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History
-------
The rhythm section for the band were [Cozy Powell](/wiki/Cozy_Powell "Cozy Powell") and [Neil Murray](/wiki/Neil_Murray_%28British_musician%29 "Neil Murray (British musician)"), who had previously worked together in [Black Sabbath](/wiki/Black_Sabbath "Black Sabbath") and [Whitesnake](/wiki/Whitesnake "Whitesnake"). [Spike Edney](/wiki/Spike_Edney "Spike Edney"), who was the tour keyboardist for Queen between 1984 and 1986 took the keyboard spot.
The band was originally formed in October 1991 for May's performance at *[Guitar Legends](/wiki/Guitar_Legends%2C_Seville_1991 "Guitar Legends, Seville 1991")* guitar festival in [Seville](/wiki/Seville "Seville"), Spain. The band soon went on a tour of the United States, Europe and Japan. The tour ended in December 1993, when May returned to the studio with fellow Queen bandmates [Roger Taylor](/wiki/Roger_Meddows-Taylor "Roger Meddows-Taylor") and [John Deacon](/wiki/John_Deacon "John Deacon") for Queen's final studio album, *[Made In Heaven](/wiki/Made_In_Heaven "Made In Heaven")*. Meanwhile, Cozy Powell and Neil Murray returned to work with Black Sabbath, and both later joined [Peter Green](/wiki/Peter_Green_%28musician%29 "Peter Green (musician)")'s Band.
The band reunited in 1998 to promote Brian May's *[Another World](/wiki/Another_World_%28Brian_May_album%29 "Another World (Brian May album)")* album. [Eric Singer](/wiki/Eric_Singer "Eric Singer"), of later [KISS](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 "Kiss (band)") fame, was brought as the last minute replacement for Cozy Powell, who had died in a car accident earlier that year.
In 2005, both [Jamie Moses](/wiki/Jamie_Moses "Jamie Moses") and Spike Edney joined the [Queen \+ Paul Rodgers](/wiki/Queen_%2B_Paul_Rodgers "Queen + Paul Rodgers") collaboration on their worldwide tour.
The band's only release was the live album, *[Live at the Brixton Academy](/wiki/Live_at_the_Brixton_Academy_%28Brian_May_album%29 "Live at the Brixton Academy (Brian May album)")* in 1993\. Several live tracks were also released on "[Resurrection](/wiki/Resurrection_%28Brian_May_song%29 "Resurrection (Brian May song)")" single and *[Red Special](/wiki/Red_Special_%28album%29 "Red Special (album)")* mini\-album.
After the band's tours in 1993 and 1998, members went on to contribute to various projects. Most notably, Moses, Edney, Murray and Powell formed the original line up of the [SAS (Spike's All Stars) Band](/wiki/Spike_Edney%23SAS_Band "Spike Edney#SAS Band"),{{Cite web \|title\=Intervista a Spike Edney su Discover Magazines del 08 Novembre 2015 \|url\=https://queen4everblog.blogspot.com/2015/11/intervista\-spike\-edney\-su\-discover.html \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-18 \|website\=Queen Forever Blog}} a band which was also joined by Susie Webb and Zoe Nicholas on later tours,{{Citation \|last\=Kent \|first\=Mark \|title\=SAS Band\- Susie Zoe and Spike \|date\=2013\-05\-25 \|url\=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SAS\_Band\-\_Susie\_Zoe\_and\_Spike\_(8880390903\).jpg \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-18}} and which Edney and Moses still perform with.{{Citation \|last\=Kent \|first\=Mark \|title\=SAS Band \- Jamie and Spike 2 \|date\=2013\-05\-25 \|url\=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SAS\_Band\_\-\_Jamie\_and\_Spike\_2\_(8880045895\).jpg \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-18}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The rhythm section for the band were [Cozy Powell](/wiki/Cozy_Powell \"Cozy Powell\") and [Neil Murray](/wiki/Neil_Murray_%28British_musician%29 \"Neil Murray (British musician)\"), who had previously worked together in [Black Sabbath](/wiki/Black_Sabbath \"Black Sabbath\") and [Whitesnake](/wiki/Whitesnake \"Whitesnake\"). [Spike Edney](/wiki/Spike_Edney \"Spike Edney\"), who was the tour keyboardist for Queen between 1984 and 1986 took the keyboard spot.",
"The band was originally formed in October 1991 for May's performance at *[Guitar Legends](/wiki/Guitar_Legends%2C_Seville_1991 \"Guitar Legends, Seville 1991\")* guitar festival in [Seville](/wiki/Seville \"Seville\"), Spain. The band soon went on a tour of the United States, Europe and Japan. The tour ended in December 1993, when May returned to the studio with fellow Queen bandmates [Roger Taylor](/wiki/Roger_Meddows-Taylor \"Roger Meddows-Taylor\") and [John Deacon](/wiki/John_Deacon \"John Deacon\") for Queen's final studio album, *[Made In Heaven](/wiki/Made_In_Heaven \"Made In Heaven\")*. Meanwhile, Cozy Powell and Neil Murray returned to work with Black Sabbath, and both later joined [Peter Green](/wiki/Peter_Green_%28musician%29 \"Peter Green (musician)\")'s Band.",
"The band reunited in 1998 to promote Brian May's *[Another World](/wiki/Another_World_%28Brian_May_album%29 \"Another World (Brian May album)\")* album. [Eric Singer](/wiki/Eric_Singer \"Eric Singer\"), of later [KISS](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 \"Kiss (band)\") fame, was brought as the last minute replacement for Cozy Powell, who had died in a car accident earlier that year.",
"In 2005, both [Jamie Moses](/wiki/Jamie_Moses \"Jamie Moses\") and Spike Edney joined the [Queen \\+ Paul Rodgers](/wiki/Queen_%2B_Paul_Rodgers \"Queen + Paul Rodgers\") collaboration on their worldwide tour.",
"The band's only release was the live album, *[Live at the Brixton Academy](/wiki/Live_at_the_Brixton_Academy_%28Brian_May_album%29 \"Live at the Brixton Academy (Brian May album)\")* in 1993\\. Several live tracks were also released on \"[Resurrection](/wiki/Resurrection_%28Brian_May_song%29 \"Resurrection (Brian May song)\")\" single and *[Red Special](/wiki/Red_Special_%28album%29 \"Red Special (album)\")* mini\\-album.",
"After the band's tours in 1993 and 1998, members went on to contribute to various projects. Most notably, Moses, Edney, Murray and Powell formed the original line up of the [SAS (Spike's All Stars) Band](/wiki/Spike_Edney%23SAS_Band \"Spike Edney#SAS Band\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=Intervista a Spike Edney su Discover Magazines del 08 Novembre 2015 \\|url\\=https://queen4everblog.blogspot.com/2015/11/intervista\\-spike\\-edney\\-su\\-discover.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-18 \\|website\\=Queen Forever Blog}} a band which was also joined by Susie Webb and Zoe Nicholas on later tours,{{Citation \\|last\\=Kent \\|first\\=Mark \\|title\\=SAS Band\\- Susie Zoe and Spike \\|date\\=2013\\-05\\-25 \\|url\\=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SAS\\_Band\\-\\_Susie\\_Zoe\\_and\\_Spike\\_(8880390903\\).jpg \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-18}} and which Edney and Moses still perform with.{{Citation \\|last\\=Kent \\|first\\=Mark \\|title\\=SAS Band \\- Jamie and Spike 2 \\|date\\=2013\\-05\\-25 \\|url\\=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SAS\\_Band\\_\\-\\_Jamie\\_and\\_Spike\\_2\\_(8880045895\\).jpg \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-18}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
Terrorits hold a bank hostage with police surrounding the building. CIA agent Casey Alexander eventually saves the hostages, but is shot in the arm in the process.
Meanwhile, Casey's father John, a retired CIA agent, learns that he is on a hit list. John, however, refuses protection from the CIA.
At John's 65th birthday, Casey arrives before his brother, a martial arts teacher named Will. Will is wearing the Soviet flag on the back of his jean jacket. Casey tells John that the brothers got him an around the world flight for his birthday. Will, however, is mad that Casey will not admit that he is a spy and will not stop showing off his wealth. Casey says that he does not like the fact Will is wearing "Khrushchev's jacket" in front of the CIA.
That night, John is subdued by men dressed in black. One of them is Colombian terrorist Antonio "Franco" Franconi, who wants to get revenge on John for his son's death in a mission years before. Aided by his number one man Russo, Franco kills John. When Will and Casey discover John's body, Casey vows to find out who is responsible.
CIA director Jack Atteron refuses to give John's case to Casey, who, aided by an old friend in the IT department, nonetheless retrieves the file. While heading home, Casey is confronted by more terrorists, but kills them all with some help from Will. While Casey talks with the police, Will opens John's file, learns that Franco is in Florida and decides to go there alone.
Will meets up with old friends at a martial arts school in Tampa and asks for their help in finding Angel, a recruiter for Franco's organization. Meanwhile, Casey looks for his old girlfriend Maria, who is also infiltrating Franco. At a bar that night, Will's friends beat up Angel's men. As Angel is about to be beaten down, Will faces off against them as part of the plan. Will calls himself "Jessie Roby" and Angel takes him to see Franco. Franco decides to test "Jessie". Will faces off against a thug, matches skills with Russo and passes the test.
The next day, Will and two men go to a house where it is revealed that he must kill Casey. Will "kills" Casey, who fakes strangulation by curtain. Upon returning to the base, Franco's supervisor is revealed to be Atteron, who was also responsible for John's death. Casey and Will are kidnapped, tied up and confronted by Russo and Franco. Will sees Casey being beaten and announces that he will not do the job if Casey is dead.
The mission is to kidnap the Mozambique Ambassador, who will be arriving at Tampa International Airport. However, it is a distraction for the real plan, the assassination of President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush"). Will is hired because of his martial arts skills. Meanwhile, Casey and a now kidnapped Maria escape from Franco's men and head toward the airport. Casey catches up to Will and the Ambassador, whom they put on a plane to confront Franco and Russo, the latter armed with a rocket launcher aimed at [Air Force One](/wiki/Air_Force_One "Air Force One"). Maria, who believes that Will is a criminal, shoots him in the shoulder, only to be stopped by Casey.
In the ensuing fight, Will delivers a roundhouse kick to Russo's face, causing him to fall to his death. Franco knocks Will to the ground, but then, Casey intervenes. Working together, the brothers attack Franco, who is eventually shot dead by Atteron. Before he can kill the brothers to cover all of his tracks, Atteron is shot dead by Maria. Casey offers Will a job with the CIA, but Will refuses. The CIA and the Tampa police later appear with an arrested Angel.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Terrorits hold a bank hostage with police surrounding the building. CIA agent Casey Alexander eventually saves the hostages, but is shot in the arm in the process.",
"Meanwhile, Casey's father John, a retired CIA agent, learns that he is on a hit list. John, however, refuses protection from the CIA.",
"At John's 65th birthday, Casey arrives before his brother, a martial arts teacher named Will. Will is wearing the Soviet flag on the back of his jean jacket. Casey tells John that the brothers got him an around the world flight for his birthday. Will, however, is mad that Casey will not admit that he is a spy and will not stop showing off his wealth. Casey says that he does not like the fact Will is wearing \"Khrushchev's jacket\" in front of the CIA.",
"That night, John is subdued by men dressed in black. One of them is Colombian terrorist Antonio \"Franco\" Franconi, who wants to get revenge on John for his son's death in a mission years before. Aided by his number one man Russo, Franco kills John. When Will and Casey discover John's body, Casey vows to find out who is responsible.",
"CIA director Jack Atteron refuses to give John's case to Casey, who, aided by an old friend in the IT department, nonetheless retrieves the file. While heading home, Casey is confronted by more terrorists, but kills them all with some help from Will. While Casey talks with the police, Will opens John's file, learns that Franco is in Florida and decides to go there alone.",
"Will meets up with old friends at a martial arts school in Tampa and asks for their help in finding Angel, a recruiter for Franco's organization. Meanwhile, Casey looks for his old girlfriend Maria, who is also infiltrating Franco. At a bar that night, Will's friends beat up Angel's men. As Angel is about to be beaten down, Will faces off against them as part of the plan. Will calls himself \"Jessie Roby\" and Angel takes him to see Franco. Franco decides to test \"Jessie\". Will faces off against a thug, matches skills with Russo and passes the test.",
"The next day, Will and two men go to a house where it is revealed that he must kill Casey. Will \"kills\" Casey, who fakes strangulation by curtain. Upon returning to the base, Franco's supervisor is revealed to be Atteron, who was also responsible for John's death. Casey and Will are kidnapped, tied up and confronted by Russo and Franco. Will sees Casey being beaten and announces that he will not do the job if Casey is dead.",
"The mission is to kidnap the Mozambique Ambassador, who will be arriving at Tampa International Airport. However, it is a distraction for the real plan, the assassination of President [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\"). Will is hired because of his martial arts skills. Meanwhile, Casey and a now kidnapped Maria escape from Franco's men and head toward the airport. Casey catches up to Will and the Ambassador, whom they put on a plane to confront Franco and Russo, the latter armed with a rocket launcher aimed at [Air Force One](/wiki/Air_Force_One \"Air Force One\"). Maria, who believes that Will is a criminal, shoots him in the shoulder, only to be stopped by Casey.",
"In the ensuing fight, Will delivers a roundhouse kick to Russo's face, causing him to fall to his death. Franco knocks Will to the ground, but then, Casey intervenes. Working together, the brothers attack Franco, who is eventually shot dead by Atteron. Before he can kill the brothers to cover all of his tracks, Atteron is shot dead by Maria. Casey offers Will a job with the CIA, but Will refuses. The CIA and the Tampa police later appear with an arrested Angel.",
""
] |
Renewable energy by country
---------------------------
### Afghanistan
{{Expand section\|date\=October 2018}}
{{Main\|Renewable energy in Afghanistan}}Renewable energy in Afghanistan is seeing significant growth and development, tapping into the country's rich natural resources. The country's hydroelectric potential is notably high, with rivers capable of producing an estimated 23,000 MW of power.{{Cite journal \|last\=Ershad \|first\=Ahmad Murtaza \|date\=2017\-01\-15 \|title\=Institutional and Policy Assessment of Renewable Energy Sector in Afghanistan \|journal\=Journal of Renewable Energy \|language\=en \|volume\=2017 \|pages\=e5723152 \|doi\=10\.1155/2017/5723152 \|doi\-access\=free \|issn\=2314\-4386}} Currently, hydropower installations include both large\-scale plants and smaller [micro\-hydropower](/wiki/Micro_hydro "Micro hydro") schemes, cumulatively amounting to approximately 293 MW. Afghanistan's solar energy prospects are also promising, given its status as a "sunbelt country" with an average Global Horizontal Irradiance of 1,935 kWh/m^2 annually. Solar power, predominantly used for lighting in rural areas, has reached an installed capacity of about 13 MW, largely through standalone systems. [Wind energy](/wiki/Wind_power "Wind power"), particularly in the Herat, Balkh, and Parwan provinces, presents a theoretical potential of 158 GW, with economically feasible installations around 1,000 MW. However, current wind power installations are estimated at just 300 kW. Additionally, [biogas](/wiki/Biogas "Biogas") production from rural livestock manure and energy generation from urban solid waste contribute to the renewable energy mix, with several biogas digesters already operational. These developments align with Afghanistan's broader energy goals, including substantial renewable energy targets and policy frameworks aimed at enhancing sustainable energy access and reducing environmental impacts.
### Bangladesh
{{Main\|Renewable energy in Bangladesh}}
In [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh "Bangladesh"), biomass, hydro and solar are the main sources of renewable energy and altogether these sources contribute about 60% of the nation's primary energy supply.{{cite web \| url\=https://dissertationesforestales.fi/pdf/article1992\.pdf \| title\=Supply and demand of biomass based energy: rural people's perspectives in Bangladesh\|date\=2015\|author\=Hassan, Kamrul}} A number of domestic solar energy systems are in use in houses around the country. The use of solar energy on this scale is highly potential and advantageous as more than 60% of areas in the country do not have access to main grid electricity. [The World Bank](/wiki/The_World_Bank "The World Bank") is backing a program of making solar energy available to wider population in Bangladesh, as part of the Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Development Project (REREDP), which subsidizes solar energy systems.
A typical 'solar home system' can power two to eight 'low energy' lights, plus a socket for TV, radio or battery recharging, and a [mobile telephone](/wiki/Mobile_telephone "Mobile telephone") charging unit, too. Each system consists of a [solar photovoltaic panel](/wiki/Solar_panel "Solar panel"), mounted on the house roof. Depending on its size, this provides between 40W and 135W of electricity in full sunlight (the most common being 50W).{{citation needed\|date\=October 2018}}
[Grameen Shakti](/wiki/Grameen_Shakti "Grameen Shakti") is the largest organization installing rural based solar home system (SHS) in Bangladesh. Other companies working on similar solar energy based SHS are Rural Services Foundation (RSF), [Brac](/wiki/Brac%2C_Bangladesh "Brac, Bangladesh"), Hilfulfujal and so on. The model of micro finance based SHS is now being copied in other parts of the world as a successful business model.
[Rahimafrooz](/wiki/Rahimafrooz "Rahimafrooz") is a major supplier of high quality solar batteries and other solar components for the program. Rahimafrooz Renewable Energy Ltd (RRE) has been the pioneer in installing solar powered centralized systems, water pumps for irrigation and pure drinking water, water heaters, street lights, and solar\-powered telecom solutions to various organizations. They are working closely with pertinent government organizations in installing solar powered medical refrigerator that provides emergency live saving medicines in the off\-grid rural areas.
