settled by the eighth century when all four Muslim schools of jurisprudence declared them to be [Haraam](/wiki/Haraam "Haraam") (forbidden), however they are still played today in many Arab countries. Other popular games included [Mancala](/wiki/Mancala "Mancala") and [Tâb](/wiki/T%C3%A2b "Tâb"). [Polo](/wiki/Polo "Polo") (Persian: *chawgan*, Arabic: *sawlajan*) was first played in [Sassanid Persia](/wiki/Sassanid_Persia "Sassanid Persia").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468128/polo \|title\=Polo \| sport\|date\=13 April 2024 }} It passed from Sassanid Persia to the neighboring [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") at an early date, and a [Tzykanisterion](/wiki/Tzykanisterion "Tzykanisterion") (stadium for playing polo) was built by emperor [Theodosius II](/wiki/Theodosius_II "Theodosius II") (r. 408–450\) inside the [Great Palace of Constantinople](/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople "Great Palace of Constantinople").Christopher Kelly. *Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity*, Cambridge University Press. 2013\. p. 4 After the [Muslim conquests](/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests "Early Muslim conquests"), it passed to the [Ayyubid](/wiki/Ayyubid "Ayyubid") and [Mameluke](/wiki/Mameluke "Mameluke") dynasties, whose elites favored it above all other sports. Notable [sultans](/wiki/Sultan "Sultan") such as [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin "Saladin") and [Baybars](/wiki/Baybars "Baybars") were known to play it and encourage it in their court.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/baybars.htm \|title\=Touregypt.net \|publisher\=Touregypt.net \|access\-date\=25 January 2012}} [Playing cards](/wiki/Playing_cards "Playing cards") were imported from Asia and India and were popular during [Mamluk dynasty](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 "Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)") Egypt, featuring polo sticks, coins, swords, and cups as suits. #### Gallery British Museum Royal Game of Ur.jpg\|\[\[Royal Game of Ur]] Senet game pieces (Tutankhamun).jpg\|A Senet game board and game pieces from the \[\[KV62]] tomb of \[\[Tutankhamun]]— originally from \[\[Thebes, Egypt\|Thebes]]. AMI \- Schachbrett.jpg\|Board game with inlays of ivory, rock crystal and glass paste, covered with gold and silver leaf, on a wooden base (\[\[Knossos]], \[\[Minoan chronology\|New Palace period]] 1600–1500 BCE, \[\[Heraklion]] Archaeological Museum, Crete) Xii scripta ephesus.jpg\|\[\[Ludus duodecim scriptorum]] table in the museum at \[\[Ephesus]], an ancestor of \[\[backgammon]]. Museum Quintana \- Räuberspiel.jpg\|Modern reconstruction of the Roman board game \[\[Ludus latrunculorum]] (the bandits' game or the soldier's game), Museum Quintana of Archaeology, in \[\[Künzing]], Germany Roman statue of girl playing astragaloi 14 aC.jpg\|Roman statue of a girl playing \[\[knucklebones\|astragaloi]], 150–130 BCE. Berlin, Antikenmuseum. File:Chess Set MET DP170393\.jpg\|Shatranj set, glazed fritware, 12th century
[ "### Middle East and the Mediterranean", "Board games likely originate from the [ancient Near East](/wiki/Ancient_Near_East \"Ancient Near East\"), based on archeological findings. A series of 49 small carved painted figures found at the 5,000\\-year\\-old [Başur Höyük](/wiki/Ba%C5%9Fur_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk \"Başur Höyük\") burial mound in southeast [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") could represent the earliest gaming pieces ever found. Similar pieces have been found in [Tell Brak](/wiki/Tell_Brak \"Tell Brak\") and [Jemdet Nasr](/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr \"Jemdet Nasr\"), but they were isolated.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lorenzi \\|first\\=Rossella \\|date\\=14 August 2013 \\|title\\=Oldest Gaming Tokens Found in Turkey \\|url\\=http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/oldest\\-gaming\\-tokens\\-found\\-130814\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819061453/http://news.discovery.com/history/archaeology/oldest\\-gaming\\-tokens\\-found\\-130814\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=19 August 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=18 October 2022 \\|website\\=Discovery News}} Researches have called the find Dogs and Pigs.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Ancient boardgames: Experts find the missing piece (but can't figure out how to play) \\|url\\=http://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/turkey\\-ancient\\-board\\-games\\-bronze\\-age\\-anatolia \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-18 \\|website\\=Middle East Eye \\|language\\=en}} The earliest board games were a pastime for the elite and were sometimes given as diplomatic gifts according to a study published in *[Antiquity](/wiki/Antiquity_%28journal%29 \"Antiquity (journal)\")*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Viegas \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|date\\=27 November 2012 \\|title\\=Board Games Originated as Elite Pastime : Discovery News \\|url\\=http://news.discovery.com/history/art\\-history/board\\-games\\-history\\-romans\\-egypt\\-111206\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115053823/http://news.discovery.com/history/art\\-history/board\\-games\\-history\\-romans\\-egypt\\-111206\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=15 January 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=18 October 2022 \\|website\\=Discovery News}} Another possibility is that boards were reserved for the elite, but lower classes played on boards scratched into stone or on the ground. Some archeologists think that stones carved with long rows, dated between 7000 BC and 9000 BC, were used for a [mancala](/wiki/Mancala \"Mancala\")\\-like game.", "The earliest known board games all used dice and were for two players. Among the earliest examples of a board game is *[senet](/wiki/Senet \"Senet\")*, a game found in [Predynastic](/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt \"Predynastic Egypt\") and [First Dynasty](/wiki/First_dynasty_of_Egypt \"First dynasty of Egypt\") burial sites in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") (circa 3500 BC and 3100 BC, respectively) and in [hieroglyphs](/wiki/Hieroglyphs \"Hieroglyphs\") dating to around 3100 BC.Piccaione, Peter A. [In Search of the Meaning of Senet](http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918080211/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html \\|date\\=18 September 2008 }} The game was played by moving draughtsmen on a board of 30 squares arranged into three parallel rows of ten squares each. The players strategically moved their pieces based on the throw of sticks or bones. The goal was to reach the edge of the board first. Senet slowly evolved to reflect the religious beliefs of the Egyptians. The pieces represented human souls and their movement was based on the journey of the soul in the afterlife. Each square had a distinct religious significance, with the final square being associated with the union of the soul with the sun god [Re\\-Horakhty](/wiki/Re-Horakhty \"Re-Horakhty\"). Senet may have also been used in a ritual religious context.", "The [Royal Game of Ur](/wiki/Royal_Game_of_Ur \"Royal Game of Ur\"), or *Game of Twenty Squares* was played with a set of pawns on a richly decorated board and dates from 2600 to 2400 BC.{{Cite web \\|title\\=game\\-board {{!}} British Museum \\|url\\=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W\\_1928\\-1009\\-378 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-09 \\|website\\=The British Museum \\|language\\=en}} It was a [race game](/wiki/Race_game \"Race game\") which employed a set of knucklebone dice. This game was also known and played in Egypt. A Babylonian treatise on the game written on a clay tablet shows that the game had astronomical significance and that it could also be used to tell one's fortune.Green, William; Big Game Hunter [http://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747\\_1815707\\_1815665,00\\.html](http://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747_1815707_1815665,00.html) The game of Ur was also popular with the lower classes, as attested by a 2,700\\-year\\-old graffiti version of the game, scratched onto a gateway to a palace in [Khorsabad](/wiki/Khorsabad \"Khorsabad\"). Similar games have been found in Iran, Crete, Cyprus, Sri Lanka, and Syria. Excavations at [Shahr\\-e Sukhteh](/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh \"Shahr-e Sukhteh\") (\"The Burnt City\") in [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") have shown that the game also existed there around 3000 BCE. The artifacts include two dice and 60 checkers.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/dec/1029\\.html \\|title\\=World's Oldest Backgammon Discovered in Burnt City \\|work\\=Payvand News \\|date\\=4 December 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129194822/http://www.payvand.com/news/04/dec/1029\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite encyclopedia \\|last\\=Schädler, Dunn\\-Vaturi \\|first\\=Ulrich, Anne\\-Elizabeth \\|title\\=BOARD GAMES in pre\\-Islamic Persia \\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopædia Iranica \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-07\\|url\\=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/board\\-games\\-in\\-pre\\-islamic\\-persia}} Games such as [Nard](/wiki/Nard_%28game%29 \"Nard (game)\") and the Roman game [Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum](/wiki/Ludus_Duodecim_Scriptorum \"Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum\") (game of 12 points, also known as simply \"dice\", lat. \"alea\") may have developed from this Iranian game. The Byzantine game [Tabula](/wiki/Tabula_%28game%29 \"Tabula (game)\") is a descendant of the game of twelve points.", "The other example of a board game in ancient Egypt is \"[Hounds and Jackals](/wiki/Hounds_and_Jackals \"Hounds and Jackals\")\", also known as 58 holes. Hounds and Jackals appeared in Egypt, around 2000 BC and was mainly popular in the [Middle Kingdom](/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt \"Middle Kingdom of Egypt\").{{cite web \\|author\\=Hirst \\|first\\=K. Kris \\|title\\=What? Snakes and Ladders is 4,000 Years Old? \\|url\\=https://www.thoughtco.com/50\\-holes\\-game\\-169581 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-23 \\|website\\=ThoughtCo}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://wsbuzz.com/science/a\\-4000\\-year\\-old\\-bronze\\-age\\-game\\-called\\-58\\-holes\\-has\\-been\\-discovered\\-in\\-azerbaijan\\-rock\\-shelter/\\|title\\=A 4,000\\-Year\\-Old Bronze Age Game Called 58 Holes Has Been Discovered in Azerbaijan Rock Shelter\\|date\\=2018\\-11\\-18\\|website\\=WSBuzz.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-23}} The game was spread to Mesopotamia in the late 3rd millennium BC and was popular until the 1st millennium BC. More than 68 gameboards of Hounds and Jackals have been discovered in the archaeological excavations in various territories, including [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\") (Tell Ajlun, [Ras el\\-Ain](/wiki/Ras_al-Ayn \"Ras al-Ayn\"), [Khafaje](/wiki/Khafajah \"Khafajah\")), Palestine ([Tel Beth Shean](/wiki/Beit_She%27an \"Beit She'an\"), Gezer), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") ([Uruk](/wiki/Uruk \"Uruk\"), [Nippur](/wiki/Nippur \"Nippur\"), [Ur](/wiki/Ur \"Ur\"), [Nineveh](/wiki/Nineveh \"Nineveh\"), [Ashur](/wiki/Assur \"Assur\"), [Babylon](/wiki/Babylon \"Babylon\")), [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\") ([Tappeh Sialk](/wiki/Tepe_Sialk \"Tepe Sialk\"), Susa, [Luristan](/wiki/Lorestan_Province \"Lorestan Province\")), [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\") ([Karalhuyuk](/wiki/Karah%C3%BCy%C3%BCk%2C_Kalecik \"Karahüyük, Kalecik\"), Kultepe, [Acemhuyuk](/wiki/Acemh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk \"Acemhöyük\")), [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan \"Azerbaijan\") ([Gobustan](/wiki/Gobustan_National_Park \"Gobustan National Park\")) and [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") (Buhen, [El\\-Lahun](/wiki/El_Lahun \"El Lahun\"), [Sedment](/wiki/Sedment \"Sedment\")).{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\\-eight holes\\|first\\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\\-eight holes\\|date\\=2012\\|title\\=Cultural Transmission in the Ancient Near East: twenty squares and fifty\\-eight holes\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/2543093\\|journal\\=Journal of Archaeological Science\\|volume\\=40\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=1715–1730\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jas.2012\\.11\\.008}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.livescience.com/64267\\-ancient\\-board\\-game\\-nomads\\-discovered.html\\|title\\=4,000\\-Year\\-Old Game Board Carved into the Earth Shows How Nomads Had Fun\\|website\\=\\[\\[Live Science]]\\|date\\=10 December 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.heritagedaily.com/2022/01/archaeologists\\-discover\\-4000\\-year\\-old\\-stone\\-board\\-game/142440\\|title\\=Archaeologists discover 4,000\\-year\\-old stone board game\\|date\\=7 January 2022}} It was a race game for two players. The gaming board consisted of two sets of 29 holes. Ten small pegs with either jackal or dog heads were used for playing.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.livescience.com/64266\\-ancient\\-board\\-games.html\\|title\\=16 of the Most Interesting Ancient Board and Dice Games\\|last1\\=Metcalfe\\|first1\\=Tom\\|website\\=Live Science\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-23\\|date\\=10 December 2018}} It's believed that the aim of the game was to begin at one point on the board and to reach with all figures at the other point on the board.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ancientgames.org/hounds\\-and\\-jackals/\\|title\\=Hounds and Jackals\\|last\\=Eli\\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-15\\|website\\=Ancient Games – Playing the Board Games of the Ancient World\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-23}}", "In Ancient Greece and in the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\"), popular games included ball games ([Episkyros](/wiki/Episkyros \"Episkyros\"), [Harpastum](/wiki/Harpastum \"Harpastum\"), Expulsim Ludere – a kind of [handball](/wiki/Handball \"Handball\")), dice games (Tesserae), [knucklebones](/wiki/Knucklebones \"Knucklebones\"), [Bear games](/wiki/Bear_games \"Bear games\"), [Tic\\-tac\\-toe](/wiki/Tic-tac-toe \"Tic-tac-toe\") (Terni Lapilli), [Nine men's morris](/wiki/Nine_men%27s_morris \"Nine men's morris\") (mola) and various types of board games similar to [checkers](/wiki/Checkers \"Checkers\"). Both Plato and Homer mention board games called 'petteia' (games played with 'pessoi', i.e. 'pieces' or 'men'). According to Plato, they are all Egyptian in origin. The name 'petteia' seems to be a generic term for board game and refers to various games. One such game was called 'poleis' (city states) and was a game of battle on a checkered board.{{cite journal\\|last\\=Austin\\|first\\=Roland G.\\|date\\=September 1940\\|title\\=Greek Board Games\\|journal\\=Antiquity\\|volume\\=14\\|issue\\=55\\|pages\\=257–271\\|url\\=http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090408090534/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html\\|archive\\-date\\=8 April 2009\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0003598X00015258\\|s2cid\\=163535077}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Achilles and Ajax engaged in a game of petteia, {{Circa\\|540–530 BC}}, [Vatican Museums](/wiki/Vatican_Museums \"Vatican Museums\")](/wiki/File:Exekias%2C_anfora_con_achille_e_aiace_che_giocano_a_dai%2C_castore_e_polluce%2C_da_vulci%2C_540-30_ac_ca._03.JPG \"Exekias, anfora con achille e aiace che giocano a dai, castore e polluce, da vulci, 540-30 ac ca. 03.JPG\")", "The Romans played a derivation of 'petteia' called 'latrunculin' or [Ludus latrunculorum](/wiki/Ludus_latrunculorum \"Ludus latrunculorum\") (the soldiers' game or the bandits' game). It is first mentioned by [Varro](/wiki/Varro \"Varro\") (116–27 BC) and alluded to by Martial and [Ovid](/wiki/Ovid \"Ovid\"). This game was extremely popular and was spread throughout Europe by the Romans. Boards have been found as far as [Roman Britain](/wiki/Roman_Britain \"Roman Britain\"). It was a war game for two players and included moving around counters representing soldiers, with 'custodian' captures made by getting one of the adversary's pieces between two of one's own.Schädler, Ulrich; Latrunculi, \"A forgotten Roman game of strategy reconstructed\"; in Homo Ludens. Der spielende Mensch IV, 1994, 47–66\\.", "After the [Muslim conquest of Persia](/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia \"Muslim conquest of Persia\") (638–651\\) [Shatranj](/wiki/Shatranj \"Shatranj\") spread to the Arab world. While pre\\-Islamic chess sets represented Elephants, Horses, Kings and Soldiers; the Islamic prohibition against image worship led to increasing abstraction in chess set design. Islamic chess pieces were therefore simple cylindrical and rectangular shapes. The game became immensely popular during [Abbasid Caliphate](/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate \"Abbasid Caliphate\") of the 9th century. The Abbasid Caliphs [Harun al\\-Rashid](/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid \"Harun al-Rashid\") and [Al\\-Ma'mun](/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun \"Al-Ma'mun\") were avid Shatranj players.Shenk, David. *The Immortal Game*, page 2006, Anchor Books. During this period Muslim chess players published several treatises on [chess problems](/wiki/Chess_problems \"Chess problems\") (*mansubat*) and [chess openings](/wiki/Chess_openings \"Chess openings\") (*ta'biyat*). Elite players such as Al\\-Adli, [al\\-Suli](/wiki/Abu_Bakr_bin_Yahya_al-Suli \"Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli\") and Ar\\-Razi were called *aliyat* or \"grandees\" and played at the courts of the [Caliphs](/wiki/Caliphs \"Caliphs\") and wrote about the game. Al\\-Adli (800–870\\) is known for writing Kitab ash\\-shatranj (book of chess), a comprehensive work on the game, including history, openings, endgames and chess problems. Al\\-Adli also developed a system for ranking players. During the reign of the [Turko\\-Mongol](/wiki/Turko-Mongol \"Turko-Mongol\") conqueror [Timur](/wiki/Timur \"Timur\") (1336–1405\\), a variant of chess known as [Tamerlane chess](/wiki/Tamerlane_chess \"Tamerlane chess\") was developed which some sources attribute to Timur himself who was known to be a fan of the game.\n[thumb\\|upright\\|A [Persian miniature](/wiki/Persian_miniature \"Persian miniature\") illustrating the poem *Guy\\-o Chawgân* (\"the Ball and the Polo\\-mallet\") from the [Safavid dynasty](/wiki/Safavid_dynasty \"Safavid dynasty\")](/wiki/File:Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan_2.jpg \"Polo game from poem Guy u Chawgan 2.jpg\")\nVarious games in the [Tables family](/wiki/Tables_%28board_game%29 \"Tables (board game)\") were also quite popular and are known as *ifranjiah* in Arabic (meaning \"Frankish\") and as [Nard](/wiki/Nard_%28game%29 \"Nard (game)\") in Iran. Many of the early Arabic texts which refer to these games often debate the legality and morality of playing them. This debate was settled by the eighth century when all four Muslim schools of jurisprudence declared them to be [Haraam](/wiki/Haraam \"Haraam\") (forbidden), however they are still played today in many Arab countries. Other popular games included [Mancala](/wiki/Mancala \"Mancala\") and [Tâb](/wiki/T%C3%A2b \"Tâb\").", "[Polo](/wiki/Polo \"Polo\") (Persian: *chawgan*, Arabic: *sawlajan*) was first played in [Sassanid Persia](/wiki/Sassanid_Persia \"Sassanid Persia\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/468128/polo \\|title\\=Polo \\| sport\\|date\\=13 April 2024 }} It passed from Sassanid Persia to the neighboring [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") at an early date, and a [Tzykanisterion](/wiki/Tzykanisterion \"Tzykanisterion\") (stadium for playing polo) was built by emperor [Theodosius II](/wiki/Theodosius_II \"Theodosius II\") (r. 408–450\\) inside the [Great Palace of Constantinople](/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople \"Great Palace of Constantinople\").Christopher Kelly. *Theodosius II: Rethinking the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity*, Cambridge University Press. 2013\\. p. 4 After the [Muslim conquests](/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests \"Early Muslim conquests\"), it passed to the [Ayyubid](/wiki/Ayyubid \"Ayyubid\") and [Mameluke](/wiki/Mameluke \"Mameluke\") dynasties, whose elites favored it above all other sports. Notable [sultans](/wiki/Sultan \"Sultan\") such as [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin \"Saladin\") and [Baybars](/wiki/Baybars \"Baybars\") were known to play it and encourage it in their court.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/baybars.htm \\|title\\=Touregypt.net \\|publisher\\=Touregypt.net \\|access\\-date\\=25 January 2012}}", "[Playing cards](/wiki/Playing_cards \"Playing cards\") were imported from Asia and India and were popular during [Mamluk dynasty](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 \"Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)\") Egypt, featuring polo sticks, coins, swords, and cups as suits.", "#### Gallery", "", "British Museum Royal Game of Ur.jpg\\|\\[\\[Royal Game of Ur]]\nSenet game pieces (Tutankhamun).jpg\\|A Senet game board and game pieces from the \\[\\[KV62]] tomb of \\[\\[Tutankhamun]]— originally from \\[\\[Thebes, Egypt\\|Thebes]].\nAMI \\- Schachbrett.jpg\\|Board game with inlays of ivory, rock crystal and glass paste, covered with gold and silver leaf, on a wooden base (\\[\\[Knossos]], \\[\\[Minoan chronology\\|New Palace period]] 1600–1500 BCE, \\[\\[Heraklion]] Archaeological Museum, Crete)\nXii scripta ephesus.jpg\\|\\[\\[Ludus duodecim scriptorum]] table in the museum at \\[\\[Ephesus]], an ancestor of \\[\\[backgammon]].\nMuseum Quintana \\- Räuberspiel.jpg\\|Modern reconstruction of the Roman board game \\[\\[Ludus latrunculorum]] (the bandits' game or the soldier's game), Museum Quintana of Archaeology, in \\[\\[Künzing]], Germany\nRoman statue of girl playing astragaloi 14 aC.jpg\\|Roman statue of a girl playing \\[\\[knucklebones\\|astragaloi]], 150–130 BCE. Berlin, Antikenmuseum.\nFile:Chess Set MET DP170393\\.jpg\\|Shatranj set, glazed fritware, 12th century", "", "" ]
### Europe The [Tafl games](/wiki/Tafl_games "Tafl games") were a family of ancient [Germanic](/wiki/Germanic_tribes "Germanic tribes") and [Celtic](/wiki/Celts "Celts") board games played across much of Northern Europe from earlier than 400 CE until the 12th century.Murray, H. J. R. (1951\). *A History of Board\-Games Other than Chess*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\|0\-19\-827401\-7}}. LCCN 52\-003975 OCLC 1350513, pp.56, 57\. Although the rules of the games were never explicitly recorded, it seems to have been a game with uneven forces (2:1 ratio) and the goal of one side was to escape to the side of the board with a King while the other side's goal was to capture him. Tafl was spread by the [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings "Vikings") throughout northern Europe, including [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland"), [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain"), [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland"), and [Lapland](/wiki/Lapland_%28region%29 "Lapland (region)").[Murray 1951](/wiki/%23Reference-idMurray1951 "#Reference-idMurray1951"), p. 56, [Helmfrid 2005](/wiki/%23Reference-idHelmfrid2005 "#Reference-idHelmfrid2005"), p. 2 Chess was introduced to the Iberian [emirate of Cordoba](/wiki/Emirate_of_Cordoba "Emirate of Cordoba") in 822 during the reign of [Abd ar\-Rahman II](/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II "Abd ar-Rahman II"). By the middle of the 10th century it was being played in Christian Spain, Italy and Southern Germany. By 1200, it had reached Britain and Scandinavia.Shenk, David. The immortal game, chapter 3, 2006, Anchor Books. Initially there were many differing local Chess games with varying rules or *assizes* such as [Short assize](/wiki/Short_assize "Short assize") chess, [Courier chess](/wiki/Courier_chess "Courier chess") and [Dice Chess](/wiki/Dice_Chess "Dice Chess"). An important source of medieval games is the *[Libro de los juegos](/wiki/Libro_de_los_juegos "Libro de los juegos")*, ("Book of games"), or *Libro de acedrex, dados e tablas*, ("Book of chess, dice and tables", in Old Spanish) which was commissioned by [Alfonso X](/wiki/Alfonso_X "Alfonso X") of Castile, Galicia and León in 1283\.Sonja Musser Golladay, ["Los Libros de Acedrex Dados E Tablas: Historical, Artistic and Metaphysical Dimensions of Alfonso X’s Book of Games"](http://etd.library.arizona.edu/etd/GetFileServlet?file=file:///data1/pdf/etd/azu_etd_2444_1_m.pdf&type=application/pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717133812/http://etd.library.arizona.edu/etd/GetFileServlet?file\=file%3A%2F%2F%2Fdata1%2Fpdf%2Fetd%2Fazu\_etd\_2444\_1\_m.pdf\&type\=application%2Fpdf \|date\=17 July 2011 }} (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2007\), 31\. Although Golladay is not the first to assert that 1283 is the finish date of the *Libro de Juegos*, the *a quo* information compiled in her dissertation consolidates the range of research concerning the initiation and completion dates of the *Libro de Juegos*. The manuscript contains descriptions and color illustrations of [dice games](/wiki/Dice_games "Dice games"), [chess](/wiki/Chess "Chess") and [tabula](/wiki/Tabula_%28game%29 "Tabula (game)"), a predecessor of [backgammon](/wiki/Backgammon "Backgammon"). The book portrays these games within an astrological context, and some game variants are astronomically designed, such as a game titled "[astronomical chess](/wiki/Astronomical_chess "Astronomical chess")", played on a board of seven concentric circles, divided radially into twelve areas, each associated with a constellation of the [Zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac "Zodiac"). The symbolism of the text indicates that some of these games were given metaphysical significance. Chess was also used to teach social and moral lessons by the Dominican friar [Jacobus de Cessolis](/wiki/Jacobus_de_Cessolis "Jacobus de Cessolis") in his *Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium super ludo scacchorum* ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'). Published circa 1300, the book was immensely popular. Other pre\-modern European board games include [Rithmomachy](/wiki/Rithmomachy "Rithmomachy") or "the philosophers game", [alquerque](/wiki/Alquerque "Alquerque"), [fox \& geese](/wiki/Fox_%26_geese "Fox & geese"), [nine men's morris](/wiki/Nine_men%27s_morris "Nine men's morris"), [draughts](/wiki/Draughts "Draughts"), [nim](/wiki/Nim "Nim"), [catch the hare](/wiki/Catch_the_hare "Catch the hare") and the [game of the goose](/wiki/Game_of_the_goose "Game of the goose"). [Dice games](/wiki/Dice_games "Dice games") were widely played throughout Europe and included [hazard](/wiki/Hazard_%28game%29 "Hazard (game)"), [chuck\-a\-luck](/wiki/Chuck-a-luck "Chuck-a-luck"), [Glückshaus](/wiki/Gl%C3%BCckshaus "Glückshaus"), [shut the box](/wiki/Shut_the_box "Shut the box") and [knucklebones](/wiki/Knucklebones "Knucklebones"). [Card games](/wiki/Card_games "Card games") first arrived in Italy from [Mamluk Egypt](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 "Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)") in the 14th century, with suits very similar to the Swords, Clubs, Cups and Coins and those still used in traditional [Italian](/wiki/Italian_playing_cards "Italian playing cards") and [Spanish decks](/wiki/Spanish_playing_cards "Spanish playing cards").[Donald Laycock](/wiki/Donald_Laycock "Donald Laycock") in *Skeptical—a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal*, ed [Donald Laycock](/wiki/Donald_Laycock "Donald Laycock"), [David Vernon](/wiki/David_Vernon_%28writer%29 "David Vernon (writer)"), [Colin Groves](/wiki/Colin_Groves "Colin Groves"), [Simon Brown](/wiki/Simon_Brown_%28author%29 "Simon Brown (author)"), Imagecraft, Canberra, 1989, {{ISBN\|0\-7316\-5794\-2}}, p. 67 The four [suits](/wiki/Suit_%28cards%29 "Suit (cards)") most commonly encountered today (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) appear to have originated in France circa 1480\.[Early Playing Cards Research](http://trionfi.com/0/p/16/). Trionfi. 2006\. 1440s Italy saw the rise of [tarot cards](/wiki/Tarot_cards "Tarot cards") and this led to the development of [tarot card games](/wiki/Tarot_card_games "Tarot card games") such as [tarocchini](/wiki/Tarocchini "Tarocchini"), [Königrufen](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigrufen "Königrufen") and [French tarot](/wiki/French_tarot "French tarot"). Outdoor games were very popular during holidays and fairs and were played by all classes. Many of these games are the predecessors of modern sports and [lawn games](/wiki/Lawn_game "Lawn game"). [Boules](/wiki/Boules "Boules"), [lawn billiards](/wiki/Trucco "Trucco") (later brought indoors as [billiards](/wiki/Billiards "Billiards")), [skittles](/wiki/Skittles_%28sport%29 "Skittles (sport)") (an ancestor of modern ten pin [bowling](/wiki/Bowling "Bowling")), [medieval football](/wiki/Medieval_football "Medieval football"), [kolven](/wiki/Kolven "Kolven"), [stoolball](/wiki/Stoolball "Stoolball") (an ancestor of [cricket](/wiki/Cricket "Cricket")), *[jeu de paume](/wiki/Jeu_de_paume "Jeu de paume")* (early racket\-less [tennis](/wiki/Tennis "Tennis")), [horseshoes](/wiki/Horseshoes_%28game%29 "Horseshoes (game)") and [quoits](/wiki/Quoits "Quoits") all predate the [early modern](/wiki/Early_modern "Early modern") era. #### Gallery GOADA 2008 (b) 272\.jpg\|Hnefatafl reconstruction ChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess.JPG\|Christian And Muslim playing chess. \[\[Libro de los juegos]]. Youths playing ball Gloucester Cathedral.jpg\|Wood carving of two youths playing ball on a misericord at Gloucester Cathedral, c. 1350\. ItalianSancaiBowlMid15thCentury.jpg\|Italian Sancai Bowl depicting a card game, mid 15th century 'Game of Skittles', copy of painting by Pieter de Hooch, Cincinnati Art Museum.JPG\|'\[\[Game of Skittles]]', copy of 1660\-68 painting by Pieter de Hooch in the Saint Louis Art Museum Wurfzabel.jpg\|Medieval illustration of tabula players from the 13th century \[\[Carmina Burana]].
[ "### Europe", "The [Tafl games](/wiki/Tafl_games \"Tafl games\") were a family of ancient [Germanic](/wiki/Germanic_tribes \"Germanic tribes\") and [Celtic](/wiki/Celts \"Celts\") board games played across much of Northern Europe from earlier than 400 CE until the 12th century.Murray, H. J. R. (1951\\). *A History of Board\\-Games Other than Chess*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\\|0\\-19\\-827401\\-7}}. LCCN 52\\-003975 OCLC 1350513, pp.56, 57\\. Although the rules of the games were never explicitly recorded, it seems to have been a game with uneven forces (2:1 ratio) and the goal of one side was to escape to the side of the board with a King while the other side's goal was to capture him. Tafl was spread by the [Vikings](/wiki/Vikings \"Vikings\") throughout northern Europe, including [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\"), [Britain](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\"), [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\"), and [Lapland](/wiki/Lapland_%28region%29 \"Lapland (region)\").[Murray 1951](/wiki/%23Reference-idMurray1951 \"#Reference-idMurray1951\"), p. 56, [Helmfrid 2005](/wiki/%23Reference-idHelmfrid2005 \"#Reference-idHelmfrid2005\"), p. 2", "Chess was introduced to the Iberian [emirate of Cordoba](/wiki/Emirate_of_Cordoba \"Emirate of Cordoba\") in 822 during the reign of [Abd ar\\-Rahman II](/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_II \"Abd ar-Rahman II\"). By the middle of the 10th century it was being played in Christian Spain, Italy and Southern Germany. By 1200, it had reached Britain and Scandinavia.Shenk, David. The immortal game, chapter 3, 2006, Anchor Books. Initially there were many differing local Chess games with varying rules or *assizes* such as [Short assize](/wiki/Short_assize \"Short assize\") chess, [Courier chess](/wiki/Courier_chess \"Courier chess\") and [Dice Chess](/wiki/Dice_Chess \"Dice Chess\").", "An important source of medieval games is the *[Libro de los juegos](/wiki/Libro_de_los_juegos \"Libro de los juegos\")*, (\"Book of games\"), or *Libro de acedrex, dados e tablas*, (\"Book of chess, dice and tables\", in Old Spanish) which was commissioned by [Alfonso X](/wiki/Alfonso_X \"Alfonso X\") of Castile, Galicia and León in 1283\\.Sonja Musser Golladay, [\"Los Libros de Acedrex Dados E Tablas: Historical, Artistic and Metaphysical Dimensions of Alfonso X’s Book of Games\"](http://etd.library.arizona.edu/etd/GetFileServlet?file=file:///data1/pdf/etd/azu_etd_2444_1_m.pdf&type=application/pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717133812/http://etd.library.arizona.edu/etd/GetFileServlet?file\\=file%3A%2F%2F%2Fdata1%2Fpdf%2Fetd%2Fazu\\_etd\\_2444\\_1\\_m.pdf\\&type\\=application%2Fpdf \\|date\\=17 July 2011 }} (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2007\\), 31\\. Although Golladay is not the first to assert that 1283 is the finish date of the *Libro de Juegos*, the *a quo* information compiled in her dissertation consolidates the range of research concerning the initiation and completion dates of the *Libro de Juegos*. The manuscript contains descriptions and color illustrations of [dice games](/wiki/Dice_games \"Dice games\"), [chess](/wiki/Chess \"Chess\") and [tabula](/wiki/Tabula_%28game%29 \"Tabula (game)\"), a predecessor of [backgammon](/wiki/Backgammon \"Backgammon\"). The book portrays these games within an astrological context, and some game variants are astronomically designed, such as a game titled \"[astronomical chess](/wiki/Astronomical_chess \"Astronomical chess\")\", played on a board of seven concentric circles, divided radially into twelve areas, each associated with a constellation of the [Zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac \"Zodiac\"). The symbolism of the text indicates that some of these games were given metaphysical significance. Chess was also used to teach social and moral lessons by the Dominican friar [Jacobus de Cessolis](/wiki/Jacobus_de_Cessolis \"Jacobus de Cessolis\") in his *Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium super ludo scacchorum* ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'). Published circa 1300, the book was immensely popular.", "Other pre\\-modern European board games include [Rithmomachy](/wiki/Rithmomachy \"Rithmomachy\") or \"the philosophers game\", [alquerque](/wiki/Alquerque \"Alquerque\"), [fox \\& geese](/wiki/Fox_%26_geese \"Fox & geese\"), [nine men's morris](/wiki/Nine_men%27s_morris \"Nine men's morris\"), [draughts](/wiki/Draughts \"Draughts\"), [nim](/wiki/Nim \"Nim\"), [catch the hare](/wiki/Catch_the_hare \"Catch the hare\") and the [game of the goose](/wiki/Game_of_the_goose \"Game of the goose\"). [Dice games](/wiki/Dice_games \"Dice games\") were widely played throughout Europe and included [hazard](/wiki/Hazard_%28game%29 \"Hazard (game)\"), [chuck\\-a\\-luck](/wiki/Chuck-a-luck \"Chuck-a-luck\"), [Glückshaus](/wiki/Gl%C3%BCckshaus \"Glückshaus\"), [shut the box](/wiki/Shut_the_box \"Shut the box\") and [knucklebones](/wiki/Knucklebones \"Knucklebones\").", "[Card games](/wiki/Card_games \"Card games\") first arrived in Italy from [Mamluk Egypt](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 \"Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)\") in the 14th century, with suits very similar to the Swords, Clubs, Cups and Coins and those still used in traditional [Italian](/wiki/Italian_playing_cards \"Italian playing cards\") and [Spanish decks](/wiki/Spanish_playing_cards \"Spanish playing cards\").[Donald Laycock](/wiki/Donald_Laycock \"Donald Laycock\") in *Skeptical—a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal*, ed [Donald Laycock](/wiki/Donald_Laycock \"Donald Laycock\"), [David Vernon](/wiki/David_Vernon_%28writer%29 \"David Vernon (writer)\"), [Colin Groves](/wiki/Colin_Groves \"Colin Groves\"), [Simon Brown](/wiki/Simon_Brown_%28author%29 \"Simon Brown (author)\"), Imagecraft, Canberra, 1989, {{ISBN\\|0\\-7316\\-5794\\-2}}, p. 67 The four [suits](/wiki/Suit_%28cards%29 \"Suit (cards)\") most commonly encountered today (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) appear to have originated in France circa 1480\\.[Early Playing Cards Research](http://trionfi.com/0/p/16/). Trionfi. 2006\\. 1440s Italy saw the rise of [tarot cards](/wiki/Tarot_cards \"Tarot cards\") and this led to the development of [tarot card games](/wiki/Tarot_card_games \"Tarot card games\") such as [tarocchini](/wiki/Tarocchini \"Tarocchini\"), [Königrufen](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigrufen \"Königrufen\") and [French tarot](/wiki/French_tarot \"French tarot\").", "Outdoor games were very popular during holidays and fairs and were played by all classes. Many of these games are the predecessors of modern sports and [lawn games](/wiki/Lawn_game \"Lawn game\"). [Boules](/wiki/Boules \"Boules\"), [lawn billiards](/wiki/Trucco \"Trucco\") (later brought indoors as [billiards](/wiki/Billiards \"Billiards\")), [skittles](/wiki/Skittles_%28sport%29 \"Skittles (sport)\") (an ancestor of modern ten pin [bowling](/wiki/Bowling \"Bowling\")), [medieval football](/wiki/Medieval_football \"Medieval football\"), [kolven](/wiki/Kolven \"Kolven\"), [stoolball](/wiki/Stoolball \"Stoolball\") (an ancestor of [cricket](/wiki/Cricket \"Cricket\")), *[jeu de paume](/wiki/Jeu_de_paume \"Jeu de paume\")* (early racket\\-less [tennis](/wiki/Tennis \"Tennis\")), [horseshoes](/wiki/Horseshoes_%28game%29 \"Horseshoes (game)\") and [quoits](/wiki/Quoits \"Quoits\") all predate the [early modern](/wiki/Early_modern \"Early modern\") era.", "#### Gallery", "", "GOADA 2008 (b) 272\\.jpg\\|Hnefatafl reconstruction\nChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess.JPG\\|Christian And Muslim playing chess. \\[\\[Libro de los juegos]].\nYouths playing ball Gloucester Cathedral.jpg\\|Wood carving of two youths playing ball on a misericord at Gloucester Cathedral, c. 1350\\.\nItalianSancaiBowlMid15thCentury.jpg\\|Italian Sancai Bowl depicting a card game, mid 15th century\n'Game of Skittles', copy of painting by Pieter de Hooch, Cincinnati Art Museum.JPG\\|'\\[\\[Game of Skittles]]', copy of 1660\\-68 painting by Pieter de Hooch in the Saint Louis Art Museum\nWurfzabel.jpg\\|Medieval illustration of tabula players from the 13th century \\[\\[Carmina Burana]].", "", "" ]
Modern games ------------ ### Professional board games [thumb\|right\|[Emanuel Lasker](/wiki/Emanuel_Lasker "Emanuel Lasker") (right) playing Steinitz for the [World Chess Championship](/wiki/World_Chess_Championship "World Chess Championship"), New York 1894](/wiki/File:Lasker-Steinitz.jpg "Lasker-Steinitz.jpg") [Modern chess rules](/wiki/Rules_of_chess "Rules of chess") began taking shape in Spain and Italy during the 15th century with the adoption of the standard Queen and Bishop movements (initially called "Mad Queen chess"). Writings on [chess theory](/wiki/Chess_theory "Chess theory") also began to appear in the 15th century with the first text being the *Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez* (Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess, 1497\) by Spanish churchman Luis Ramirez de Lucena. Chess books by authors such as [Ruy López de Segura](/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Segura "Ruy López de Segura") and [Gioachino Greco](/wiki/Gioachino_Greco "Gioachino Greco") became widely studied. Chess was the favored game of [Voltaire](/wiki/Voltaire "Voltaire"), [Rousseau](/wiki/Rousseau "Rousseau"), [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin "Benjamin Franklin") and [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon").Shenk, David. The immortal game, 2006, Anchor Books. In 1851, the [first international chess tournament was held in London](/wiki/London_1851_chess_tournament "London 1851 chess tournament") and won by [Adolf Anderssen](/wiki/Adolf_Anderssen "Adolf Anderssen"). Soon after modern [time control](/wiki/Time_control "Time control") rules were adopted for competitive play. The first [Official World Chess Championship](/wiki/World_Chess_Championship_1886 "World Chess Championship 1886") was held in 1886 in the United States and won by [Wilhelm Steinitz](/wiki/Wilhelm_Steinitz "Wilhelm Steinitz"). By the 20th century, the game of [Chess](/wiki/Chess "Chess") had developed into a [professional sport](/wiki/Professional_sport "Professional sport") with chess clubs, publications, [player ratings](/wiki/Chess_rating_system "Chess rating system") and [chess tournaments](/wiki/Chess_tournaments "Chess tournaments"). The [World Chess Federation](/wiki/World_Chess_Federation "World Chess Federation") (FIDE) was founded in 1924 in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"). A large number of [Chess variants](/wiki/Chess_variants "Chess variants") were also developed, with varying [pieces](/wiki/Fairy_chess_pieces "Fairy chess pieces"), rules, boards and scoring. Among them are [Kriegspiel](/wiki/Kriegspiel_%28chess%29 "Kriegspiel (chess)"), [Capablanca Chess](/wiki/Capablanca_Chess "Capablanca Chess"), [Alice Chess](/wiki/Alice_Chess "Alice Chess"), [Circular chess](/wiki/Circular_chess "Circular chess"), [Three\-dimensional chess](/wiki/Three-dimensional_chess "Three-dimensional chess"), [Hexagonal Chess](/wiki/Hexagonal_Chess "Hexagonal Chess"), [Chess with different armies](/wiki/Chess_with_different_armies "Chess with different armies"), and [Bobby Fischer](/wiki/Bobby_Fischer "Bobby Fischer")'s [Chess960](/wiki/Chess960 "Chess960"). In [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), [Go](/wiki/Go_%28game%29 "Go (game)") and [Shogi](/wiki/Shogi "Shogi") became the major board games played at a professional level. Both games were promoted in [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") by the [Tokugawa shogunate](/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate "Tokugawa shogunate") in the 17th century, and top players ([Meijin](/wiki/Meijin "Meijin")) received government endowments. During the 20th century the Japan Shogi Association and the [Japan Go Association](/wiki/Japan_Go_Association "Japan Go Association") were founded and began organizing professional tournaments. During the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty"), many [Xiangqi](/wiki/Xiangqi "Xiangqi") clubs were formed and books published. The [Chinese Xiangqi Association](/wiki/Chinese_Xiangqi_Association "Chinese Xiangqi Association") was formed in 1962, and Xiangqi tournaments are held worldwide by national Xiangqi associations. In 1997 the first [Mind Sports Olympiad](/wiki/Mind_Sports_Olympiad "Mind Sports Olympiad") was held in London and included traditional as well as modern board games. Other board games such as [Backgammon](/wiki/Backgammon "Backgammon"), [Scrabble](/wiki/Scrabble "Scrabble") and [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)") are also played professionally with dedicated world championships. ### Commercial board games [thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|[Gyan chauper](/wiki/Gyan_chauper "Gyan chauper"), Late 18th century [Jain](/wiki/Jain "Jain") game board on cloth in the decorative arts gallery of the [National Museum of India](/wiki/National_Museum_of_India "National Museum of India"). Acc. No. 85\.312](/wiki/File:Gyan_Chaupar_National_Museum_India.JPG "Gyan Chaupar National Museum India.JPG") The Ancient Indian game of [Pachisi](/wiki/Pachisi "Pachisi") was brought to the west by the British in the 1863 and an adaptation of the oldest game named [Parcheesi](/wiki/Parcheesi "Parcheesi") was first copyrighted in the United States by EG Selchow \& Co in 1869\.University of Waterloo Games Museum, <http://gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/parcheesi/> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306210931/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/parcheesi/ \|date\=6 March 2015 }} A version of the game called [Ludo](/wiki/Ludo_%28board_game%29 "Ludo (board game)") was patented in 1896\. A similar German race game, [Mensch ärgere dich nicht](/wiki/Mensch_%C3%A4rgere_dich_nicht "Mensch ärgere dich nicht") ("Man, don't get annoyed"), became immensely popular with German troops during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). Another Indian game which was adopted by the West was [Gyan chauper](/wiki/Gyan_chauper "Gyan chauper") (a.k.a. Moksha Patam), popularly known as [snakes and ladders](/wiki/Snakes_and_ladders "Snakes and ladders"). This was a game which was intended to teach lessons about [karma](/wiki/Karma "Karma") and good and bad actions, the ladders represented virtues and the snakes vices. The moral lesson of the game was that spiritual liberation, or [Moksha](/wiki/Moksha "Moksha") could only be achieved through virtuous action, while vice led to endless reincarnation. The game dates to medieval India where it was played by Jains and Hindus. A Buddhist version, known as "ascending the \[spiritual] levels" (Tibetan: {{transliteration\|bo\|sa gnon rnam bzhags}}) is played in Nepal and TibetBornet and Burger, Religions in Play: Games, Rituals, and Virtual Worlds, page 95 while a Muslim version of the game played during the [mughal period](/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") from the late 17th or early 18th centuries featured the 101 names of God. The game was first brought to Victorian England and it was published in the United States as *Chutes and Ladders* (an "improved new version of England's famous indoor sport") by game pioneer [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley "Milton Bradley") in 1943\. The first board game for which the name of its designer is known is 'A Journey Through Europe or the Play of Geography', a map\-based game published in 1759 by [John Jefferys](/wiki/John_Jefferys "John Jefferys"), a [Geography](/wiki/Geography "Geography") and writing teacher.Drabble, Margaret; The Pattern in the Carpet: A Personal History with Jigsaws, page 107, 2009\. Designed in England by George Fox in 1800, [The Mansion of Happiness](/wiki/The_Mansion_of_Happiness "The Mansion of Happiness") became the prototype for commercial board games for at least two centuries to follow. The first board game published in the United States was '[Traveller's Tour Through the United States](/wiki/Travellers%27_Tour_Through_the_United_States "Travellers' Tour Through the United States")', published by New York City bookseller F. Lockwood in 1822\. The earliest board games published in the United States were based upon Christian morality and included The Mansion of Happiness (1843\) and The Game of Pope or Pagan, or The Siege of the Stronghold of Satan by the Christian Army (1844\). While demonstrating the commercial viability of the ancient race game format, its moralistic overtones were countered by [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley "Milton Bradley") in 1860 with the introduction of a radically different concept of success in [The Checkered Game of Life](/wiki/The_Checkered_Game_of_Life "The Checkered Game of Life"), in which material successes came as a result of accomplishments such as attending college, marrying, and getting rich. Likewise the [Game of the District Messenger Boy](/wiki/Game_of_the_District_Messenger_Boy "Game of the District Messenger Boy") (1886\) also focused on secular capitalist virtues rather than the religious. [thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|The *Game of the [District Messenger Boy](/wiki/Telegraph_boys "Telegraph boys")* (1886\) encouraged the [rags to riches](/wiki/Rags_to_riches "Rags to riches") idea that a lowly messenger boy could ascend the corporate ladder to become president](/wiki/File:District_Messenger_Boy_Box_Cover_1886.jpg "District Messenger Boy Box Cover 1886.jpg") First patented in 1904, *[The Landlord's Game](/wiki/The_Landlord%27s_Game "The Landlord's Game")*, designed by [Elizabeth Magie](/wiki/Elizabeth_Magie "Elizabeth Magie"),A U.S. patent was granted in 1904 but in the autumn of 1902 an article describing the game was published in *The Single Tax Review*. See [http://lvtfan.typepad.com/lvtfans\_blog/2011/01/lizzie\-magie\-1902\-commentary\-the\-landlords\-game.html](http://lvtfan.typepad.com/lvtfans_blog/2011/01/lizzie-magie-1902-commentary-the-landlords-game.html) was originally intended to illustrate the economic consequences of [Ricardo's Law](/wiki/Law_of_rent "Law of rent") of [Economic rent](/wiki/Economic_rent "Economic rent") and the [Georgist](/wiki/Georgism "Georgism") concept of a [single tax on land value](/wiki/Land_value_tax "Land value tax").{{cite book \| last\=Parlett \|first\=David \|author\-link\=David Parlett \|title\=The Oxford History of Board Games \| url\=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofb0000parl \| url\-access\=registration \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|year\=1999 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofb0000parl/page/352 352] \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-212998\-7}} A series of [board games](/wiki/Board_game "Board game") were developed from 1906 through the 1930s that involved the buying and selling of land and the development of that land. By 1933, a board game had been created much like the version of modern [Monopoly](/wiki/Monopoly_%28game%29 "Monopoly (game)") by the [Parker Brothers](/wiki/Parker_Brothers "Parker Brothers"). Though the first commercial version of the [game of Battleship](/wiki/Battleship_%28game%29 "Battleship (game)") was *Salvo*, published in 1931 in the United States by the Starex company, the game itself dates to before [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") when it was played on paper by Russian officers.{{cite news \| url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1499\&dat\=19310701\&id\=QKtQAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3803,4154106 \| title\=Salvo Is New Game With a Nautical Air \| work\=The Milwaukee Journal \| date\=1 July 1931 \| access\-date\=18 February 2013 }}{{Dead link\|date\=August 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} The French board game *L'Attaque* was first commercially released in 1910, having been designed two years prior as a military\-themed imperfect knowledge game based upon the earlier Chinese children's board game [dou shou qi](/wiki/Dou_shou_qi "Dou shou qi"). *L'Attaque* was subsequently adapted by the Chinese into [Luzhanqi](/wiki/Luzhanqi "Luzhanqi") (or *Lu Zhan Jun Qi*), and by [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley "Milton Bradley") into [Stratego](/wiki/Stratego "Stratego"), the latter having been trademarked in 1960 while the former remains in the public domain. [Jury Box](/wiki/Jury_Box_%28game%29 "Jury Box (game)"), published in 1935, was the first [murder mystery game](/wiki/Murder_mystery_game "Murder mystery game") which served as the basis for games like [Cluedo](/wiki/Cluedo "Cluedo"). Initially designed in 1938, [Scrabble](/wiki/Scrabble "Scrabble") received its first mass\-market exposure in 1952, two years prior to the release of [Diplomacy](/wiki/Diplomacy_%28game%29 "Diplomacy (game)"), in 1954\. [Diplomacy](/wiki/Diplomacy_%28game%29 "Diplomacy (game)") was a game favored by [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy"), and [Henry Kissinger](/wiki/Henry_Kissinger "Henry Kissinger"). Originally released in 1957 as *La Conquête du Monde* ("The Conquest of the World") in France, [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)") was first published under its English title in 1959\. Starting with [Gettysburg](/wiki/Gettysburg_%28game%29 "Gettysburg (game)") in 1958, the company [Avalon Hill](/wiki/Avalon_Hill "Avalon Hill") developed particular board wargames covering specific historical themes such as [Midway](/wiki/Midway_%281964_game%29 "Midway (1964 game)"), [D\-Day](/wiki/D-Day_%28game%29 "D-Day (game)") and [PanzerBlitz](/wiki/PanzerBlitz "PanzerBlitz"). [Board wargames](/wiki/Board_wargame "Board wargame") such as [Squad Leader](/wiki/Squad_Leader "Squad Leader"), [Tactics](/wiki/Tactics_%28game%29 "Tactics (game)") and [Europa](/wiki/Europa_%28wargame%29 "Europa (wargame)") developed extremely complex and realistic rules. Avalon Hill's [Civilization](/wiki/Civilization_%281980_board_game%29 "Civilization (1980 board game)") introduced the use of the technology tree (or "tech tree"), variants of which have been implemented in numerous later board and [video games](/wiki/Video_games "Video games") such as [Sid Meier's Civilization](/wiki/Civilization_%28video_game%29 "Civilization (video game)"). Recent [wargames](/wiki/Wargaming "Wargaming") such as 'A distant plain', 'Labyrinth' and the satirical [War on Terror](/wiki/War_on_Terror_%28game%29 "War on Terror (game)") have focused on counterinsurgency and contemporary [terrorism](/wiki/Terrorism "Terrorism"). A concentrated design movement towards the [German\-style board game](/wiki/German-style_board_game "German-style board game"), or *Eurogame*, began in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Germany,["German recreation: An affinity for rules?"](http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12009728) *The Economist*, 28 August 2008\. and led to the development of board games such as [Carcassonne](/wiki/Carcassonne_%28board_game%29 "Carcassonne (board game)"), [The Settlers of Catan](/wiki/The_Settlers_of_Catan "The Settlers of Catan"), [Agricola](/wiki/Agricola_%28board_game%29 "Agricola (board game)"), [Ticket to ride](/wiki/Ticket_to_Ride_%28board_game%29 "Ticket to Ride (board game)") and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico_%28board_game%29 "Puerto Rico (board game)"). ### Card games {{main\|Card game}} [thumb\|right\|British soldiers playing cards in [France](/wiki/France "France"), 1915](/wiki/File:British_soldiers_at_play_France_%28Photo_24-320%29.jpg "British soldiers at play France (Photo 24-320).jpg") During the 15th century [card suits](/wiki/Suit_%28cards%29 "Suit (cards)") began to approach the contemporary regional styles and the court cards evolved to represent European royalty. Early European card games included [noddy](/wiki/Noddy_%28card_game%29 "Noddy (card game)"), [triomphe](/wiki/Triomphe "Triomphe"), [all fours](/wiki/All_fours_%28card_game%29 "All fours (card game)"), [piquet](/wiki/Piquet "Piquet"), [basset](/wiki/Basset_%28card_game%29 "Basset (card game)"), [Hofamterspiel](/wiki/Hofamterspiel "Hofamterspiel"), [Karnöffel](/wiki/Karn%C3%B6ffel "Karnöffel"), and [primero](/wiki/Primero "Primero"). In 1674 [Charles Cotton](/wiki/Charles_Cotton "Charles Cotton") published his *[Compleat Gamester](/wiki/Compleat_Gamester "Compleat Gamester")*, one of the first books which set out to outline rules for many card and dice games. During the mid 16th century, Portuguese traders introduced playing cards to [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"). The first reference to *twenty\-one*, the precursor of [blackjack](/wiki/Blackjack "Blackjack") is found in a book by the Spanish author [Miguel de Cervantes](/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes "Miguel de Cervantes"). Cervantes was a [gambler](/wiki/Gambler "Gambler"), and the main characters of his tale *[Rinconete y Cortadillo](/wiki/Rinconete_y_Cortadillo "Rinconete y Cortadillo")* are cheats proficient at playing *ventiuna* (twenty\-one). The game of [cribbage](/wiki/Cribbage "Cribbage") appears to have developed in the early 17th century, as an adaptation of the earlier card game [noddy](/wiki/Noddy_%28card_game%29 "Noddy (card game)"). [Pinochle](/wiki/Pinochle "Pinochle") was likely derived from the earlier [bezique](/wiki/Bezique "Bezique"), a game popular in France during the 17th century. 1742 saw the publication of [Edmund Hoyle](/wiki/Edmund_Hoyle "Edmund Hoyle")'s *Short Treatise on the Game of Whist* which became one of the bestselling publications of the 18th century.{{Cite news \|last\=Bodle \|first\=Andy \|date\=2008\-11\-22 \|title\=Leaders of the pack: A short history of cards \|language\=en\-GB \|work\=The Guardian \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/nov/22/history\-of\-playing\-cards \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-09 \|issn\=0261\-3077}} [Whist](/wiki/Whist "Whist") was widely played during the 18th and 19th centuries,Waddingtons Family Card Games, Robert Harbin, Pan Books Ltd, London, 1972 having evolved from the 16th century game of *trump* (or *ruff*) by way of [Ruff and Honours](/wiki/Ruff_and_Honours "Ruff and Honours").Oxford Dictionary of Card Games, p. 340, David Parlett {{ISBN\|0\-19\-869173\-4}}{{cite book \|last \= Pole \|first \= William \|author\-link \= William Pole \|title \= The Evolution of Whist \|url \= https://archive.org/details/cu31924031248556 \|publisher \= Longmans, Green, and Co. (New York, London), 269 pages \|year \= 1895 }} [Baccarat](/wiki/Baccarat_%28card_game%29 "Baccarat (card game)") first came to the attention of the public at large and grew to be widely played as a direct result of the [Royal Baccarat Scandal](/wiki/Royal_Baccarat_Scandal "Royal Baccarat Scandal") of 1891,[The Royal Baccarat Scandal at Tranby Croft](http://www.gamblingstories.info/07/the-royal-baccarat-scandal-at-tranby-croft/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402170948/http://www.gamblingstories.info/07/the\-royal\-baccarat\-scandal\-at\-tranby\-croft/ \|date\=2 April 2012 }}. 10 July 2011\.[WALES AND THE SCANDAL; THE PRINCE OWNED THE BACCARAT COUNTERS. HE WAS ACCUSTOMED TO CARRY THEM ON HIS VISITS TO THE COUNTRY – ANOTHER LIVELY DAY IN THE GORDON CUMMING TRIAL.](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30E16FD3C5E10738DDDAC0894DE405B8185F0D3) The [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times"). 5 June 1891\. and bears resemblances to the card games [Faro](/wiki/Faro_%28card_game%29 "Faro (card game)") and [Basset](/wiki/Basset_%28card_game%29 "Basset (card game)"), both of which were very popular during the 19th century. The rules of [Contract bridge](/wiki/Contract_bridge "Contract bridge") were originally published in 1925, the game having been derived from Bridge games with rules published as early as 1886, Bridge games, in turn, having evolved from the earlier game of Whist. The first documented game of [poker](/wiki/Poker "Poker") dates from an 1833 Mississippi river steamer.[Parlett, David](/wiki/David_Parlett "David Parlett"). [Poker](http://www.parlettgames.uk/histocs/poker.html) at parlett games. Retrieved 9 January 2016\. During the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") the game was popular with soldiers and additions were made including [stud poker](/wiki/Stud_poker "Stud poker"), and the [straight](/wiki/Straight_%28poker%29 "Straight (poker)"). Modern [tournament](/wiki/Poker_tournament "Poker tournament") play became popular in [American](/wiki/United_States "United States") casinos after the [World Series of Poker](/wiki/World_Series_of_Poker "World Series of Poker") (WSOP) began, in 1970\.{{cite web \|url\=http://gaming.unlv.edu/WSOP/history.html \|title\=World Series of Poker: A Retrospective \|publisher\=Gaming.unlv.edu \|date\=2007\-10\-22 \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-20 \|archive\-date\=24 September 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924190444/https://gaming.unlv.edu/WSOP/history.html \|url\-status\=dead }} Poker's popularity experienced [an unprecedented spike](/wiki/Poker_boom "Poker boom") at the beginning of the 21st century, largely because of the introduction of [online poker](/wiki/Online_poker "Online poker") and [hole\-card cameras](/wiki/Hole-card_camera "Hole-card camera"), which turned the game into a [spectator sport](/wiki/Spectator_sport "Spectator sport"). In 2009 the [International Federation of Poker](/wiki/International_Federation_of_Poker "International Federation of Poker") was founded in [Lausanne, Switzerland](/wiki/Lausanne%2C_Switzerland "Lausanne, Switzerland"), becoming the official governing body for poker. [Collectible card games](/wiki/Collectible_card_game "Collectible card game") or trading card games while bearing similarities to earlier games in concept, first achieved wide popularity in the 1990s. The first trading card game was 'The Base Ball Card Game' produced by The Allegheny Card Co. and registered on 4 April 1904\. It featured 104 unique baseball cards with individual player attributes printed on the cards enabling each collector to build a team and play the game against another person.*Sports Collectors Digest* (7 April 2000\) at 50\. The 1990s saw the rise of games such as [Magic: The Gathering](/wiki/Magic:The_Gathering "The Gathering") and the [Pokémon Trading Card Game](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Trading_Card_Game "Pokémon Trading Card Game"). ### Miniature wargaming {{main\|Miniature wargaming}} [thumb\|right\|[H. G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells "H. G. Wells") playing *[Little Wars](/wiki/Little_Wars "Little Wars")*](/wiki/File:HG_Wells_playing_to_Little_Wars.jpg "HG Wells playing to Little Wars.jpg") [Miniature figure](/wiki/Miniature_figure_%28gaming%29 "Miniature figure (gaming)") games have their origin in a German chess variant called 'The King's Game', created in 1780 by Helwig, Master of Pages to the Duke of Brunswick. It had a board with 1,666 squares of varying types of terrain, with pieces representing modern military units.COSTIKYAN, GREG; The Revolution Began With Paper, 2006, [http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video\-games/issues/issue\_42/253\-The\-Revolution\-Began\-With\-Paper.2](http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video-games/issues/issue_42/253-The-Revolution-Began-With-Paper.2) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108065513/https://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video\-games/issues/issue\_42/253\-The\-Revolution\-Began\-With\-Paper.2 \|date\=8 November 2018 }} In the early 19th century, the [Prussian army](/wiki/Prussian_army "Prussian army") developed war games or 'kriegspieler', with staff officers moving pieces around on a game table, using dice rolls to indicate chance or "friction" and with an umpire scoring the results. After the stunning Prussian [victories against Austria](/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War "Austro-Prussian War") [and France](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War "Franco-Prussian War") in the 19th century, the [Austrians](/wiki/Austria "Austria"), [French](/wiki/France "France"), [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), [Italians](/wiki/Italy "Italy"), [Japanese](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan "Empire of Japan") and [Russians](/wiki/Russia "Russia") all began to make use of wargaming as a training tool. By 1889 wargaming was firmly embedded in the culture of the U.S. Navy.Thomas B Allen, *War Games: Inside the Secret World of the Men who Play at Annihilation*, New York, McGraw Hill, 1987, {{ISBN\|0\-7493\-0011\-6}}, p120 The first non\-military wargame rules were developed by Naval enthusiast and analyst [Fred T. Jane](/wiki/Fred_T._Jane "Fred T. Jane") in 1898\. [H. G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells "H. G. Wells") published rules in his *[Floor Games](/wiki/Floor_Games "Floor Games")* (1911\) and *[Little Wars](/wiki/Little_Wars "Little Wars")* (1913\) designed for wargaming with toy soldiers. In 1956, [Jack Scruby](/wiki/Jack_Scruby "Jack Scruby"), known as the "Father of Modern Miniature Wargaming" organized the first miniatures convention and he was also a manufacturer of military miniatures and editor of a wargaming newsletter. Miniature war games became affordable and mainstream in the late 1950s with the rise of cheaper miniature production methods by miniature figure manufacturers such as Scruby Miniatures, Miniature Figurines and Hinchliffe. During the 1980s there was a boom in miniature wargaming with the development of games such as [Warhammer Fantasy Battle](/wiki/Warhammer_Fantasy_Battle "Warhammer Fantasy Battle") and [Warhammer 40,000](/wiki/Warhammer_40%2C000 "Warhammer 40,000"). Today miniature wargaming includes most historical eras, fantasy and science fiction settings as well as [Naval wargaming](/wiki/Naval_wargaming "Naval wargaming") ([Don't Give Up the Ship!](/wiki/Don%27t_Give_Up_the_Ship%21 "Don't Give Up the Ship!"), [General Quarters](/wiki/General_Quarters_%28rules%29 "General Quarters (rules)")), [Air wargaming](/wiki/Air_wargaming "Air wargaming") and [Space combat](/wiki/Space_combat "Space combat") wargames ([Full Thrust](/wiki/Full_Thrust "Full Thrust"), [Attack Vector: Tactical](/wiki/Attack_Vector:Tactical "Tactical")). ### Role playing games {{Main\|History of role\-playing games}} [thumb\|*D\&D* game in progress](/wiki/File:D%26D_Game_1.jpg "D&D Game 1.jpg") Early role\-playing games such as those made by [M. A. R. Barker](/wiki/M._A._R._Barker "M. A. R. Barker") and [Greg Stafford](/wiki/Greg_Stafford_%28game_designer%29 "Greg Stafford (game designer)") developed from miniature figure wargames. [Gary Gygax](/wiki/Gary_Gygax "Gary Gygax") of the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota "University of Minnesota")'s wargaming society developed a set of rules for a late [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") milieu. This game was called [Chainmail](/wiki/Chainmail_%28game%29 "Chainmail (game)") and was a historical game, but later editions included an appendix for adding fantasy elements such as spells, wizards and dragons. By 1971, [Dave Arneson](/wiki/Dave_Arneson "Dave Arneson") had developed a miniatures game called *[Blackmoor](/wiki/Blackmoor_%28campaign_setting%29 "Blackmoor (campaign setting)")* which contained elements that would become widespread in fantasy gaming: [hit points](/wiki/Hit_point "Hit point"), [experience points](/wiki/Experience_point "Experience point"), character levels, [armor class](/wiki/Armor_class "Armor class"), and [dungeon crawls](/wiki/Dungeon_crawl "Dungeon crawl"). Arneson and Gygax then met and collaborated on the first *[Dungeons \& Dragons](/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons "Dungeons & Dragons")* game which was released in 1974 by Gygax's [TSR](/wiki/TSR_%28company%29 "TSR (company)"). The game was very successful and several other games such as the Science fiction RPG [Traveller](/wiki/Traveller_%28role-playing_game%29 "Traveller (role-playing game)") and the generic [GURPS](/wiki/GURPS "GURPS") system followed in imitation. In the late 1970s TSR launched Advanced Dungeons \& Dragons (AD\&D) which saw an expansion of rulebooks and additions. The 80s saw several [Dungeons \& Dragons controversies](/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons_controversies "Dungeons & Dragons controversies") such as the claims that the game promoted [Satanism](/wiki/Satanism "Satanism") and [witchcraft](/wiki/Witchcraft "Witchcraft"). Traditional Roleplaying games were the basis for the modern [Role\-playing video game](/wiki/Role-playing_video_game "Role-playing video game"). ### Other indoor games In [colonial America](/wiki/Colonial_America "Colonial America"), the game of [hazard](/wiki/Hazard_%28game%29 "Hazard (game)") was called *crapaud* by the French in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans") (a French word meaning "toad" in reference to the original style of play by people crouched over a floor or sidewalk). This was later shortened to [craps](/wiki/Craps "Craps") and after several adaptations became the most popular gambling dice game in the United States.Rollin' Bones: The History of Dice, [http://www.neatorama.com/2014/08/18/Rollin\-Bones\-The\-History\-of\-Dice/](http://www.neatorama.com/2014/08/18/Rollin-Bones-The-History-of-Dice/) [Sic bo](/wiki/Sic_bo "Sic bo") was introduced into the United States by Chinese immigrants in the 20th century and is now a popular [casino game](/wiki/Casino_game "Casino game"). Another casino game, [roulette](/wiki/Roulette "Roulette"), has been played since the late 18th century, and was probably adapted from English wheel games such as Roly\-Poly and E.O. With the possible exception of [carrom](/wiki/Carrom "Carrom") (a game whose origins are uncertain), the earliest [table games](/wiki/Casino_game%23Table_games "Casino game#Table games") appear to have been the [cue sports](/wiki/Cue_sports "Cue sports"), which include [carom billiards](/wiki/Carom_billiards "Carom billiards"), [pool](/wiki/Pool_%28cue_sports%29 "Pool (cue sports)"), or *pocket billiards*, and [snooker](/wiki/Snooker "Snooker"). The cue sports are generally regarded as having developed into indoor games from outdoor stick\-and\-ball [lawn games](/wiki/Lawn_game "Lawn game") (retroactively termed [ground billiards](/wiki/Ground_billiards "Ground billiards")),{{cite book \| first \= Victor \| last \= Stein and Rubino, Paul \| year \= 1996 \| title \= The Billiard Encyclopaedia: An Illustrated History of the Sport (2nd ed.) \| publisher \= Blue Book Publications, June 1996 \| isbn \= 978\-1\-886768\-06\-2 }}, {{Page needed\|date\=September 2011}} and as such to be related to [trucco](/wiki/Trucco "Trucco"), [croquet](/wiki/Croquet "Croquet") and golf, and more distantly to the stickless [bocce](/wiki/Bocce "Bocce") and [bowls](/wiki/Bowls "Bowls"). [Dominoes](/wiki/Dominoes "Dominoes"), which originate in China and date as far back as the [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty "Song dynasty") (A.D. 1120\), first appeared in Europe during the 18th century. The Chinese [tile game](/wiki/Tile_based_games "Tile based games") [mahjong](/wiki/Mahjong "Mahjong") developed from a Chinese card game known as *mǎdiào* sometime during the 17th century and was imported into the United States in the 1920s. ### Outdoor games {{main\|History of sport}} Modern [sports](/wiki/Sports "Sports") developed from different European games, many of them played by European royalty. [Tennis](/wiki/Tennis "Tennis") developed in France, French kings like [Francis I of France](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France "Francis I of France") (1515–47\) and [Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_France "Henry II of France") (1547–59\) were well known players. [Golf](/wiki/Golf "Golf") originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James II's banning of the game in 1457\. The ban was lifted by James IV in 1502 who also played golf. [Cricket](/wiki/Cricket "Cricket") can be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th\-century England and the modern rules of [association football](/wiki/Association_football "Association football") and [rugby football](/wiki/Rugby_football "Rugby football") are based on mid\-19th century rules made to standardise the football games played by [English public schools](/wiki/English_public_schools "English public schools"). These team sports were spread worldwide by the influence of the [British empire](/wiki/British_empire "British empire"). ### Electronic games {{main\|Electronic game\|History of video games}} The earliest reference to a purely electronic game appears to be a United States patent registration in 1947 for what was described by its inventors as a "[cathode\-ray tube amusement device](/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube_amusement_device "Cathode-ray tube amusement device")".{{Cite patent\|country\=US\|number\=2455992\|pubdate\=1948\-12\-14\|title\=Cathode\-ray tube amusement device\|assign1\=\[\[DuMont Laboratories\|Allen B. Du Mont Laboratories Inc.]]\|inventor1\-last\=Goldsmith Jr.\|inventor1\-first\=Thomas T.\|inventor2\-last\=Mann\|inventor2\-first\=Estle Ray}} Through the 1950s and 1960s the majority of early computer games ran on university [mainframe computers](/wiki/Mainframe_computer "Mainframe computer") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). Beginning in 1971, video [arcade games](/wiki/Arcade_game "Arcade game") began to be offered to the public for play. The first [home video game console](/wiki/Video_game_console "Video game console"), the [Magnavox Odyssey](/wiki/Magnavox_Odyssey "Magnavox Odyssey"), was released in 1972\.{{Cite book\| title\=Game Industry Career Guide \| last1\=Moore \| first1\=Michael E. \| last2\=Novak \| first2\=Jeannie \| year\=2010 \| publisher\=Cengage Learning \| location\=Delmar \| isbn\=978\-1\-4283\-7647\-2 \| page\=7 \| quote\=In 1966, Ralph H. Baer .. pitched an idea .. to create interactive games to be played on the television. Over the next two years, his team developed the first video game system—and in 1968, they demonstrated the "Brown Box," a device on which several games could be played and that used a light gun to shoot targets on the screen. After several more years of development, the system was licensed by Magnavox in 1970 and the first game console system, the Odyssey, was released in 1972 at the then high price of $100\. }}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2009/3/2009\_3\_26\.shtml\|title\=The Father of Video Games\|first\=Mark\|last\=Wolverton\|access\-date\=31 March 2010\|work\=\[\[American Heritage (magazine)\|American Heritage]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100216031218/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2009/3/2009\_3\_26\.shtml\|archive\-date\=16 February 2010\|url\-status\=dead}} The [golden age of arcade video games](/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games "Golden age of arcade video games") began in 1978 and continued through to the mid\-1980s. A [second generation of video game consoles](/wiki/Second_generation_of_video_game_consoles "Second generation of video game consoles"), released between 1977 and 1983, saw increased popularity as a result of this, though this eventually came to an abrupt end with the [video game crash of 1983](/wiki/Video_game_crash_of_1983 "Video game crash of 1983"). The home [video game industry](/wiki/Video_game_industry "Video game industry") was eventually revitalized with the [third generation of game consoles](/wiki/Third_generation_of_video_game_consoles "Third generation of video game consoles") over the next few years, which saw a shift in the dominance of the video game industry from the United States to [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"). This same time period saw the advent of the [personal computer game](/wiki/Personal_computer_game "Personal computer game"), specialized gaming [home computers](/wiki/Home_computer "Home computer"), early [online gaming](/wiki/Online_game "Online game"), and the introduction of [LED](/wiki/LED "LED") [handheld electronic games](/wiki/Handheld_electronic_game "Handheld electronic game") and eventually [handheld video games](/wiki/Handheld_video_game "Handheld video game").