A company named Digital Technology is doing research and development of solar PV products like solar billboard lighting, mini grid system for irrigation etc.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2018}}
### China
{{Main\|Renewable energy in China}}
[thumb\|right\|Rooftop solar water heaters are ubiquitous in modern China](/wiki/File:Tieshan-solar-water-heaters-0101.jpg "Tieshan-solar-water-heaters-0101.jpg")
[thumb\|[Wind farm](/wiki/Wind_farm "Wind farm") in [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang "Xinjiang"), China](/wiki/File:Wind_power_plants_in_Xinjiang%2C_China.jpg "Wind power plants in Xinjiang, China.jpg")
In China there now are six factories producing at least 2 GW/year each of monocrystalline, poly\-crystalline and non\-crystalline [Photovoltaic cells](/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell "Photovoltaic cell"). These factories include the [LDK Solar Co](/wiki/LDK_Solar_Co "LDK Solar Co"), Wuxi Suntech Solar Energy Co., Ltd., which produces approximately 50 MW/year of solar cells and [photovoltaic modules](/wiki/Photovoltaic_module "Photovoltaic module"); the Yunnan Semi\-conductor Parts Plant, which manufactures approximately 2 MW/year of mono\-crystalline cells; the Baoding Yingli Solar Energy Modules Plant, which manufactures approximately 6 MW/year of polycrystalline cells and modules; the Shanghai Jiaoda Guofei Solar Energy Battery Factory, which produces approximately 1 MW/year of modules; and the Shanghai PV Science and Technology Co., Ltd., which produces approximately 5 MW/year of modules.[Solar Energy Booming in China](http://www.worldwatch.org/node/41)
China has become a world leader in the manufacture of solar photovoltaic technology, with its six biggest solar companies having a combined value of over $15 billion. In 2023 majority of its electricity capacity came from renewable energy.{{Cite web\|title\=China's installed non\-fossil fuel electricity capacity exceeds 50% of total\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/chinas\-installed\-non\-fossil\-fuel\-electricity\-capacity\-exceeds\-50\-total\-2023\-06\-12/\|publisher\=Reuters\|date\=2023\-06\-12}} Around 820 megawatts of solar PV were produced in China in 2007, second only to Japan.[China pioneers in renewable energy](http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90780/91344/6496247.html) [Suntech Power](/wiki/Suntech_Power "Suntech Power") Holdings Co based in [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu "Jiangsu"), is the world's third\- biggest supplier of solar cells.[China to Be World's Top Manufacturer of Green Energy Technology](https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=aaIm318czoz8&refer=home)
There are some obstacles to the further development of the Chinese solar energy sector that China faces. These obstacles include the lack of a nationwide comprehensive [photovoltaic](/wiki/Photovoltaics "Photovoltaics") (PV) plan, the lack of updated facilities and sufficient financial resources to support PV research at research institutes, the lack of sufficient facilities and resources at companies manufacturing PV products, the failure of companies to be able to produce high quality, reliable and low cost PV products and the relatively weak educational and training opportunities in China for PV science and technology.[China to train developing nations in solar technologies](http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readNews&itemid=1561&language=1)
About 50 MW of installed solar capacity was added in 2008, more than double the 20 MW in 2007, but still a relatively small amount. According to some studies, the demand in China for new solar modules could be as high as 232 MW each year from now on until 2012\. The government has announced plans to expand the installed capacity to 1,800 MW by 2020\. If Chinese companies manage to develop low cost, reliable solar modules, then the sky is the limit for a country that is desperate to reduce its dependence on coal and oil imports as well as the pressure on its environment by using renewable energy.[China's New Focus on Solar \| Renewable Energy News Article](http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/05/chinas-new-focus-on-solar)
In 2009 centre to the PRC Government's plans is the recently announced "Golden Sun" stimulus program. Under this program the Ministry of Finance will subsidize half of the total construction
costs of an on\-grid solar power plant, including transmission expenses. The Ministry of Finance will also pay subsidies of up to 70% to develop independent photovoltaic power generating systems in remote regions. The strong handed move by the Government is meant to encourage more solar projects to increase the current solar power capacity, which at 2008 stood at a paltry 40MW. As the Government targets to increase China's solar power capacity up to 20GW by 2020,{{cite web \|url\= http://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/paginas/Contenidosecciones.asp?ID\=15\&Cod\=3976\&Tipo\=\&Nombre\=PV%20Solar \|title\= Spain no longer leading the way in PV solar energy \|publisher\= Renewable energy magazine \|date\=2009\-08\-26 }} this will provide significant opportunities for solar cell and module manufacturers. Many of the solar industry players therefore will expect for chances to be benefited from the government programs especially the solar cell manufacturers. With the hope of increase in local demand, some of the new developments have been going on with this region, like Anwell Technologies Limited, a Singapore listed company having its solar cell manufacturing plant in China, has produced its first thin film solar panel with its own developed production lines in September 2009\.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.solarbuzz.com/News/NewsASMA255\.htm \|title\= Anwell Produces its First Thin Film Solar Panel \|publisher\= Solarbuzz \|date\=2009\-09\-07 }}
According to the speech given by the Chinese President Hu Jintao's at the UN climate summit held on September 22, 2009, in New York, China will intensify effort and adopt ambitious plans to plant enough forest to cover an area the size of Norway and use 15 percent of its energy from renewable sources within a decade.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.miamiherald.com/772/story/1245246\.html \|title\= UN climate summit puts China, India in spotlight \| publisher\= The Miami Herald \|date\=22 Sep 2009}}
### India
{{Main\|Renewable energy in India}}
[alt\=\|thumb\|Global Horizontal Irradiation in India.{{Cite web\|url\=https://globalsolaratlas.info/\|title\=Global Solar Atlas\|access\-date\=4 December 2018}} l](/wiki/File:India_GHI_Solar-resource-map_GlobalSolarAtlas_World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png "India GHI Solar-resource-map GlobalSolarAtlas World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png")
[India](/wiki/India "India") is both densely populated and has high solar [insolation](/wiki/Insolation "Insolation"), providing an ideal combination for solar power in India. Much of the country does not have an [electrical grid](/wiki/Electrical_grid "Electrical grid"), so one of the first applications of solar power has been for water pumping, to begin replacing India's four to five million diesel powered [water pumps](/wiki/Water_pump "Water pump"), each consuming about 3\.5 kilowatts, and off\-grid lighting. Some large projects have been proposed, and a 35,000 km2 area of the [Thar Desert](/wiki/Thar_Desert "Thar Desert") has been set aside for [solar power](/wiki/Solar_power "Solar power") projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 [gigawatts](/wiki/Gigawatt "Gigawatt").
The Indian Solar Loan Programme, supported by the [United Nations Environment Programme](/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme "United Nations Environment Programme") has won the prestigious [Energy Globe](/wiki/Energy_Globe "Energy Globe") World award for Sustainability for helping to establish a consumer financing program for solar home power systems. Over the span of three years more than 16,000 solar home systems have been financed through 2,000 bank branches, particularly in rural areas of South India where the [electricity grid](/wiki/Electricity_grid "Electricity grid") does not yet extend.[Consumer financing program for solar home systems in southern India](http://www.energyglobe.info/geg/frontend_en/view.php?MENUEID=138)[UNEP wins Energy Globe award](http://www.renewable-energy-world.com/articles/print_screen.cfm?ARTICLE_ID=289927) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929071302/http://www.renewable\-energy\-world.com/articles/print\_screen.cfm?ARTICLE\_ID\=289927 \|date\=2007\-09\-29 }}
Launched in 2003, the Indian Solar Loan Programme was a four\-year partnership between UNEP, the UNEP Risoe Centre, and two of India's largest banks, the Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank.
According to Development Counsellors International (DCI), a United States marketing company, India is the second best country, after China, for business investment. [United Nations Environment Programme](/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme "United Nations Environment Programme") (UNEP) has reported that India has seen a 12% increase in investment in the renewable energy sector with an investment of $3\.7 billion in 2008\. The largest share was asset finance at $3\.2 billion which grew by 25%. The clean renewable energy includes wind, solar, biomass and small\-hydro projects. The major portion of investment has been made in wind energy sector. The investment in wind energy sector grew at 17% from $2\.2 billion to $2\.6 billion.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.ecoseed.org/index.php/en/general\-news/features/in\-depth/4467\-indias\-solar\-mission\-how\-it\-is\-harnessing\-unlimited\-energy \|title\= India's solar mission: How it is harnessing unlimited energy \|publisher\= EcoSeed \|date\= 23 Sep 2009 \|access\-date\= 24 September 2009 \|archive\-date\= 30 September 2009 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090930114010/http://www.ecoseed.org/index.php/en/general\-news/features/in\-depth/4467\-indias\-solar\-mission\-how\-it\-is\-harnessing\-unlimited\-energy \|url\-status\= dead }}
### Indonesia
{{Expand section\|date\=October 2018}}
{{Main\|Energy in Indonesia}}
While Indonesia has made strides in financial mechanisms and tax incentives to support renewable energy, the country has struggled to meet its renewable energy targets due to inefficient power system policies and grid management practices. The Ministry of Finance has shown a commitment to fostering geothermal energy, which remains a significant component of Indonesia's renewable energy landscape. As of 2018, renewable power constituted 44% of the nation's energy profile, with estimates suggesting a slight decrease to 42% by 2028, as projected by Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN). This projected decrease is partly due to challenges in fully harnessing geothermal resources, which are predominantly located on the islands of [Java](/wiki/Java "Java") and [Sumatera](/wiki/Sumatra "Sumatra").
Indonesia possesses a high potential for renewable energy, estimated at 419 gigawatts (GW), including substantial capacities in hydro (75 GW), geothermal (23\.7 GW), bioenergy (32\.6 GW), solar (207\.8 GW), wind (60\.6 GW), and micro\-hydro (19\.3 GW).{{Cite journal \|last1\=Pambudi \|first1\=Nugroho Agung \|last2\=Firdaus \|first2\=Ridho Alfan \|last3\=Rizkiana \|first3\=Reza \|last4\=Ulfa \|first4\=Desita Kamila \|last5\=Salsabila \|first5\=Muntasy Syahrul \|last6\=Suharno \|last7\=Sukatiman \|date\=January 2023 \|title\=Renewable Energy in Indonesia: Current Status, Potential, and Future Development \|journal\=Sustainability \|language\=en \|volume\=15 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=2342 \|doi\=10\.3390/su15032342 \|doi\-access\=free \|issn\=2071\-1050}} The country's energy consumption pattern reveals a significant reliance on oil, particularly in the transportation sector which consumes about 45\.76% of the energy. The industrial and household sectors also show considerable energy usage for purposes such as boiler [steam](/wiki/Steam "Steam") generation and electricity.
Despite these potentials and consumption trends, the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources has been gradual. The government has planned to increase the renewable energy mix from 11% in 2021 to 23% by 2025, and further to 31% by 2050, aligning with national policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing energy security. This transition is essential for Indonesia as it aims to meet its nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement and strive for net\-zero emissions by 2060\.
### Israel
{{Expand section\|date\=October 2018}}
As of 2019, Israel's [renewable energy](/wiki/Renewable_energy "Renewable energy") production capacity stood at 1,500 MW, almost all of it from [solar energy](/wiki/Solar_energy "Solar energy"), at 1,438 MW. Additional sources included [wind power](/wiki/Wind_power "Wind power") (27 MW), biogas (25 MW), hydroelectric power (7 MW) and other bio energy (3 MW). Of the solar energy, [photovoltaics](/wiki/Photovoltaics "Photovoltaics") accounted for 1,190 MW, while [concentrated solar power](/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power "Concentrated solar power") contributed another 248 MW from the [Ashalim Power Station](/wiki/Ashalim_Power_Station "Ashalim Power Station").{{Cite web \|title\=Renewable Capacity Statistics 2020 \|url\=https://www.irena.org/publications/2020/Mar/Renewable\-Capacity\-Statistics\-2020 \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-10 \|website\=www.irena.org \|date\=31 March 2020 \|language\=en}}
In 2021, the renewable energy generation in Israel was 5\.7 TWh, which was almost a 30% increase from 2020\. Solar energy generation was 95% of the total renewable energy generation in 2021\.{{Cite web \|title\=Israel Solar Energy Market Analysis \- Industry Report \- Trends, Size \& Share \|url\=https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry\-reports/israel\-solar\-energy\-market \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-10 \|website\=www.mordorintelligence.com \|language\=en}}{{Further\|Energy in Israel\#Renewable energy}}
### Japan
{{Main\|Energy in Japan}}
Japan first started investing in renewable energy in the 1970s and 1980s with the oil crisis. Japan was hit extremally hard due to their rapidly developing economy relying heavily on fossil fuels most of which were imported. The steep prices on fossil fuels caused Japan to invest lots of money into their growing nuclear industry as well as other forms of renewable energy such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric. Japan set a goal in October 2021 to have 36%\-38% of their total power generation come from renewable sources and they have a further goal to become completely [carbon neutral](/wiki/Carbon_neutrality "Carbon neutrality") by the year 2050{{Cite journal \|last1\=Kurramovich \|first1\=Khudoykulov Khurshid \|last2\=Abro \|first2\=Asif Ali \|last3\=Vaseer \|first3\=Arif I. \|last4\=Khan \|first4\=Saad Uddin \|last5\=Ali \|first5\=Syed Rashid \|last6\=Murshed \|first6\=Muntasir \|date\=2022\-05\-01 \|title\=Roadmap for carbon neutrality: the mediating role of clean energy development\-related investments \|journal\=Environmental Science and Pollution Research \|language\=en \|volume\=29 \|issue\=23 \|pages\=34055–34074 \|doi\=10\.1007/s11356\-021\-17985\-3 \|pmid\=35034299 \|issn\=1614\-7499\|doi\-access\=free \|bibcode\=2022ESPR...2934055K }}
Japan invested heavily into nuclear energy starting in 1966 when it opened its first nuclear power plant. The country would continue to establish new nuclear power plants and improve on nuclear technology until the year 2011 when the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster occurred. In 2010, nuclear energy made up almost 25% of Japan’s energy output, in 2015, this number was recorded at a low 0\.4%. Public backlash from citizens across the country forced the government to quickly shut down the remain reactors across the entire nation. As nuclear power was a large part of Japan’s power generation, the Japanese government was forced to quickly find other energy sources to meet the country’s massive energy demand leading them to turn to fossil fuels as a quick and cheap solution. Since 2011, the nation has slowly been reactivating some of their nuclear power plants with 10 reactors currently operating out of 60 total reactors.{{Cite web \|last1\=Ihédate \|last2\=ihedate \|title\=Japan \|url\=https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/\+\-Japan\-37\-\+.html \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-17 \|website\=www.worldnuclearreport.org}} The effects of the Fukushima nuclear disaster can still be seen on Japan’s nuclear industry with nuclear power making up a fraction of what it did in the 2000’s. The government is continuing forward with reactivating reactors in order to meet its goal of becoming carbon neutral by the year 2050\.
Japan did not just turn to fossil fuels to fill the gap in energy production left by nuclear, they also began the construction of solar panels and other renewable energy sources. Solar was a clear choice for investment as Japan was the second largest producer of solar energy in the early 2000’s behind China. In order to encourage citizens and businesses alike to invest in solar power, the government approved a feed\- in tariff that would give people who generated excess power with solar a small amount of money for the power that they generated. The tariff was approved at 42 yen/kwh on June 18, 2012; however, it has since been reduced over time to 11 yen/kwh in 2022\. Existing contracts would not see this decrease in cost until they expired. This tariff succeeded in its purpose as Japan saw the second highest growth in solar production in the years 2013 and 2014\. In addition, Japan broke several of their goals of increasing solar production early.
Hydroelectricity is another important source of renewable energy in Japan, being the second biggest behind solar.{{Cite web \|last1\=cycles \|first1\=This text provides general information Statista assumes no liability for the information given being complete or correct Due to varying update \|last2\=Text \|first2\=Statistics Can Display More up\-to\-Date Data Than Referenced in the \|title\=Topic: Hydropower in Japan \|url\=https://www.statista.com/topics/8924/hydropower\-in\-japan/ \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-17 \|website\=Statista \|language\=en}} Japan has 178 power plants producing power for the country making them the 6th largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world. While hydroelectricity is a key factor in renewable energy production in Japan, it is becoming increasingly difficult for them to expand as dams have been constructed at almost every potential site. Wind and geothermal are additional sources of renewable energy that Japan is developing, and both have seen an increase in total power generated. however, they make up a very small portion of the country’s overall energy production. The government is continuing to look into methods of increasing power generation from both of these sources in order to continue progress towards their goal of becoming carbon neutral by 2050\.
### Lebanon
{{Expand section\|date\=October 2018}}
{{Further\|Geothermal energy in Lebanon}}
### Nepal
{{Expand section\|date\=October 2018}}
{{Main\|Renewable energy in Nepal}}Nepal, with vast renewable energy potential, is yet to fully exploit resources like [hydropower](/wiki/Hydropower "Hydropower"), solar, wind, and [bioenergy](/wiki/Bioenergy "Bioenergy"). The country's energy consumption is dominated by traditional sources, with only 40% of the population having access to electricity.{{Cite journal \|last1\=K.c. \|first1\=Surendra \|last2\=Khanal \|first2\=Samir Kumar \|last3\=Shrestha \|first3\=Prachand \|last4\=Lamsal \|first4\=Buddhi \|date\=2011\-10\-01 \|title\=Current status of renewable energy in Nepal: Opportunities and challenges \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032111002619 \|journal\=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews \|volume\=15 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=4107–4117 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.rser.2011\.07\.022 \|bibcode\=2011RSERv..15\.4107K \|issn\=1364\-0321}} Challenges like geographical constraints, technical limitations, and political and economic factors hinder the sustainable harnessment of these renewable resources. Efforts to develop and implement renewable energy technologies are essential to address environmental and public health issues and reduce reliance on imported [fossil fuels](/wiki/Fossil_fuel "Fossil fuel").
### Pakistan
{{Main\|Renewable energy in Pakistan}}
Solar power in Pakistan discusses the generation and development of electricity via solar thermal or photovoltaic technology in that country. The country has solar plants in Pakistani Kashmir, Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan. Initiatives are under development by the International Renewable Energy Agency, the Japan International Cooperation Agency, Chinese companies, and Pakistani private sector energy companies. The country aims to build the world's largest solar power park, the Quaid\-e\-Azam Solar Power Park (QASP) in the Cholistan Desert, Punjab, by 2017 with a 1 GW capacity. A plant of this size would be enough to power around 320,000 homes.