[ "Modern games\n------------", "### Professional board games", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Emanuel Lasker](/wiki/Emanuel_Lasker \"Emanuel Lasker\") (right) playing Steinitz for the [World Chess Championship](/wiki/World_Chess_Championship \"World Chess Championship\"), New York 1894](/wiki/File:Lasker-Steinitz.jpg \"Lasker-Steinitz.jpg\")\n[Modern chess rules](/wiki/Rules_of_chess \"Rules of chess\") began taking shape in Spain and Italy during the 15th century with the adoption of the standard Queen and Bishop movements (initially called \"Mad Queen chess\"). Writings on [chess theory](/wiki/Chess_theory \"Chess theory\") also began to appear in the 15th century with the first text being the *Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez* (Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess, 1497\\) by Spanish churchman Luis Ramirez de Lucena. Chess books by authors such as [Ruy López de Segura](/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Segura \"Ruy López de Segura\") and [Gioachino Greco](/wiki/Gioachino_Greco \"Gioachino Greco\") became widely studied. Chess was the favored game of [Voltaire](/wiki/Voltaire \"Voltaire\"), [Rousseau](/wiki/Rousseau \"Rousseau\"), [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\") and [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\").Shenk, David. The immortal game, 2006, Anchor Books.", "In 1851, the [first international chess tournament was held in London](/wiki/London_1851_chess_tournament \"London 1851 chess tournament\") and won by [Adolf Anderssen](/wiki/Adolf_Anderssen \"Adolf Anderssen\"). Soon after modern [time control](/wiki/Time_control \"Time control\") rules were adopted for competitive play. The first [Official World Chess Championship](/wiki/World_Chess_Championship_1886 \"World Chess Championship 1886\") was held in 1886 in the United States and won by [Wilhelm Steinitz](/wiki/Wilhelm_Steinitz \"Wilhelm Steinitz\"). By the 20th century, the game of [Chess](/wiki/Chess \"Chess\") had developed into a [professional sport](/wiki/Professional_sport \"Professional sport\") with chess clubs, publications, [player ratings](/wiki/Chess_rating_system \"Chess rating system\") and [chess tournaments](/wiki/Chess_tournaments \"Chess tournaments\"). The [World Chess Federation](/wiki/World_Chess_Federation \"World Chess Federation\") (FIDE) was founded in 1924 in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\").", "A large number of [Chess variants](/wiki/Chess_variants \"Chess variants\") were also developed, with varying [pieces](/wiki/Fairy_chess_pieces \"Fairy chess pieces\"), rules, boards and scoring. Among them are [Kriegspiel](/wiki/Kriegspiel_%28chess%29 \"Kriegspiel (chess)\"), [Capablanca Chess](/wiki/Capablanca_Chess \"Capablanca Chess\"), [Alice Chess](/wiki/Alice_Chess \"Alice Chess\"), [Circular chess](/wiki/Circular_chess \"Circular chess\"), [Three\\-dimensional chess](/wiki/Three-dimensional_chess \"Three-dimensional chess\"), [Hexagonal Chess](/wiki/Hexagonal_Chess \"Hexagonal Chess\"), [Chess with different armies](/wiki/Chess_with_different_armies \"Chess with different armies\"), and [Bobby Fischer](/wiki/Bobby_Fischer \"Bobby Fischer\")'s [Chess960](/wiki/Chess960 \"Chess960\").", "In [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), [Go](/wiki/Go_%28game%29 \"Go (game)\") and [Shogi](/wiki/Shogi \"Shogi\") became the major board games played at a professional level. Both games were promoted in [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") by the [Tokugawa shogunate](/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate \"Tokugawa shogunate\") in the 17th century, and top players ([Meijin](/wiki/Meijin \"Meijin\")) received government endowments. During the 20th century the Japan Shogi Association and the [Japan Go Association](/wiki/Japan_Go_Association \"Japan Go Association\") were founded and began organizing professional tournaments. During the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\"), many [Xiangqi](/wiki/Xiangqi \"Xiangqi\") clubs were formed and books published. The [Chinese Xiangqi Association](/wiki/Chinese_Xiangqi_Association \"Chinese Xiangqi Association\") was formed in 1962, and Xiangqi tournaments are held worldwide by national Xiangqi associations.", "In 1997 the first [Mind Sports Olympiad](/wiki/Mind_Sports_Olympiad \"Mind Sports Olympiad\") was held in London and included traditional as well as modern board games. Other board games such as [Backgammon](/wiki/Backgammon \"Backgammon\"), [Scrabble](/wiki/Scrabble \"Scrabble\") and [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\") are also played professionally with dedicated world championships.", "### Commercial board games", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|[Gyan chauper](/wiki/Gyan_chauper \"Gyan chauper\"), Late 18th century [Jain](/wiki/Jain \"Jain\") game board on cloth in the decorative arts gallery of the [National Museum of India](/wiki/National_Museum_of_India \"National Museum of India\"). Acc. No. 85\\.312](/wiki/File:Gyan_Chaupar_National_Museum_India.JPG \"Gyan Chaupar National Museum India.JPG\")", "The Ancient Indian game of [Pachisi](/wiki/Pachisi \"Pachisi\") was brought to the west by the British in the 1863 and an adaptation of the oldest game named [Parcheesi](/wiki/Parcheesi \"Parcheesi\") was first copyrighted in the United States by EG Selchow \\& Co in 1869\\.University of Waterloo Games Museum, <http://gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/parcheesi/> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306210931/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/parcheesi/ \\|date\\=6 March 2015 }} A version of the game called [Ludo](/wiki/Ludo_%28board_game%29 \"Ludo (board game)\") was patented in 1896\\. A similar German race game, [Mensch ärgere dich nicht](/wiki/Mensch_%C3%A4rgere_dich_nicht \"Mensch ärgere dich nicht\") (\"Man, don't get annoyed\"), became immensely popular with German troops during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). Another Indian game which was adopted by the West was [Gyan chauper](/wiki/Gyan_chauper \"Gyan chauper\") (a.k.a. Moksha Patam), popularly known as [snakes and ladders](/wiki/Snakes_and_ladders \"Snakes and ladders\"). This was a game which was intended to teach lessons about [karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\") and good and bad actions, the ladders represented virtues and the snakes vices. The moral lesson of the game was that spiritual liberation, or [Moksha](/wiki/Moksha \"Moksha\") could only be achieved through virtuous action, while vice led to endless reincarnation. The game dates to medieval India where it was played by Jains and Hindus. A Buddhist version, known as \"ascending the \\[spiritual] levels\" (Tibetan: {{transliteration\\|bo\\|sa gnon rnam bzhags}}) is played in Nepal and TibetBornet and Burger, Religions in Play: Games, Rituals, and Virtual Worlds, page 95 while a Muslim version of the game played during the [mughal period](/wiki/Mughal_Empire \"Mughal Empire\") from the late 17th or early 18th centuries featured the 101 names of God. The game was first brought to Victorian England and it was published in the United States as *Chutes and Ladders* (an \"improved new version of England's famous indoor sport\") by game pioneer [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley \"Milton Bradley\") in 1943\\.", "The first board game for which the name of its designer is known is 'A Journey Through Europe or the Play of Geography', a map\\-based game published in 1759 by [John Jefferys](/wiki/John_Jefferys \"John Jefferys\"), a [Geography](/wiki/Geography \"Geography\") and writing teacher.Drabble, Margaret; The Pattern in the Carpet: A Personal History with Jigsaws, page 107, 2009\\. Designed in England by George Fox in 1800, [The Mansion of Happiness](/wiki/The_Mansion_of_Happiness \"The Mansion of Happiness\") became the prototype for commercial board games for at least two centuries to follow. The first board game published in the United States was '[Traveller's Tour Through the United States](/wiki/Travellers%27_Tour_Through_the_United_States \"Travellers' Tour Through the United States\")', published by New York City bookseller F. Lockwood in 1822\\. The earliest board games published in the United States were based upon Christian morality and included The Mansion of Happiness (1843\\) and The Game of Pope or Pagan, or The Siege of the Stronghold of Satan by the Christian Army (1844\\). While demonstrating the commercial viability of the ancient race game format, its moralistic overtones were countered by [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley \"Milton Bradley\") in 1860 with the introduction of a radically different concept of success in [The Checkered Game of Life](/wiki/The_Checkered_Game_of_Life \"The Checkered Game of Life\"), in which material successes came as a result of accomplishments such as attending college, marrying, and getting rich. Likewise the [Game of the District Messenger Boy](/wiki/Game_of_the_District_Messenger_Boy \"Game of the District Messenger Boy\") (1886\\) also focused on secular capitalist virtues rather than the religious. \n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|The *Game of the [District Messenger Boy](/wiki/Telegraph_boys \"Telegraph boys\")* (1886\\) encouraged the [rags to riches](/wiki/Rags_to_riches \"Rags to riches\") idea that a lowly messenger boy could ascend the corporate ladder to become president](/wiki/File:District_Messenger_Boy_Box_Cover_1886.jpg \"District Messenger Boy Box Cover 1886.jpg\")\nFirst patented in 1904, *[The Landlord's Game](/wiki/The_Landlord%27s_Game \"The Landlord's Game\")*, designed by [Elizabeth Magie](/wiki/Elizabeth_Magie \"Elizabeth Magie\"),A U.S. patent was granted in 1904 but in the autumn of 1902 an article describing the game was published in *The Single Tax Review*. See [http://lvtfan.typepad.com/lvtfans\\_blog/2011/01/lizzie\\-magie\\-1902\\-commentary\\-the\\-landlords\\-game.html](http://lvtfan.typepad.com/lvtfans_blog/2011/01/lizzie-magie-1902-commentary-the-landlords-game.html) was originally intended to illustrate the economic consequences of [Ricardo's Law](/wiki/Law_of_rent \"Law of rent\") of [Economic rent](/wiki/Economic_rent \"Economic rent\") and the [Georgist](/wiki/Georgism \"Georgism\") concept of a [single tax on land value](/wiki/Land_value_tax \"Land value tax\").{{cite book \\| last\\=Parlett \\|first\\=David \\|author\\-link\\=David Parlett \\|title\\=The Oxford History of Board Games \\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofb0000parl \\| url\\-access\\=registration \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|year\\=1999 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofb0000parl/page/352 352] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-212998\\-7}} A series of [board games](/wiki/Board_game \"Board game\") were developed from 1906 through the 1930s that involved the buying and selling of land and the development of that land. By 1933, a board game had been created much like the version of modern [Monopoly](/wiki/Monopoly_%28game%29 \"Monopoly (game)\") by the [Parker Brothers](/wiki/Parker_Brothers \"Parker Brothers\").", "Though the first commercial version of the [game of Battleship](/wiki/Battleship_%28game%29 \"Battleship (game)\") was *Salvo*, published in 1931 in the United States by the Starex company, the game itself dates to before [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") when it was played on paper by Russian officers.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1499\\&dat\\=19310701\\&id\\=QKtQAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3803,4154106 \\| title\\=Salvo Is New Game With a Nautical Air \\| work\\=The Milwaukee Journal \\| date\\=1 July 1931 \\| access\\-date\\=18 February 2013 }}{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} The French board game *L'Attaque* was first commercially released in 1910, having been designed two years prior as a military\\-themed imperfect knowledge game based upon the earlier Chinese children's board game [dou shou qi](/wiki/Dou_shou_qi \"Dou shou qi\"). *L'Attaque* was subsequently adapted by the Chinese into [Luzhanqi](/wiki/Luzhanqi \"Luzhanqi\") (or *Lu Zhan Jun Qi*), and by [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley \"Milton Bradley\") into [Stratego](/wiki/Stratego \"Stratego\"), the latter having been trademarked in 1960 while the former remains in the public domain. [Jury Box](/wiki/Jury_Box_%28game%29 \"Jury Box (game)\"), published in 1935, was the first [murder mystery game](/wiki/Murder_mystery_game \"Murder mystery game\") which served as the basis for games like [Cluedo](/wiki/Cluedo \"Cluedo\").", "Initially designed in 1938, [Scrabble](/wiki/Scrabble \"Scrabble\") received its first mass\\-market exposure in 1952, two years prior to the release of [Diplomacy](/wiki/Diplomacy_%28game%29 \"Diplomacy (game)\"), in 1954\\. [Diplomacy](/wiki/Diplomacy_%28game%29 \"Diplomacy (game)\") was a game favored by [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\"), and [Henry Kissinger](/wiki/Henry_Kissinger \"Henry Kissinger\"). Originally released in 1957 as *La Conquête du Monde* (\"The Conquest of the World\") in France, [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\") was first published under its English title in 1959\\.", "Starting with [Gettysburg](/wiki/Gettysburg_%28game%29 \"Gettysburg (game)\") in 1958, the company [Avalon Hill](/wiki/Avalon_Hill \"Avalon Hill\") developed particular board wargames covering specific historical themes such as [Midway](/wiki/Midway_%281964_game%29 \"Midway (1964 game)\"), [D\\-Day](/wiki/D-Day_%28game%29 \"D-Day (game)\") and [PanzerBlitz](/wiki/PanzerBlitz \"PanzerBlitz\"). [Board wargames](/wiki/Board_wargame \"Board wargame\") such as [Squad Leader](/wiki/Squad_Leader \"Squad Leader\"), [Tactics](/wiki/Tactics_%28game%29 \"Tactics (game)\") and [Europa](/wiki/Europa_%28wargame%29 \"Europa (wargame)\") developed extremely complex and realistic rules. Avalon Hill's [Civilization](/wiki/Civilization_%281980_board_game%29 \"Civilization (1980 board game)\") introduced the use of the technology tree (or \"tech tree\"), variants of which have been implemented in numerous later board and [video games](/wiki/Video_games \"Video games\") such as [Sid Meier's Civilization](/wiki/Civilization_%28video_game%29 \"Civilization (video game)\"). Recent [wargames](/wiki/Wargaming \"Wargaming\") such as 'A distant plain', 'Labyrinth' and the satirical [War on Terror](/wiki/War_on_Terror_%28game%29 \"War on Terror (game)\") have focused on counterinsurgency and contemporary [terrorism](/wiki/Terrorism \"Terrorism\").", "A concentrated design movement towards the [German\\-style board game](/wiki/German-style_board_game \"German-style board game\"), or *Eurogame*, began in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Germany,[\"German recreation: An affinity for rules?\"](http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12009728) *The Economist*, 28 August 2008\\. and led to the development of board games such as [Carcassonne](/wiki/Carcassonne_%28board_game%29 \"Carcassonne (board game)\"), [The Settlers of Catan](/wiki/The_Settlers_of_Catan \"The Settlers of Catan\"), [Agricola](/wiki/Agricola_%28board_game%29 \"Agricola (board game)\"), [Ticket to ride](/wiki/Ticket_to_Ride_%28board_game%29 \"Ticket to Ride (board game)\") and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico_%28board_game%29 \"Puerto Rico (board game)\").", "### Card games", "{{main\\|Card game}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|British soldiers playing cards in [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), 1915](/wiki/File:British_soldiers_at_play_France_%28Photo_24-320%29.jpg \"British soldiers at play France (Photo 24-320).jpg\")\nDuring the 15th century [card suits](/wiki/Suit_%28cards%29 \"Suit (cards)\") began to approach the contemporary regional styles and the court cards evolved to represent European royalty. Early European card games included [noddy](/wiki/Noddy_%28card_game%29 \"Noddy (card game)\"), [triomphe](/wiki/Triomphe \"Triomphe\"), [all fours](/wiki/All_fours_%28card_game%29 \"All fours (card game)\"), [piquet](/wiki/Piquet \"Piquet\"), [basset](/wiki/Basset_%28card_game%29 \"Basset (card game)\"), [Hofamterspiel](/wiki/Hofamterspiel \"Hofamterspiel\"), [Karnöffel](/wiki/Karn%C3%B6ffel \"Karnöffel\"), and [primero](/wiki/Primero \"Primero\"). In 1674 [Charles Cotton](/wiki/Charles_Cotton \"Charles Cotton\") published his *[Compleat Gamester](/wiki/Compleat_Gamester \"Compleat Gamester\")*, one of the first books which set out to outline rules for many card and dice games. During the mid 16th century, Portuguese traders introduced playing cards to [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"). The first reference to *twenty\\-one*, the precursor of [blackjack](/wiki/Blackjack \"Blackjack\") is found in a book by the Spanish author [Miguel de Cervantes](/wiki/Miguel_de_Cervantes \"Miguel de Cervantes\"). Cervantes was a [gambler](/wiki/Gambler \"Gambler\"), and the main characters of his tale *[Rinconete y Cortadillo](/wiki/Rinconete_y_Cortadillo \"Rinconete y Cortadillo\")* are cheats proficient at playing *ventiuna* (twenty\\-one).", "The game of [cribbage](/wiki/Cribbage \"Cribbage\") appears to have developed in the early 17th century, as an adaptation of the earlier card game [noddy](/wiki/Noddy_%28card_game%29 \"Noddy (card game)\"). [Pinochle](/wiki/Pinochle \"Pinochle\") was likely derived from the earlier [bezique](/wiki/Bezique \"Bezique\"), a game popular in France during the 17th century. 1742 saw the publication of [Edmund Hoyle](/wiki/Edmund_Hoyle \"Edmund Hoyle\")'s *Short Treatise on the Game of Whist* which became one of the bestselling publications of the 18th century.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Bodle \\|first\\=Andy \\|date\\=2008\\-11\\-22 \\|title\\=Leaders of the pack: A short history of cards \\|language\\=en\\-GB \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/nov/22/history\\-of\\-playing\\-cards \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-09 \\|issn\\=0261\\-3077}} [Whist](/wiki/Whist \"Whist\") was widely played during the 18th and 19th centuries,Waddingtons Family Card Games, Robert Harbin, Pan Books Ltd, London, 1972 having evolved from the 16th century game of *trump* (or *ruff*) by way of [Ruff and Honours](/wiki/Ruff_and_Honours \"Ruff and Honours\").Oxford Dictionary of Card Games, p. 340, David Parlett {{ISBN\\|0\\-19\\-869173\\-4}}{{cite book\n \\|last \\= Pole\n \\|first \\= William\n \\|author\\-link \\= William Pole\n \\|title \\= The Evolution of Whist\n \\|url \\= https://archive.org/details/cu31924031248556\n \\|publisher \\= Longmans, Green, and Co. (New York, London), 269 pages\n \\|year \\= 1895\n }}", "", "[Baccarat](/wiki/Baccarat_%28card_game%29 \"Baccarat (card game)\") first came to the attention of the public at large and grew to be widely played as a direct result of the [Royal Baccarat Scandal](/wiki/Royal_Baccarat_Scandal \"Royal Baccarat Scandal\") of 1891,[The Royal Baccarat Scandal at Tranby Croft](http://www.gamblingstories.info/07/the-royal-baccarat-scandal-at-tranby-croft/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402170948/http://www.gamblingstories.info/07/the\\-royal\\-baccarat\\-scandal\\-at\\-tranby\\-croft/ \\|date\\=2 April 2012 }}. 10 July 2011\\.[WALES AND THE SCANDAL; THE PRINCE OWNED THE BACCARAT COUNTERS. HE WAS ACCUSTOMED TO CARRY THEM ON HIS VISITS TO THE COUNTRY – ANOTHER LIVELY DAY IN THE GORDON CUMMING TRIAL.](https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30E16FD3C5E10738DDDAC0894DE405B8185F0D3) The [New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\"). 5 June 1891\\. and bears resemblances to the card games [Faro](/wiki/Faro_%28card_game%29 \"Faro (card game)\") and [Basset](/wiki/Basset_%28card_game%29 \"Basset (card game)\"), both of which were very popular during the 19th century. The rules of [Contract bridge](/wiki/Contract_bridge \"Contract bridge\") were originally published in 1925, the game having been derived from Bridge games with rules published as early as 1886, Bridge games, in turn, having evolved from the earlier game of Whist.", "The first documented game of [poker](/wiki/Poker \"Poker\") dates from an 1833 Mississippi river steamer.[Parlett, David](/wiki/David_Parlett \"David Parlett\"). [Poker](http://www.parlettgames.uk/histocs/poker.html) at parlett games. Retrieved 9 January 2016\\. During the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") the game was popular with soldiers and additions were made including [stud poker](/wiki/Stud_poker \"Stud poker\"), and the [straight](/wiki/Straight_%28poker%29 \"Straight (poker)\"). Modern [tournament](/wiki/Poker_tournament \"Poker tournament\") play became popular in [American](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") casinos after the [World Series of Poker](/wiki/World_Series_of_Poker \"World Series of Poker\") (WSOP) began, in 1970\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://gaming.unlv.edu/WSOP/history.html \\|title\\=World Series of Poker: A Retrospective \\|publisher\\=Gaming.unlv.edu \\|date\\=2007\\-10\\-22 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-20 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924190444/https://gaming.unlv.edu/WSOP/history.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Poker's popularity experienced [an unprecedented spike](/wiki/Poker_boom \"Poker boom\") at the beginning of the 21st century, largely because of the introduction of [online poker](/wiki/Online_poker \"Online poker\") and [hole\\-card cameras](/wiki/Hole-card_camera \"Hole-card camera\"), which turned the game into a [spectator sport](/wiki/Spectator_sport \"Spectator sport\"). In 2009 the [International Federation of Poker](/wiki/International_Federation_of_Poker \"International Federation of Poker\") was founded in [Lausanne, Switzerland](/wiki/Lausanne%2C_Switzerland \"Lausanne, Switzerland\"), becoming the official governing body for poker.", "[Collectible card games](/wiki/Collectible_card_game \"Collectible card game\") or trading card games while bearing similarities to earlier games in concept, first achieved wide popularity in the 1990s. The first trading card game was 'The Base Ball Card Game' produced by The Allegheny Card Co. and registered on 4 April 1904\\. It featured 104 unique baseball cards with individual player attributes printed on the cards enabling each collector to build a team and play the game against another person.*Sports Collectors Digest* (7 April 2000\\) at 50\\. The 1990s saw the rise of games such as [Magic: The Gathering](/wiki/Magic:The_Gathering \"The Gathering\") and the [Pokémon Trading Card Game](/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Trading_Card_Game \"Pokémon Trading Card Game\").", "### Miniature wargaming", "{{main\\|Miniature wargaming}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|[H. G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells \"H. G. Wells\") playing *[Little Wars](/wiki/Little_Wars \"Little Wars\")*](/wiki/File:HG_Wells_playing_to_Little_Wars.jpg \"HG Wells playing to Little Wars.jpg\")", "[Miniature figure](/wiki/Miniature_figure_%28gaming%29 \"Miniature figure (gaming)\") games have their origin in a German chess variant called 'The King's Game', created in 1780 by Helwig, Master of Pages to the Duke of Brunswick. It had a board with 1,666 squares of varying types of terrain, with pieces representing modern military units.COSTIKYAN, GREG; The Revolution Began With Paper, 2006, [http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video\\-games/issues/issue\\_42/253\\-The\\-Revolution\\-Began\\-With\\-Paper.2](http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video-games/issues/issue_42/253-The-Revolution-Began-With-Paper.2) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108065513/https://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video\\-games/issues/issue\\_42/253\\-The\\-Revolution\\-Began\\-With\\-Paper.2 \\|date\\=8 November 2018 }} In the early 19th century, the [Prussian army](/wiki/Prussian_army \"Prussian army\") developed war games or 'kriegspieler', with staff officers moving pieces around on a game table, using dice rolls to indicate chance or \"friction\" and with an umpire scoring the results. After the stunning Prussian [victories against Austria](/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War \"Austro-Prussian War\") [and France](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\") in the 19th century, the [Austrians](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\"), [French](/wiki/France \"France\"), [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), [Italians](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\"), [Japanese](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") and [Russians](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") all began to make use of wargaming as a training tool. By 1889 wargaming was firmly embedded in the culture of the U.S. Navy.Thomas B Allen, *War Games: Inside the Secret World of the Men who Play at Annihilation*, New York, McGraw Hill, 1987, {{ISBN\\|0\\-7493\\-0011\\-6}}, p120", "The first non\\-military wargame rules were developed by Naval enthusiast and analyst [Fred T. Jane](/wiki/Fred_T._Jane \"Fred T. Jane\") in 1898\\. [H. G. Wells](/wiki/H._G._Wells \"H. G. Wells\") published rules in his *[Floor Games](/wiki/Floor_Games \"Floor Games\")* (1911\\) and *[Little Wars](/wiki/Little_Wars \"Little Wars\")* (1913\\) designed for wargaming with toy soldiers. In 1956, [Jack Scruby](/wiki/Jack_Scruby \"Jack Scruby\"), known as the \"Father of Modern Miniature Wargaming\" organized the first miniatures convention and he was also a manufacturer of military miniatures and editor of a wargaming newsletter. Miniature war games became affordable and mainstream in the late 1950s with the rise of cheaper miniature production methods by miniature figure manufacturers such as Scruby Miniatures, Miniature Figurines and Hinchliffe. During the 1980s there was a boom in miniature wargaming with the development of games such as [Warhammer Fantasy Battle](/wiki/Warhammer_Fantasy_Battle \"Warhammer Fantasy Battle\") and [Warhammer 40,000](/wiki/Warhammer_40%2C000 \"Warhammer 40,000\"). Today miniature wargaming includes most historical eras, fantasy and science fiction settings as well as [Naval wargaming](/wiki/Naval_wargaming \"Naval wargaming\") ([Don't Give Up the Ship!](/wiki/Don%27t_Give_Up_the_Ship%21 \"Don't Give Up the Ship!\"), [General Quarters](/wiki/General_Quarters_%28rules%29 \"General Quarters (rules)\")), [Air wargaming](/wiki/Air_wargaming \"Air wargaming\") and [Space combat](/wiki/Space_combat \"Space combat\") wargames ([Full Thrust](/wiki/Full_Thrust \"Full Thrust\"), [Attack Vector: Tactical](/wiki/Attack_Vector:Tactical \"Tactical\")).", "### Role playing games", "{{Main\\|History of role\\-playing games}}\n[thumb\\|*D\\&D* game in progress](/wiki/File:D%26D_Game_1.jpg \"D&D Game 1.jpg\")\nEarly role\\-playing games such as those made by [M. A. R. Barker](/wiki/M._A._R._Barker \"M. A. R. Barker\") and [Greg Stafford](/wiki/Greg_Stafford_%28game_designer%29 \"Greg Stafford (game designer)\") developed from miniature figure wargames. [Gary Gygax](/wiki/Gary_Gygax \"Gary Gygax\") of the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/University_of_Minnesota \"University of Minnesota\")'s wargaming society developed a set of rules for a late [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") milieu. This game was called [Chainmail](/wiki/Chainmail_%28game%29 \"Chainmail (game)\") and was a historical game, but later editions included an appendix for adding fantasy elements such as spells, wizards and dragons. By 1971, [Dave Arneson](/wiki/Dave_Arneson \"Dave Arneson\") had developed a miniatures game called *[Blackmoor](/wiki/Blackmoor_%28campaign_setting%29 \"Blackmoor (campaign setting)\")* which contained elements that would become widespread in fantasy gaming: [hit points](/wiki/Hit_point \"Hit point\"), [experience points](/wiki/Experience_point \"Experience point\"), character levels, [armor class](/wiki/Armor_class \"Armor class\"), and [dungeon crawls](/wiki/Dungeon_crawl \"Dungeon crawl\"). Arneson and Gygax then met and collaborated on the first *[Dungeons \\& Dragons](/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons \"Dungeons & Dragons\")* game which was released in 1974 by Gygax's [TSR](/wiki/TSR_%28company%29 \"TSR (company)\"). The game was very successful and several other games such as the Science fiction RPG [Traveller](/wiki/Traveller_%28role-playing_game%29 \"Traveller (role-playing game)\") and the generic [GURPS](/wiki/GURPS \"GURPS\") system followed in imitation. In the late 1970s TSR launched Advanced Dungeons \\& Dragons (AD\\&D) which saw an expansion of rulebooks and additions. The 80s saw several [Dungeons \\& Dragons controversies](/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons_controversies \"Dungeons & Dragons controversies\") such as the claims that the game promoted [Satanism](/wiki/Satanism \"Satanism\") and [witchcraft](/wiki/Witchcraft \"Witchcraft\"). Traditional Roleplaying games were the basis for the modern [Role\\-playing video game](/wiki/Role-playing_video_game \"Role-playing video game\").", "### Other indoor games", "In [colonial America](/wiki/Colonial_America \"Colonial America\"), the game of [hazard](/wiki/Hazard_%28game%29 \"Hazard (game)\") was called *crapaud* by the French in [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\") (a French word meaning \"toad\" in reference to the original style of play by people crouched over a floor or sidewalk). This was later shortened to [craps](/wiki/Craps \"Craps\") and after several adaptations became the most popular gambling dice game in the United States.Rollin' Bones: The History of Dice, [http://www.neatorama.com/2014/08/18/Rollin\\-Bones\\-The\\-History\\-of\\-Dice/](http://www.neatorama.com/2014/08/18/Rollin-Bones-The-History-of-Dice/) [Sic bo](/wiki/Sic_bo \"Sic bo\") was introduced into the United States by Chinese immigrants in the 20th century and is now a popular [casino game](/wiki/Casino_game \"Casino game\"). Another casino game, [roulette](/wiki/Roulette \"Roulette\"), has been played since the late 18th century, and was probably adapted from English wheel games such as Roly\\-Poly and E.O.", "With the possible exception of [carrom](/wiki/Carrom \"Carrom\") (a game whose origins are uncertain), the earliest [table games](/wiki/Casino_game%23Table_games \"Casino game#Table games\") appear to have been the [cue sports](/wiki/Cue_sports \"Cue sports\"), which include [carom billiards](/wiki/Carom_billiards \"Carom billiards\"), [pool](/wiki/Pool_%28cue_sports%29 \"Pool (cue sports)\"), or *pocket billiards*, and [snooker](/wiki/Snooker \"Snooker\"). The cue sports are generally regarded as having developed into indoor games from outdoor stick\\-and\\-ball [lawn games](/wiki/Lawn_game \"Lawn game\") (retroactively termed [ground billiards](/wiki/Ground_billiards \"Ground billiards\")),{{cite book \\| first \\= Victor \\| last \\= Stein and Rubino, Paul \\| year \\= 1996 \\| title \\= The Billiard Encyclopaedia: An Illustrated History of the Sport (2nd ed.) \\| publisher \\= Blue Book Publications, June 1996 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-1\\-886768\\-06\\-2 }}, {{Page needed\\|date\\=September 2011}} and as such to be related to [trucco](/wiki/Trucco \"Trucco\"), [croquet](/wiki/Croquet \"Croquet\") and golf, and more distantly to the stickless [bocce](/wiki/Bocce \"Bocce\") and [bowls](/wiki/Bowls \"Bowls\").", "[Dominoes](/wiki/Dominoes \"Dominoes\"), which originate in China and date as far back as the [Song dynasty](/wiki/Song_dynasty \"Song dynasty\") (A.D. 1120\\), first appeared in Europe during the 18th century. The Chinese [tile game](/wiki/Tile_based_games \"Tile based games\") [mahjong](/wiki/Mahjong \"Mahjong\") developed from a Chinese card game known as *mǎdiào* sometime during the 17th century and was imported into the United States in the 1920s.", "### Outdoor games", "{{main\\|History of sport}}", "Modern [sports](/wiki/Sports \"Sports\") developed from different European games, many of them played by European royalty. [Tennis](/wiki/Tennis \"Tennis\") developed in France, French kings like [Francis I of France](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France \"Francis I of France\") (1515–47\\) and [Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_France \"Henry II of France\") (1547–59\\) were well known players. [Golf](/wiki/Golf \"Golf\") originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James II's banning of the game in 1457\\. The ban was lifted by James IV in 1502 who also played golf. [Cricket](/wiki/Cricket \"Cricket\") can be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th\\-century England and the modern rules of [association football](/wiki/Association_football \"Association football\") and [rugby football](/wiki/Rugby_football \"Rugby football\") are based on mid\\-19th century rules made to standardise the football games played by [English public schools](/wiki/English_public_schools \"English public schools\"). These team sports were spread worldwide by the influence of the [British empire](/wiki/British_empire \"British empire\").", "### Electronic games", "{{main\\|Electronic game\\|History of video games}}\nThe earliest reference to a purely electronic game appears to be a United States patent registration in 1947 for what was described by its inventors as a \"[cathode\\-ray tube amusement device](/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube_amusement_device \"Cathode-ray tube amusement device\")\".{{Cite patent\\|country\\=US\\|number\\=2455992\\|pubdate\\=1948\\-12\\-14\\|title\\=Cathode\\-ray tube amusement device\\|assign1\\=\\[\\[DuMont Laboratories\\|Allen B. Du Mont Laboratories Inc.]]\\|inventor1\\-last\\=Goldsmith Jr.\\|inventor1\\-first\\=Thomas T.\\|inventor2\\-last\\=Mann\\|inventor2\\-first\\=Estle Ray}} Through the 1950s and 1960s the majority of early computer games ran on university [mainframe computers](/wiki/Mainframe_computer \"Mainframe computer\") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). Beginning in 1971, video [arcade games](/wiki/Arcade_game \"Arcade game\") began to be offered to the public for play. The first [home video game console](/wiki/Video_game_console \"Video game console\"), the [Magnavox Odyssey](/wiki/Magnavox_Odyssey \"Magnavox Odyssey\"), was released in 1972\\.{{Cite book\\| title\\=Game Industry Career Guide \\| last1\\=Moore \\| first1\\=Michael E. \\| last2\\=Novak \\| first2\\=Jeannie \\| year\\=2010 \\| publisher\\=Cengage Learning \\| location\\=Delmar \\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4283\\-7647\\-2 \\| page\\=7 \\| quote\\=In 1966, Ralph H. Baer .. pitched an idea .. to create interactive games to be played on the television. Over the next two years, his team developed the first video game system—and in 1968, they demonstrated the \"Brown Box,\" a device on which several games could be played and that used a light gun to shoot targets on the screen. After several more years of development, the system was licensed by Magnavox in 1970 and the first game console system, the Odyssey, was released in 1972 at the then high price of $100\\. }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2009/3/2009\\_3\\_26\\.shtml\\|title\\=The Father of Video Games\\|first\\=Mark\\|last\\=Wolverton\\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2010\\|work\\=\\[\\[American Heritage (magazine)\\|American Heritage]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100216031218/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2009/3/2009\\_3\\_26\\.shtml\\|archive\\-date\\=16 February 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "The [golden age of arcade video games](/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games \"Golden age of arcade video games\") began in 1978 and continued through to the mid\\-1980s. A [second generation of video game consoles](/wiki/Second_generation_of_video_game_consoles \"Second generation of video game consoles\"), released between 1977 and 1983, saw increased popularity as a result of this, though this eventually came to an abrupt end with the [video game crash of 1983](/wiki/Video_game_crash_of_1983 \"Video game crash of 1983\"). The home [video game industry](/wiki/Video_game_industry \"Video game industry\") was eventually revitalized with the [third generation of game consoles](/wiki/Third_generation_of_video_game_consoles \"Third generation of video game consoles\") over the next few years, which saw a shift in the dominance of the video game industry from the United States to [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"). This same time period saw the advent of the [personal computer game](/wiki/Personal_computer_game \"Personal computer game\"), specialized gaming [home computers](/wiki/Home_computer \"Home computer\"), early [online gaming](/wiki/Online_game \"Online game\"), and the introduction of [LED](/wiki/LED \"LED\") [handheld electronic games](/wiki/Handheld_electronic_game \"Handheld electronic game\") and eventually [handheld video games](/wiki/Handheld_video_game \"Handheld video game\").", "" ]
### Commercial board games [thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|[Gyan chauper](/wiki/Gyan_chauper "Gyan chauper"), Late 18th century [Jain](/wiki/Jain "Jain") game board on cloth in the decorative arts gallery of the [National Museum of India](/wiki/National_Museum_of_India "National Museum of India"). Acc. No. 85\.312](/wiki/File:Gyan_Chaupar_National_Museum_India.JPG "Gyan Chaupar National Museum India.JPG") The Ancient Indian game of [Pachisi](/wiki/Pachisi "Pachisi") was brought to the west by the British in the 1863 and an adaptation of the oldest game named [Parcheesi](/wiki/Parcheesi "Parcheesi") was first copyrighted in the United States by EG Selchow \& Co in 1869\.University of Waterloo Games Museum, <http://gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/parcheesi/> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306210931/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/parcheesi/ \|date\=6 March 2015 }} A version of the game called [Ludo](/wiki/Ludo_%28board_game%29 "Ludo (board game)") was patented in 1896\. A similar German race game, [Mensch ärgere dich nicht](/wiki/Mensch_%C3%A4rgere_dich_nicht "Mensch ärgere dich nicht") ("Man, don't get annoyed"), became immensely popular with German troops during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). Another Indian game which was adopted by the West was [Gyan chauper](/wiki/Gyan_chauper "Gyan chauper") (a.k.a. Moksha Patam), popularly known as [snakes and ladders](/wiki/Snakes_and_ladders "Snakes and ladders"). This was a game which was intended to teach lessons about [karma](/wiki/Karma "Karma") and good and bad actions, the ladders represented virtues and the snakes vices. The moral lesson of the game was that spiritual liberation, or [Moksha](/wiki/Moksha "Moksha") could only be achieved through virtuous action, while vice led to endless reincarnation. The game dates to medieval India where it was played by Jains and Hindus. A Buddhist version, known as "ascending the \[spiritual] levels" (Tibetan: {{transliteration\|bo\|sa gnon rnam bzhags}}) is played in Nepal and TibetBornet and Burger, Religions in Play: Games, Rituals, and Virtual Worlds, page 95 while a Muslim version of the game played during the [mughal period](/wiki/Mughal_Empire "Mughal Empire") from the late 17th or early 18th centuries featured the 101 names of God. The game was first brought to Victorian England and it was published in the United States as *Chutes and Ladders* (an "improved new version of England's famous indoor sport") by game pioneer [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley "Milton Bradley") in 1943\. The first board game for which the name of its designer is known is 'A Journey Through Europe or the Play of Geography', a map\-based game published in 1759 by [John Jefferys](/wiki/John_Jefferys "John Jefferys"), a [Geography](/wiki/Geography "Geography") and writing teacher.Drabble, Margaret; The Pattern in the Carpet: A Personal History with Jigsaws, page 107, 2009\. Designed in England by George Fox in 1800, [The Mansion of Happiness](/wiki/The_Mansion_of_Happiness "The Mansion of Happiness") became the prototype for commercial board games for at least two centuries to follow. The first board game published in the United States was '[Traveller's Tour Through the United States](/wiki/Travellers%27_Tour_Through_the_United_States "Travellers' Tour Through the United States")', published by New York City bookseller F. Lockwood in 1822\. The earliest board games published in the United States were based upon Christian morality and included The Mansion of Happiness (1843\) and The Game of Pope or Pagan, or The Siege of the Stronghold of Satan by the Christian Army (1844\). While demonstrating the commercial viability of the ancient race game format, its moralistic overtones were countered by [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley "Milton Bradley") in 1860 with the introduction of a radically different concept of success in [The Checkered Game of Life](/wiki/The_Checkered_Game_of_Life "The Checkered Game of Life"), in which material successes came as a result of accomplishments such as attending college, marrying, and getting rich. Likewise the [Game of the District Messenger Boy](/wiki/Game_of_the_District_Messenger_Boy "Game of the District Messenger Boy") (1886\) also focused on secular capitalist virtues rather than the religious. [thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|The *Game of the [District Messenger Boy](/wiki/Telegraph_boys "Telegraph boys")* (1886\) encouraged the [rags to riches](/wiki/Rags_to_riches "Rags to riches") idea that a lowly messenger boy could ascend the corporate ladder to become president](/wiki/File:District_Messenger_Boy_Box_Cover_1886.jpg "District Messenger Boy Box Cover 1886.jpg") First patented in 1904, *[The Landlord's Game](/wiki/The_Landlord%27s_Game "The Landlord's Game")*, designed by [Elizabeth Magie](/wiki/Elizabeth_Magie "Elizabeth Magie"),A U.S. patent was granted in 1904 but in the autumn of 1902 an article describing the game was published in *The Single Tax Review*. See [http://lvtfan.typepad.com/lvtfans\_blog/2011/01/lizzie\-magie\-1902\-commentary\-the\-landlords\-game.html](http://lvtfan.typepad.com/lvtfans_blog/2011/01/lizzie-magie-1902-commentary-the-landlords-game.html) was originally intended to illustrate the economic consequences of [Ricardo's Law](/wiki/Law_of_rent "Law of rent") of [Economic rent](/wiki/Economic_rent "Economic rent") and the [Georgist](/wiki/Georgism "Georgism") concept of a [single tax on land value](/wiki/Land_value_tax "Land value tax").{{cite book \| last\=Parlett \|first\=David \|author\-link\=David Parlett \|title\=The Oxford History of Board Games \| url\=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofb0000parl \| url\-access\=registration \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|year\=1999 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofb0000parl/page/352 352] \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-212998\-7}} A series of [board games](/wiki/Board_game "Board game") were developed from 1906 through the 1930s that involved the buying and selling of land and the development of that land. By 1933, a board game had been created much like the version of modern [Monopoly](/wiki/Monopoly_%28game%29 "Monopoly (game)") by the [Parker Brothers](/wiki/Parker_Brothers "Parker Brothers"). Though the first commercial version of the [game of Battleship](/wiki/Battleship_%28game%29 "Battleship (game)") was *Salvo*, published in 1931 in the United States by the Starex company, the game itself dates to before [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") when it was played on paper by Russian officers.{{cite news \| url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1499\&dat\=19310701\&id\=QKtQAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3803,4154106 \| title\=Salvo Is New Game With a Nautical Air \| work\=The Milwaukee Journal \| date\=1 July 1931 \| access\-date\=18 February 2013 }}{{Dead link\|date\=August 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} The French board game *L'Attaque* was first commercially released in 1910, having been designed two years prior as a military\-themed imperfect knowledge game based upon the earlier Chinese children's board game [dou shou qi](/wiki/Dou_shou_qi "Dou shou qi"). *L'Attaque* was subsequently adapted by the Chinese into [Luzhanqi](/wiki/Luzhanqi "Luzhanqi") (or *Lu Zhan Jun Qi*), and by [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley "Milton Bradley") into [Stratego](/wiki/Stratego "Stratego"), the latter having been trademarked in 1960 while the former remains in the public domain. [Jury Box](/wiki/Jury_Box_%28game%29 "Jury Box (game)"), published in 1935, was the first [murder mystery game](/wiki/Murder_mystery_game "Murder mystery game") which served as the basis for games like [Cluedo](/wiki/Cluedo "Cluedo"). Initially designed in 1938, [Scrabble](/wiki/Scrabble "Scrabble") received its first mass\-market exposure in 1952, two years prior to the release of [Diplomacy](/wiki/Diplomacy_%28game%29 "Diplomacy (game)"), in 1954\. [Diplomacy](/wiki/Diplomacy_%28game%29 "Diplomacy (game)") was a game favored by [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy"), and [Henry Kissinger](/wiki/Henry_Kissinger "Henry Kissinger"). Originally released in 1957 as *La Conquête du Monde* ("The Conquest of the World") in France, [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 "Risk (game)") was first published under its English title in 1959\. Starting with [Gettysburg](/wiki/Gettysburg_%28game%29 "Gettysburg (game)") in 1958, the company [Avalon Hill](/wiki/Avalon_Hill "Avalon Hill") developed particular board wargames covering specific historical themes such as [Midway](/wiki/Midway_%281964_game%29 "Midway (1964 game)"), [D\-Day](/wiki/D-Day_%28game%29 "D-Day (game)") and [PanzerBlitz](/wiki/PanzerBlitz "PanzerBlitz"). [Board wargames](/wiki/Board_wargame "Board wargame") such as [Squad Leader](/wiki/Squad_Leader "Squad Leader"), [Tactics](/wiki/Tactics_%28game%29 "Tactics (game)") and [Europa](/wiki/Europa_%28wargame%29 "Europa (wargame)") developed extremely complex and realistic rules. Avalon Hill's [Civilization](/wiki/Civilization_%281980_board_game%29 "Civilization (1980 board game)") introduced the use of the technology tree (or "tech tree"), variants of which have been implemented in numerous later board and [video games](/wiki/Video_games "Video games") such as [Sid Meier's Civilization](/wiki/Civilization_%28video_game%29 "Civilization (video game)"). Recent [wargames](/wiki/Wargaming "Wargaming") such as 'A distant plain', 'Labyrinth' and the satirical [War on Terror](/wiki/War_on_Terror_%28game%29 "War on Terror (game)") have focused on counterinsurgency and contemporary [terrorism](/wiki/Terrorism "Terrorism"). A concentrated design movement towards the [German\-style board game](/wiki/German-style_board_game "German-style board game"), or *Eurogame*, began in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Germany,["German recreation: An affinity for rules?"](http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12009728) *The Economist*, 28 August 2008\. and led to the development of board games such as [Carcassonne](/wiki/Carcassonne_%28board_game%29 "Carcassonne (board game)"), [The Settlers of Catan](/wiki/The_Settlers_of_Catan "The Settlers of Catan"), [Agricola](/wiki/Agricola_%28board_game%29 "Agricola (board game)"), [Ticket to ride](/wiki/Ticket_to_Ride_%28board_game%29 "Ticket to Ride (board game)") and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico_%28board_game%29 "Puerto Rico (board game)").
[ "### Commercial board games", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|[Gyan chauper](/wiki/Gyan_chauper \"Gyan chauper\"), Late 18th century [Jain](/wiki/Jain \"Jain\") game board on cloth in the decorative arts gallery of the [National Museum of India](/wiki/National_Museum_of_India \"National Museum of India\"). Acc. No. 85\\.312](/wiki/File:Gyan_Chaupar_National_Museum_India.JPG \"Gyan Chaupar National Museum India.JPG\")", "The Ancient Indian game of [Pachisi](/wiki/Pachisi \"Pachisi\") was brought to the west by the British in the 1863 and an adaptation of the oldest game named [Parcheesi](/wiki/Parcheesi \"Parcheesi\") was first copyrighted in the United States by EG Selchow \\& Co in 1869\\.University of Waterloo Games Museum, <http://gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/parcheesi/> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306210931/http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/VirtualExhibits/Whitehill/parcheesi/ \\|date\\=6 March 2015 }} A version of the game called [Ludo](/wiki/Ludo_%28board_game%29 \"Ludo (board game)\") was patented in 1896\\. A similar German race game, [Mensch ärgere dich nicht](/wiki/Mensch_%C3%A4rgere_dich_nicht \"Mensch ärgere dich nicht\") (\"Man, don't get annoyed\"), became immensely popular with German troops during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). Another Indian game which was adopted by the West was [Gyan chauper](/wiki/Gyan_chauper \"Gyan chauper\") (a.k.a. Moksha Patam), popularly known as [snakes and ladders](/wiki/Snakes_and_ladders \"Snakes and ladders\"). This was a game which was intended to teach lessons about [karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\") and good and bad actions, the ladders represented virtues and the snakes vices. The moral lesson of the game was that spiritual liberation, or [Moksha](/wiki/Moksha \"Moksha\") could only be achieved through virtuous action, while vice led to endless reincarnation. The game dates to medieval India where it was played by Jains and Hindus. A Buddhist version, known as \"ascending the \\[spiritual] levels\" (Tibetan: {{transliteration\\|bo\\|sa gnon rnam bzhags}}) is played in Nepal and TibetBornet and Burger, Religions in Play: Games, Rituals, and Virtual Worlds, page 95 while a Muslim version of the game played during the [mughal period](/wiki/Mughal_Empire \"Mughal Empire\") from the late 17th or early 18th centuries featured the 101 names of God. The game was first brought to Victorian England and it was published in the United States as *Chutes and Ladders* (an \"improved new version of England's famous indoor sport\") by game pioneer [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley \"Milton Bradley\") in 1943\\.", "The first board game for which the name of its designer is known is 'A Journey Through Europe or the Play of Geography', a map\\-based game published in 1759 by [John Jefferys](/wiki/John_Jefferys \"John Jefferys\"), a [Geography](/wiki/Geography \"Geography\") and writing teacher.Drabble, Margaret; The Pattern in the Carpet: A Personal History with Jigsaws, page 107, 2009\\. Designed in England by George Fox in 1800, [The Mansion of Happiness](/wiki/The_Mansion_of_Happiness \"The Mansion of Happiness\") became the prototype for commercial board games for at least two centuries to follow. The first board game published in the United States was '[Traveller's Tour Through the United States](/wiki/Travellers%27_Tour_Through_the_United_States \"Travellers' Tour Through the United States\")', published by New York City bookseller F. Lockwood in 1822\\. The earliest board games published in the United States were based upon Christian morality and included The Mansion of Happiness (1843\\) and The Game of Pope or Pagan, or The Siege of the Stronghold of Satan by the Christian Army (1844\\). While demonstrating the commercial viability of the ancient race game format, its moralistic overtones were countered by [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley \"Milton Bradley\") in 1860 with the introduction of a radically different concept of success in [The Checkered Game of Life](/wiki/The_Checkered_Game_of_Life \"The Checkered Game of Life\"), in which material successes came as a result of accomplishments such as attending college, marrying, and getting rich. Likewise the [Game of the District Messenger Boy](/wiki/Game_of_the_District_Messenger_Boy \"Game of the District Messenger Boy\") (1886\\) also focused on secular capitalist virtues rather than the religious. \n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|The *Game of the [District Messenger Boy](/wiki/Telegraph_boys \"Telegraph boys\")* (1886\\) encouraged the [rags to riches](/wiki/Rags_to_riches \"Rags to riches\") idea that a lowly messenger boy could ascend the corporate ladder to become president](/wiki/File:District_Messenger_Boy_Box_Cover_1886.jpg \"District Messenger Boy Box Cover 1886.jpg\")\nFirst patented in 1904, *[The Landlord's Game](/wiki/The_Landlord%27s_Game \"The Landlord's Game\")*, designed by [Elizabeth Magie](/wiki/Elizabeth_Magie \"Elizabeth Magie\"),A U.S. patent was granted in 1904 but in the autumn of 1902 an article describing the game was published in *The Single Tax Review*. See [http://lvtfan.typepad.com/lvtfans\\_blog/2011/01/lizzie\\-magie\\-1902\\-commentary\\-the\\-landlords\\-game.html](http://lvtfan.typepad.com/lvtfans_blog/2011/01/lizzie-magie-1902-commentary-the-landlords-game.html) was originally intended to illustrate the economic consequences of [Ricardo's Law](/wiki/Law_of_rent \"Law of rent\") of [Economic rent](/wiki/Economic_rent \"Economic rent\") and the [Georgist](/wiki/Georgism \"Georgism\") concept of a [single tax on land value](/wiki/Land_value_tax \"Land value tax\").{{cite book \\| last\\=Parlett \\|first\\=David \\|author\\-link\\=David Parlett \\|title\\=The Oxford History of Board Games \\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofb0000parl \\| url\\-access\\=registration \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|year\\=1999 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofb0000parl/page/352 352] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-212998\\-7}} A series of [board games](/wiki/Board_game \"Board game\") were developed from 1906 through the 1930s that involved the buying and selling of land and the development of that land. By 1933, a board game had been created much like the version of modern [Monopoly](/wiki/Monopoly_%28game%29 \"Monopoly (game)\") by the [Parker Brothers](/wiki/Parker_Brothers \"Parker Brothers\").", "Though the first commercial version of the [game of Battleship](/wiki/Battleship_%28game%29 \"Battleship (game)\") was *Salvo*, published in 1931 in the United States by the Starex company, the game itself dates to before [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") when it was played on paper by Russian officers.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1499\\&dat\\=19310701\\&id\\=QKtQAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3803,4154106 \\| title\\=Salvo Is New Game With a Nautical Air \\| work\\=The Milwaukee Journal \\| date\\=1 July 1931 \\| access\\-date\\=18 February 2013 }}{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} The French board game *L'Attaque* was first commercially released in 1910, having been designed two years prior as a military\\-themed imperfect knowledge game based upon the earlier Chinese children's board game [dou shou qi](/wiki/Dou_shou_qi \"Dou shou qi\"). *L'Attaque* was subsequently adapted by the Chinese into [Luzhanqi](/wiki/Luzhanqi \"Luzhanqi\") (or *Lu Zhan Jun Qi*), and by [Milton Bradley](/wiki/Milton_Bradley \"Milton Bradley\") into [Stratego](/wiki/Stratego \"Stratego\"), the latter having been trademarked in 1960 while the former remains in the public domain. [Jury Box](/wiki/Jury_Box_%28game%29 \"Jury Box (game)\"), published in 1935, was the first [murder mystery game](/wiki/Murder_mystery_game \"Murder mystery game\") which served as the basis for games like [Cluedo](/wiki/Cluedo \"Cluedo\").", "Initially designed in 1938, [Scrabble](/wiki/Scrabble \"Scrabble\") received its first mass\\-market exposure in 1952, two years prior to the release of [Diplomacy](/wiki/Diplomacy_%28game%29 \"Diplomacy (game)\"), in 1954\\. [Diplomacy](/wiki/Diplomacy_%28game%29 \"Diplomacy (game)\") was a game favored by [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\"), and [Henry Kissinger](/wiki/Henry_Kissinger \"Henry Kissinger\"). Originally released in 1957 as *La Conquête du Monde* (\"The Conquest of the World\") in France, [Risk](/wiki/Risk_%28game%29 \"Risk (game)\") was first published under its English title in 1959\\.", "Starting with [Gettysburg](/wiki/Gettysburg_%28game%29 \"Gettysburg (game)\") in 1958, the company [Avalon Hill](/wiki/Avalon_Hill \"Avalon Hill\") developed particular board wargames covering specific historical themes such as [Midway](/wiki/Midway_%281964_game%29 \"Midway (1964 game)\"), [D\\-Day](/wiki/D-Day_%28game%29 \"D-Day (game)\") and [PanzerBlitz](/wiki/PanzerBlitz \"PanzerBlitz\"). [Board wargames](/wiki/Board_wargame \"Board wargame\") such as [Squad Leader](/wiki/Squad_Leader \"Squad Leader\"), [Tactics](/wiki/Tactics_%28game%29 \"Tactics (game)\") and [Europa](/wiki/Europa_%28wargame%29 \"Europa (wargame)\") developed extremely complex and realistic rules. Avalon Hill's [Civilization](/wiki/Civilization_%281980_board_game%29 \"Civilization (1980 board game)\") introduced the use of the technology tree (or \"tech tree\"), variants of which have been implemented in numerous later board and [video games](/wiki/Video_games \"Video games\") such as [Sid Meier's Civilization](/wiki/Civilization_%28video_game%29 \"Civilization (video game)\"). Recent [wargames](/wiki/Wargaming \"Wargaming\") such as 'A distant plain', 'Labyrinth' and the satirical [War on Terror](/wiki/War_on_Terror_%28game%29 \"War on Terror (game)\") have focused on counterinsurgency and contemporary [terrorism](/wiki/Terrorism \"Terrorism\").", "A concentrated design movement towards the [German\\-style board game](/wiki/German-style_board_game \"German-style board game\"), or *Eurogame*, began in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Germany,[\"German recreation: An affinity for rules?\"](http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12009728) *The Economist*, 28 August 2008\\. and led to the development of board games such as [Carcassonne](/wiki/Carcassonne_%28board_game%29 \"Carcassonne (board game)\"), [The Settlers of Catan](/wiki/The_Settlers_of_Catan \"The Settlers of Catan\"), [Agricola](/wiki/Agricola_%28board_game%29 \"Agricola (board game)\"), [Ticket to ride](/wiki/Ticket_to_Ride_%28board_game%29 \"Ticket to Ride (board game)\") and [Puerto Rico](/wiki/Puerto_Rico_%28board_game%29 \"Puerto Rico (board game)\").", "" ]
Services -------- In April 1884 there were seven trains in each direction per day, all running between [Manchester Central railway station](/wiki/Manchester_Central_railway_station "Manchester Central railway station") and [Wigan Central](/wiki/Wigan_Central_railway_station "Wigan Central railway station"). Of these, six called at Lowton St Mary's. Two trains each way ran on Sundays, calling at all stations en route.{{sfn\|Dow\|1962\|p\=354}} From 1900 until 1952 Lowton St Mary's was also served by passenger trains running to [St Helens Central](/wiki/St_Helens_Central_%28GCR%29_railway_station "St Helens Central (GCR) railway station").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.disused\-stations.org.uk/c/culcheth/index.shtml \|title\=Timetables \|website\=Disused Stations }} In 1922 five "down" (towards St Helens and Wigan) trains called at the station on Mondays to Saturdays. They called at all stations from Manchester Central to St Helens via Glazebrook and Culcheth. It is difficult to be certain from the timetable whether these trains split at Lowton St Mary's with a portion proceeding to Wigan Central, or whether passengers for Wigan had to change, but in either event those same six trains also took Lowton St Mary's passengers calling at all stations to Wigan. Given the dwell times for St Helens trains, it appears that theirs was a through service. A lone train calling at all stations from Manchester to Wigan \- the 18:46 from Lowton St Mary's \- had no St Helens connection or portion, serving the Wigan Central line only. Three Down trains, one Fridays and Saturdays Only and two Saturdays only, appeared to start at Culcheth calling All Stations to Wigan Central, with no St Helens portion or connection. It may be that these trains originated at [Liverpool Central](/wiki/Liverpool_Central_railway_station "Liverpool Central railway station"), turning West to North at the triangular Glazebrook West Junction, but the timetable doesn't seem to confirm this. The "up" service was broadly similar, but the mix of all week and Saturdays Only/Excepted was more complex. No trains ran on Sundays.{{sfn\|Bradshaw\|1985\|pp\=714–5}} In the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") the line through Lowton St Mary's was more frequently used, though after 1945 the line started to deteriorate.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.disused\-stations.org.uk/c/culcheth/index.shtml \|title\=Timetables \|website\=Disused Stations }} A fuller selection of public and working timetables has now been published. Among other things this suggests that Sunday services ran to St Helens until 1914, but had ceased by 1922, never to return.{{sfn\|Sweeney\|2014\|pp\=105–115}} The services to and from St Helens ended when that line closed to passenger traffic on 3 March 1952\. Lowton St Mary's closed to passengers on 2 November 1964\.{{sfn\|Butt\|1995\|p\=74}} The line survived as freight only until 1968\. The line through Lowton St Mary's was also a diversionary route and a route by which traffic such as Summer Saturday holiday specials could bypass busy spots, such as Wigan. Pixton, for example, has a fine 1961 shot of a Summer Saturday Sheffield to Blackpool train at the station. It would bear right at [Hindley South](/wiki/Hindley_South_railway_station "Hindley South railway station") onto the Whelley Loop and then join the WCML at Standish, bypassing Wigan altogether.{{sfn\|Pixton\|1996\|p\=119}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.psul4all.free\-online.co.uk/1964%20Summer.htm \|title\=Trains over unusual routes in 1964 \|website\=psul \|access\-date\=20 October 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903025756/http://www.psul4all.free\-online.co.uk/1964%20Summer.htm \|archive\-date\=3 September 2015 \|url\-status\=dead }} By far and away the most heavily loaded, but sporadic, passenger trains through the station turned west for Haydock Park racecourse.