#### Projects
#### Introduction of Clean Energy by Solar Electricity Generation System
On May 29, 2012, Pakistan inaugurated its first solar power on\-grid power plant in Islamabad. Introduction of Clean Energy by Solar Electricity Generation System is a special grant aid project by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) under the Coolio Earth Partnership. This project includes the installation of two 178 kW photovoltaic (PV) systems at the premises of the Planning Commission and Pakistan Engineering Council.
This is the first on\-grid solar PV project that employs net\-metering, thereby allowing the beneficiaries to sell surplus electricity to the Islamabad Electric Supply Company (IESCO), the electricity distribution company of the Islamabad Division. The project was executed with grant assistance, worth 480 million Yen (approx. 553\.63 million Pakistani Rupees) over three years commencing in 2010\.
#### Other projects
Aviation Enclave Karachi installed the first high quality integrated solar energy system with a 15 kW power generation capacity capable of grid tie\-in at, Aviation Enclave Karachi in Sep 2016\. It was a pilot project for Central Facilitation Agency \& Central Builders \& Developers{{citation needed\|date\=October 2018}}
Beaconhouse installed the second high quality integrated solar energy system with a 10 kW power generation capacity capable of grid tie\-in at Beaconhouse Canal Side Campus, Lahore. It was a pilot project for BSS designed by U.S. consultants, based upon feasibility by the U.S. Trade and Development Agency (USTDA).
50 to 100 MW of photovoltaics is expected to be installed in 2013, and at least 300 MW in 2014\. In May 2015, 100 MW of a planned 1,000 MW were installed in the Quaid\-e\-Azam Solar Park.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2018}}
#### Annual solar irradiation
[Solar irradiance](/wiki/Solar_irradiance "Solar irradiance") in Pakistan is 5\.3 kWh/m2/day. Pakistan set a target to add approximately 10 GW of renewable capacity by 2030 in addition to replacing 5% diesel with biodiesel by 2015 and 10% by 2025\.
#### Photovoltaic installations
Year Installations in MWp Notes
Cumulative
Capacity Added
Capacity
2014 400 Calculated back from 2015 added capacity data.
2015 1,000 600 Preliminary data.
#### Government policy
Raja Pervaiz Ashraf, former Federal Minister of Water \& Power announced on July 2, 2009, that 7,000 villages would be electrified using solar energy by 2014\. Senior adviser Sardar Zulfiqar Khosa stated that the Punjab government would begin new projects aimed at power production through coal, solar energy and wind power; this would generate additional resources.
The Government of Pakistan allowed the provincial government of Sindh to conduct feasibility research. The government planned to install a desalination plant powered by solar energy.
### Philippines
{{Main\|Renewable energy in the Philippines}}
[thumb\|[Bangui Wind Farm](/wiki/Bangui_Wind_Farm "Bangui Wind Farm") in [Ilocos Norte](/wiki/Ilocos_Norte "Ilocos Norte"), [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines")](/wiki/File:Bangui_Windfarm_Ilocos_Norte_2007.jpg "Bangui Windfarm Ilocos Norte 2007.jpg")
The [Philippine](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") government sees the growth of the renewable energy sector essential for national energy security. The Philippines' fossil fuel sector is unsustainable, being dependent on the import of nonrenewable fuel, including petroleum, but has significant potential in the renewable energy sector. Based on a report of an Australian consulting firm, International Energy Consultants, the Philippines has the highest electricity rate in Asia, followed by [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"). While Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan, and Indonesia have lower electricity prices due to government subsidies in the form of fuel subsidies, cash grants, additional debt, and deferred expenditures, the Philippines has higher prices due to no government subsidy, fully cost\-reflective, imported fuel\-dependent, and heavy taxes across the supply chain.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Agaton\|first1\=Casper Boongaling\|last2\=Guno\|first2\=Charmaine Samala\|last3\=Villanueva\|first3\=Resy Ordona\|last4\=Villanueva\|first4\=Riza Ordona\|date\=2019\|title\=Diesel or Electric Jeepney? A Case Study of Transport Investment in the Philippines Using the Real Options Approach\|journal\=World Electric Vehicle Journal\|language\=en\|volume\=10\|issue\=3\|pages\=51\|doi\=10\.3390/wevj10030051\|doi\-access\=free}} Transmitting power and transporting fuel throughout the Philippine archipelago is problematic due to very high cost.[The Right Mix: The Philippines Achieving its Renewable Energy Goals](http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/325264/the-right-mix-the-philippines-achieving-its-renewable-energy-goals), *Manila Bulletin*
The Philippines could be considered one of the world leaders in renewable energy, with 25 percent of its power generation being powered by the renewable energy sector.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Agaton\|first1\=Casper Boongaling\|last2\=Karl\|first2\=Helmut\|date\=2018\-01\-09\|title\=A real options approach to renewable electricity generation in the Philippines\|journal\=Energy, Sustainability and Society\|volume\=8\|issue\=1\|pages\=1\|doi\=10\.1186/s13705\-017\-0143\-y\|issn\=2192\-0567\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=2018ESusS...8\....1A }} The Philippines is the world's second largest generator of geothermal energy and was the first [Southeast Asian](/wiki/Southeast_Asia "Southeast Asia") nation to invest in large\-scale solar and wind technologies. The country's geographic location in the Pacific makes it a good potential for renewable energy generation with 76\.6 GW wind, 10 GW hydropower, 15828 MW solar, 500 MW biomass, 170 GW ocean, and 4 GW geothermal.{{Cite journal\|last\=Agaton\|first\=Casper Boongaling\|date\=2018\-01\-25\|title\=Use coal or invest in renewables: a real options analysis of energy investments in the Philippines\|journal\=Renewables: Wind, Water, and Solar\|volume\=5\|issue\=1\|pages\=1\|doi\=10\.1186/s40807\-018\-0047\-2\|issn\=2198\-994X\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=2018RWWS....5\....1A }}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Guno\|first1\=Charmaine Samala\|last2\=Agaton\|first2\=Casper Boongaling\|last3\=Villanueva\|first3\=Resy Ordona\|last4\=Villanueva\|first4\=Riza Ordona\|date\=2021\-02\-01\|title\=Optimal Investment Strategy for Solar PV Integration in Residential Buildings: A Case Study in The Philippines\|url\=https://ejournal.undip.ac.id/index.php/ijred/article/view/32657\|journal\=International Journal of Renewable Energy Development\|language\=en\|volume\=10\|issue\=1\|pages\=79–89\|doi\=10\.14710/ijred.2021\.32657\|issn\=2252\-4940\|doi\-access\=free}}
### South Korea
In 2008, South Korea came 4th in the list of installed PV capacity according to EPIA statistics as a result of the favorable feed\-in tariff system with a cap of 500MW in 2008\. According to Displaybank, the new "PV Market Creation Plan" announced in 2009 is expected to boost the Korean PV installment market to increase to 200MW by 2012\.{{cite web \|url\= http://globalsolartechnology.com/index.php?option\=com\_content\&task\=view\&id\=4232\&Itemid\=9 \|title\= Korea PV market expected to reach 200MW by 2012 \| publisher\= Global Solar Technology \|date\=October 8, 2009}}{{cite web \|url\= http://www.solarplaza.com/article/report\-korean\-solar\-energy\-market\-indicates\-growt \|title\= Korean solar energy market indicates growth slowing down \| publisher\= Solar Plaza \|date\=September 11, 2009}} The government further announced plans to increase more than double its financing for renewable R\&D projects to 3\.5 trillion won ($2\.9/£1\.9bn) by 2013\. The government also plans to expand its system of tax breaks to cover new technologies in solar such as wind and thermal power, low\-emission vehicles and rechargeable batteries etc.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.businessgreen.com/business\-green/news/2266369/south\-korea\-doubles\-green \|title\= South Korea more than doubles green R\&D funding \| publisher\= Business Green \|date\=13 Jul 2010}}
### Tajikistan
After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 and successive five\-year civil war in Tajikistan came to an end, many of the electricity supply systems of the region failed due to the destruction of the electricity transmission infrastructure during the war and the termination of the Soviet\-subsidized diesel fuels that offered most of the power. As a result, many people resorted to cutting trees to provide wood fuel for cooking and heating during the winter.Wallace, Bryony. "Bringing clean energy and co\-benefits to remote communities in Tajikistan and Afghanistan." (2021\). The cutting of trees destroyed almost 70% of the forest cover of the region.
The government of Tajikistan established Pamir Energy in 2002 after receiving financial support from Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development and World Bank. The lack of electricity had resulted in the closure of health centers, businesses, and schools. Instead, people had to use coal, kerosene, firewood, and dung. The fuels were obtained from remote areas resulting in inflated prices of the fuel due to the high transport cost incurred in the process.
With the support of medium and small hydropower plants, Pamir Energy now distributes, generates, and sells pure electricity to 96% of the Tajikistan population together with areas along the border of Afghanistan. The government has subsidized the cost of electricity to make it accessible to the poorest households. The lives of Afghan Badakhshan and Eastern Tajikistan have improved due to the availability of reliable electricity. Homes and schools are now accessed with electricity for heating during the winter. Electricity has also replaced coal, which has helped improve the health of the people of Eastern Tajikistan. Various plants have linked together in the Pamir Energy regional grid, which has ensured the supply of high\-quality and reliable electricity to the residents of Eastern Tajikistan.
Pamir Energy provides electricity in two forms: government and commercial entities and another for domestic consumption. The Government of Tajikistan has established a Customer Support Scheme to reduce tariffs to ensure everybody can afford electricity and prevent people from using coal, dung, and wood. Pamir Energy has renovated and established 11 medium and small hydropower plants and has also refurbished 4,300 km of the previous distribution and transmission facilities, reducing transmission cost to 12% from 39%. The capacity of the plants ranges from 137kw to 27 MW, with 43\.5 MW as the total capacity.Chorshanbiev, Sirojiddin R., Naim Ch Saidmirov, and Amroz R. Khudomunov. "Evaluation of Parallel Operation of OJSC" Pamir Energy" Power System with Electrical Networks of OSHC" Barki Tojik" of the Republic of Tajikistan." *2020 IEEE Conference of Russian Young Researchers in Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EIConRus)*. IEEE, 2020\. The plants generate 170 GWh of electricity yearly and also service over 34,000 Afghanistan and 220,000 Tajikistan populations.
Customers use collection agents or ATMs to make payments at the district offices of the Pamir Energy network. The company had installed meters to improve the reading of the usage and control supply level and can also terminate supply for defaulting customers. With advancements in the level of technology in Eastern Tajikistan, the system will start accepting mobile payments. Pamir Energy has made every effort to ensure the supply of electricity in the region is maintained for unforeseen future. The company has renovated one plant to 1\.5MW to provide electricity supply to over 1000 households in Eastern Tajikistan. Pamir Energy also projects to establish another hydropower plant of 125 kW to improve the electrification of 2000 households in Eastern Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan.Parpiev, Ziyodullo. "Are Public–Private Partnerships a Solution to the Infrastructure Backwardness of Tajikistan?." (2020\). The company plans to develop additional 30 hydropower sites to respond to the ever\-increasing demand for electricity in the regions. Additionally, Pamir Energy projects to extend its operations to other areas in Tajikistan and Afghanistan to facilitate socio\-economic development in the regions.
### Taiwan
#### Solar power
In recent years, Taiwan is also catching up on promoting renewable energy throughout the country. According to SciTech Reports,{{Cite journal\|last\=黃\|first\=得瑞\|date\=2017\|title\=臺灣發展綠能產業的策略\|journal\=科技報導(SciTech Reports)}} 20% of the solar panels in the world are exported from Taiwan, making the country the second largest solar panel provider globally. Moreover, the current government has been planning on employing solar energy to public amenities and incorporate the green energy to people's daily lives. For instance, the Taipei city government has constructed 3216 solar panels to turn a former wasteland into a power house.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Meneguzzo\|first1\=Francesco\|last2\=Ciriminna\|first2\=Rosaria\|last3\=Albanese\|first3\=Lorenzo\|last4\=Pagliaro\|first4\=Mario\|date\=2015\|title\=The great solar boom: a global perspective into the far reaching impact of an unexpected energy revolution\|journal\=Energy Science \& Engineering\|volume\=3\|issue\=6\|pages\=499–509\|doi\=10\.1002/ese3\.98\|issn\=2050\-0505\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=2015EneSE...3\..499M }} In the southern city [Tainan](/wiki/Tainan "Tainan") where there is sufficient sunshine, 5288 buildings are equipped with solar panels that can generate 7 MW, which is roughly 3\.2 times the amount of the hydropower produced by the local dam. Besides mainland Taiwan, there are solar panels even on the [Penghu islands](/wiki/Penghu "Penghu") that can generate 83,000 kWh/year with the newly purchased inverter.{{Cite journal\|last\=Fox\|first\=Benjamin\|date\=2019\-04\-14\|title\=Why Taiwan's Sustainable Energy Policy Matters\|journal\=Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development\|language\=en\|volume\=Issue\|issue\=Six\|doi\=10\.7916/D8MC90D6\|doi\-broken\-date\=2024\-09\-23 }}
#### Wind power
In addition, Taiwan's island geographic provides ideal [wind power](/wiki/Wind_power "Wind power") locations.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Chiang\|first1\=Min\-Hua\|last2\=Gerbier\|first2\=Bernard\|date\=2010\-04\-22\|title\=Foreign factors in Taiwan's economic transformation\|journal\=Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy\|volume\=15\|issue\=2\|pages\=148–165\|doi\=10\.1080/13547861003700182\|s2cid\=153972624\|issn\=1354\-7860}} Since 2000, there have been 347 wind power systems constructed, yielding a total of 684\.4 MW of storage{{clarify\|reason\=what is being stored?\|date\=August 2020}} nationwide.{{Cite journal\|last\=陳\|first\=志洋\|date\=2018\|title\=2018 Emerging Energy Industry Yearbook\|journal\=經濟部技術處}} The [offshore wind power](/wiki/Offshore_wind_power "Offshore wind power") development has also been lately invested by world\-renowned companies such as [Ørsted](/wiki/%C3%98rsted_%28company%29 "Ørsted (company)"), [Northland Power Inc.](/wiki/Northland_Power_Inc. "Northland Power Inc."), and [Copenhagen Infrastructure Partners](/wiki/Copenhagen_Infrastructure_Partners "Copenhagen Infrastructure Partners") etc. and it is anticipated that the offshore wind power would be generating 5\.5 GW by 2025\.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Kung\|first1\=Chih\-Chun\|last2\=Chen\|first2\=Li\-Jiun\|last3\=Lee\|first3\=Tsung\-Ju\|last4\=Jiang\|first4\=Xianling\|last5\=Lin\|first5\=Ruiqi\|date\=2018\-07\-26\|title\=Wind power potential for energy sustainability and climate change mitigation: A case study in Taiwan\|journal\=Energy \& Environment\|volume\=30\|issue\=2\|pages\=304–321\|doi\=10\.1177/0958305x18790956\|s2cid\=158696739\|issn\=0958\-305X}}
#### Thermal energy
Besides wind power, the volcanic formation of Taiwan also provides the country with [geothermal](/wiki/Geothermal_energy "Geothermal energy") resources.{{Cite journal\|last1\=李\|first1\=錦發\|last2\=李\|first2\=柏村\|date\=2012\|title\=從地質、環境與技術方面探討我國地熱發的展望\|journal\=經濟中央地質調查所}} In 2015, the Bureau of Energy and the Industrial Technology Research Institute signed a MOU contract with the [New Taipei City](/wiki/New_Taipei_City "New Taipei City") Government in order to promote [Kim San Xi Huang Zi Ping](/wiki/Kim_San_Xi_Huang_Zi_Ping "Kim San Xi Huang Zi Ping")'s 10 MW thermal energy.{{Cite journal\|last\=楊\|first\=秉純\|date\=Oct 24, 2016\|title\=綠能科技發展現況及趨勢\|journal\=綠能與環境研究所}} Researchers at Taitung University are also working on utilizing the hot spring in the area to produce geothermal energy. The Taiwan Power Company has also initiated the Geothermal Generator Experimental Plan in Green Island by digging two experimental geothermal wells at [Jhaorih Hot Springs](/wiki/Jhaorih_Hot_Springs "Jhaorih Hot Springs") and establishing a 200 kWe generator. The goal is to achieve 2000 kWe by 2020, and by 2025, 11 thermal wells will be finished in [Yilan Lizuh](/wiki/Yilan_Lizuh "Yilan Lizuh"), providing 8 billion kWh per year.
#### Hydropower
[Hydropower](/wiki/Hydropower "Hydropower") is another crucial renewable energy in Taiwan and it is estimated that the current hydropower can provide 4500 MW.{{Cite journal\|last\=Tkáč\|first\=Štefan\|date\=2018\-03\-01\|title\=Hydro power plants, an overview of the current types and technology\|journal\=Selected Scientific Papers \- Journal of Civil Engineering\|volume\=13\|issue\=s1\|pages\=115–126\|doi\=10\.1515/sspjce\-2018\-0011\|bibcode\=2018SPJCE..13\..115T\|issn\=1338\-7278\|doi\-access\=free}} The system running is a combination of predominantly cascade, diversion and large accumulation types in order to handle the unpredictable [typhoons](/wiki/Typhoon "Typhoon") and droughts. The mountainous landscape of Taiwan has gifted the country a better foundation for hydropower development.