[ "Services\n--------", "In April 1884 there were seven trains in each direction per day, all running between [Manchester Central railway station](/wiki/Manchester_Central_railway_station \"Manchester Central railway station\") and [Wigan Central](/wiki/Wigan_Central_railway_station \"Wigan Central railway station\"). Of these, six called at Lowton St Mary's. Two trains each way ran on Sundays, calling at all stations en route.{{sfn\\|Dow\\|1962\\|p\\=354}}", "From 1900 until 1952 Lowton St Mary's was also served by passenger trains running to [St Helens Central](/wiki/St_Helens_Central_%28GCR%29_railway_station \"St Helens Central (GCR) railway station\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.disused\\-stations.org.uk/c/culcheth/index.shtml \\|title\\=Timetables \\|website\\=Disused Stations }}", "In 1922 five \"down\" (towards St Helens and Wigan) trains called at the station on Mondays to Saturdays. They called at all stations from Manchester Central to St Helens via Glazebrook and Culcheth. It is difficult to be certain from the timetable whether these trains split at Lowton St Mary's with a portion proceeding to Wigan Central, or whether passengers for Wigan had to change, but in either event those same six trains also took Lowton St Mary's passengers calling at all stations to Wigan. Given the dwell times for St Helens trains, it appears that theirs was a through service.", "A lone train calling at all stations from Manchester to Wigan \\- the 18:46 from Lowton St Mary's \\- had no St Helens connection or portion, serving the Wigan Central line only.", "Three Down trains, one Fridays and Saturdays Only and two Saturdays only, appeared to start at Culcheth calling All Stations to Wigan Central, with no St Helens portion or connection. It may be that these trains originated at [Liverpool Central](/wiki/Liverpool_Central_railway_station \"Liverpool Central railway station\"), turning West to North at the triangular Glazebrook West Junction, but the timetable doesn't seem to confirm this.", "The \"up\" service was broadly similar, but the mix of all week and Saturdays Only/Excepted was more complex.", "No trains ran on Sundays.{{sfn\\|Bradshaw\\|1985\\|pp\\=714–5}}", "In the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") the line through Lowton St Mary's was more frequently used, though after 1945 the line started to deteriorate.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.disused\\-stations.org.uk/c/culcheth/index.shtml \\|title\\=Timetables \\|website\\=Disused Stations }}", "A fuller selection of public and working timetables has now been published. Among other things this suggests that Sunday services ran to St Helens until 1914, but had ceased by 1922, never to return.{{sfn\\|Sweeney\\|2014\\|pp\\=105–115}}", "The services to and from St Helens ended when that line closed to passenger traffic on 3 March 1952\\.", "Lowton St Mary's closed to passengers on 2 November 1964\\.{{sfn\\|Butt\\|1995\\|p\\=74}} The line survived as freight only until 1968\\.", "The line through Lowton St Mary's was also a diversionary route and a route by which traffic such as Summer Saturday holiday specials could bypass busy spots, such as Wigan. Pixton, for example, has a fine 1961 shot of a Summer Saturday Sheffield to Blackpool train at the station. It would bear right at [Hindley South](/wiki/Hindley_South_railway_station \"Hindley South railway station\") onto the Whelley Loop and then join the WCML at Standish, bypassing Wigan altogether.{{sfn\\|Pixton\\|1996\\|p\\=119}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.psul4all.free\\-online.co.uk/1964%20Summer.htm \\|title\\=Trains over unusual routes in 1964 \\|website\\=psul \\|access\\-date\\=20 October 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903025756/http://www.psul4all.free\\-online.co.uk/1964%20Summer.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=3 September 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "By far and away the most heavily loaded, but sporadic, passenger trains through the station turned west for Haydock Park racecourse.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1890\= 3182 \|1900\= 4087 \|1910\= 10753 \|1920\= 14537 \|1930\= 16465 \|1940\= 17015 \|1950\= 21061 \|1960\= 23073 \|1970\= 26476 \|1980\= 25851 \|1990\= 24927 \|2000\= 24658 \|2010\= 26091 \|2020\= 28495 \|estyear\=2022 \|estimate\=28210 \|estref\={{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\-series/demo/popest/2020s\-total\-cities\-and\-towns.html \|date\=December 29, 2023\|title\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020\-2022\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=December 29, 2023}} \|align\-fn\=center \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census/decade/2020/2020\-census\-results.html\|title\=2020 Census Results\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=August 14, 2021}} 2020 Census }} Aberdeen is the principal city of the Aberdeen Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Brown and [Edmunds](/wiki/Edmunds_County%2C_South_Dakota "Edmunds County, South Dakota") counties and has a population of 42,287 in 2020\. ### 2020 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2020, there were 28,495 people and 12,114 households in the city. ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2010, there were 26,091 people, 11,418 households and 6,354 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1683\.3\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. There were 12,158 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|784\.4\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial make\-up was 91\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.7% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 3\.6% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.3% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)") and 2\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.6% of the population. There were 11,418 households, of which 27\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42\.1% were married couples living together, 9\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44\.4% were non\-families. 36\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.18 and the average family size was 2\.86\. The median age was 36\.4 years. 22\.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 12\.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24\.1% were from 25 to 44; 24\.4% were from 45 to 64; and 16\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender make\-up of the city was 47\.6% male and 52\.4% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 24,658 people, 10,553 households and 6,184 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,902\.1\|/sqmi}}. There were 11,259 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|868\.5\|/sqmi}}. The racial make\-up of the city was 94\.61% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.37% [Black](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 3\.17% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.54% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.13% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.19% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") and 0\.99% from two or more races. 0\.79% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race. 53\.7% were of German, 15% Norwegian and 8\.5% [Irish](/wiki/Irish_American "Irish American") ancestry. There were 10,553 households, of which 27\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\.0% were married couples living together, 8\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41\.4% were non\-families. 34\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.21 and the average family size was 2\.86\. 21\.8% of the population were under the age of 18, 14\.1% from 18 to 24, 26\.4% from 25 to 44, 20\.4% from 45 to 64, and 17\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85\.3 males. The [median household income](/wiki/Median_household_income "Median household income") was $33,276 and the median family income was $43,882\. Males had a median income of $30,355 and females $20,092\. The per capita income was $17,923\. About 7\.6% of families and 10\.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10\.6% of those under age 18 and 10\.1% of those age 65 or over. ### Religion There are several Roman Catholic, Baptist, Presbyterian, Methodist, Pentecostal, Lutheran, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints, Nazarere, and Non\-denominational churches in the area, as well as one synagogue.{{cite news \|last\=Mettler \|first\=Angela \|url\=http://articles.aberdeennews.com/2007\-09\-23/news/26395715\_1\_kosher\-meat\-aberdeen\-congregation\-member \|title\='Sons of Isaac' celebrates 90 years \|work\=\[\[The American News]] \|date\=September 23, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325144546/http://articles.aberdeennews.com/2007\-09\-23/news/26395715\_1\_kosher\-meat\-aberdeen\-congregation\-member \|archive\-date\=March 25, 2016 \|url\-status\=dead}}
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1890\\= 3182\n\\|1900\\= 4087\n\\|1910\\= 10753\n\\|1920\\= 14537\n\\|1930\\= 16465\n\\|1940\\= 17015\n\\|1950\\= 21061\n\\|1960\\= 23073\n\\|1970\\= 26476\n\\|1980\\= 25851\n\\|1990\\= 24927\n\\|2000\\= 24658\n\\|2010\\= 26091\n\\|2020\\= 28495\n\\|estyear\\=2022\n\\|estimate\\=28210\n\\|estref\\={{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\\-series/demo/popest/2020s\\-total\\-cities\\-and\\-towns.html \\|date\\=December 29, 2023\\|title\\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020\\-2022\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=December 29, 2023}}\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census/decade/2020/2020\\-census\\-results.html\\|title\\=2020 Census Results\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2021}} \n2020 Census\n}}", "Aberdeen is the principal city of the Aberdeen Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Brown and [Edmunds](/wiki/Edmunds_County%2C_South_Dakota \"Edmunds County, South Dakota\") counties and has a population of 42,287 in 2020\\.", "### 2020 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2020, there were 28,495 people and 12,114 households in the city.", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2010, there were 26,091 people, 11,418 households and 6,354 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1683\\.3\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. There were 12,158 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|784\\.4\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial make\\-up was 91\\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.7% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.6% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.3% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\") and 2\\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.6% of the population.", "There were 11,418 households, of which 27\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42\\.1% were married couples living together, 9\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44\\.4% were non\\-families. 36\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.18 and the average family size was 2\\.86\\.", "The median age was 36\\.4 years. 22\\.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 12\\.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24\\.1% were from 25 to 44; 24\\.4% were from 45 to 64; and 16\\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender make\\-up of the city was 47\\.6% male and 52\\.4% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 24,658 people, 10,553 households and 6,184 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,902\\.1\\|/sqmi}}. There were 11,259 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|868\\.5\\|/sqmi}}. The racial make\\-up of the city was 94\\.61% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.37% [Black](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 3\\.17% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.54% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.13% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.19% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") and 0\\.99% from two or more races. 0\\.79% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_Census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States Census\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race. 53\\.7% were of German, 15% Norwegian and 8\\.5% [Irish](/wiki/Irish_American \"Irish American\") ancestry.", "There were 10,553 households, of which 27\\.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47\\.0% were married couples living together, 8\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41\\.4% were non\\-families. 34\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.21 and the average family size was 2\\.86\\.", "21\\.8% of the population were under the age of 18, 14\\.1% from 18 to 24, 26\\.4% from 25 to 44, 20\\.4% from 45 to 64, and 17\\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 89\\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85\\.3 males.", "The [median household income](/wiki/Median_household_income \"Median household income\") was $33,276 and the median family income was $43,882\\. Males had a median income of $30,355 and females $20,092\\. The per capita income was $17,923\\. About 7\\.6% of families and 10\\.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10\\.6% of those under age 18 and 10\\.1% of those age 65 or over.", "### Religion", "There are several Roman Catholic, Baptist, Presbyterian, Methodist, Pentecostal, Lutheran, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints, Nazarere, and Non\\-denominational churches in the area, as well as one synagogue.{{cite news \\|last\\=Mettler \\|first\\=Angela \\|url\\=http://articles.aberdeennews.com/2007\\-09\\-23/news/26395715\\_1\\_kosher\\-meat\\-aberdeen\\-congregation\\-member \\|title\\='Sons of Isaac' celebrates 90 years \\|work\\=\\[\\[The American News]] \\|date\\=September 23, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325144546/http://articles.aberdeennews.com/2007\\-09\\-23/news/26395715\\_1\\_kosher\\-meat\\-aberdeen\\-congregation\\-member \\|archive\\-date\\=March 25, 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "" ]
Sports ------ ### Bowling The Village Bowl in Aberdeen is a modern bowling center with multiple lanes. Located at 1314 8th Ave NW.{{cite web\|title \= Bowling Alley Family Fun Aberdeen, SD\|url\=http://thevillagebowl.com/\|website \= The Village Bowl {{!}} Aberdeen {{!}} SD\|access\-date \= September 27, 2015}} ### Minor league baseball Aberdeen has had three minor league baseball teams since 1920\. The Aberdeen Boosters, a class D league team, played in 1920, the Aberdeen Grays, also a class D team, played from 1921 to 1923\. The class C [Aberdeen Pheasants](/wiki/Aberdeen_Pheasants "Aberdeen Pheasants") from 1946 to 1971, and 1995 to 1997\. The Pheasants were the affiliate of the former [St. Louis Browns](/wiki/St._Louis_Browns "St. Louis Browns") (and current [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles "Baltimore Orioles")). Aberdeen was a stop to the majors for such notable players as [Don Larsen](/wiki/Don_Larsen "Don Larsen") (perfect game in the World Series), [Lou Piniella](/wiki/Lou_Piniella "Lou Piniella") (AL rookie of the year with [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals "Kansas City Royals") in 1969\), and [Jim Palmer](/wiki/Jim_Palmer "Jim Palmer"), [Baseball Hall of Fame](/wiki/Baseball_Hall_of_Fame "Baseball Hall of Fame") pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles. In the 1960's, the Pheasants were Coached by Cal Ripken, Sr, who later ended up being a Major League Coach and had two sons Cal, Jr. and Billy that also played for the Orioles organization. On June 8, 2024, the first SABR Historical Marker in the state of South Dakota was revealed on the campus of Northern State University. It was the 60th anniversary to the day when the Baltimore Orioles played an exhibition game at the ballpark. [thumb\|right \| alt\=Aberdeen Pheasants SABR Historical Marker \| Aberdeen Pheasants SABR Historical Marker](/wiki/File:Aberdeen_Pheasants_SABR_Historical_Marker.jpg "Aberdeen Pheasants SABR Historical Marker.jpg") ### Tennis Aberdeen has 19 public tennis courts throughout the city – Melgaard Park (4\), Northern State University (6\), and Holgate Middle School (8\). ### Golf Aberdeen has three golf courses: Lee Park Municipal Golf Course, Moccasin Creek Country Club and Rolling Hills Country Club. Lee Park and Moccasin Creek are both 18\-hole courses.{{cite web \| title\=Lee Park Golf Course\|url\=https://www.aberdeen.sd.us/148/Lee\-Park\-Golf\-Course \|access\-date\=October 14, 2023 \|website\=Aberdeen}} Rolling Hills is a combined nine\-hole course and housing development which opened in 2005\. ### Hockey/ice skating Aberdeen has several outdoor skating rinks and hockey rinks open to the public during winter months. Aberdeen is also home to the NAHL team, [Aberdeen Wings](/wiki/Aberdeen_Wings "Aberdeen Wings"). ### Skateboarding/rollerblading Aberdeen has a skate park located between East Melgaard Road and 17th Ave SE at Melgaard Park. The equipment installed includes a quarter pipe, penalty box with half pyramid, bank ramp, spine, kinked rail and a ground rail. ### Disc golf Aberdeen has two disc golf courses, Melgaard Park, and the Richmond Lake Disc Golf Course. ### Roller Derby Aberdeen has an All\-women's Roller Derby league "A\-Town Roller Girlz" established in 2011, also bringing Junior Roller Derby to the area.
[ "Sports\n------", "### Bowling", "The Village Bowl in Aberdeen is a modern bowling center with multiple lanes. Located at 1314 8th Ave NW.{{cite web\\|title \\= Bowling Alley Family Fun Aberdeen, SD\\|url\\=http://thevillagebowl.com/\\|website \\= The Village Bowl {{!}} Aberdeen {{!}} SD\\|access\\-date \\= September 27, 2015}}", "### Minor league baseball", "Aberdeen has had three minor league baseball teams since 1920\\. The Aberdeen Boosters, a class D league team, played in 1920, the Aberdeen Grays, also a class D team, played from 1921 to 1923\\. The class C [Aberdeen Pheasants](/wiki/Aberdeen_Pheasants \"Aberdeen Pheasants\") from 1946 to 1971, and 1995 to 1997\\. The Pheasants were the affiliate of the former [St. Louis Browns](/wiki/St._Louis_Browns \"St. Louis Browns\") (and current [Baltimore Orioles](/wiki/Baltimore_Orioles \"Baltimore Orioles\")). Aberdeen was a stop to the majors for such notable players as [Don Larsen](/wiki/Don_Larsen \"Don Larsen\") (perfect game in the World Series), [Lou Piniella](/wiki/Lou_Piniella \"Lou Piniella\") (AL rookie of the year with [Kansas City Royals](/wiki/Kansas_City_Royals \"Kansas City Royals\") in 1969\\), and [Jim Palmer](/wiki/Jim_Palmer \"Jim Palmer\"), [Baseball Hall of Fame](/wiki/Baseball_Hall_of_Fame \"Baseball Hall of Fame\") pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles. In the 1960's, the Pheasants were Coached by Cal Ripken, Sr, who later ended up being a Major League Coach and had two sons Cal, Jr. and Billy that also played for the Orioles organization.", "On June 8, 2024, the first SABR Historical Marker in the state of South Dakota was revealed on the campus of Northern State University. It was the 60th anniversary to the day when the Baltimore Orioles played an exhibition game at the ballpark.", "[thumb\\|right \\| alt\\=Aberdeen Pheasants SABR Historical Marker \\| Aberdeen Pheasants SABR Historical Marker](/wiki/File:Aberdeen_Pheasants_SABR_Historical_Marker.jpg \"Aberdeen Pheasants SABR Historical Marker.jpg\")", "### Tennis", "Aberdeen has 19 public tennis courts throughout the city – Melgaard Park (4\\), Northern State University (6\\), and Holgate Middle School (8\\).", "### Golf", "Aberdeen has three golf courses: Lee Park Municipal Golf Course, Moccasin Creek Country Club and Rolling Hills Country Club. Lee Park and Moccasin Creek are both 18\\-hole courses.{{cite web \\| title\\=Lee Park Golf Course\\|url\\=https://www.aberdeen.sd.us/148/Lee\\-Park\\-Golf\\-Course \\|access\\-date\\=October 14, 2023 \\|website\\=Aberdeen}} Rolling Hills is a combined nine\\-hole course and housing development which opened in 2005\\.", "### Hockey/ice skating", "Aberdeen has several outdoor skating rinks and hockey rinks open to the public during winter months. Aberdeen is also home to the NAHL team, [Aberdeen Wings](/wiki/Aberdeen_Wings \"Aberdeen Wings\").", "### Skateboarding/rollerblading", "Aberdeen has a skate park located between East Melgaard Road and 17th Ave SE at Melgaard Park. The equipment installed includes a quarter pipe, penalty box with half pyramid, bank ramp, spine, kinked rail and a ground rail.", "### Disc golf", "Aberdeen has two disc golf courses, Melgaard Park, and the Richmond Lake Disc Golf Course.", "### Roller Derby", "Aberdeen has an All\\-women's Roller Derby league \"A\\-Town Roller Girlz\" established in 2011, also bringing Junior Roller Derby to the area.", "" ]
Parks and recreation -------------------- ### Aberdeen Family YMCA The full service YMCA includes an aquatic center with a competitive size lap pool, zero depth entry recreation pool with play features and hot tub. There are three gyms one of which has a climbing wall. There are two racquetball courts. Saunas and steam rooms are in the men's and women's locker rooms. Over 100 group fitness classes are offered each week with child watch available (short term childcare). A wellness center that has cardio equipment, weight machines and free weights. ### Family Aquatic Center Completed in the summer of 2007, this complex includes a zero entry pool, competition lap pool, lazy river, numerous water slides, play sand area, and a concession area. ### Wylie Park Recreation Area Wylie Park Recreation Area features go\-kart racing, sand volleyball courts, access to Wylie Lake, camping area, picnic areas, and is connected to Storybook Land. Wylie Lake is a small man\-made lake, open in the summer months for swimming, lying on the beach, and paddle boating. [thumb\|220px\|right\|Storybook Land Castle with [Jack and the Beanstalk](/wiki/Jack_and_the_Beanstalk "Jack and the Beanstalk") in the foreground](/wiki/File:Storybookland_castle_aberdeen_sd.jpg "Storybookland castle aberdeen sd.jpg") ### Storybook Land Storybook Land is a park with attractions from several different children's storybooks. The park contains a castle, as well as a train that takes visitors through the park. There are two barns which contain petting zoos. Humpty Dumpty's Great Fall Roller Coaster was added to the park, summer 2015\. Newly added is the Land of Oz, that features characters and attractions from [L. Frank Baum](/wiki/L._Frank_Baum "L. Frank Baum")'s *[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz](/wiki/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz")*. Baum was a resident of Aberdeen in the 1880s. He left after a severe drought led to the failure of first, his variety store Baum's Bazaar, and then his newspaper *The Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer*, where he wrote an opinion column, *[Our Landlady](/wiki/Our_Landlady "Our Landlady")*. ### Kuhnert Arboretum The Kuhnert Arboretum provides many new learning experiences for the residents of the Aberdeen area, including school\-aged children. The Arboretum offers environmental education, a children's area, rose garden collection, recreational trails and much more. ### Richmond Lake Recreation Area The Richmond Lake Recreation Area is used by all types of outdoors enthusiasts. Three separate areas in this park cater to the needs of campers, swimmers, naturalists, boaters and anglers. Campers stay in the South Unit, while the {{convert\|200\|acre\|km2\|1\|adj\=on}} Forest Drive Unit is a great place for wildlife viewing. The Boat Ramp Unit provides access to the more than {{convert\|1000\|acre\|km2\|0\|adj\=on}} lake. Richmond Lake Recreation Area's small campground offers a quiet camping experience. The park also features a wheelchair accessible camping cabin. The park's extensive trail system features over {{convert\|10\|mi\|km}} of trails, including both accessible and interpretive trails. Hikers, bikers, and horseback riders can observe the abundance of prairie plants and wildlife of the area up\-close. The park has multiple private and public boat ramps as well as an accessible fishing dock. Richmond Lake has a population of walleye, northern pike, bass, perch, crappie, bluegill, catfish, and bullheads within its waters. An entrance fee is required to gain access to the water and park itself.
[ "Parks and recreation\n--------------------", "### Aberdeen Family YMCA", "The full service YMCA includes an aquatic center with a competitive size lap pool, zero depth entry recreation pool with play features and hot tub. There are three gyms one of which has a climbing wall. There are two racquetball courts. Saunas and steam rooms are in the men's and women's locker rooms. Over 100 group fitness classes are offered each week with child watch available (short term childcare). A wellness center that has cardio equipment, weight machines and free weights.", "### Family Aquatic Center", "Completed in the summer of 2007, this complex includes a zero entry pool, competition lap pool, lazy river, numerous water slides, play sand area, and a concession area.", "### Wylie Park Recreation Area", "Wylie Park Recreation Area features go\\-kart racing, sand volleyball courts, access to Wylie Lake, camping area, picnic areas, and is connected to Storybook Land. Wylie Lake is a small man\\-made lake, open in the summer months for swimming, lying on the beach, and paddle boating. [thumb\\|220px\\|right\\|Storybook Land Castle with [Jack and the Beanstalk](/wiki/Jack_and_the_Beanstalk \"Jack and the Beanstalk\") in the foreground](/wiki/File:Storybookland_castle_aberdeen_sd.jpg \"Storybookland castle aberdeen sd.jpg\")", "### Storybook Land", "Storybook Land is a park with attractions from several different children's storybooks. The park contains a castle, as well as a train that takes visitors through the park. There are two barns which contain petting zoos. Humpty Dumpty's Great Fall Roller Coaster was added to the park, summer 2015\\. Newly added is the Land of Oz, that features characters and attractions from [L. Frank Baum](/wiki/L._Frank_Baum \"L. Frank Baum\")'s *[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz](/wiki/The_Wonderful_Wizard_of_Oz \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\")*. Baum was a resident of Aberdeen in the 1880s. He left after a severe drought led to the failure of first, his variety store Baum's Bazaar, and then his newspaper *The Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer*, where he wrote an opinion column, *[Our Landlady](/wiki/Our_Landlady \"Our Landlady\")*.", "### Kuhnert Arboretum", "The Kuhnert Arboretum provides many new learning experiences for the residents of the Aberdeen area, including school\\-aged children. The Arboretum offers environmental education, a children's area, rose garden collection, recreational trails and much more.", "### Richmond Lake Recreation Area", "The Richmond Lake Recreation Area is used by all types of outdoors enthusiasts. Three separate areas in this park cater to the needs of campers, swimmers, naturalists, boaters and anglers. Campers stay in the South Unit, while the {{convert\\|200\\|acre\\|km2\\|1\\|adj\\=on}} Forest Drive Unit is a great place for wildlife viewing. The Boat Ramp Unit provides access to the more than {{convert\\|1000\\|acre\\|km2\\|0\\|adj\\=on}} lake.", "Richmond Lake Recreation Area's small campground offers a quiet camping experience. The park also features a wheelchair accessible camping cabin.", "The park's extensive trail system features over {{convert\\|10\\|mi\\|km}} of trails, including both accessible and interpretive trails. Hikers, bikers, and horseback riders can observe the abundance of prairie plants and wildlife of the area up\\-close.", "The park has multiple private and public boat ramps as well as an accessible fishing dock. Richmond Lake has a population of walleye, northern pike, bass, perch, crappie, bluegill, catfish, and bullheads within its waters. An entrance fee is required to gain access to the water and park itself.", "" ]
Education --------- ### Public schools Aberdeen Public Schools are part of the [Aberdeen School District](/wiki/Aberdeen_School_District_%28South_Dakota%29 "Aberdeen School District (South Dakota)"). The school district has six elementary schools, two middle schools, and one high school. The elementary schools are C.C. Lee Elementary School, Lincoln Elementary School, May Overby Elementary School, O.M. Tiffany Elementary School, Simmons Elementary School and Mike Miller Elementary School. The two middle schools are Holgate Middle School, which serves the north side of Aberdeen, and Simmons Middle School, which serves the south side of the city. Students in the district attend [Central High School](/wiki/Central_High_School_%28Aberdeen%2C_South_Dakota%29 "Central High School (Aberdeen, South Dakota)"). The Hub Area Technical School is located in the district. Aberdeen also has an alternative middle and high school. The Aberdeen School District's enrollment for the year 2011–2012 was approximately 3,945 students,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.aberdeen.k12\.sd.us/dsc/districtinfo/Report\_Card.pdf \|title\=ABERDEEN SCHOOL DISTRICT 6\-1 : DISTRICT REPORT CARD \|location\=Aberdeen, South Dakota \|date\=2005 \|website\=Aberdeen.k12\.sd.us \|access\-date\=July 6, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215145355/http://www.aberdeen.k12\.sd.us/dsc/districtinfo/Report\_Card.pdf \|archive\-date\=February 15, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead }} and the average class size was in the low to mid\-twenties. Due to a projected increase in enrollment and the modernization of facilities, Simmons Middle School was completely remodeled with the demolition of the original 1929 building and the addition of a new classroom and cafeteria building which was completed in August 2008\. The public school in Aberdeen is AA under the SDHSAA. ### Parochial schools Aberdeen has several parochial schools, including the Catholic\-affiliated [Roncalli High School](/wiki/Roncalli_High_School_%28Aberdeen%2C_South_Dakota%29 "Roncalli High School (Aberdeen, South Dakota)"), the nondenominational Aberdeen Christian School, and Trinity Lutheran School of the [WELS](/wiki/Wisconsin_Evangelical_Lutheran_Synod "Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod").{{cite web \|title\=Welcome to Trinity Lutheran School \|url\=http://www.trinityaberdeen.org/site/default.asp?sec\_id\=3760\&c\=1}} ### Special programs The [South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired](/wiki/South_Dakota_School_for_the_Blind_and_Visually_Impaired "South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired") is a state special school under the direction of the [South Dakota Board of Regents](/wiki/South_Dakota_Board_of_Regents "South Dakota Board of Regents").{{cite web \|title\=South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired \|url\=http://sdsbvi.northern.edu/ \|url\-status\=dead \|website\=sdsbvi.northern.edu \|access\-date\=July 2, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815214648/http://sdsbvi.northern.edu/ \|archive\-date\=August 15, 2012}} ### Higher education #### Northern State University [Northern State University](/wiki/Northern_State_University "Northern State University") (NSU) is a public university that was founded in 1901 and today occupies a {{convert\|72\|acre\|m2\|adj\=on}} campus. 2,528 students, ranging from first\-year to graduate students, attended NSU for the 2006–2007 school year. The student\-to\-teacher ratio is 19:1\. NSU was originally called the Institute of South Dakota before changing its name to Northern Normal and Industrial School in 1901\. It changed its name again in 1939 when it became the Northern State Teachers College, and again in 1964, becoming Northern State College before finalizing as Northern State University in 1989\. NSU offers thirty\-eight majors and forty\-two minors as well as other degrees, and also has nine graduate degree areas for students wishing to further their education after achieving their first degree. The mascot of NSU is the wolf named Thunder.{{cite web \|title\=University Relations – Thunder Appearances \|url\=http://www.northern.edu/about/Pages/ur/thunder.aspx \|website\=Northern.edu \|access\-date\=September 27, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928145735/http://www.northern.edu/about/Pages/ur/thunder.aspx \|archive\-date\=September 28, 2015}} #### Presentation College [Presentation College](/wiki/Presentation_College_%28South_Dakota%29 "Presentation College (South Dakota)") is a Catholic college on a {{convert\|100\|acre\|km2\|adj\=on}} campus, and was founded in 1951\. Enrollment in fall 2014 was reported to be 735\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.presentation.edu/admissions/faqs/ \|title\=Business Office FAQs \| Tuition \& Aid \| Presentation College \|website\=Presentation.edu \|access\-date\=July 6, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906061722/https://www.presentation.edu/admissions/faqs/ \|archive\-date\=September 6, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=mdy\-all }} PC offers 26 programs between the main Aberdeen campus and the other campuses located throughout the state. Most of the degrees offered are in the health\-care field. The student to teacher ratio is 12:1\. Presentation's mascot is the Saint, giving it the nickname the Presentation College Saints. Presentation College announced that it would no longer take new enrollments, and close the college at the end of the summer semester in 2023\.
[ "Education\n---------", "### Public schools", "Aberdeen Public Schools are part of the [Aberdeen School District](/wiki/Aberdeen_School_District_%28South_Dakota%29 \"Aberdeen School District (South Dakota)\"). The school district has six elementary schools, two middle schools, and one high school.", "The elementary schools are C.C. Lee Elementary School, Lincoln Elementary School, May Overby Elementary School, O.M. Tiffany Elementary School, Simmons Elementary School and Mike Miller Elementary School. The two middle schools are Holgate Middle School, which serves the north side of Aberdeen, and Simmons Middle School, which serves the south side of the city. Students in the district attend [Central High School](/wiki/Central_High_School_%28Aberdeen%2C_South_Dakota%29 \"Central High School (Aberdeen, South Dakota)\"). The Hub Area Technical School is located in the district. Aberdeen also has an alternative middle and high school.", "The Aberdeen School District's enrollment for the year 2011–2012 was approximately 3,945 students,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.aberdeen.k12\\.sd.us/dsc/districtinfo/Report\\_Card.pdf \\|title\\=ABERDEEN SCHOOL DISTRICT 6\\-1 : DISTRICT REPORT CARD \\|location\\=Aberdeen, South Dakota \\|date\\=2005 \\|website\\=Aberdeen.k12\\.sd.us \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215145355/http://www.aberdeen.k12\\.sd.us/dsc/districtinfo/Report\\_Card.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=February 15, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and the average class size was in the low to mid\\-twenties. Due to a projected increase in enrollment and the modernization of facilities, Simmons Middle School was completely remodeled with the demolition of the original 1929 building and the addition of a new classroom and cafeteria building which was completed in August 2008\\. The public school in Aberdeen is AA under the SDHSAA.", "### Parochial schools", "Aberdeen has several parochial schools, including the Catholic\\-affiliated [Roncalli High School](/wiki/Roncalli_High_School_%28Aberdeen%2C_South_Dakota%29 \"Roncalli High School (Aberdeen, South Dakota)\"), the nondenominational Aberdeen Christian School, and Trinity Lutheran School of the [WELS](/wiki/Wisconsin_Evangelical_Lutheran_Synod \"Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Welcome to Trinity Lutheran School \\|url\\=http://www.trinityaberdeen.org/site/default.asp?sec\\_id\\=3760\\&c\\=1}}", "### Special programs", "The [South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired](/wiki/South_Dakota_School_for_the_Blind_and_Visually_Impaired \"South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired\") is a state special school under the direction of the [South Dakota Board of Regents](/wiki/South_Dakota_Board_of_Regents \"South Dakota Board of Regents\").{{cite web \\|title\\=South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired \\|url\\=http://sdsbvi.northern.edu/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|website\\=sdsbvi.northern.edu \\|access\\-date\\=July 2, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815214648/http://sdsbvi.northern.edu/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 15, 2012}}", "### Higher education", "#### Northern State University", "[Northern State University](/wiki/Northern_State_University \"Northern State University\") (NSU) is a public university that was founded in 1901 and today occupies a {{convert\\|72\\|acre\\|m2\\|adj\\=on}} campus. 2,528 students, ranging from first\\-year to graduate students, attended NSU for the 2006–2007 school year. The student\\-to\\-teacher ratio is 19:1\\.", "NSU was originally called the Institute of South Dakota before changing its name to Northern Normal and Industrial School in 1901\\. It changed its name again in 1939 when it became the Northern State Teachers College, and again in 1964, becoming Northern State College before finalizing as Northern State University in 1989\\.", "NSU offers thirty\\-eight majors and forty\\-two minors as well as other degrees, and also has nine graduate degree areas for students wishing to further their education after achieving their first degree.", "The mascot of NSU is the wolf named Thunder.{{cite web \\|title\\=University Relations – Thunder Appearances \\|url\\=http://www.northern.edu/about/Pages/ur/thunder.aspx \\|website\\=Northern.edu \\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928145735/http://www.northern.edu/about/Pages/ur/thunder.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=September 28, 2015}}", "#### Presentation College", "[Presentation College](/wiki/Presentation_College_%28South_Dakota%29 \"Presentation College (South Dakota)\") is a Catholic college on a {{convert\\|100\\|acre\\|km2\\|adj\\=on}} campus, and was founded in 1951\\. Enrollment in fall 2014 was reported to be 735\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.presentation.edu/admissions/faqs/ \\|title\\=Business Office FAQs \\| Tuition \\& Aid \\| Presentation College \\|website\\=Presentation.edu \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906061722/https://www.presentation.edu/admissions/faqs/ \\|archive\\-date\\=September 6, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=mdy\\-all }} PC offers 26 programs between the main Aberdeen campus and the other campuses located throughout the state. Most of the degrees offered are in the health\\-care field. The student to teacher ratio is 12:1\\. Presentation's mascot is the Saint, giving it the nickname the Presentation College Saints. Presentation College announced that it would no longer take new enrollments, and close the college at the end of the summer semester in 2023\\.", "" ]
Infrastructure -------------- ### Transportation #### Air The [Aberdeen Regional Airport](/wiki/Aberdeen_Regional_Airport "Aberdeen Regional Airport") is currently served by [Delta Connection](/wiki/Delta_Connection "Delta Connection"). It offers flights to [Minneapolis\-St. Paul International Airport](/wiki/Minneapolis-St._Paul_International_Airport "Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport") using the [Bombardier CRJ700](/wiki/Bombardier_CRJ700_series "Bombardier CRJ700 series") aircraft. #### Roadways There are two major US highways that serve Aberdeen. One is [US Highway 281](/wiki/U.S._Route_281 "U.S. Route 281"), a north–south highway that runs continuously from the Canadian border to the Mexican border, the only three\-digit U.S. highway to do so. This also makes it the longest three\-digit U.S. highway. The second highway is [US Highway 12](/wiki/U.S._Route_12 "U.S. Route 12") that runs east–west across northern South Dakota from the [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota "Minnesota") border before curving northwest into the southwestern corner of North Dakota. The western terminus is in Aberdeen, Washington, and the eastern terminus is in downtown Detroit, Michigan. US Highway 12 is the major thoroughfare in Aberdeen, and is signed in the city of Aberdeen as 6th Avenue South. US Highway 281 was recently realigned onto a new bypass that was constructed around the western area of the city. #### Intercity Bus [Jefferson Lines](/wiki/Jefferson_Lines "Jefferson Lines") is a bus service from Aberdeen that connects to [Sioux Falls, South Dakota](/wiki/Sioux_Falls%2C_South_Dakota "Sioux Falls, South Dakota"), [Fargo, North Dakota](/wiki/Fargo%2C_North_Dakota "Fargo, North Dakota"), and [Minneapolis, Minnesota](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis"). #### Public Transit Ride Line Transportation Services provides [demand response](/wiki/Demand-responsive_transport "Demand-responsive transport") service to the Aberdeen area.{{cite web\|url\=https://aberdeen.sd.us/182/Ride\-Line\-Transportation\-Services\|title\=Ride Line Transportation Services\|access\-date\=May 30, 2023}} Aberdeen is the largest city in South Dakota without fixed\-route service. [thumb\|right\|Historic [Milwaukee Road](/wiki/Milwaukee_Road "Milwaukee Road") depot in Aberdeen](/wiki/File:Chicago_Milwaukee_St._Paul_and_Pacific_Railroad_Depot_Aberdeen_SD.jpg "Chicago Milwaukee St. Paul and Pacific Railroad Depot Aberdeen SD.jpg") #### Railroads The [BNSF Railway](/wiki/BNSF_Railway "BNSF Railway") conveys freight and grain through Aberdeen. Until 1969 the [Milwaukee Road](/wiki/Milwaukee_Road "Milwaukee Road") ran trains between Aberdeen and [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis"). Earlier, until 1961, trains from Chicago to Seattle ran through the railroad's [Aberdeen station](/wiki/Aberdeen_station_%28Milwaukee_Road%29 "Aberdeen station (Milwaukee Road)"). Burlington Northern purchased parts of the Milwaukee Road's "Pacific Extension" into Montana when the Milwaukee Road when bankrupt and ended service in 1977\. In addition, the [Great Northern Railway](/wiki/Great_Northern_Railway_%28U.S.%29 "Great Northern Railway (U.S.)") was absorbed into the Burlington Northern in March 1970 with the merger of the Spokane, Portland, \& Seattle Railway, the Chicago, Burlington, \& Quincy Railroad, and the Northern Pacific Railway into one railroad company. The former Great Northern trackage was later purchased from Burlington Northern by [Dakota, Missouri Valley \& Western Railroad](/wiki/Dakota%2C_Missouri_Valley_%26_Western_Railroad "Dakota, Missouri Valley & Western Railroad"). The [Minneapolis \& St. Louis Railway](/wiki/Minneapolis_%26_St._Louis_Railway "Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway") had a lightly used branch line from Donde South Dakota through Aberdeen, South Dakota to Long Lake, South Dakota and this line became Chicago \& Northwestern Railway property when the Minneapolis \& St. Louis Railway merged with the [Chicago \& Northwestern Railway](/wiki/Chicago_%26_Northwestern_Railway "Chicago & Northwestern Railway") October 1960\. [Chicago \& Northwestern](/wiki/Chicago_%26_Northwestern "Chicago & Northwestern") already had a lightly used branch line from James Valley Junction, South Dakota to Oakes, North Dakota. All the lines saw little traffic and were eventually abandoned by the [Chicago and Northwestern](/wiki/Chicago_and_Northwestern "Chicago and Northwestern") before its 1995 merger with the [Union Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad "Union Pacific Railroad"). #### Taxi Aberdeen Taxi service provides general taxi service in Aberdeen. Aberdeen Shuttle provides shuttle service to and from the airport along with general taxi services. #### Car rental There are five car rental services in Aberdeen: Hertz, Avis, Dollar\-Thrifty, Toyota Rent\-a\-Car, and Nissan Rental Car. Hertz and Avis Car rental are located in the airport terminal. Dollar\-Thrifty is located in Aberdeen Flying Service. Toyota Rent\-a\-Car and Nissan Rental Car are located at Harr Motors across from the airport. ### Healthcare Aberdeen has two hospitals, Avera St. Luke's Hospital and Sanford Aberdeen Medical Center.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sanfordaberdeen.org/ \|title\=Sanford Aberdeen \|publisher\=Sanford Aberdeen \|date\=May 15, 2017 \|access\-date\=July 6, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111207133041/http://www.sanfordaberdeen.org/ \|archive\-date\=December 7, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead }} There are several nursing homes in the area, including Avera Mother Joseph Manor, [Manor Care](/wiki/HCR_Manor_Care "HCR Manor Care"), Bethesda Home of Aberdeen, Aberdeen Health and Rehab, Angelhaus and Gellhaus Carehaus.
[ "Infrastructure\n--------------", "### Transportation", "#### Air", "The [Aberdeen Regional Airport](/wiki/Aberdeen_Regional_Airport \"Aberdeen Regional Airport\") is currently served by [Delta Connection](/wiki/Delta_Connection \"Delta Connection\"). It offers flights to [Minneapolis\\-St. Paul International Airport](/wiki/Minneapolis-St._Paul_International_Airport \"Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport\") using the [Bombardier CRJ700](/wiki/Bombardier_CRJ700_series \"Bombardier CRJ700 series\") aircraft.", "#### Roadways", "There are two major US highways that serve Aberdeen. One is [US Highway 281](/wiki/U.S._Route_281 \"U.S. Route 281\"), a north–south highway that runs continuously from the Canadian border to the Mexican border, the only three\\-digit U.S. highway to do so. This also makes it the longest three\\-digit U.S. highway. The second highway is [US Highway 12](/wiki/U.S._Route_12 \"U.S. Route 12\") that runs east–west across northern South Dakota from the [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota \"Minnesota\") border before curving northwest into the southwestern corner of North Dakota. The western terminus is in Aberdeen, Washington, and the eastern terminus is in downtown Detroit, Michigan. US Highway 12 is the major thoroughfare in Aberdeen, and is signed in the city of Aberdeen as 6th Avenue South. US Highway 281 was recently realigned onto a new bypass that was constructed around the western area of the city.", "#### Intercity Bus", "[Jefferson Lines](/wiki/Jefferson_Lines \"Jefferson Lines\") is a bus service from Aberdeen that connects to [Sioux Falls, South Dakota](/wiki/Sioux_Falls%2C_South_Dakota \"Sioux Falls, South Dakota\"), [Fargo, North Dakota](/wiki/Fargo%2C_North_Dakota \"Fargo, North Dakota\"), and [Minneapolis, Minnesota](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\").", "#### Public Transit", "Ride Line Transportation Services provides [demand response](/wiki/Demand-responsive_transport \"Demand-responsive transport\") service to the Aberdeen area.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://aberdeen.sd.us/182/Ride\\-Line\\-Transportation\\-Services\\|title\\=Ride Line Transportation Services\\|access\\-date\\=May 30, 2023}} Aberdeen is the largest city in South Dakota without fixed\\-route service.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Historic [Milwaukee Road](/wiki/Milwaukee_Road \"Milwaukee Road\") depot in Aberdeen](/wiki/File:Chicago_Milwaukee_St._Paul_and_Pacific_Railroad_Depot_Aberdeen_SD.jpg \"Chicago Milwaukee St. Paul and Pacific Railroad Depot Aberdeen SD.jpg\")", "#### Railroads", "The [BNSF Railway](/wiki/BNSF_Railway \"BNSF Railway\") conveys freight and grain through Aberdeen. Until 1969 the [Milwaukee Road](/wiki/Milwaukee_Road \"Milwaukee Road\") ran trains between Aberdeen and [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\"). Earlier, until 1961, trains from Chicago to Seattle ran through the railroad's [Aberdeen station](/wiki/Aberdeen_station_%28Milwaukee_Road%29 \"Aberdeen station (Milwaukee Road)\"). Burlington Northern purchased parts of the Milwaukee Road's \"Pacific Extension\" into Montana when the Milwaukee Road when bankrupt and ended service in 1977\\.", "In addition, the [Great Northern Railway](/wiki/Great_Northern_Railway_%28U.S.%29 \"Great Northern Railway (U.S.)\") was absorbed into the Burlington Northern in March 1970 with the merger of the Spokane, Portland, \\& Seattle Railway, the Chicago, Burlington, \\& Quincy Railroad, and the Northern Pacific Railway into one railroad company. The former Great Northern trackage was later purchased from Burlington Northern by [Dakota, Missouri Valley \\& Western Railroad](/wiki/Dakota%2C_Missouri_Valley_%26_Western_Railroad \"Dakota, Missouri Valley & Western Railroad\").", "The [Minneapolis \\& St. Louis Railway](/wiki/Minneapolis_%26_St._Louis_Railway \"Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway\") had a lightly used branch line from Donde South Dakota through Aberdeen, South Dakota to Long Lake, South Dakota and this line became Chicago \\& Northwestern Railway property when the Minneapolis \\& St. Louis Railway merged with the [Chicago \\& Northwestern Railway](/wiki/Chicago_%26_Northwestern_Railway \"Chicago & Northwestern Railway\") October 1960\\. [Chicago \\& Northwestern](/wiki/Chicago_%26_Northwestern \"Chicago & Northwestern\") already had a lightly used branch line from James Valley Junction, South Dakota to Oakes, North Dakota. All the lines saw little traffic and were eventually abandoned by the [Chicago and Northwestern](/wiki/Chicago_and_Northwestern \"Chicago and Northwestern\") before its 1995 merger with the [Union Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad \"Union Pacific Railroad\").", "#### Taxi", "Aberdeen Taxi service provides general taxi service in Aberdeen. Aberdeen Shuttle provides shuttle service to and from the airport along with general taxi services.", "#### Car rental", "There are five car rental services in Aberdeen: Hertz, Avis, Dollar\\-Thrifty, Toyota Rent\\-a\\-Car, and Nissan Rental Car. Hertz and Avis Car rental are located in the airport terminal. Dollar\\-Thrifty is located in Aberdeen Flying Service. Toyota Rent\\-a\\-Car and Nissan Rental Car are located at Harr Motors across from the airport.", "### Healthcare", "Aberdeen has two hospitals, Avera St. Luke's Hospital and Sanford Aberdeen Medical Center.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanfordaberdeen.org/ \\|title\\=Sanford Aberdeen \\|publisher\\=Sanford Aberdeen \\|date\\=May 15, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111207133041/http://www.sanfordaberdeen.org/ \\|archive\\-date\\=December 7, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "There are several nursing homes in the area, including Avera Mother Joseph Manor, [Manor Care](/wiki/HCR_Manor_Care \"HCR Manor Care\"), Bethesda Home of Aberdeen, Aberdeen Health and Rehab, Angelhaus and Gellhaus Carehaus.", "" ]
### Transportation #### Air The [Aberdeen Regional Airport](/wiki/Aberdeen_Regional_Airport "Aberdeen Regional Airport") is currently served by [Delta Connection](/wiki/Delta_Connection "Delta Connection"). It offers flights to [Minneapolis\-St. Paul International Airport](/wiki/Minneapolis-St._Paul_International_Airport "Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport") using the [Bombardier CRJ700](/wiki/Bombardier_CRJ700_series "Bombardier CRJ700 series") aircraft. #### Roadways There are two major US highways that serve Aberdeen. One is [US Highway 281](/wiki/U.S._Route_281 "U.S. Route 281"), a north–south highway that runs continuously from the Canadian border to the Mexican border, the only three\-digit U.S. highway to do so. This also makes it the longest three\-digit U.S. highway. The second highway is [US Highway 12](/wiki/U.S._Route_12 "U.S. Route 12") that runs east–west across northern South Dakota from the [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota "Minnesota") border before curving northwest into the southwestern corner of North Dakota. The western terminus is in Aberdeen, Washington, and the eastern terminus is in downtown Detroit, Michigan. US Highway 12 is the major thoroughfare in Aberdeen, and is signed in the city of Aberdeen as 6th Avenue South. US Highway 281 was recently realigned onto a new bypass that was constructed around the western area of the city. #### Intercity Bus [Jefferson Lines](/wiki/Jefferson_Lines "Jefferson Lines") is a bus service from Aberdeen that connects to [Sioux Falls, South Dakota](/wiki/Sioux_Falls%2C_South_Dakota "Sioux Falls, South Dakota"), [Fargo, North Dakota](/wiki/Fargo%2C_North_Dakota "Fargo, North Dakota"), and [Minneapolis, Minnesota](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis"). #### Public Transit Ride Line Transportation Services provides [demand response](/wiki/Demand-responsive_transport "Demand-responsive transport") service to the Aberdeen area.{{cite web\|url\=https://aberdeen.sd.us/182/Ride\-Line\-Transportation\-Services\|title\=Ride Line Transportation Services\|access\-date\=May 30, 2023}} Aberdeen is the largest city in South Dakota without fixed\-route service. [thumb\|right\|Historic [Milwaukee Road](/wiki/Milwaukee_Road "Milwaukee Road") depot in Aberdeen](/wiki/File:Chicago_Milwaukee_St._Paul_and_Pacific_Railroad_Depot_Aberdeen_SD.jpg "Chicago Milwaukee St. Paul and Pacific Railroad Depot Aberdeen SD.jpg") #### Railroads The [BNSF Railway](/wiki/BNSF_Railway "BNSF Railway") conveys freight and grain through Aberdeen. Until 1969 the [Milwaukee Road](/wiki/Milwaukee_Road "Milwaukee Road") ran trains between Aberdeen and [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis "Minneapolis"). Earlier, until 1961, trains from Chicago to Seattle ran through the railroad's [Aberdeen station](/wiki/Aberdeen_station_%28Milwaukee_Road%29 "Aberdeen station (Milwaukee Road)"). Burlington Northern purchased parts of the Milwaukee Road's "Pacific Extension" into Montana when the Milwaukee Road when bankrupt and ended service in 1977\. In addition, the [Great Northern Railway](/wiki/Great_Northern_Railway_%28U.S.%29 "Great Northern Railway (U.S.)") was absorbed into the Burlington Northern in March 1970 with the merger of the Spokane, Portland, \& Seattle Railway, the Chicago, Burlington, \& Quincy Railroad, and the Northern Pacific Railway into one railroad company. The former Great Northern trackage was later purchased from Burlington Northern by [Dakota, Missouri Valley \& Western Railroad](/wiki/Dakota%2C_Missouri_Valley_%26_Western_Railroad "Dakota, Missouri Valley & Western Railroad"). The [Minneapolis \& St. Louis Railway](/wiki/Minneapolis_%26_St._Louis_Railway "Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway") had a lightly used branch line from Donde South Dakota through Aberdeen, South Dakota to Long Lake, South Dakota and this line became Chicago \& Northwestern Railway property when the Minneapolis \& St. Louis Railway merged with the [Chicago \& Northwestern Railway](/wiki/Chicago_%26_Northwestern_Railway "Chicago & Northwestern Railway") October 1960\. [Chicago \& Northwestern](/wiki/Chicago_%26_Northwestern "Chicago & Northwestern") already had a lightly used branch line from James Valley Junction, South Dakota to Oakes, North Dakota. All the lines saw little traffic and were eventually abandoned by the [Chicago and Northwestern](/wiki/Chicago_and_Northwestern "Chicago and Northwestern") before its 1995 merger with the [Union Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad "Union Pacific Railroad"). #### Taxi Aberdeen Taxi service provides general taxi service in Aberdeen. Aberdeen Shuttle provides shuttle service to and from the airport along with general taxi services. #### Car rental There are five car rental services in Aberdeen: Hertz, Avis, Dollar\-Thrifty, Toyota Rent\-a\-Car, and Nissan Rental Car. Hertz and Avis Car rental are located in the airport terminal. Dollar\-Thrifty is located in Aberdeen Flying Service. Toyota Rent\-a\-Car and Nissan Rental Car are located at Harr Motors across from the airport.