#### Other power sources
Beyond natural resources, some tech companies invented alternative energies such as transforming pig dung into [biogas power](/wiki/Biogas "Biogas") and excess wax apple wood sticks to biomass energy.{{Cite journal\|last\=Tsai\|first\=Wen\-Tien\|date\=2014\-01\-08\|title\=Innovative Promotion of Renewable Energy Development for Challenging Sustainable Low\-Carbon Society: Case Study of Pingtung County, Taiwan\|journal\=Challenges\|volume\=5\|issue\=1\|pages\=26–34\|doi\=10\.3390/challe5010026\|issn\=2078\-1547\|doi\-access\=free}} The former can produce around 25 kW of power and the technology was introduced in the Discovery Channel. Furthermore, an applied physics research team at [Ching Hua University](/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E8%8F%AF%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8 "清華大學") also came up with extracting DNA from fish roe to obtain certain material for DNA [biopolymer photonics](/wiki/Biopolymer "Biopolymer"), which can be used to as a kind of sustainable energy.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hung\|first1\=Yu\-Chueh\|last2\=Hsu\|first2\=Wei\-Ting\|last3\=Lin\|first3\=Ting\-Yu\|last4\=Fruk\|first4\=Ljiljana\|date\=2011\-12\-19\|title\=Photoinduced write\-once read\-many\-times memory device based on DNA biopolymer nanocomposite\|journal\=Applied Physics Letters\|volume\=99\|issue\=25\|pages\=253301\|doi\=10\.1063/1\.3671153\|bibcode\=2011ApPhL..99y3301H\|issn\=0003\-6951}}
|
[
"Renewable energy by country\n---------------------------",
"### Afghanistan",
"{{Expand section\\|date\\=October 2018}}\n{{Main\\|Renewable energy in Afghanistan}}Renewable energy in Afghanistan is seeing significant growth and development, tapping into the country's rich natural resources. The country's hydroelectric potential is notably high, with rivers capable of producing an estimated 23,000 MW of power.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Ershad \\|first\\=Ahmad Murtaza \\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-15 \\|title\\=Institutional and Policy Assessment of Renewable Energy Sector in Afghanistan \\|journal\\=Journal of Renewable Energy \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=2017 \\|pages\\=e5723152 \\|doi\\=10\\.1155/2017/5723152 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|issn\\=2314\\-4386}} Currently, hydropower installations include both large\\-scale plants and smaller [micro\\-hydropower](/wiki/Micro_hydro \"Micro hydro\") schemes, cumulatively amounting to approximately 293 MW. Afghanistan's solar energy prospects are also promising, given its status as a \"sunbelt country\" with an average Global Horizontal Irradiance of 1,935 kWh/m^2 annually. Solar power, predominantly used for lighting in rural areas, has reached an installed capacity of about 13 MW, largely through standalone systems. [Wind energy](/wiki/Wind_power \"Wind power\"), particularly in the Herat, Balkh, and Parwan provinces, presents a theoretical potential of 158 GW, with economically feasible installations around 1,000 MW. However, current wind power installations are estimated at just 300 kW. Additionally, [biogas](/wiki/Biogas \"Biogas\") production from rural livestock manure and energy generation from urban solid waste contribute to the renewable energy mix, with several biogas digesters already operational. These developments align with Afghanistan's broader energy goals, including substantial renewable energy targets and policy frameworks aimed at enhancing sustainable energy access and reducing environmental impacts.",
"### Bangladesh",
"{{Main\\|Renewable energy in Bangladesh}}\nIn [Bangladesh](/wiki/Bangladesh \"Bangladesh\"), biomass, hydro and solar are the main sources of renewable energy and altogether these sources contribute about 60% of the nation's primary energy supply.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://dissertationesforestales.fi/pdf/article1992\\.pdf \\| title\\=Supply and demand of biomass based energy: rural people's perspectives in Bangladesh\\|date\\=2015\\|author\\=Hassan, Kamrul}} A number of domestic solar energy systems are in use in houses around the country. The use of solar energy on this scale is highly potential and advantageous as more than 60% of areas in the country do not have access to main grid electricity. [The World Bank](/wiki/The_World_Bank \"The World Bank\") is backing a program of making solar energy available to wider population in Bangladesh, as part of the Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Development Project (REREDP), which subsidizes solar energy systems.",
"A typical 'solar home system' can power two to eight 'low energy' lights, plus a socket for TV, radio or battery recharging, and a [mobile telephone](/wiki/Mobile_telephone \"Mobile telephone\") charging unit, too. Each system consists of a [solar photovoltaic panel](/wiki/Solar_panel \"Solar panel\"), mounted on the house roof. Depending on its size, this provides between 40W and 135W of electricity in full sunlight (the most common being 50W).{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2018}}",
"[Grameen Shakti](/wiki/Grameen_Shakti \"Grameen Shakti\") is the largest organization installing rural based solar home system (SHS) in Bangladesh. Other companies working on similar solar energy based SHS are Rural Services Foundation (RSF), [Brac](/wiki/Brac%2C_Bangladesh \"Brac, Bangladesh\"), Hilfulfujal and so on. The model of micro finance based SHS is now being copied in other parts of the world as a successful business model.",
"[Rahimafrooz](/wiki/Rahimafrooz \"Rahimafrooz\") is a major supplier of high quality solar batteries and other solar components for the program. Rahimafrooz Renewable Energy Ltd (RRE) has been the pioneer in installing solar powered centralized systems, water pumps for irrigation and pure drinking water, water heaters, street lights, and solar\\-powered telecom solutions to various organizations. They are working closely with pertinent government organizations in installing solar powered medical refrigerator that provides emergency live saving medicines in the off\\-grid rural areas.",
"A company named Digital Technology is doing research and development of solar PV products like solar billboard lighting, mini grid system for irrigation etc.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2018}}",
"### China",
"{{Main\\|Renewable energy in China}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Rooftop solar water heaters are ubiquitous in modern China](/wiki/File:Tieshan-solar-water-heaters-0101.jpg \"Tieshan-solar-water-heaters-0101.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Wind farm](/wiki/Wind_farm \"Wind farm\") in [Xinjiang](/wiki/Xinjiang \"Xinjiang\"), China](/wiki/File:Wind_power_plants_in_Xinjiang%2C_China.jpg \"Wind power plants in Xinjiang, China.jpg\")",
"In China there now are six factories producing at least 2 GW/year each of monocrystalline, poly\\-crystalline and non\\-crystalline [Photovoltaic cells](/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell \"Photovoltaic cell\"). These factories include the [LDK Solar Co](/wiki/LDK_Solar_Co \"LDK Solar Co\"), Wuxi Suntech Solar Energy Co., Ltd., which produces approximately 50 MW/year of solar cells and [photovoltaic modules](/wiki/Photovoltaic_module \"Photovoltaic module\"); the Yunnan Semi\\-conductor Parts Plant, which manufactures approximately 2 MW/year of mono\\-crystalline cells; the Baoding Yingli Solar Energy Modules Plant, which manufactures approximately 6 MW/year of polycrystalline cells and modules; the Shanghai Jiaoda Guofei Solar Energy Battery Factory, which produces approximately 1 MW/year of modules; and the Shanghai PV Science and Technology Co., Ltd., which produces approximately 5 MW/year of modules.[Solar Energy Booming in China](http://www.worldwatch.org/node/41)",
"China has become a world leader in the manufacture of solar photovoltaic technology, with its six biggest solar companies having a combined value of over $15 billion. In 2023 majority of its electricity capacity came from renewable energy.{{Cite web\\|title\\=China's installed non\\-fossil fuel electricity capacity exceeds 50% of total\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/chinas\\-installed\\-non\\-fossil\\-fuel\\-electricity\\-capacity\\-exceeds\\-50\\-total\\-2023\\-06\\-12/\\|publisher\\=Reuters\\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-12}} Around 820 megawatts of solar PV were produced in China in 2007, second only to Japan.[China pioneers in renewable energy](http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90780/91344/6496247.html) [Suntech Power](/wiki/Suntech_Power \"Suntech Power\") Holdings Co based in [Jiangsu](/wiki/Jiangsu \"Jiangsu\"), is the world's third\\- biggest supplier of solar cells.[China to Be World's Top Manufacturer of Green Energy Technology](https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=aaIm318czoz8&refer=home)",
"There are some obstacles to the further development of the Chinese solar energy sector that China faces. These obstacles include the lack of a nationwide comprehensive [photovoltaic](/wiki/Photovoltaics \"Photovoltaics\") (PV) plan, the lack of updated facilities and sufficient financial resources to support PV research at research institutes, the lack of sufficient facilities and resources at companies manufacturing PV products, the failure of companies to be able to produce high quality, reliable and low cost PV products and the relatively weak educational and training opportunities in China for PV science and technology.[China to train developing nations in solar technologies](http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readNews&itemid=1561&language=1)",
"About 50 MW of installed solar capacity was added in 2008, more than double the 20 MW in 2007, but still a relatively small amount. According to some studies, the demand in China for new solar modules could be as high as 232 MW each year from now on until 2012\\. The government has announced plans to expand the installed capacity to 1,800 MW by 2020\\. If Chinese companies manage to develop low cost, reliable solar modules, then the sky is the limit for a country that is desperate to reduce its dependence on coal and oil imports as well as the pressure on its environment by using renewable energy.[China's New Focus on Solar \\| Renewable Energy News Article](http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/05/chinas-new-focus-on-solar)",
"In 2009 centre to the PRC Government's plans is the recently announced \"Golden Sun\" stimulus program. Under this program the Ministry of Finance will subsidize half of the total construction\ncosts of an on\\-grid solar power plant, including transmission expenses. The Ministry of Finance will also pay subsidies of up to 70% to develop independent photovoltaic power generating systems in remote regions. The strong handed move by the Government is meant to encourage more solar projects to increase the current solar power capacity, which at 2008 stood at a paltry 40MW. As the Government targets to increase China's solar power capacity up to 20GW by 2020,{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/paginas/Contenidosecciones.asp?ID\\=15\\&Cod\\=3976\\&Tipo\\=\\&Nombre\\=PV%20Solar \\|title\\= Spain no longer leading the way in PV solar energy \\|publisher\\= Renewable energy magazine \\|date\\=2009\\-08\\-26 }} this will provide significant opportunities for solar cell and module manufacturers. Many of the solar industry players therefore will expect for chances to be benefited from the government programs especially the solar cell manufacturers. With the hope of increase in local demand, some of the new developments have been going on with this region, like Anwell Technologies Limited, a Singapore listed company having its solar cell manufacturing plant in China, has produced its first thin film solar panel with its own developed production lines in September 2009\\.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.solarbuzz.com/News/NewsASMA255\\.htm \\|title\\= Anwell Produces its First Thin Film Solar Panel \\|publisher\\= Solarbuzz \\|date\\=2009\\-09\\-07 }}",
"According to the speech given by the Chinese President Hu Jintao's at the UN climate summit held on September 22, 2009, in New York, China will intensify effort and adopt ambitious plans to plant enough forest to cover an area the size of Norway and use 15 percent of its energy from renewable sources within a decade.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.miamiherald.com/772/story/1245246\\.html \\|title\\= UN climate summit puts China, India in spotlight \\| publisher\\= The Miami Herald \\|date\\=22 Sep 2009}}",
"### India",
"{{Main\\|Renewable energy in India}}\n[alt\\=\\|thumb\\|Global Horizontal Irradiation in India.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://globalsolaratlas.info/\\|title\\=Global Solar Atlas\\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2018}} l](/wiki/File:India_GHI_Solar-resource-map_GlobalSolarAtlas_World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png \"India GHI Solar-resource-map GlobalSolarAtlas World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png\")\n[India](/wiki/India \"India\") is both densely populated and has high solar [insolation](/wiki/Insolation \"Insolation\"), providing an ideal combination for solar power in India. Much of the country does not have an [electrical grid](/wiki/Electrical_grid \"Electrical grid\"), so one of the first applications of solar power has been for water pumping, to begin replacing India's four to five million diesel powered [water pumps](/wiki/Water_pump \"Water pump\"), each consuming about 3\\.5 kilowatts, and off\\-grid lighting. Some large projects have been proposed, and a 35,000 km2 area of the [Thar Desert](/wiki/Thar_Desert \"Thar Desert\") has been set aside for [solar power](/wiki/Solar_power \"Solar power\") projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 [gigawatts](/wiki/Gigawatt \"Gigawatt\").",
"The Indian Solar Loan Programme, supported by the [United Nations Environment Programme](/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme \"United Nations Environment Programme\") has won the prestigious [Energy Globe](/wiki/Energy_Globe \"Energy Globe\") World award for Sustainability for helping to establish a consumer financing program for solar home power systems. Over the span of three years more than 16,000 solar home systems have been financed through 2,000 bank branches, particularly in rural areas of South India where the [electricity grid](/wiki/Electricity_grid \"Electricity grid\") does not yet extend.[Consumer financing program for solar home systems in southern India](http://www.energyglobe.info/geg/frontend_en/view.php?MENUEID=138)[UNEP wins Energy Globe award](http://www.renewable-energy-world.com/articles/print_screen.cfm?ARTICLE_ID=289927) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929071302/http://www.renewable\\-energy\\-world.com/articles/print\\_screen.cfm?ARTICLE\\_ID\\=289927 \\|date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 }}",
"Launched in 2003, the Indian Solar Loan Programme was a four\\-year partnership between UNEP, the UNEP Risoe Centre, and two of India's largest banks, the Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank.",
"According to Development Counsellors International (DCI), a United States marketing company, India is the second best country, after China, for business investment. [United Nations Environment Programme](/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme \"United Nations Environment Programme\") (UNEP) has reported that India has seen a 12% increase in investment in the renewable energy sector with an investment of $3\\.7 billion in 2008\\. The largest share was asset finance at $3\\.2 billion which grew by 25%. The clean renewable energy includes wind, solar, biomass and small\\-hydro projects. The major portion of investment has been made in wind energy sector. The investment in wind energy sector grew at 17% from $2\\.2 billion to $2\\.6 billion.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.ecoseed.org/index.php/en/general\\-news/features/in\\-depth/4467\\-indias\\-solar\\-mission\\-how\\-it\\-is\\-harnessing\\-unlimited\\-energy \\|title\\= India's solar mission: How it is harnessing unlimited energy \\|publisher\\= EcoSeed \\|date\\= 23 Sep 2009 \\|access\\-date\\= 24 September 2009 \\|archive\\-date\\= 30 September 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20090930114010/http://www.ecoseed.org/index.php/en/general\\-news/features/in\\-depth/4467\\-indias\\-solar\\-mission\\-how\\-it\\-is\\-harnessing\\-unlimited\\-energy \\|url\\-status\\= dead }}",
"### Indonesia",
"{{Expand section\\|date\\=October 2018}}\n{{Main\\|Energy in Indonesia}}",
"While Indonesia has made strides in financial mechanisms and tax incentives to support renewable energy, the country has struggled to meet its renewable energy targets due to inefficient power system policies and grid management practices. The Ministry of Finance has shown a commitment to fostering geothermal energy, which remains a significant component of Indonesia's renewable energy landscape. As of 2018, renewable power constituted 44% of the nation's energy profile, with estimates suggesting a slight decrease to 42% by 2028, as projected by Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN). This projected decrease is partly due to challenges in fully harnessing geothermal resources, which are predominantly located on the islands of [Java](/wiki/Java \"Java\") and [Sumatera](/wiki/Sumatra \"Sumatra\").",
"Indonesia possesses a high potential for renewable energy, estimated at 419 gigawatts (GW), including substantial capacities in hydro (75 GW), geothermal (23\\.7 GW), bioenergy (32\\.6 GW), solar (207\\.8 GW), wind (60\\.6 GW), and micro\\-hydro (19\\.3 GW).{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Pambudi \\|first1\\=Nugroho Agung \\|last2\\=Firdaus \\|first2\\=Ridho Alfan \\|last3\\=Rizkiana \\|first3\\=Reza \\|last4\\=Ulfa \\|first4\\=Desita Kamila \\|last5\\=Salsabila \\|first5\\=Muntasy Syahrul \\|last6\\=Suharno \\|last7\\=Sukatiman \\|date\\=January 2023 \\|title\\=Renewable Energy in Indonesia: Current Status, Potential, and Future Development \\|journal\\=Sustainability \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=15 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=2342 \\|doi\\=10\\.3390/su15032342 \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|issn\\=2071\\-1050}} The country's energy consumption pattern reveals a significant reliance on oil, particularly in the transportation sector which consumes about 45\\.76% of the energy. The industrial and household sectors also show considerable energy usage for purposes such as boiler [steam](/wiki/Steam \"Steam\") generation and electricity.",
"Despite these potentials and consumption trends, the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources has been gradual. The government has planned to increase the renewable energy mix from 11% in 2021 to 23% by 2025, and further to 31% by 2050, aligning with national policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing energy security. This transition is essential for Indonesia as it aims to meet its nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement and strive for net\\-zero emissions by 2060\\.",
"### Israel",
"{{Expand section\\|date\\=October 2018}}\nAs of 2019, Israel's [renewable energy](/wiki/Renewable_energy \"Renewable energy\") production capacity stood at 1,500 MW, almost all of it from [solar energy](/wiki/Solar_energy \"Solar energy\"), at 1,438 MW. Additional sources included [wind power](/wiki/Wind_power \"Wind power\") (27 MW), biogas (25 MW), hydroelectric power (7 MW) and other bio energy (3 MW). Of the solar energy, [photovoltaics](/wiki/Photovoltaics \"Photovoltaics\") accounted for 1,190 MW, while [concentrated solar power](/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power \"Concentrated solar power\") contributed another 248 MW from the [Ashalim Power Station](/wiki/Ashalim_Power_Station \"Ashalim Power Station\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Renewable Capacity Statistics 2020 \\|url\\=https://www.irena.org/publications/2020/Mar/Renewable\\-Capacity\\-Statistics\\-2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=www.irena.org \\|date\\=31 March 2020 \\|language\\=en}}",
"In 2021, the renewable energy generation in Israel was 5\\.7 TWh, which was almost a 30% increase from 2020\\. Solar energy generation was 95% of the total renewable energy generation in 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Israel Solar Energy Market Analysis \\- Industry Report \\- Trends, Size \\& Share \\|url\\=https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry\\-reports/israel\\-solar\\-energy\\-market \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-10 \\|website\\=www.mordorintelligence.com \\|language\\=en}}{{Further\\|Energy in Israel\\#Renewable energy}}",
"### Japan",
"{{Main\\|Energy in Japan}}\nJapan first started investing in renewable energy in the 1970s and 1980s with the oil crisis. Japan was hit extremally hard due to their rapidly developing economy relying heavily on fossil fuels most of which were imported. The steep prices on fossil fuels caused Japan to invest lots of money into their growing nuclear industry as well as other forms of renewable energy such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric. Japan set a goal in October 2021 to have 36%\\-38% of their total power generation come from renewable sources and they have a further goal to become completely [carbon neutral](/wiki/Carbon_neutrality \"Carbon neutrality\") by the year 2050{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Kurramovich \\|first1\\=Khudoykulov Khurshid \\|last2\\=Abro \\|first2\\=Asif Ali \\|last3\\=Vaseer \\|first3\\=Arif I. \\|last4\\=Khan \\|first4\\=Saad Uddin \\|last5\\=Ali \\|first5\\=Syed Rashid \\|last6\\=Murshed \\|first6\\=Muntasir \\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-01 \\|title\\=Roadmap for carbon neutrality: the mediating role of clean energy development\\-related investments \\|journal\\=Environmental Science and Pollution Research \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=29 \\|issue\\=23 \\|pages\\=34055–34074 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s11356\\-021\\-17985\\-3 \\|pmid\\=35034299 \\|issn\\=1614\\-7499\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\=2022ESPR...2934055K }}",
"Japan invested heavily into nuclear energy starting in 1966 when it opened its first nuclear power plant. The country would continue to establish new nuclear power plants and improve on nuclear technology until the year 2011 when the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster occurred. In 2010, nuclear energy made up almost 25% of Japan’s energy output, in 2015, this number was recorded at a low 0\\.4%. Public backlash from citizens across the country forced the government to quickly shut down the remain reactors across the entire nation. As nuclear power was a large part of Japan’s power generation, the Japanese government was forced to quickly find other energy sources to meet the country’s massive energy demand leading them to turn to fossil fuels as a quick and cheap solution. Since 2011, the nation has slowly been reactivating some of their nuclear power plants with 10 reactors currently operating out of 60 total reactors.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Ihédate \\|last2\\=ihedate \\|title\\=Japan \\|url\\=https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/\\+\\-Japan\\-37\\-\\+.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-17 \\|website\\=www.worldnuclearreport.org}} The effects of the Fukushima nuclear disaster can still be seen on Japan’s nuclear industry with nuclear power making up a fraction of what it did in the 2000’s. The government is continuing forward with reactivating reactors in order to meet its goal of becoming carbon neutral by the year 2050\\.",
"Japan did not just turn to fossil fuels to fill the gap in energy production left by nuclear, they also began the construction of solar panels and other renewable energy sources. Solar was a clear choice for investment as Japan was the second largest producer of solar energy in the early 2000’s behind China. In order to encourage citizens and businesses alike to invest in solar power, the government approved a feed\\- in tariff that would give people who generated excess power with solar a small amount of money for the power that they generated. The tariff was approved at 42 yen/kwh on June 18, 2012; however, it has since been reduced over time to 11 yen/kwh in 2022\\. Existing contracts would not see this decrease in cost until they expired. This tariff succeeded in its purpose as Japan saw the second highest growth in solar production in the years 2013 and 2014\\. In addition, Japan broke several of their goals of increasing solar production early. \nHydroelectricity is another important source of renewable energy in Japan, being the second biggest behind solar.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=cycles \\|first1\\=This text provides general information Statista assumes no liability for the information given being complete or correct Due to varying update \\|last2\\=Text \\|first2\\=Statistics Can Display More up\\-to\\-Date Data Than Referenced in the \\|title\\=Topic: Hydropower in Japan \\|url\\=https://www.statista.com/topics/8924/hydropower\\-in\\-japan/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-17 \\|website\\=Statista \\|language\\=en}} Japan has 178 power plants producing power for the country making them the 6th largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world. While hydroelectricity is a key factor in renewable energy production in Japan, it is becoming increasingly difficult for them to expand as dams have been constructed at almost every potential site. Wind and geothermal are additional sources of renewable energy that Japan is developing, and both have seen an increase in total power generated. however, they make up a very small portion of the country’s overall energy production. The government is continuing to look into methods of increasing power generation from both of these sources in order to continue progress towards their goal of becoming carbon neutral by 2050\\.",
"### Lebanon",
"{{Expand section\\|date\\=October 2018}}\n{{Further\\|Geothermal energy in Lebanon}}",
"### Nepal",
"{{Expand section\\|date\\=October 2018}}\n{{Main\\|Renewable energy in Nepal}}Nepal, with vast renewable energy potential, is yet to fully exploit resources like [hydropower](/wiki/Hydropower \"Hydropower\"), solar, wind, and [bioenergy](/wiki/Bioenergy \"Bioenergy\"). The country's energy consumption is dominated by traditional sources, with only 40% of the population having access to electricity.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=K.c. \\|first1\\=Surendra \\|last2\\=Khanal \\|first2\\=Samir Kumar \\|last3\\=Shrestha \\|first3\\=Prachand \\|last4\\=Lamsal \\|first4\\=Buddhi \\|date\\=2011\\-10\\-01 \\|title\\=Current status of renewable energy in Nepal: Opportunities and challenges \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032111002619 \\|journal\\=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews \\|volume\\=15 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=4107–4117 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.rser.2011\\.07\\.022 \\|bibcode\\=2011RSERv..15\\.4107K \\|issn\\=1364\\-0321}} Challenges like geographical constraints, technical limitations, and political and economic factors hinder the sustainable harnessment of these renewable resources. Efforts to develop and implement renewable energy technologies are essential to address environmental and public health issues and reduce reliance on imported [fossil fuels](/wiki/Fossil_fuel \"Fossil fuel\").",
"### Pakistan",
"{{Main\\|Renewable energy in Pakistan}}\nSolar power in Pakistan discusses the generation and development of electricity via solar thermal or photovoltaic technology in that country. The country has solar plants in Pakistani Kashmir, Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan. Initiatives are under development by the International Renewable Energy Agency, the Japan International Cooperation Agency, Chinese companies, and Pakistani private sector energy companies. The country aims to build the world's largest solar power park, the Quaid\\-e\\-Azam Solar Power Park (QASP) in the Cholistan Desert, Punjab, by 2017 with a 1 GW capacity. A plant of this size would be enough to power around 320,000 homes.",
"#### Projects",
"#### Introduction of Clean Energy by Solar Electricity Generation System",
"On May 29, 2012, Pakistan inaugurated its first solar power on\\-grid power plant in Islamabad. Introduction of Clean Energy by Solar Electricity Generation System is a special grant aid project by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) under the Coolio Earth Partnership. This project includes the installation of two 178 kW photovoltaic (PV) systems at the premises of the Planning Commission and Pakistan Engineering Council.",
"This is the first on\\-grid solar PV project that employs net\\-metering, thereby allowing the beneficiaries to sell surplus electricity to the Islamabad Electric Supply Company (IESCO), the electricity distribution company of the Islamabad Division. The project was executed with grant assistance, worth 480 million Yen (approx. 553\\.63 million Pakistani Rupees) over three years commencing in 2010\\.",
"#### Other projects",
"Aviation Enclave Karachi installed the first high quality integrated solar energy system with a 15 kW power generation capacity capable of grid tie\\-in at, Aviation Enclave Karachi in Sep 2016\\. It was a pilot project for Central Facilitation Agency \\& Central Builders \\& Developers{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2018}}",
"Beaconhouse installed the second high quality integrated solar energy system with a 10 kW power generation capacity capable of grid tie\\-in at Beaconhouse Canal Side Campus, Lahore. It was a pilot project for BSS designed by U.S. consultants, based upon feasibility by the U.S. Trade and Development Agency (USTDA).",
"50 to 100 MW of photovoltaics is expected to be installed in 2013, and at least 300 MW in 2014\\. In May 2015, 100 MW of a planned 1,000 MW were installed in the Quaid\\-e\\-Azam Solar Park.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2018}}",
"#### Annual solar irradiation",
"[Solar irradiance](/wiki/Solar_irradiance \"Solar irradiance\") in Pakistan is 5\\.3 kWh/m2/day. Pakistan set a target to add approximately 10 GW of renewable capacity by 2030 in addition to replacing 5% diesel with biodiesel by 2015 and 10% by 2025\\.",
"#### Photovoltaic installations",
"Year Installations in MWp Notes\nCumulative\nCapacity Added\nCapacity\n2014 400 Calculated back from 2015 added capacity data.\n2015 1,000 600 Preliminary data.",
"#### Government policy",
"Raja Pervaiz Ashraf, former Federal Minister of Water \\& Power announced on July 2, 2009, that 7,000 villages would be electrified using solar energy by 2014\\. Senior adviser Sardar Zulfiqar Khosa stated that the Punjab government would begin new projects aimed at power production through coal, solar energy and wind power; this would generate additional resources.",
"The Government of Pakistan allowed the provincial government of Sindh to conduct feasibility research. The government planned to install a desalination plant powered by solar energy.",
"### Philippines",
"{{Main\\|Renewable energy in the Philippines}}\n[thumb\\|[Bangui Wind Farm](/wiki/Bangui_Wind_Farm \"Bangui Wind Farm\") in [Ilocos Norte](/wiki/Ilocos_Norte \"Ilocos Norte\"), [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\")](/wiki/File:Bangui_Windfarm_Ilocos_Norte_2007.jpg \"Bangui Windfarm Ilocos Norte 2007.jpg\")\nThe [Philippine](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") government sees the growth of the renewable energy sector essential for national energy security. The Philippines' fossil fuel sector is unsustainable, being dependent on the import of nonrenewable fuel, including petroleum, but has significant potential in the renewable energy sector. Based on a report of an Australian consulting firm, International Energy Consultants, the Philippines has the highest electricity rate in Asia, followed by [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"). While Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan, and Indonesia have lower electricity prices due to government subsidies in the form of fuel subsidies, cash grants, additional debt, and deferred expenditures, the Philippines has higher prices due to no government subsidy, fully cost\\-reflective, imported fuel\\-dependent, and heavy taxes across the supply chain.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Agaton\\|first1\\=Casper Boongaling\\|last2\\=Guno\\|first2\\=Charmaine Samala\\|last3\\=Villanueva\\|first3\\=Resy Ordona\\|last4\\=Villanueva\\|first4\\=Riza Ordona\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=Diesel or Electric Jeepney? A Case Study of Transport Investment in the Philippines Using the Real Options Approach\\|journal\\=World Electric Vehicle Journal\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=10\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=51\\|doi\\=10\\.3390/wevj10030051\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Transmitting power and transporting fuel throughout the Philippine archipelago is problematic due to very high cost.[The Right Mix: The Philippines Achieving its Renewable Energy Goals](http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/325264/the-right-mix-the-philippines-achieving-its-renewable-energy-goals), *Manila Bulletin*",
"The Philippines could be considered one of the world leaders in renewable energy, with 25 percent of its power generation being powered by the renewable energy sector.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Agaton\\|first1\\=Casper Boongaling\\|last2\\=Karl\\|first2\\=Helmut\\|date\\=2018\\-01\\-09\\|title\\=A real options approach to renewable electricity generation in the Philippines\\|journal\\=Energy, Sustainability and Society\\|volume\\=8\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=1\\|doi\\=10\\.1186/s13705\\-017\\-0143\\-y\\|issn\\=2192\\-0567\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=2018ESusS...8\\....1A }} The Philippines is the world's second largest generator of geothermal energy and was the first [Southeast Asian](/wiki/Southeast_Asia \"Southeast Asia\") nation to invest in large\\-scale solar and wind technologies. The country's geographic location in the Pacific makes it a good potential for renewable energy generation with 76\\.6 GW wind, 10 GW hydropower, 15828 MW solar, 500 MW biomass, 170 GW ocean, and 4 GW geothermal.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Agaton\\|first\\=Casper Boongaling\\|date\\=2018\\-01\\-25\\|title\\=Use coal or invest in renewables: a real options analysis of energy investments in the Philippines\\|journal\\=Renewables: Wind, Water, and Solar\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=1\\|doi\\=10\\.1186/s40807\\-018\\-0047\\-2\\|issn\\=2198\\-994X\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=2018RWWS....5\\....1A }}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Guno\\|first1\\=Charmaine Samala\\|last2\\=Agaton\\|first2\\=Casper Boongaling\\|last3\\=Villanueva\\|first3\\=Resy Ordona\\|last4\\=Villanueva\\|first4\\=Riza Ordona\\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-01\\|title\\=Optimal Investment Strategy for Solar PV Integration in Residential Buildings: A Case Study in The Philippines\\|url\\=https://ejournal.undip.ac.id/index.php/ijred/article/view/32657\\|journal\\=International Journal of Renewable Energy Development\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=10\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=79–89\\|doi\\=10\\.14710/ijred.2021\\.32657\\|issn\\=2252\\-4940\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"### South Korea",
"In 2008, South Korea came 4th in the list of installed PV capacity according to EPIA statistics as a result of the favorable feed\\-in tariff system with a cap of 500MW in 2008\\. According to Displaybank, the new \"PV Market Creation Plan\" announced in 2009 is expected to boost the Korean PV installment market to increase to 200MW by 2012\\.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://globalsolartechnology.com/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=4232\\&Itemid\\=9 \\|title\\= Korea PV market expected to reach 200MW by 2012 \\| publisher\\= Global Solar Technology \\|date\\=October 8, 2009}}{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.solarplaza.com/article/report\\-korean\\-solar\\-energy\\-market\\-indicates\\-growt \\|title\\= Korean solar energy market indicates growth slowing down \\| publisher\\= Solar Plaza \\|date\\=September 11, 2009}} The government further announced plans to increase more than double its financing for renewable R\\&D projects to 3\\.5 trillion won ($2\\.9/£1\\.9bn) by 2013\\. The government also plans to expand its system of tax breaks to cover new technologies in solar such as wind and thermal power, low\\-emission vehicles and rechargeable batteries etc.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.businessgreen.com/business\\-green/news/2266369/south\\-korea\\-doubles\\-green \\|title\\= South Korea more than doubles green R\\&D funding \\| publisher\\= Business Green \\|date\\=13 Jul 2010}}",
"### Tajikistan",
"After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 and successive five\\-year civil war in Tajikistan came to an end, many of the electricity supply systems of the region failed due to the destruction of the electricity transmission infrastructure during the war and the termination of the Soviet\\-subsidized diesel fuels that offered most of the power. As a result, many people resorted to cutting trees to provide wood fuel for cooking and heating during the winter.Wallace, Bryony. \"Bringing clean energy and co\\-benefits to remote communities in Tajikistan and Afghanistan.\" (2021\\). The cutting of trees destroyed almost 70% of the forest cover of the region.",
"The government of Tajikistan established Pamir Energy in 2002 after receiving financial support from Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development and World Bank. The lack of electricity had resulted in the closure of health centers, businesses, and schools. Instead, people had to use coal, kerosene, firewood, and dung. The fuels were obtained from remote areas resulting in inflated prices of the fuel due to the high transport cost incurred in the process.",
"With the support of medium and small hydropower plants, Pamir Energy now distributes, generates, and sells pure electricity to 96% of the Tajikistan population together with areas along the border of Afghanistan. The government has subsidized the cost of electricity to make it accessible to the poorest households. The lives of Afghan Badakhshan and Eastern Tajikistan have improved due to the availability of reliable electricity. Homes and schools are now accessed with electricity for heating during the winter. Electricity has also replaced coal, which has helped improve the health of the people of Eastern Tajikistan. Various plants have linked together in the Pamir Energy regional grid, which has ensured the supply of high\\-quality and reliable electricity to the residents of Eastern Tajikistan.",
"Pamir Energy provides electricity in two forms: government and commercial entities and another for domestic consumption. The Government of Tajikistan has established a Customer Support Scheme to reduce tariffs to ensure everybody can afford electricity and prevent people from using coal, dung, and wood. Pamir Energy has renovated and established 11 medium and small hydropower plants and has also refurbished 4,300 km of the previous distribution and transmission facilities, reducing transmission cost to 12% from 39%. The capacity of the plants ranges from 137kw to 27 MW, with 43\\.5 MW as the total capacity.Chorshanbiev, Sirojiddin R., Naim Ch Saidmirov, and Amroz R. Khudomunov. \"Evaluation of Parallel Operation of OJSC\" Pamir Energy\" Power System with Electrical Networks of OSHC\" Barki Tojik\" of the Republic of Tajikistan.\" *2020 IEEE Conference of Russian Young Researchers in Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EIConRus)*. IEEE, 2020\\. The plants generate 170 GWh of electricity yearly and also service over 34,000 Afghanistan and 220,000 Tajikistan populations.",