[ "### Transportation", "#### Air", "The [Aberdeen Regional Airport](/wiki/Aberdeen_Regional_Airport \"Aberdeen Regional Airport\") is currently served by [Delta Connection](/wiki/Delta_Connection \"Delta Connection\"). It offers flights to [Minneapolis\\-St. Paul International Airport](/wiki/Minneapolis-St._Paul_International_Airport \"Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport\") using the [Bombardier CRJ700](/wiki/Bombardier_CRJ700_series \"Bombardier CRJ700 series\") aircraft.", "#### Roadways", "There are two major US highways that serve Aberdeen. One is [US Highway 281](/wiki/U.S._Route_281 \"U.S. Route 281\"), a north–south highway that runs continuously from the Canadian border to the Mexican border, the only three\\-digit U.S. highway to do so. This also makes it the longest three\\-digit U.S. highway. The second highway is [US Highway 12](/wiki/U.S._Route_12 \"U.S. Route 12\") that runs east–west across northern South Dakota from the [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota \"Minnesota\") border before curving northwest into the southwestern corner of North Dakota. The western terminus is in Aberdeen, Washington, and the eastern terminus is in downtown Detroit, Michigan. US Highway 12 is the major thoroughfare in Aberdeen, and is signed in the city of Aberdeen as 6th Avenue South. US Highway 281 was recently realigned onto a new bypass that was constructed around the western area of the city.", "#### Intercity Bus", "[Jefferson Lines](/wiki/Jefferson_Lines \"Jefferson Lines\") is a bus service from Aberdeen that connects to [Sioux Falls, South Dakota](/wiki/Sioux_Falls%2C_South_Dakota \"Sioux Falls, South Dakota\"), [Fargo, North Dakota](/wiki/Fargo%2C_North_Dakota \"Fargo, North Dakota\"), and [Minneapolis, Minnesota](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\").", "#### Public Transit", "Ride Line Transportation Services provides [demand response](/wiki/Demand-responsive_transport \"Demand-responsive transport\") service to the Aberdeen area.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://aberdeen.sd.us/182/Ride\\-Line\\-Transportation\\-Services\\|title\\=Ride Line Transportation Services\\|access\\-date\\=May 30, 2023}} Aberdeen is the largest city in South Dakota without fixed\\-route service.", "[thumb\\|right\\|Historic [Milwaukee Road](/wiki/Milwaukee_Road \"Milwaukee Road\") depot in Aberdeen](/wiki/File:Chicago_Milwaukee_St._Paul_and_Pacific_Railroad_Depot_Aberdeen_SD.jpg \"Chicago Milwaukee St. Paul and Pacific Railroad Depot Aberdeen SD.jpg\")", "#### Railroads", "The [BNSF Railway](/wiki/BNSF_Railway \"BNSF Railway\") conveys freight and grain through Aberdeen. Until 1969 the [Milwaukee Road](/wiki/Milwaukee_Road \"Milwaukee Road\") ran trains between Aberdeen and [Minneapolis](/wiki/Minneapolis \"Minneapolis\"). Earlier, until 1961, trains from Chicago to Seattle ran through the railroad's [Aberdeen station](/wiki/Aberdeen_station_%28Milwaukee_Road%29 \"Aberdeen station (Milwaukee Road)\"). Burlington Northern purchased parts of the Milwaukee Road's \"Pacific Extension\" into Montana when the Milwaukee Road when bankrupt and ended service in 1977\\.", "In addition, the [Great Northern Railway](/wiki/Great_Northern_Railway_%28U.S.%29 \"Great Northern Railway (U.S.)\") was absorbed into the Burlington Northern in March 1970 with the merger of the Spokane, Portland, \\& Seattle Railway, the Chicago, Burlington, \\& Quincy Railroad, and the Northern Pacific Railway into one railroad company. The former Great Northern trackage was later purchased from Burlington Northern by [Dakota, Missouri Valley \\& Western Railroad](/wiki/Dakota%2C_Missouri_Valley_%26_Western_Railroad \"Dakota, Missouri Valley & Western Railroad\").", "The [Minneapolis \\& St. Louis Railway](/wiki/Minneapolis_%26_St._Louis_Railway \"Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway\") had a lightly used branch line from Donde South Dakota through Aberdeen, South Dakota to Long Lake, South Dakota and this line became Chicago \\& Northwestern Railway property when the Minneapolis \\& St. Louis Railway merged with the [Chicago \\& Northwestern Railway](/wiki/Chicago_%26_Northwestern_Railway \"Chicago & Northwestern Railway\") October 1960\\. [Chicago \\& Northwestern](/wiki/Chicago_%26_Northwestern \"Chicago & Northwestern\") already had a lightly used branch line from James Valley Junction, South Dakota to Oakes, North Dakota. All the lines saw little traffic and were eventually abandoned by the [Chicago and Northwestern](/wiki/Chicago_and_Northwestern \"Chicago and Northwestern\") before its 1995 merger with the [Union Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad \"Union Pacific Railroad\").", "#### Taxi", "Aberdeen Taxi service provides general taxi service in Aberdeen. Aberdeen Shuttle provides shuttle service to and from the airport along with general taxi services.", "#### Car rental", "There are five car rental services in Aberdeen: Hertz, Avis, Dollar\\-Thrifty, Toyota Rent\\-a\\-Car, and Nissan Rental Car. Hertz and Avis Car rental are located in the airport terminal. Dollar\\-Thrifty is located in Aberdeen Flying Service. Toyota Rent\\-a\\-Car and Nissan Rental Car are located at Harr Motors across from the airport.", "" ]
Biography --------- Chaim Hirschensohn was born on August 31, 1857{{cite book \|last1\=Sherman \|first1\=Moshe \|title\=Orthodox Judaism in America, A Biographical Dictionary and Sourcebook \|date\=1996 \|publisher\=Greenwood Press \|pages\=93–94 \|url\=http://www.jewishpress.com/sections/magazine/glimpses\-ajh/rabbi\-chaim\-hirschensohn\-chief\-rabbi\-of\-hoboken\-and\-environs/2017/08/02/ \|accessdate\=31 July 2018}} in [Safed](/wiki/Safed "Safed"), in the [Galilee](/wiki/Galilee "Galilee") to Rabbi Yaakov Mordechai Hirschensohn, who had [emigrated there](/wiki/Aliyah "Aliyah") from [Pinsk](/wiki/Pinsk "Pinsk") in 1848\. Following an earthquake in Safed in 1864, the family (which included Chaim's older brother, Rabbi Yitzchok Hirschensohn) moved to [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem"). Like his brother, the young Zionist Chaim Hirschensohn worked with [Eliezer Ben\-Yehuda](/wiki/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda "Eliezer Ben-Yehuda") to revive spoken [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language") and helped found the *Safah Berurah* ("Plain Language") society in Jerusalem. He and his wife Chava published works and journals both in Hebrew and [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish "Yiddish"). In 1878, Hirschensohn spent two years travelling to centers of Torah study in Russia, meeting with esteemed rabbinic scholars. He returned to Palestine with rabbinical ordination from several prominent European rabbis. In 1884, he left again for Hungary and Germany, where he began publishing a monthly Torah\-scientific journal, *Hamisdarona*, in [Frankfurt am Main](/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main "Frankfurt am Main"). Returning to Jerusalem, Hirschenson taught [Talmud](/wiki/Talmud "Talmud") at the Lemel School; established a publishing house; published, together with his wife and brother, a Yiddish paper called *Beit Yaakov*; assisted running the Abarbanel library (later absorbed in the [National Library of Israel](/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel "National Library of Israel")); and established a [B’nai B’rith](/wiki/B%E2%80%99nai_B%E2%80%99rith "B’nai B’rith") office in Jerusalem. In 1896, he worked with several organizations to construct new homes outside the walls of [Jerusalem's Old City](/wiki/Jerusalem%27s_Old_City "Jerusalem's Old City"). "When the Turkish government issued a prohibition against selling property to Jews in Palestine, Hirschensohn’s financial situation deteriorated, and he left the country to secure a stable livelihood." Hirschensohn served as principal of a Hebrew school in [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople"). Joining the Constantinople delegation to the [Sixth Zionist Congress](/wiki/Sixth_Zionist_Congress "Sixth Zionist Congress") in [Basel](/wiki/Basel "Basel"), he was convinced by the American delegation to immigrate to the United States, where he arrived in 1903\. In 1904, he was hired as the [Chief Rabbi](/wiki/Chief_Rabbi "Chief Rabbi") of [Hoboken, New Jersey](/wiki/Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey "Hoboken, New Jersey"),Weiss, Adam. ["Jewish Life in Hudson County, Past and Present"](http://www.hudsonjewish.org/1/content/view/70/44/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814152743/http://www.hudsonjewish.org/1/content/view/70/44/ \|date\=2013\-08\-14 }}, copy of article from *[Jewish Standard](/wiki/Jewish_Standard "Jewish Standard")*, February 1, 2008\. Accessed February 6, 2013\. "Hoboken and its neighbors once even had their own Chief Rabbi, the illustrious Rabbi Chaim Hirschensohn (1857\-1935\), who migrated from his native Palestine in 1904 to serve the Hoboken\-area Jewish community." a post that included Hoboken, [West Hoboken](/wiki/West_Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey "West Hoboken, New Jersey"), [Jersey City Heights](/wiki/The_Heights%2C_Jersey_City "The Heights, Jersey City"), [Union Hill](/wiki/Union_Hill%2C_New_Jersey "Union Hill, New Jersey") and the environsFrom title page of *Malki Ba\-Kodesh*, vol. 2; Hoboken, 1921 in its jurisdiction. He remained in Hoboken until his death in 1935\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Chaim Hirschensohn was born on August 31, 1857{{cite book \\|last1\\=Sherman \\|first1\\=Moshe \\|title\\=Orthodox Judaism in America, A Biographical Dictionary and Sourcebook \\|date\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press \\|pages\\=93–94 \\|url\\=http://www.jewishpress.com/sections/magazine/glimpses\\-ajh/rabbi\\-chaim\\-hirschensohn\\-chief\\-rabbi\\-of\\-hoboken\\-and\\-environs/2017/08/02/ \\|accessdate\\=31 July 2018}} in [Safed](/wiki/Safed \"Safed\"), in the [Galilee](/wiki/Galilee \"Galilee\") to Rabbi Yaakov Mordechai Hirschensohn, who had [emigrated there](/wiki/Aliyah \"Aliyah\") from [Pinsk](/wiki/Pinsk \"Pinsk\") in 1848\\. Following an earthquake in Safed in 1864, the family (which included Chaim's older brother, Rabbi Yitzchok Hirschensohn) moved to [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\").", "Like his brother, the young Zionist Chaim Hirschensohn worked with [Eliezer Ben\\-Yehuda](/wiki/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda \"Eliezer Ben-Yehuda\") to revive spoken [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\") and helped found the *Safah Berurah* (\"Plain Language\") society in Jerusalem. He and his wife Chava published works and journals both in Hebrew and [Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish \"Yiddish\").", "In 1878, Hirschensohn spent two years travelling to centers of Torah study in Russia, meeting with esteemed rabbinic scholars. He returned to Palestine with rabbinical ordination from several prominent European rabbis. In 1884, he left again for Hungary and Germany, where he began publishing a monthly Torah\\-scientific journal, *Hamisdarona*, in [Frankfurt am Main](/wiki/Frankfurt_am_Main \"Frankfurt am Main\").", "Returning to Jerusalem, Hirschenson taught [Talmud](/wiki/Talmud \"Talmud\") at the Lemel School; established a publishing house; published, together with his wife and brother, a Yiddish paper called *Beit Yaakov*; assisted running the Abarbanel library (later absorbed in the [National Library of Israel](/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel \"National Library of Israel\")); and established a [B’nai B’rith](/wiki/B%E2%80%99nai_B%E2%80%99rith \"B’nai B’rith\") office in Jerusalem.", "In 1896, he worked with several organizations to construct new homes outside the walls of [Jerusalem's Old City](/wiki/Jerusalem%27s_Old_City \"Jerusalem's Old City\"). \"When the Turkish government issued a prohibition against selling property to Jews in Palestine, Hirschensohn’s financial situation deteriorated, and he left the country to secure a stable livelihood.\"", "Hirschensohn served as principal of a Hebrew school in [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\"). Joining the Constantinople delegation to the [Sixth Zionist Congress](/wiki/Sixth_Zionist_Congress \"Sixth Zionist Congress\") in [Basel](/wiki/Basel \"Basel\"), he was convinced by the American delegation to immigrate to the United States, where he arrived in 1903\\.", "In 1904, he was hired as the [Chief Rabbi](/wiki/Chief_Rabbi \"Chief Rabbi\") of [Hoboken, New Jersey](/wiki/Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey \"Hoboken, New Jersey\"),Weiss, Adam. [\"Jewish Life in Hudson County, Past and Present\"](http://www.hudsonjewish.org/1/content/view/70/44/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814152743/http://www.hudsonjewish.org/1/content/view/70/44/ \\|date\\=2013\\-08\\-14 }}, copy of article from *[Jewish Standard](/wiki/Jewish_Standard \"Jewish Standard\")*, February 1, 2008\\. Accessed February 6, 2013\\. \"Hoboken and its neighbors once even had their own Chief Rabbi, the illustrious Rabbi Chaim Hirschensohn (1857\\-1935\\), who migrated from his native Palestine in 1904 to serve the Hoboken\\-area Jewish community.\" a post that included Hoboken, [West Hoboken](/wiki/West_Hoboken%2C_New_Jersey \"West Hoboken, New Jersey\"), [Jersey City Heights](/wiki/The_Heights%2C_Jersey_City \"The Heights, Jersey City\"), [Union Hill](/wiki/Union_Hill%2C_New_Jersey \"Union Hill, New Jersey\") and the environsFrom title page of *Malki Ba\\-Kodesh*, vol. 2; Hoboken, 1921 in its jurisdiction. He remained in Hoboken until his death in 1935\\.", "" ]
Artistic career --------------- While in graduate school, Varble completed the book *The Elegant Auctioneers* for publication by [Hill \& Wang](/wiki/Hill_%26_Wang "Hill & Wang"). The majority of the book was authored by Wesley Towner, with Varble writing the final chapters and editing of the manuscript after Towner's death in 1968\. The book is a history of art collecting and art auctioneering in the United States from the late nineteenth\-century to the 1950s and 60s.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/10/25/archives/a\-collectors\-item\-about\-collections\-the\-elegant\-auctioneers.html\|title\=A collector's item about collections\|last\=Birmingham\|first\=Stephen\|date\=October 25, 1970\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|access\-date\=August 14, 2018\|language\=en}} He also assisted the young art historian Douglas Crimp with the lighting of his first exhibition, a show of [Agnes Martin](/wiki/Agnes_Martin "Agnes Martin")'s work at the School of Visual Arts in 1971\.Douglas Crimp, *Before Pictures* (Brooklyn: Dancing Foxes Press, 2016\), 57\. In the early 1970s, Varble also worked briefly for [Andy Warhol](/wiki/Andy_Warhol "Andy Warhol")'s *Interview* magazineFor example, "I am James Purdy," interview by Stephen Varble, *Interview* (December 1972\): 28\-29\. After receiving a grant from the City University of New York, he directed and produced the vocational film *Heavy Duty: A Film Study of the Classroom Paraprofessional* (1971\). He was active as a playwright in the early 1970s, and his *Delicate Champions* was put on as part of an experimental series at the Forum at Lincoln Center in 1971\. In 1973, Varble directed his play *Silent Prayer* at [La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club](/wiki/La_MaMa_Experimental_Theatre_Club "La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club") in the [East Village of Manhattan](/wiki/East_Village%2C_Manhattan "East Village, Manhattan") (14–18, 21–25 March 1973\). The production was designed by [Geoffrey Hendricks](/wiki/Geoffrey_Hendricks "Geoffrey Hendricks") (who also played the silent "God" character in the play), with music by David Walker{{Citation \|title\=David Walker (abolitionist) \|date\=2024\-01\-24 \|work\=Wikipedia \|url\=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title\=David\_Walker\_(abolitionist)\&oldid\=1198697344 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-20 \|language\=en}} (an abolitionist and writer who fought for freedom, education, and religion) and [lights](/wiki/Lighting_designer "Lighting designer") by Laura Rambaldi. In addition to writing and directing the play, Varble also [designed the costumes](/wiki/Costume_design "Costume design") for the production (with assistance from John Eric Broaddus).La MaMa Archives Digital Collections. ["Production: *Silent Prayer* (1973\)". Accessed August 14, 2018\.](http://catalog.lamama.org/index.php/Detail/Occurrence/Show/occurrence_id/1213) Notably, Eric Concklin, a regular at La MaMa and first director of [Harvey Fierstein](/wiki/Harvey_Fierstein "Harvey Fierstein")'s *Torch Song Trilogy*, starred in the role of the father.Robert Viagas, "Eric Concklin, First Director of Torch Song Trilogy Plays, Dies in NYC," Playbill (6 December 2017\). [http://www.playbill.com/article/eric\-concklin\-first\-director\-of\-torch\-song\-trilogy\-plays\-dies\-in\-nyc](http://www.playbill.com/article/eric-concklin-first-director-of-torch-song-trilogy-plays-dies-in-nyc) Stephen Varble's first street performances were tame, compared to his most iconic works. Early outings feature him walking through Manhattan blindfolded, made vulnerable to the world around him. He also created a dress from slides of Hendrick's family, metaphorically claiming his past.[Cotter, Holland, "Stephen Varble: The Street Was His Stage, the Dress Was His Weapon," *New York Times* (11 January 2019\): C15, C20\.](https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/10/arts/design/stephen-varble-performance-art.html)[thumb\|Stephen Varble, Untitled, 1982\-83 (after drawings from ca. 1981\-83\), Xerographic print on paper, 8\.5 x 11 inches. Gift of Charles Rue Woods to the Faulkner\-Morgan Archive, Lexington\|leftVarble](/wiki/File:Stephen%2BVarble%2B%283%29.jpg "Stephen+Varble+(3).jpg") became most known in the mid\-1970s for his public interventions in [genderqueer costumes](/wiki/Genderqueer_fashion "Genderqueer fashion") made from street trash, food waste, and found objects. Some people referred to his art as "gutter art", but his art struck awe in many. It had meaning behind the creation, further adding to the value. After breaking with Hendricks, Varble became increasingly interested in creating confrontational events that disrupted business and that presented him in costumes that complicated assumptions about gender and class, not only within the art world but society at large. The works that brought him to public notoriety were his "Costume Tours of New York", which involved Varble leading onlookers through unauthorized tours of SoHo galleries, boutiques, and museums. He targeted sites of luxury commerce, and his performances attacked issues of class and gender.See [David J. Getsy, "Rubbish and Dreams: The Genderqueer Performance Art of Stephen Varble," *The Archive \[of the Leslie\-Lohman Museum of Gay and Lesbian Art]* 62 (Winter 2017\): 3\-7\.](http://www.saic.edu/~dgetsy/Publications-Files/Publications2-Articles/Getsy-VarbleExhibitionArticle.pdf) While his costumes often took the form of dresses, they would also combine male and female elements together. For example, one of the most iconic images of Varble features him wearing long strands of pearls draped down his hips and legs, contrasted by a pearlescent codpiece ironically fashioned to look like male genitalia. With these elements, Varble draws attention to things the viewer may expect him to hide, asserting his rejection of binary gender roles.\[Adrian\-Diaz, Jenna. "The Rediscovered Legacy of Soho’s Most Outrageous Genderqueer Performance Artist". Vulture. September 26, 2018\. [https://www.vulture.com/2018/09/stephen\-varble\-sohos\-most\-outrageous\-performance\-artist.html](https://www.vulture.com/2018/09/stephen-varble-sohos-most-outrageous-performance-artist.html).] His most notorious such intervention was the *Chemical Bank Protest* in which he confronted a bank that had allowed a check to be forged against his account. Wearing a costume composed of netting, fake money, breasts made from condoms filled with cow's blood, and a toy fighter plane as a codpiece, he entered a Chemical Bank and demanded that he be reimbursed for the money that was stolen from him. Upon being rebuffed, he punctured the condoms with a fountain pen and used the cow's blood to sign checks for $0,000,00\.00, or 'none million dollars'. According to some sources, his outburst was met with applause from visitors to the bank.[\[10]](https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/10/arts/design/stephen-varble-performance-art.html) Shortly thereafter, Varble wrote to the bank offering to become [Chemical Bank](/wiki/Chemical_Bank "Chemical Bank")'s PR representative and demanded an outrageous salary. This offer was quickly rejected. The novelist [Fernanda Eberstadt](/wiki/Fernanda_Eberstadt "Fernanda Eberstadt") was Varble's protégé in these years, and recalled some of his performances in a memoir published in 2018\.Fernanda Eberstadt, "I Bite My Friends," *Granta* 144 (August 2018\) [https://granta.com/i\-bite\-my\-friends/](https://granta.com/i-bite-my-friends/) In 1975, he produced a series of performances called "Gutter Art", which was performed in front of various high class boutiques. "Gutter Art" consisted of Varble stopping outside in a limousine, which was provided by his dedicated patron Morihiro Miyazaki, dressed in elaborate silk gowns. He would then retrieve dishes and silverware from its trunk, douse them in black ink, then sit in the gutter and wash them. This biting commentary on class inequality was highly controversial, and garnered him both positive and negative attention.\[Werther, Janet. "Discovering Stephen Varble". The MIT Press. Volume 41, no. 3, September, 2019\. 17\-27\.] Varble had two exhibitions during his lifetime. First, he staged one for himself in on the eve of his eviction from his loft on Franklin Street, New York, in 1976\. For its Gala Ending, he put on a collaborative performance with the assistance of Warhol stars and performance artists, including [Mario Montez](/wiki/Mario_Montez "Mario Montez"), [Jackie Curtis](/wiki/Jackie_Curtis "Jackie Curtis"), Agosto Machado, [Taylor Mead](/wiki/Taylor_Mead "Taylor Mead"), Ruth Truth, and John Eric Broaddus.Gregory Battcock, "Divitiae Virum Faciunt," *SoHo Weekly News* (May 1976\): 18\. This performance included, among other things, a giant pink satin skirt which allegedly covered most of the loft. Attendees joined Varble in tearing the skirt to shreds.[Getsy, David J. "Stephen Varble's Xerographic Dreams"](http://www.saic.edu/~dgetsy/Publications-Files/Publications2-Excerpts/Getsy-VarblePrintExhEssay-2018.pdf), in *Stephen Varble: An Antidote to Nature's Ruin on this Heavenly Globe, Prints and Video from the Early 1980s*, exh. cat. (Lexington, Kentucky: Institute 193, 2018\), 3\-28\. Second, he had a single commercial gallery exhibition in 1977 when Brooks Jackson Iolas Gallery in New York put on what Varble antagonistically titled *The Awful Art Show*.[Discussed in a 2016 lecture by David Getsy, "Gutter Art: Stephen Varble and Genderqueer Performance on the Streets of 1970s New York" at the Leslie\-Lohman Museum of Gay and Lesbian Art](https://vimeo.com/182807556). When informed that he would be required to include artwork that could be sold, Varble produced chaotic line drawings, complete with anti\-capitalist text. Each drawing was priced absurdly high to ensure that no one would even consider purchasing them.[thumb\|Stephen Varble, Untitled, 1982\-83 (after drawings from ca. 1981\-83\), Xerographic print on paper, 8\.5 x 11 inches. Gift of Charles Rue Woods to the Faulkner\-Morgan Archive, LexingtonVarble](/wiki/File:Stephen%2BVarble%2B%284%29.jpg "Stephen+Varble+(4).jpg") was also a subject for many famous photographers, including [Peter Hujar](/wiki/Peter_Hujar "Peter Hujar"), [Jimmy De Sana](/wiki/Jimmy_De_Sana "Jimmy De Sana"), [Allan Tannenbaum](/wiki/Allan_Tannenbaum "Allan Tannenbaum"), [Jack Mitchell](/wiki/Jack_Mitchell_%28photographer%29 "Jack Mitchell (photographer)"), [Fred McDarrah](/wiki/Fred_McDarrah "Fred McDarrah"), Greg Day, [Rose Hartman](/wiki/Rose_Hartman "Rose Hartman"), and [Anton Perich](/wiki/Anton_Perich "Anton Perich"). Greg Day was a cultural anthropologist with an interest in documenting queer culture. Varble was photographed by him often and some of his most iconic photographs came from their collaboration. One of these photographs featured Varble posing wearing a chest piece, headpiece, and sleeves made of egg cartons and a hoop skirt made from tulle. This costume also featured a sign that read "The Ultimate Decoration is Stephen Varble!" This sign turned this costume from art to activism. Another of Day's photographs demonstrate the often impermanent nature of Varble's work. He once wore an outfit composed of green and blue strips of paper and Mary Jane heels. Varble proceeded to tear the outfit apart, captured by Day's camera. Varble stepped away from performance art around 1977, and instead began working on a video epic titled *Journey to the Sun.[David J. Getsy, "Rubbish and Dreams: The Genderqueer Performance Art of Stephen Varble," *The Archive \[of the Leslie\-Lohman Museum of Gay and Lesbian Art]* 62 (Winter 2017\): 3\-7\.](http://www.saic.edu/~dgetsy/Publications-Files/Publications2-Articles/Getsy-VarbleExhibitionArticle.pdf)* The video remains unfinished, but hours of footage were filmed, mainly within his and Cahill's apartment. Its music includes compositions by his long\-time friend Robert Savage and music Varble composed himself on an early home synthesizer, the [Alpha Syntauri](/wiki/Apple_II_sound_cards "Apple II sound cards").{{cite web \|last1\=Maxim \|first1\=Tyler \|title\=Video by Stephen Varble \|date\=29 October 2018 \|url\=http://www.screenslate.com/features/1017 \|website\=Screen Slate}} The work is an homage to [Greta Garbo](/wiki/Greta_Garbo "Greta Garbo"), with whom Varble identified. He dubbed himself and his fellow creatives "The Happy Arts School of Manuscript Illumination" because he characterized his work as having a vivid relationship between words and images reminiscent of Medieval manuscripts.{{Cite web \|last\=Ni \|first\=Nicky \|date\=October 10, 2018 \|title\=Conversations at the Edge (CATE): On Stephen Varble \|url\=https://sites.saic.edu/cate/2018/10/10/on\-stephen\-varble/ \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-04 \|website\=sites.saic.edu}} The surviving tapes of Varble's *Journey to the Sun* project are archived and distributed by the [Video Data Bank](/wiki/Video_Data_Bank "Video Data Bank") at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago.{{Cite web\|title\=Stephen Varble: Videoworks {{!}} Video Data Bank\|url\=https://www.vdb.org/titles/stephen\-varble\-videoworks\|access\-date\=2020\-12\-03\|website\=www.vdb.org}} During his more reclusive period, he also produced several line drawings. Many of them included use of vitamins and enemas, perhaps showing that Varble was aware of his declining health. From these drawings, Varble also produced a series of Xerox{{Citation \|title\=Xerox \|date\=2024\-03\-18 \|work\=Wikipedia \|url\=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title\=Xerox\&oldid\=1214345525 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-20 \|language\=en}} works to be distributed freely and cheaply. In the late 1970s, Varble shifted his focus from performance art to drawing and video; he did this in attempts to make art that could be universally distributed easily and for free.{{Cite web \|title\=Exhibitions: Stephen Varble KY \|url\=https://www.institute193\.org/exhibitions\-stephen\-varble\-ky \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-02 \|website\=Institute 193 \|language\=en\-US}} He did this be using a xerox machine (a form of photocopier), by making drawing and reproducing them as xerographic prints. Varble used his drawings to explore the same topics as his performance art, which include issues of sexuality, gender identity, and the human body, though these drawings are a much softer and personal way of discussing these topics.{{Cite web \|last\=Goodman \|first\=Emily Elizabeth \|date\=2018\-11\-11 \|title\="Stephen Varble: An Antidote to Nature’s Ruin on this Heavenly Globe" at Institute 193 \|url\=https://undermain.art/visual\-arts/stephen\-varble\-an\-antidote\-to\-natures\-ruin\-on\-this\-heavenly\-globe\-at\-institute\-193/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-02 \|website\=UnderMain \|language\=en\-US}} None of his drawing depict gendered figures, instead they are seen as highlighting alternative of the gender binary's construction of a man and woman figure/body type. In these pieces he depicts the human form in a very feminine way with features like, overly defined hips, breasts, and legs while also containing masculine features like, muscular and broad shoulders, strong jaw lines, and facial hair; with the coupling of these features we are not seeing exactly/perfectly a male or female form. During this time he was also working on a video installation, titled *Journey to the Sun*. He created this in hopes to distribute this as "video books". This video piece, creates a fantasy world that gives insight to how Varble viewed the openness of gender. Varble frequently used guerrilla tactics to convey his art, accustoming himself to the norms of a 1970s New York. Despite his involvement in Andy Warhol’s factory, the memory of his work quickly faded after his AIDS related death in 1984\.[https://www.frieze.com/article/trash\-couture\-stephen\-varble](https://www.frieze.com/article/trash-couture-stephen-varble)
[ "Artistic career\n---------------", "While in graduate school, Varble completed the book *The Elegant Auctioneers* for publication by [Hill \\& Wang](/wiki/Hill_%26_Wang \"Hill & Wang\"). The majority of the book was authored by Wesley Towner, with Varble writing the final chapters and editing of the manuscript after Towner's death in 1968\\. The book is a history of art collecting and art auctioneering in the United States from the late nineteenth\\-century to the 1950s and 60s.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/10/25/archives/a\\-collectors\\-item\\-about\\-collections\\-the\\-elegant\\-auctioneers.html\\|title\\=A collector's item about collections\\|last\\=Birmingham\\|first\\=Stephen\\|date\\=October 25, 1970\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2018\\|language\\=en}} He also assisted the young art historian Douglas Crimp with the lighting of his first exhibition, a show of [Agnes Martin](/wiki/Agnes_Martin \"Agnes Martin\")'s work at the School of Visual Arts in 1971\\.Douglas Crimp, *Before Pictures* (Brooklyn: Dancing Foxes Press, 2016\\), 57\\.", "In the early 1970s, Varble also worked briefly for [Andy Warhol](/wiki/Andy_Warhol \"Andy Warhol\")'s *Interview* magazineFor example, \"I am James Purdy,\" interview by Stephen Varble, *Interview* (December 1972\\): 28\\-29\\. After receiving a grant from the City University of New York, he directed and produced the vocational film *Heavy Duty: A Film Study of the Classroom Paraprofessional* (1971\\). He was active as a playwright in the early 1970s, and his *Delicate Champions* was put on as part of an experimental series at the Forum at Lincoln Center in 1971\\. In 1973, Varble directed his play *Silent Prayer* at [La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club](/wiki/La_MaMa_Experimental_Theatre_Club \"La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club\") in the [East Village of Manhattan](/wiki/East_Village%2C_Manhattan \"East Village, Manhattan\") (14–18, 21–25 March 1973\\). The production was designed by [Geoffrey Hendricks](/wiki/Geoffrey_Hendricks \"Geoffrey Hendricks\") (who also played the silent \"God\" character in the play), with music by David Walker{{Citation \\|title\\=David Walker (abolitionist) \\|date\\=2024\\-01\\-24 \\|work\\=Wikipedia \\|url\\=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title\\=David\\_Walker\\_(abolitionist)\\&oldid\\=1198697344 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-20 \\|language\\=en}} (an abolitionist and writer who fought for freedom, education, and religion) and [lights](/wiki/Lighting_designer \"Lighting designer\") by Laura Rambaldi. In addition to writing and directing the play, Varble also [designed the costumes](/wiki/Costume_design \"Costume design\") for the production (with assistance from John Eric Broaddus).La MaMa Archives Digital Collections. [\"Production: *Silent Prayer* (1973\\)\". Accessed August 14, 2018\\.](http://catalog.lamama.org/index.php/Detail/Occurrence/Show/occurrence_id/1213) Notably, Eric Concklin, a regular at La MaMa and first director of [Harvey Fierstein](/wiki/Harvey_Fierstein \"Harvey Fierstein\")'s *Torch Song Trilogy*, starred in the role of the father.Robert Viagas, \"Eric Concklin, First Director of Torch Song Trilogy Plays, Dies in NYC,\" Playbill (6 December 2017\\). [http://www.playbill.com/article/eric\\-concklin\\-first\\-director\\-of\\-torch\\-song\\-trilogy\\-plays\\-dies\\-in\\-nyc](http://www.playbill.com/article/eric-concklin-first-director-of-torch-song-trilogy-plays-dies-in-nyc)", "Stephen Varble's first street performances were tame, compared to his most iconic works. Early outings feature him walking through Manhattan blindfolded, made vulnerable to the world around him. He also created a dress from slides of Hendrick's family, metaphorically claiming his past.[Cotter, Holland, \"Stephen Varble: The Street Was His Stage, the Dress Was His Weapon,\" *New York Times* (11 January 2019\\): C15, C20\\.](https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/10/arts/design/stephen-varble-performance-art.html)[thumb\\|Stephen Varble, Untitled, 1982\\-83 (after drawings from ca. 1981\\-83\\), Xerographic print on paper, 8\\.5 x 11 inches. Gift of Charles Rue Woods to the Faulkner\\-Morgan Archive, Lexington\\|leftVarble](/wiki/File:Stephen%2BVarble%2B%283%29.jpg \"Stephen+Varble+(3).jpg\") became most known in the mid\\-1970s for his public interventions in [genderqueer costumes](/wiki/Genderqueer_fashion \"Genderqueer fashion\") made from street trash, food waste, and found objects. Some people referred to his art as \"gutter art\", but his art struck awe in many. It had meaning behind the creation, further adding to the value. After breaking with Hendricks, Varble became increasingly interested in creating confrontational events that disrupted business and that presented him in costumes that complicated assumptions about gender and class, not only within the art world but society at large. The works that brought him to public notoriety were his \"Costume Tours of New York\", which involved Varble leading onlookers through unauthorized tours of SoHo galleries, boutiques, and museums. He targeted sites of luxury commerce, and his performances attacked issues of class and gender.See [David J. Getsy, \"Rubbish and Dreams: The Genderqueer Performance Art of Stephen Varble,\" *The Archive \\[of the Leslie\\-Lohman Museum of Gay and Lesbian Art]* 62 (Winter 2017\\): 3\\-7\\.](http://www.saic.edu/~dgetsy/Publications-Files/Publications2-Articles/Getsy-VarbleExhibitionArticle.pdf) While his costumes often took the form of dresses, they would also combine male and female elements together. For example, one of the most iconic images of Varble features him wearing long strands of pearls draped down his hips and legs, contrasted by a pearlescent codpiece ironically fashioned to look like male genitalia. With these elements, Varble draws attention to things the viewer may expect him to hide, asserting his rejection of binary gender roles.\\[Adrian\\-Diaz, Jenna. \"The Rediscovered Legacy of Soho’s Most Outrageous Genderqueer Performance Artist\". Vulture. September 26, 2018\\. [https://www.vulture.com/2018/09/stephen\\-varble\\-sohos\\-most\\-outrageous\\-performance\\-artist.html](https://www.vulture.com/2018/09/stephen-varble-sohos-most-outrageous-performance-artist.html).]", "His most notorious such intervention was the *Chemical Bank Protest* in which he confronted a bank that had allowed a check to be forged against his account. Wearing a costume composed of netting, fake money, breasts made from condoms filled with cow's blood, and a toy fighter plane as a codpiece, he entered a Chemical Bank and demanded that he be reimbursed for the money that was stolen from him. Upon being rebuffed, he punctured the condoms with a fountain pen and used the cow's blood to sign checks for $0,000,00\\.00, or 'none million dollars'. According to some sources, his outburst was met with applause from visitors to the bank.[\\[10]](https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/10/arts/design/stephen-varble-performance-art.html) Shortly thereafter, Varble wrote to the bank offering to become [Chemical Bank](/wiki/Chemical_Bank \"Chemical Bank\")'s PR representative and demanded an outrageous salary. This offer was quickly rejected. The novelist [Fernanda Eberstadt](/wiki/Fernanda_Eberstadt \"Fernanda Eberstadt\") was Varble's protégé in these years, and recalled some of his performances in a memoir published in 2018\\.Fernanda Eberstadt, \"I Bite My Friends,\" *Granta* 144 (August 2018\\) [https://granta.com/i\\-bite\\-my\\-friends/](https://granta.com/i-bite-my-friends/)", "In 1975, he produced a series of performances called \"Gutter Art\", which was performed in front of various high class boutiques. \"Gutter Art\" consisted of Varble stopping outside in a limousine, which was provided by his dedicated patron Morihiro Miyazaki, dressed in elaborate silk gowns. He would then retrieve dishes and silverware from its trunk, douse them in black ink, then sit in the gutter and wash them. This biting commentary on class inequality was highly controversial, and garnered him both positive and negative attention.\\[Werther, Janet. \"Discovering Stephen Varble\". The MIT Press. Volume 41, no. 3, September, 2019\\. 17\\-27\\.]", "Varble had two exhibitions during his lifetime. First, he staged one for himself in on the eve of his eviction from his loft on Franklin Street, New York, in 1976\\. For its Gala Ending, he put on a collaborative performance with the assistance of Warhol stars and performance artists, including [Mario Montez](/wiki/Mario_Montez \"Mario Montez\"), [Jackie Curtis](/wiki/Jackie_Curtis \"Jackie Curtis\"), Agosto Machado, [Taylor Mead](/wiki/Taylor_Mead \"Taylor Mead\"), Ruth Truth, and John Eric Broaddus.Gregory Battcock, \"Divitiae Virum Faciunt,\" *SoHo Weekly News* (May 1976\\): 18\\. This performance included, among other things, a giant pink satin skirt which allegedly covered most of the loft. Attendees joined Varble in tearing the skirt to shreds.[Getsy, David J. \"Stephen Varble's Xerographic Dreams\"](http://www.saic.edu/~dgetsy/Publications-Files/Publications2-Excerpts/Getsy-VarblePrintExhEssay-2018.pdf), in *Stephen Varble: An Antidote to Nature's Ruin on this Heavenly Globe, Prints and Video from the Early 1980s*, exh. cat. (Lexington, Kentucky: Institute 193, 2018\\), 3\\-28\\. Second, he had a single commercial gallery exhibition in 1977 when Brooks Jackson Iolas Gallery in New York put on what Varble antagonistically titled *The Awful Art Show*.[Discussed in a 2016 lecture by David Getsy, \"Gutter Art: Stephen Varble and Genderqueer Performance on the Streets of 1970s New York\" at the Leslie\\-Lohman Museum of Gay and Lesbian Art](https://vimeo.com/182807556). When informed that he would be required to include artwork that could be sold, Varble produced chaotic line drawings, complete with anti\\-capitalist text. Each drawing was priced absurdly high to ensure that no one would even consider purchasing them.[thumb\\|Stephen Varble, Untitled, 1982\\-83 (after drawings from ca. 1981\\-83\\), Xerographic print on paper, 8\\.5 x 11 inches. Gift of Charles Rue Woods to the Faulkner\\-Morgan Archive, LexingtonVarble](/wiki/File:Stephen%2BVarble%2B%284%29.jpg \"Stephen+Varble+(4).jpg\") was also a subject for many famous photographers, including [Peter Hujar](/wiki/Peter_Hujar \"Peter Hujar\"), [Jimmy De Sana](/wiki/Jimmy_De_Sana \"Jimmy De Sana\"), [Allan Tannenbaum](/wiki/Allan_Tannenbaum \"Allan Tannenbaum\"), [Jack Mitchell](/wiki/Jack_Mitchell_%28photographer%29 \"Jack Mitchell (photographer)\"), [Fred McDarrah](/wiki/Fred_McDarrah \"Fred McDarrah\"), Greg Day, [Rose Hartman](/wiki/Rose_Hartman \"Rose Hartman\"), and [Anton Perich](/wiki/Anton_Perich \"Anton Perich\").", "Greg Day was a cultural anthropologist with an interest in documenting queer culture. Varble was photographed by him often and some of his most iconic photographs came from their collaboration. One of these photographs featured Varble posing wearing a chest piece, headpiece, and sleeves made of egg cartons and a hoop skirt made from tulle. This costume also featured a sign that read \"The Ultimate Decoration is Stephen Varble!\" This sign turned this costume from art to activism. Another of Day's photographs demonstrate the often impermanent nature of Varble's work. He once wore an outfit composed of green and blue strips of paper and Mary Jane heels. Varble proceeded to tear the outfit apart, captured by Day's camera.", "Varble stepped away from performance art around 1977, and instead began working on a video epic titled *Journey to the Sun.[David J. Getsy, \"Rubbish and Dreams: The Genderqueer Performance Art of Stephen Varble,\" *The Archive \\[of the Leslie\\-Lohman Museum of Gay and Lesbian Art]* 62 (Winter 2017\\): 3\\-7\\.](http://www.saic.edu/~dgetsy/Publications-Files/Publications2-Articles/Getsy-VarbleExhibitionArticle.pdf)* The video remains unfinished, but hours of footage were filmed, mainly within his and Cahill's apartment. Its music includes compositions by his long\\-time friend Robert Savage and music Varble composed himself on an early home synthesizer, the [Alpha Syntauri](/wiki/Apple_II_sound_cards \"Apple II sound cards\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Maxim \\|first1\\=Tyler \\|title\\=Video by Stephen Varble \\|date\\=29 October 2018 \\|url\\=http://www.screenslate.com/features/1017 \\|website\\=Screen Slate}} The work is an homage to [Greta Garbo](/wiki/Greta_Garbo \"Greta Garbo\"), with whom Varble identified. He dubbed himself and his fellow creatives \"The Happy Arts School of Manuscript Illumination\" because he characterized his work as having a vivid relationship between words and images reminiscent of Medieval manuscripts.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ni \\|first\\=Nicky \\|date\\=October 10, 2018 \\|title\\=Conversations at the Edge (CATE): On Stephen Varble \\|url\\=https://sites.saic.edu/cate/2018/10/10/on\\-stephen\\-varble/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-04 \\|website\\=sites.saic.edu}} The surviving tapes of Varble's *Journey to the Sun* project are archived and distributed by the [Video Data Bank](/wiki/Video_Data_Bank \"Video Data Bank\") at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Stephen Varble: Videoworks {{!}} Video Data Bank\\|url\\=https://www.vdb.org/titles/stephen\\-varble\\-videoworks\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-03\\|website\\=www.vdb.org}} During his more reclusive period, he also produced several line drawings. Many of them included use of vitamins and enemas, perhaps showing that Varble was aware of his declining health. From these drawings, Varble also produced a series of Xerox{{Citation \\|title\\=Xerox \\|date\\=2024\\-03\\-18 \\|work\\=Wikipedia \\|url\\=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title\\=Xerox\\&oldid\\=1214345525 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-20 \\|language\\=en}} works to be distributed freely and cheaply.", "In the late 1970s, Varble shifted his focus from performance art to drawing and video; he did this in attempts to make art that could be universally distributed easily and for free.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Exhibitions: Stephen Varble KY \\|url\\=https://www.institute193\\.org/exhibitions\\-stephen\\-varble\\-ky \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-02 \\|website\\=Institute 193 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} He did this be using a xerox machine (a form of photocopier), by making drawing and reproducing them as xerographic prints. Varble used his drawings to explore the same topics as his performance art, which include issues of sexuality, gender identity, and the human body, though these drawings are a much softer and personal way of discussing these topics.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Goodman \\|first\\=Emily Elizabeth \\|date\\=2018\\-11\\-11 \\|title\\=\"Stephen Varble: An Antidote to Nature’s Ruin on this Heavenly Globe\" at Institute 193 \\|url\\=https://undermain.art/visual\\-arts/stephen\\-varble\\-an\\-antidote\\-to\\-natures\\-ruin\\-on\\-this\\-heavenly\\-globe\\-at\\-institute\\-193/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-02 \\|website\\=UnderMain \\|language\\=en\\-US}} None of his drawing depict gendered figures, instead they are seen as highlighting alternative of the gender binary's construction of a man and woman figure/body type. In these pieces he depicts the human form in a very feminine way with features like, overly defined hips, breasts, and legs while also containing masculine features like, muscular and broad shoulders, strong jaw lines, and facial hair; with the coupling of these features we are not seeing exactly/perfectly a male or female form. During this time he was also working on a video installation, titled *Journey to the Sun*. He created this in hopes to distribute this as \"video books\". This video piece, creates a fantasy world that gives insight to how Varble viewed the openness of gender.", "Varble frequently used guerrilla tactics to convey his art, accustoming himself to the norms of a 1970s New York. Despite his involvement in Andy Warhol’s factory, the memory of his work quickly faded after his AIDS related death in 1984\\.[https://www.frieze.com/article/trash\\-couture\\-stephen\\-varble](https://www.frieze.com/article/trash-couture-stephen-varble)", "" ]
New York City councilmember --------------------------- At 25 years old, Torres ran to succeed [Joel Rivera](/wiki/Joel_Rivera "Joel Rivera") as the councilmember for the [15th district](/wiki/New_York_City%27s_15th_City_Council_district "New York City's 15th City Council district") of the [New York City Council](/wiki/New_York_City_Council "New York City Council").{{cite web \|last\=Kappstatter \|first\=Bob \|url\=https://www.bxtimes.com/stories/2013/20/20\_\_beat\_2013\_05\_16\_bx.html \|title\=Will the real Joel please stand • Bronx Times \|work\=Bronx Times \|date\=May 16, 2013 \|access\-date\=March 20, 2019 \|archive\-date\=April 3, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403150218/https://www.bxtimes.com/stories/2013/20/20\_\_beat\_2013\_05\_16\_bx.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|author\=Colin Campbell \|url\=https://observer.com/2013/03/24\-year\-old\-council\-candidate\-collecting\-money\-and\-endorsements/ \|title\=24\-Year\-Old Council Candidate Collecting Money and Endorsements \|work\=Observer \|date\=March 14, 2013 \|access\-date\=March 20, 2019 \|archive\-date\=April 3, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403133833/https://observer.com/2013/03/24\-year\-old\-council\-candidate\-collecting\-money\-and\-endorsements/ \|url\-status\=live }} The district includes [Allerton](/wiki/Allerton%2C_Bronx "Allerton, Bronx"), [Belmont](/wiki/Belmont%2C_Bronx "Belmont, Bronx"), [Bronx Park](/wiki/Bronx_Park "Bronx Park"), Claremont Village, [Crotona Park](/wiki/Crotona_Park "Crotona Park"), [Fordham](/wiki/Fordham%2C_Bronx "Fordham, Bronx"), [Mount Eden](/wiki/Mount_Eden%2C_Bronx "Mount Eden, Bronx"), [Mount Hope](/wiki/Mount_Hope%2C_Bronx "Mount Hope, Bronx"), [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood%2C_Bronx "Norwood, Bronx"), [Parkchester](/wiki/Parkchester "Parkchester"), [Tremont](/wiki/Tremont%2C_Bronx "Tremont, Bronx"), [Van Nest](/wiki/Van_Nest "Van Nest"), [West Farms](/wiki/West_Farms%2C_Bronx "West Farms, Bronx") and [Williamsbridge](/wiki/Williamsbridge "Williamsbridge") in [the Bronx](/wiki/The_Bronx "The Bronx"). [upright\=0\.8\|thumb\|Ritchie Torres in 2015](/wiki/File:Ritchie_Torres_2015.jpg "Ritchie Torres 2015.jpg") When he won the Democratic nomination for New York city council, Torres became one of the first [openly gay](/wiki/Openly_gay "Openly gay") political candidates in [the Bronx](/wiki/The_Bronx "The Bronx") to win a Democratic nomination, and upon victory in the general election became the first openly gay public official in the Bronx.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.norwoodnews.org/id\=12802\&story\=riding\-widespread\-institutional\-support\-torres\-and\-cohen\-breeze\-to\-primary\-wins/ \|title\=Riding Widespread Institutional Support, Torres and Cohen Breeze to Primary Wins \|work\=Norwood News \|date\=September 11, 2013 \|access\-date\=September 23, 2013 \|archive\-date\=September 17, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917225234/http://www.norwoodnews.org/id%3D12802%26story%3Driding\-widespread\-institutional\-support\-torres\-and\-cohen\-breeze\-to\-primary\-wins/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/13/ritchie\-torres\-bronx\-city\-council\-gay\_n\_3437407\.html \|title\=Ritchie Torres, Bronx City Council Race Frontrunner, Among 3 Openly Gay Candidates In Historic Election \|publisher\=Huffingtonpost.com \|date\=June 13, 2013 \|access\-date\=September 23, 2013 \|archive\-date\=October 3, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003024122/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/13/ritchie\-torres\-bronx\-city\-council\-gay\_n\_3437407\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Torres also served as a deputy leader of the city council.{{cite web\|url\=http://council.nyc.gov/d15/html/members/biography.shtml\|title\=Biography\|website\=council.ny.gov\|access\-date\=December 5, 2016\|archive\-date\=December 28, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228161518/http://council.nyc.gov/d15/html/members/biography.shtml\|url\-status\=live}} ### Public housing Upon his election, Torres requested the chairmanship of the council's committee on public housing, tasked with overseeing the [New York City Housing Authority](/wiki/New_York_City_Housing_Authority "New York City Housing Authority") (NYCHA);{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/12/12/fighting\-for\-the\-poor\-under\-trump\|title\=Fighting for the Poor Under Trump\|last1\=Gonnerman\|first1\=Jennifer\|magazine\=The New Yorker\|access\-date\=December 5, 2016\|archive\-date\=December 5, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205051732/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/12/12/fighting\-for\-the\-poor\-under\-trump\|url\-status\=live}} as of July 2019, it is the "nation's largest public housing system", which "provides housing to more than 400,000 low\-income residents" in "176,000 apartments across 325 complexes".{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/24/nyregion/nycha\-chairman\-gregory\-russ.html\|title\=He's in Charge of Housing for 11,000 Minnesotans. Can He Handle 400,000 New Yorkers?\|last\=Ferré\-Sadurní\|first\=Luis\|date\=June 24, 2019\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=July 18, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=July 18, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718035841/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/24/nyregion/nycha\-chairman\-gregory\-russ.html\|url\-status\=live}} He made "the living conditions of the city's most underserved residents a signature priority".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.gothamgazette.com/state/8672\-campaigning\-for\-congress\-torres\-touts\-city\-funding\-secured\-for\-development\-outside\-council\-district\|title\=Campaigning for Congress, Torres Touts City Funding Secured for Development Outside Council District\|last\=Geringer\-Sameth\|first\=Ethan\|website\=Gotham Gazette\|language\=en\-gb\|access\-date\=July 16, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 16, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716234616/https://www.gothamgazette.com/state/8672\-campaigning\-for\-congress\-torres\-touts\-city\-funding\-secured\-for\-development\-outside\-council\-district\|url\-status\=live}} In this role he helped secure $3 million for Concourse Village, Inc., a nearly 1,900\-unit housing cooperative in the [South Bronx](/wiki/South_Bronx "South Bronx"). According to [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census "2010 United States Census") data the South Bronx is among the poorest districts in the nation.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.amny.com/news/elections/bronx\-congressional\-election\-1\.33906499\|title\=South Bronx congressional primary will be one to watch\|last\=Brown\|first\=Nicole\|date\=July 16, 2019\|website\=A.M. New York\|language\=en\|access\-date\=July 17, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 17, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717010219/https://www.amny.com/news/elections/bronx\-congressional\-election\-1\.33906499\|url\-status\=live}} The cooperative is subsidized by the [Mitchell\-Lama Housing Program](/wiki/Mitchell-Lama_Housing_Program "Mitchell-Lama Housing Program"), offering "income\-restricted rentals and below\-market value buy\-in for co\-ops". He also secured nearly $1 million to [renovate](/wiki/Renovate "Renovate") Dennis Lane Apartments, a Mitchell\-Lama co\-op in the heart of his district, and "played a crucial role in exposing the city's failures to address [lead\-paint contamination](/wiki/Lead_paint "Lead paint")." In August 2019, along with fellow council member [Vanessa Gibson](/wiki/Vanessa_Gibson "Vanessa Gibson"), Torres announced *Right To Counsel 2\.0*, an expansion of legal aid to NYCHA tenants facing [eviction](/wiki/Eviction "Eviction").{{cite web\|url\=http://bronx.news12\.com/story/40957732/seniors\-facing\-potential\-eviction\-seek\-legal\-help\-with\-new\-law\-expansion\|title\=Seniors facing potential eviction seek legal help with new law expansion\|date\=August 23, 2019\|website\=Bronx News 12\|language\=en\|access\-date\=August 25, 2019\|archive\-date\=August 25, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825015145/http://bronx.news12\.com/story/40957732/seniors\-facing\-potential\-eviction\-seek\-legal\-help\-with\-new\-law\-expansion\|url\-status\=live}} Since the original law passed in 2017, providing legal help throughout the entire eviction case, the council has found 84% of tenants were able to stay in their homes. The council members "say this will help keep families together and prevent displacement." Torres said, "NYCHA is one of the worst evictees in the city ... Not just one of the worst landlords, but one of the worst evictors. In 2018 alone, 838 families lost their homes in the hands of the NYCHA."{{cite web\|url\=https://pix11\.com/2019/08/23/nycha\-seniors\-fear\-eviction\-can\-get\-a\-free\-lawyer\-now/\|title\=NYCHA seniors who fear eviction can get a free lawyer\|last\=Morales\|first\=Monica\|date\=August 23, 2019\|website\=WPIX 11 New York\|language\=en\|access\-date\=August 25, 2019\|archive\-date\=August 25, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825020607/https://pix11\.com/2019/08/23/nycha\-seniors\-fear\-eviction\-can\-get\-a\-free\-lawyer\-now/\|url\-status\=live}} ### Combating gig worker tip theft In April 2019, Torres worked on legislation aimed to compel companies that employ [gig workers](/wiki/Gig_work "Gig work") to be transparent if the worker's [tips](/wiki/Tip_%28gratuity%29 "Tip (gratuity)") are diverted to pay base salary.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/ny\-doordash\-postmates\-ritchie\-torres\-20190417\-kpifkjhbwrezzba477wx42sioy\-story.html\|title\=Legislation aims to shed light on delivery app tipping practices\|last\=Sanders\|first\=Anna\|date\=April 17, 2019\|website\=New York Daily News\|access\-date\=July 26, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 25, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725164958/https://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/ny\-doordash\-postmates\-ritchie\-torres\-20190417\-kpifkjhbwrezzba477wx42sioy\-story.html\|url\-status\=live}} [Mobile app](/wiki/Mobile_app "Mobile app") delivery companies, like [DoorDash](/wiki/DoorDash "DoorDash")—which has freelance workers pickup and deliver meals from restaurants—[Amazon's Prime Now](/wiki/Prime_Now "Prime Now"), and [Instacart](/wiki/Instacart "Instacart"), usually allow customers to add a gratuity, but the companies were counting the tips toward regular payment.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.vox.com/the\-goods/2019/4/24/18513559/tipping\-policies\-doordash\-instacart\-amazon\-flex\-new\-york\-bill\|title\=Some delivery apps pocket their workers' tips. A new bill aims to expose the practice.\|last\=Lieber\|first\=Chavie\|date\=April 24, 2019\|website\=Vox\|access\-date\=July 26, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 26, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726021941/https://www.vox.com/the\-goods/2019/4/24/18513559/tipping\-policies\-doordash\-instacart\-amazon\-flex\-new\-york\-bill\|url\-status\=live}} Torres characterized the practice as exploiting "an underclass of independent contractors", and hopes the city council can ban the practice altogether. [*Vox*](/wiki/Vox_Media "Vox Media") noted the gig economy is in need of regulation for the estimated 57 million workers (in the U.S.) who have little protection, and few if any benefits. Torres's bill would compel these companies to be [transparent](/wiki/Transparency_%28behavior%29 "Transparency (behavior)") about the practice "by explicitly stating it in their [terms of service](/wiki/Terms_of_service "Terms of service") or by sending a notification as a transaction is being approved". ### Taxi medallion predatory loans As chair of the oversight and investigations committee, newly empowered in January 2018 by city council speaker [Corey Johnson](/wiki/Corey_Johnson_%28politician%29 "Corey Johnson (politician)"),{{cite web\|url\=https://citylimits.org/2018/01/17/max\-murphy\-ritchie\-torres\-on\-the\-city\-councils\-bulked\-up\-oversight\-role/\|title\=Ritchie Torres on the Council's Bulked Up Oversight Role\|last\=Murphy\|first\=Jarrett\|date\=January 17, 2018\|website\=City Limits\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=July 18, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 18, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718052156/https://citylimits.org/2018/01/17/max\-murphy\-ritchie\-torres\-on\-the\-city\-councils\-bulked\-up\-oversight\-role/\|url\-status\=live}} Torres said he had documentation that as early as 2010 the [Bloomberg administration](/wiki/Bloomberg_administration "Bloomberg administration") was "aware that medallion prices could crumple", a year before [ride hailing](/wiki/Ride_hailing "Ride hailing") pioneer [Uber](/wiki/Uber "Uber") started [its service in the city](/wiki/Timeline_of_Uber "Timeline of Uber"). Medallion prices dropped considerably in 2014, likely due to competition from ride\-share companies.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/19/nyregion/nyc\-taxis\-medallions\-suicides.html\|title\='They Were Conned': How Reckless Loans Devastated a Generation of Taxi Drivers\|last\=Rosenthal\|first\=Brian M.\|date\=May 19, 2019\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=May 20, 2019\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=May 20, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520000028/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/19/nyregion/nyc\-taxis\-medallions\-suicides.html\|url\-status\=live}} Medallion owners sued the city and Uber in November 2015\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://arstechnica.com/tech\-policy/2015/11/cab\-medallion\-owners\-sue\-nyc\-blame\-uber\-for\-ruining\-business/\|title\=Cab medallion owners sue NYC, blame Uber for ruining business\|last\=Mullin\|first\=Joe\|date\=November 17, 2015\|work\=Ars Technica\|access\-date\=March 20, 2017\|language\=en\-us\|archive\-date\=March 21, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321083306/https://arstechnica.com/tech\-policy/2015/11/cab\-medallion\-owners\-sue\-nyc\-blame\-uber\-for\-ruining\-business/\|url\-status\=live}} By 2017, 60,000 ride\-share vehicles outnumbered medallion vehicles by almost 4 to 1,{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/15/nyregion/yellow\-cab\-long\-a\-fixture\-of\-city\-life\-is\-for\-many\-a\-thing\-of\-the\-past.html\|title\=Yellow Cab, Long a Fixture of City Life, Is for Many a Thing of the Past\|last\=Hu\|first\=Winnie\|date\=January 15, 2017\|work\=The New York Times\|access\-date\=March 20, 2017\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=March 19, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319044154/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/15/nyregion/yellow\-cab\-long\-a\-fixture\-of\-city\-life\-is\-for\-many\-a\-thing\-of\-the\-past.html\|url\-status\=live}} and many medallion owners faced the prospect of [bankruptcy](/wiki/Bankruptcy "Bankruptcy") or severe debt because of the low medallion prices, which few were willing to pay.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/10/nyregion/new\-york\-taxi\-medallions\-uber.html\|title\=Taxi Medallions, Once a Safe Investment, Now Drag Owners Into Debt\|last\=Hu\|first\=Winnie\|date\=September 10, 2017\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|access\-date\=September 12, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013223544/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/10/nyregion/new\-york\-taxi\-medallions\-uber.html\|archive\-date\=October 13, 2017\|url\-status\=live\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0362\-4331}} Torres said the "medallion market collapse is a [cautionary tale](/wiki/Cautionary_tale "Cautionary tale")" and "one of the greatest government scandals in the history of New York City". In July 2019, the city council considered how to address the [city's taxicab industry](/wiki/Taxicabs_of_New_York_City "Taxicabs of New York City") with the [National Taxi Workers' Alliance](/wiki/National_Taxi_Workers%27_Alliance "National Taxi Workers' Alliance")'s concerns that the [NYC Taxi and Limousine Commission](/wiki/New_York_City_Taxi_and_Limousine_Commission "New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission") knowingly sold [medallions](/wiki/Taxi_medallion "Taxi medallion") at inflated prices, bringing in $1 billion in revenue to city government, while saddling "thousands of drivers with impossible debt loads", leading to [suicides](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide").{{cite web\|url\=http://thechiefleader.com/news/open\_articles/council\-considers\-bailout\-for\-cab\-owners\-free\-article/article\_5c45973c\-a4aa\-11e9\-8fba\-d72ea9dc42cb.html\|title\=Council Considers Bailout for Cab Owners\|last\=Hennelly\|first\=Bob\|date\=July 17, 2019\|website\=The Chief Leader\|language\=en\|access\-date\=July 18, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 18, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718034048/http://thechiefleader.com/news/open\_articles/council\-considers\-bailout\-for\-cab\-owners\-free\-article/article\_5c45973c\-a4aa\-11e9\-8fba\-d72ea9dc42cb.html\|url\-status\=live}} Efforts continued, and in 2022, culminated in the [Medallion Relief Program](/wiki/Taxis_of_New_York_City%23Medallion_values_and_debt_forgiveness "Taxis of New York City#Medallion values and debt forgiveness"). ### Cashless businesses In July 2019, Torres proposed legislation to address the movement in New York toward [cashless business practices](/wiki/Cashless_economy "Cashless economy") at stores and restaurants.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.amny.com/news/cashless\-business\-nyc\-1\.34162600\|title\=Vote nears on cashless business ban\|last\=Pereira\|first\=Ivan\|date\=July 22, 2019\|website\=A.M. New York\|language\=en\|access\-date\=July 24, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 24, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724030857/https://www.amny.com/news/cashless\-business\-nyc\-1\.34162600\|url\-status\=live}} He did so to preserve access for those who rely on cash for their purchases. The businesses accept only [bank cards](/wiki/Bank_card "Bank card") and [e\-commerce payments](/wiki/E-commerce_payment_system "E-commerce payment system") rather than [hard currency](/wiki/Hard_currency "Hard currency"), in part for higher efficiency, possibly streamlining both cashiering, and accounting; and for security reasons, as having cash risks robbery. According to the [Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation "Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation"), in 2017 16\.9% of African\-American households "and 14% of Latino households did not have a bank account"; 6\.5% of all households did not have a bank account; and 18\.7% with accounts also used non\-insured institutions for financial transactions.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2019/09/09/going\-cashless\-if\-you\-do\-these\-cities\-youre\-breaking\-law/2124163001/\|title\=Should you ditch your cash? A growing number of cities say no way\|last\=Jones\|first\=Charisse\|date\=September 9, 2019\|work\=\[\[USA Today]]\|archive\-date\=September 14, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914003157/https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2019/09/09/going\-cashless\-if\-you\-do\-these\-cities\-youre\-breaking\-law/2124163001/\|url\-status\=live}} In New York City, 12% did not have bank accounts in 2013, including "[domestic violence survivors](/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_the_United_States "Domestic violence in the United States") who don't wish to be traced and undocumented immigrants as some of those who may face significant challenges when opening bank accounts".{{cite web\|url\=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/york\-city\-latest\-punish\-cashless\-businesses/story?id\=64492022\|title\=City could become latest to punish cashless businesses\|last\=Allen\|first\=Karma\|date\=July 23, 2019\|website\=ABC News\|language\=en\|access\-date\=July 26, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 26, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726103956/https://abcnews.go.com/Business/york\-city\-latest\-punish\-cashless\-businesses/story?id\=64492022\|url\-status\=live}} They instead often use [payday loans](/wiki/Payday_loans_in_the_United_States "Payday loans in the United States") and [check cashing facilities](/wiki/Check-cashing_service "Check-cashing service"). Torres's proposal would fine noncompliant businesses, while allowing them to refuse currency higher than [$20 bills](/wiki/%2420_bill_U.S "$20 bill U.S"). It also prohibits charging more for using cash. ### Third\-Party Transfer program In July 2019, Torres, as chair of the oversight and investigation committee, and [Robert Cornegy](/wiki/Robert_Cornegy "Robert Cornegy"), chair of the committees on housing and buildings, released a report from the joint committee that conducted a city council [forensic](/wiki/Forensic_science "Forensic science") investigation into the city's [Third\-Party Transfer](/wiki/Third-Party_Transfer "Third-Party Transfer") (TPT) program.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.kingscountypolitics.com/city\-council\-forensic\-study\-finds\-glaring\-discrepancies\-in\-tpt\-program/\|title\=City Council Forensic Study Finds Glaring Discrepancies In TPT Program\|last\=Witt\|first\=Stephen\|date\=July 23, 2019\|website\=Kings County Politics\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=July 25, 2019\|archive\-date\=August 11, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811171435/https://www.kingscountypolitics.com/city\-council\-forensic\-study\-finds\-glaring\-discrepancies\-in\-tpt\-program/\|url\-status\=live}} The TPT was started in 1996 under [Giuliani's administration](/wiki/Mayor_Rudolph_Giuliani "Mayor Rudolph Giuliani") to let the [Department of Housing and Preservation](/wiki/New_York_City_Department_of_Housing_Preservation_and_Development "New York City Department of Housing Preservation and Development") (HPD) transfer "derelict, tax\-delinquent buildings to nonprofits that could rehabilitate and manage them", ostensibly for working\-class people, freeing the city from ownership, or responsibility for tenants.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.city\-journal.org/sometimes\-lien\-just\-lien\|title\=Sometimes a Lien Is Just a Lien\|last\=Barron\|first\=Seth\|date\=July 24, 2019\|website\=City Journal\|language\=en\|access\-date\=July 25, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 24, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724233242/https://www.city\-journal.org/sometimes\-lien\-just\-lien\|url\-status\=live}} HPD followed a rule selecting "every other building in the same tax block with a lien—even for a few hundred dollars"—if even one was picked for TPT. [Mayor Bill de Blasio](/wiki/Mayor_Bill_de_Blasio "Mayor Bill de Blasio")'s administration characterized the TPT as a tool for taking over "distressed properties" in "blighted" areas".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.crainsnewyork.com/real\-estate/council\-rips\-de\-blasios\-home\-seizure\-program\|title\=Council rips de Blasio's home\-seizure program\|last\=Bredderman\|first\=Will\|date\=July 23, 2019\|website\=Crain's New York Business\|language\=en\|access\-date\=July 25, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 24, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724190343/https://www.crainsnewyork.com/real\-estate/council\-rips\-de\-blasios\-home\-seizure\-program\|url\-status\=live}} The report,{{Efn\|''Taking Stock: A look Into The Third Party Transfer Program in Modern Day New York''}} however, holds that characterization is in tension with its findings, which implicate [malfeasance](/wiki/Misfeasance "Misfeasance") by both NYC's HPD and the [Department of Finance](/wiki/New_York_City_Department_of_Finance "New York City Department of Finance") (DOF), detailing how the agencies were "targeting and taking of numerous black and brown owned properties, and thus stripping these communities of millions of dollars of generational wealth". According to Torres, "TPT is quite different from and far harsher than a typical foreclosure from the perspective of a property owner. If you are the target of a foreclosure, you get a share of the proceeds from the sale of your property. Under TPT, the city can completely strip you of all the equity in your property".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.norwoodnews.org/id\=29111\&story\=torres\-home\-seizure\-program\-has\-sights\-on\-black\-and\-hispanic\-homeowners/\|title\=Torres: Home Seizure Program Has Sights on Black and Hispanic Homeowners\|last1\=Turay\|first1\=Michael\|last2\=Cruz\|first2\=David\|date\=July 26, 2019\|website\=Norwood News\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=July 26, 2019\|archive\-date\=July 26, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726234543/https://www.norwoodnews.org/id%3D29111%26story%3Dtorres\-home\-seizure\-program\-has\-sights\-on\-black\-and\-hispanic\-homeowners/\|url\-status\=live}} The TPT process strips the minority owner of the property and its value, and mitigates the [sweat equity](/wiki/Sweat_equity "Sweat equity") and resources invested—all with no compensation. ### LGBT advocacy Torres helped open the first homeless shelter for LGBT youth in the Bronx. He also secured funds for senior centers to serve LGBT people in all [five NYC boroughs](/wiki/Boroughs_of_New_York_City "Boroughs of New York City"). ### Guns and gang violence In August 2019, Torres announced the city council was awarding $36\.2 million for gun violence prevention and reduction.{{cite web\|url\=http://bronx.news12\.com/story/40901034/councilman\-announces\-dollar362m\-in\-funding\-for\-antiviolence\-programs\|title\=Councilman announces $36\.2M in funding for anti\-violence programs\|website\=Bronx News 12\|language\=en\|access\-date\=August 20, 2019\|archive\-date\=August 20, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820130423/http://bronx.news12\.com/story/40901034/councilman\-announces\-dollar362m\-in\-funding\-for\-antiviolence\-programs\|url\-status\=live}} He said shooting incidents in New York City were up from 413 in the first half of 2018 to 551 in the same period of 2019\.