"Customers use collection agents or ATMs to make payments at the district offices of the Pamir Energy network. The company had installed meters to improve the reading of the usage and control supply level and can also terminate supply for defaulting customers. With advancements in the level of technology in Eastern Tajikistan, the system will start accepting mobile payments. Pamir Energy has made every effort to ensure the supply of electricity in the region is maintained for unforeseen future. The company has renovated one plant to 1\\.5MW to provide electricity supply to over 1000 households in Eastern Tajikistan. Pamir Energy also projects to establish another hydropower plant of 125 kW to improve the electrification of 2000 households in Eastern Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan.Parpiev, Ziyodullo. \"Are Public–Private Partnerships a Solution to the Infrastructure Backwardness of Tajikistan?.\" (2020\\). The company plans to develop additional 30 hydropower sites to respond to the ever\\-increasing demand for electricity in the regions. Additionally, Pamir Energy projects to extend its operations to other areas in Tajikistan and Afghanistan to facilitate socio\\-economic development in the regions.",
"### Taiwan",
"#### Solar power",
"In recent years, Taiwan is also catching up on promoting renewable energy throughout the country. According to SciTech Reports,{{Cite journal\\|last\\=黃\\|first\\=得瑞\\|date\\=2017\\|title\\=臺灣發展綠能產業的策略\\|journal\\=科技報導(SciTech Reports)}} 20% of the solar panels in the world are exported from Taiwan, making the country the second largest solar panel provider globally. Moreover, the current government has been planning on employing solar energy to public amenities and incorporate the green energy to people's daily lives. For instance, the Taipei city government has constructed 3216 solar panels to turn a former wasteland into a power house.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Meneguzzo\\|first1\\=Francesco\\|last2\\=Ciriminna\\|first2\\=Rosaria\\|last3\\=Albanese\\|first3\\=Lorenzo\\|last4\\=Pagliaro\\|first4\\=Mario\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=The great solar boom: a global perspective into the far reaching impact of an unexpected energy revolution\\|journal\\=Energy Science \\& Engineering\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=499–509\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/ese3\\.98\\|issn\\=2050\\-0505\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=2015EneSE...3\\..499M }} In the southern city [Tainan](/wiki/Tainan \"Tainan\") where there is sufficient sunshine, 5288 buildings are equipped with solar panels that can generate 7 MW, which is roughly 3\\.2 times the amount of the hydropower produced by the local dam. Besides mainland Taiwan, there are solar panels even on the [Penghu islands](/wiki/Penghu \"Penghu\") that can generate 83,000 kWh/year with the newly purchased inverter.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Fox\\|first\\=Benjamin\\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-14\\|title\\=Why Taiwan's Sustainable Energy Policy Matters\\|journal\\=Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=Issue\\|issue\\=Six\\|doi\\=10\\.7916/D8MC90D6\\|doi\\-broken\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-23 }}",
"#### Wind power",
"In addition, Taiwan's island geographic provides ideal [wind power](/wiki/Wind_power \"Wind power\") locations.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Chiang\\|first1\\=Min\\-Hua\\|last2\\=Gerbier\\|first2\\=Bernard\\|date\\=2010\\-04\\-22\\|title\\=Foreign factors in Taiwan's economic transformation\\|journal\\=Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy\\|volume\\=15\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=148–165\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/13547861003700182\\|s2cid\\=153972624\\|issn\\=1354\\-7860}} Since 2000, there have been 347 wind power systems constructed, yielding a total of 684\\.4 MW of storage{{clarify\\|reason\\=what is being stored?\\|date\\=August 2020}} nationwide.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=陳\\|first\\=志洋\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=2018 Emerging Energy Industry Yearbook\\|journal\\=經濟部技術處}} The [offshore wind power](/wiki/Offshore_wind_power \"Offshore wind power\") development has also been lately invested by world\\-renowned companies such as [Ørsted](/wiki/%C3%98rsted_%28company%29 \"Ørsted (company)\"), [Northland Power Inc.](/wiki/Northland_Power_Inc. \"Northland Power Inc.\"), and [Copenhagen Infrastructure Partners](/wiki/Copenhagen_Infrastructure_Partners \"Copenhagen Infrastructure Partners\") etc. and it is anticipated that the offshore wind power would be generating 5\\.5 GW by 2025\\.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Kung\\|first1\\=Chih\\-Chun\\|last2\\=Chen\\|first2\\=Li\\-Jiun\\|last3\\=Lee\\|first3\\=Tsung\\-Ju\\|last4\\=Jiang\\|first4\\=Xianling\\|last5\\=Lin\\|first5\\=Ruiqi\\|date\\=2018\\-07\\-26\\|title\\=Wind power potential for energy sustainability and climate change mitigation: A case study in Taiwan\\|journal\\=Energy \\& Environment\\|volume\\=30\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=304–321\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0958305x18790956\\|s2cid\\=158696739\\|issn\\=0958\\-305X}}",
"#### Thermal energy",
"Besides wind power, the volcanic formation of Taiwan also provides the country with [geothermal](/wiki/Geothermal_energy \"Geothermal energy\") resources.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=李\\|first1\\=錦發\\|last2\\=李\\|first2\\=柏村\\|date\\=2012\\|title\\=從地質、環境與技術方面探討我國地熱發的展望\\|journal\\=經濟中央地質調查所}} In 2015, the Bureau of Energy and the Industrial Technology Research Institute signed a MOU contract with the [New Taipei City](/wiki/New_Taipei_City \"New Taipei City\") Government in order to promote [Kim San Xi Huang Zi Ping](/wiki/Kim_San_Xi_Huang_Zi_Ping \"Kim San Xi Huang Zi Ping\")'s 10 MW thermal energy.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=楊\\|first\\=秉純\\|date\\=Oct 24, 2016\\|title\\=綠能科技發展現況及趨勢\\|journal\\=綠能與環境研究所}} Researchers at Taitung University are also working on utilizing the hot spring in the area to produce geothermal energy. The Taiwan Power Company has also initiated the Geothermal Generator Experimental Plan in Green Island by digging two experimental geothermal wells at [Jhaorih Hot Springs](/wiki/Jhaorih_Hot_Springs \"Jhaorih Hot Springs\") and establishing a 200 kWe generator. The goal is to achieve 2000 kWe by 2020, and by 2025, 11 thermal wells will be finished in [Yilan Lizuh](/wiki/Yilan_Lizuh \"Yilan Lizuh\"), providing 8 billion kWh per year.",
"#### Hydropower",
"[Hydropower](/wiki/Hydropower \"Hydropower\") is another crucial renewable energy in Taiwan and it is estimated that the current hydropower can provide 4500 MW.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Tkáč\\|first\\=Štefan\\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-01\\|title\\=Hydro power plants, an overview of the current types and technology\\|journal\\=Selected Scientific Papers \\- Journal of Civil Engineering\\|volume\\=13\\|issue\\=s1\\|pages\\=115–126\\|doi\\=10\\.1515/sspjce\\-2018\\-0011\\|bibcode\\=2018SPJCE..13\\..115T\\|issn\\=1338\\-7278\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} The system running is a combination of predominantly cascade, diversion and large accumulation types in order to handle the unpredictable [typhoons](/wiki/Typhoon \"Typhoon\") and droughts. The mountainous landscape of Taiwan has gifted the country a better foundation for hydropower development.",
"#### Other power sources",
"Beyond natural resources, some tech companies invented alternative energies such as transforming pig dung into [biogas power](/wiki/Biogas \"Biogas\") and excess wax apple wood sticks to biomass energy.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Tsai\\|first\\=Wen\\-Tien\\|date\\=2014\\-01\\-08\\|title\\=Innovative Promotion of Renewable Energy Development for Challenging Sustainable Low\\-Carbon Society: Case Study of Pingtung County, Taiwan\\|journal\\=Challenges\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=26–34\\|doi\\=10\\.3390/challe5010026\\|issn\\=2078\\-1547\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} The former can produce around 25 kW of power and the technology was introduced in the Discovery Channel. Furthermore, an applied physics research team at [Ching Hua University](/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E8%8F%AF%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8 \"清華大學\") also came up with extracting DNA from fish roe to obtain certain material for DNA [biopolymer photonics](/wiki/Biopolymer \"Biopolymer\"), which can be used to as a kind of sustainable energy.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hung\\|first1\\=Yu\\-Chueh\\|last2\\=Hsu\\|first2\\=Wei\\-Ting\\|last3\\=Lin\\|first3\\=Ting\\-Yu\\|last4\\=Fruk\\|first4\\=Ljiljana\\|date\\=2011\\-12\\-19\\|title\\=Photoinduced write\\-once read\\-many\\-times memory device based on DNA biopolymer nanocomposite\\|journal\\=Applied Physics Letters\\|volume\\=99\\|issue\\=25\\|pages\\=253301\\|doi\\=10\\.1063/1\\.3671153\\|bibcode\\=2011ApPhL..99y3301H\\|issn\\=0003\\-6951}}",
""
] |
### Pakistan
{{Main\|Renewable energy in Pakistan}}
Solar power in Pakistan discusses the generation and development of electricity via solar thermal or photovoltaic technology in that country. The country has solar plants in Pakistani Kashmir, Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan. Initiatives are under development by the International Renewable Energy Agency, the Japan International Cooperation Agency, Chinese companies, and Pakistani private sector energy companies. The country aims to build the world's largest solar power park, the Quaid\-e\-Azam Solar Power Park (QASP) in the Cholistan Desert, Punjab, by 2017 with a 1 GW capacity. A plant of this size would be enough to power around 320,000 homes.
#### Projects
#### Introduction of Clean Energy by Solar Electricity Generation System
On May 29, 2012, Pakistan inaugurated its first solar power on\-grid power plant in Islamabad. Introduction of Clean Energy by Solar Electricity Generation System is a special grant aid project by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) under the Coolio Earth Partnership. This project includes the installation of two 178 kW photovoltaic (PV) systems at the premises of the Planning Commission and Pakistan Engineering Council.
This is the first on\-grid solar PV project that employs net\-metering, thereby allowing the beneficiaries to sell surplus electricity to the Islamabad Electric Supply Company (IESCO), the electricity distribution company of the Islamabad Division. The project was executed with grant assistance, worth 480 million Yen (approx. 553\.63 million Pakistani Rupees) over three years commencing in 2010\.
#### Other projects
Aviation Enclave Karachi installed the first high quality integrated solar energy system with a 15 kW power generation capacity capable of grid tie\-in at, Aviation Enclave Karachi in Sep 2016\. It was a pilot project for Central Facilitation Agency \& Central Builders \& Developers{{citation needed\|date\=October 2018}}
Beaconhouse installed the second high quality integrated solar energy system with a 10 kW power generation capacity capable of grid tie\-in at Beaconhouse Canal Side Campus, Lahore. It was a pilot project for BSS designed by U.S. consultants, based upon feasibility by the U.S. Trade and Development Agency (USTDA).
50 to 100 MW of photovoltaics is expected to be installed in 2013, and at least 300 MW in 2014\. In May 2015, 100 MW of a planned 1,000 MW were installed in the Quaid\-e\-Azam Solar Park.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2018}}
#### Annual solar irradiation
[Solar irradiance](/wiki/Solar_irradiance "Solar irradiance") in Pakistan is 5\.3 kWh/m2/day. Pakistan set a target to add approximately 10 GW of renewable capacity by 2030 in addition to replacing 5% diesel with biodiesel by 2015 and 10% by 2025\.
#### Photovoltaic installations
Year Installations in MWp Notes
Cumulative
Capacity Added
Capacity
2014 400 Calculated back from 2015 added capacity data.
2015 1,000 600 Preliminary data.
#### Government policy
Raja Pervaiz Ashraf, former Federal Minister of Water \& Power announced on July 2, 2009, that 7,000 villages would be electrified using solar energy by 2014\. Senior adviser Sardar Zulfiqar Khosa stated that the Punjab government would begin new projects aimed at power production through coal, solar energy and wind power; this would generate additional resources.
The Government of Pakistan allowed the provincial government of Sindh to conduct feasibility research. The government planned to install a desalination plant powered by solar energy.
|
[
"### Pakistan",
"{{Main\\|Renewable energy in Pakistan}}\nSolar power in Pakistan discusses the generation and development of electricity via solar thermal or photovoltaic technology in that country. The country has solar plants in Pakistani Kashmir, Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan. Initiatives are under development by the International Renewable Energy Agency, the Japan International Cooperation Agency, Chinese companies, and Pakistani private sector energy companies. The country aims to build the world's largest solar power park, the Quaid\\-e\\-Azam Solar Power Park (QASP) in the Cholistan Desert, Punjab, by 2017 with a 1 GW capacity. A plant of this size would be enough to power around 320,000 homes.",
"#### Projects",
"#### Introduction of Clean Energy by Solar Electricity Generation System",
"On May 29, 2012, Pakistan inaugurated its first solar power on\\-grid power plant in Islamabad. Introduction of Clean Energy by Solar Electricity Generation System is a special grant aid project by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) under the Coolio Earth Partnership. This project includes the installation of two 178 kW photovoltaic (PV) systems at the premises of the Planning Commission and Pakistan Engineering Council.",
"This is the first on\\-grid solar PV project that employs net\\-metering, thereby allowing the beneficiaries to sell surplus electricity to the Islamabad Electric Supply Company (IESCO), the electricity distribution company of the Islamabad Division. The project was executed with grant assistance, worth 480 million Yen (approx. 553\\.63 million Pakistani Rupees) over three years commencing in 2010\\.",
"#### Other projects",
"Aviation Enclave Karachi installed the first high quality integrated solar energy system with a 15 kW power generation capacity capable of grid tie\\-in at, Aviation Enclave Karachi in Sep 2016\\. It was a pilot project for Central Facilitation Agency \\& Central Builders \\& Developers{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2018}}",
"Beaconhouse installed the second high quality integrated solar energy system with a 10 kW power generation capacity capable of grid tie\\-in at Beaconhouse Canal Side Campus, Lahore. It was a pilot project for BSS designed by U.S. consultants, based upon feasibility by the U.S. Trade and Development Agency (USTDA).",
"50 to 100 MW of photovoltaics is expected to be installed in 2013, and at least 300 MW in 2014\\. In May 2015, 100 MW of a planned 1,000 MW were installed in the Quaid\\-e\\-Azam Solar Park.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2018}}",
"#### Annual solar irradiation",
"[Solar irradiance](/wiki/Solar_irradiance \"Solar irradiance\") in Pakistan is 5\\.3 kWh/m2/day. Pakistan set a target to add approximately 10 GW of renewable capacity by 2030 in addition to replacing 5% diesel with biodiesel by 2015 and 10% by 2025\\.",
"#### Photovoltaic installations",
"Year Installations in MWp Notes\nCumulative\nCapacity Added\nCapacity\n2014 400 Calculated back from 2015 added capacity data.\n2015 1,000 600 Preliminary data.",
"#### Government policy",
"Raja Pervaiz Ashraf, former Federal Minister of Water \\& Power announced on July 2, 2009, that 7,000 villages would be electrified using solar energy by 2014\\. Senior adviser Sardar Zulfiqar Khosa stated that the Punjab government would begin new projects aimed at power production through coal, solar energy and wind power; this would generate additional resources.",
"The Government of Pakistan allowed the provincial government of Sindh to conduct feasibility research. The government planned to install a desalination plant powered by solar energy.",
""
] |
### Tajikistan
After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 and successive five\-year civil war in Tajikistan came to an end, many of the electricity supply systems of the region failed due to the destruction of the electricity transmission infrastructure during the war and the termination of the Soviet\-subsidized diesel fuels that offered most of the power. As a result, many people resorted to cutting trees to provide wood fuel for cooking and heating during the winter.Wallace, Bryony. "Bringing clean energy and co\-benefits to remote communities in Tajikistan and Afghanistan." (2021\). The cutting of trees destroyed almost 70% of the forest cover of the region.
The government of Tajikistan established Pamir Energy in 2002 after receiving financial support from Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development and World Bank. The lack of electricity had resulted in the closure of health centers, businesses, and schools. Instead, people had to use coal, kerosene, firewood, and dung. The fuels were obtained from remote areas resulting in inflated prices of the fuel due to the high transport cost incurred in the process.
With the support of medium and small hydropower plants, Pamir Energy now distributes, generates, and sells pure electricity to 96% of the Tajikistan population together with areas along the border of Afghanistan. The government has subsidized the cost of electricity to make it accessible to the poorest households. The lives of Afghan Badakhshan and Eastern Tajikistan have improved due to the availability of reliable electricity. Homes and schools are now accessed with electricity for heating during the winter. Electricity has also replaced coal, which has helped improve the health of the people of Eastern Tajikistan. Various plants have linked together in the Pamir Energy regional grid, which has ensured the supply of high\-quality and reliable electricity to the residents of Eastern Tajikistan.
Pamir Energy provides electricity in two forms: government and commercial entities and another for domestic consumption. The Government of Tajikistan has established a Customer Support Scheme to reduce tariffs to ensure everybody can afford electricity and prevent people from using coal, dung, and wood. Pamir Energy has renovated and established 11 medium and small hydropower plants and has also refurbished 4,300 km of the previous distribution and transmission facilities, reducing transmission cost to 12% from 39%. The capacity of the plants ranges from 137kw to 27 MW, with 43\.5 MW as the total capacity.Chorshanbiev, Sirojiddin R., Naim Ch Saidmirov, and Amroz R. Khudomunov. "Evaluation of Parallel Operation of OJSC" Pamir Energy" Power System with Electrical Networks of OSHC" Barki Tojik" of the Republic of Tajikistan." *2020 IEEE Conference of Russian Young Researchers in Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EIConRus)*. IEEE, 2020\. The plants generate 170 GWh of electricity yearly and also service over 34,000 Afghanistan and 220,000 Tajikistan populations.