[ "New York City councilmember\n---------------------------", "At 25 years old, Torres ran to succeed [Joel Rivera](/wiki/Joel_Rivera \"Joel Rivera\") as the councilmember for the [15th district](/wiki/New_York_City%27s_15th_City_Council_district \"New York City's 15th City Council district\") of the [New York City Council](/wiki/New_York_City_Council \"New York City Council\").{{cite web \\|last\\=Kappstatter \\|first\\=Bob \\|url\\=https://www.bxtimes.com/stories/2013/20/20\\_\\_beat\\_2013\\_05\\_16\\_bx.html \\|title\\=Will the real Joel please stand • Bronx Times \\|work\\=Bronx Times \\|date\\=May 16, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 3, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403150218/https://www.bxtimes.com/stories/2013/20/20\\_\\_beat\\_2013\\_05\\_16\\_bx.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|author\\=Colin Campbell \\|url\\=https://observer.com/2013/03/24\\-year\\-old\\-council\\-candidate\\-collecting\\-money\\-and\\-endorsements/ \\|title\\=24\\-Year\\-Old Council Candidate Collecting Money and Endorsements \\|work\\=Observer \\|date\\=March 14, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 3, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403133833/https://observer.com/2013/03/24\\-year\\-old\\-council\\-candidate\\-collecting\\-money\\-and\\-endorsements/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The district includes [Allerton](/wiki/Allerton%2C_Bronx \"Allerton, Bronx\"), [Belmont](/wiki/Belmont%2C_Bronx \"Belmont, Bronx\"), [Bronx Park](/wiki/Bronx_Park \"Bronx Park\"), Claremont Village, [Crotona Park](/wiki/Crotona_Park \"Crotona Park\"), [Fordham](/wiki/Fordham%2C_Bronx \"Fordham, Bronx\"), [Mount Eden](/wiki/Mount_Eden%2C_Bronx \"Mount Eden, Bronx\"), [Mount Hope](/wiki/Mount_Hope%2C_Bronx \"Mount Hope, Bronx\"), [Norwood](/wiki/Norwood%2C_Bronx \"Norwood, Bronx\"), [Parkchester](/wiki/Parkchester \"Parkchester\"), [Tremont](/wiki/Tremont%2C_Bronx \"Tremont, Bronx\"), [Van Nest](/wiki/Van_Nest \"Van Nest\"), [West Farms](/wiki/West_Farms%2C_Bronx \"West Farms, Bronx\") and [Williamsbridge](/wiki/Williamsbridge \"Williamsbridge\") in [the Bronx](/wiki/The_Bronx \"The Bronx\").", "[upright\\=0\\.8\\|thumb\\|Ritchie Torres in 2015](/wiki/File:Ritchie_Torres_2015.jpg \"Ritchie Torres 2015.jpg\")\nWhen he won the Democratic nomination for New York city council, Torres became one of the first [openly gay](/wiki/Openly_gay \"Openly gay\") political candidates in [the Bronx](/wiki/The_Bronx \"The Bronx\") to win a Democratic nomination, and upon victory in the general election became the first openly gay public official in the Bronx.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.norwoodnews.org/id\\=12802\\&story\\=riding\\-widespread\\-institutional\\-support\\-torres\\-and\\-cohen\\-breeze\\-to\\-primary\\-wins/ \\|title\\=Riding Widespread Institutional Support, Torres and Cohen Breeze to Primary Wins \\|work\\=Norwood News \\|date\\=September 11, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=September 23, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 17, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917225234/http://www.norwoodnews.org/id%3D12802%26story%3Driding\\-widespread\\-institutional\\-support\\-torres\\-and\\-cohen\\-breeze\\-to\\-primary\\-wins/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/13/ritchie\\-torres\\-bronx\\-city\\-council\\-gay\\_n\\_3437407\\.html \\|title\\=Ritchie Torres, Bronx City Council Race Frontrunner, Among 3 Openly Gay Candidates In Historic Election \\|publisher\\=Huffingtonpost.com \\|date\\=June 13, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=September 23, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 3, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003024122/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/13/ritchie\\-torres\\-bronx\\-city\\-council\\-gay\\_n\\_3437407\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Torres also served as a deputy leader of the city council.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://council.nyc.gov/d15/html/members/biography.shtml\\|title\\=Biography\\|website\\=council.ny.gov\\|access\\-date\\=December 5, 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=December 28, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228161518/http://council.nyc.gov/d15/html/members/biography.shtml\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Public housing", "Upon his election, Torres requested the chairmanship of the council's committee on public housing, tasked with overseeing the [New York City Housing Authority](/wiki/New_York_City_Housing_Authority \"New York City Housing Authority\") (NYCHA);{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/12/12/fighting\\-for\\-the\\-poor\\-under\\-trump\\|title\\=Fighting for the Poor Under Trump\\|last1\\=Gonnerman\\|first1\\=Jennifer\\|magazine\\=The New Yorker\\|access\\-date\\=December 5, 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=December 5, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205051732/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/12/12/fighting\\-for\\-the\\-poor\\-under\\-trump\\|url\\-status\\=live}} as of July 2019, it is the \"nation's largest public housing system\", which \"provides housing to more than 400,000 low\\-income residents\" in \"176,000 apartments across 325 complexes\".{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/24/nyregion/nycha\\-chairman\\-gregory\\-russ.html\\|title\\=He's in Charge of Housing for 11,000 Minnesotans. Can He Handle 400,000 New Yorkers?\\|last\\=Ferré\\-Sadurní\\|first\\=Luis\\|date\\=June 24, 2019\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=July 18, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=July 18, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718035841/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/24/nyregion/nycha\\-chairman\\-gregory\\-russ.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He made \"the living conditions of the city's most underserved residents a signature priority\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gothamgazette.com/state/8672\\-campaigning\\-for\\-congress\\-torres\\-touts\\-city\\-funding\\-secured\\-for\\-development\\-outside\\-council\\-district\\|title\\=Campaigning for Congress, Torres Touts City Funding Secured for Development Outside Council District\\|last\\=Geringer\\-Sameth\\|first\\=Ethan\\|website\\=Gotham Gazette\\|language\\=en\\-gb\\|access\\-date\\=July 16, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 16, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716234616/https://www.gothamgazette.com/state/8672\\-campaigning\\-for\\-congress\\-torres\\-touts\\-city\\-funding\\-secured\\-for\\-development\\-outside\\-council\\-district\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In this role he helped secure $3 million for Concourse Village, Inc., a nearly 1,900\\-unit housing cooperative in the [South Bronx](/wiki/South_Bronx \"South Bronx\"). According to [2010 United States Census](/wiki/2010_United_States_Census \"2010 United States Census\") data the South Bronx is among the poorest districts in the nation.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.amny.com/news/elections/bronx\\-congressional\\-election\\-1\\.33906499\\|title\\=South Bronx congressional primary will be one to watch\\|last\\=Brown\\|first\\=Nicole\\|date\\=July 16, 2019\\|website\\=A.M. New York\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=July 17, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 17, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717010219/https://www.amny.com/news/elections/bronx\\-congressional\\-election\\-1\\.33906499\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The cooperative is subsidized by the [Mitchell\\-Lama Housing Program](/wiki/Mitchell-Lama_Housing_Program \"Mitchell-Lama Housing Program\"), offering \"income\\-restricted rentals and below\\-market value buy\\-in for co\\-ops\". He also secured nearly $1 million to [renovate](/wiki/Renovate \"Renovate\") Dennis Lane Apartments, a Mitchell\\-Lama co\\-op in the heart of his district, and \"played a crucial role in exposing the city's failures to address [lead\\-paint contamination](/wiki/Lead_paint \"Lead paint\").\"", "In August 2019, along with fellow council member [Vanessa Gibson](/wiki/Vanessa_Gibson \"Vanessa Gibson\"), Torres announced *Right To Counsel 2\\.0*, an expansion of legal aid to NYCHA tenants facing [eviction](/wiki/Eviction \"Eviction\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://bronx.news12\\.com/story/40957732/seniors\\-facing\\-potential\\-eviction\\-seek\\-legal\\-help\\-with\\-new\\-law\\-expansion\\|title\\=Seniors facing potential eviction seek legal help with new law expansion\\|date\\=August 23, 2019\\|website\\=Bronx News 12\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=August 25, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825015145/http://bronx.news12\\.com/story/40957732/seniors\\-facing\\-potential\\-eviction\\-seek\\-legal\\-help\\-with\\-new\\-law\\-expansion\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Since the original law passed in 2017, providing legal help throughout the entire eviction case, the council has found 84% of tenants were able to stay in their homes. The council members \"say this will help keep families together and prevent displacement.\" Torres said, \"NYCHA is one of the worst evictees in the city ... Not just one of the worst landlords, but one of the worst evictors. In 2018 alone, 838 families lost their homes in the hands of the NYCHA.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=https://pix11\\.com/2019/08/23/nycha\\-seniors\\-fear\\-eviction\\-can\\-get\\-a\\-free\\-lawyer\\-now/\\|title\\=NYCHA seniors who fear eviction can get a free lawyer\\|last\\=Morales\\|first\\=Monica\\|date\\=August 23, 2019\\|website\\=WPIX 11 New York\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=August 25, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825020607/https://pix11\\.com/2019/08/23/nycha\\-seniors\\-fear\\-eviction\\-can\\-get\\-a\\-free\\-lawyer\\-now/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Combating gig worker tip theft", "In April 2019, Torres worked on legislation aimed to compel companies that employ [gig workers](/wiki/Gig_work \"Gig work\") to be transparent if the worker's [tips](/wiki/Tip_%28gratuity%29 \"Tip (gratuity)\") are diverted to pay base salary.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/ny\\-doordash\\-postmates\\-ritchie\\-torres\\-20190417\\-kpifkjhbwrezzba477wx42sioy\\-story.html\\|title\\=Legislation aims to shed light on delivery app tipping practices\\|last\\=Sanders\\|first\\=Anna\\|date\\=April 17, 2019\\|website\\=New York Daily News\\|access\\-date\\=July 26, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 25, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725164958/https://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/ny\\-doordash\\-postmates\\-ritchie\\-torres\\-20190417\\-kpifkjhbwrezzba477wx42sioy\\-story.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} [Mobile app](/wiki/Mobile_app \"Mobile app\") delivery companies, like [DoorDash](/wiki/DoorDash \"DoorDash\")—which has freelance workers pickup and deliver meals from restaurants—[Amazon's Prime Now](/wiki/Prime_Now \"Prime Now\"), and [Instacart](/wiki/Instacart \"Instacart\"), usually allow customers to add a gratuity, but the companies were counting the tips toward regular payment.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.vox.com/the\\-goods/2019/4/24/18513559/tipping\\-policies\\-doordash\\-instacart\\-amazon\\-flex\\-new\\-york\\-bill\\|title\\=Some delivery apps pocket their workers' tips. A new bill aims to expose the practice.\\|last\\=Lieber\\|first\\=Chavie\\|date\\=April 24, 2019\\|website\\=Vox\\|access\\-date\\=July 26, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 26, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726021941/https://www.vox.com/the\\-goods/2019/4/24/18513559/tipping\\-policies\\-doordash\\-instacart\\-amazon\\-flex\\-new\\-york\\-bill\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Torres characterized the practice as exploiting \"an underclass of independent contractors\", and hopes the city council can ban the practice altogether. [*Vox*](/wiki/Vox_Media \"Vox Media\") noted the gig economy is in need of regulation for the estimated 57 million workers (in the U.S.) who have little protection, and few if any benefits. Torres's bill would compel these companies to be [transparent](/wiki/Transparency_%28behavior%29 \"Transparency (behavior)\") about the practice \"by explicitly stating it in their [terms of service](/wiki/Terms_of_service \"Terms of service\") or by sending a notification as a transaction is being approved\".", "### Taxi medallion predatory loans", "As chair of the oversight and investigations committee, newly empowered in January 2018 by city council speaker [Corey Johnson](/wiki/Corey_Johnson_%28politician%29 \"Corey Johnson (politician)\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://citylimits.org/2018/01/17/max\\-murphy\\-ritchie\\-torres\\-on\\-the\\-city\\-councils\\-bulked\\-up\\-oversight\\-role/\\|title\\=Ritchie Torres on the Council's Bulked Up Oversight Role\\|last\\=Murphy\\|first\\=Jarrett\\|date\\=January 17, 2018\\|website\\=City Limits\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=July 18, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 18, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718052156/https://citylimits.org/2018/01/17/max\\-murphy\\-ritchie\\-torres\\-on\\-the\\-city\\-councils\\-bulked\\-up\\-oversight\\-role/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Torres said he had documentation that as early as 2010 the [Bloomberg administration](/wiki/Bloomberg_administration \"Bloomberg administration\") was \"aware that medallion prices could crumple\", a year before [ride hailing](/wiki/Ride_hailing \"Ride hailing\") pioneer [Uber](/wiki/Uber \"Uber\") started [its service in the city](/wiki/Timeline_of_Uber \"Timeline of Uber\"). Medallion prices dropped considerably in 2014, likely due to competition from ride\\-share companies.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/19/nyregion/nyc\\-taxis\\-medallions\\-suicides.html\\|title\\='They Were Conned': How Reckless Loans Devastated a Generation of Taxi Drivers\\|last\\=Rosenthal\\|first\\=Brian M.\\|date\\=May 19, 2019\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=May 20, 2019\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=May 20, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520000028/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/19/nyregion/nyc\\-taxis\\-medallions\\-suicides.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Medallion owners sued the city and Uber in November 2015\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://arstechnica.com/tech\\-policy/2015/11/cab\\-medallion\\-owners\\-sue\\-nyc\\-blame\\-uber\\-for\\-ruining\\-business/\\|title\\=Cab medallion owners sue NYC, blame Uber for ruining business\\|last\\=Mullin\\|first\\=Joe\\|date\\=November 17, 2015\\|work\\=Ars Technica\\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2017\\|language\\=en\\-us\\|archive\\-date\\=March 21, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321083306/https://arstechnica.com/tech\\-policy/2015/11/cab\\-medallion\\-owners\\-sue\\-nyc\\-blame\\-uber\\-for\\-ruining\\-business/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} By 2017, 60,000 ride\\-share vehicles outnumbered medallion vehicles by almost 4 to 1,{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/15/nyregion/yellow\\-cab\\-long\\-a\\-fixture\\-of\\-city\\-life\\-is\\-for\\-many\\-a\\-thing\\-of\\-the\\-past.html\\|title\\=Yellow Cab, Long a Fixture of City Life, Is for Many a Thing of the Past\\|last\\=Hu\\|first\\=Winnie\\|date\\=January 15, 2017\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2017\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=March 19, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319044154/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/15/nyregion/yellow\\-cab\\-long\\-a\\-fixture\\-of\\-city\\-life\\-is\\-for\\-many\\-a\\-thing\\-of\\-the\\-past.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and many medallion owners faced the prospect of [bankruptcy](/wiki/Bankruptcy \"Bankruptcy\") or severe debt because of the low medallion prices, which few were willing to pay.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/10/nyregion/new\\-york\\-taxi\\-medallions\\-uber.html\\|title\\=Taxi Medallions, Once a Safe Investment, Now Drag Owners Into Debt\\|last\\=Hu\\|first\\=Winnie\\|date\\=September 10, 2017\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=September 12, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171013223544/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/10/nyregion/new\\-york\\-taxi\\-medallions\\-uber.html\\|archive\\-date\\=October 13, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} Torres said the \"medallion market collapse is a [cautionary tale](/wiki/Cautionary_tale \"Cautionary tale\")\" and \"one of the greatest government scandals in the history of New York City\".", "In July 2019, the city council considered how to address the [city's taxicab industry](/wiki/Taxicabs_of_New_York_City \"Taxicabs of New York City\") with the [National Taxi Workers' Alliance](/wiki/National_Taxi_Workers%27_Alliance \"National Taxi Workers' Alliance\")'s concerns that the [NYC Taxi and Limousine Commission](/wiki/New_York_City_Taxi_and_Limousine_Commission \"New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission\") knowingly sold [medallions](/wiki/Taxi_medallion \"Taxi medallion\") at inflated prices, bringing in $1 billion in revenue to city government, while saddling \"thousands of drivers with impossible debt loads\", leading to [suicides](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://thechiefleader.com/news/open\\_articles/council\\-considers\\-bailout\\-for\\-cab\\-owners\\-free\\-article/article\\_5c45973c\\-a4aa\\-11e9\\-8fba\\-d72ea9dc42cb.html\\|title\\=Council Considers Bailout for Cab Owners\\|last\\=Hennelly\\|first\\=Bob\\|date\\=July 17, 2019\\|website\\=The Chief Leader\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=July 18, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 18, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718034048/http://thechiefleader.com/news/open\\_articles/council\\-considers\\-bailout\\-for\\-cab\\-owners\\-free\\-article/article\\_5c45973c\\-a4aa\\-11e9\\-8fba\\-d72ea9dc42cb.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Efforts continued, and in 2022, culminated in the [Medallion Relief Program](/wiki/Taxis_of_New_York_City%23Medallion_values_and_debt_forgiveness \"Taxis of New York City#Medallion values and debt forgiveness\").", "### Cashless businesses", "In July 2019, Torres proposed legislation to address the movement in New York toward [cashless business practices](/wiki/Cashless_economy \"Cashless economy\") at stores and restaurants.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.amny.com/news/cashless\\-business\\-nyc\\-1\\.34162600\\|title\\=Vote nears on cashless business ban\\|last\\=Pereira\\|first\\=Ivan\\|date\\=July 22, 2019\\|website\\=A.M. New York\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=July 24, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 24, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724030857/https://www.amny.com/news/cashless\\-business\\-nyc\\-1\\.34162600\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He did so to preserve access for those who rely on cash for their purchases. The businesses accept only [bank cards](/wiki/Bank_card \"Bank card\") and [e\\-commerce payments](/wiki/E-commerce_payment_system \"E-commerce payment system\") rather than [hard currency](/wiki/Hard_currency \"Hard currency\"), in part for higher efficiency, possibly streamlining both cashiering, and accounting; and for security reasons, as having cash risks robbery. According to the [Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation](/wiki/Federal_Deposit_Insurance_Corporation \"Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation\"), in 2017 16\\.9% of African\\-American households \"and 14% of Latino households did not have a bank account\"; 6\\.5% of all households did not have a bank account; and 18\\.7% with accounts also used non\\-insured institutions for financial transactions.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2019/09/09/going\\-cashless\\-if\\-you\\-do\\-these\\-cities\\-youre\\-breaking\\-law/2124163001/\\|title\\=Should you ditch your cash? A growing number of cities say no way\\|last\\=Jones\\|first\\=Charisse\\|date\\=September 9, 2019\\|work\\=\\[\\[USA Today]]\\|archive\\-date\\=September 14, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914003157/https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2019/09/09/going\\-cashless\\-if\\-you\\-do\\-these\\-cities\\-youre\\-breaking\\-law/2124163001/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In New York City, 12% did not have bank accounts in 2013, including \"[domestic violence survivors](/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_the_United_States \"Domestic violence in the United States\") who don't wish to be traced and undocumented immigrants as some of those who may face significant challenges when opening bank accounts\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://abcnews.go.com/Business/york\\-city\\-latest\\-punish\\-cashless\\-businesses/story?id\\=64492022\\|title\\=City could become latest to punish cashless businesses\\|last\\=Allen\\|first\\=Karma\\|date\\=July 23, 2019\\|website\\=ABC News\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=July 26, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 26, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726103956/https://abcnews.go.com/Business/york\\-city\\-latest\\-punish\\-cashless\\-businesses/story?id\\=64492022\\|url\\-status\\=live}} They instead often use [payday loans](/wiki/Payday_loans_in_the_United_States \"Payday loans in the United States\") and [check cashing facilities](/wiki/Check-cashing_service \"Check-cashing service\"). Torres's proposal would fine noncompliant businesses, while allowing them to refuse currency higher than [$20 bills](/wiki/%2420_bill_U.S \"$20 bill U.S\"). It also prohibits charging more for using cash.", "### Third\\-Party Transfer program", "In July 2019, Torres, as chair of the oversight and investigation committee, and [Robert Cornegy](/wiki/Robert_Cornegy \"Robert Cornegy\"), chair of the committees on housing and buildings, released a report from the joint committee that conducted a city council [forensic](/wiki/Forensic_science \"Forensic science\") investigation into the city's [Third\\-Party Transfer](/wiki/Third-Party_Transfer \"Third-Party Transfer\") (TPT) program.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.kingscountypolitics.com/city\\-council\\-forensic\\-study\\-finds\\-glaring\\-discrepancies\\-in\\-tpt\\-program/\\|title\\=City Council Forensic Study Finds Glaring Discrepancies In TPT Program\\|last\\=Witt\\|first\\=Stephen\\|date\\=July 23, 2019\\|website\\=Kings County Politics\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=July 25, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=August 11, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811171435/https://www.kingscountypolitics.com/city\\-council\\-forensic\\-study\\-finds\\-glaring\\-discrepancies\\-in\\-tpt\\-program/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The TPT was started in 1996 under [Giuliani's administration](/wiki/Mayor_Rudolph_Giuliani \"Mayor Rudolph Giuliani\") to let the [Department of Housing and Preservation](/wiki/New_York_City_Department_of_Housing_Preservation_and_Development \"New York City Department of Housing Preservation and Development\") (HPD) transfer \"derelict, tax\\-delinquent buildings to nonprofits that could rehabilitate and manage them\", ostensibly for working\\-class people, freeing the city from ownership, or responsibility for tenants.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.city\\-journal.org/sometimes\\-lien\\-just\\-lien\\|title\\=Sometimes a Lien Is Just a Lien\\|last\\=Barron\\|first\\=Seth\\|date\\=July 24, 2019\\|website\\=City Journal\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=July 25, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 24, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724233242/https://www.city\\-journal.org/sometimes\\-lien\\-just\\-lien\\|url\\-status\\=live}} HPD followed a rule selecting \"every other building in the same tax block with a lien—even for a few hundred dollars\"—if even one was picked for TPT. [Mayor Bill de Blasio](/wiki/Mayor_Bill_de_Blasio \"Mayor Bill de Blasio\")'s administration characterized the TPT as a tool for taking over \"distressed properties\" in \"blighted\" areas\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.crainsnewyork.com/real\\-estate/council\\-rips\\-de\\-blasios\\-home\\-seizure\\-program\\|title\\=Council rips de Blasio's home\\-seizure program\\|last\\=Bredderman\\|first\\=Will\\|date\\=July 23, 2019\\|website\\=Crain's New York Business\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=July 25, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 24, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724190343/https://www.crainsnewyork.com/real\\-estate/council\\-rips\\-de\\-blasios\\-home\\-seizure\\-program\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The report,{{Efn\\|''Taking Stock: A look Into The Third Party Transfer Program in Modern Day New York''}} however, holds that characterization is in tension with its findings, which implicate [malfeasance](/wiki/Misfeasance \"Misfeasance\") by both NYC's HPD and the [Department of Finance](/wiki/New_York_City_Department_of_Finance \"New York City Department of Finance\") (DOF), detailing how the agencies were \"targeting and taking of numerous black and brown owned properties, and thus stripping these communities of millions of dollars of generational wealth\". According to Torres, \"TPT is quite different from and far harsher than a typical foreclosure from the perspective of a property owner. If you are the target of a foreclosure, you get a share of the proceeds from the sale of your property. Under TPT, the city can completely strip you of all the equity in your property\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.norwoodnews.org/id\\=29111\\&story\\=torres\\-home\\-seizure\\-program\\-has\\-sights\\-on\\-black\\-and\\-hispanic\\-homeowners/\\|title\\=Torres: Home Seizure Program Has Sights on Black and Hispanic Homeowners\\|last1\\=Turay\\|first1\\=Michael\\|last2\\=Cruz\\|first2\\=David\\|date\\=July 26, 2019\\|website\\=Norwood News\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=July 26, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=July 26, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726234543/https://www.norwoodnews.org/id%3D29111%26story%3Dtorres\\-home\\-seizure\\-program\\-has\\-sights\\-on\\-black\\-and\\-hispanic\\-homeowners/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The TPT process strips the minority owner of the property and its value, and mitigates the [sweat equity](/wiki/Sweat_equity \"Sweat equity\") and resources invested—all with no compensation.", "### LGBT advocacy", "Torres helped open the first homeless shelter for LGBT youth in the Bronx. He also secured funds for senior centers to serve LGBT people in all [five NYC boroughs](/wiki/Boroughs_of_New_York_City \"Boroughs of New York City\").", "### Guns and gang violence", "In August 2019, Torres announced the city council was awarding $36\\.2 million for gun violence prevention and reduction.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://bronx.news12\\.com/story/40901034/councilman\\-announces\\-dollar362m\\-in\\-funding\\-for\\-antiviolence\\-programs\\|title\\=Councilman announces $36\\.2M in funding for anti\\-violence programs\\|website\\=Bronx News 12\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=August 20, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=August 20, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820130423/http://bronx.news12\\.com/story/40901034/councilman\\-announces\\-dollar362m\\-in\\-funding\\-for\\-antiviolence\\-programs\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He said shooting incidents in New York City were up from 413 in the first half of 2018 to 551 in the same period of 2019\\.", "" ]
History ------- {{unsourced section\|date\=March 2023}} ### 1831–1841 The Institute of the [Sisters of Mercy](/wiki/Sisters_of_Mercy "Sisters of Mercy") was founded by Catherine McAuley in 1831 in Dublin, Ireland. ### 1846–1896 Fifteen years later, in 1846, the first Sisters of Mercy arrived in Perth from Ireland. One of these pioneering women was Ursula Frayne who brought with her the vision of Catherine that they should be living witnesses of God's mercy in a new world. The Sisters of Mercy continue to provide education, health care, social services and ministries across 43 countries today. In 1990, Pope John Paul II declared Catherine McAuley "Venerable". Following the establishment of a convent at Mansfield in 1846, a branch house was opened in Lilydale in 1896\. When the Sisters arrived in January of that year, neither the convent nor school had been prepared for them, but the local Parish Priest vacated his presbytery and, for the first four months, school was carried out in the basement of the presbytery. There were four nuns in charge at Lilydale, namely Mother Patrick Maguire, Mother Agnes Ryan, Sister Brigid Bradshaw and Sister Catherine Ford. The Parish Priest, Rev A Hennessy bought a property of 33 acres and on 15 November 1896, the foundation stone of the convent and the boarding school was laid. As soon as the first stage of the building was ready, the Sisters took up residence on what is now known as Mount Lilydale Mercy College. The number of pupils increased rapidly and volunteer Sisters from Ireland were soon called for. ### 1905–1944 In 1905, Mount Lilydale College (as it was called then), was granted primary registration. In 1938, the high school received full recognition as a secondary college. From these beginnings, the College flourished as a primary, secondary, boarding and day school for students. In 1944, a two\-roomed junior school was built nearby. Both were later demolished for construction of the existing College. ### 1962–1975 In April 1962, and in November 1965, the present north and south wings of the McAuley Campus were opened. In February 1964, the tennis courts were laid, and officially opened by Archbishop Knox. The Library and Science block were constructed in 1970\. At that time, this new building marked the last stage of the development of Mount Lilydale Catholic Girls’ College, which, in 1974, boasted 339 secondary and 95 primary students, including 21 boarders. During 1973 a committee was formed to address the need for development of a boys’ secondary school to meet the growing demands in the area. The decision was taken by the Sisters of Mercy to retain the presence of the Sisters of Mercy and for Mount Lilydale College to become coeducational. Boarders ceased living at the College in 1974 and in February 1975 the first boys were enrolled and the primary section of the College began to be phased out. ### 1976–today On 17 November 1976, Bishop Perkins opened and blessed the first extension required for this new phase of the College development. During the past 41 years there has been a major transformation in the College facilities with further building works proposed as a result of the new College Master Plan. Currently, Mount Lilydale Mercy College accepts students from Year 7 to Year 12\. ### Principals | Years | Name | | --- | --- | | 1920–1925 | Gertrude Power RSM | | 1932–1937 | Gertrude Power RSM | | 1948–1957 | Ursula Slater RSM | | 1969–1973 | Gabrielle Jennings RSM | | 1976–1989 | Beth Calthorpe RSM | | 1990–1995 | Paul Goodfellow | | 1996–1998 | Nancy Freddi | | 1999–2012 | Bernard Dobson | | 2013–present | Philip A Morison |
[ "History\n-------", "{{unsourced section\\|date\\=March 2023}}", "### 1831–1841", "The Institute of the [Sisters of Mercy](/wiki/Sisters_of_Mercy \"Sisters of Mercy\") was founded by Catherine McAuley in 1831 in Dublin, Ireland.", "### 1846–1896", "Fifteen years later, in 1846, the first Sisters of Mercy arrived in Perth from Ireland. One of these pioneering women was Ursula Frayne who brought with her the vision of Catherine that they should be living witnesses of God's mercy in a new world. The Sisters of Mercy continue to provide education, health care, social services and ministries across 43 countries today. In 1990, Pope John Paul II declared Catherine McAuley \"Venerable\".", "Following the establishment of a convent at Mansfield in 1846, a branch house was opened in Lilydale in 1896\\. When the Sisters arrived in January of that year, neither the convent nor school had been prepared for them, but the local Parish Priest vacated his presbytery and, for the first four months, school was carried out in the basement of the presbytery. There were four nuns in charge at Lilydale, namely Mother Patrick Maguire, Mother Agnes Ryan, Sister Brigid Bradshaw and Sister Catherine Ford.", "The Parish Priest, Rev A Hennessy bought a property of 33 acres and on 15 November 1896, the foundation stone of the convent and the boarding school was laid. As soon as the first stage of the building was ready, the Sisters took up residence on what is now known as Mount Lilydale Mercy College. The number of pupils increased rapidly and volunteer Sisters from Ireland were soon called for.", "### 1905–1944", "In 1905, Mount Lilydale College (as it was called then), was granted primary registration. In 1938, the high school received full recognition as a secondary college. From these beginnings, the College flourished as a primary, secondary, boarding and day school for students. In 1944, a two\\-roomed junior school was built nearby. Both were later demolished for construction of the existing College.", "### 1962–1975", "In April 1962, and in November 1965, the present north and south wings of the McAuley Campus were opened. In February 1964, the tennis courts were laid, and officially opened by Archbishop Knox. The Library and Science block were constructed in 1970\\. At that time, this new building marked the last stage of the development of Mount Lilydale Catholic Girls’ College, which, in 1974, boasted 339 secondary and 95 primary students, including 21 boarders.", "During 1973 a committee was formed to address the need for development of a boys’ secondary school to meet the growing demands in the area. The decision was taken by the Sisters of Mercy to retain the presence of the Sisters of Mercy and for Mount Lilydale College to become coeducational.", "Boarders ceased living at the College in 1974 and in February 1975 the first boys were enrolled and the primary section of the College began to be phased out.", "### 1976–today", "On 17 November 1976, Bishop Perkins opened and blessed the first extension required for this new phase of the College development.", "During the past 41 years there has been a major transformation in the College facilities with further building works proposed as a result of the new College Master Plan. Currently, Mount Lilydale Mercy College accepts students from Year 7 to Year 12\\.", "### Principals", "", "| Years | Name |\n| --- | --- |\n| 1920–1925 | Gertrude Power RSM |\n| 1932–1937 | Gertrude Power RSM |\n| 1948–1957 | Ursula Slater RSM |\n| 1969–1973 | Gabrielle Jennings RSM |\n| 1976–1989 | Beth Calthorpe RSM |\n| 1990–1995 | Paul Goodfellow |\n| 1996–1998 | Nancy Freddi |\n| 1999–2012 | Bernard Dobson |\n| 2013–present | Philip A Morison |", "" ]
History ------- ### Rip (2005\-2006\) The club was founded as the Central Coast Rip in 2005 and competed in the [S. G. Ball Cup](/wiki/S._G._Ball_Cup "S. G. Ball Cup"), [Harold Matthews Cup](/wiki/Harold_Matthews_Cup "Harold Matthews Cup") and [Jersey Flegg Cup](/wiki/Jersey_Flegg_Cup "Jersey Flegg Cup"). The players were a mix of talent from the local [Central Coast Division of Country Rugby League](/wiki/Central_Coast_Division_of_Country_Rugby_League "Central Coast Division of Country Rugby League") \- Group 12 Competition. At the end of the 2006 season and without a finals appearance in any of the competitions the Rip entered, the club was bought out by the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm") who turned the Central Coast\-based club into their main feeder team. ### Storm (2007\-2009\) In 2007 the Central Coast Storm, now a packed side with both local and interstate talent (courtesy of the Melbourne Storm's Victorian based junior's program), began to run a side in the [New South Wales Cup](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Cup "New South Wales Cup"), acting as the Storm's feeder club.{{cite news \|newspaper\=Herald Sun \|url\=http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,20606081\-14823,00\.html \|title\=Storm make impact on Coast \|first\=Karl \|last\=deKroo \|date\=October 19, 2006 \|location\=Melbourne \|publisher\=News Limited}} Along with the new and major support from the Storm, the team received sponsorship from the private health company, [Medibank Private](/wiki/Medibank_Private "Medibank Private") for the next three seasons. Part of this sponsorship included more sponsorship of the actual local district competitions.{{Cite web \|title\=Storm to visit every Junior Club on the Central Coast \|url\=http://www.rleague.com/db/article.php?id\=30457 \|work\=rleague.com \|date\=May 21, 2008 \|accessdate\=April 4, 2010 \|first\=Matthew \|last\=O'Neill \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211194807/http://rleague.com/db/article.php?id\=30457 \|archivedate\=February 11, 2010 }} The team's first season in the New South Wales Cup in 2008 ended unsuccessfully, they did not reach the finals and finished in a disappointing 10th place. The team however was able to reveal some notable talent for the Melbourne Storm including promising prop [Aiden Tolman](/wiki/Aiden_Tolman "Aiden Tolman"), who later graduated to the first team towards the end of the 2008 season. Future first\-graders for the Storm who grew their talent at Central Coast included [Sinbad Kali](/wiki/Sinbad_Kali "Sinbad Kali"), [Kevin Proctor](/wiki/Kevin_Proctor "Kevin Proctor") and [Matt Duffie](/wiki/Matt_Duffie "Matt Duffie") with the later two contributing to Melbourne Storm's clinching of the [2009 Toyota National Youth Competition](/wiki/2009_NRL_Under-20s_season%23Grand_Final "2009 NRL Under-20s season#Grand Final"). The 2009 season would end up being the final season for the Central Coast Storm before they were to wound\-up by the Melbourne Storm. Their final season however, turned out to be their most successful. Throughout the season, the team was always both consistent and also a very attacking football\-team. This culminated with the Storm finishing a very credible 2nd place behind the [Canterbury\-Bankstown Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs "Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs")\-feeder team, the [Bankstown City Bulls](/wiki/Sydney_Bulls "Sydney Bulls"). The team's first finals appearance turned out to be a shocker. The team went against the 7th\-placed [Western Suburbs](/wiki/Western_Suburbs_Magpies "Western Suburbs Magpies") in the first\-week of the finals. A win would have seen the Central Coast Storm one win away from their first ever Grand Final appearance, however, in front of their home supporters, the team was trounced by the Magpies and by the end of the 80 minutes, the scoreline read an astonishing 68\-4 in what was the shock result of the week by far.{{Cite web \|title\=NSW Cup Finals Week 1 \- Match Reviews \|url\=http://www.rleague.com/db/content/92000/92112\.php \|work\=rleague.com \|date\=September 12, 2009 \|accessdate\=April 4, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102193045/http://rleague.com/db/content/92000/92112\.php \|archivedate\=January 2, 2010 }} Instead, the Storm in the Semi\-Finals faced the [Balmain Tigers](/wiki/Balmain_Tigers "Balmain Tigers") at [Leichhardt Oval](/wiki/Leichhardt_Oval "Leichhardt Oval") in what proved to be the club's final game of their short 4\-year history. The Storm attempted to trample a Tigers side who would eventually reach the Grand Final of the competition. With the side missing the likes of [Kevin Proctor](/wiki/Kevin_Proctor "Kevin Proctor"), [Brian Lima](/wiki/Brian_Lima "Brian Lima"), [Ryan Tandy](/wiki/Ryan_Tandy "Ryan Tandy") as well a host of other regulars, the team went in understrength, very much similar to the game against Western Suburbs and as such went down in a surprisingly tight\-encounter, 24\-18 with the Storm coming back in the 2nd half. The loss meant this was the Storm's final game as they were eliminated from the finals after a very successful home/away season.{{Cite news \|title\=NSW Cup Finals Week 2 \- Match Reviews \|url\=http://www.rleague.com/db/index.php?id\=92123 \|work\=rleague.com \|date\=September 20, 2009 \|accessdate\=April 4, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103120038/http://rleague.com/db/index.php?id\=92123 \|archivedate\=January 3, 2010 }} With the season over, the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm") officially announced its intentions to pull out from the [Central Coast](/wiki/Central_Coast_Storm "Central Coast Storm") after three seasons of both success and failure at the ever\-expanding region. The Storm instead released to the media that it will now instead field a side in the [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup "NSW Cup") based wholly and solely in [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne%2C_Australia "Melbourne, Australia"). As such, the team will be named exactly like the first\-grade team, Melbourne Storm. As a replacement to the now\-defunct Storm, [Greg Florimo](/wiki/Greg_Florimo "Greg Florimo"), the CEO of the [North Sydney Bears](/wiki/North_Sydney_Bears "North Sydney Bears") and head of the expansion consortium of the [Central Coast Bears](/wiki/Central_Coast_Bears "Central Coast Bears"), announced their intentions to field their own side based entirely out of the Central Coast. The side was originally to be known as the Central Coast Cubs (as a reference to the ties to the Bears) but the moniker was changed to Centurions after gaining support from the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights "Newcastle Knights").{{Cite web \|title\=Storm departure opens the door for Central Coast Bears \|url\=http://www.rleague.com/db/article.php?id\=34103 \|work\=rleague.com \|date\=August 6, 2009 \|accessdate\=April 4, 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114053207/http://rleague.com/db/article.php?id\=34103 \|archivedate\=January 14, 2010 }} ### Centurions (2010\-2011\) The Centurions acted as a feeder club to the [NRL](/wiki/NRL "NRL") club [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights "Newcastle Knights").{{cite web\|url\=http://nswrl.com.au/default.aspx?s\=nswc\-clubs\-centurians\|title\=Central Coast Centurians\|publisher\=NSWRL\|accessdate\=15 March 2010\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311033548/http://nswrl.com.au/default.aspx?s\=nswc\-clubs\-centurians\|archivedate\=11 March 2011}} They started the season well with a 28\-18 win against the [Canterbury\-Bankstown Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs "Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs") at the Crest Sports Complex in Round 1, but then had a horror run through the middle of the season with 13 losses and 4 wins. Some notable players in the squad are [Chris Adams](/wiki/Chris_Adams_%28rugby_league%29 "Chris Adams (rugby league)"), [Joel Edwards](/wiki/Joel_Edwards_%28rugby_league%29 "Joel Edwards (rugby league)"), [Marvin Filipo](/wiki/Marvin_Filipo "Marvin Filipo"), [Sinbad Kali](/wiki/Sinbad_Kali "Sinbad Kali"), [Marvin Karawana](/wiki/Marvin_Karawana "Marvin Karawana"), [Siuatonga Likiliki](/wiki/Siuatonga_Likiliki "Siuatonga Likiliki"), [Keith Lulia](/wiki/Keith_Lulia "Keith Lulia"), [Peter Mata'utia](/wiki/Peter_Mata%27utia "Peter Mata'utia"), [Shannon McDonnell](/wiki/Shannon_McDonnell "Shannon McDonnell"), [Constantine Mika](/wiki/Constantine_Mika "Constantine Mika"), [Kevin Naiqama](/wiki/Kevin_Naiqama "Kevin Naiqama"), [Kyle O'Donnell](/wiki/Kyle_O%27Donnell "Kyle O'Donnell"), [Ben Rogers](/wiki/Ben_Rogers_%28rugby_league%29 "Ben Rogers (rugby league)"), [Steve Southern](/wiki/Steve_Southern "Steve Southern"), [Ryan Stig](/wiki/Ryan_Stig "Ryan Stig"), [Zane Tetevano](/wiki/Zane_Tetevano "Zane Tetevano") and [Simon Williams](/wiki/Simon_Williams_%28rugby_league%29 "Simon Williams (rugby league)"). The Centurions coach Rip Taylor was selected to coach alongside [Jason Taylor](/wiki/Jason_Taylor_%28rugby_league%29 "Jason Taylor (rugby league)") as the assistant coach of the NSW Residents on 7 July 2010 against the Queensland residents before game III of the [2010 State of Origin series](/wiki/2010_State_of_Origin_series "2010 State of Origin series") at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/ANZ_Stadium "ANZ Stadium"). Centurions winger [Kevin Naiqama](/wiki/Kevin_Naiqama "Kevin Naiqama") was also in the NSW team and scored the game\-breaking try. NSW went on to win the game. Centre [Marvin Filipo](/wiki/Marvin_Filipo "Marvin Filipo") was named the Centurions player of the year in 2010, and [Steve Southern](/wiki/Steve_Southern "Steve Southern") was named in 2011\. ### Demise from NSW Cup During October 2011, it was announced that the Centurions wouldn't be continuing in 2012, with the team to be named the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights "Newcastle Knights") in the [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup "NSW Cup") competition from then on. ### Club goes on (2012\-current) While the Central Coast Centurions exited the [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup "NSW Cup") however the side continued to play in the [New South Wales Rugby League](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Rugby_League "New South Wales Rugby League")'s [S. G. Ball Cup](/wiki/S._G._Ball_Cup "S. G. Ball Cup") and [Harold Matthews Cup](/wiki/Harold_Matthews_Cup "Harold Matthews Cup"). In this time, the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") develop ties with [Central Coast Rugby League](/wiki/Central_Coast_Division_Rugby_League "Central Coast Division Rugby League") and the club. In 2017 the Central Coast Centurions name was officially changed to Central Coast Roosters to highlight the strength of the arrangement. The [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") maintain their own junior development teams by the same name in both competitions.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.roosters.com.au/team/central\_coast\_centur.html\|title\=Teams}}{{cite web \|url\=http://websites.sportstg.com/club\_info.cgi?client\=7\-2168\-19992\-0\-0\&sID\=86970\&news\_task\=ARCHIVED\&section\=86970 \|title\=Central Coast Roosters \- SportsTG \|website\=websites.sportstg.com \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316204418/http://websites.sportstg.com/club\_info.cgi?client\=7\-2168\-19992\-0\-0\&sID\=86970\&news\_task\=ARCHIVED\&section\=86970 \|archive\-date\=2017\-03\-16}} {{Cite web\|url\=http://www.centralcoastrugbyleague.com.au/2014\-08\-14\-00\-30\-42/central\-coast\-roosters\|title\=Central Coast Roosters}}{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/central\-coast/central\-coast\-rugby\-league\-adopts\-sydney\-roosters\-nickname\-and\-colours/news\-story/ae53424ebb16a8e4170c1af5135f1650\|title\=Roosters fly the flag for Central Coast teams\|newspaper\=Daily Telegraph\|date\=23 February 2017\|last1\=Way\|first1\=Peter}} ### NSWRL Women's Premiers (2020\) The Central Coast entered a representative team, as the Roosters, in the 2020 NSWRL Women's Premiership. The commencement of the competition was delayed until July, due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic in Australia](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia "COVID-19 pandemic in Australia"). The team completed the seven match regular season in first place, with five wins, one draw and one bye. Remarkably, the draw came against [Wentworthville Magpies](/wiki/Wentworthville_Magpies "Wentworthville Magpies") who were winless wooden spooners. The Roosters' won a place in the Grand Final by defeating [Cronulla\-Sutherland Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks_Women "Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks Women") in the major semi\-final at Campbelltown Stadium on September 12\. The win was achieved with a field goal in golden\-point extra\-time. In the Grand Final at [Bankwest Stadium](/wiki/Bankwest_Stadium "Bankwest Stadium") on September 27, the Roosters scored the first two tries to take a 10 to nil lead. Their opponents, the [North Sydney Bears](/wiki/North_Sydney_Bears "North Sydney Bears") responded with a try before Central Coast countered with their third try. The score was 14\-4 at the break. North Sydney scored early in the second half, and that try was converted. The Roosters managed to protect a four point lead until the last minute, when they received a penalty. The resulting goal saw the full time score: Central Coast 16, North Sydney 10\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nswrl.com.au/news/2020/09/27/minor\-premiers\-become/\|title\=Roosters reign supreme with thrilling GF victory\|last\=Harris\|first\=Kristy\-Lee\|date\=27 Sep 2020\|website\=NSWRL\|access\-date\=27 Sep 2020}} Members of the Central Coast Roosters received the two individual awards for the competition. [Hannah Southwell](/wiki/Hannah_Southwell "Hannah Southwell") (lock) was named Player of the Year. [Yasmin Meakes](/wiki/Yasmin_Clydsdale "Yasmin Clydsdale") (centre) was named Player of the Match for the Grand Final. Team captain [Isabelle Kelly](/wiki/Isabelle_Kelly "Isabelle Kelly") had previously played for Central Coast Club side [Berkeley Vale Panthers](/wiki/Berkeley_Vale_Panthers "Berkeley Vale Panthers") in the NSWRL Women's Premiership.
[ "History\n-------", "### Rip (2005\\-2006\\)", "The club was founded as the Central Coast Rip in 2005 and competed in the [S. G. Ball Cup](/wiki/S._G._Ball_Cup \"S. G. Ball Cup\"), [Harold Matthews Cup](/wiki/Harold_Matthews_Cup \"Harold Matthews Cup\") and [Jersey Flegg Cup](/wiki/Jersey_Flegg_Cup \"Jersey Flegg Cup\"). The players were a mix of talent from the local [Central Coast Division of Country Rugby League](/wiki/Central_Coast_Division_of_Country_Rugby_League \"Central Coast Division of Country Rugby League\") \\- Group 12 Competition. At the end of the 2006 season and without a finals appearance in any of the competitions the Rip entered, the club was bought out by the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\") who turned the Central Coast\\-based club into their main feeder team.", "### Storm (2007\\-2009\\)", "In 2007 the Central Coast Storm, now a packed side with both local and interstate talent (courtesy of the Melbourne Storm's Victorian based junior's program), began to run a side in the [New South Wales Cup](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Cup \"New South Wales Cup\"), acting as the Storm's feeder club.{{cite news \\|newspaper\\=Herald Sun \\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,20606081\\-14823,00\\.html \\|title\\=Storm make impact on Coast \\|first\\=Karl \\|last\\=deKroo \\|date\\=October 19, 2006 \\|location\\=Melbourne \\|publisher\\=News Limited}} Along with the new and major support from the Storm, the team received sponsorship from the private health company, [Medibank Private](/wiki/Medibank_Private \"Medibank Private\") for the next three seasons. Part of this sponsorship included more sponsorship of the actual local district competitions.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Storm to visit every Junior Club on the Central Coast \\|url\\=http://www.rleague.com/db/article.php?id\\=30457 \\|work\\=rleague.com \\|date\\=May 21, 2008 \\|accessdate\\=April 4, 2010 \\|first\\=Matthew \\|last\\=O'Neill \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211194807/http://rleague.com/db/article.php?id\\=30457 \\|archivedate\\=February 11, 2010 }}", "The team's first season in the New South Wales Cup in 2008 ended unsuccessfully, they did not reach the finals and finished in a disappointing 10th place. The team however was able to reveal some notable talent for the Melbourne Storm including promising prop [Aiden Tolman](/wiki/Aiden_Tolman \"Aiden Tolman\"), who later graduated to the first team towards the end of the 2008 season. Future first\\-graders for the Storm who grew their talent at Central Coast included [Sinbad Kali](/wiki/Sinbad_Kali \"Sinbad Kali\"), [Kevin Proctor](/wiki/Kevin_Proctor \"Kevin Proctor\") and [Matt Duffie](/wiki/Matt_Duffie \"Matt Duffie\") with the later two contributing to Melbourne Storm's clinching of the [2009 Toyota National Youth Competition](/wiki/2009_NRL_Under-20s_season%23Grand_Final \"2009 NRL Under-20s season#Grand Final\").", "The 2009 season would end up being the final season for the Central Coast Storm before they were to wound\\-up by the Melbourne Storm. Their final season however, turned out to be their most successful. Throughout the season, the team was always both consistent and also a very attacking football\\-team. This culminated with the Storm finishing a very credible 2nd place behind the [Canterbury\\-Bankstown Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs \"Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs\")\\-feeder team, the [Bankstown City Bulls](/wiki/Sydney_Bulls \"Sydney Bulls\"). The team's first finals appearance turned out to be a shocker. The team went against the 7th\\-placed [Western Suburbs](/wiki/Western_Suburbs_Magpies \"Western Suburbs Magpies\") in the first\\-week of the finals. A win would have seen the Central Coast Storm one win away from their first ever Grand Final appearance, however, in front of their home supporters, the team was trounced by the Magpies and by the end of the 80 minutes, the scoreline read an astonishing 68\\-4 in what was the shock result of the week by far.{{Cite web \\|title\\=NSW Cup Finals Week 1 \\- Match Reviews \\|url\\=http://www.rleague.com/db/content/92000/92112\\.php \\|work\\=rleague.com \\|date\\=September 12, 2009 \\|accessdate\\=April 4, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102193045/http://rleague.com/db/content/92000/92112\\.php \\|archivedate\\=January 2, 2010 }} Instead, the Storm in the Semi\\-Finals faced the [Balmain Tigers](/wiki/Balmain_Tigers \"Balmain Tigers\") at [Leichhardt Oval](/wiki/Leichhardt_Oval \"Leichhardt Oval\") in what proved to be the club's final game of their short 4\\-year history. The Storm attempted to trample a Tigers side who would eventually reach the Grand Final of the competition. With the side missing the likes of [Kevin Proctor](/wiki/Kevin_Proctor \"Kevin Proctor\"), [Brian Lima](/wiki/Brian_Lima \"Brian Lima\"), [Ryan Tandy](/wiki/Ryan_Tandy \"Ryan Tandy\") as well a host of other regulars, the team went in understrength, very much similar to the game against Western Suburbs and as such went down in a surprisingly tight\\-encounter, 24\\-18 with the Storm coming back in the 2nd half. The loss meant this was the Storm's final game as they were eliminated from the finals after a very successful home/away season.{{Cite news \\|title\\=NSW Cup Finals Week 2 \\- Match Reviews \\|url\\=http://www.rleague.com/db/index.php?id\\=92123 \\|work\\=rleague.com \\|date\\=September 20, 2009 \\|accessdate\\=April 4, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103120038/http://rleague.com/db/index.php?id\\=92123 \\|archivedate\\=January 3, 2010 }}", "With the season over, the [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\") officially announced its intentions to pull out from the [Central Coast](/wiki/Central_Coast_Storm \"Central Coast Storm\") after three seasons of both success and failure at the ever\\-expanding region. The Storm instead released to the media that it will now instead field a side in the [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup \"NSW Cup\") based wholly and solely in [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne%2C_Australia \"Melbourne, Australia\"). As such, the team will be named exactly like the first\\-grade team, Melbourne Storm. As a replacement to the now\\-defunct Storm, [Greg Florimo](/wiki/Greg_Florimo \"Greg Florimo\"), the CEO of the [North Sydney Bears](/wiki/North_Sydney_Bears \"North Sydney Bears\") and head of the expansion consortium of the [Central Coast Bears](/wiki/Central_Coast_Bears \"Central Coast Bears\"), announced their intentions to field their own side based entirely out of the Central Coast. The side was originally to be known as the Central Coast Cubs (as a reference to the ties to the Bears) but the moniker was changed to Centurions after gaining support from the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights \"Newcastle Knights\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Storm departure opens the door for Central Coast Bears \\|url\\=http://www.rleague.com/db/article.php?id\\=34103 \\|work\\=rleague.com \\|date\\=August 6, 2009 \\|accessdate\\=April 4, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114053207/http://rleague.com/db/article.php?id\\=34103 \\|archivedate\\=January 14, 2010 }}", "### Centurions (2010\\-2011\\)", "The Centurions acted as a feeder club to the [NRL](/wiki/NRL \"NRL\") club [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights \"Newcastle Knights\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://nswrl.com.au/default.aspx?s\\=nswc\\-clubs\\-centurians\\|title\\=Central Coast Centurians\\|publisher\\=NSWRL\\|accessdate\\=15 March 2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311033548/http://nswrl.com.au/default.aspx?s\\=nswc\\-clubs\\-centurians\\|archivedate\\=11 March 2011}} They started the season well with a 28\\-18 win against the [Canterbury\\-Bankstown Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs \"Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs\") at the Crest Sports Complex in Round 1, but then had a horror run through the middle of the season with 13 losses and 4 wins.", "Some notable players in the squad are [Chris Adams](/wiki/Chris_Adams_%28rugby_league%29 \"Chris Adams (rugby league)\"), [Joel Edwards](/wiki/Joel_Edwards_%28rugby_league%29 \"Joel Edwards (rugby league)\"), [Marvin Filipo](/wiki/Marvin_Filipo \"Marvin Filipo\"), [Sinbad Kali](/wiki/Sinbad_Kali \"Sinbad Kali\"), [Marvin Karawana](/wiki/Marvin_Karawana \"Marvin Karawana\"), [Siuatonga Likiliki](/wiki/Siuatonga_Likiliki \"Siuatonga Likiliki\"), [Keith Lulia](/wiki/Keith_Lulia \"Keith Lulia\"), [Peter Mata'utia](/wiki/Peter_Mata%27utia \"Peter Mata'utia\"), [Shannon McDonnell](/wiki/Shannon_McDonnell \"Shannon McDonnell\"), [Constantine Mika](/wiki/Constantine_Mika \"Constantine Mika\"), [Kevin Naiqama](/wiki/Kevin_Naiqama \"Kevin Naiqama\"), [Kyle O'Donnell](/wiki/Kyle_O%27Donnell \"Kyle O'Donnell\"), [Ben Rogers](/wiki/Ben_Rogers_%28rugby_league%29 \"Ben Rogers (rugby league)\"), [Steve Southern](/wiki/Steve_Southern \"Steve Southern\"), [Ryan Stig](/wiki/Ryan_Stig \"Ryan Stig\"), [Zane Tetevano](/wiki/Zane_Tetevano \"Zane Tetevano\") and [Simon Williams](/wiki/Simon_Williams_%28rugby_league%29 \"Simon Williams (rugby league)\"). The Centurions coach Rip Taylor was selected to coach alongside [Jason Taylor](/wiki/Jason_Taylor_%28rugby_league%29 \"Jason Taylor (rugby league)\") as the assistant coach of the NSW Residents on 7 July 2010 against the Queensland residents before game III of the [2010 State of Origin series](/wiki/2010_State_of_Origin_series \"2010 State of Origin series\") at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/ANZ_Stadium \"ANZ Stadium\"). Centurions winger [Kevin Naiqama](/wiki/Kevin_Naiqama \"Kevin Naiqama\") was also in the NSW team and scored the game\\-breaking try. NSW went on to win the game.", "Centre [Marvin Filipo](/wiki/Marvin_Filipo \"Marvin Filipo\") was named the Centurions player of the year in 2010, and [Steve Southern](/wiki/Steve_Southern \"Steve Southern\") was named in 2011\\.", "### Demise from NSW Cup", "During October 2011, it was announced that the Centurions wouldn't be continuing in 2012, with the team to be named the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights \"Newcastle Knights\") in the [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup \"NSW Cup\") competition from then on.", "### Club goes on (2012\\-current)", "While the Central Coast Centurions exited the [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup \"NSW Cup\") however the side continued to play in the [New South Wales Rugby League](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Rugby_League \"New South Wales Rugby League\")'s [S. G. Ball Cup](/wiki/S._G._Ball_Cup \"S. G. Ball Cup\") and [Harold Matthews Cup](/wiki/Harold_Matthews_Cup \"Harold Matthews Cup\"). In this time, the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") develop ties with [Central Coast Rugby League](/wiki/Central_Coast_Division_Rugby_League \"Central Coast Division Rugby League\") and the club. In 2017 the Central Coast Centurions name was officially changed to Central Coast Roosters to highlight the strength of the arrangement. The [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") maintain their own junior development teams by the same name in both competitions.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.roosters.com.au/team/central\\_coast\\_centur.html\\|title\\=Teams}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://websites.sportstg.com/club\\_info.cgi?client\\=7\\-2168\\-19992\\-0\\-0\\&sID\\=86970\\&news\\_task\\=ARCHIVED\\&section\\=86970 \\|title\\=Central Coast Roosters \\- SportsTG \\|website\\=websites.sportstg.com \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316204418/http://websites.sportstg.com/club\\_info.cgi?client\\=7\\-2168\\-19992\\-0\\-0\\&sID\\=86970\\&news\\_task\\=ARCHIVED\\&section\\=86970 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-03\\-16}} {{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.centralcoastrugbyleague.com.au/2014\\-08\\-14\\-00\\-30\\-42/central\\-coast\\-roosters\\|title\\=Central Coast Roosters}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/central\\-coast/central\\-coast\\-rugby\\-league\\-adopts\\-sydney\\-roosters\\-nickname\\-and\\-colours/news\\-story/ae53424ebb16a8e4170c1af5135f1650\\|title\\=Roosters fly the flag for Central Coast teams\\|newspaper\\=Daily Telegraph\\|date\\=23 February 2017\\|last1\\=Way\\|first1\\=Peter}}", "### NSWRL Women's Premiers (2020\\)", "The Central Coast entered a representative team, as the Roosters, in the 2020 NSWRL Women's Premiership. The commencement of the competition was delayed until July, due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic in Australia](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Australia \"COVID-19 pandemic in Australia\"). The team completed the seven match regular season in first place, with five wins, one draw and one bye. Remarkably, the draw came against [Wentworthville Magpies](/wiki/Wentworthville_Magpies \"Wentworthville Magpies\") who were winless wooden spooners.", "The Roosters' won a place in the Grand Final by defeating [Cronulla\\-Sutherland Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks_Women \"Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks Women\") in the major semi\\-final at Campbelltown Stadium on September 12\\. The win was achieved with a field goal in golden\\-point extra\\-time.", "In the Grand Final at [Bankwest Stadium](/wiki/Bankwest_Stadium \"Bankwest Stadium\") on September 27, the Roosters scored the first two tries to take a 10 to nil lead. Their opponents, the [North Sydney Bears](/wiki/North_Sydney_Bears \"North Sydney Bears\") responded with a try before Central Coast countered with their third try. The score was 14\\-4 at the break. North Sydney scored early in the second half, and that try was converted. The Roosters managed to protect a four point lead until the last minute, when they received a penalty. The resulting goal saw the full time score: Central Coast 16, North Sydney 10\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nswrl.com.au/news/2020/09/27/minor\\-premiers\\-become/\\|title\\=Roosters reign supreme with thrilling GF victory\\|last\\=Harris\\|first\\=Kristy\\-Lee\\|date\\=27 Sep 2020\\|website\\=NSWRL\\|access\\-date\\=27 Sep 2020}}", "Members of the Central Coast Roosters received the two individual awards for the competition. [Hannah Southwell](/wiki/Hannah_Southwell \"Hannah Southwell\") (lock) was named Player of the Year. [Yasmin Meakes](/wiki/Yasmin_Clydsdale \"Yasmin Clydsdale\") (centre) was named Player of the Match for the Grand Final. Team captain [Isabelle Kelly](/wiki/Isabelle_Kelly \"Isabelle Kelly\") had previously played for Central Coast Club side [Berkeley Vale Panthers](/wiki/Berkeley_Vale_Panthers \"Berkeley Vale Panthers\") in the NSWRL Women's Premiership.", "" ]
Plot ---- One month after falling in love with the writer Hiroshi Yosano, Akiko leaves her parents to move to Tokyo to be with him. After they marry, Akiko faces gossip that she drove Hiroshi's wife away. Upset at her poetry, some Japanese citizens consider Akiko a traitor and set fire to her house. Hiroshi Yosano grows poor attempting to continue circulation of the magazine *Bright Star*. After attending the opera, Akiko is knocked over by a motorcycle driven by the author Takeo Arishima. He sends her a Western outfit as an apology gift but she brings it back to his home to return it to him. The editor Akiko Hatano pressures Arishima to provide an essay about suicide for her publication but he is reluctant to do so. Hiroshi runs for election to the [House of Representatives](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_%28Japan%29 "House of Representatives (Japan)"), funded by the uncle of Tomiko Yamakawa, Akiko's former romantic rival. Akiko makes negative statements about the campaign and Hiroshi eventually loses, but chooses to stay with Tomiko while she recovers from tuberculosis. The actress Sumiko hangs herself after her lover Hogetsu commits suicide. At the memorial service, Arishima asks Akiko to come with him to his father's farm at the foot of [Mount Yōtei](/wiki/Mount_Y%C5%8Dtei "Mount Yōtei") in [Hokkaido](/wiki/Hokkaido "Hokkaido"). Akiko tells her children that she will return by Sunday. In Hokkaido, Arishima is briefly arrested for holding a socialist meeting with the farmers. Tomiko dies and Hiroshi returns home. Akiko returns home from Hokkaido days later than expected and her children have grown to hate her for her selfish actions. Arishima and the editor Akiko Hatano decide to commit suicide together. They stop themselves at the last moment several times until they are caught in an embrace by her husband, who threatens to sue for adultery. They then hang themselves together at Arishima's home. After the [1923 Great Kantō earthquake](/wiki/1923_Great_Kant%C5%8D_earthquake "1923 Great Kantō earthquake") destroys the Yasano home, Akiko reads that her friends the anarchist Sakae Osugi and Noe Itou have been executed by the police. When she sees two of their anarchist friends being dragged by chains behind mounted police, she rushes to give them some rice balls and encourages them to live on. Akiko and Hiroshi commit themselves to living on and rebuilding their home.
[ "Plot\n----", "One month after falling in love with the writer Hiroshi Yosano, Akiko leaves her parents to move to Tokyo to be with him. After they marry, Akiko faces gossip that she drove Hiroshi's wife away. Upset at her poetry, some Japanese citizens consider Akiko a traitor and set fire to her house. Hiroshi Yosano grows poor attempting to continue circulation of the magazine *Bright Star*.", "After attending the opera, Akiko is knocked over by a motorcycle driven by the author Takeo Arishima. He sends her a Western outfit as an apology gift but she brings it back to his home to return it to him. The editor Akiko Hatano pressures Arishima to provide an essay about suicide for her publication but he is reluctant to do so.", "Hiroshi runs for election to the [House of Representatives](/wiki/House_of_Representatives_%28Japan%29 \"House of Representatives (Japan)\"), funded by the uncle of Tomiko Yamakawa, Akiko's former romantic rival. Akiko makes negative statements about the campaign and Hiroshi eventually loses, but chooses to stay with Tomiko while she recovers from tuberculosis.", "The actress Sumiko hangs herself after her lover Hogetsu commits suicide. At the memorial service, Arishima asks Akiko to come with him to his father's farm at the foot of [Mount Yōtei](/wiki/Mount_Y%C5%8Dtei \"Mount Yōtei\") in [Hokkaido](/wiki/Hokkaido \"Hokkaido\"). Akiko tells her children that she will return by Sunday. In Hokkaido, Arishima is briefly arrested for holding a socialist meeting with the farmers. Tomiko dies and Hiroshi returns home. Akiko returns home from Hokkaido days later than expected and her children have grown to hate her for her selfish actions.", "Arishima and the editor Akiko Hatano decide to commit suicide together. They stop themselves at the last moment several times until they are caught in an embrace by her husband, who threatens to sue for adultery. They then hang themselves together at Arishima's home.", "After the [1923 Great Kantō earthquake](/wiki/1923_Great_Kant%C5%8D_earthquake \"1923 Great Kantō earthquake\") destroys the Yasano home, Akiko reads that her friends the anarchist Sakae Osugi and Noe Itou have been executed by the police. When she sees two of their anarchist friends being dragged by chains behind mounted police, she rushes to give them some rice balls and encourages them to live on. Akiko and Hiroshi commit themselves to living on and rebuilding their home.", "" ]
Club career ----------- ### Early years and Brugge Born in [Vilnius](/wiki/Vilnius "Vilnius"), [Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic"), [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), Jankauskas moved to local [FK Žalgiris](/wiki/FK_%C5%BDalgiris_Vilnius "FK Žalgiris Vilnius")' youth ranks at 16, from neighbouring FK Panerys. In 1996 he joined [CSKA Moscow](/wiki/PFC_CSKA_Moscow "PFC CSKA Moscow"), and later spent a further year in the [Russian capital](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") with [Torpedo Moscow](/wiki/FC_Torpedo_Moscow "FC Torpedo Moscow"). Jankauskas signed with [Club Brugge](/wiki/Club_Brugge_KV "Club Brugge KV") in 1997, and helped the club win the [Belgian Pro League](/wiki/Belgian_Pro_League "Belgian Pro League") in [his first season](/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_Belgian_First_Division "1997–98 Belgian First Division"). However, in January 2000, he became the most expensive Lithuanian player of all time when [Real Sociedad](/wiki/Real_Sociedad "Real Sociedad") paid €2\.4 million for his services.{{cite news\|url\=http://real\-sociedad.diariovasco.com/noticias/201412/26/fichajes\-invierno\-20141226004520\.html\|title\=Los fichajes invernales de la Real Sociedad\|trans\-title\=Real Sociedad's winter signings\|newspaper\=\[\[El Diario Vasco]]\|language\=es\|date\=26 December 2014\|access\-date\=8 June 2016}} In [2000–01](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_La_Liga "2000–01 La Liga"), Jankauskas initially struggled for goals, and was told by manager [John Toshack](/wiki/John_Toshack "John Toshack") that "a striker without goals is like a bar without beer". He broke a seven\-game scoreless run with two goals in a 3–0 home win over [Real Oviedo](/wiki/Real_Oviedo "Real Oviedo") on the 29th matchday, taking *La Real* out of their long spell in relegation zone; they remained out of danger and he concluded the season with eleven goals.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.lavozdegalicia.es/noticia/gradario/2022/11/07/larsen\-bar\-cerveza/00031667834683043292963\.htm\|title\=Larsen, como un bar sin cerveza\|trans\-title\=Larsen, like a bar without beer\|newspaper\=\[\[La Voz de Galicia]]\|first\=Pablo\|last\=Carballo\|language\=es\|date\=8 November 2022\|access\-date\=6 September 2023}} In the penultimate fixture, he opened a 3–1 win at rivals [Athletic Bilbao](/wiki/Athletic_Bilbao "Athletic Bilbao") in the [Basque derby](/wiki/Basque_derby "Basque derby").{{cite news\|url\=https://gara.naiz.eus/paperezkoa/20130222/389234/es/De\-cinco\-goles\-Zarra\-1\-3\-Jankauskas\-compania\|title\=De los cinco goles de Zarra al 1–3 de Jankauskas y compañía \[''sic'']\|trans\-title\=From Zarra's five goals to the 1–3 by Jankauskas and company\|newspaper\=\[\[Gara (newspaper)\|Gara]]\|first\=Joseba\|last\=Vivanco\|language\=es\|date\=22 February 2013\|access\-date\=6 September 2023}} ### Portugal After another half\-season in [San Sebastián](/wiki/San_Sebasti%C3%A1n "San Sebastián"), Jankauskas was loaned to [Benfica](/wiki/S.L._Benfica "S.L. Benfica") for the remainder of the [2001–02 season](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Primeira_Liga "2001–02 Primeira Liga"), though the [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon") side initially wanted his strike partner [Darko Kovačević](/wiki/Darko_Kova%C4%8Devi%C4%87 "Darko Kovačević"). He scored eight times in his spell, including on his debut in a 3–2 win over [Varzim](/wiki/Varzim_S.C. "Varzim S.C.") and twice in the next game for a 4–1 win at [Salgueiros](/wiki/S.C._Salgueiros "S.C. Salgueiros").{{cite web\|url\=https://maisfutebol.iol.pt/geral/31\-05\-2002/jankauskas\-da\-lituania\-para\-portugal\|title\=Jankauskas: da Lituânia para Portugal\|trans\-title\=Jankauskas: from Lithuania to Portugal\|publisher\=Mais Futebol\|language\=pt\|date\=31 May 2002\|access\-date\=6 September 2023}} Benfica did not take up their option to sign Jankauskas for €4\.3 million during his loan,{{cite web\|url\=https://maisfutebol.iol.pt/geral/30\-05\-2002/jankauskas\-diz\-que\-o\-benfica\-e\-uma\-religiao\-mas\-nao\-sabe\-se\-fica\|title\=Jankauskas diz que «o Benfica é uma religião», mas não sabe se fica\|trans\-title\=Jankauskas says that "Benfica is a religion", but does not know if he's staying\|publisher\=Mais Futebol\|language\=pt\|date\=30 May 2002\|access\-date\=6 September 2023}} and instead he joined [rivals](/wiki/O_Cl%C3%A1ssico "O Clássico") [Porto](/wiki/FC_Porto "FC Porto") on a five\-year deal for €2\.3 million in June 2002\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.uefa.com/insideuefa/news/0186\-0f8e8fdc7861\-ae769825c4c1\-1000\-\-porto\-sign\-jankauskas/\|title\=Porto sign Jankauskas\|publisher\=UEFA\|date\=3 June 2002\|access\-date\=6 September 2023}} He caused controversy by declaring to *[El Diario Vasco](/wiki/El_Diario_Vasco "El Diario Vasco")* that Benfica was like a religion before signing for Porto; he clarified that he was talking about their level of support and not his intention to stay at the [Estádio da Luz](/wiki/Est%C3%A1dio_da_Luz "Estádio da Luz").{{cite web\|url\=https://maisfutebol.iol.pt/geral/05\-07\-2002/jankauskas\-esclarece\-nunca\-disse\-que\-o\-benfica\-era\-a\-minha\-religiao\|title\=Jankauskas esclarece: «Nunca disse que o Benfica era a minha religião»\|trans\-title\=Jankauskas clarifies: "I never said that Benfica was my religion"\|publisher\=Mais Futebol\|first\=Filipe\|last\=Caetano\|language\=pt\|date\=5 July 2002\|access\-date\=6 September 2023}}{{cite news\|url\=https://tribuna.expresso.pt/entrevistas\-tribuna/2019\-11\-14\-Jankauskas\-O\-Benfica\-e\-uma\-religiao\-sim\-para\-os\-benfiquistas.\-Era\-e\-e\-sera\-assim.\-Ha\-criancas\-que\-nascem\-com\-a\-camisola\-do\-Benfica\|title\=Jankauskas: "O Benfica é uma religião, sim, para os benfiquistas. Era, é e será assim. Há crianças que nascem com a camisola do Benfica"\|trans\-title\=Jankauskas: "Benfica is a religion, yes, for the Benfica fans. It was, is and will be that way. There are children who are born in Benfica shirts"\|newspaper\=\[\[Expresso (newspaper)\|Expresso]]\|first\=Lídia\|last\=Paralta Gomes\|language\=pt\|date\=14 November 2009\|access\-date\=6 September 2023}} Jankauskas made his debut on 25 August as the season began at home to [Belenenses](/wiki/C.F._Os_Belenenses "C.F. Os Belenenses"), coming on at [half time](/wiki/Half_time "Half time") and scoring in the seventh minute of added time for a 2–2 draw.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.record.pt/futebol/futebol\-nacional/liga\-betclic/fc\-porto/detalhe/fc\-porto\-belenenses\-2\-2\-postiga\-66\-jankauskas\-90\-neca\-12\-88\-pen\|title\=FC PORTO\-BELENENSES, 2–2 (Postiga 66'', Jankauskas 90''; Neca 12'', 88'' \[pen])\|newspaper\=\[\[Record (Portuguese newspaper)\|Record]]\|language\=pt\|date\=25 August 2002\|access\-date\=6 September 2023}}{{cite web\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/9399728\.stm\|title\=Jose Mourinho's unbeaten home league run remembered\|publisher\=\[\[BBC Sport]]\|date\=18 February 2011\|access\-date\=6 September 2023}} Under manager [José Mourinho](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mourinho "José Mourinho"), though not always a regular starter, he made an important contribution{{cite news\|url\=http://www.record.pt/futebol/futebol\-nacional/liga\-nos/fc\-porto/detalhe/jankauskas\-concorrencia\-nao\-me\-assusta\|title\=Jankauskas: "Concorrência não me assusta"\|trans\-title\=Jankauskas: «I'm not scared by competition»\|newspaper\=Record\|language\=pt\|date\=3 August 2003\|access\-date\=11 October 2018}} to a side which conquered all in Portugal, winning the [Primeira Liga](/wiki/Primeira_Liga "Primeira Liga") and [Taça de Portugal](/wiki/Ta%C3%A7a_de_Portugal "Taça de Portugal") [double](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29 "Double (association football)") in [2002–03](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_Primeira_Liga "2002–03 Primeira Liga") and the national championship in [the following campaign](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Primeira_Liga "2003–04 Primeira Liga"). Jankauskas also helped Porto to achieve [European](/wiki/UEFA "UEFA") success and, while he missed selection for the [2003 UEFA Cup final](/wiki/2003_UEFA_Cup_Final "2003 UEFA Cup Final")\-winning squad, he was a [substitute](/wiki/Substitute_%28association_football%29 "Substitute (association football)") when the Dragons [won](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_UEFA_Champions_League "2003–04 UEFA Champions League") the [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League "UEFA Champions League") against [Monaco](/wiki/AS_Monaco_FC "AS Monaco FC") in the following year.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season\=2003/matches/round\=1716/match\=1065206/postmatch/report/index.html\|title\=Porto perform to perfection\|publisher\=UEFA\|date\=27 May 2004\|access\-date\=5 February 2016}} ### Hearts and later career After the departure of Mourinho, Jankauskas fell out of favour in Porto and joined [Nice](/wiki/OGC_Nice "OGC Nice") on loan,[Jankauskas to set French first](http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid=221106.html); UEFA, 31 August 2004 but he failed to settle in [France](/wiki/France "France"), and eventually signed for [Scottish Premier League](/wiki/Scottish_Premier_League "Scottish Premier League") club [Heart of Midlothian](/wiki/Heart_of_Midlothian_F.C. "Heart of Midlothian F.C.") – via [FBK Kaunas](/wiki/FBK_Kaunas "FBK Kaunas") – in 2005\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\=320016\.html\#jankauskas\+joins\+hearts\+attack\|title\=Jankauskas joins Hearts attack\|publisher\=UEFA\|date\=25 July 2005\|access\-date\=7 September 2017}} In a complex deal, he was loaned to Hearts at the behest of [Vladimir Romanov](/wiki/Vladimir_Romanov "Vladimir Romanov"), who controlled both clubs, and spent the next two seasons in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh"). In [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Scottish_Premier_League "2005–06 Scottish Premier League"), Jankauskas' experience and goals helped Hearts to [win](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Scottish_Cup "2005–06 Scottish Cup") the [Scottish Cup](/wiki/Scottish_Cup "Scottish Cup") and achieve [Champions league qualification](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_UEFA_Champions_League "2006–07 UEFA Champions League") by finishing second in the league.[Hearts 3–0 Motherwell](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/scot_prem/4722234.stm); BBC Sport, 18 February 2006[Falkirk 1–2 Hearts](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/scot_prem/4836918.stm); BBC Sport, 25 March 2006 [The following campaign](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Scottish_Premier_League "2006–07 Scottish Premier League") was less successful for him, as injuries and indifferent form limited his appearances; after his Kaunas and Hearts contracts expired in June 2007,[Hearts announce Jankauskas exit](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/h/heart_of_midlothian/6698755.stm); BBC Sport, 1 June 2007 he signed with [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus")'s [AEK Larnaca](/wiki/AEK_Larnaca_FC "AEK Larnaca FC"). On 30 January 2008, Jankauskas joined Portuguese League team Belenenses.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.rtp.pt/noticias/futebol\-nacional/jankauskas\-no\-belenenses\_d255112\|title\=Jankauskas no Belenenses\|trans\-title\=Jankauskas to Belenenses\|publisher\=\[\[Rádio e Televisão de Portugal]]\|language\=pt\|date\=30 January 2008\|access\-date\=11 October 2018}} He terminated his contract after only a few months, moving to [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia")'s [Skonto Riga](/wiki/Skonto_FC "Skonto FC") in the summer after claiming he wanted to play closer to his homeland. At the start of 2009, Jankauskas was working on obtaining his coaching badges, and pondering his retirement. In June, however, it was revealed that he would be heading to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") for a trial with [Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer "Major League Soccer") club [New England Revolution](/wiki/New_England_Revolution "New England Revolution"). On 28 June 2009, pending the arrival of his P1 Visa and ITC documents, a deal was arranged for the 34\-year\-old;{{cite web\|url\=https://article.wn.com/view/2009/07/02/Revolution\_add\_Lithuanian\_forward\_Jankauskas/\|title\=Revolution add Lithuanian forward Jankauskas\|publisher\=\[\[World News Network]]\|date\=2 July 2009\|access\-date\=11 October 2018}} his week 26 goal against the [Kansas City Wizards](/wiki/Kansas_City_Wizards "Kansas City Wizards") was nominated for the [MLS Goal of the Year Award](/wiki/MLS_Goal_of_the_Year_Award "MLS Goal of the Year Award").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/revolutions\-jankauskas\-named\-finalist\-for\-att\-goal\-of\-the\-year/n\-3927756\|title\=Revolution's Jankauskas named finalist for AT\&T Goal of the Year\|publisher\=Our Sports Central\|date\=11 November 2009\|access\-date\=11 October 2018}} On 30 September 2010, Jankauskas was released by the Revolution.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.revolutionsoccer.net/news/index.cfm?ac\=latestnewsdetail\&pid\=44938\&pcid\=115\|title\=Revolution release Edgaras Jankauskas\|publisher\=New England Revolution\|date\=30 September 2010\|access\-date\=30 September 2010\|archive\-date\=3 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303172656/http://www.revolutionsoccer.net/news/index.cfm?ac\=latestnewsdetail\&pid\=44938\&pcid\=115\|url\-status\=dead}} He moved to [Fakel Voronezh](/wiki/FC_Fakel_Voronezh "FC Fakel Voronezh") in the [Russian second level](/wiki/Football_Championship_of_the_National_League "Football Championship of the National League") shortly after, retiring after only a few months.{{Cite web \|date\=2011\-07\-08 \|title\=ЭДГАРАС ЯНКАУСКАС: «СНИМАЮ ШЛЯПУ ПЕРЕД ВОРОНЕЖСКИМИ БОЛЕЛЬЩИКАМИ» \|url\=https://fakelfc.ru/news/view/537\-persona \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-04 \|website\=Fakel FC \|language\=ru}} In July 2012, Jankauskas returned to Hearts as an assistant manager,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/18620094\|title\=Hearts appoint Edgaras Jankauskas as Hearts assistant\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=2 July 2012\|access\-date\=29 July 2013}} leaving his post at the end of [the season](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Scottish_Premier_League "2012–13 Scottish Premier League").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22627769\|title\=Hearts: Edgaras Jankauskas \& board member leave club\|publisher\=BBC Sport\|date\=22 May 2013\|access\-date\=29 July 2013}}
[ "Club career\n-----------", "### Early years and Brugge", "Born in [Vilnius](/wiki/Vilnius \"Vilnius\"), [Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic](/wiki/Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic\"), [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), Jankauskas moved to local [FK Žalgiris](/wiki/FK_%C5%BDalgiris_Vilnius \"FK Žalgiris Vilnius\")' youth ranks at 16, from neighbouring FK Panerys. In 1996 he joined [CSKA Moscow](/wiki/PFC_CSKA_Moscow \"PFC CSKA Moscow\"), and later spent a further year in the [Russian capital](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") with [Torpedo Moscow](/wiki/FC_Torpedo_Moscow \"FC Torpedo Moscow\").", "Jankauskas signed with [Club Brugge](/wiki/Club_Brugge_KV \"Club Brugge KV\") in 1997, and helped the club win the [Belgian Pro League](/wiki/Belgian_Pro_League \"Belgian Pro League\") in [his first season](/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_Belgian_First_Division \"1997–98 Belgian First Division\"). However, in January 2000, he became the most expensive Lithuanian player of all time when [Real Sociedad](/wiki/Real_Sociedad \"Real Sociedad\") paid €2\\.4 million for his services.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://real\\-sociedad.diariovasco.com/noticias/201412/26/fichajes\\-invierno\\-20141226004520\\.html\\|title\\=Los fichajes invernales de la Real Sociedad\\|trans\\-title\\=Real Sociedad's winter signings\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[El Diario Vasco]]\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=26 December 2014\\|access\\-date\\=8 June 2016}}", "In [2000–01](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_La_Liga \"2000–01 La Liga\"), Jankauskas initially struggled for goals, and was told by manager [John Toshack](/wiki/John_Toshack \"John Toshack\") that \"a striker without goals is like a bar without beer\". He broke a seven\\-game scoreless run with two goals in a 3–0 home win over [Real Oviedo](/wiki/Real_Oviedo \"Real Oviedo\") on the 29th matchday, taking *La Real* out of their long spell in relegation zone; they remained out of danger and he concluded the season with eleven goals.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.lavozdegalicia.es/noticia/gradario/2022/11/07/larsen\\-bar\\-cerveza/00031667834683043292963\\.htm\\|title\\=Larsen, como un bar sin cerveza\\|trans\\-title\\=Larsen, like a bar without beer\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[La Voz de Galicia]]\\|first\\=Pablo\\|last\\=Carballo\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=8 November 2022\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2023}} In the penultimate fixture, he opened a 3–1 win at rivals [Athletic Bilbao](/wiki/Athletic_Bilbao \"Athletic Bilbao\") in the [Basque derby](/wiki/Basque_derby \"Basque derby\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://gara.naiz.eus/paperezkoa/20130222/389234/es/De\\-cinco\\-goles\\-Zarra\\-1\\-3\\-Jankauskas\\-compania\\|title\\=De los cinco goles de Zarra al 1–3 de Jankauskas y compañía \\[''sic'']\\|trans\\-title\\=From Zarra's five goals to the 1–3 by Jankauskas and company\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Gara (newspaper)\\|Gara]]\\|first\\=Joseba\\|last\\=Vivanco\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=22 February 2013\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2023}}", "### Portugal", "After another half\\-season in [San Sebastián](/wiki/San_Sebasti%C3%A1n \"San Sebastián\"), Jankauskas was loaned to [Benfica](/wiki/S.L._Benfica \"S.L. Benfica\") for the remainder of the [2001–02 season](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Primeira_Liga \"2001–02 Primeira Liga\"), though the [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\") side initially wanted his strike partner [Darko Kovačević](/wiki/Darko_Kova%C4%8Devi%C4%87 \"Darko Kovačević\"). He scored eight times in his spell, including on his debut in a 3–2 win over [Varzim](/wiki/Varzim_S.C. \"Varzim S.C.\") and twice in the next game for a 4–1 win at [Salgueiros](/wiki/S.C._Salgueiros \"S.C. Salgueiros\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://maisfutebol.iol.pt/geral/31\\-05\\-2002/jankauskas\\-da\\-lituania\\-para\\-portugal\\|title\\=Jankauskas: da Lituânia para Portugal\\|trans\\-title\\=Jankauskas: from Lithuania to Portugal\\|publisher\\=Mais Futebol\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=31 May 2002\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2023}}", "Benfica did not take up their option to sign Jankauskas for €4\\.3 million during his loan,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://maisfutebol.iol.pt/geral/30\\-05\\-2002/jankauskas\\-diz\\-que\\-o\\-benfica\\-e\\-uma\\-religiao\\-mas\\-nao\\-sabe\\-se\\-fica\\|title\\=Jankauskas diz que «o Benfica é uma religião», mas não sabe se fica\\|trans\\-title\\=Jankauskas says that \"Benfica is a religion\", but does not know if he's staying\\|publisher\\=Mais Futebol\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=30 May 2002\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2023}} and instead he joined [rivals](/wiki/O_Cl%C3%A1ssico \"O Clássico\") [Porto](/wiki/FC_Porto \"FC Porto\") on a five\\-year deal for €2\\.3 million in June 2002\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.uefa.com/insideuefa/news/0186\\-0f8e8fdc7861\\-ae769825c4c1\\-1000\\-\\-porto\\-sign\\-jankauskas/\\|title\\=Porto sign Jankauskas\\|publisher\\=UEFA\\|date\\=3 June 2002\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2023}} He caused controversy by declaring to *[El Diario Vasco](/wiki/El_Diario_Vasco \"El Diario Vasco\")* that Benfica was like a religion before signing for Porto; he clarified that he was talking about their level of support and not his intention to stay at the [Estádio da Luz](/wiki/Est%C3%A1dio_da_Luz \"Estádio da Luz\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://maisfutebol.iol.pt/geral/05\\-07\\-2002/jankauskas\\-esclarece\\-nunca\\-disse\\-que\\-o\\-benfica\\-era\\-a\\-minha\\-religiao\\|title\\=Jankauskas esclarece: «Nunca disse que o Benfica era a minha religião»\\|trans\\-title\\=Jankauskas clarifies: \"I never said that Benfica was my religion\"\\|publisher\\=Mais Futebol\\|first\\=Filipe\\|last\\=Caetano\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=5 July 2002\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2023}}{{cite news\\|url\\=https://tribuna.expresso.pt/entrevistas\\-tribuna/2019\\-11\\-14\\-Jankauskas\\-O\\-Benfica\\-e\\-uma\\-religiao\\-sim\\-para\\-os\\-benfiquistas.\\-Era\\-e\\-e\\-sera\\-assim.\\-Ha\\-criancas\\-que\\-nascem\\-com\\-a\\-camisola\\-do\\-Benfica\\|title\\=Jankauskas: \"O Benfica é uma religião, sim, para os benfiquistas. Era, é e será assim. Há crianças que nascem com a camisola do Benfica\"\\|trans\\-title\\=Jankauskas: \"Benfica is a religion, yes, for the Benfica fans. It was, is and will be that way. There are children who are born in Benfica shirts\"\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Expresso (newspaper)\\|Expresso]]\\|first\\=Lídia\\|last\\=Paralta Gomes\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=14 November 2009\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2023}}", "Jankauskas made his debut on 25 August as the season began at home to [Belenenses](/wiki/C.F._Os_Belenenses \"C.F. Os Belenenses\"), coming on at [half time](/wiki/Half_time \"Half time\") and scoring in the seventh minute of added time for a 2–2 draw.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.record.pt/futebol/futebol\\-nacional/liga\\-betclic/fc\\-porto/detalhe/fc\\-porto\\-belenenses\\-2\\-2\\-postiga\\-66\\-jankauskas\\-90\\-neca\\-12\\-88\\-pen\\|title\\=FC PORTO\\-BELENENSES, 2–2 (Postiga 66'', Jankauskas 90''; Neca 12'', 88'' \\[pen])\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Record (Portuguese newspaper)\\|Record]]\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=25 August 2002\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2023}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/9399728\\.stm\\|title\\=Jose Mourinho's unbeaten home league run remembered\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC Sport]]\\|date\\=18 February 2011\\|access\\-date\\=6 September 2023}} Under manager [José Mourinho](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Mourinho \"José Mourinho\"), though not always a regular starter, he made an important contribution{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.record.pt/futebol/futebol\\-nacional/liga\\-nos/fc\\-porto/detalhe/jankauskas\\-concorrencia\\-nao\\-me\\-assusta\\|title\\=Jankauskas: \"Concorrência não me assusta\"\\|trans\\-title\\=Jankauskas: «I'm not scared by competition»\\|newspaper\\=Record\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=3 August 2003\\|access\\-date\\=11 October 2018}} to a side which conquered all in Portugal, winning the [Primeira Liga](/wiki/Primeira_Liga \"Primeira Liga\") and [Taça de Portugal](/wiki/Ta%C3%A7a_de_Portugal \"Taça de Portugal\") [double](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29 \"Double (association football)\") in [2002–03](/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_Primeira_Liga \"2002–03 Primeira Liga\") and the national championship in [the following campaign](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Primeira_Liga \"2003–04 Primeira Liga\").", "Jankauskas also helped Porto to achieve [European](/wiki/UEFA \"UEFA\") success and, while he missed selection for the [2003 UEFA Cup final](/wiki/2003_UEFA_Cup_Final \"2003 UEFA Cup Final\")\\-winning squad, he was a [substitute](/wiki/Substitute_%28association_football%29 \"Substitute (association football)\") when the Dragons [won](/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_UEFA_Champions_League \"2003–04 UEFA Champions League\") the [UEFA Champions League](/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League \"UEFA Champions League\") against [Monaco](/wiki/AS_Monaco_FC \"AS Monaco FC\") in the following year.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/season\\=2003/matches/round\\=1716/match\\=1065206/postmatch/report/index.html\\|title\\=Porto perform to perfection\\|publisher\\=UEFA\\|date\\=27 May 2004\\|access\\-date\\=5 February 2016}}", "### Hearts and later career", "After the departure of Mourinho, Jankauskas fell out of favour in Porto and joined [Nice](/wiki/OGC_Nice \"OGC Nice\") on loan,[Jankauskas to set French first](http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid=221106.html); UEFA, 31 August 2004 but he failed to settle in [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), and eventually signed for [Scottish Premier League](/wiki/Scottish_Premier_League \"Scottish Premier League\") club [Heart of Midlothian](/wiki/Heart_of_Midlothian_F.C. \"Heart of Midlothian F.C.\") – via [FBK Kaunas](/wiki/FBK_Kaunas \"FBK Kaunas\") – in 2005\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/news/newsid\\=320016\\.html\\#jankauskas\\+joins\\+hearts\\+attack\\|title\\=Jankauskas joins Hearts attack\\|publisher\\=UEFA\\|date\\=25 July 2005\\|access\\-date\\=7 September 2017}} In a complex deal, he was loaned to Hearts at the behest of [Vladimir Romanov](/wiki/Vladimir_Romanov \"Vladimir Romanov\"), who controlled both clubs, and spent the next two seasons in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\").", "In [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Scottish_Premier_League \"2005–06 Scottish Premier League\"), Jankauskas' experience and goals helped Hearts to [win](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Scottish_Cup \"2005–06 Scottish Cup\") the [Scottish Cup](/wiki/Scottish_Cup \"Scottish Cup\") and achieve [Champions league qualification](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_UEFA_Champions_League \"2006–07 UEFA Champions League\") by finishing second in the league.[Hearts 3–0 Motherwell](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/scot_prem/4722234.stm); BBC Sport, 18 February 2006[Falkirk 1–2 Hearts](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/scot_prem/4836918.stm); BBC Sport, 25 March 2006 [The following campaign](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Scottish_Premier_League \"2006–07 Scottish Premier League\") was less successful for him, as injuries and indifferent form limited his appearances; after his Kaunas and Hearts contracts expired in June 2007,[Hearts announce Jankauskas exit](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/teams/h/heart_of_midlothian/6698755.stm); BBC Sport, 1 June 2007 he signed with [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus \"Cyprus\")'s [AEK Larnaca](/wiki/AEK_Larnaca_FC \"AEK Larnaca FC\").", "On 30 January 2008, Jankauskas joined Portuguese League team Belenenses.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rtp.pt/noticias/futebol\\-nacional/jankauskas\\-no\\-belenenses\\_d255112\\|title\\=Jankauskas no Belenenses\\|trans\\-title\\=Jankauskas to Belenenses\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rádio e Televisão de Portugal]]\\|language\\=pt\\|date\\=30 January 2008\\|access\\-date\\=11 October 2018}} He terminated his contract after only a few months, moving to [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\")'s [Skonto Riga](/wiki/Skonto_FC \"Skonto FC\") in the summer after claiming he wanted to play closer to his homeland.", "At the start of 2009, Jankauskas was working on obtaining his coaching badges, and pondering his retirement. In June, however, it was revealed that he would be heading to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") for a trial with [Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer \"Major League Soccer\") club [New England Revolution](/wiki/New_England_Revolution \"New England Revolution\"). On 28 June 2009, pending the arrival of his P1 Visa and ITC documents, a deal was arranged for the 34\\-year\\-old;{{cite web\\|url\\=https://article.wn.com/view/2009/07/02/Revolution\\_add\\_Lithuanian\\_forward\\_Jankauskas/\\|title\\=Revolution add Lithuanian forward Jankauskas\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World News Network]]\\|date\\=2 July 2009\\|access\\-date\\=11 October 2018}} his week 26 goal against the [Kansas City Wizards](/wiki/Kansas_City_Wizards \"Kansas City Wizards\") was nominated for the [MLS Goal of the Year Award](/wiki/MLS_Goal_of_the_Year_Award \"MLS Goal of the Year Award\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.oursportscentral.com/services/releases/revolutions\\-jankauskas\\-named\\-finalist\\-for\\-att\\-goal\\-of\\-the\\-year/n\\-3927756\\|title\\=Revolution's Jankauskas named finalist for AT\\&T Goal of the Year\\|publisher\\=Our Sports Central\\|date\\=11 November 2009\\|access\\-date\\=11 October 2018}}", "On 30 September 2010, Jankauskas was released by the Revolution.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.revolutionsoccer.net/news/index.cfm?ac\\=latestnewsdetail\\&pid\\=44938\\&pcid\\=115\\|title\\=Revolution release Edgaras Jankauskas\\|publisher\\=New England Revolution\\|date\\=30 September 2010\\|access\\-date\\=30 September 2010\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303172656/http://www.revolutionsoccer.net/news/index.cfm?ac\\=latestnewsdetail\\&pid\\=44938\\&pcid\\=115\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He moved to [Fakel Voronezh](/wiki/FC_Fakel_Voronezh \"FC Fakel Voronezh\") in the [Russian second level](/wiki/Football_Championship_of_the_National_League \"Football Championship of the National League\") shortly after, retiring after only a few months.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-08 \\|title\\=ЭДГАРАС ЯНКАУСКАС: «СНИМАЮ ШЛЯПУ ПЕРЕД ВОРОНЕЖСКИМИ БОЛЕЛЬЩИКАМИ» \\|url\\=https://fakelfc.ru/news/view/537\\-persona \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-04 \\|website\\=Fakel FC \\|language\\=ru}}", "In July 2012, Jankauskas returned to Hearts as an assistant manager,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/18620094\\|title\\=Hearts appoint Edgaras Jankauskas as Hearts assistant\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=2 July 2012\\|access\\-date\\=29 July 2013}} leaving his post at the end of [the season](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Scottish_Premier_League \"2012–13 Scottish Premier League\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22627769\\|title\\=Hearts: Edgaras Jankauskas \\& board member leave club\\|publisher\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=22 May 2013\\|access\\-date\\=29 July 2013}}", "" ]
Plot ---- The movie starts by showing a lodge where a policeman is [raping](/wiki/Rape "Rape") a young girl and then goes out to meet the girl's boyfriend. The policeman blackmailed the couple because he caught them with drugs and the girl made a deal with him to have sex in exchange for dropping all charges. After the policeman leaves, he gets into an accident. When he regains his consciousness, he finds himself chained where a computer genius hacks a TV channel owned by Rahul Oberoi and broadcasts the live murder of a police officer called Ramesh Sarniak. The [Assistant Commissioner of Police](/wiki/Assistant_Commissioner_of_Police "Assistant Commissioner of Police"), Kabir Deshmukh, interrogates Rahul Oberoi wherein Siya, a lawyer, tries to defend his case. Sia has her boyfriend, Ranveer Bajaj, with whom she has an intimate relationship. He is a prosecution lawyer. During the investigation, Kabir Deshmukh considers Karan Parekh, Rahul's old business partner, to be the suspect. ACP Deshmukh tracks Karan's location in a hotel and goes to catch him. Upon reaching the hotel, he discovers that Karan is missing and is also being murdered on live television. Later, ACP Deshmukh finds out that Rahul and Karan were involved in [raping](/wiki/Rape "Rape") a girl named Rajni, an employee in Rahul's company. ACP Deshmukh reveals this to Ranveer and Sia wherein Ranveer speaks out about the fact that an old man had saved Rajni from being raped and filed a complaint against Rahul and Karan. At that time, Rahul and Karan were prosecuted by Ranveer in the court. However, Ranveer lost the case as the old man had died in a fire explosion in his house and was the only witness for that case. Now, it is clear that Rahul was not involved in any of the murders. Eventually, the police consider Rajni to be the suspect. Rahul now decides to flee India, but is not allowed to leave because his sugar level drastically increases. In no time, the police get to know that Rajni has gone missing and learn that Mac, Rajni's boyfriend who is also an employee in Rahul's company, is involved in the murders. As ACP Deshmukh learns that Rahul is to be hospitalized, he goes in search of Mac to save Rahul from being killed. ACP Deshmukh runs behind that ambulance and learns that Rahul is missing. Mac takes Rahul to the same place where the police officer, Ramesh Sarniak, and Karan Parekh had been killed. Rahul finds himself tied and gets shocked when he sees Sia there. Sia reveals to Rahul that she is the one who killed the officer Sarnaik and Karan. It is further revealed by Sia that the old man who helped Rajni didn't die in an explosion but was murdered by Rahul, Karan, and the officer Sarnaik. Sia further reveals that the old man who was killed was Sia's father. Sia then attempts to kill Rahul by increasing his sugar level. During the process, Rahul reveals to Sia that it was of no use to kill them as the real killer is still alive. Rahul tells her that Ranveer was bribed by Rahul and Karan to save them and also planned the murder. Thus, Rahul dies and, heartbroken, Sia leaves from there. Soon, ACP Deshmukh discovers that Sia is the killer. Sia takes Ranveer to the same place where the murders were committed and reveals to him the truth and also tells him to admit his crime. Knowing this, Ranveer refuses to do so but is being tricked by Sia as she had called the police and the whole statement was recorded and traced during her call. This leads to a fight between them in which ACP Deshmukh arrives and fights with Ranveer. During the fight Ranveer is killed, and ACP Deshmukh knowing what he and the other murder victims had done, decides to not press any charges against Sia and sets her free.
[ "Plot\n----", "The movie starts by showing a lodge where a policeman is [raping](/wiki/Rape \"Rape\") a young girl and then goes out to meet the girl's boyfriend. The policeman blackmailed the couple because he caught them with drugs and the girl made a deal with him to have sex in exchange for dropping all charges. After the policeman leaves, he gets into an accident. When he regains his consciousness, he finds himself chained where a computer genius hacks a TV channel owned by Rahul Oberoi and broadcasts the live murder of a police officer called Ramesh Sarniak. The [Assistant Commissioner of Police](/wiki/Assistant_Commissioner_of_Police \"Assistant Commissioner of Police\"), Kabir Deshmukh, interrogates Rahul Oberoi wherein Siya, a lawyer, tries to defend his case. Sia has her boyfriend, Ranveer Bajaj, with whom she has an intimate relationship. He is a prosecution lawyer.", "During the investigation, Kabir Deshmukh considers Karan Parekh, Rahul's old business partner, to be the suspect. ACP Deshmukh tracks Karan's location in a hotel and goes to catch him. Upon reaching the hotel, he discovers that Karan is missing and is also being murdered on live television. Later, ACP Deshmukh finds out that Rahul and Karan were involved in [raping](/wiki/Rape \"Rape\") a girl named Rajni, an employee in Rahul's company. ACP Deshmukh reveals this to Ranveer and Sia wherein Ranveer speaks out about the fact that an old man had saved Rajni from being raped and filed a complaint against Rahul and Karan. At that time, Rahul and Karan were prosecuted by Ranveer in the court. However, Ranveer lost the case as the old man had died in a fire explosion in his house and was the only witness for that case.", "Now, it is clear that Rahul was not involved in any of the murders. Eventually, the police consider Rajni to be the suspect. Rahul now decides to flee India, but is not allowed to leave because his sugar level drastically increases. In no time, the police get to know that Rajni has gone missing and learn that Mac, Rajni's boyfriend who is also an employee in Rahul's company, is involved in the murders.", "As ACP Deshmukh learns that Rahul is to be hospitalized, he goes in search of Mac to save Rahul from being killed. ACP Deshmukh runs behind that ambulance and learns that Rahul is missing. Mac takes Rahul to the same place where the police officer, Ramesh Sarniak, and Karan Parekh had been killed. Rahul finds himself tied and gets shocked when he sees Sia there. Sia reveals to Rahul that she is the one who killed the officer Sarnaik and Karan. It is further revealed by Sia that the old man who helped Rajni didn't die in an explosion but was murdered by Rahul, Karan, and the officer Sarnaik. Sia further reveals that the old man who was killed was Sia's father. Sia then attempts to kill Rahul by increasing his sugar level. During the process, Rahul reveals to Sia that it was of no use to kill them as the real killer is still alive. Rahul tells her that Ranveer was bribed by Rahul and Karan to save them and also planned the murder.", "Thus, Rahul dies and, heartbroken, Sia leaves from there. Soon, ACP Deshmukh discovers that Sia is the killer. Sia takes Ranveer to the same place where the murders were committed and reveals to him the truth and also tells him to admit his crime. Knowing this, Ranveer refuses to do so but is being tricked by Sia as she had called the police and the whole statement was recorded and traced during her call.", "This leads to a fight between them in which ACP Deshmukh arrives and fights with Ranveer. During the fight Ranveer is killed, and ACP Deshmukh knowing what he and the other murder victims had done, decides to not press any charges against Sia and sets her free.", "" ]
History ------- First released in 1982, AC 25\.1309–1 has been revised to embody increasing experience in development of airplanes and to address the increasing integration and computerization of aircraft functions. ### AC 25\.1309–1 (original release) #### Function criticality AC 25\.1309–1 recommended that top\-down analysis should identify each system function and evaluate its criticality, i.e., either non\-essential, essential, or critical. The terms Error, Failure, and Failure Condition were defined. Functions were classified Critical, Essential, and Non\-Essential according to the severity of the failure conditions they could contribute to; but the conditions were not expressly classified. Failures of Critical, Essential, and Non\-Essential functions were expected to be, respectively, Extremely Improbable (10–9 or less), Improbable (10–5 or less), or no worse than Probable (10–5). [AC 25\.1309–1](http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC%2025.1309-1.pdf), 1982, p. 3\-5\. #### Qualitative methods Previously, system safety analysis was quantitative; that is, it was dependent on evaluating the probability of system failures from physical faults of components. But with the increasing use of digital avionics (i.e., software) it was recognized that development error was a significant contributor to system failure, particularly human errors in any stage of designing, implementing, and testing complex systems. During system certification in the late 1970s, it became clear that the classical statistical methods of safety assessment could not be effective for firmware and software\-based systems.{{cite book\|last\=Johnson\|first\=Leslie A. (Schad)\|title\=DO\-178B, "Software Considerations in Airborne\|publisher\=Flight Systems, Boeing Commercial Airplane Group\|location\=Seattle, Washington\|url\=http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/\~johnson/teaching/safety/reports/schad.html}} Existing quantitative methods could not predict system failure rates resultant from development errors. *Qualitative* methods were instead recommended for reducing specification, design, and implementation errors in the development of digital avionics. The guidance of DO\-178 (initial release) was recommended by AC 25\.1309–1 for development of essential and critical functions implemented in software.AC 25\.1309–1, p. 9\. ### AC 25\.1309–1A AC 25\.1309–1A introduced the [FAA Fail\-Safe Design Concept](/wiki/%23Background "#Background") to this Advisory Circular.[AC 25\.1309–1A](http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_25.1309-1A.pdf), 1988, p. 2\. This revision also introduced recommended design principles or techniques in order to ensure a safe design.[AC 25\.1309–1A](http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_25.1309-1A.pdf), p. 3\. #### Classification of failure conditions by severity The concept of function criticality was replaced with classification of failure conditions according to severity of effects (cf., [Probabilistic risk assessment](/wiki/Probabilistic_risk_assessment "Probabilistic risk assessment")). Failure conditions having Catastrophic, Major, or Minor effects were to have restricted likelihoods, respectively, of Extremely Improbable (10–9 or less), Improbable (10–5 or less), or no worse than Probable (10–5).[AC 25\.1309–1A](http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_25.1309-1A.pdf), pp. 4,5,7, 13\-15\. Software was still considered to be assessed and controlled by other means; that is, by RTCA/DO\-178A or later revision, via Advisory Circular [AC 20\-115A](/wiki/AC_20-115 "AC 20-115").[AC 25\.1309–1A](http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_25.1309-1A.pdf), p. 7\. ### AC 25 1309–1B *Note: No Revision B has been released. This section discusses the* Arsenal Draft *of Revision B.* In May 1996, the FAA Aviation Rulemaking Advisory Committee (ARAC) was tasked with a review of harmonized FAR/JAR 25\.1309, AC 1309\-1A, and related documents, and to consider revision to AC 1309\-1A incorporating recent practice, increasing complex integration between aircraft functions and the systems that implement them,ARP4754A, p. 7 and the implications of new technology. This task was published in the Federal Register at 61 FR 26246\-26247 (1996\-05\-24\). The focus was to be on safety assessment and fault\-tolerant critical systems. In 2002, the FAA provided a [Notice of Proposed Rulemaking](/wiki/Notice_of_proposed_rulemaking "Notice of proposed rulemaking") (NPRM) relevant to 14 CFR Part 25\. Accompanying this notice is the ***Arsenal Draft*** of AC 1309–1\.[Revised General Function and Installation Requirements for Equipment, Systems, and Installations on Transport Category Airplanes, Notice of proposed rulemaking, Draft R6X Phase 1 – June 2002, also known as the *Arsenal Draft* of AC 25\.1309\-1B](http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/rulemaking/committees/documents/media/TAEsdaT2-052496.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413045558/http://www.faa.gov/regulations\_policies/rulemaking/committees/documents/media/TAEsdaT2\-052496\.pdf \|date\=2014\-04\-13 }} Existing definitions and rules in § 25\.1309 and related standards have posed certain problems to the certification of transport category airplanes. Said problems are discussed at length within the NPRM. The FAA proposed revisions to several related standards in order to eliminate such problems and to clarify the intent of these standards. In some proposed changes, definitions or conventions developed in lower level regulations or standards were adopted or revised within the subsequent Advisory Circular. Boeing referenced the guidance of the *Arsenal Draft* in its 2004\-2009 type certification program for the [787 Dreamliner](/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner "Boeing 787 Dreamliner").{{cite journal \|title\= Auxiliary Power Unit Battery Fire : Japan Airlines Boeing 787\-8, JA829J \|journal\= Aircraft Incident Report \|issue\= AIR\-14/01 \|publisher\= \[\[National Transportation Safety Board]] \|date\= November 21, 2014 \|url\= https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AIR1401\.pdf \|access\-date\= 2022\-05\-18 \|quote\= Boeing indicated in certification documents that it used a version of FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 25\.1309, "System Design and Analysis" (referred to as the '''Arsenal draft'''), as guidance during the 787 certification program. However, the analysis that Boeing presented in its EPS safety assessment did not appear to be consistent with the guidance in the AC. }} *See [2013 Boeing 787 Dreamliner grounding](/wiki/2013_Boeing_787_Dreamliner_grounding "2013 Boeing 787 Dreamliner grounding").* #### Refinement of failure condition classifications Experience in application of the prior circulars and ARPs witnessed the division of the *Major* failure condition into two conditions (for example, Hazardous\-severe/Major and Major).RTCA/[DO\-178B](/wiki/DO-178B "DO-178B") (subsequently [DO\-178C](/wiki/DO-178C "DO-178C"), *Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification, Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics*, December 1, 1992, p. 7 Additionally, this experience recognised the existence of failure conditions that have *no effect on safety*, which could be so classified and thereby assigned no safety objectives. Catastrophic Failure Condition was previously defined as "any failure condition which would prevent continued safe flight and landing"; but is now defined as "Failure conditions which would result in multiple fatalities, usually with the loss of the airplane.AC 25\.1309–1B–Arsenal Draft, p. 8\." #### Extension of qualitative controls to aircraft functions The FAA Fail\-Safe Design Concept and design principles or techniques for safe design are maintained. However, owing to the increasing development of Highly Integrated Systems in aircraft, qualitative controls previously considered necessary for safe software development are extended to the aircraft function level. (Similar guidance ([Functional Safety framework](/wiki/Functional_Safety "Functional Safety")) has been provided for highly integrated automotive systems through the 2011, release of [ISO 26262](/wiki/ISO_26262 "ISO 26262").{{Citation \| last \= Beeby \| first \= Martin \| title \= DO\-178C the future of Avionics Certification \| publisher \= atego HighRely \| pages \= 6–7 }})
[ "History\n-------", "First released in 1982, AC 25\\.1309–1 has been revised to embody increasing experience in development of airplanes and to address the increasing integration and computerization of aircraft functions.", "### AC 25\\.1309–1 (original release)", "#### Function criticality", "AC 25\\.1309–1 recommended that top\\-down analysis should identify each system function and evaluate its criticality, i.e., either non\\-essential, essential, or critical. The terms Error, Failure, and Failure Condition were defined. Functions were classified Critical, Essential, and Non\\-Essential according to the severity of the failure conditions they could contribute to; but the conditions were not expressly classified. Failures of Critical, Essential, and Non\\-Essential functions were expected to be, respectively, Extremely Improbable (10–9 or less), Improbable (10–5 or less), or no worse than Probable (10–5).\n[AC 25\\.1309–1](http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC%2025.1309-1.pdf), 1982, p. 3\\-5\\.", "#### Qualitative methods", "Previously, system safety analysis was quantitative; that is, it was dependent on evaluating the probability of system failures from physical faults of components. But with the increasing use of digital avionics (i.e., software) it was recognized that development error was a significant contributor to system failure, particularly human errors in any stage of designing, implementing, and testing complex systems. During system certification in the late 1970s, it became clear that the classical statistical methods of safety assessment could not be effective for firmware and software\\-based systems.{{cite book\\|last\\=Johnson\\|first\\=Leslie A. (Schad)\\|title\\=DO\\-178B, \"Software Considerations in Airborne\\|publisher\\=Flight Systems, Boeing Commercial Airplane Group\\|location\\=Seattle, Washington\\|url\\=http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/\\~johnson/teaching/safety/reports/schad.html}} Existing quantitative methods could not predict system failure rates resultant from development errors. *Qualitative* methods were instead recommended for reducing specification, design, and implementation errors in the development of digital avionics.", "The guidance of DO\\-178 (initial release) was recommended by AC 25\\.1309–1 for development of essential and critical functions implemented in software.AC 25\\.1309–1, p. 9\\.", "### AC 25\\.1309–1A", "AC 25\\.1309–1A introduced the [FAA Fail\\-Safe Design Concept](/wiki/%23Background \"#Background\") to this Advisory Circular.[AC 25\\.1309–1A](http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_25.1309-1A.pdf), 1988, p. 2\\. This revision also introduced recommended design principles or techniques in order to ensure a safe design.[AC 25\\.1309–1A](http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_25.1309-1A.pdf), p. 3\\.", "#### Classification of failure conditions by severity", "The concept of function criticality was replaced with classification of failure conditions according to severity of effects (cf., [Probabilistic risk assessment](/wiki/Probabilistic_risk_assessment \"Probabilistic risk assessment\")). Failure conditions having Catastrophic, Major, or Minor effects were to have restricted likelihoods, respectively, of Extremely Improbable (10–9 or less), Improbable (10–5 or less), or no worse than Probable (10–5).[AC 25\\.1309–1A](http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_25.1309-1A.pdf), pp. 4,5,7, 13\\-15\\.", "Software was still considered to be assessed and controlled by other means; that is, by RTCA/DO\\-178A or later revision, via Advisory Circular [AC 20\\-115A](/wiki/AC_20-115 \"AC 20-115\").[AC 25\\.1309–1A](http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_25.1309-1A.pdf), p. 7\\.", "### AC 25 1309–1B", "*Note: No Revision B has been released. This section discusses the* Arsenal Draft *of Revision B.*\nIn May 1996, the FAA Aviation Rulemaking Advisory Committee (ARAC) was tasked with a review of harmonized FAR/JAR 25\\.1309, AC 1309\\-1A, and related documents, and to consider revision to AC 1309\\-1A incorporating recent practice, increasing complex integration between aircraft functions and the systems that implement them,ARP4754A, p. 7 and the implications of new technology. This task was published in the Federal Register at 61 FR 26246\\-26247 (1996\\-05\\-24\\). The focus was to be on safety assessment and fault\\-tolerant critical systems.\nIn 2002, the FAA provided a [Notice of Proposed Rulemaking](/wiki/Notice_of_proposed_rulemaking \"Notice of proposed rulemaking\") (NPRM) relevant to 14 CFR Part 25\\. Accompanying this notice is the ***Arsenal Draft*** of AC 1309–1\\.[Revised General Function and Installation Requirements for Equipment, Systems, and Installations on Transport Category Airplanes, Notice of proposed rulemaking, Draft R6X Phase 1 – June 2002, also known as the *Arsenal Draft* of AC 25\\.1309\\-1B](http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/rulemaking/committees/documents/media/TAEsdaT2-052496.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413045558/http://www.faa.gov/regulations\\_policies/rulemaking/committees/documents/media/TAEsdaT2\\-052496\\.pdf \\|date\\=2014\\-04\\-13 }} Existing definitions and rules in § 25\\.1309 and related standards have posed certain problems to the certification of transport category airplanes. Said problems are discussed at length within the NPRM. The FAA proposed revisions to several related standards in order to eliminate such problems and to clarify the intent of these standards. In some proposed changes, definitions or conventions developed in lower level regulations or standards were adopted or revised within the subsequent Advisory Circular.", "Boeing referenced the guidance of the *Arsenal Draft* in its 2004\\-2009 type certification program for the [787 Dreamliner](/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner \"Boeing 787 Dreamliner\").{{cite journal \\|title\\= Auxiliary Power Unit Battery Fire : Japan Airlines Boeing 787\\-8, JA829J \\|journal\\= Aircraft Incident Report \\|issue\\= AIR\\-14/01 \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[National Transportation Safety Board]] \\|date\\= November 21, 2014 \\|url\\= https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AIR1401\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\= 2022\\-05\\-18 \\|quote\\= Boeing indicated in certification documents that it used a version of FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 25\\.1309, \"System Design and Analysis\" (referred to as the '''Arsenal draft'''), as guidance during the 787 certification program. However, the analysis that Boeing presented in its EPS safety assessment did not appear to be consistent with the guidance in the AC. }} *See [2013 Boeing 787 Dreamliner grounding](/wiki/2013_Boeing_787_Dreamliner_grounding \"2013 Boeing 787 Dreamliner grounding\").*", "#### Refinement of failure condition classifications", "Experience in application of the prior circulars and ARPs witnessed the division of the *Major* failure condition into two conditions (for example, Hazardous\\-severe/Major and Major).RTCA/[DO\\-178B](/wiki/DO-178B \"DO-178B\") (subsequently [DO\\-178C](/wiki/DO-178C \"DO-178C\"), *Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification, Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics*, December 1, 1992, p. 7 Additionally, this experience recognised the existence of failure conditions that have *no effect on safety*, which could be so classified and thereby assigned no safety objectives. Catastrophic Failure Condition was previously defined as \"any failure condition which would prevent continued safe flight and landing\"; but is now defined as \"Failure conditions which would result in multiple fatalities, usually with the loss of the airplane.AC 25\\.1309–1B–Arsenal Draft, p. 8\\.\"", "#### Extension of qualitative controls to aircraft functions", "The FAA Fail\\-Safe Design Concept and design principles or techniques for safe design are maintained. However, owing to the increasing development of Highly Integrated Systems in aircraft, qualitative controls previously considered necessary for safe software development are extended to the aircraft function level. (Similar guidance ([Functional Safety framework](/wiki/Functional_Safety \"Functional Safety\")) has been provided for highly integrated automotive systems through the 2011, release of [ISO 26262](/wiki/ISO_26262 \"ISO 26262\").{{Citation \\| last \\= Beeby \\| first \\= Martin \\| title \\= DO\\-178C the future of Avionics Certification \\| publisher \\= atego HighRely \\| pages \\= 6–7 }})", "" ]
DecisionDx\-UM GEP Assay ------------------------ ### Discovery The gene expression profile measured by DecisionDx\-UM was discovered in the laboratory of [J. William Harbour](/wiki/J._William_Harbour "J. William Harbour") at Washington University in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis "St. Louis").Onken, M.D., et al., Cancer research, 2004\. 64(20\): p. 7205\-9\.Onken, M.D., et al., The Journal of molecular diagnostics : JMD, 2010\. 12(4\): p. 461\-8\. The application of microarray analysis to primary untreated uveal melanomas revealed that the tumors clustered into two discreet groups based upon their expression profiles. Filtering of the differentially expressed gene set led to the identification of a set of genes able to discriminate between Class 1 and Class 2 tumors. In subsequent experiments, Dr. Harbour's group assembled microarray information from a larger subset of uveal melanoma tumor samples, and were able to identify candidate discriminatory genes for further analysis. The genetic expression profiles of those discriminating genes were verified in uveal melanoma tumors using [quantitative polymerase chain reaction](/wiki/Quantitative_polymerase_chain_reaction "Quantitative polymerase chain reaction") (qPCR) methods, and predictive modeling was performed to identify an optimum set of genes able to accurately predict metastatic risk and report class assignments.Onken, M.D., et al., The Journal of molecular diagnostics : JMD, 2006\. 8(5\): p. 567\-73\. The final assay evaluated 12 discriminating genes and 3 control genes to determine Class 1 (low risk) and Class 2 (high risk) tumors, and was validated in a 609 patient multicenter study that included FNAB and FFPE samples. ### Prognostic Accuracy The current DecisionDx\-UM platform was clinically validated in the COOG study, which included 514 patients with UM treated at 12 ocular oncology centers in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") between 1998 and 2010\. The report provides data showing that DecisionDx\-UM has a high technical success rate (\>95%). ### Clinical Technical Success Since the initial offering of DecisionDx\-UM in December 2009, more than 800 clinical orders have been received for analysis by Castle Biosciences from over 55 ocular oncology centers across the U.S. Technical success and class determination was achieved for 96\.2% of the samples.Bergstrom, C.S., Hovland, P. G., Stone, J. F., Oelschlager, K., and Cook, R. W., 2011\. Most of the failures were due to improper [biopsy](/wiki/Biopsy "Biopsy") collection and/or handling. Tumor biopsy collection is critical for the successful reporting of metastatic risk Class assignment following DecisionDx\-UM testing. ### DecisionDx\-UM Ordering and Reporting Castle Biosciences, Incorporated only accepts service orders for DecisionDx\-UM from licensed physicians (most commonly ocular oncologists, ophthalmologists, or [retina](/wiki/Retina "Retina") specialists) who care for patients diagnosed with uveal melanoma. Physicians who are first time customers must contact Castle's for information and to establish an account. Sample submission requires submission of a DecisionDx\-UM Requisition Form to be completed and faxed to Castle. FNAB specimens require use of a specimen collection kit, provided by Castle, to stabilize the sample and reduce the chance of technical failure. This kit must be received by the ordering physician prior to sample collection. Castle staff is available to assist with logistics concerning sample collection and shipping. Castle provides a report to the ordering physician that will classify the tumor as Class 1A, Class 1B, or Class 2\. The report will also describe the statistics associated with the classification, and provide a discriminant value that reflects the confidence regarding the classification. The information provided in the report from Castle identifies how likely a tumor is to metastasize (spread) with this risk being categorized as low (Class 1A), intermediate (Class 1B), or high (Class 2\).
[ "DecisionDx\\-UM GEP Assay\n------------------------", "### Discovery", "The gene expression profile measured by DecisionDx\\-UM was discovered in the laboratory of [J. William Harbour](/wiki/J._William_Harbour \"J. William Harbour\") at Washington University in [St. Louis](/wiki/St._Louis \"St. Louis\").Onken, M.D., et al., Cancer research, 2004\\. 64(20\\): p. 7205\\-9\\.Onken, M.D., et al., The Journal of molecular diagnostics : JMD, 2010\\. 12(4\\): p. 461\\-8\\. The application of microarray analysis to primary untreated uveal melanomas revealed that the tumors clustered into two discreet groups based upon their expression profiles. Filtering of the differentially expressed gene set led to the identification of a set of genes able to discriminate between Class 1 and Class 2 tumors.", "In subsequent experiments, Dr. Harbour's group assembled microarray information from a larger subset of uveal melanoma tumor samples, and were able to identify candidate discriminatory genes for further analysis. The genetic expression profiles of those discriminating genes were verified in uveal melanoma tumors using [quantitative polymerase chain reaction](/wiki/Quantitative_polymerase_chain_reaction \"Quantitative polymerase chain reaction\") (qPCR) methods, and predictive modeling was performed to identify an optimum set of genes able to accurately predict metastatic risk and report class assignments.Onken, M.D., et al., The Journal of molecular diagnostics : JMD, 2006\\. 8(5\\): p. 567\\-73\\. The final assay evaluated 12 discriminating genes and 3 control genes to determine Class 1 (low risk) and Class 2 (high risk) tumors, and was validated in a 609 patient multicenter study that included FNAB and FFPE samples.", "### Prognostic Accuracy", "The current DecisionDx\\-UM platform was clinically validated in the COOG study, which included 514 patients with UM treated at 12 ocular oncology centers in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") between 1998 and 2010\\. The report provides data showing that DecisionDx\\-UM has a high technical success rate (\\>95%).", "### Clinical Technical Success", "Since the initial offering of DecisionDx\\-UM in December 2009, more than 800 clinical orders have been received for analysis by Castle Biosciences from over 55 ocular oncology centers across the U.S. Technical success and class determination was achieved for 96\\.2% of the samples.Bergstrom, C.S., Hovland, P. G., Stone, J. F., Oelschlager, K., and Cook, R. W., 2011\\. Most of the failures were due to improper [biopsy](/wiki/Biopsy \"Biopsy\") collection and/or handling. Tumor biopsy collection is critical for the successful reporting of metastatic risk Class assignment following DecisionDx\\-UM testing.", "### DecisionDx\\-UM Ordering and Reporting", "Castle Biosciences, Incorporated only accepts service orders for DecisionDx\\-UM from licensed physicians (most commonly ocular oncologists, ophthalmologists, or [retina](/wiki/Retina \"Retina\") specialists) who care for patients diagnosed with uveal melanoma. Physicians who are first time customers must contact Castle's for information and to establish an account. Sample submission requires submission of a DecisionDx\\-UM Requisition Form to be completed and faxed to Castle. FNAB specimens require use of a specimen collection kit, provided by Castle, to stabilize the sample and reduce the chance of technical failure. This kit must be received by the ordering physician prior to sample collection. Castle staff is available to assist with logistics concerning sample collection and shipping.", "Castle provides a report to the ordering physician that will classify the tumor as Class 1A, Class 1B, or Class 2\\. The report will also describe the statistics associated with the classification, and provide a discriminant value that reflects the confidence regarding the classification. The information provided in the report from Castle identifies how likely a tumor is to metastasize (spread) with this risk being categorized as low (Class 1A), intermediate (Class 1B), or high (Class 2\\).", "" ]
Other UM Metastasis Prognostic Factors -------------------------------------- ### Histopathologic Factors and Imaging Techniques Historically there are several clinical and pathologic features that have been statically associated with metastasis.Augsburger, J.J. and J.W. Gamel, Cancer, 1990\. 66(7\): p. 1596\-600\.McLean, I.W., K.S. Keefe, and M.N. Burnier, Ophthalmology, 1997\. 104(5\): p. 777\-80\. Tumor size, tumor location, patient age and [vascular](/wiki/Vascular "Vascular") structure have all been reported to correlate with metastatic onset and patient survival.Foss, A.J., et al., Cancer research, 1996\. 56(13\): p. 2900\-3\. While generalities regarding the UM patient population at large can be made based on these factors, none, alone or collectively, has demonstrated predictive accuracy with regard to metastatic activity. Imaging techniques used to detect metastatic activity also have limitations. Systemic metastases are detected by [Positron Emission Tomography](/wiki/Positron_Emission_Tomography "Positron Emission Tomography") (PET) imaging at the time of the original diagnosis in less than 4% of UM patients [Magnetic Resonance Imaging](/wiki/Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging "Magnetic Resonance Imaging") (MRI) has recently been reported more sensitive than PET for identifying metastasis from [choroidal melanoma](/wiki/Choroidal_melanoma "Choroidal melanoma"), but MRI requires tumor mass greater than 5mm in size.Servois, V., et al., European journal of surgical oncology : the journal of the European Society of Surgical Oncology and the British Association of Surgical Oncology, 2010\. 36(2\): p. 189\-94\. Thus, current imaging technology lacks the sensitivity for detecting [micrometastases](/wiki/Micrometastases "Micrometastases") that may be present at the time of primary diagnosis of uveal melanoma. ### Genetic Factors Genetic analysis techniques have led to the identification of chromosomal abnormalities associated with metastatic tumor progression in uveal melanoma. Loss of [heterozygosity](/wiki/Heterozygosity "Heterozygosity"), loss of entire [alleles](/wiki/Allele "Allele") from chromosomes, [partial chromosomal addition](/wiki/Partial_chromosomal_addition "Partial chromosomal addition") and [chromosomal deletion](/wiki/Chromosomal_deletion "Chromosomal deletion") and [single nucleotide polymorphisms](/wiki/Single_nucleotide_polymorphisms "Single nucleotide polymorphisms") (SNP) have been associated with uveal melanoma metastatic lesions.Harbour, J.W., et al., Science, 2010\. 330(6009\): p. 1410\-3\.Kilic, E., et al., Investigative ophthalmology \& visual science, 2006\. 47(9\): p. 3703\-7\.Onken, M.D., L.A. Worley, and J.W. Harbour, Clinical Cancer Research, 2008\. 14(12\): p. 3737\-45\.Prescher, G., N. Bornfeld, and R. Becher, Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 1990\. 82(22\): p. 1765\-9\.Sisley, K., et al., Genes, Chromosomes \& Cancer, 1990\. 2(3\): p. 205\-9\. In particular, chromosomes 1, 3, 6 and 8 have been extensively studied for their association with shorter survival time and development of metastatic disease.Damato, B., J.A. Dopierala, and S.E. Coupland, Clinical Cancer Research, 2010\. 16(24\): p. 6083\-92\.Sisley, K., et al., Genes, Chromosomes \& Cancer, 1997\. 19(1\): p. 22\-8\.Prescher, G., et al., Lancet, 1996\. 347(9010\): p. 1222\-5\.Singh, A.D., et al., Archives of Pathology \& Laboratory Medicine, 2009\. 133(8\): p. 1223\-7\. While genetic aberrations in chromosomes 1, 6 and 8 have not independently been able to predict disease progression, cytogenetic profiling of chromosome 3 has uncovered an important genetic region highly associated with metastatic onset in uveal melanoma patients. Chromosome 3 abnormalities have been analyzed using multiple techniques, including fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), chromosomal in situ hybridization (CISH), [array comparative genomic hybridization](/wiki/Array_comparative_genomic_hybridization "Array comparative genomic hybridization") (aCGH), SNP, [multiplex ligation\-dependent probe amplification](/wiki/Multiplex_ligation-dependent_probe_amplification "Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification") (MLPA), and [microsatellite analysis](/wiki/Microsatellite_analysis "Microsatellite analysis").Naus, N.C., et al., Clinical Cancer Research, 2002\. 8(2\): p. 534\-9\.Onken, M.D., et al., Clinical Cancer Research, 2007\. 13(10\): p. 2923\-7\.Sandinha, M.T., M.A. Farquharson, and F. Roberts, The British Journal of Ophthalmology, 2004\. 88(12\): p. 1527\-32\.Tschentscher, F., et al., Cancer genetics and cytogenetics, 2000\. 122(1\): p. 13\-7\. Despite a wealth of data that has identified the association of chromosome 3 [mutation](/wiki/Mutation "Mutation") with UM metastasis, the clinical application of this data has yet to be realized.Damato, B. and S.E. Coupland, Archives of Ophthalmology, 2009\. 127(4\): p. 423\-9\. Reasons for the uncertainty of chromosome 3 clinical use include: * high false\-positive rates (ranging from 5\-22%) * high false\-negative rates (ranging from 4\-50%) * high technical failure rates (up to 50%) due to the large tissue requirement for current analysis techniques * the adverse effects of cellular [heterogeneity](/wiki/Heterogeneity "Heterogeneity") on [chromosome 3](/wiki/Chromosome_3 "Chromosome 3") cytogenetic analysis.Maat, W., et al., Archives of Pathology \& Laboratory Medicine, 2007\. 131(1\): p. 91\-6\.Mensink, H.W., et al., Investigative ophthalmology \& visual science, 2009\. 50(2\): p. 500\-4\.Midena, E., et al., European journal of ophthalmology, 2006\. 16(3\): p. 422\-5\.Shields, C.L., et al., Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society, 2007\. 105: p. 43\-52; discussion 52\-3\.Young, T.A., et al., Ophthalmology, 2007\. 114(1\): p. 142\-6\. Furthermore, unlike the DecisionDx\-UM test, there are no published, peer\-reviewed studies that demonstrate clinical validation in an independent set of patients.
[ "Other UM Metastasis Prognostic Factors\n--------------------------------------", "### Histopathologic Factors and Imaging Techniques", "Historically there are several clinical and pathologic features that have been statically associated with metastasis.Augsburger, J.J. and J.W. Gamel, Cancer, 1990\\. 66(7\\): p. 1596\\-600\\.McLean, I.W., K.S. Keefe, and M.N. Burnier, Ophthalmology, 1997\\. 104(5\\): p. 777\\-80\\. Tumor size, tumor location, patient age and [vascular](/wiki/Vascular \"Vascular\") structure have all been reported to correlate with metastatic onset and patient survival.Foss, A.J., et al., Cancer research, 1996\\. 56(13\\): p. 2900\\-3\\. While generalities regarding the UM patient population at large can be made based on these factors, none, alone or collectively, has demonstrated predictive accuracy with regard to metastatic activity.", "Imaging techniques used to detect metastatic activity also have limitations. Systemic metastases are detected by [Positron Emission Tomography](/wiki/Positron_Emission_Tomography \"Positron Emission Tomography\") (PET) imaging at the time of the original diagnosis in less than 4% of UM patients [Magnetic Resonance Imaging](/wiki/Magnetic_Resonance_Imaging \"Magnetic Resonance Imaging\") (MRI) has recently been reported more sensitive than PET for identifying metastasis from [choroidal melanoma](/wiki/Choroidal_melanoma \"Choroidal melanoma\"), but MRI requires tumor mass greater than 5mm in size.Servois, V., et al., European journal of surgical oncology : the journal of the European Society of Surgical Oncology and the British Association of Surgical Oncology, 2010\\. 36(2\\): p. 189\\-94\\. Thus, current imaging technology lacks the sensitivity for detecting [micrometastases](/wiki/Micrometastases \"Micrometastases\") that may be present at the time of primary diagnosis of uveal melanoma.", "### Genetic Factors", "Genetic analysis techniques have led to the identification of chromosomal abnormalities associated with metastatic tumor progression in uveal melanoma. Loss of [heterozygosity](/wiki/Heterozygosity \"Heterozygosity\"), loss of entire [alleles](/wiki/Allele \"Allele\") from chromosomes, [partial chromosomal addition](/wiki/Partial_chromosomal_addition \"Partial chromosomal addition\") and [chromosomal deletion](/wiki/Chromosomal_deletion \"Chromosomal deletion\") and [single nucleotide polymorphisms](/wiki/Single_nucleotide_polymorphisms \"Single nucleotide polymorphisms\") (SNP) have been associated with uveal melanoma metastatic lesions.Harbour, J.W., et al., Science, 2010\\. 330(6009\\): p. 1410\\-3\\.Kilic, E., et al., Investigative ophthalmology \\& visual science, 2006\\. 47(9\\): p. 3703\\-7\\.Onken, M.D., L.A. Worley, and J.W. Harbour, Clinical Cancer Research, 2008\\. 14(12\\): p. 3737\\-45\\.Prescher, G., N. Bornfeld, and R. Becher, Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 1990\\. 82(22\\): p. 1765\\-9\\.Sisley, K., et al., Genes, Chromosomes \\& Cancer, 1990\\. 2(3\\): p. 205\\-9\\. In particular, chromosomes 1, 3, 6 and 8 have been extensively studied for their association with shorter survival time and development of metastatic disease.Damato, B., J.A. Dopierala, and S.E. Coupland, Clinical Cancer Research, 2010\\. 16(24\\): p. 6083\\-92\\.Sisley, K., et al., Genes, Chromosomes \\& Cancer, 1997\\. 19(1\\): p. 22\\-8\\.Prescher, G., et al., Lancet, 1996\\. 347(9010\\): p. 1222\\-5\\.Singh, A.D., et al., Archives of Pathology \\& Laboratory Medicine, 2009\\. 133(8\\): p. 1223\\-7\\.", "While genetic aberrations in chromosomes 1, 6 and 8 have not independently been able to predict disease progression, cytogenetic profiling of chromosome 3 has uncovered an important genetic region highly associated with metastatic onset in uveal melanoma patients. Chromosome 3 abnormalities have been analyzed using multiple techniques, including fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), chromosomal in situ hybridization (CISH), [array comparative genomic hybridization](/wiki/Array_comparative_genomic_hybridization \"Array comparative genomic hybridization\") (aCGH), SNP, [multiplex ligation\\-dependent probe amplification](/wiki/Multiplex_ligation-dependent_probe_amplification \"Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification\") (MLPA), and [microsatellite analysis](/wiki/Microsatellite_analysis \"Microsatellite analysis\").Naus, N.C., et al., Clinical Cancer Research, 2002\\. 8(2\\): p. 534\\-9\\.Onken, M.D., et al., Clinical Cancer Research, 2007\\. 13(10\\): p. 2923\\-7\\.Sandinha, M.T., M.A. Farquharson, and F. Roberts, The British Journal of Ophthalmology, 2004\\. 88(12\\): p. 1527\\-32\\.Tschentscher, F., et al., Cancer genetics and cytogenetics, 2000\\. 122(1\\): p. 13\\-7\\.", "Despite a wealth of data that has identified the association of chromosome 3 [mutation](/wiki/Mutation \"Mutation\") with UM metastasis, the clinical application of this data has yet to be realized.Damato, B. and S.E. Coupland, Archives of Ophthalmology, 2009\\. 127(4\\): p. 423\\-9\\. Reasons for the uncertainty of chromosome 3 clinical use include:\n* high false\\-positive rates (ranging from 5\\-22%)\n* high false\\-negative rates (ranging from 4\\-50%)\n* high technical failure rates (up to 50%) due to the large tissue requirement for current analysis techniques\n* the adverse effects of cellular [heterogeneity](/wiki/Heterogeneity \"Heterogeneity\") on [chromosome 3](/wiki/Chromosome_3 \"Chromosome 3\") cytogenetic analysis.Maat, W., et al., Archives of Pathology \\& Laboratory Medicine, 2007\\. 131(1\\): p. 91\\-6\\.Mensink, H.W., et al., Investigative ophthalmology \\& visual science, 2009\\. 50(2\\): p. 500\\-4\\.Midena, E., et al., European journal of ophthalmology, 2006\\. 16(3\\): p. 422\\-5\\.Shields, C.L., et al., Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society, 2007\\. 105: p. 43\\-52; discussion 52\\-3\\.Young, T.A., et al., Ophthalmology, 2007\\. 114(1\\): p. 142\\-6\\.", "Furthermore, unlike the DecisionDx\\-UM test, there are no published, peer\\-reviewed studies that demonstrate clinical validation in an independent set of patients.", "" ]
Career ------ The first commercial release to feature Erdem's music was the self\-titled debut album by symphonic rock band Too Much. Erdem was a founding member, guitar player and songwriter for Too Much. The album was recorded and released into the [underground music](/wiki/Underground_music "Underground music") scene in [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul "Istanbul") in 1993, while Erdem was still in high school. Erdem began composing electronic music pieces while he was studying [electroacoustic music](/wiki/Electroacoustic_music "Electroacoustic music") composition and [sound engineering](/wiki/Sound_engineering "Sound engineering") at [Istanbul Technical University](/wiki/Istanbul_Technical_University "Istanbul Technical University"). His work became noted in international electronic music circles and in time his compositions have been included in several prestigious electronic music festivals such as the San Francisco Tape Music Festival, Sonorities Festival of Contemporary Music, Seoul International Computer Music Festival, Musica Viva Festival, Primavera en La Habana and Third Practice Electroacoustic Music Festival. Erdem also won awards for his compositions from the [Luigi Russolo](/wiki/Luigi_Russolo "Luigi Russolo"), Insulae Electronicae and [MUSICA NOVA Electroacoustic Music Competitions.](/wiki/Musica_Nova_Prize "Musica Nova Prize") As an electronic music artist, Erdem released his first album in 2003\. The album, entitled *A Walk Through The Bazaar* was released by [Locust Music](/wiki/Locust_Music "Locust Music") as part of the MetLife series. The album opens with a field recording of an open\-air marketplace in Istanbul, capturing the everyday sounds in the bazaar, including street vendors, market customers, cell phones, children and traditional music played in the background. The second and final track of the album features a remix of the field recording with some electronic effects. The album achieved critical acclaim from esteemed music publications, including [*The Wire*](/wiki/The_Wire_%28magazine%29 "The Wire (magazine)") magazine, Splendid, [Pitchforkmedia](/wiki/PitchforkMedia "PitchforkMedia") and [Allmusic](/wiki/AllMusic "AllMusic"). Erdem's second album was *Altered Realities*, released by New Albion Records in 2006\. His first album to receive wide release, *Altered Realities* consists of seven instrumental pieces, combining solo acoustic guitar melodies and live electronics. *Altered Realities* was well received in electronic music circles, with its live recording technique featured in music publications, including *[Guitar Player](/wiki/Guitar_Player "Guitar Player")* (August 2007\), *[Gramaphone](/wiki/Gramophone_%28magazine%29 "Gramophone (magazine)"), [Tapeop](/wiki/Tape_Op "Tape Op"), World1 Music, [Cyclic Defrost](/wiki/Cyclic_Defrost "Cyclic Defrost"),* and *Cuemix* magazines. The album has made the Top Ten lists of three international magazines: *[All About Jazz](/wiki/All_About_Jazz "All About Jazz")*, *Textura*, and *Cyclic Defrost*, as one of the Best of 2007\. The distinctive album forges a unique blend of classical, ambient, jazz, folk genres, and electroacoustic styles. Erdem recorded all of the compositions on the album in real\-time, directly to DAT ([Digital Audio Tape](/wiki/Digital_Audio_Tape "Digital Audio Tape")) without any overdubs, mixing, editing, post\-processing, or the use of previously recorded material. All of the textures were created by the acoustic guitar played live and the signal of which was processed live. Erdem cites electric guitar players such as [David Torn](/wiki/David_Torn "David Torn") and [Adrian Belew](/wiki/Adrian_Belew "Adrian Belew"), [Michael Hedges's](/wiki/Michael_Hedges_%28sound_engineer%29 "Michael Hedges (sound engineer)") the acoustic style, [Harold Budd](/wiki/Harold_Budd "Harold Budd") and [Morton Feldman](/wiki/Morton_Feldman "Morton Feldman") as specific influences for *Altered Realities*. Erdem's third album *Wounded Breath* was released in USA by Aucourant Records in December 2008\. The album includes 5 of his prizewinning electroacoustic pieces which he had performed at prestigious contemporary festivals all around the world along with composers such as [Paul Lansky](/wiki/Paul_Lansky "Paul Lansky") and [Morton Subotnick](/wiki/Morton_Subotnick "Morton Subotnick"). In 2008, Erdem was commissioned by [Bang On A Can\-All Stars](/wiki/Bang_on_a_Can_All_Stars "Bang on a Can All Stars"), one of the most well known New Music Ensembles, to compose a piece, which premiered at [Merkin Hall](/wiki/Merkin_Hall "Merkin Hall"), New York on 13 February 2008\. Additionally, his compositions have been included on various labels like chmafu nocords, [vox novus](/wiki/Vox_Novus "Vox Novus"), quiet American, and OAR for various compilation albums, such as "ctrl\-alt\-del", which also included works by Scanner, [Kim Cascone](/wiki/Kim_Cascone "Kim Cascone") and Merzbow. He has released the album *Sub City 2064* with Per Boysen, in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden"). This work has been included in the “Best 20 albums of 2010” list on *[Blogcritics](/wiki/Blogcritics "Blogcritics")* and [*Perfect Sound Forever*](/wiki/Perfect_Sound_Forever_%28magazine%29 "Perfect Sound Forever (magazine)") magazines. The album has also been on the “Guitar Player Editors’ Top 3 CDs" list on the October 2010 issue. Helvacioglu has released the duo album *Black Falcon* with the Australian sound artist Ros Bandt in December 2010\. This album has been included in the “Best albums of 2011” list" in the Blogcritics magazine. He has also released another duo album *Resonating Universes* in August 2011, this time with the Turkish harpist [Sirin Pancaroglu](/wiki/%C5%9Eirin_Pancaro%C4%9Flu "Şirin Pancaroğlu"). His solo sound installation exhibition “Freedom to the Black” has been premiered at ARTER in February 2012 and a book with the same title which includes the CD of the piece has been published. His album *Eleven Short Stories* which consists of his solo prepared piano pieces has been released by the American label [Innova Records](/wiki/Innova_Records "Innova Records") in March 2012\. His solo album *Timeless Waves* has been released in April 2012 by the prestigious contemporary electronic music label [Sub Rosa Records](/wiki/Sub_Rosa_Records "Sub Rosa Records"). Other albums of him that have been released in 2012 are *Erlik Khan* (with Bruce Tovsky), *Planet X* (with Ulrich Mertin) and *Fields and Fences* (with Bill Walker) celebrating the American rural west{{cite web\|title\=16\-Dec\-2012 interview on Outsight Radio Hours\|url\=https://archive.org/details/ErdemHelvaciogluOnOutsightRadioHours\|work\=Archive.org\|accessdate\=20 January 2013}} which was featured with a long article in the *Guitar Player* magazine 2012 Holiday issue. He has composed music for various film, theatre and multimedia productions. He has received "The Best Original Soundtrack" award at the 2007 Mostramundo Film Festival for his work on the movie *[Poyraz](/wiki/Poyraz_%28film%29 "Poyraz (film)")* which was chosen for the [2006 Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/2006_Cannes_Film_Festival "2006 Cannes Film Festival"). Outside of his work as an electronic musician and film composer, Erdem has also produced rock, pop and world music albums for artists such as [Rashit](/wiki/Rashit "Rashit"), Timucin Esen, Mehmet Akbas etc. Currently, Erdem is working on the new collaborative album with [Nathan Larson](/wiki/Nathan_Larson_%28musician%29 "Nathan Larson (musician)"), [Nina Persson](/wiki/Nina_Persson "Nina Persson") and also his new solo pieces.
[ "Career\n------", "The first commercial release to feature Erdem's music was the self\\-titled debut album by symphonic rock band Too Much. Erdem was a founding member, guitar player and songwriter for Too Much. The album was recorded and released into the [underground music](/wiki/Underground_music \"Underground music\") scene in [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") in 1993, while Erdem was still in high school.", "Erdem began composing electronic music pieces while he was studying [electroacoustic music](/wiki/Electroacoustic_music \"Electroacoustic music\") composition and [sound engineering](/wiki/Sound_engineering \"Sound engineering\") at [Istanbul Technical University](/wiki/Istanbul_Technical_University \"Istanbul Technical University\"). His work became noted in international electronic music circles and in time his compositions have been included in several prestigious electronic music festivals such as the San Francisco Tape Music Festival, Sonorities Festival of Contemporary Music, Seoul International Computer Music Festival, Musica Viva Festival, Primavera en La Habana and Third Practice Electroacoustic Music Festival. Erdem also won awards for his compositions from the [Luigi Russolo](/wiki/Luigi_Russolo \"Luigi Russolo\"), Insulae Electronicae and [MUSICA NOVA Electroacoustic Music Competitions.](/wiki/Musica_Nova_Prize \"Musica Nova Prize\")", "As an electronic music artist, Erdem released his first album in 2003\\. The album, entitled *A Walk Through The Bazaar* was released by [Locust Music](/wiki/Locust_Music \"Locust Music\") as part of the MetLife series. The album opens with a field recording of an open\\-air marketplace in Istanbul, capturing the everyday sounds in the bazaar, including street vendors, market customers, cell phones, children and traditional music played in the background. The second and final track of the album features a remix of the field recording with some electronic effects. The album achieved critical acclaim from esteemed music publications, including [*The Wire*](/wiki/The_Wire_%28magazine%29 \"The Wire (magazine)\") magazine, Splendid, [Pitchforkmedia](/wiki/PitchforkMedia \"PitchforkMedia\") and [Allmusic](/wiki/AllMusic \"AllMusic\").", "Erdem's second album was *Altered Realities*, released by New Albion Records in 2006\\. His first album to receive wide release, *Altered Realities* consists of seven instrumental pieces, combining solo acoustic guitar melodies and live electronics. *Altered Realities* was well received in electronic music circles, with its live recording technique featured in music publications, including *[Guitar Player](/wiki/Guitar_Player \"Guitar Player\")* (August 2007\\), *[Gramaphone](/wiki/Gramophone_%28magazine%29 \"Gramophone (magazine)\"), [Tapeop](/wiki/Tape_Op \"Tape Op\"), World1 Music, [Cyclic Defrost](/wiki/Cyclic_Defrost \"Cyclic Defrost\"),* and *Cuemix* magazines. The album has made the Top Ten lists of three international magazines: *[All About Jazz](/wiki/All_About_Jazz \"All About Jazz\")*, *Textura*, and *Cyclic Defrost*, as one of the Best of 2007\\. The distinctive album forges a unique blend of classical, ambient, jazz, folk genres, and electroacoustic styles. Erdem recorded all of the compositions on the album in real\\-time, directly to DAT ([Digital Audio Tape](/wiki/Digital_Audio_Tape \"Digital Audio Tape\")) without any overdubs, mixing, editing, post\\-processing, or the use of previously recorded material. All of the textures were created by the acoustic guitar played live and the signal of which was processed live. Erdem cites electric guitar players such as [David Torn](/wiki/David_Torn \"David Torn\") and [Adrian Belew](/wiki/Adrian_Belew \"Adrian Belew\"), [Michael Hedges's](/wiki/Michael_Hedges_%28sound_engineer%29 \"Michael Hedges (sound engineer)\") the acoustic style, [Harold Budd](/wiki/Harold_Budd \"Harold Budd\") and [Morton Feldman](/wiki/Morton_Feldman \"Morton Feldman\") as specific influences for *Altered Realities*.", "Erdem's third album *Wounded Breath* was released in USA by Aucourant Records in December 2008\\. The album includes 5 of his prizewinning electroacoustic pieces which he had performed at prestigious contemporary festivals all around the world along with composers such as [Paul Lansky](/wiki/Paul_Lansky \"Paul Lansky\") and [Morton Subotnick](/wiki/Morton_Subotnick \"Morton Subotnick\"). In 2008, Erdem was commissioned by [Bang On A Can\\-All Stars](/wiki/Bang_on_a_Can_All_Stars \"Bang on a Can All Stars\"), one of the most well known New Music Ensembles, to compose a piece, which premiered at [Merkin Hall](/wiki/Merkin_Hall \"Merkin Hall\"), New York on 13 February 2008\\.", "Additionally, his compositions have been included on various labels like chmafu nocords, [vox novus](/wiki/Vox_Novus \"Vox Novus\"), quiet American, and OAR for various compilation albums, such as \"ctrl\\-alt\\-del\", which also included works by Scanner, [Kim Cascone](/wiki/Kim_Cascone \"Kim Cascone\") and Merzbow.", "He has released the album *Sub City 2064* with Per Boysen, in [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\"). This work has been included in the “Best 20 albums of 2010” list on *[Blogcritics](/wiki/Blogcritics \"Blogcritics\")* and [*Perfect Sound Forever*](/wiki/Perfect_Sound_Forever_%28magazine%29 \"Perfect Sound Forever (magazine)\") magazines. The album has also been on the “Guitar Player Editors’ Top 3 CDs\" list on the October 2010 issue. Helvacioglu has released the duo album *Black Falcon* with the Australian sound artist Ros Bandt in December 2010\\. This album has been included in the “Best albums of 2011” list\" in the Blogcritics magazine. He has also released another duo album *Resonating Universes* in August 2011, this time with the Turkish harpist [Sirin Pancaroglu](/wiki/%C5%9Eirin_Pancaro%C4%9Flu \"Şirin Pancaroğlu\"). His solo sound installation exhibition “Freedom to the Black” has been premiered at ARTER in February 2012 and a book with the same title which includes the CD of the piece has been published. His album *Eleven Short Stories* which consists of his solo prepared piano pieces has been released by the American label [Innova Records](/wiki/Innova_Records \"Innova Records\") in March 2012\\. His solo album *Timeless Waves* has been released in April 2012 by the prestigious contemporary electronic music label [Sub Rosa Records](/wiki/Sub_Rosa_Records \"Sub Rosa Records\"). Other albums of him that have been released in 2012 are *Erlik Khan* (with Bruce Tovsky), *Planet X* (with Ulrich Mertin) and *Fields and Fences* (with Bill Walker) celebrating the American rural west{{cite web\\|title\\=16\\-Dec\\-2012 interview on Outsight Radio Hours\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/ErdemHelvaciogluOnOutsightRadioHours\\|work\\=Archive.org\\|accessdate\\=20 January 2013}} which was featured with a long article in the *Guitar Player* magazine 2012 Holiday issue.", "He has composed music for various film, theatre and multimedia productions. He has received \"The Best Original Soundtrack\" award at the 2007 Mostramundo Film Festival for his work on the movie *[Poyraz](/wiki/Poyraz_%28film%29 \"Poyraz (film)\")* which was chosen for the [2006 Cannes Film Festival](/wiki/2006_Cannes_Film_Festival \"2006 Cannes Film Festival\").", "Outside of his work as an electronic musician and film composer, Erdem has also produced rock, pop and world music albums for artists such as [Rashit](/wiki/Rashit \"Rashit\"), Timucin Esen, Mehmet Akbas etc.", "Currently, Erdem is working on the new collaborative album with [Nathan Larson](/wiki/Nathan_Larson_%28musician%29 \"Nathan Larson (musician)\"), [Nina Persson](/wiki/Nina_Persson \"Nina Persson\") and also his new solo pieces.", "" ]
Characteristics --------------- ### Legal structures The SIF may be structured as a: * A common contractual fund ([FCP\- Fonds commun de placement](/wiki/Fonds_commun_de_placement "Fonds commun de placement")) which has no legal personality and must therefore be managed by a management company; * An investment company with variable capital ([SICAV\- société d'investissement à capital variable](/wiki/SICAV "SICAV")) or fixed capital ([SICAF\- société d'investissement à capital fixe](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_d%27investissement_%C3%A0_capital_fixe "Société d'investissement à capital fixe")) which can be self\-managed or managed by an external management company. A SICAV or SICAF can be set up using different legal forms. It can be set up as a public limited company (SA), a partnership limited by shares (SCA), a private limited liability company (SARL), a cooperative in the form of a public limited company (SCoSA), a limited partnership (SCS) or a [special limited partnership (SCSp)](/wiki/Special_limited_partnership "Special limited partnership"). These different entities may create sub\-funds each with a different investment policy. The rights of investors and of creditors concerning a sub\-fund or which have arisen in connection with the creation, operation or liquidation of a sub\-fund are limited to the assets of that sub\-fund (i.e. Protected Cell Concept), unless a clause included in the constitutional documents provide otherwise. ### Eligible investors A fund created under the SIF law may be sold to "well\-informed investors". According to the SIF law a well\-informed investor is: * An institutional investor; * A professional investor; * Any other investors who confirmed in writing that they are "well\-informed investors" and either invest a minimum of €125,000 in the SIF or have an appraisal by a credit institution, an investment firm or a management company. ### Diversification The Luxembourg regulator (CSSF) issued a circular letter 07/309 on the 3 August 2007 containing guidelines of the principle of [risk spreading](/wiki/Diversification_%28finance%29 "Diversification (finance)") and investment restrictions for SIF vehicles: * In principle, a SIF may not invest more than 30% of its assets or commitments in securities of the same type issued by the same issuer. However, this restriction does not apply to investments in securities issued or guaranteed by an OECD Member State or its local authorities, supranational institutions or organizations Furthermore, it is not applicable to target UCIs, which are subject to risk diversification principles that are at least comparable to those relevant to SIFs. * [Short sales](/wiki/Short_%28finance%29 "Short (finance)") may not, result in the SIF holding a short position in securities of the same type from the same issuer representing more than 30% of its assets. * When using financial derivative instruments, the SIF must ensure through an appropriate diversification policy of the underlying assets a similar level of risk spreading. Similarly, the counterparty risk in an OTC transaction must, when applicable, be limited having regard to the quality and qualification of the counterparty. ### Investment restrictions and leverage The SIF regime offers a broad scope of eligible assets. There are no specified investment restrictions or leverage rules by the SIF Law. It is simply stated that a SIF should apply the principle of risk diversification. Therefore, assets may include equity bonds, derivatives, structured products, real estate and shareholdings in privately held companies. The CSSF may provide exemptions from these restrictions on a case\-by\-case basis. However, the CSSF may also request that additional restrictions are adhered to, in cases of funds with specific investment policies. ### Minimum fund size and dividends The SIF law sets a minimum fund size of €1\.25 million which must be reached within 12 months after inception. Issued shares of a SICAV must be fully subscribed, but only 5% of the amount of the subscription must be paid up in cash or by other means of contribution. There are no specific restrictions on the payment of dividends. Nevertheless, such payments may not result in the size of the SIF falling below the minimum level of €1\.25 million. ### Valuation of the assets Unless otherwise provided for in the issuing document, the [valuation](/wiki/Valuation_%28finance%29 "Valuation (finance)") of the [assets](/wiki/Asset "Asset") must be based on [fair value](/wiki/Fair_value "Fair value"), determined in accordance with the procedures laid down in the management regulations (FCP) or articles of incorporation (SICAV\-SICAF). ### Duties and taxes The CSSF filing duty is fixed at €2650 for a single compartment SIF and €5000 for a multiple compartment SIF. The CSSF annual fee is fixed at €2650 for a single compartment SIF and €5000 for a multiple compartment SIF. An annual subscription tax of 0,01% on the [net asset value](/wiki/Net_asset_value "Net asset value") (NAV) has to be paid to the Luxembourg government ('taxe d'abonnement').