Customers use collection agents or ATMs to make payments at the district offices of the Pamir Energy network. The company had installed meters to improve the reading of the usage and control supply level and can also terminate supply for defaulting customers. With advancements in the level of technology in Eastern Tajikistan, the system will start accepting mobile payments. Pamir Energy has made every effort to ensure the supply of electricity in the region is maintained for unforeseen future. The company has renovated one plant to 1\.5MW to provide electricity supply to over 1000 households in Eastern Tajikistan. Pamir Energy also projects to establish another hydropower plant of 125 kW to improve the electrification of 2000 households in Eastern Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan.Parpiev, Ziyodullo. "Are Public–Private Partnerships a Solution to the Infrastructure Backwardness of Tajikistan?." (2020\). The company plans to develop additional 30 hydropower sites to respond to the ever\-increasing demand for electricity in the regions. Additionally, Pamir Energy projects to extend its operations to other areas in Tajikistan and Afghanistan to facilitate socio\-economic development in the regions.
|
[
"### Tajikistan",
"After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 and successive five\\-year civil war in Tajikistan came to an end, many of the electricity supply systems of the region failed due to the destruction of the electricity transmission infrastructure during the war and the termination of the Soviet\\-subsidized diesel fuels that offered most of the power. As a result, many people resorted to cutting trees to provide wood fuel for cooking and heating during the winter.Wallace, Bryony. \"Bringing clean energy and co\\-benefits to remote communities in Tajikistan and Afghanistan.\" (2021\\). The cutting of trees destroyed almost 70% of the forest cover of the region.",
"The government of Tajikistan established Pamir Energy in 2002 after receiving financial support from Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development and World Bank. The lack of electricity had resulted in the closure of health centers, businesses, and schools. Instead, people had to use coal, kerosene, firewood, and dung. The fuels were obtained from remote areas resulting in inflated prices of the fuel due to the high transport cost incurred in the process.",
"With the support of medium and small hydropower plants, Pamir Energy now distributes, generates, and sells pure electricity to 96% of the Tajikistan population together with areas along the border of Afghanistan. The government has subsidized the cost of electricity to make it accessible to the poorest households. The lives of Afghan Badakhshan and Eastern Tajikistan have improved due to the availability of reliable electricity. Homes and schools are now accessed with electricity for heating during the winter. Electricity has also replaced coal, which has helped improve the health of the people of Eastern Tajikistan. Various plants have linked together in the Pamir Energy regional grid, which has ensured the supply of high\\-quality and reliable electricity to the residents of Eastern Tajikistan.",
"Pamir Energy provides electricity in two forms: government and commercial entities and another for domestic consumption. The Government of Tajikistan has established a Customer Support Scheme to reduce tariffs to ensure everybody can afford electricity and prevent people from using coal, dung, and wood. Pamir Energy has renovated and established 11 medium and small hydropower plants and has also refurbished 4,300 km of the previous distribution and transmission facilities, reducing transmission cost to 12% from 39%. The capacity of the plants ranges from 137kw to 27 MW, with 43\\.5 MW as the total capacity.Chorshanbiev, Sirojiddin R., Naim Ch Saidmirov, and Amroz R. Khudomunov. \"Evaluation of Parallel Operation of OJSC\" Pamir Energy\" Power System with Electrical Networks of OSHC\" Barki Tojik\" of the Republic of Tajikistan.\" *2020 IEEE Conference of Russian Young Researchers in Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EIConRus)*. IEEE, 2020\\. The plants generate 170 GWh of electricity yearly and also service over 34,000 Afghanistan and 220,000 Tajikistan populations.",
"Customers use collection agents or ATMs to make payments at the district offices of the Pamir Energy network. The company had installed meters to improve the reading of the usage and control supply level and can also terminate supply for defaulting customers. With advancements in the level of technology in Eastern Tajikistan, the system will start accepting mobile payments. Pamir Energy has made every effort to ensure the supply of electricity in the region is maintained for unforeseen future. The company has renovated one plant to 1\\.5MW to provide electricity supply to over 1000 households in Eastern Tajikistan. Pamir Energy also projects to establish another hydropower plant of 125 kW to improve the electrification of 2000 households in Eastern Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan.Parpiev, Ziyodullo. \"Are Public–Private Partnerships a Solution to the Infrastructure Backwardness of Tajikistan?.\" (2020\\). The company plans to develop additional 30 hydropower sites to respond to the ever\\-increasing demand for electricity in the regions. Additionally, Pamir Energy projects to extend its operations to other areas in Tajikistan and Afghanistan to facilitate socio\\-economic development in the regions.",
""
] |
Commissions, programs and past ensembles
----------------------------------------
### Rio Tinto Black Swan Commissions
Black Swan commissions new productions in partnership with the [Rio Tinto Group](/wiki/Rio_Tinto_Group "Rio Tinto Group"). This partnership has so far produced four mainstage works: Aidan Fennessy’s *National Interest* (2012\), [Hilary Bell](/wiki/Hilary_Bell_%28writer%29 "Hilary Bell (writer)")’s *The White Divers of Broome* (2012\), Hannie Rayson's *The Swimming Club* (2010\) and Kate Mulvany's *The Web* (2009\). A fifth play, *The Damned* (2011\) by [Reg Cribb](/wiki/Reg_Cribb "Reg Cribb"), received its premiere in the Studio Underground at the State Theatre Centre of WA.
### Resident Artists Program
Black Swan's Resident Artists Program (formerly the **Emerging Artists Program**) supports up to five emerging artists annually by offering a year\-long involvement working on a minimum of two Black Swan productions. The Resident Artists Program provides access to training, funding opportunities, mentoring and theatre practice in order to facilitate learning and performance.
### Emerging Writers Group
Black Swan's Emerging Writers Group (formerly the **Young Writers Program**) supports a group of writers through a yearlong process of writing and devising a new work for the theatre. Three completed plays are chosen for full readings by a professional cast; in addition, one play is selected to be part of the Blue Room's ‘Summer Nights’ season the following year.
### The HotBed Ensemble (2006–2010\)
The HotBed Ensemble was Black Swan's professional development program for emerging Western Australian artists directed by Adam Mitchell.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.adammitchell.com.au\|title\=Home\|website\=Adam Mitchell\|access\-date\=27 September 2016}} The program included skills development and workshop opportunities with local, national and international artists, and the opportunity to create original, contemporary work. More than a third of the HotBed artists went on to work in Black Swan's mainstage program.
The HotBed Ensemble produced *[The Shape of Things](/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things "The Shape of Things")* (2010\), *Yellow Moon: The Ballad of Leila and Lee* (2010\), *The Dark Room* (2009\), *pool \[no water]* (2009\), *[Caucasian Chalk Circle](/wiki/Caucasian_Chalk_Circle "Caucasian Chalk Circle")* (2008\), *Portraits of Modern Evil* (2008\), *[The Laramie Project](/wiki/The_Laramie_Project "The Laramie Project")* (2007\), *Falling Petals* (2006\) and *[Woyzeck](/wiki/Woyzeck "Woyzeck")* (2006\). *The Shape of Things*, *Yellow Moon* and *Caucasian Chalk Circle* all received Equity Guild nominations; *Caucasian Chalk Circle* won two Equity Guild Awards (Best Director and Best Newcomer), and *The Shape of Things* won five (Best Production, Best Director, Best Actress and Best Design). In 2011, the HotBed Ensemble was replaced by the Emerging Artists Program (now the Resident Artists Program).
|
[
"Commissions, programs and past ensembles\n----------------------------------------",
"### Rio Tinto Black Swan Commissions",
"Black Swan commissions new productions in partnership with the [Rio Tinto Group](/wiki/Rio_Tinto_Group \"Rio Tinto Group\"). This partnership has so far produced four mainstage works: Aidan Fennessy’s *National Interest* (2012\\), [Hilary Bell](/wiki/Hilary_Bell_%28writer%29 \"Hilary Bell (writer)\")’s *The White Divers of Broome* (2012\\), Hannie Rayson's *The Swimming Club* (2010\\) and Kate Mulvany's *The Web* (2009\\). A fifth play, *The Damned* (2011\\) by [Reg Cribb](/wiki/Reg_Cribb \"Reg Cribb\"), received its premiere in the Studio Underground at the State Theatre Centre of WA.",
"### Resident Artists Program",
"Black Swan's Resident Artists Program (formerly the **Emerging Artists Program**) supports up to five emerging artists annually by offering a year\\-long involvement working on a minimum of two Black Swan productions. The Resident Artists Program provides access to training, funding opportunities, mentoring and theatre practice in order to facilitate learning and performance.",
"### Emerging Writers Group",
"Black Swan's Emerging Writers Group (formerly the **Young Writers Program**) supports a group of writers through a yearlong process of writing and devising a new work for the theatre. Three completed plays are chosen for full readings by a professional cast; in addition, one play is selected to be part of the Blue Room's ‘Summer Nights’ season the following year.",
"### The HotBed Ensemble (2006–2010\\)",
"The HotBed Ensemble was Black Swan's professional development program for emerging Western Australian artists directed by Adam Mitchell.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.adammitchell.com.au\\|title\\=Home\\|website\\=Adam Mitchell\\|access\\-date\\=27 September 2016}} The program included skills development and workshop opportunities with local, national and international artists, and the opportunity to create original, contemporary work. More than a third of the HotBed artists went on to work in Black Swan's mainstage program.",
"The HotBed Ensemble produced *[The Shape of Things](/wiki/The_Shape_of_Things \"The Shape of Things\")* (2010\\), *Yellow Moon: The Ballad of Leila and Lee* (2010\\), *The Dark Room* (2009\\), *pool \\[no water]* (2009\\), *[Caucasian Chalk Circle](/wiki/Caucasian_Chalk_Circle \"Caucasian Chalk Circle\")* (2008\\), *Portraits of Modern Evil* (2008\\), *[The Laramie Project](/wiki/The_Laramie_Project \"The Laramie Project\")* (2007\\), *Falling Petals* (2006\\) and *[Woyzeck](/wiki/Woyzeck \"Woyzeck\")* (2006\\). *The Shape of Things*, *Yellow Moon* and *Caucasian Chalk Circle* all received Equity Guild nominations; *Caucasian Chalk Circle* won two Equity Guild Awards (Best Director and Best Newcomer), and *The Shape of Things* won five (Best Production, Best Director, Best Actress and Best Design). In 2011, the HotBed Ensemble was replaced by the Emerging Artists Program (now the Resident Artists Program).",
""
] |
Languages
---------
### Geography and demography
The Gbe language area is bordered to the west and east by the [Volta River](/wiki/Volta_River "Volta River") in Ghana and the [Weme River](/wiki/Weme_River "Weme River") in Benin. The northern border is between 6 and 8 degrees [latitude](/wiki/Latitude "Latitude") and the southern border is the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean "Atlantic Ocean") coast. The area is neighbored mainly by [Kwa languages](/wiki/Kwa_languages "Kwa languages"), except for the east and north\-east, where [Yorùbá](/wiki/Yor%C3%B9b%C3%A1_language "Yorùbá language") is spoken. To the west, [Ga–Dangme](/wiki/Ga%E2%80%93Dangme_languages "Ga–Dangme languages"), [Guang](/wiki/Guang_language "Guang language") and [Akan](/wiki/Akan_language "Akan language") are spoken. To the north, it is bordered by [Adele](/wiki/Adele_language "Adele language"), [Aguna](/wiki/Awuna "Awuna"), Akpafu, Lolobi, and Yorùbá.
Estimates of the total number of speakers of Gbe languages vary considerably. Capo (1988\) gives a modest estimate of four million, while SIL's [Ethnologue](/wiki/Ethnologue "Ethnologue") (15th edition, 2005\) gives eight million. The most widely spoken Gbe languages are Ewe ([Ghana](/wiki/Ghana "Ghana") and [Togo](/wiki/Togo "Togo")) and Fon ([Benin](/wiki/Benin "Benin"), eastern Togo) at four million and 3 million speakers, respectively. Ewe is a language of formal education for secondary schools and universities in Ghana, and is also used in non\-formal education in [Togo](/wiki/Togo "Togo"). In Benin, Aja (740,000 speakers) and Fon were two of the six national languages selected by the government for adult education in 1992\.
### Classification
[Greenberg](/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg "Joseph Greenberg"), following Westermann (1952\), placed the Gbe languages in the [Kwa](/wiki/Kwa_languages "Kwa languages") family of the [Niger–Congo languages](/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages "Niger–Congo languages").Greenberg (1966\), *[The Languages of Africa](/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa "The Languages of Africa")*. The extent of the Kwa branch has fluctuated through the years, and [Roger Blench](/wiki/Roger_Blench "Roger Blench") places the Gbe languages in a Volta–Niger branch with former East Kwa languages to their east.
Gbe is a [dialect continuum](/wiki/Dialect_continuum "Dialect continuum"). Based on comparative research, Capo (1988\) divides it into five clusters, with each cluster consisting of several mutually intelligible dialects. The borders between the clusters are not always distinct. The five clusters are:Sources: for the classification, Capo (1991\) \& Aboh (2004\); for speaker numbers, [Ethnologue, 15th edition](http://www.ethnologue.com).
| Name | Alternate names | Speakers | Some dialects | Region |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Ewe](/wiki/Ewe_language "Ewe language") | Vhe, Ɛ̀ʋɛ̀ gbè | ca. 3,600,000 | [Anlo](/wiki/Anlo_Ewe "Anlo Ewe") (Keta area) along the coast. Ewedome, (Ho area) in the hill country. Tongu (Sogakope area) along the Volta River. | Lower half of Ghana east of the [Volta River](/wiki/Volta_River "Volta River"); Southwest Togo |
| [Gen](/wiki/Gen_language "Gen language") | Gẽ, Mina, Gɛn gbe | ca. 400,000 | Gliji, Anexo, Agoi. | [Lake Togo](/wiki/Lake_Togo "Lake Togo"), around [Anexo](/wiki/Anexo "Anexo") |
| [Aja](/wiki/Aja_language_%28Niger%E2%80%93Congo%29 "Aja language (Niger–Congo)") | Adja, Aja gbe | ca. 500,000 | Dogbo, Sikpi. | Togo, [Benin](/wiki/Benin "Benin") area, inland along the [Mono River](/wiki/Mono_River "Mono River") |
| [Fon](/wiki/Fon_language "Fon language") | Fɔn gbè | ca. 1,700,000 | [Gun](/wiki/Gun_language "Gun language"), Kpase, Agbome, Maxi. | Southeast Togo, Benin west of the [Weme River](/wiki/Weme_River "Weme River") and along the coast |
| [Phla–Pherá](/wiki/Phla%E2%80%93Pher%C3%A1_languages "Phla–Pherá languages") | Fla, Offra, Xwla gbe | ca. 400,000 | Alada, Toli, Ayizo. | Togo and Benin along the coast and around [Lake Ahémé](/wiki/Lake_Ah%C3%A9m%C3%A9 "Lake Ahémé") |
Kluge (2011\){{cite web\|url\=https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/41567\|title\=A sociolinguistic survey of the Gbe language communities of Benin and Togo: Gbe language family overview\|website\=SIL International}} proposes that the Gbe languages consist of a [dialect continuum](/wiki/Dialect_continuum "Dialect continuum") that can be split into three large clusters.
* **Western Gbe** varieties ([Ewe](/wiki/Ewe_language "Ewe language"), [Gen](/wiki/Gen_language "Gen language"), and Northwestern Gbe): Adan, Agoi/Gliji, Agu, Anexo, Aveno, Awlan, Be, Gbin, [Gen](/wiki/Gen_language "Gen language"), Kpelen, Kpési, Togo, Vhlin, Vo, Waci, Wance, Wundi (also [Awuna](/wiki/Aguna_language "Aguna language")?)
* **Central Gbe** varieties: [Aja](/wiki/Aja_language_%28Niger%E2%80%93Congo%29 "Aja language (Niger–Congo)") (Dogbo, Hwe, Sikpi, Tado, Tala)
* **Eastern Gbe** varieties ([Fon](/wiki/Fon_language "Fon language"), Eastern [Phla–Pherá](/wiki/Phla%E2%80%93Pher%C3%A1_languages "Phla–Pherá languages"), and Western [Phla–Pherá](/wiki/Phla%E2%80%93Pher%C3%A1_languages "Phla–Pherá languages")): Agbome, Ajra, [Alada](/wiki/Alada_language "Alada language"), Arohun, [Ayizo](/wiki/Ayizo_language "Ayizo language"), Ci, Daxe, [Fon](/wiki/Fon_language "Fon language"), Gbekon, Gbesi, Gbokpa, [Gun](/wiki/Gun_language "Gun language"), Kotafon, Kpase, Maxi, Movolo, [Saxwe](/wiki/Saxwe_language "Saxwe language"), Se, Seto, [Tofin](/wiki/Tofin_language "Tofin language"), Toli, Weme, [Xwela](/wiki/Pher%C3%A1_language "Pherá language"), [Xwla](/wiki/Phla_language "Phla language") (Eastern), [Xwla](/wiki/Phla_language "Phla language") (Western) (also [Wudu](/wiki/Wudu_language "Wudu language")?)
### Naming
The dialect continuum as a whole was called 'Ewe' by [Westermann](/wiki/Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann "Diedrich Hermann Westermann"), the most influential researcher on the cluster, who used the term 'Standard Ewe' to refer to the written form of the language. Other linguists have called the Gbe languages as a whole 'Aja', after the name of the local language of the Aja\-Tado area in Benin. However, use of this single language's name for the language cluster as a whole was not only not acceptable to all speakers but also rather confusing. Since the establishment of a [working group](/wiki/Working_group "Working group") at the West African Languages Congress at [Cotonou](/wiki/Cotonou "Cotonou") in 1980, H. B. Capo's name suggestion has been generally accepted: {{'}}*Gbe*{{'}}, which is the word for 'language/dialect' in each of the languages.In daily use, individual Gbe languages are referred to by their speakers as X\-gbe, e.g. *Ewegbe* for Ewe, *Fongbe* for Fon, etc.