[ "Characteristics\n---------------", "### Legal structures", "The SIF may be structured as a: \n* A common contractual fund ([FCP\\- Fonds commun de placement](/wiki/Fonds_commun_de_placement \"Fonds commun de placement\")) which has no legal personality and must therefore be managed by a management company;\n* An investment company with variable capital ([SICAV\\- société d'investissement à capital variable](/wiki/SICAV \"SICAV\")) or fixed capital ([SICAF\\- société d'investissement à capital fixe](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_d%27investissement_%C3%A0_capital_fixe \"Société d'investissement à capital fixe\")) which can be self\\-managed or managed by an external management company. \nA SICAV or SICAF can be set up using different legal forms. It can be set up as a public\nlimited company (SA), a partnership limited by shares (SCA), a private limited liability company (SARL), a cooperative in the form of a public limited company (SCoSA), a limited partnership (SCS) or a [special limited partnership (SCSp)](/wiki/Special_limited_partnership \"Special limited partnership\").", "These different entities may create sub\\-funds each with a different investment policy. The rights of investors and of creditors concerning a sub\\-fund or which have arisen in connection with the creation, operation or liquidation of a sub\\-fund are limited to the assets of that sub\\-fund (i.e. Protected Cell Concept), unless a clause included in the constitutional documents provide otherwise.", "### Eligible investors", "A fund created under the SIF law may be sold to\n\"well\\-informed investors\". According to the SIF law a well\\-informed investor\nis:\n* An institutional investor;\n* A professional investor;\n* Any other investors who confirmed in writing that they are \"well\\-informed investors\" and either invest a minimum of €125,000 in the SIF or have an appraisal by a credit institution, an investment firm or a management company.", "### Diversification", "The Luxembourg regulator (CSSF) issued a circular letter\n07/309 on the 3 August 2007 containing guidelines of the principle of [risk spreading](/wiki/Diversification_%28finance%29 \"Diversification (finance)\") and investment restrictions for SIF vehicles:\n* In principle, a SIF may not invest more than 30% of its assets or commitments in securities of the same type issued by the same issuer. However, this restriction does not apply to investments in securities issued or guaranteed by an OECD Member State or its local authorities, supranational institutions or organizations Furthermore, it is not applicable to target UCIs, which are subject to risk diversification principles that are at least comparable to those relevant to SIFs.\n* [Short sales](/wiki/Short_%28finance%29 \"Short (finance)\") may not, result in the SIF holding a short position in securities of the same type from the same issuer representing more than 30% of its assets.\n* When using financial derivative instruments, the SIF must ensure through an appropriate diversification policy of the underlying assets a similar level of risk spreading. Similarly, the counterparty risk in an OTC transaction must, when applicable, be limited having regard to the quality and qualification of the counterparty.", "### Investment restrictions and leverage", "The SIF regime offers a broad scope of eligible assets. There are no specified investment restrictions or leverage rules by the SIF Law. It is simply stated that a SIF should apply the principle of risk diversification. Therefore, assets may include equity bonds, derivatives, structured products, real estate and shareholdings in privately held companies.", "The CSSF may provide exemptions from these restrictions on a case\\-by\\-case basis. However, the CSSF may also request that additional restrictions are adhered to, in cases of funds with specific investment\npolicies.", "### Minimum fund size and dividends", "The SIF law sets a minimum fund size of €1\\.25 million which must be reached within 12 months after inception.", "Issued shares of a SICAV must be fully subscribed, but only 5% of the amount of the subscription must be paid up in cash or by other means of contribution.", "There are no specific restrictions on the payment of dividends. Nevertheless, such payments may not result in the size of the SIF falling below the minimum level of €1\\.25 million.", "### Valuation of the assets", "Unless otherwise provided for in the issuing document, the [valuation](/wiki/Valuation_%28finance%29 \"Valuation (finance)\") of the [assets](/wiki/Asset \"Asset\") must be based on [fair value](/wiki/Fair_value \"Fair value\"), determined in accordance with the procedures laid down in the management regulations (FCP) or articles of incorporation (SICAV\\-SICAF).", "### Duties and taxes", "The CSSF filing duty is fixed at €2650 for a single compartment SIF and €5000 for a multiple compartment SIF. The CSSF annual fee is fixed at €2650 for a single compartment SIF and €5000 for a multiple compartment SIF.", "An annual subscription tax of 0,01% on the [net asset value](/wiki/Net_asset_value \"Net asset value\") (NAV) has to be paid to the Luxembourg government ('taxe d'abonnement').", "" ]
Appointing a SIF\-AIF --------------------- A SIF that is qualified as an alternative investment fund according to the [AIFM law](/wiki/Alternative_Investment_Fund_Managers_Directive "Alternative Investment Fund Managers Directive") must be managed by an authorized alternative investment fund manager (AIFM)which may either be established in Luxembourg, in a Member State of the EU, or in a third country. Following the AIFM Law, a SIF\-AIF can be managed in two different ways: * it can be managed *externally* through the calling of a separate AIFM responsible for managing the SIF AIF. In this case it is the governing body of the SIF AIF which is empowered to call an authorized AIFM; * it can be managed internally. In this case the SIF AIF will be considered as the AIFM itself and it will be required to comply with all of the AIFM Law obligations which apply to an AIFM and submit a request for authorization under the AIFM Law. ### Depositary Functions Depositaries of SIF AIFs must comply with the new depositary regime as provided for by the AIFM Law. This new depositary regime imposes specific duties, being the following: * the obligation to protect the SIF AIFs assets; * the obligation to monitor the SIF AIFs cash flow; * as well as specific oversight duties. In addition, the liability regime has been reviewed and strengthened by the AIFM Law. The depositary is strictly liable in the case of a loss of financial instruments it held in custody and it must, without delay, return financial instruments of an identical type or of corresponding amount to the SIF AIF or the AIFM acting for the SIF AIF. Avoiding the consequences of this liability regime is very limited. Any other losses caused by the depositary's negligent or intentional failure to properly fulfill its obligation under the AIFM Law lie under the depositary's liability. ### Valuation Function The valuation function (valuation of assets and calculation of NAV) has to be performed either by the AIFM itself or by an external company that will act under the responsibility of the AIFM and that is subject to a mandatory professional registration recognized by law. The NAV (net asset value) must be calculated at least once a year. ### Content of annual Report SIF AIFs have to disclose additional information in their annual reports compared to SIFs, being: * the total amount of remuneration it paid to its staff for the financial year; * the number of beneficiaries; * any carried interest paid by the SIF AIF. * the aggregate amount of remuneration, as broken down by senior management and by AIFM staff members whose actions have a material impact on the risk profile of the SIF AIF. ### Risk Management A SIF qualifying as an AIF must establish a risk management function separated hierarchically from that of the operating units. An adequate risk management system must be implemented in order to identify, measure, manage and monitor appropriately all investment risks arisen through the SIF AIF investment strategy.
[ "Appointing a SIF\\-AIF\n---------------------", "A SIF that is qualified as an alternative investment fund according to the [AIFM law](/wiki/Alternative_Investment_Fund_Managers_Directive \"Alternative Investment Fund Managers Directive\") must be managed by an authorized alternative investment fund manager (AIFM)which may either be established in Luxembourg, in a Member State of the EU, or in a third country.", "Following the AIFM Law, a SIF\\-AIF can be managed in two different ways:\n* it can be managed *externally* through the calling of a separate AIFM responsible for managing the SIF AIF. In this case it is the governing body of the SIF AIF which is empowered to call an authorized AIFM;\n* it can be managed internally. In this case the SIF AIF will be considered as the AIFM itself and it will be required to comply with all of the AIFM Law obligations which apply to an AIFM and submit a request for authorization under the AIFM Law.", "### Depositary Functions", "Depositaries of SIF AIFs must comply with the new depositary regime as provided for by the AIFM Law.", "This new depositary regime imposes specific duties, being\nthe following:\n* the obligation to protect the SIF AIFs assets;\n* the obligation to monitor the SIF AIFs cash flow;\n* as well as specific oversight duties.\nIn addition, the liability regime has been reviewed and\nstrengthened by the AIFM Law. The depositary is strictly liable in the case of a loss of financial instruments it held in custody and it must, without delay, return financial instruments of an identical type or of corresponding amount to the SIF AIF or the AIFM acting for the SIF AIF. Avoiding the consequences of\nthis liability regime is very limited.", "Any other losses caused by the depositary's negligent or\nintentional failure to properly fulfill its obligation under the AIFM Law lie\nunder the depositary's liability.", "### Valuation Function", "The valuation function (valuation of assets and calculation\nof NAV) has to be performed either by the AIFM itself or by an external company\nthat will act under the responsibility of the AIFM and that is subject to a\nmandatory professional registration recognized by law. The NAV (net asset\nvalue) must be calculated at least once a year.", "### Content of annual Report", "SIF AIFs have to disclose additional information in their annual\nreports compared to SIFs, being:\n* the total amount of remuneration it paid to its staff for the financial year;\n* the number of beneficiaries;\n* any carried interest paid by the SIF AIF.\n* the aggregate amount of remuneration, as broken down by senior management and by AIFM staff members whose actions have a material impact on the risk profile of the SIF AIF.", "### Risk Management", "A SIF qualifying as an AIF must establish a risk management function separated hierarchically from that of the operating units. An adequate risk management system must be implemented in order to identify, measure, manage and monitor appropriately all investment risks arisen through the SIF AIF investment strategy.", "" ]
Life and work ------------- [175px\|thumb\|left\|Coat of Arms of Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil\-Cavagnial](/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Pierre_de_Rigaud%2C_Marquis_de_Vaudreuil-Cavagnial.svg "Coat of Arms of Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial.svg") He was born to the [Governor\-General](/wiki/Governor-General "Governor-General") of [New France](/wiki/New_France "New France"), [Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil](/wiki/Philippe_de_Rigaud_Vaudreuil "Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil") and his wife, [Louise\-Élisabeth](/wiki/Louise_%C3%89lisabeth_de_Joybert "Louise Élisabeth de Joybert"), the daughter of [Pierre de Joybert de Soulanges et de Marson](/wiki/Pierre_de_Joybert_de_Soulanges_et_de_Marson "Pierre de Joybert de Soulanges et de Marson"), in [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec_City "Quebec City"). He was the uncle of [Louis\-Philippe de Vaudreuil](/wiki/Louis-Philippe_de_Vaudreuil "Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil"). Commissioned an officer of the French [army](/wiki/Army "Army") while still a youth, in 1733 he was appointed governor of [Trois\-Rivières](/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res%2C_Quebec "Trois-Rivières, Quebec"), and in 1742 of [French Louisiana](/wiki/French_Louisiana "French Louisiana"), serving there from to May 10, 1743 to February 9, 1753 and proving himself a skilled officer and capable administrator. While governor of Louisiana, he married Jeanne\-Charlotte de Fleury Deschambault, a widow about 15 years his elder.{{cite web\|title\=Jeanne Charlotte de Fleury Deschambault : the woman behind the painting\|date\=April 4, 2019\|first1\=Marie\-Hélaine\|last1\=Fallu\|first2\=Joseph\|last2\=Gagné\|website\=Mlle Canadienne\|url\=http://mllecanadienne.blogspot.com/2019/04/jeanne\-charlotte\-de\-fleury\-deschambault.html\|accessdate\=July 21, 2021}} He moved to France in 1753 before being appointed by King [Louis XV](/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France "Louis XV of France") as [governor](/wiki/Governor "Governor") of New France in 1755\. Although Vaudreuil held supreme civil authority in Canada and was technically [commander\-in\-chief](/wiki/Commander-in-chief "Commander-in-chief") of all French forces there, he clashed often with Montcalm, the military commander in the field, who resented his oversight role. The two men grew to detest one another, much to the detriment of the French war effort. After Montcalm lost to the British forces under Maj. Gen. [James Wolfe](/wiki/James_Wolfe "James Wolfe") at [Quebec City](/wiki/Quebec_City "Quebec City") in the [Battle of the Plains of Abraham](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Plains_of_Abraham "Battle of the Plains of Abraham"), Vaudreuil tried to rally resistance to the British but to no avail. He was forced to [surrender Montreal](/wiki/Montreal_Campaign "Montreal Campaign") on 8 September 1760 to Maj. Gen. [Jeffrey Amherst](/wiki/Jeffrey_Amherst%2C_1st_Baron_Amherst "Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst"). One of several scapegoats for France's losses in the New World, Vaudreuil was imprisoned in the Bastille on March 30, 1762 but was released on May 18\. He was joined by [Bigot](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Bigot "François Bigot"), Cadet, Pean, Breard, Varin, Le Mercier, Penisseault, Maurin, Copron, and others. Of the 21 men brought to trial, 10 were condemned, six were acquitted, three received an admonition and two were dismissed for want of evidence. Absent were 34, of whom seven were sentenced in default, and judgement was reserved in the case of the rest.Parkman, Francis: "Montcalm and Wolfe" Exonerated in a military tribunal held in December 1763, he was awarded a pension and military decoration. After selling his Canadian seigneuries at Vaudreuil and Rigaud to his cousin, [Michel Chartier de Lotbinière, Marquis de Lotbinière](/wiki/Michel_Chartier_de_Lotbini%C3%A8re%2C_Marquis_de_Lotbini%C3%A8re "Michel Chartier de Lotbinière, Marquis de Lotbinière"), he retired to his ancestral estate near [Rouen](/wiki/Rouen "Rouen"), although the episode ruined his fortunes. He died in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") on 4 August 1778\. His nephew [Louis\-Philippe de Vaudreuil](/wiki/Louis-Philippe_de_Vaudreuil "Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil") was the second in command of the French naval units supporting the Americans during the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution"). He was present at the defeat of the British fleet by the French at the pivotal [Battle of the Chesapeake](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Chesapeake "Battle of the Chesapeake") during the [siege of Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown "Siege of Yorktown") in 1781, although he was later defeated by the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") at the [Battle of the Saintes](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Saintes "Battle of the Saintes"). Vaudreuil was one of three governors\-general of Canada known to have owned [enslaved people](/wiki/Slave "Slave"). During his tenure, he owned 16 people, 13 of whom were Africans.{{cite book \|last\=Trudel \|first\=Marcel \|date\=1960 \|title\=L'esclavage au Canada français: Histoire et conditions de l'esclavage \|language\=fr\-CA \|trans\-title\=Slavery in French Canada: History and Conditions of Slavery \|publisher\=Les Presses Universites Laval \|location\=Quebec City, Québec, Canada \|page\=137 \|url\=https://numerique.banq.qc.ca/patrimoine/details/52327/3187835}}
[ "Life and work\n-------------", "[175px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Coat of Arms of Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil\\-Cavagnial](/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Pierre_de_Rigaud%2C_Marquis_de_Vaudreuil-Cavagnial.svg \"Coat of Arms of Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial.svg\")\nHe was born to the [Governor\\-General](/wiki/Governor-General \"Governor-General\") of [New France](/wiki/New_France \"New France\"), [Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil](/wiki/Philippe_de_Rigaud_Vaudreuil \"Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil\") and his wife, [Louise\\-Élisabeth](/wiki/Louise_%C3%89lisabeth_de_Joybert \"Louise Élisabeth de Joybert\"), the daughter of [Pierre de Joybert de Soulanges et de Marson](/wiki/Pierre_de_Joybert_de_Soulanges_et_de_Marson \"Pierre de Joybert de Soulanges et de Marson\"), in [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec_City \"Quebec City\"). He was the uncle of [Louis\\-Philippe de Vaudreuil](/wiki/Louis-Philippe_de_Vaudreuil \"Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil\").", "Commissioned an officer of the French [army](/wiki/Army \"Army\") while still a youth, in 1733 he was appointed governor of [Trois\\-Rivières](/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res%2C_Quebec \"Trois-Rivières, Quebec\"), and in 1742 of [French Louisiana](/wiki/French_Louisiana \"French Louisiana\"), serving there from to May 10, 1743 to February 9, 1753 and proving himself a skilled officer and capable administrator. While governor of Louisiana, he married Jeanne\\-Charlotte de Fleury Deschambault, a widow about 15 years his elder.{{cite web\\|title\\=Jeanne Charlotte de Fleury Deschambault : the woman behind the painting\\|date\\=April 4, 2019\\|first1\\=Marie\\-Hélaine\\|last1\\=Fallu\\|first2\\=Joseph\\|last2\\=Gagné\\|website\\=Mlle Canadienne\\|url\\=http://mllecanadienne.blogspot.com/2019/04/jeanne\\-charlotte\\-de\\-fleury\\-deschambault.html\\|accessdate\\=July 21, 2021}}", "He moved to France in 1753 before being appointed by King [Louis XV](/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France \"Louis XV of France\") as [governor](/wiki/Governor \"Governor\") of New France in 1755\\.", "Although Vaudreuil held supreme civil authority in Canada and was technically [commander\\-in\\-chief](/wiki/Commander-in-chief \"Commander-in-chief\") of all French forces there, he clashed often with Montcalm, the military commander in the field, who resented his oversight role. The two men grew to detest one another, much to the detriment of the French war effort.", "After Montcalm lost to the British forces under Maj. Gen. [James Wolfe](/wiki/James_Wolfe \"James Wolfe\") at [Quebec City](/wiki/Quebec_City \"Quebec City\") in the [Battle of the Plains of Abraham](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Plains_of_Abraham \"Battle of the Plains of Abraham\"), Vaudreuil tried to rally resistance to the British but to no avail. He was forced to [surrender Montreal](/wiki/Montreal_Campaign \"Montreal Campaign\") on 8 September 1760 to Maj. Gen. [Jeffrey Amherst](/wiki/Jeffrey_Amherst%2C_1st_Baron_Amherst \"Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst\").", "One of several scapegoats for France's losses in the New World, Vaudreuil was imprisoned in the Bastille on March 30, 1762 but was released on May 18\\. He was joined by [Bigot](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Bigot \"François Bigot\"), Cadet, Pean, Breard, Varin, Le Mercier, Penisseault, Maurin, Copron, and others. Of the 21 men brought to trial, 10 were condemned, six were acquitted, three received an admonition and two were dismissed for want of evidence. Absent were 34, of whom seven were sentenced in default, and judgement was reserved in the case of the rest.Parkman, Francis: \"Montcalm and Wolfe\" Exonerated in a military tribunal held in December 1763, he was awarded a pension and military decoration.", "After selling his Canadian seigneuries at Vaudreuil and Rigaud to his cousin, [Michel Chartier de Lotbinière, Marquis de Lotbinière](/wiki/Michel_Chartier_de_Lotbini%C3%A8re%2C_Marquis_de_Lotbini%C3%A8re \"Michel Chartier de Lotbinière, Marquis de Lotbinière\"), he retired to his ancestral estate near [Rouen](/wiki/Rouen \"Rouen\"), although the episode ruined his fortunes. He died in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") on 4 August 1778\\.", "His nephew [Louis\\-Philippe de Vaudreuil](/wiki/Louis-Philippe_de_Vaudreuil \"Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil\") was the second in command of the French naval units supporting the Americans during the [American Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\"). He was present at the defeat of the British fleet by the French at the pivotal [Battle of the Chesapeake](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Chesapeake \"Battle of the Chesapeake\") during the [siege of Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown \"Siege of Yorktown\") in 1781, although he was later defeated by the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") at the [Battle of the Saintes](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Saintes \"Battle of the Saintes\").", "Vaudreuil was one of three governors\\-general of Canada known to have owned [enslaved people](/wiki/Slave \"Slave\"). During his tenure, he owned 16 people, 13 of whom were Africans.{{cite book \\|last\\=Trudel \\|first\\=Marcel \\|date\\=1960 \\|title\\=L'esclavage au Canada français: Histoire et conditions de l'esclavage \\|language\\=fr\\-CA \\|trans\\-title\\=Slavery in French Canada: History and Conditions of Slavery \\|publisher\\=Les Presses Universites Laval \\|location\\=Quebec City, Québec, Canada \\|page\\=137 \\|url\\=https://numerique.banq.qc.ca/patrimoine/details/52327/3187835}}", "" ]
Building -------- The Wheeler is located on the northwest corner of the intersection, located roughly in the center of Aspen. To the south and east Hyman and Mill have been closed to vehicular traffic; both are now planted with shade trees and serve as [pedestrian malls](/wiki/Pedestrian_mall "Pedestrian mall"). The surrounding neighborhood is densely developed with a mixture of modern and historic buildings, none taller than two stories, giving the Wheeler unchallenged domination of the skyline. To the west is a vacant lot.{{cite web\|title\=Aspen CO\|url\=http://mapper.acme.com/?ll\=39\.18917,\-106\.81972\&z\=15\&t\=H\&marker0\=39\.18917,\-106\.81972,Wheeler\-Opera\-House\|publisher\=ACME Mapper\|year\=2011\|accessdate\=April 7, 2011}} The terrain is level, with the lower slopes of [Aspen Mountain](/wiki/Aspen_Mountain_%28Colorado%29 "Aspen Mountain (Colorado)") and the [ski area's](/wiki/Aspen_Mountain_%28ski_area%29 "Aspen Mountain (ski area)") base facilities several blocks to the south.{{cite map \|publisher\=\[\[United States Geological Survey]] \|title\=Aspen Quadrangle – Colorado – Pitkin Co. \|url\=http://www.topoquest.com/map.php?lat\=39\.18868\&lon\=\-106\.82096\&datum\=nad83\&zoom\=2↦\=auto\&coord\=d\&mode\=zoomin\&size\=m\|scale\=1:24,000 \|series\=USGS 7½ minute quadrangles\|accessdate\=2011\-04\-07}} The building itself is a five\-by\-seven\-[bay](/wiki/Bay_%28architecture%29 "Bay (architecture)") structure three stories tall, topped by a [hipped roof](/wiki/Hipped_roof "Hipped roof").{{cite web\|last1\=Bartel\|first1\=Herb\|last2\=Eberhart\|first2\=Perry\|title\=National Register of Historic Places nomination, Wheeler Opera House\|url\={{NRHP url\|id\=72000276}}\|publisher\=\[\[U.S. National Park Service]]\|date\=November 24, 1971\|accessdate\=May 28, 2013}} All three visible [facades](/wiki/Facade "Facade") are faced in [rusticated](/wiki/Rustication_%28architecture%29 "Rustication (architecture)") peachblow [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone "Sandstone"); the west and north sides are done in plain brick. The two\-bay main entrance is on East Hyman Street, in the center of the south facade. An auxiliary entrance is located at the top of a short flight of steps in the corner facade. At the north end of the west facade is a three\-bay glass storefront with entrance. A small addition, containing a stairwell, protrudes from that corner to the north. On the west end of the front facade is a narrow blind brick addition. ### Exterior All the windows on the first floor have round segmental arches, sandstone [voussoirs](/wiki/Voussoir "Voussoir") and [awnings](/wiki/Awning "Awning"). Above them a small continuous cornice sets off a plain [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze") with the word "Bank" in [relief](/wiki/Relief "Relief") above the door on the corner facade. Another, larger continuous cornice atop the frieze sets off the second story. Its windows are all [trabeated](/wiki/Trabeat "Trabeat") single\-pane double\-hung [sash](/wiki/Sash_windows "Sash windows") with [granite](/wiki/Granite "Granite") lintels and a broad plain surround; all except the center bays on the south are set in slight recesses that rise to an arched top on the third story. Those middle bays are set with three single windows in a larger recessed area. On the third story all the arches are blind with triple\-hung single\-pane sash, accentuated by contrasting lighter stone. On the west end of the south facade, and the second and third from the south on the east facade, the upper window panes are blind as well. The northernmost bay on the east facade is set with a smaller [oculus](/wiki/Oculus_%28architecture%29 "Oculus (architecture)"). The arches have smooth finishes. Another cornice above a plain frieze serves as the arches' springline. From it in the center of the south story rise three smaller round\-arched windows, triple\-hung with the lower panes blind. Their surrounds have [keystones](/wiki/Keystone_%28architecture%29 "Keystone (architecture)"). On either side of the three, a section of cornice and plain frieze coincides with the arches' springline to suggest the top of a [pilaster](/wiki/Pilaster "Pilaster"). Above the windows is another wide plain frieze. Just below it, in the northernmost bay of the east, is a group of three small windows. The roofline has a denticulated pressed\-tin cornice below broad overhanging [eaves](/wiki/Eave "Eave"). The middle section of the south facade has a [pediment](/wiki/Pediment "Pediment") with similar cornice. Within its recessed [entablature](/wiki/Entablature "Entablature") is a blind *[oeil\-de\-boeuf](/wiki/Oeil-de-boeuf "Oeil-de-boeuf")*. The corner facade has a much smaller segmental semicircular top, and a very small pediment tops the northernmost bay on the east facade.{{cite book\|last\=Zietz\|first\=Karyl Lynn\|title\=The National Trust Guide to Great Opera Houses in America\|year\=1996\|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons\|location\=New York\|isbn\=978\-0\-471\-14421\-2 \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/nationaltrustgui0000lynn/page/133 133]–36 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/nationaltrustgui0000lynn\|url\-access\=registration\|quote\=Wheeler Opera House.\|author2\=Lynn, Karyl Charna }} ### Interior Inside, the first story is given over to storefronts and the [box office](/wiki/Box_office "Box office"). The second story has back stage dressing rooms and the theater lobby, painted in [Venetian plaster](/wiki/Venetian_plaster "Venetian plaster") with a [mural](/wiki/Mural "Mural") showing the building.{{cite web\|title\=Faux Finishes\|url\=http://www.atmospherepainting.com/faux\_finishes\|publisher\=Atmosphere Custom Painting\|accessdate\=April 6, 2011}} Both interiors have been extensively renovated. In the rear is a fire stairway and elevator to make the theater [accessible](/wiki/Accessibility "Accessibility"). A stairway with red carpeting and imitation wood [balustrade](/wiki/Balustrade "Balustrade") leads from the entrance to the auditorium. On display is the walk\-in [safe](/wiki/Safe "Safe") Jerome Wheeler bought for the bank he had founded that once occupied the first floor. The 503\-seat auditorium is located on the third story, which rises to twice the height of the other two. Renovated since its construction, it combines its original period design with some [modernist](/wiki/Modern_architecture "Modern architecture") elements. Seats are surfaced in Moroccan leather. The walls are decorated in an elaborate pattern of [azure](/wiki/Azure_%28color%29 "Azure (color)") and [teal](/wiki/Teal_%28color%29 "Teal (color)") and [salmon](/wiki/Salmon_%28color%29 "Salmon (color)") rise to a curved [coffered](/wiki/Coffer "Coffer") ceiling, done in azure with silver stars amid intersecting imitation wood, from which a [chandelier](/wiki/Chandelier "Chandelier") hangs. At the north end is the stage with a maroon\-and\-gold [proscenium](/wiki/Proscenium "Proscenium") and red velvet curtain. Above it is an emblem with [Roman legionnaires](/wiki/Roman_legion "Roman legion")' helmets and [lutes](/wiki/Lute "Lute"). The south windows offer an unobstructed view of the mountain, flanked by box seats. A curved wooden balustrade sets off the [balcony](/wiki/Balcony "Balcony"), supported by [salmon\-colored](/wiki/Salmon_%28color%29 "Salmon (color)") [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron "Cast iron") [Corinthian](/wiki/Corinthian_order "Corinthian order") columns. Two small side stages, decorated in [Lincrusta](/wiki/Lincrusta "Lincrusta")–[Walton](/wiki/Frederick_Walton "Frederick Walton") paneling with a geometric design, flank the main stage at this level. Behind the stage are dressing rooms and a crossover to allow actors to change sides of the stage during a performance without being seen by the audience. This space also gives access to the fire stair and elevator.
[ "Building\n--------", "The Wheeler is located on the northwest corner of the intersection, located roughly in the center of Aspen. To the south and east Hyman and Mill have been closed to vehicular traffic; both are now planted with shade trees and serve as [pedestrian malls](/wiki/Pedestrian_mall \"Pedestrian mall\"). The surrounding neighborhood is densely developed with a mixture of modern and historic buildings, none taller than two stories, giving the Wheeler unchallenged domination of the skyline. To the west is a vacant lot.{{cite web\\|title\\=Aspen CO\\|url\\=http://mapper.acme.com/?ll\\=39\\.18917,\\-106\\.81972\\&z\\=15\\&t\\=H\\&marker0\\=39\\.18917,\\-106\\.81972,Wheeler\\-Opera\\-House\\|publisher\\=ACME Mapper\\|year\\=2011\\|accessdate\\=April 7, 2011}} The terrain is level, with the lower slopes of [Aspen Mountain](/wiki/Aspen_Mountain_%28Colorado%29 \"Aspen Mountain (Colorado)\") and the [ski area's](/wiki/Aspen_Mountain_%28ski_area%29 \"Aspen Mountain (ski area)\") base facilities several blocks to the south.{{cite map \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Geological Survey]] \\|title\\=Aspen Quadrangle – Colorado – Pitkin Co. \\|url\\=http://www.topoquest.com/map.php?lat\\=39\\.18868\\&lon\\=\\-106\\.82096\\&datum\\=nad83\\&zoom\\=2↦\\=auto\\&coord\\=d\\&mode\\=zoomin\\&size\\=m\\|scale\\=1:24,000 \\|series\\=USGS 7½ minute quadrangles\\|accessdate\\=2011\\-04\\-07}}", "The building itself is a five\\-by\\-seven\\-[bay](/wiki/Bay_%28architecture%29 \"Bay (architecture)\") structure three stories tall, topped by a [hipped roof](/wiki/Hipped_roof \"Hipped roof\").{{cite web\\|last1\\=Bartel\\|first1\\=Herb\\|last2\\=Eberhart\\|first2\\=Perry\\|title\\=National Register of Historic Places nomination, Wheeler Opera House\\|url\\={{NRHP url\\|id\\=72000276}}\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[U.S. National Park Service]]\\|date\\=November 24, 1971\\|accessdate\\=May 28, 2013}} All three visible [facades](/wiki/Facade \"Facade\") are faced in [rusticated](/wiki/Rustication_%28architecture%29 \"Rustication (architecture)\") peachblow [sandstone](/wiki/Sandstone \"Sandstone\"); the west and north sides are done in plain brick. The two\\-bay main entrance is on East Hyman Street, in the center of the south facade. An auxiliary entrance is located at the top of a short flight of steps in the corner facade. At the north end of the west facade is a three\\-bay glass storefront with entrance. A small addition, containing a stairwell, protrudes from that corner to the north. On the west end of the front facade is a narrow blind brick addition.", "### Exterior", "All the windows on the first floor have round segmental arches, sandstone [voussoirs](/wiki/Voussoir \"Voussoir\") and [awnings](/wiki/Awning \"Awning\"). Above them a small continuous cornice sets off a plain [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\") with the word \"Bank\" in [relief](/wiki/Relief \"Relief\") above the door on the corner facade. Another, larger continuous cornice atop the frieze sets off the second story. Its windows are all [trabeated](/wiki/Trabeat \"Trabeat\") single\\-pane double\\-hung [sash](/wiki/Sash_windows \"Sash windows\") with [granite](/wiki/Granite \"Granite\") lintels and a broad plain surround; all except the center bays on the south are set in slight recesses that rise to an arched top on the third story. Those middle bays are set with three single windows in a larger recessed area.", "On the third story all the arches are blind with triple\\-hung single\\-pane sash, accentuated by contrasting lighter stone. On the west end of the south facade, and the second and third from the south on the east facade, the upper window panes are blind as well. The northernmost bay on the east facade is set with a smaller [oculus](/wiki/Oculus_%28architecture%29 \"Oculus (architecture)\"). The arches have smooth finishes.", "Another cornice above a plain frieze serves as the arches' springline. From it in the center of the south story rise three smaller round\\-arched windows, triple\\-hung with the lower panes blind. Their surrounds have [keystones](/wiki/Keystone_%28architecture%29 \"Keystone (architecture)\"). On either side of the three, a section of cornice and plain frieze coincides with the arches' springline to suggest the top of a [pilaster](/wiki/Pilaster \"Pilaster\"). Above the windows is another wide plain frieze. Just below it, in the northernmost bay of the east, is a group of three small windows.", "The roofline has a denticulated pressed\\-tin cornice below broad overhanging [eaves](/wiki/Eave \"Eave\"). The middle section of the south facade has a [pediment](/wiki/Pediment \"Pediment\") with similar cornice. Within its recessed [entablature](/wiki/Entablature \"Entablature\") is a blind *[oeil\\-de\\-boeuf](/wiki/Oeil-de-boeuf \"Oeil-de-boeuf\")*. The corner facade has a much smaller segmental semicircular top, and a very small pediment tops the northernmost bay on the east facade.{{cite book\\|last\\=Zietz\\|first\\=Karyl Lynn\\|title\\=The National Trust Guide to Great Opera Houses in America\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons\\|location\\=New York\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-471\\-14421\\-2 \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/nationaltrustgui0000lynn/page/133 133]–36 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/nationaltrustgui0000lynn\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|quote\\=Wheeler Opera House.\\|author2\\=Lynn, Karyl Charna }}", "### Interior", "Inside, the first story is given over to storefronts and the [box office](/wiki/Box_office \"Box office\"). The second story has back stage dressing rooms and the theater lobby, painted in [Venetian plaster](/wiki/Venetian_plaster \"Venetian plaster\") with a [mural](/wiki/Mural \"Mural\") showing the building.{{cite web\\|title\\=Faux Finishes\\|url\\=http://www.atmospherepainting.com/faux\\_finishes\\|publisher\\=Atmosphere Custom Painting\\|accessdate\\=April 6, 2011}} Both interiors have been extensively renovated. In the rear is a fire stairway and elevator to make the theater [accessible](/wiki/Accessibility \"Accessibility\"). A stairway with red carpeting and imitation wood [balustrade](/wiki/Balustrade \"Balustrade\") leads from the entrance to the auditorium. On display is the walk\\-in [safe](/wiki/Safe \"Safe\") Jerome Wheeler bought for the bank he had founded that once occupied the first floor.", "The 503\\-seat auditorium is located on the third story, which rises to twice the height of the other two. Renovated since its construction, it combines its original period design with some [modernist](/wiki/Modern_architecture \"Modern architecture\") elements. Seats are surfaced in Moroccan leather. The walls are decorated in an elaborate pattern of [azure](/wiki/Azure_%28color%29 \"Azure (color)\") and [teal](/wiki/Teal_%28color%29 \"Teal (color)\") and [salmon](/wiki/Salmon_%28color%29 \"Salmon (color)\") rise to a curved [coffered](/wiki/Coffer \"Coffer\") ceiling, done in azure with silver stars amid intersecting imitation wood, from which a [chandelier](/wiki/Chandelier \"Chandelier\") hangs. At the north end is the stage with a maroon\\-and\\-gold [proscenium](/wiki/Proscenium \"Proscenium\") and red velvet curtain. Above it is an emblem with [Roman legionnaires](/wiki/Roman_legion \"Roman legion\")' helmets and [lutes](/wiki/Lute \"Lute\"). The south windows offer an unobstructed view of the mountain, flanked by box seats.", "A curved wooden balustrade sets off the [balcony](/wiki/Balcony \"Balcony\"), supported by [salmon\\-colored](/wiki/Salmon_%28color%29 \"Salmon (color)\") [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron \"Cast iron\") [Corinthian](/wiki/Corinthian_order \"Corinthian order\") columns. Two small side stages, decorated in [Lincrusta](/wiki/Lincrusta \"Lincrusta\")–[Walton](/wiki/Frederick_Walton \"Frederick Walton\") paneling with a geometric design, flank the main stage at this level. Behind the stage are dressing rooms and a crossover to allow actors to change sides of the stage during a performance without being seen by the audience. This space also gives access to the fire stair and elevator.", "" ]
History ------- The history of the Wheeler parallels that of Aspen. Established with much fanfare during the city's initial boom years in the late 19th century, it fell into decline along with much of the rest of Aspen's buildings when the silver market crashed. [Restoration](/wiki/Building_restoration "Building restoration") efforts began in the mid\-20th century, as Aspen became established as a ski resort town, and the affluence that attracted in turn produced more money for further restoration efforts. [100px\|left\|thumb\|Jerome Wheeler\|alt\=A black\-and\-white photographic portrait of a man with a thick beard and mustache wearing a high collar and jacket. It is faded around the edges.](/wiki/File:Jerome_B_Wheeler.jpg "Jerome B Wheeler.jpg") ### 1888–93: Initial construction during Silver Boom First established in 1879 as Ute City, a rough settlement of [log cabins](/wiki/Log_cabin "Log cabin") on a plain high in the [Roaring Fork Valley](/wiki/Roaring_Fork_Valley "Roaring Fork Valley"), Aspen grew quickly when [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver") was found in abundance in the nearby mountains. During the [Colorado Silver Boom](/wiki/Colorado_Silver_Boom "Colorado Silver Boom") of the 1880s, its population soared and it soon [incorporated](/wiki/Municipal_corporation "Municipal corporation") as a city. One of those attracted to the city was Jerome Wheeler, a [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") veteran who had married a [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s "Macy's") heiress. For a few years in the late 1870s he ran the department store chain after several major partners died. In 1883, the Wheelers moved to [Manitou Springs, Colorado](/wiki/Manitou_Springs%2C_Colorado "Manitou Springs, Colorado"), to ease Mrs. Wheeler's ill health with mountain air. Jerome Wheeler heard about the silver strikes in Aspen, across the [Continental Divide](/wiki/Continental_Divide "Continental Divide"), and invested in four of the mines. By 1888 he was so involved in mining that he sold his Macy's interest and moved to the [boomtown](/wiki/Boomtown "Boomtown"). [200px\|thumb\|right\|Wheeler Bank, on the first floor\|alt\=A black\-and\-white photograph of a bank lobby, with barred teller's windows at a counter on the left and windows and other furniture on the right. A partition is visible in the rear.](/wiki/File:Old_Wheeler_Bank_interior%2C_Aspen%2C_CO.jpg "Old Wheeler Bank interior, Aspen, CO.jpg") With the lucrative returns on his mining investments, he financed two monumental buildings that bear his name and remain standing: the [Hotel Jerome](/wiki/Hotel_Jerome "Hotel Jerome"), Aspen's most prominent landmark to travelers passing through on what is now [State Highway 82](/wiki/Colorado_State_Highway_82 "Colorado State Highway 82"), and the opera house, at the city's center. The ground floor housed Wheeler's bank, a barber shop and a clothing retailer. The second floor was office space, used by the bank, a mining company, a lawyer and a dentist. On the tall third story, higher than any other building then in Aspen, was the theater. Denver architect [Willoughby J. Edbrooke](/wiki/Willoughby_J._Edbrooke "Willoughby J. Edbrooke") designed a building that combined a basic [Romanesque Revival](/wiki/Romanesque_Revival_architecture "Romanesque Revival architecture") form with some [Italianate](/wiki/Italianate_architecture "Italianate architecture") [decorative touches](/wiki/Ornament_%28architecture%29 "Ornament (architecture)"). It was built in ten months from June 1888 to April 1889 at a cost of $100,000 (${{formatprice\|{{inflation\|US\|100000\|1889\|r\=\-3}}}} in contemporary dollars{{Inflation\-fn\|US}}). Aspen had been the first city west of the Divide to be wired for electricity, and the theater's chandelier took advantage of that with 36 separate lights. The anticipation of its opening was such that local [milliners](/wiki/Millinery "Millinery") ran advertisements in Aspen's newspapers telling customers they were too overwhelmed to take new orders. [Satin](/wiki/Satin "Satin") programs had been scented with [rose water](/wiki/Rose_water "Rose water") several days. The opening night production was *The King's Fool*, presented by the Conried Opera Company. The *[Aspen Daily Times](/wiki/Aspen_Times "Aspen Times")* praised the building as "a perfect little bijou of a theater." Aspen grew larger and more prosperous the following year when Congress passed the [Sherman Silver Purchase Act](/wiki/Sherman_Silver_Purchase_Act "Sherman Silver Purchase Act"), mandating federal purchases of the metal. The population swelled to almost 10,000, the greatest ever. The Wheeler became a stop on a popular touring route called the Silver Circuit, working its way from Denver through [Leadville](/wiki/Leadville%2C_Colorado "Leadville, Colorado"), over the Divide and through Aspen to Utah and eventually ending at [Cheyenne, Wyoming](/wiki/Cheyenne%2C_Wyoming "Cheyenne, Wyoming"). Along it audiences got to see everything from [Shakespeare](/wiki/Shakespeare "Shakespeare") and classical music to [vaudeville](/wiki/Vaudeville "Vaudeville") and boxing. ### 1893–1950: Neglect, fire and public ownership That era ended with the [Panic of 1893](/wiki/Panic_of_1893 "Panic of 1893"). Congress repealed the Silver Purchase Act, and mines closed overnight as demand dropped. Jerome Wheeler was forced into [bankruptcy](/wiki/Bankruptcy_in_the_United_States "Bankruptcy in the United States"). The theater he had built became a lot less busier. [200px\|thumb\|left\|Wheeler in early 1900s\|alt\=A partial black\-and\-white view of the Wheeler from a slightly different angle than that shown in the article's lead photograph, looking down the street towards a mountain in the distance. Telephone poles and wires run along both sides, and a small electric light is suspended above the intersection.](/wiki/File:Early_1900s_view_up_Mill_Street%2C_Aspen%2C_CO.jpg "Early 1900s view up Mill Street, Aspen, CO.jpg") Aspen entered a period of its history known as the Silent or Quiet Years. The population declined quickly as silver mining retreated to a much smaller role in the local economy. [Ranching](/wiki/Ranching "Ranching") and potato farming took on more importance, but could not make up for the prosperity silver had provided. Within the city many very new buildings from the boom years fell empty and neglected. Some burned, unattended and unextinguished, or succumbed to decay from the effects of an intense annual five\-month winter at {{convert\|8000\|ft}} above sea level. The Wheeler survived primarily by showing movies, as that medium emerged. After one of those shows, in 1912, a fire was discovered in the space between the stage floor and the dressing rooms (then located beneath). It was extinguished with minimal permanent damage and the theater was able to show another movie the following night. A week and a half later, another fire broke out in the early morning hours. Since it started in three different locations simultaneously, the cause was clearly [arson](/wiki/Arson "Arson"). It was hot enough to melt the steel cables at the stage. The community decried the act, and the Wheeler was boarded up. The lower floors remained occupied, but it would be years before the theater was used again. In 1918, an unpaid tax bill of $1,155 (${{formatnum:{{inflation\|US\|1155\|1918\|r\=\-3}}}} in contemporary dollars{{Inflation\-fn\|US}}) led to the city acquiring the building for that sum. It did not restore the theater, however, as most of the productions that visited the city could be accommodated in [Armory Hall](/wiki/Aspen_City_Hall "Aspen City Hall") (now City Hall). In [1930](/wiki/United_States_Census%2C_1930 "United States Census, 1930") Aspen's population reached its all\-time low of just over 500, less than 10% of what it had been when the Wheeler was built. Near the end of the decade some visitors, particularly Europeans who helped to train the "soldiers on skis" of the Army's [Tenth Mountain Division](/wiki/Tenth_Mountain_Division "Tenth Mountain Division") in the area, saw the city's potential for recreational [Alpine skiing](/wiki/Alpine_skiing "Alpine skiing"). ### 1950–70: Restoration and preservation After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") ended, some of the Europeans, and veterans of the Tenth, returned to Aspen to build a ski resort. They established the [Aspen Skiing Company](/wiki/Aspen_Skiing_Company "Aspen Skiing Company") with the help of Chicago industrialist [Walter Paepcke](/wiki/Walter_Paepcke "Walter Paepcke") and his wife Elizabeth. The Paepckes, instrumental in the rebirth of the city, attracted major cultural figures to it with a 1949 festival to celebrate the bicentennial of the birth of German poet [Johann Wolfgang von Goethe](/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe"). The couple also started the [Aspen Music Festival](/wiki/Aspen_Music_Festival "Aspen Music Festival") the same year. This was part of what they called the "Aspen Idea": a community where residents could "earn a living, profit by healthy physical recreation, with facilities at hand for \[their] enjoyment of art, music, and education." While planning these events, the Paepckes discovered the Wheeler and its neglected, debris\-strewn auditorium. They led a community effort to clean it up and restore it. [Austrian architect](/wiki/List_of_Austrian_artists_and_architects "List of Austrian artists and architects") [Herbert Bayer](/wiki/Herbert_Bayer "Herbert Bayer"), who the Paepckes had hired to design promotional materials for Aspen, designed a minimalist reconstruction that used [Japanese lanterns](/wiki/Japanese_lantern "Japanese lantern") strung across the stage as lighting and a bare stage. While this was enough to allow [Lowell George](/wiki/Lowell_George "Lowell George") to make live radio broadcasts and an informal concert by folk musician [Burl Ives](/wiki/Burl_Ives "Burl Ives"), it was nowhere near what the theater needed, and due to structural concerns the only events it could host in wintertime were movie screenings. A [fire escape](/wiki/Fire_escape "Fire escape") had to be placed on the front [facade](/wiki/Facade "Facade") as well.{{cite web\|title\=\#1 Wheeler Opera House\|url\=http://www.heritageaspen.org/wtwoh.html\|publisher\=Heritage Aspen\|accessdate\=April 7, 2011}} As a result of the Paepckes' efforts, Aspen continued to grow in popularity during the 1950s. The first renovations to the Wheeler were rapidly proving inadequate. Again, the couple commissioned a redesign from Bayer. This more comprehensive effort mixed elements of Bayer's [Bauhaus](/wiki/Bauhaus "Bauhaus") background with the Victorian flourishes of Edbrooke's original design. The box seats next to the stage were converted into side stages, the ceiling completely restored and the benches replaced with seats from an old movie theater. The walls were painted a deep red shade with a *[fleur de lys](/wiki/Fleur_de_lys "Fleur de lys")* [motif](/wiki/Motif_%28visual_arts%29 "Motif (visual arts)"). ### 1970–83: Rehabilitation and festivals Aspen's continued increase in popularity attracted more year\-round residents, among whom were celebrities like [John Denver](/wiki/John_Denver "John Denver") and [Goldie Hawn](/wiki/Goldie_Hawn "Goldie Hawn"). Their presence, and the success of the music festival, attracted more artistic and cultural organizations to the city. Space for them to present remained limited. At one point during the 1970s the [Pitkin County](/wiki/Pitkin_County%2C_Colorado "Pitkin County, Colorado") library was housed on the building's second floor. The wintertime restrictions on the auditorium remained in effect. It was apparent that the Wheeler, which would soon be a hundred years old, was in need of a comprehensive renovation that would address all the structural issues. The Music Festival led the many groups lobbying for some way of financing the effort. In 1979 the city council levied an 0\.5% [real estate transfer tax](/wiki/Real_estate_transfer_tax "Real estate transfer tax") on all transactions within the city to fund the renovations. It took effect at the beginning of the following year, to remain in effect until 2000\. William Kessler \& Associates received the commission for the $4\.5 million project. In 1982 money from the transfer tax was used to purchase the adjacent vacant lot for a proposed expansion. Kessler's [modernist](/wiki/Modern_architecture "Modern architecture") design, however, was ridiculed as an incongruous and unsympathetic "waving flag" and later dropped amid much community opposition. Within the building, much was accomplished in addition to the structural restoration. The box seats, curtain and [proscenium](/wiki/Proscenium "Proscenium") arch were restored to their original appearance. Actual dressing rooms were built, along with a crossover behind the stage. The second story was finally established as the lobby and the corner space at street level was set aside for a bar. To its west, the entry space was converted into a box office, which the building had previously lacked. A passenger elevator was built to make the theater [wheelchair accessible](/wiki/Accessibility "Accessibility"). That allowed the addition of an interior fire stair, which in turn led to the much\-desired removal of the fire escape. A restaurant, Bentley's, opened in the ground floor space where the Wheeler Bank had once been, with an art gallery in the corner space. Both businesses leased the space on an annual basis at below\-market rates; the proceeds were used by the city to fund an annual arts [grant](/wiki/Grant_%28money%29 "Grant (money)") program.{{cite news\|last\=Sackariason\|first\=Carolyn\|title\=Change on the horizon for the Bentley's space\|url\=http://www.aspendailynews.com/section/home/144896\|newspaper\=\[\[Aspen Daily News]]\|date\=January 24, 2011\|accessdate\=April 8, 2011}} Upon its completion in 1984, the rehabilitation was not as perfect as had originally been hoped. The lot next door remained vacant, a reminder of an expansion that could have been. The new box office's entrance was directly in the path of winds blowing down from the mountain, making it especially cold in winter. The lobby could only accommodate half of a capacity audience. And the removal of the fire escape had required the addition of an incongruous bump on the north facade. These issues were overlooked when it came time for the grand reopening in May of that year. Festivities kicked off with a week of free tours of the new building. Performers included pianist [James Levine](/wiki/James_Levine "James Levine"), cellist [Lynn Harrell](/wiki/Lynn_Harrell "Lynn Harrell"), the Denver Repertory Theatre Company and the [MOMIX](/wiki/MOMIX "MOMIX") dance troupe. As a link to the building's past as Aspen's major movie house, the 1928 [silent film](/wiki/Silent_film "Silent film") classic *[The Wind](/wiki/The_Wind_%281928_film%29 "The Wind (1928 film)")* was shown, with full orchestral accompaniment and its star, [Lillian Gish](/wiki/Lillian_Gish "Lillian Gish"), by then 90, in attendance. {{external media \| float \= right \| width \= 250px \| image1 \= \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/wheeleroperahouse/3617115021/ Photo from April 17, 1986 ''Aspen Times'' by Devon Meyers, showing "Katie Hudson" at left as Little Alice] }} ### 1984–present: Festivals and acclaim With the theater now fully capable of hosting all types of performances year\-round, it became a popular venue. The Music Festival continued to hold many of its annual performances there. Audiences at productions in the mid\-1980s were among the first to hear [lyric soprano](/wiki/Lyric_soprano "Lyric soprano") [Renée Fleming](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9e_Fleming "Renée Fleming") when she was a student in the Music Festival's opera program. John Denver, an Aspen resident, made many appearances whenever he was in town. The private Aspen Community School mounts its annual production there. In 1986 [Goldie Hawn](/wiki/Goldie_Hawn "Goldie Hawn")'s daughter [Kate Hudson](/wiki/Kate_Hudson "Kate Hudson") made her stage debut there in a production of *[Alice in Wonderland](/wiki/Alice_in_Wonderland "Alice in Wonderland")*. [Standup comedy](/wiki/Standup_comedy "Standup comedy"), coming into its own in the 1980s, helped put the reborn Wheeler on the national map when [HBO](/wiki/HBO "HBO") chose it as the location for its annual U.S. Comedy Arts Festival in 1985\. For the next 13 years comics would do their routines before the cable network's cameras on its stage. Among those who got early exposure at the festival were [Bill Maher](/wiki/Bill_Maher "Bill Maher"), [Dave Chappelle](/wiki/Dave_Chappelle "Dave Chappelle"), [Lewis Black](/wiki/Lewis_Black "Lewis Black") and [Margaret Cho](/wiki/Margaret_Cho "Margaret Cho"). Well\-established names in comedy also played the Wheeler—in the late 1980s, [Lily Tomlin](/wiki/Lily_Tomlin "Lily Tomlin") [previewed](/wiki/Preview_%28theatre%29 "Preview (theatre)") her [one\-woman show](/wiki/One-person_show "One-person show") *[The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe](/wiki/The_Search_for_Signs_of_Intelligent_Life_in_the_Universe "The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe")* there for six weeks before its [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre") opening. HBO later moved the comedy festival to Las Vegas, but the Wheeler has since replaced it with two other comedy festivals: the [Aspen RooftopComedy Festival](/wiki/Aspen_RooftopComedy_Festival "Aspen RooftopComedy Festival"), cosponsored by RooftopComedy.com, and the newer Aspen Laff Fest, run by the Wheeler on its own.{{cite web\|title\=The Aspen Laff Fest \|url\=http://www.wheeleroperahouse.com/default.asp?wheeler\=37\&urlkeyword\=Aspen%20Laff%20Festival\|publisher\=Wheeler Opera House\|date\=2010–2011 \|accessdate\=April 9, 2011}} Prominent popular musicians also made appearances, two of which were recorded for [live albums](/wiki/Live_album "Live album"). [Lyle Lovett](/wiki/Lyle_Lovett "Lyle Lovett") played at least one show at the Wheeler every year. In February 1997, the Australian rock band [INXS](/wiki/INXS "INXS") came to the Wheeler to warm up before its world tour later that year. Six songs recorded at that show were released on a rare limited\-edition CD, *[INXS: Live in Aspen – February 1997](/wiki/INXS:Live_in_Aspen_%E2%80%93_February_1997 "Live in Aspen – February 1997")*. Lead singer [Michael Hutchence](/wiki/Michael_Hutchence "Michael Hutchence") died nine months later, making it his last official live recording. Seven years later, [John Oates](/wiki/John_Oates "John Oates") released a combination CD and DVD of a show of his, *[John Oates: Live at the Historic Wheeler Opera House](/wiki/John_Oates:Live_at_the_Historic_Wheeler_Opera_House "Live at the Historic Wheeler Opera House")*.{{cite web\|title\=Live at the Historic Wheeler Opera House\|url\=http://www.allmusic.com/album/r689231\|publisher\=Allmusic\|year\=2011\|accessdate\=April 9, 2011}}In 2010, 2011, and 2012, Oates and the Wheeler coproduced the [7908 Aspen Songwriters' Festival](http://www.wheeleroperahouse.com/default.asp?wheeler=39&urlkeyword=The%207908%20Aspen%20Songwriters%20Festival). Renovations continue. In the late 2007 the faux wood finish in the auditorium was restored. This was followed by the repainting of the lobby, in which the [Venetian plaster](/wiki/Venetian_plaster "Venetian plaster") and mural of the Wheeler were added.{{cite web\|last\=Scar\|first\=Ken\|title\=Portfolio\|url\=http://www.atmospherepainting.com/portfolio\|publisher\=Atmosphere Custom Painting\|accessdate\=April 8, 2011}} The transfer tax was renewed in 2000, and a strong local real estate market during the following decade left the Wheeler with $28 million in funds.{{cite news\|last\=Sackariason\|first\=Carolyn\|title\=Aspen council: Bentley's future solid\|url\=http://www.aspentimes.com/article/20080218/NEWS/581265354\|newspaper\=\[\[Aspen Times]]\|date\=February 18, 2008\|accessdate\=April 8, 2011}} A master plan calls for most of that to be spent on an expansion; however, expansion plans were suspended by Aspen City Council in December 2009\.{{cite news\|last\=Sackariason\|first\=Carolyn\|title\=Plans to expand Aspen's Wheeler 'parked permanently'\|url\=http://www.aspentimes.com/article/20100107/NEWS/100109880\|newspaper\=The Aspen Times\|date\=January 7, 2010\|accessdate\=February 19, 2013}} The Wheeler was closed for most of the latter half of 2013 for long\-needed renovations to its balcony area which will include a conversion of its movie technology from 35mm to full DCP (digital cinema projection), which was completed in time for its reopening in January 2014\. In 2011, the venue executed a full remodel of its basement and two ground\-floor lease spaces. Between these two projects, over $5 million will have been invested in renovating and preparing the venue for the next hundred years of its life.
[ "History\n-------", "The history of the Wheeler parallels that of Aspen. Established with much fanfare during the city's initial boom years in the late 19th century, it fell into decline along with much of the rest of Aspen's buildings when the silver market crashed. [Restoration](/wiki/Building_restoration \"Building restoration\") efforts began in the mid\\-20th century, as Aspen became established as a ski resort town, and the affluence that attracted in turn produced more money for further restoration efforts.\n[100px\\|left\\|thumb\\|Jerome Wheeler\\|alt\\=A black\\-and\\-white photographic portrait of a man with a thick beard and mustache wearing a high collar and jacket. It is faded around the edges.](/wiki/File:Jerome_B_Wheeler.jpg \"Jerome B Wheeler.jpg\")", "### 1888–93: Initial construction during Silver Boom", "First established in 1879 as Ute City, a rough settlement of [log cabins](/wiki/Log_cabin \"Log cabin\") on a plain high in the [Roaring Fork Valley](/wiki/Roaring_Fork_Valley \"Roaring Fork Valley\"), Aspen grew quickly when [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\") was found in abundance in the nearby mountains. During the [Colorado Silver Boom](/wiki/Colorado_Silver_Boom \"Colorado Silver Boom\") of the 1880s, its population soared and it soon [incorporated](/wiki/Municipal_corporation \"Municipal corporation\") as a city. One of those attracted to the city was Jerome Wheeler, a [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") veteran who had married a [Macy's](/wiki/Macy%27s \"Macy's\") heiress. For a few years in the late 1870s he ran the department store chain after several major partners died.", "In 1883, the Wheelers moved to [Manitou Springs, Colorado](/wiki/Manitou_Springs%2C_Colorado \"Manitou Springs, Colorado\"), to ease Mrs. Wheeler's ill health with mountain air. Jerome Wheeler heard about the silver strikes in Aspen, across the [Continental Divide](/wiki/Continental_Divide \"Continental Divide\"), and invested in four of the mines. By 1888 he was so involved in mining that he sold his Macy's interest and moved to the [boomtown](/wiki/Boomtown \"Boomtown\").\n[200px\\|thumb\\|right\\|Wheeler Bank, on the first floor\\|alt\\=A black\\-and\\-white photograph of a bank lobby, with barred teller's windows at a counter on the left and windows and other furniture on the right. A partition is visible in the rear.](/wiki/File:Old_Wheeler_Bank_interior%2C_Aspen%2C_CO.jpg \"Old Wheeler Bank interior, Aspen, CO.jpg\")\nWith the lucrative returns on his mining investments, he financed two monumental buildings that bear his name and remain standing: the [Hotel Jerome](/wiki/Hotel_Jerome \"Hotel Jerome\"), Aspen's most prominent landmark to travelers passing through on what is now [State Highway 82](/wiki/Colorado_State_Highway_82 \"Colorado State Highway 82\"), and the opera house, at the city's center. The ground floor housed Wheeler's bank, a barber shop and a clothing retailer. The second floor was office space, used by the bank, a mining company, a lawyer and a dentist. On the tall third story, higher than any other building then in Aspen, was the theater.", "Denver architect [Willoughby J. Edbrooke](/wiki/Willoughby_J._Edbrooke \"Willoughby J. Edbrooke\") designed a building that combined a basic [Romanesque Revival](/wiki/Romanesque_Revival_architecture \"Romanesque Revival architecture\") form with some [Italianate](/wiki/Italianate_architecture \"Italianate architecture\") [decorative touches](/wiki/Ornament_%28architecture%29 \"Ornament (architecture)\"). It was built in ten months from June 1888 to April 1889 at a cost of $100,000 (${{formatprice\\|{{inflation\\|US\\|100000\\|1889\\|r\\=\\-3}}}} in contemporary dollars{{Inflation\\-fn\\|US}}). Aspen had been the first city west of the Divide to be wired for electricity, and the theater's chandelier took advantage of that with 36 separate lights.", "The anticipation of its opening was such that local [milliners](/wiki/Millinery \"Millinery\") ran advertisements in Aspen's newspapers telling customers they were too overwhelmed to take new orders. [Satin](/wiki/Satin \"Satin\") programs had been scented with [rose water](/wiki/Rose_water \"Rose water\") several days. The opening night production was *The King's Fool*, presented by the Conried Opera Company. The *[Aspen Daily Times](/wiki/Aspen_Times \"Aspen Times\")* praised the building as \"a perfect little bijou of a theater.\"", "Aspen grew larger and more prosperous the following year when Congress passed the [Sherman Silver Purchase Act](/wiki/Sherman_Silver_Purchase_Act \"Sherman Silver Purchase Act\"), mandating federal purchases of the metal. The population swelled to almost 10,000, the greatest ever. The Wheeler became a stop on a popular touring route called the Silver Circuit, working its way from Denver through [Leadville](/wiki/Leadville%2C_Colorado \"Leadville, Colorado\"), over the Divide and through Aspen to Utah and eventually ending at [Cheyenne, Wyoming](/wiki/Cheyenne%2C_Wyoming \"Cheyenne, Wyoming\"). Along it audiences got to see everything from [Shakespeare](/wiki/Shakespeare \"Shakespeare\") and classical music to [vaudeville](/wiki/Vaudeville \"Vaudeville\") and boxing.", "### 1893–1950: Neglect, fire and public ownership", "That era ended with the [Panic of 1893](/wiki/Panic_of_1893 \"Panic of 1893\"). Congress repealed the Silver Purchase Act, and mines closed overnight as demand dropped. Jerome Wheeler was forced into [bankruptcy](/wiki/Bankruptcy_in_the_United_States \"Bankruptcy in the United States\"). The theater he had built became a lot less busier.\n[200px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Wheeler in early 1900s\\|alt\\=A partial black\\-and\\-white view of the Wheeler from a slightly different angle than that shown in the article's lead photograph, looking down the street towards a mountain in the distance. Telephone poles and wires run along both sides, and a small electric light is suspended above the intersection.](/wiki/File:Early_1900s_view_up_Mill_Street%2C_Aspen%2C_CO.jpg \"Early 1900s view up Mill Street, Aspen, CO.jpg\")\nAspen entered a period of its history known as the Silent or Quiet Years. The population declined quickly as silver mining retreated to a much smaller role in the local economy. [Ranching](/wiki/Ranching \"Ranching\") and potato farming took on more importance, but could not make up for the prosperity silver had provided. Within the city many very new buildings from the boom years fell empty and neglected. Some burned, unattended and unextinguished, or succumbed to decay from the effects of an intense annual five\\-month winter at {{convert\\|8000\\|ft}} above sea level. The Wheeler survived primarily by showing movies, as that medium emerged.", "After one of those shows, in 1912, a fire was discovered in the space between the stage floor and the dressing rooms (then located beneath). It was extinguished with minimal permanent damage and the theater was able to show another movie the following night. A week and a half later, another fire broke out in the early morning hours. Since it started in three different locations simultaneously, the cause was clearly [arson](/wiki/Arson \"Arson\"). It was hot enough to melt the steel cables at the stage. The community decried the act, and the Wheeler was boarded up. The lower floors remained occupied, but it would be years before the theater was used again. In 1918, an unpaid tax bill of $1,155 (${{formatnum:{{inflation\\|US\\|1155\\|1918\\|r\\=\\-3}}}} in contemporary dollars{{Inflation\\-fn\\|US}}) led to the city acquiring the building for that sum.", "It did not restore the theater, however, as most of the productions that visited the city could be accommodated in [Armory Hall](/wiki/Aspen_City_Hall \"Aspen City Hall\") (now City Hall). In [1930](/wiki/United_States_Census%2C_1930 \"United States Census, 1930\") Aspen's population reached its all\\-time low of just over 500, less than 10% of what it had been when the Wheeler was built. Near the end of the decade some visitors, particularly Europeans who helped to train the \"soldiers on skis\" of the Army's [Tenth Mountain Division](/wiki/Tenth_Mountain_Division \"Tenth Mountain Division\") in the area, saw the city's potential for recreational [Alpine skiing](/wiki/Alpine_skiing \"Alpine skiing\").", "### 1950–70: Restoration and preservation", "After [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") ended, some of the Europeans, and veterans of the Tenth, returned to Aspen to build a ski resort. They established the [Aspen Skiing Company](/wiki/Aspen_Skiing_Company \"Aspen Skiing Company\") with the help of Chicago industrialist [Walter Paepcke](/wiki/Walter_Paepcke \"Walter Paepcke\") and his wife Elizabeth. The Paepckes, instrumental in the rebirth of the city, attracted major cultural figures to it with a 1949 festival to celebrate the bicentennial of the birth of German poet [Johann Wolfgang von Goethe](/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe \"Johann Wolfgang von Goethe\"). The couple also started the [Aspen Music Festival](/wiki/Aspen_Music_Festival \"Aspen Music Festival\") the same year. This was part of what they called the \"Aspen Idea\": a community where residents could \"earn a living, profit by healthy physical recreation, with facilities at hand for \\[their] enjoyment of art, music, and education.\"", "While planning these events, the Paepckes discovered the Wheeler and its neglected, debris\\-strewn auditorium. They led a community effort to clean it up and restore it. [Austrian architect](/wiki/List_of_Austrian_artists_and_architects \"List of Austrian artists and architects\") [Herbert Bayer](/wiki/Herbert_Bayer \"Herbert Bayer\"), who the Paepckes had hired to design promotional materials for Aspen, designed a minimalist reconstruction that used [Japanese lanterns](/wiki/Japanese_lantern \"Japanese lantern\") strung across the stage as lighting and a bare stage. While this was enough to allow [Lowell George](/wiki/Lowell_George \"Lowell George\") to make live radio broadcasts and an informal concert by folk musician [Burl Ives](/wiki/Burl_Ives \"Burl Ives\"), it was nowhere near what the theater needed, and due to structural concerns the only events it could host in wintertime were movie screenings. A [fire escape](/wiki/Fire_escape \"Fire escape\") had to be placed on the front [facade](/wiki/Facade \"Facade\") as well.{{cite web\\|title\\=\\#1 Wheeler Opera House\\|url\\=http://www.heritageaspen.org/wtwoh.html\\|publisher\\=Heritage Aspen\\|accessdate\\=April 7, 2011}}", "As a result of the Paepckes' efforts, Aspen continued to grow in popularity during the 1950s. The first renovations to the Wheeler were rapidly proving inadequate. Again, the couple commissioned a redesign from Bayer. This more comprehensive effort mixed elements of Bayer's [Bauhaus](/wiki/Bauhaus \"Bauhaus\") background with the Victorian flourishes of Edbrooke's original design. The box seats next to the stage were converted into side stages, the ceiling completely restored and the benches replaced with seats from an old movie theater. The walls were painted a deep red shade with a *[fleur de lys](/wiki/Fleur_de_lys \"Fleur de lys\")* [motif](/wiki/Motif_%28visual_arts%29 \"Motif (visual arts)\").", "### 1970–83: Rehabilitation and festivals", "Aspen's continued increase in popularity attracted more year\\-round residents, among whom were celebrities like [John Denver](/wiki/John_Denver \"John Denver\") and [Goldie Hawn](/wiki/Goldie_Hawn \"Goldie Hawn\"). Their presence, and the success of the music festival, attracted more artistic and cultural organizations to the city. Space for them to present remained limited. At one point during the 1970s the [Pitkin County](/wiki/Pitkin_County%2C_Colorado \"Pitkin County, Colorado\") library was housed on the building's second floor. The wintertime restrictions on the auditorium remained in effect.", "It was apparent that the Wheeler, which would soon be a hundred years old, was in need of a comprehensive renovation that would address all the structural issues. The Music Festival led the many groups lobbying for some way of financing the effort. In 1979 the city council levied an 0\\.5% [real estate transfer tax](/wiki/Real_estate_transfer_tax \"Real estate transfer tax\") on all transactions within the city to fund the renovations. It took effect at the beginning of the following year, to remain in effect until 2000\\.", "William Kessler \\& Associates received the commission for the $4\\.5 million project. In 1982 money from the transfer tax was used to purchase the adjacent vacant lot for a proposed expansion. Kessler's [modernist](/wiki/Modern_architecture \"Modern architecture\") design, however, was ridiculed as an incongruous and unsympathetic \"waving flag\" and later dropped amid much community opposition.", "Within the building, much was accomplished in addition to the structural restoration. The box seats, curtain and [proscenium](/wiki/Proscenium \"Proscenium\") arch were restored to their original appearance. Actual dressing rooms were built, along with a crossover behind the stage. The second story was finally established as the lobby and the corner space at street level was set aside for a bar. To its west, the entry space was converted into a box office, which the building had previously lacked. A passenger elevator was built to make the theater [wheelchair accessible](/wiki/Accessibility \"Accessibility\"). That allowed the addition of an interior fire stair, which in turn led to the much\\-desired removal of the fire escape. A restaurant, Bentley's, opened in the ground floor space where the Wheeler Bank had once been, with an art gallery in the corner space. Both businesses leased the space on an annual basis at below\\-market rates; the proceeds were used by the city to fund an annual arts [grant](/wiki/Grant_%28money%29 \"Grant (money)\") program.{{cite news\\|last\\=Sackariason\\|first\\=Carolyn\\|title\\=Change on the horizon for the Bentley's space\\|url\\=http://www.aspendailynews.com/section/home/144896\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Aspen Daily News]]\\|date\\=January 24, 2011\\|accessdate\\=April 8, 2011}}", "Upon its completion in 1984, the rehabilitation was not as perfect as had originally been hoped. The lot next door remained vacant, a reminder of an expansion that could have been. The new box office's entrance was directly in the path of winds blowing down from the mountain, making it especially cold in winter. The lobby could only accommodate half of a capacity audience. And the removal of the fire escape had required the addition of an incongruous bump on the north facade.", "These issues were overlooked when it came time for the grand reopening in May of that year. Festivities kicked off with a week of free tours of the new building. Performers included pianist [James Levine](/wiki/James_Levine \"James Levine\"), cellist [Lynn Harrell](/wiki/Lynn_Harrell \"Lynn Harrell\"), the Denver Repertory Theatre Company and the [MOMIX](/wiki/MOMIX \"MOMIX\") dance troupe. As a link to the building's past as Aspen's major movie house, the 1928 [silent film](/wiki/Silent_film \"Silent film\") classic *[The Wind](/wiki/The_Wind_%281928_film%29 \"The Wind (1928 film)\")* was shown, with full orchestral accompaniment and its star, [Lillian Gish](/wiki/Lillian_Gish \"Lillian Gish\"), by then 90, in attendance.", "{{external media\n\\| float \\= right\n\\| width \\= 250px\n\\| image1 \\= \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/wheeleroperahouse/3617115021/ Photo from April 17, 1986 ''Aspen Times'' by Devon Meyers, showing \"Katie Hudson\" at left as Little Alice]\n}}", "### 1984–present: Festivals and acclaim", "With the theater now fully capable of hosting all types of performances year\\-round, it became a popular venue. The Music Festival continued to hold many of its annual performances there. Audiences at productions in the mid\\-1980s were among the first to hear [lyric soprano](/wiki/Lyric_soprano \"Lyric soprano\") [Renée Fleming](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9e_Fleming \"Renée Fleming\") when she was a student in the Music Festival's opera program. John Denver, an Aspen resident, made many appearances whenever he was in town. The private Aspen Community School mounts its annual production there. In 1986 [Goldie Hawn](/wiki/Goldie_Hawn \"Goldie Hawn\")'s daughter [Kate Hudson](/wiki/Kate_Hudson \"Kate Hudson\") made her stage debut there in a production of *[Alice in Wonderland](/wiki/Alice_in_Wonderland \"Alice in Wonderland\")*.", "[Standup comedy](/wiki/Standup_comedy \"Standup comedy\"), coming into its own in the 1980s, helped put the reborn Wheeler on the national map when [HBO](/wiki/HBO \"HBO\") chose it as the location for its annual U.S. Comedy Arts Festival in 1985\\. For the next 13 years comics would do their routines before the cable network's cameras on its stage. Among those who got early exposure at the festival were [Bill Maher](/wiki/Bill_Maher \"Bill Maher\"), [Dave Chappelle](/wiki/Dave_Chappelle \"Dave Chappelle\"), [Lewis Black](/wiki/Lewis_Black \"Lewis Black\") and [Margaret Cho](/wiki/Margaret_Cho \"Margaret Cho\"). Well\\-established names in comedy also played the Wheeler—in the late 1980s, [Lily Tomlin](/wiki/Lily_Tomlin \"Lily Tomlin\") [previewed](/wiki/Preview_%28theatre%29 \"Preview (theatre)\") her [one\\-woman show](/wiki/One-person_show \"One-person show\") *[The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe](/wiki/The_Search_for_Signs_of_Intelligent_Life_in_the_Universe \"The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe\")* there for six weeks before its [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\") opening. HBO later moved the comedy festival to Las Vegas, but the Wheeler has since replaced it with two other comedy festivals: the [Aspen RooftopComedy Festival](/wiki/Aspen_RooftopComedy_Festival \"Aspen RooftopComedy Festival\"), cosponsored by RooftopComedy.com, and the newer Aspen Laff Fest, run by the Wheeler on its own.{{cite web\\|title\\=The Aspen Laff Fest \\|url\\=http://www.wheeleroperahouse.com/default.asp?wheeler\\=37\\&urlkeyword\\=Aspen%20Laff%20Festival\\|publisher\\=Wheeler Opera House\\|date\\=2010–2011 \\|accessdate\\=April 9, 2011}}", "Prominent popular musicians also made appearances, two of which were recorded for [live albums](/wiki/Live_album \"Live album\"). [Lyle Lovett](/wiki/Lyle_Lovett \"Lyle Lovett\") played at least one show at the Wheeler every year. In February 1997, the Australian rock band [INXS](/wiki/INXS \"INXS\") came to the Wheeler to warm up before its world tour later that year. Six songs recorded at that show were released on a rare limited\\-edition CD, *[INXS: Live in Aspen – February 1997](/wiki/INXS:Live_in_Aspen_%E2%80%93_February_1997 \"Live in Aspen – February 1997\")*. Lead singer [Michael Hutchence](/wiki/Michael_Hutchence \"Michael Hutchence\") died nine months later, making it his last official live recording. Seven years later, [John Oates](/wiki/John_Oates \"John Oates\") released a combination CD and DVD of a show of his, *[John Oates: Live at the Historic Wheeler Opera House](/wiki/John_Oates:Live_at_the_Historic_Wheeler_Opera_House \"Live at the Historic Wheeler Opera House\")*.{{cite web\\|title\\=Live at the Historic Wheeler Opera House\\|url\\=http://www.allmusic.com/album/r689231\\|publisher\\=Allmusic\\|year\\=2011\\|accessdate\\=April 9, 2011}}In 2010, 2011, and 2012, Oates and the Wheeler coproduced the [7908 Aspen Songwriters' Festival](http://www.wheeleroperahouse.com/default.asp?wheeler=39&urlkeyword=The%207908%20Aspen%20Songwriters%20Festival).", "Renovations continue. In the late 2007 the faux wood finish in the auditorium was restored. This was followed by the repainting of the lobby, in which the [Venetian plaster](/wiki/Venetian_plaster \"Venetian plaster\") and mural of the Wheeler were added.{{cite web\\|last\\=Scar\\|first\\=Ken\\|title\\=Portfolio\\|url\\=http://www.atmospherepainting.com/portfolio\\|publisher\\=Atmosphere Custom Painting\\|accessdate\\=April 8, 2011}} The transfer tax was renewed in 2000, and a strong local real estate market during the following decade left the Wheeler with $28 million in funds.{{cite news\\|last\\=Sackariason\\|first\\=Carolyn\\|title\\=Aspen council: Bentley's future solid\\|url\\=http://www.aspentimes.com/article/20080218/NEWS/581265354\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Aspen Times]]\\|date\\=February 18, 2008\\|accessdate\\=April 8, 2011}} A master plan calls for most of that to be spent on an expansion; however, expansion plans were suspended by Aspen City Council in December 2009\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Sackariason\\|first\\=Carolyn\\|title\\=Plans to expand Aspen's Wheeler 'parked permanently'\\|url\\=http://www.aspentimes.com/article/20100107/NEWS/100109880\\|newspaper\\=The Aspen Times\\|date\\=January 7, 2010\\|accessdate\\=February 19, 2013}}", "The Wheeler was closed for most of the latter half of 2013 for long\\-needed renovations to its balcony area which will include a conversion of its movie technology from 35mm to full DCP (digital cinema projection), which was completed in time for its reopening in January 2014\\. In 2011, the venue executed a full remodel of its basement and two ground\\-floor lease spaces. Between these two projects, over $5 million will have been invested in renovating and preparing the venue for the next hundred years of its life.", "" ]
### 1970–83: Rehabilitation and festivals Aspen's continued increase in popularity attracted more year\-round residents, among whom were celebrities like [John Denver](/wiki/John_Denver "John Denver") and [Goldie Hawn](/wiki/Goldie_Hawn "Goldie Hawn"). Their presence, and the success of the music festival, attracted more artistic and cultural organizations to the city. Space for them to present remained limited. At one point during the 1970s the [Pitkin County](/wiki/Pitkin_County%2C_Colorado "Pitkin County, Colorado") library was housed on the building's second floor. The wintertime restrictions on the auditorium remained in effect. It was apparent that the Wheeler, which would soon be a hundred years old, was in need of a comprehensive renovation that would address all the structural issues. The Music Festival led the many groups lobbying for some way of financing the effort. In 1979 the city council levied an 0\.5% [real estate transfer tax](/wiki/Real_estate_transfer_tax "Real estate transfer tax") on all transactions within the city to fund the renovations. It took effect at the beginning of the following year, to remain in effect until 2000\. William Kessler \& Associates received the commission for the $4\.5 million project. In 1982 money from the transfer tax was used to purchase the adjacent vacant lot for a proposed expansion. Kessler's [modernist](/wiki/Modern_architecture "Modern architecture") design, however, was ridiculed as an incongruous and unsympathetic "waving flag" and later dropped amid much community opposition. Within the building, much was accomplished in addition to the structural restoration. The box seats, curtain and [proscenium](/wiki/Proscenium "Proscenium") arch were restored to their original appearance. Actual dressing rooms were built, along with a crossover behind the stage. The second story was finally established as the lobby and the corner space at street level was set aside for a bar. To its west, the entry space was converted into a box office, which the building had previously lacked. A passenger elevator was built to make the theater [wheelchair accessible](/wiki/Accessibility "Accessibility"). That allowed the addition of an interior fire stair, which in turn led to the much\-desired removal of the fire escape. A restaurant, Bentley's, opened in the ground floor space where the Wheeler Bank had once been, with an art gallery in the corner space. Both businesses leased the space on an annual basis at below\-market rates; the proceeds were used by the city to fund an annual arts [grant](/wiki/Grant_%28money%29 "Grant (money)") program.{{cite news\|last\=Sackariason\|first\=Carolyn\|title\=Change on the horizon for the Bentley's space\|url\=http://www.aspendailynews.com/section/home/144896\|newspaper\=\[\[Aspen Daily News]]\|date\=January 24, 2011\|accessdate\=April 8, 2011}} Upon its completion in 1984, the rehabilitation was not as perfect as had originally been hoped. The lot next door remained vacant, a reminder of an expansion that could have been. The new box office's entrance was directly in the path of winds blowing down from the mountain, making it especially cold in winter. The lobby could only accommodate half of a capacity audience. And the removal of the fire escape had required the addition of an incongruous bump on the north facade. These issues were overlooked when it came time for the grand reopening in May of that year. Festivities kicked off with a week of free tours of the new building. Performers included pianist [James Levine](/wiki/James_Levine "James Levine"), cellist [Lynn Harrell](/wiki/Lynn_Harrell "Lynn Harrell"), the Denver Repertory Theatre Company and the [MOMIX](/wiki/MOMIX "MOMIX") dance troupe. As a link to the building's past as Aspen's major movie house, the 1928 [silent film](/wiki/Silent_film "Silent film") classic *[The Wind](/wiki/The_Wind_%281928_film%29 "The Wind (1928 film)")* was shown, with full orchestral accompaniment and its star, [Lillian Gish](/wiki/Lillian_Gish "Lillian Gish"), by then 90, in attendance. {{external media \| float \= right \| width \= 250px \| image1 \= \[https://www.flickr.com/photos/wheeleroperahouse/3617115021/ Photo from April 17, 1986 ''Aspen Times'' by Devon Meyers, showing "Katie Hudson" at left as Little Alice] }}
[ "### 1970–83: Rehabilitation and festivals", "Aspen's continued increase in popularity attracted more year\\-round residents, among whom were celebrities like [John Denver](/wiki/John_Denver \"John Denver\") and [Goldie Hawn](/wiki/Goldie_Hawn \"Goldie Hawn\"). Their presence, and the success of the music festival, attracted more artistic and cultural organizations to the city. Space for them to present remained limited. At one point during the 1970s the [Pitkin County](/wiki/Pitkin_County%2C_Colorado \"Pitkin County, Colorado\") library was housed on the building's second floor. The wintertime restrictions on the auditorium remained in effect.", "It was apparent that the Wheeler, which would soon be a hundred years old, was in need of a comprehensive renovation that would address all the structural issues. The Music Festival led the many groups lobbying for some way of financing the effort. In 1979 the city council levied an 0\\.5% [real estate transfer tax](/wiki/Real_estate_transfer_tax \"Real estate transfer tax\") on all transactions within the city to fund the renovations. It took effect at the beginning of the following year, to remain in effect until 2000\\.", "William Kessler \\& Associates received the commission for the $4\\.5 million project. In 1982 money from the transfer tax was used to purchase the adjacent vacant lot for a proposed expansion. Kessler's [modernist](/wiki/Modern_architecture \"Modern architecture\") design, however, was ridiculed as an incongruous and unsympathetic \"waving flag\" and later dropped amid much community opposition.", "Within the building, much was accomplished in addition to the structural restoration. The box seats, curtain and [proscenium](/wiki/Proscenium \"Proscenium\") arch were restored to their original appearance. Actual dressing rooms were built, along with a crossover behind the stage. The second story was finally established as the lobby and the corner space at street level was set aside for a bar. To its west, the entry space was converted into a box office, which the building had previously lacked. A passenger elevator was built to make the theater [wheelchair accessible](/wiki/Accessibility \"Accessibility\"). That allowed the addition of an interior fire stair, which in turn led to the much\\-desired removal of the fire escape. A restaurant, Bentley's, opened in the ground floor space where the Wheeler Bank had once been, with an art gallery in the corner space. Both businesses leased the space on an annual basis at below\\-market rates; the proceeds were used by the city to fund an annual arts [grant](/wiki/Grant_%28money%29 \"Grant (money)\") program.{{cite news\\|last\\=Sackariason\\|first\\=Carolyn\\|title\\=Change on the horizon for the Bentley's space\\|url\\=http://www.aspendailynews.com/section/home/144896\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Aspen Daily News]]\\|date\\=January 24, 2011\\|accessdate\\=April 8, 2011}}", "Upon its completion in 1984, the rehabilitation was not as perfect as had originally been hoped. The lot next door remained vacant, a reminder of an expansion that could have been. The new box office's entrance was directly in the path of winds blowing down from the mountain, making it especially cold in winter. The lobby could only accommodate half of a capacity audience. And the removal of the fire escape had required the addition of an incongruous bump on the north facade.", "These issues were overlooked when it came time for the grand reopening in May of that year. Festivities kicked off with a week of free tours of the new building. Performers included pianist [James Levine](/wiki/James_Levine \"James Levine\"), cellist [Lynn Harrell](/wiki/Lynn_Harrell \"Lynn Harrell\"), the Denver Repertory Theatre Company and the [MOMIX](/wiki/MOMIX \"MOMIX\") dance troupe. As a link to the building's past as Aspen's major movie house, the 1928 [silent film](/wiki/Silent_film \"Silent film\") classic *[The Wind](/wiki/The_Wind_%281928_film%29 \"The Wind (1928 film)\")* was shown, with full orchestral accompaniment and its star, [Lillian Gish](/wiki/Lillian_Gish \"Lillian Gish\"), by then 90, in attendance.", "{{external media\n\\| float \\= right\n\\| width \\= 250px\n\\| image1 \\= \\[https://www.flickr.com/photos/wheeleroperahouse/3617115021/ Photo from April 17, 1986 ''Aspen Times'' by Devon Meyers, showing \"Katie Hudson\" at left as Little Alice]\n}}", "" ]
Plot ---- The film begins with four friends: Ram Murthy, a hotel server; Damodaram, a photographer; Kotaiah, a chariot rider; and Bhadraiah, a bandmaster. Ram Murthy resides with his wife Shanti and two sons Raja and Sandeep; Damodar has a son Siva; Kotaiah poses two sons, Ashok and Suresh; and Bhadraiah stays with his spouse Malati and two girl progenies Latha and Rani. Furthermore, Raja and Siva are also soulmates who share beyond relationships. Once, the four friends buy a lottery ticket from a drunkard, a triumph. Accordingly, a spiteful Damodaram and Kotaiah ruse slaughtering Bhadraiah incriminates Ram Murthy, also backstabs and is declared dead. Ram Murthy's wife Shanti dies in a hit, and the infants are left alone. Mary, their ally, rears them with her daughter Julie. Damodaram and Kotaiah constructed a fabulous hotel by exchanging the lottery, and Siva moved abroad for higher education on Raja's force. Years pass, and the blackguards become tycoons, leading high\-level smuggling with Ashokand Suresh under a crime lord, Don, who is unbeknownst. Raja is a jovial waiter at their hotel and delights everyone. He strives hard to civilize Sandeep and accommodate Mary and Julie. In foreign, Siva finishes school yet is still cordial with Raja and Julie. Plus, she implicitly endears him from childhood. Fortuitously, Siva acquaints Latha and crushes, but the dark fate makes her misconstrue him. From there, he molds into an alcoholic. Soon after, Latha lands at Raja's workplace, and she imparts his love. Sandeep and Rani are collegians and sweethearts. Meanwhile, Damodaram chooses to stop his felonies because of Siva's homecoming, for which Don's agent, KK, spooks him. So, Damodaram wipes him out. Parallelly, Siva returns, ailing when Raja probes for details and startles to gain his fondness for Latha. Ergo, he decides to give up, and Julie also backs, giving an ear. Raja forges with Julie, creating himself an imposter by receiving Latha's detestation, which Siva, too, takes amiss. Siva is free from his vices, and Damodaram fixes the alliance with Latha. At the same time, Sandeep also approaches, and Malati denies him, hearing his parentage via Damodaram. Thus, he walks out by challenging his father to be proclaimed, not the culprit. As a flabbergast, Ram Murthy is alive in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), guarded by Don according to destiny. They obtain info that Damodaram and Kotaiah are guilty of KK's death, so Don lets Ram Murthy seek vengeance in his guise. He steps into his ex\-hotel, where the owner, Mastan, detects him. Mindless of a hellish hue, Mastan notifies Kotaiah, who wiles to slay him with Damodaram. Ram Murthy spots Mary, but she becomes an accident victim whom he carries. Siva discerns his friend's sacrifice, so he acts by announcing Raja and Julie's nuptial. Hence, Julie attempts suicide, Sandeep secures her, and all of them set foot in the same venue. Whereat, Siva retrieves Raja's love and catches Julie's hand. Suddenly, Ashok attacks Damodaram, but he skips. Amidst the turmoil, Ram Murthy seizes Siva and Ashok, and Raja chases him. On the verge of being put by Raja to death, he recognizes him via Mary when Siva also joins them. An enraged Damodaram advances to Kotaiah and Sandeep behind him. Damodaram exposes the evidence of Bhadraiah's murder, which he captured to be sure. In the skirmish, Kotaiah kills Damodaram, but he delivers the proof to Sandeep before dying. Sandeep impounds when Kotaiah mortgages him with Ram Murthy for Ashok. At that moment, Don strikes out of the blue and grips Ram Murthy's attestation. Then, he threatens Ram Murthy to surrender to the Hong Kong police on his behalf, aiming the gun at the trio. Don allows the three to go and plots to assassinate them at their residence by his son John, but their beloveds risk\-frees the trio. Tragically, Mary loses her life. At last, the trio ceases the miscreants by shielding Ram Murthy and justifying him as innocent. Finally, the movie ends happily with the marriage of the trio with their fiancées, and again, the same drunkard visiting their new hotel to sell a lottery ticket.
[ "Plot\n----", "The film begins with four friends: Ram Murthy, a hotel server; Damodaram, a photographer; Kotaiah, a chariot rider; and Bhadraiah, a bandmaster. Ram Murthy resides with his wife Shanti and two sons Raja and Sandeep; Damodar has a son Siva; Kotaiah poses two sons, Ashok and Suresh; and Bhadraiah stays with his spouse Malati and two girl progenies Latha and Rani. Furthermore, Raja and Siva are also soulmates who share beyond relationships.", "Once, the four friends buy a lottery ticket from a drunkard, a triumph. Accordingly, a spiteful Damodaram and Kotaiah ruse slaughtering Bhadraiah incriminates Ram Murthy, also backstabs and is declared dead. Ram Murthy's wife Shanti dies in a hit, and the infants are left alone. Mary, their ally, rears them with her daughter Julie. Damodaram and Kotaiah constructed a fabulous hotel by exchanging the lottery, and Siva moved abroad for higher education on Raja's force.", "Years pass, and the blackguards become tycoons, leading high\\-level smuggling with Ashokand Suresh under a crime lord, Don, who is unbeknownst. Raja is a jovial waiter at their hotel and delights everyone. He strives hard to civilize Sandeep and accommodate Mary and Julie. In foreign, Siva finishes school yet is still cordial with Raja and Julie. Plus, she implicitly endears him from childhood. Fortuitously, Siva acquaints Latha and crushes, but the dark fate makes her misconstrue him. From there, he molds into an alcoholic. Soon after, Latha lands at Raja's workplace, and she imparts his love. Sandeep and Rani are collegians and sweethearts.", "Meanwhile, Damodaram chooses to stop his felonies because of Siva's homecoming, for which Don's agent, KK, spooks him. So, Damodaram wipes him out. Parallelly, Siva returns, ailing when Raja probes for details and startles to gain his fondness for Latha. Ergo, he decides to give up, and Julie also backs, giving an ear. Raja forges with Julie, creating himself an imposter by receiving Latha's detestation, which Siva, too, takes amiss. Siva is free from his vices, and Damodaram fixes the alliance with Latha. At the same time, Sandeep also approaches, and Malati denies him, hearing his parentage via Damodaram. Thus, he walks out by challenging his father to be proclaimed, not the culprit.", "As a flabbergast, Ram Murthy is alive in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), guarded by Don according to destiny. They obtain info that Damodaram and Kotaiah are guilty of KK's death, so Don lets Ram Murthy seek vengeance in his guise. He steps into his ex\\-hotel, where the owner, Mastan, detects him. Mindless of a hellish hue, Mastan notifies Kotaiah, who wiles to slay him with Damodaram. Ram Murthy spots Mary, but she becomes an accident victim whom he carries. Siva discerns his friend's sacrifice, so he acts by announcing Raja and Julie's nuptial. Hence, Julie attempts suicide, Sandeep secures her, and all of them set foot in the same venue. Whereat, Siva retrieves Raja's love and catches Julie's hand. Suddenly, Ashok attacks Damodaram, but he skips. Amidst the turmoil, Ram Murthy seizes Siva and Ashok, and Raja chases him. On the verge of being put by Raja to death, he recognizes him via Mary when Siva also joins them.", "An enraged Damodaram advances to Kotaiah and Sandeep behind him. Damodaram exposes the evidence of Bhadraiah's murder, which he captured to be sure. In the skirmish, Kotaiah kills Damodaram, but he delivers the proof to Sandeep before dying. Sandeep impounds when Kotaiah mortgages him with Ram Murthy for Ashok. At that moment, Don strikes out of the blue and grips Ram Murthy's attestation. Then, he threatens Ram Murthy to surrender to the Hong Kong police on his behalf, aiming the gun at the trio. Don allows the three to go and plots to assassinate them at their residence by his son John, but their beloveds risk\\-frees the trio. Tragically, Mary loses her life. At last, the trio ceases the miscreants by shielding Ram Murthy and justifying him as innocent. Finally, the movie ends happily with the marriage of the trio with their fiancées, and again, the same drunkard visiting their new hotel to sell a lottery ticket.", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Early life and artistic career in Lithuania Moshe Rosenthalis was born on 18 November 1922 in [Marijampolė](/wiki/Marijampol%C4%97 "Marijampolė"), Lithuania. Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\. p. 11\. His father was a grain merchant who had fallen from grace. David Giladi, The artist and his work. Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi. At three, he strove to draw the street outside his home with a pencil. Rosenthalis received his first art lessons from the painter Aryeh (Levas) Margushilski, then a young art student and later a mentor to many painters in Tel Aviv. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi. In 1940, after completing his studies at the Hebrew High School in Marijampolė, he was accepted to the [Kaunas Art School](/wiki/Kaunas_Art_School "Kaunas Art School"), and studied there for a year. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi, xxiii, xxiv. In 1941, after the Germans invaded territories held by the Soviet Union, he fled to the Russian interior. Later, he was conscripted into the Lithuanian division of the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") and was wounded in battle. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 144\. He was appointed as the official painter of his battalion. He painted portraits of military heroes and leaders and organized [protagonist](/wiki/Protagonist "Protagonist") exhibitions to raise the soldiers' morale. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxii. After his discharge from the army, Rosenthalis settled in Vilnius and enrolled in the [Vilnius Academy of Arts](/wiki/Vilnius_Academy_of_Arts "Vilnius Academy of Arts"), where he studied from 1945 to 1950\. Alec Mishori, Moshe Rosenthalis: History of the Jewish People, in The Great Sight, 2013, p. 14e. His teachers include [Petras Kalpokas](/wiki/Petras_Kalpokas "Petras Kalpokas") and [Antanas Gudaitis](/wiki/Antanas_Gudaitis_%281904%29 "Antanas Gudaitis (1904)"); notable artists who studied there were [Chaïm Soutine](/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Soutine "Chaïm Soutine"), [Pinchus Kremegne](/wiki/Pinchus_Kremegne "Pinchus Kremegne") and [Jacques Lipchitz](/wiki/Jacques_Lipchitz "Jacques Lipchitz"). David Giladi, The artist and his work. Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix, x. He won two drawing prizes: one for poster design and the other for his diploma work. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 144\. His final project, "Release of Political Prisoners from the Kaunas Jail in 1940", was on display at the Moscow Art Academy. Today it is on display at the Soviet Art Gallery of [Grūtas Park](/wiki/Gr%C5%ABtas_Park "Grūtas Park"). Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\. p. 12\-13\. In 1950, at age 28, he was accepted to the [Lithuanian Artists' Association](/wiki/Lithuanian_Artists%27_Association "Lithuanian Artists' Association"). Carl Hoffman (August 16, 2012\). [A treasure lost and found](https://www.jpost.com/metro/arts-and-culture/a-treasure-lost-and-found). [The Jerusalem Post](/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post "The Jerusalem Post"). The official artistic style in the Soviet Union at that period was socialist realism, manifesting the natural and materialistic world without taking a stand. Rosenthalis had no option but to compromise and follow that school. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis \- Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. P. 145\. [thumb\|left\|upright\|Release of Political Prisoners from the Kaunas Jail, 1950, oil on canvas, 160\*220 (graduation project), [National Museum of Lithuania](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Lithuania "National Museum of Lithuania")](/wiki/File:%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%96%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A1._%D7%A9%D7%97%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A1._1950.jpg "משה רוזנטליס. שחרור אסירים פוליטיים מבית הכלא בקאונס. 1950.jpg") He participated in exhibitions throughout Lithuania, and in 1951 gained critical acclaim from [Pravda](/wiki/Pravda "Pravda") art critic when he took part in a group exhibition held in [Tretyakov Gallery](/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery "Tretyakov Gallery"), [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), among 300 canvasses, David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix. and has been awarded the Medal of Excellence by the [Supreme Soviet](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet "Supreme Soviet"). Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis –Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 145\. His works were acquired by museums and institutions throughout the USSR. Three of his works were purchased by the [National Museum of Lithuania](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Lithuania "National Museum of Lithuania"). David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix. An additional source of income for him was [portrait paintings](/wiki/Portrait_painting "Portrait painting"). He painted well\-known figures, following the official social realism art. When he drew women, children, and close friends, he took more liberty, and the viewer can notice the future evocative colors and pronounced brush strokes. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiv, xv. ### Life and art in Israel In 1957, because of his wife Sarah's birthplace in Polish Vilnius, the family received an exit permit and moved to [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw"). Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\. p. 14\. Contrary to the artistic fetters in Lithuania, Poland was unabated by the Soviet establishment and had artistic freedom, influenced by the cultural trends prevalent in Paris, Western Europe, and the USA. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. x. He visited the Warsaw Museum and was overwhelmed by a Polish Avant\-Garde exhibition. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis–Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 144\. In 1958, at 36, after living in Poland for seven months, Rosenthalis immigrated to Israel and settled with his family in a shack on the outskirts of Tel Aviv. The Israeli art scene was turbulent by the controversy between two movements: first, artists who advocate loyalty to the Israeli native character, and the second, [Ofakim Hadashim](/wiki/Ofakim_Hadashim "Ofakim Hadashim") (New Horizons), at the helm of [Joseph Zaritsky](/wiki/Joseph_Zaritsky "Joseph Zaritsky"), supported the global abstract school, had the upper hand. Sorin Heller, A local scent. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The Open Museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 26\. Rosenthalis was fluent in Hebrew, which he learned at the Jewish School in Marijampolė, and made his living teaching elementary drawing. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii, xvi. He learned about modern art by visiting art galleries and studying books. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii, xiv, xvi. During his first years in Israel, Rosenthalis continued to paint realistic portraits and topics corresponding to the diaspora along with figurative and evocative subjects. Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 20\. Among the figures he painted were the poets [Avraham Shlonsky](/wiki/Avraham_Shlonsky "Avraham Shlonsky"); and the artists [Chaim Gliksberg](/wiki/Chaim_Gliksberg "Chaim Gliksberg"), [Shimshon Holzman](/wiki/Shimshon_Holzman "Shimshon Holzman"), and [Moshe Ziffer](/wiki/Moshe_Ziffer "Moshe Ziffer"). During these years he participated in group and annual exhibitions in [Independence Hall](/wiki/Independence_Hall_%28Israel%29 "Independence Hall (Israel)"), [Tel Aviv Museum](/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Museum "Tel Aviv Museum"), and the [Israel Painters and Sculptors Association](/wiki/Israel_Painters_and_Sculptors_Association "Israel Painters and Sculptors Association"). David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii. In the early 1960s, Rosenthalis painted his first abstract works but continued to paint landscapes, human figures, and [still life](/wiki/Still_life "Still life"), in a combination of abstract and realistic modes. Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial partks, p. 20\. Since 1963, for ten years, Rosenthalis explored the use of color on canvas and practiced the methods of [Kazimir Malevich](/wiki/Kazimir_Malevich "Kazimir Malevich"). He used color as direct as possible and abandoned the use of light, shade, and perspective. Many of his paintings comprise small angular areas in horizontal or vertical composition. Usually, the canvas set up in a few brush strokes, produced angular shapes related to the colors and their mutual alteration. Rosenthalis used a dozen delicate brush strokes. He inserted into many of his paintings bluish\-gray color at the paintings' center. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xviii, xix. Over the years he concentrated on the structural basics of painting, while the topic became insignificant in his art. His paintings become prosaic, inspecting the correspondence between the color, the effects of light, and the apparent compositions. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 148\. In 1973, Rosenthalis stayed as an [artist\-in\-residence](/wiki/Artist-in-residence "Artist-in-residence") at the [Cité internationale des arts](/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_internationale_des_arts "Cité internationale des arts") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), where he experienced the French [Modernism](/wiki/Modernism "Modernism"), which proved to be a pivotal point of his oeuvre. While in Paris, he studied the works of great modern artists such as [Braque](/wiki/Braque "Braque"), [Delaunay](/wiki/Delaunay "Delaunay"), [Dufy](/wiki/Raoul_Dufy "Raoul Dufy"), [Kandinsky](/wiki/Kandinsky "Kandinsky"), [Matisse](/wiki/Matisse "Matisse"), and [Picasso](/wiki/Picasso "Picasso"). Manifestation of their influence can be seen in the increased translucency origin in his work thereafter. These paintings are performed partially, or entirely, in a diluted palette of colors so that their transparency reveals the background so that, also, as an integral function within the color format. After Paris, Rosenthalis used his brush friskily. He installed various geometric shapes, juxtaposed or superimposed. Shading is attained via the translucent effect, which allocates a role to the light and the watered down of paint. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii. The tension between cold and warm colors, and between line and form, and he contrived the concept of polarity–not in a realistic way, but as an abstract expression of inner ideas and feelings. Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\. p. 148\. In 1990, [Raffi Lavie](/wiki/Raffi_Lavie "Raffi Lavie") wrote in [Ha'ir](/wiki/Ha%27ir "Ha'ir"): "A Rosenthalis' festival is on display... Picasso, Matisse, and Kandinsky would have liked what he had taken from each of them. The temperament, the fluidity of line, and the richness of color... This is a real painting, free of all pretensions of movements or of non\-artistic theories.". Raffi Lavie, Ha'ir, 1990\. Since settling in Israel in 1958, for 17 years, Rosenthalis eschewed self\-exposure. His [Solo exhibition](/wiki/Solo_exhibition "Solo exhibition") at the [Petah Tikva Museum of Art](/wiki/Petah_Tikva_Museum_of_Art "Petah Tikva Museum of Art") in 1975 was his first major show. Sorin Heller, A local scent. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 27\. Dov Homsky wrote about the exhibition in [Al HaMishmar](/wiki/Al_HaMishmar "Al HaMishmar"): "The painting for Rosenthalis is a happening per se, a purpose per se ... His vision is humanistic. He fused his 'topics' into his 'self' His perception was impromptu and forthright, without intellectual inquiry. We can perceive the artists' love in each detail, the colors game, which is mischievous and sober simultaneously—made in a lyric affection of a very sensitive painter.". Dov Homsky (May 7, 1975\). The Painter Moshe Rosenthalis. Al HaMishmar. [Adam Baruch](/wiki/Adam_Baruch "Adam Baruch") wrote in [Yedioth Ahronoth](/wiki/Yedioth_Ahronoth "Yedioth Ahronoth"): "Even a viewer with the most pronounced contemporary inclinations will doff his hat to painting that is replete, well aware of the theatricality of the occupation, without becoming pathetic–and with the ability to cross or avoid such critical barriers as 'relevance' etc." Adam Baruch (March 31, 1978\). Seasoned eye. Yedioth Ahronoth. p. 7\. A 1983 [retrospective](/wiki/Retrospective "Retrospective") exhibition at [Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Herzliya_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art "Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art") presented Rosenthalis' works from the years 1950–1983\. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii. Elyakim Yaron wrote: "An artist of perpetual change that cannot be summarized." Elyakim Yaron, Paintings 1947\-1983\. Moshe Rosenthalis Retrospective. Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art. 1983\. p. 3\-5\. In an introduction to a book about Rosenthalis, published by Keter Publishing House in 1984, [Clara Malraux](/wiki/Clara_Malraux "Clara Malraux") wrote: "The application of paint... is the most refined expression of the extent of the spectrum of colors in all its transitions... He planned and fitted together everything, leaving nothing to chance, despite the work's thrust for spontaneousness... This is total coordination between the man and the technique, between temperament and experience. Rosenthalis knows all the ways of French painting, but his uniqueness is in his own path." Clara Malraux, introduction. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. vii. A series of his paintings are devoted to music Daniel Oz (November 29, 2009\). [Moses in the triangle ark](https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3808814,00.html). [Ynet](/wiki/Ynet "Ynet"). and women with musical instruments.David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii. Rosenthalis had been working in his atelier at Jaffa Port since 1964, his painting depicting the studio's exterior overlooking the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea") and interior, presented in his 2002 one\-man exhibition at the [Israeli National Maritime Museum](/wiki/Israeli_National_Maritime_Museum "Israeli National Maritime Museum") in Haifa. Daniela Talmor, Studio facing the sea, Haifa Museums, Israeli National Maritime Museum, 2002, p. 70\-96\. In some of his early [Jaffa](/wiki/Jaffa "Jaffa")'s seashores from the late 1960s\-early 1970s it's hard to discern any actual object. He muted the colors in his early compositions. He heightened the colors in his compositions starting in the 1970s. Since the 1980s, his color palette becomes even more luminous with linear motifs. Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen, and Omer industrial parks, 2004, p. 22\-23\. He had a house in Safed, where he spent every summer, free from teaching and another undertaking, dedicated himself only to his art, painting the marketplace and its inhabitants. David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. XXII. In 2004, he presented a solo exhibition at The Open Museum, [Migdal Tefen](/wiki/Migdal_Tefen "Migdal Tefen"). Part of it displayed works he called 'etudes', created primarily outside his studio. These were small oil paintings, that served as a foundation for his sizeable and elaborate paintings, using a nimble freestyle. Rinat Aboulafia (June 7, 2004\). [Lives among the canvases](https://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did=803050). [Globes](/wiki/Globes_%28newspaper%29 "Globes (newspaper)"). Initially, he created them in the mid\-1950s in Lithuania, and continued in Israel, depicting the landscapes of Jaffa, Jerusalem, and Safed. On the show, they stood underneath the large compatible paintings. [Smadar Sheffi](/wiki/Smadar_Sheffi "Smadar Sheffi") (June 9, 2004\). [Like Picasso](https://www.haaretz.co.il/gallery/2004-06-09/ty-article/0000017f-dbd4-d3a5-af7f-fbfee1030000). [Haaretz](/wiki/Haaretz "Haaretz"). ### Posthumous Moshe Rosenthalis died at the age of 86 on August 26, 2008\. Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\. P. 8\. He was survived by his wife Sara, who departed two years after him, [Avelim](https://www.avelim.co.il/%d7%a9%d7%a8%d7%94-%d7%a8%d7%95%d7%96%d7%a0%d7%98%d7%9c%d7%99%d7%a1-%d7%96%d7%9c/). A bereavement announcement. and his son Avner, who worked as his [art dealer](/wiki/Art_dealer "Art dealer") and [curator](/wiki/Curator "Curator"). His eldest son, Raphael, died in his forties. Sarit Fux (November 28, 2009\). [In the Name of the Father](https://www.makorrishon.co.il/nrg/online/47/ART1/971/233.html). [Maariv](/wiki/Maariv "Maariv"). In 2009, his son Avner Rosenthalis, turn his studio into Rosenthalis House, an art gallery with a permanent collection of his fathers' works and a changing exhibition with various artists. Hila Shkolnik\-Brener (November 16, 2009\). [Quadrangular homage for Moshe Rosenthalis](https://www.haaretz.co.il/gallery/art/2009-11-16/ty-article/0000017f-f868-d318-afff-fb6bf1ee0000). Ha'ir. In 2017, he closed Rosenthalis House. Eden Slutski (February 25, 2021\). [Inside the kitchen of Rodenthalis family](https://www.mako.co.il/living-rooms/kitchen/Article-4aff7464188d771026.htm). Mako. In 2009, the exhibition "Moshe Rosenthalis The Freedom of Color" was on display at the [Town Hall, Vilnius](/wiki/Town_Hall%2C_Vilnius "Town Hall, Vilnius") and later moved to the [M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum](/wiki/M._K._%C4%8Ciurlionis_National_Art_Museum "M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum"). The exhibition encompassed artworks he produced during the years 1945 \- 2007\. M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\. 248 pp. He worked with diverse bases: acrylic and oil on canvas, watercolors, oil pastels, gouache, oil paintings using cardboard and plywood, collages and drawings. Hannah Koffler. In: Studio facing the sea, The National Maritime Museum. 2002\. p. 96\. He experienced diverse art schools including Abstract, Fauvism, expressionism, and [Realism](/wiki/Realism_%28art_movement%29 "Realism (art movement)"). Daniel Oz (November 29, 2009\). [Moses in the triangle ark](https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3808814,00.html). [Ynet](/wiki/Ynet "Ynet"). In a foreword to a book dedicated to Rosenthalis, published by Masada Publishing House in 1990, Adam Baruch wrote: "Rosenthalis is rooted in culture, not in Israeli culture, in its politics and poetics. He is here and not here. Faithful to himself, he lives among his canvases, within the history of modern art rather than within the history of Israeli art." Adam Baruch, “Rosenthalis, towards the 1990s. in: Moshe Rosenthalis, Ramat Gan, Masada, 1990, p. 7\. Four large\-scale artwork delineates selected chapters from the annals of the Jewish People, commissioned by businessman [Shaul Eisenberg](/wiki/Shaul_Eisenberg "Shaul Eisenberg"), installed on the walls of the boardroom at Asia House in Tel Aviv in 1980\. Rosenthalis paint them in a realistic\-[symbolic](/wiki/Symbolism_%28arts%29 "Symbolism (arts)")\-figurative style, with a disregard for the classic perspective\-color rules. In 1983 he created parallel four paintings, an abstract interpretation of the previous works, unwinding the literary narrative. Alec Mishori, In The Great Sight, Moshe Rosenthalis, History of the Jewish People. ANU \- Museum of the Jewish People, P. 11e\-64e. In 2013, the exhibition "The Great Sight" was presented at the [ANU \- Museum of the Jewish People](/wiki/ANU_-_Museum_of_the_Jewish_People "ANU - Museum of the Jewish People"). The exhibition is composed of eight works together with dozens of small\-scale drawings, sketches, and diagrams used as preparatory work for the four realistic paintings. [The Great Sight](https://web.archive.org/web/20211121232426/https:/www.anumuseum.org.il/event/great-sight/). Anu Museum.
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early life and artistic career in Lithuania", "Moshe Rosenthalis was born on 18 November 1922 in [Marijampolė](/wiki/Marijampol%C4%97 \"Marijampolė\"), Lithuania.", "Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\\. p. 11\\.", "His father was a grain merchant who had fallen from grace.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi.", "At three, he strove to draw the street outside his home with a pencil. Rosenthalis received his first art lessons from the painter Aryeh (Levas) Margushilski, then a young art student and later a mentor to many painters in Tel Aviv.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi.", "", "In 1940, after completing his studies at the Hebrew High School in Marijampolė, he was accepted to the [Kaunas Art School](/wiki/Kaunas_Art_School \"Kaunas Art School\"), and studied there for a year.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxi, xxiii, xxiv.", "In 1941, after the Germans invaded territories held by the Soviet Union, he fled to the Russian interior. Later, he was conscripted into the Lithuanian division of the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") and was wounded in battle.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 144\\.", "He was appointed as the official painter of his battalion. He painted portraits of military heroes and leaders and organized [protagonist](/wiki/Protagonist \"Protagonist\") exhibitions to raise the soldiers' morale.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xxii.", "", "After his discharge from the army, Rosenthalis settled in Vilnius and enrolled in the [Vilnius Academy of Arts](/wiki/Vilnius_Academy_of_Arts \"Vilnius Academy of Arts\"), where he studied from 1945 to 1950\\.", "Alec Mishori, Moshe Rosenthalis: History of the Jewish People, in The Great Sight, 2013, p. 14e.", "His teachers include [Petras Kalpokas](/wiki/Petras_Kalpokas \"Petras Kalpokas\") and [Antanas Gudaitis](/wiki/Antanas_Gudaitis_%281904%29 \"Antanas Gudaitis (1904)\"); notable artists who studied there were [Chaïm Soutine](/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Soutine \"Chaïm Soutine\"), [Pinchus Kremegne](/wiki/Pinchus_Kremegne \"Pinchus Kremegne\") and [Jacques Lipchitz](/wiki/Jacques_Lipchitz \"Jacques Lipchitz\").", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix, x.", "He won two drawing prizes: one for poster design and the other for his diploma work.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 144\\.", "His final project, \"Release of Political Prisoners from the Kaunas Jail in 1940\", was on display at the Moscow Art Academy. Today it is on display at the Soviet Art Gallery of [Grūtas Park](/wiki/Gr%C5%ABtas_Park \"Grūtas Park\").", "Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\\. p. 12\\-13\\.", "In 1950, at age 28, he was accepted to the [Lithuanian Artists' Association](/wiki/Lithuanian_Artists%27_Association \"Lithuanian Artists' Association\").", "Carl Hoffman (August 16, 2012\\). [A treasure lost and found](https://www.jpost.com/metro/arts-and-culture/a-treasure-lost-and-found). [The Jerusalem Post](/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post \"The Jerusalem Post\").", "The official artistic style in the Soviet Union at that period was socialist realism, manifesting the natural and materialistic world without taking a stand. Rosenthalis had no option but to compromise and follow that school.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis \\- Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. P. 145\\.", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Release of Political Prisoners from the Kaunas Jail, 1950, oil on canvas, 160\\*220 (graduation project), [National Museum of Lithuania](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Lithuania \"National Museum of Lithuania\")](/wiki/File:%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%96%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A1._%D7%A9%D7%97%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%90_%D7%91%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A1._1950.jpg \"משה רוזנטליס. שחרור אסירים פוליטיים מבית הכלא בקאונס. 1950.jpg\") \nHe participated in exhibitions throughout Lithuania, and in 1951 gained critical acclaim from [Pravda](/wiki/Pravda \"Pravda\") art critic when he took part in a group exhibition held in [Tretyakov Gallery](/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery \"Tretyakov Gallery\"), [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), among 300 canvasses,", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix.", "and has been awarded the Medal of Excellence by the [Supreme Soviet](/wiki/Supreme_Soviet \"Supreme Soviet\").", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis –Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 145\\.", "His works were acquired by museums and institutions throughout the USSR. Three of his works were purchased by the [National Museum of Lithuania](/wiki/National_Museum_of_Lithuania \"National Museum of Lithuania\").", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. ix.", "An additional source of income for him was [portrait paintings](/wiki/Portrait_painting \"Portrait painting\"). He painted well\\-known figures, following the official social realism art. When he drew women, children, and close friends, he took more liberty, and the viewer can notice the future evocative colors and pronounced brush strokes.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiv, xv.", "", "### Life and art in Israel", "In 1957, because of his wife Sarah's birthplace in Polish Vilnius, the family received an exit permit and moved to [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\").", "Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\\. p. 14\\.", "Contrary to the artistic fetters in Lithuania, Poland was unabated by the Soviet establishment and had artistic freedom, influenced by the cultural trends prevalent in Paris, Western Europe, and the USA.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. x.", "He visited the Warsaw Museum and was overwhelmed by a Polish Avant\\-Garde exhibition.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis–Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 144\\.", "In 1958, at 36, after living in Poland for seven months, Rosenthalis immigrated to Israel and settled with his family in a shack on the outskirts of Tel Aviv. The Israeli art scene was turbulent by the controversy between two movements: first, artists who advocate loyalty to the Israeli native character, and the second, [Ofakim Hadashim](/wiki/Ofakim_Hadashim \"Ofakim Hadashim\") (New Horizons), at the helm of [Joseph Zaritsky](/wiki/Joseph_Zaritsky \"Joseph Zaritsky\"), supported the global abstract school, had the upper hand.", "Sorin Heller, A local scent. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The Open Museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 26\\.", "", "Rosenthalis was fluent in Hebrew, which he learned at the Jewish School in Marijampolė, and made his living teaching elementary drawing.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii, xvi.", "He learned about modern art by visiting art galleries and studying books.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii, xiv, xvi.", "During his first years in Israel, Rosenthalis continued to paint realistic portraits and topics corresponding to the diaspora along with figurative and evocative subjects.", "Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 20\\.", "Among the figures he painted were the poets [Avraham Shlonsky](/wiki/Avraham_Shlonsky \"Avraham Shlonsky\"); and the artists [Chaim Gliksberg](/wiki/Chaim_Gliksberg \"Chaim Gliksberg\"), [Shimshon Holzman](/wiki/Shimshon_Holzman \"Shimshon Holzman\"), and [Moshe Ziffer](/wiki/Moshe_Ziffer \"Moshe Ziffer\"). \nDuring these years he participated in group and annual exhibitions in [Independence Hall](/wiki/Independence_Hall_%28Israel%29 \"Independence Hall (Israel)\"), [Tel Aviv Museum](/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Museum \"Tel Aviv Museum\"), and the [Israel Painters and Sculptors Association](/wiki/Israel_Painters_and_Sculptors_Association \"Israel Painters and Sculptors Association\").", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii.", "", "In the early 1960s, Rosenthalis painted his first abstract works but continued to paint landscapes, human figures, and [still life](/wiki/Still_life \"Still life\"), in a combination of abstract and realistic modes.", "Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial partks, p. 20\\.", "Since 1963, for ten years, Rosenthalis explored the use of color on canvas and practiced the methods of [Kazimir Malevich](/wiki/Kazimir_Malevich \"Kazimir Malevich\"). He used color as direct as possible and abandoned the use of light, shade, and perspective. Many of his paintings comprise small angular areas in horizontal or vertical composition. Usually, the canvas set up in a few brush strokes, produced angular shapes related to the colors and their mutual alteration. Rosenthalis used a dozen delicate brush strokes. He inserted into many of his paintings bluish\\-gray color at the paintings' center.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xviii, xix.", "Over the years he concentrated on the structural basics of painting, while the topic became insignificant in his art. His paintings become prosaic, inspecting the correspondence between the color, the effects of light, and the apparent compositions.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 148\\.", "", "In 1973, Rosenthalis stayed as an [artist\\-in\\-residence](/wiki/Artist-in-residence \"Artist-in-residence\") at the [Cité internationale des arts](/wiki/Cit%C3%A9_internationale_des_arts \"Cité internationale des arts\") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), where he experienced the French [Modernism](/wiki/Modernism \"Modernism\"), which proved to be a pivotal point of his oeuvre. While in Paris, he studied the works of great modern artists such as [Braque](/wiki/Braque \"Braque\"), [Delaunay](/wiki/Delaunay \"Delaunay\"), [Dufy](/wiki/Raoul_Dufy \"Raoul Dufy\"), [Kandinsky](/wiki/Kandinsky \"Kandinsky\"), [Matisse](/wiki/Matisse \"Matisse\"), and [Picasso](/wiki/Picasso \"Picasso\"). Manifestation of their influence can be seen in the increased translucency origin in his work thereafter. These paintings are performed partially, or entirely, in a diluted palette of colors so that their transparency reveals the background so that, also, as an integral function within the color format. After Paris, Rosenthalis used his brush friskily. He installed various geometric shapes, juxtaposed or superimposed. Shading is attained via the translucent effect, which allocates a role to the light and the watered down of paint.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii.", "The tension between cold and warm colors, and between line and form, and he contrived the concept of polarity–not in a realistic way, but as an abstract expression of inner ideas and feelings.", "Hannah Koffler. Moshe Rosenthalis – Colorist by Nature. In Homage à Rosenthalis: Three exhibitions and one book. 2009\\. p. 148\\.", "In 1990, [Raffi Lavie](/wiki/Raffi_Lavie \"Raffi Lavie\") wrote in [Ha'ir](/wiki/Ha%27ir \"Ha'ir\"): \"A Rosenthalis' festival is on display... Picasso, Matisse, and Kandinsky would have liked what he had taken from each of them. The temperament, the fluidity of line, and the richness of color... This is a real painting, free of all pretensions of movements or of non\\-artistic theories.\".", "Raffi Lavie, Ha'ir, 1990\\.", "", "Since settling in Israel in 1958, for 17 years, Rosenthalis eschewed self\\-exposure. His [Solo exhibition](/wiki/Solo_exhibition \"Solo exhibition\") at the [Petah Tikva Museum of Art](/wiki/Petah_Tikva_Museum_of_Art \"Petah Tikva Museum of Art\") in 1975 was his first major show.", "Sorin Heller, A local scent. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen and Omer industrial parks, p. 27\\.", "Dov Homsky wrote about the exhibition in [Al HaMishmar](/wiki/Al_HaMishmar \"Al HaMishmar\"): \"The painting for Rosenthalis is a happening per se, a purpose per se ... His vision is humanistic. He fused his 'topics' into his 'self' His perception was impromptu and forthright, without intellectual inquiry. We can perceive the artists' love in each detail, the colors game, which is mischievous and sober simultaneously—made in a lyric affection of a very sensitive painter.\".", "Dov Homsky (May 7, 1975\\). The Painter Moshe Rosenthalis. Al HaMishmar.", "[Adam Baruch](/wiki/Adam_Baruch \"Adam Baruch\") wrote in [Yedioth Ahronoth](/wiki/Yedioth_Ahronoth \"Yedioth Ahronoth\"): \"Even a viewer with the most pronounced contemporary inclinations will doff his hat to painting that is replete, well aware of the theatricality of the occupation, without becoming pathetic–and with the ability to cross or avoid such critical barriers as 'relevance' etc.\"", "Adam Baruch (March 31, 1978\\). Seasoned eye. Yedioth Ahronoth. p. 7\\.", "", "A 1983 [retrospective](/wiki/Retrospective \"Retrospective\") exhibition at [Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Herzliya_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art \"Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art\") presented Rosenthalis' works from the years 1950–1983\\.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii.", "Elyakim Yaron wrote: \"An artist of perpetual change that cannot be summarized.\"", "Elyakim Yaron, Paintings 1947\\-1983\\. Moshe Rosenthalis Retrospective. Herzliya Museum of Contemporary Art. 1983\\. p. 3\\-5\\.", "In an introduction to a book about Rosenthalis, published by Keter Publishing House in 1984, [Clara Malraux](/wiki/Clara_Malraux \"Clara Malraux\") wrote: \"The application of paint... is the most refined expression of the extent of the spectrum of colors in all its transitions... He planned and fitted together everything, leaving nothing to chance, despite the work's thrust for spontaneousness... This is total coordination between the man and the technique, between temperament and experience. Rosenthalis knows all the ways of French painting, but his uniqueness is in his own path.\"", "Clara Malraux, introduction. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. vii.", "A series of his paintings are devoted to music\nDaniel Oz (November 29, 2009\\). [Moses in the triangle ark](https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3808814,00.html). [Ynet](/wiki/Ynet \"Ynet\"). \n and women with musical instruments.David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. xiii.", "Rosenthalis had been working in his atelier at Jaffa Port since 1964, his painting depicting the studio's exterior overlooking the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\") and interior, presented in his 2002 one\\-man exhibition at the [Israeli National Maritime Museum](/wiki/Israeli_National_Maritime_Museum \"Israeli National Maritime Museum\") in Haifa.", "Daniela Talmor, Studio facing the sea, Haifa Museums, Israeli National Maritime Museum, 2002, p. 70\\-96\\.", "In some of his early [Jaffa](/wiki/Jaffa \"Jaffa\")'s seashores from the late 1960s\\-early 1970s it's hard to discern any actual object. He muted the colors in his early compositions. He heightened the colors in his compositions starting in the 1970s. Since the 1980s, his color palette becomes even more luminous with linear motifs.", "Avraham Ronen, An artist of endless renewal. In: Moshe Rosenthalis: The Joy of Color, The open museum, Tefen, and Omer industrial parks, 2004, p. 22\\-23\\.", "He had a house in Safed, where he spent every summer, free from teaching and another undertaking, dedicated himself only to his art, painting the marketplace and its inhabitants.", "David Giladi, The artist and his work. In: Moshe Rosenthalis, Keter Publishing House: Jerusalem, 1984, p. XXII.", "", "In 2004, he presented a solo exhibition at The Open Museum, [Migdal Tefen](/wiki/Migdal_Tefen \"Migdal Tefen\"). Part of it displayed works he called 'etudes', created primarily outside his studio. These were small oil paintings, that served as a foundation for his sizeable and elaborate paintings, using a nimble freestyle.", "Rinat Aboulafia (June 7, 2004\\). [Lives among the canvases](https://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did=803050). [Globes](/wiki/Globes_%28newspaper%29 \"Globes (newspaper)\").", "Initially, he created them in the mid\\-1950s in Lithuania, and continued in Israel, depicting the landscapes of Jaffa, Jerusalem, and Safed. On the show, they stood underneath the large compatible paintings.", "[Smadar Sheffi](/wiki/Smadar_Sheffi \"Smadar Sheffi\") (June 9, 2004\\). [Like Picasso](https://www.haaretz.co.il/gallery/2004-06-09/ty-article/0000017f-dbd4-d3a5-af7f-fbfee1030000). [Haaretz](/wiki/Haaretz \"Haaretz\").", "", "### Posthumous", "Moshe Rosenthalis died at the age of 86 on August 26, 2008\\.", "Giedrė Jankevičiūtė. Vilnius – Old Port of Jaffa and the Hills of Galilee – Vilnius. In M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\\. P. 8\\.", "He was survived by his wife Sara, who departed two years after him,", "[Avelim](https://www.avelim.co.il/%d7%a9%d7%a8%d7%94-%d7%a8%d7%95%d7%96%d7%a0%d7%98%d7%9c%d7%99%d7%a1-%d7%96%d7%9c/). A bereavement announcement.", "and his son Avner, who worked as his [art dealer](/wiki/Art_dealer \"Art dealer\") and [curator](/wiki/Curator \"Curator\"). His eldest son, Raphael, died in his forties.", "Sarit Fux (November 28, 2009\\). [In the Name of the Father](https://www.makorrishon.co.il/nrg/online/47/ART1/971/233.html). [Maariv](/wiki/Maariv \"Maariv\").", "In 2009, his son Avner Rosenthalis, turn his studio into Rosenthalis House, an art gallery with a permanent collection of his fathers' works and a changing exhibition with various artists.", "Hila Shkolnik\\-Brener (November 16, 2009\\). [Quadrangular homage for Moshe Rosenthalis](https://www.haaretz.co.il/gallery/art/2009-11-16/ty-article/0000017f-f868-d318-afff-fb6bf1ee0000). Ha'ir.", "In 2017, he closed Rosenthalis House.", "Eden Slutski (February 25, 2021\\). [Inside the kitchen of Rodenthalis family](https://www.mako.co.il/living-rooms/kitchen/Article-4aff7464188d771026.htm). Mako.", "", "In 2009, the exhibition \"Moshe Rosenthalis The Freedom of Color\" was on display at the [Town Hall, Vilnius](/wiki/Town_Hall%2C_Vilnius \"Town Hall, Vilnius\") and later moved to the [M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum](/wiki/M._K._%C4%8Ciurlionis_National_Art_Museum \"M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum\"). The exhibition encompassed artworks he produced during the years 1945 \\- 2007\\.", "M.Rosenthalis: The Color of Freedom. 2009\\. 248 pp.", "He worked with diverse bases: acrylic and oil on canvas, watercolors, oil pastels, gouache, oil paintings using cardboard and plywood, collages and drawings.", "Hannah Koffler. In: Studio facing the sea, The National Maritime Museum. 2002\\. p. 96\\.", "He experienced diverse art schools including Abstract, Fauvism, expressionism, and [Realism](/wiki/Realism_%28art_movement%29 \"Realism (art movement)\").", "Daniel Oz (November 29, 2009\\). [Moses in the triangle ark](https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3808814,00.html). [Ynet](/wiki/Ynet \"Ynet\").", "In a foreword to a book dedicated to Rosenthalis, published by Masada Publishing House in 1990, Adam Baruch wrote: \"Rosenthalis is rooted in culture, not in Israeli culture, in its politics and poetics. He is here and not here. Faithful to himself, he lives among his canvases, within the history of modern art rather than within the history of Israeli art.\"", "Adam Baruch, “Rosenthalis, towards the 1990s. in: Moshe Rosenthalis, Ramat Gan, Masada, 1990, p. 7\\.", "", "Four large\\-scale artwork delineates selected chapters from the annals of the Jewish People, commissioned by businessman [Shaul Eisenberg](/wiki/Shaul_Eisenberg \"Shaul Eisenberg\"), installed on the walls of the boardroom at Asia House in Tel Aviv in 1980\\. Rosenthalis paint them in a realistic\\-[symbolic](/wiki/Symbolism_%28arts%29 \"Symbolism (arts)\")\\-figurative style, with a disregard for the classic perspective\\-color rules. In 1983 he created parallel four paintings, an abstract interpretation of the previous works, unwinding the literary narrative.", "Alec Mishori, In The Great Sight, Moshe Rosenthalis, History of the Jewish People. ANU \\- Museum of the Jewish People, P. 11e\\-64e.", "In 2013, the exhibition \"The Great Sight\" was presented at the [ANU \\- Museum of the Jewish People](/wiki/ANU_-_Museum_of_the_Jewish_People \"ANU - Museum of the Jewish People\"). The exhibition is composed of eight works together with dozens of small\\-scale drawings, sketches, and diagrams used as preparatory work for the four realistic paintings.", "[The Great Sight](https://web.archive.org/web/20211121232426/https:/www.anumuseum.org.il/event/great-sight/). Anu Museum.", "", "" ]