|
[
"Languages\n---------",
"### Geography and demography",
"The Gbe language area is bordered to the west and east by the [Volta River](/wiki/Volta_River \"Volta River\") in Ghana and the [Weme River](/wiki/Weme_River \"Weme River\") in Benin. The northern border is between 6 and 8 degrees [latitude](/wiki/Latitude \"Latitude\") and the southern border is the [Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean \"Atlantic Ocean\") coast. The area is neighbored mainly by [Kwa languages](/wiki/Kwa_languages \"Kwa languages\"), except for the east and north\\-east, where [Yorùbá](/wiki/Yor%C3%B9b%C3%A1_language \"Yorùbá language\") is spoken. To the west, [Ga–Dangme](/wiki/Ga%E2%80%93Dangme_languages \"Ga–Dangme languages\"), [Guang](/wiki/Guang_language \"Guang language\") and [Akan](/wiki/Akan_language \"Akan language\") are spoken. To the north, it is bordered by [Adele](/wiki/Adele_language \"Adele language\"), [Aguna](/wiki/Awuna \"Awuna\"), Akpafu, Lolobi, and Yorùbá.",
"Estimates of the total number of speakers of Gbe languages vary considerably. Capo (1988\\) gives a modest estimate of four million, while SIL's [Ethnologue](/wiki/Ethnologue \"Ethnologue\") (15th edition, 2005\\) gives eight million. The most widely spoken Gbe languages are Ewe ([Ghana](/wiki/Ghana \"Ghana\") and [Togo](/wiki/Togo \"Togo\")) and Fon ([Benin](/wiki/Benin \"Benin\"), eastern Togo) at four million and 3 million speakers, respectively. Ewe is a language of formal education for secondary schools and universities in Ghana, and is also used in non\\-formal education in [Togo](/wiki/Togo \"Togo\"). In Benin, Aja (740,000 speakers) and Fon were two of the six national languages selected by the government for adult education in 1992\\.",
"### Classification",
"[Greenberg](/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg \"Joseph Greenberg\"), following Westermann (1952\\), placed the Gbe languages in the [Kwa](/wiki/Kwa_languages \"Kwa languages\") family of the [Niger–Congo languages](/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages \"Niger–Congo languages\").Greenberg (1966\\), *[The Languages of Africa](/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa \"The Languages of Africa\")*. The extent of the Kwa branch has fluctuated through the years, and [Roger Blench](/wiki/Roger_Blench \"Roger Blench\") places the Gbe languages in a Volta–Niger branch with former East Kwa languages to their east.",
"Gbe is a [dialect continuum](/wiki/Dialect_continuum \"Dialect continuum\"). Based on comparative research, Capo (1988\\) divides it into five clusters, with each cluster consisting of several mutually intelligible dialects. The borders between the clusters are not always distinct. The five clusters are:Sources: for the classification, Capo (1991\\) \\& Aboh (2004\\); for speaker numbers, [Ethnologue, 15th edition](http://www.ethnologue.com).",
"",
"| Name | Alternate names | Speakers | Some dialects | Region |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Ewe](/wiki/Ewe_language \"Ewe language\") | Vhe, Ɛ̀ʋɛ̀ gbè | ca. 3,600,000 | [Anlo](/wiki/Anlo_Ewe \"Anlo Ewe\") (Keta area) along the coast. Ewedome, (Ho area) in the hill country. Tongu (Sogakope area) along the Volta River. | Lower half of Ghana east of the [Volta River](/wiki/Volta_River \"Volta River\"); Southwest Togo |\n| [Gen](/wiki/Gen_language \"Gen language\") | Gẽ, Mina, Gɛn gbe | ca. 400,000 | Gliji, Anexo, Agoi. | [Lake Togo](/wiki/Lake_Togo \"Lake Togo\"), around [Anexo](/wiki/Anexo \"Anexo\") |\n| [Aja](/wiki/Aja_language_%28Niger%E2%80%93Congo%29 \"Aja language (Niger–Congo)\") | Adja, Aja gbe | ca. 500,000 | Dogbo, Sikpi. | Togo, [Benin](/wiki/Benin \"Benin\") area, inland along the [Mono River](/wiki/Mono_River \"Mono River\") |\n| [Fon](/wiki/Fon_language \"Fon language\") | Fɔn gbè | ca. 1,700,000 | [Gun](/wiki/Gun_language \"Gun language\"), Kpase, Agbome, Maxi. | Southeast Togo, Benin west of the [Weme River](/wiki/Weme_River \"Weme River\") and along the coast |\n| [Phla–Pherá](/wiki/Phla%E2%80%93Pher%C3%A1_languages \"Phla–Pherá languages\") | Fla, Offra, Xwla gbe | ca. 400,000 | Alada, Toli, Ayizo. | Togo and Benin along the coast and around [Lake Ahémé](/wiki/Lake_Ah%C3%A9m%C3%A9 \"Lake Ahémé\") |",
"Kluge (2011\\){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/41567\\|title\\=A sociolinguistic survey of the Gbe language communities of Benin and Togo: Gbe language family overview\\|website\\=SIL International}} proposes that the Gbe languages consist of a [dialect continuum](/wiki/Dialect_continuum \"Dialect continuum\") that can be split into three large clusters.",
"* **Western Gbe** varieties ([Ewe](/wiki/Ewe_language \"Ewe language\"), [Gen](/wiki/Gen_language \"Gen language\"), and Northwestern Gbe): Adan, Agoi/Gliji, Agu, Anexo, Aveno, Awlan, Be, Gbin, [Gen](/wiki/Gen_language \"Gen language\"), Kpelen, Kpési, Togo, Vhlin, Vo, Waci, Wance, Wundi (also [Awuna](/wiki/Aguna_language \"Aguna language\")?)\n* **Central Gbe** varieties: [Aja](/wiki/Aja_language_%28Niger%E2%80%93Congo%29 \"Aja language (Niger–Congo)\") (Dogbo, Hwe, Sikpi, Tado, Tala)\n* **Eastern Gbe** varieties ([Fon](/wiki/Fon_language \"Fon language\"), Eastern [Phla–Pherá](/wiki/Phla%E2%80%93Pher%C3%A1_languages \"Phla–Pherá languages\"), and Western [Phla–Pherá](/wiki/Phla%E2%80%93Pher%C3%A1_languages \"Phla–Pherá languages\")): Agbome, Ajra, [Alada](/wiki/Alada_language \"Alada language\"), Arohun, [Ayizo](/wiki/Ayizo_language \"Ayizo language\"), Ci, Daxe, [Fon](/wiki/Fon_language \"Fon language\"), Gbekon, Gbesi, Gbokpa, [Gun](/wiki/Gun_language \"Gun language\"), Kotafon, Kpase, Maxi, Movolo, [Saxwe](/wiki/Saxwe_language \"Saxwe language\"), Se, Seto, [Tofin](/wiki/Tofin_language \"Tofin language\"), Toli, Weme, [Xwela](/wiki/Pher%C3%A1_language \"Pherá language\"), [Xwla](/wiki/Phla_language \"Phla language\") (Eastern), [Xwla](/wiki/Phla_language \"Phla language\") (Western) (also [Wudu](/wiki/Wudu_language \"Wudu language\")?)",
"### Naming",
"The dialect continuum as a whole was called 'Ewe' by [Westermann](/wiki/Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann \"Diedrich Hermann Westermann\"), the most influential researcher on the cluster, who used the term 'Standard Ewe' to refer to the written form of the language. Other linguists have called the Gbe languages as a whole 'Aja', after the name of the local language of the Aja\\-Tado area in Benin. However, use of this single language's name for the language cluster as a whole was not only not acceptable to all speakers but also rather confusing. Since the establishment of a [working group](/wiki/Working_group \"Working group\") at the West African Languages Congress at [Cotonou](/wiki/Cotonou \"Cotonou\") in 1980, H. B. Capo's name suggestion has been generally accepted: {{'}}*Gbe*{{'}}, which is the word for 'language/dialect' in each of the languages.In daily use, individual Gbe languages are referred to by their speakers as X\\-gbe, e.g. *Ewegbe* for Ewe, *Fongbe* for Fon, etc.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Before 1600
[Ketu](/wiki/Ketu_%28Benin%29 "Ketu (Benin)"), settlement in present\-day Benin Republic (formerly known as Dahomey), might be an appropriate starting point for a brief history of the Gbe\-speaking peoples. Ewe traditions refer to Ketu as *[Amedzofe](/wiki/Amedzofe_%28history%29 "Amedzofe (history)")* ("origin of humanity") or *Mawufe* ("home of the Supreme Being"). It is believed that the inhabitants of Ketu were pressed westward by a series of wars between the tenth and the thirteenth century. In Ketu, the ancestors of the Gbe\-speaking peoples separated themselves from other refugees and began to establish their own identity.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2022}}
Attacks between the thirteenth and the fifteenth century drove a large section of the group still further westward. They settled in the ancient kingdom of [Tado](/wiki/Tado_%28state%29 "Tado (state)") (also Stado or Stádó) on the Mono river (in present\-day [Togo](/wiki/Togo "Togo")). The Tado kingdom was an important state in [West Africa](/wiki/West_Africa "West Africa") up to the late fifteenth century.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2022}}
In the course of the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the [Notsie](/wiki/Nots%C3%A9 "Notsé") (or Notsé, Notsye, Wancé) kingdom was established by emigrants from the Tado kingdom; Notsie would later (around 1500\) become the home of another group of migrants from Tado, the [Ewe people](/wiki/Ewe_people "Ewe people"). Around 1550, emigrants from Tado established the [Allada](/wiki/Allada "Allada") (or Alada) kingdom, which became the center of the [Fon people](/wiki/Fon_people "Fon people"). Tado is also the origin of the [Aja people](/wiki/Aja_people "Aja people"); in fact, the name Aja\-Tado (Adja\-Tado) is frequently used to refer to their language.
Aja is considered the mother tribe by the rest of Gbe speaking people as many of the tribes trace their migration routes through Aja Tado(formerly known as Azame).{{citation needed\|date\=December 2022}}
Other peoples that speak Gbe languages today are the [Gen people](/wiki/Gen_people "Gen people") (Mina, Ge) around [Anexo](/wiki/Anexo "Anexo"), who are probably of Ga and [Fante](/wiki/Fante_people "Fante people") origin, and the [Phla and Pherá](/wiki/Phla%E2%80%93Pher%C3%A1_languages "Phla–Pherá languages") peoples, some of whom consist of the traditional inhabitants of the area intermingled with early migrants from Tado.Capo 1991:10; see also the section on linguistic diversity in [Phla–Pherá languages](/wiki/Phla%E2%80%93Pher%C3%A1_languages%23Linguistic_diversity "Phla–Pherá languages#Linguistic diversity").
### European traders and the transatlantic slave trade
[thumb\|right\|First page of the Spanish/Gen version of the 1658 *Doctrina Christiana*](/wiki/Image:Doctrina_Christiana_-_Y_explicacion_de_sus_Misterios_en_nuestro_idiom_Espa%C3%B1ol%2C_y_en_lengua_Arda_%28first_page%29.png "Doctrina Christiana - Y explicacion de sus Misterios en nuestro idiom Español, y en lengua Arda (first page).png")
Little is known of the history of the Gbe languages during the time that only Portuguese, Dutch and Danish traders landed on the [Gold Coast](/wiki/Gold_Coast_%28British_colony%29 "Gold Coast (British colony)") (roughly 1500 to 1650\). The trade of mostly gold and agricultural goods did not exercise much influence on social and cultural structures of the time. No need was felt to investigate the indigenous languages and cultures; the languages generally used in trade at this time were [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_language "Portuguese language") and [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_language "Dutch language"). Some [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword "Loanword") remain from this period, for example *atrapoe* 'stairs'{{cite book\| page\=\[https://archive.org/details/adictionaryasan00chrigoog/page/n635 603] \|title\=A Dictionary of the Asante and Fante Language Called Tshi (Chwee, Tw̌i): With a Grammatical Introduction and Appendices on the Geography of the Gold Coast and Other Subjects \|author\=Johann Gottlieb Christaller \|publisher\=Evangelical Missionary Society \|year\=1881 \|via\=New York Public Library, Internet Archive\|url\=https://archive.org/details/adictionaryasan00chrigoog}} from Dutch *trap* and *duku* '(piece of) cloth' from Dutch *doek* or Danish *dug*. The few written accounts that stem from this period focus on trade. As more European countries established trade posts in the area, [missionaries](/wiki/Missionary "Missionary") were sent out. As early as 1658, Spanish missionaries translated the *[Doctrina Christiana](/wiki/Doctrina_Christiana "Doctrina Christiana")* into the language of [Allada](/wiki/Allada "Allada"), making it one of the earliest texts in any West African language. The Gbe language used in this document is thought to be a somewhat mangled form of [Gen](/wiki/Gen_language "Gen language").This catechism was reprinted in Labouret \& Rivet 1929, who also document the history of the Spanish mission in Allada or Arda.
The relatively peaceful situation was profoundly changed with the rise of the [transatlantic slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery "History of slavery"), which reached its peak in the late eighteenth century when as many as 15,000 slaves per year were exported from the area around Benin as part of a [triangular trade](/wiki/Triangular_trade "Triangular trade") between the European mainland, the west coast of Africa and the colonies of the [New World](/wiki/New_World "New World") (notably the Caribbean). The main actors in this process were [Dutch](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands") (and to a lesser extent [English](/wiki/England "England")) traders; captives were supplied mostly by cooperating coastal African states.
The [Bight of Benin](/wiki/Bight_of_Benin "Bight of Benin"), precisely the area where the Gbe languages are spoken, was one of the centers of the slave trade at the turn of the eighteenth century. The export of 5% of the population each year resulted in overall population decline. Moreover, since the majority of the exported captives were male, the slave trade led to an imbalance in the female/male ratio. In some parts of the [Slave Coast](/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa "Slave Coast of West Africa") the ratio reached two adult women for every man. Several wars (sometimes deliberately provoked by European powers in order to [divide and rule](/wiki/Divide_and_rule "Divide and rule")) further distorted social and economical relations in the area. The lack of earlier linguistic data makes it difficult to trace the inevitable linguistic changes that resulted from this turbulent period.
### Colonisation and onwards
Around 1850, the transatlantic slave trade had virtually ceased. As the grip of European colonial powers strengthened, slave raiding became prohibited, trading focused on goods once more and the Europeans took it to be their calling to Christianize the colonized parts of Africa. In 1847 the Norddeutsche Missions\-Gesellschaft (Bremen) started its work in [Keta](/wiki/Keta "Keta").
In 1857, the first Ewe grammar, *Schlüssel der Ewesprache, dargeboten in den Grammatischen Grundzügen des Anlodialekts*, was published by missionary [J. B. Schlegel](/wiki/J._B._Schlegel "J. B. Schlegel") of the Bremen mission. Five different dialects of Gbe (at that time called the *Ewé Language\-Field*) were already distinguished by Schlegel, notes [Robert Needham Cust](/wiki/Robert_Needham_Cust "Robert Needham Cust") in his *Modern Languages of Africa* (1883\).Cust, *The Modern Languages of Africa*, p. 204\. The dialects listed by Cust do not map exactly onto the five subgroups now distinguished by Capo, which is not too surprising since Cust himself admits that he relies on a multitude of often conflicting sources. Fon is in fact listed twice (once as 'the dialect of the province of Dahomé' and once as 'Fogbe').
Where previous literature consisted mostly of travel journals sometimes accompanied by short word lists, Schlegel's work marked the beginning of a period of prolific lexicographic and linguistic research into the various Gbe languages. Important writers of this period include [Johann Gottlieb Christaller](/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Christaller "Johann Gottlieb Christaller") (*Die Volta\-Sprachen\-Gruppe*, 1888\), [Ernst Henrici](/wiki/Ernst_Henrici "Ernst Henrici") (*Lehrbuch der Ephe\-Sprache*, 1891, actually the first comparative Gbe grammar), J. Knüsli (*Ewe\-German\-English Vocabulary*, 1892\) and [Maurice Delafosse](/wiki/Maurice_Delafosse "Maurice Delafosse") (*Manuel Dahoméen* (Fon), 1894\).
In 1902 the missionary [Diedrich Hermann Westermann](/wiki/Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann "Diedrich Hermann Westermann") contributed an article titled "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Yewe\-Sprachen in Togo" to *Zeitschrift für Afrikanische und Oceanische Sprachen*. Westermann became one of the most productive and influential writers on the Gbe languages, and his output dominated the Gbe literature and analysis of the first half of the twentieth century. He wrote mainly on the Western Gbe languages, especially on [Ewe](/wiki/Ewe_language "Ewe language") (though he often used the term 'Ewe' to denote the Gbe dialect continuum as a whole). Among his most important works on Ewe are his *A Study of the Ewe language* (1930\) and *Wörterbuch der Ewe\-Sprache* (1954\).
### *Renaissance du Gbe*
From 1930 on, publications on various Gbe languages appeared rapidly, the vast majority of them dealing with individual Gbe languages. A significant exception is formed by the extensive [comparative linguistic](/wiki/Comparative_linguistics "Comparative linguistics") research of [Hounkpati B Christophe Capo](/wiki/Hounkpati_B_Christophe_Capo "Hounkpati B Christophe Capo"), which resulted in an internal classification of the Gbe languages and a reconstruction of the proto\-Gbe [phonology](/wiki/Phonology "Phonology"). Much of the comparative research for Capo's classification of the Gbe languages was carried out in the 1970s, and partial results were published in the late 1970s and early 1980s in the form of articles on specific [phonological](/wiki/Phonology "Phonology") developments in various branches of Gbe and, notably, in the form of a unified standard orthography of Gbe. In his *Renaissance du Gbe* (1988\), the internal classification of Gbe was published in full for the first time. In 1991, Capo published a comparative phonology of Gbe. In this period, Capo also initiated *Labo Gbe (Int.)*, the 'Laboratory for research on Gbe languages', based in Benin, which has since fostered research and published several collections of papers on the Gbe languages.
In the early 1990s, [SIL International](/wiki/SIL_International "SIL International") initiated a study to assess which Gbe communities could benefit from existing [literacy](/wiki/Literacy "Literacy") efforts and whether additional literacy campaigns in some of the remaining communities would be needed. Synchronised linguistic research carried out in the course of this study shed more light on the relations between the various varieties of Gbe.Some of the results of this study were presented in Kluge (2000, 2005, 2006\). In general, the SIL studies corroborated many of Capo's findings and led to adjustment of some of his more tentative groupings.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Before 1600",
"[Ketu](/wiki/Ketu_%28Benin%29 \"Ketu (Benin)\"), settlement in present\\-day Benin Republic (formerly known as Dahomey), might be an appropriate starting point for a brief history of the Gbe\\-speaking peoples. Ewe traditions refer to Ketu as *[Amedzofe](/wiki/Amedzofe_%28history%29 \"Amedzofe (history)\")* (\"origin of humanity\") or *Mawufe* (\"home of the Supreme Being\"). It is believed that the inhabitants of Ketu were pressed westward by a series of wars between the tenth and the thirteenth century. In Ketu, the ancestors of the Gbe\\-speaking peoples separated themselves from other refugees and began to establish their own identity.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}",
"Attacks between the thirteenth and the fifteenth century drove a large section of the group still further westward. They settled in the ancient kingdom of [Tado](/wiki/Tado_%28state%29 \"Tado (state)\") (also Stado or Stádó) on the Mono river (in present\\-day [Togo](/wiki/Togo \"Togo\")). The Tado kingdom was an important state in [West Africa](/wiki/West_Africa \"West Africa\") up to the late fifteenth century.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}",
"In the course of the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the [Notsie](/wiki/Nots%C3%A9 \"Notsé\") (or Notsé, Notsye, Wancé) kingdom was established by emigrants from the Tado kingdom; Notsie would later (around 1500\\) become the home of another group of migrants from Tado, the [Ewe people](/wiki/Ewe_people \"Ewe people\"). Around 1550, emigrants from Tado established the [Allada](/wiki/Allada \"Allada\") (or Alada) kingdom, which became the center of the [Fon people](/wiki/Fon_people \"Fon people\"). Tado is also the origin of the [Aja people](/wiki/Aja_people \"Aja people\"); in fact, the name Aja\\-Tado (Adja\\-Tado) is frequently used to refer to their language.\nAja is considered the mother tribe by the rest of Gbe speaking people as many of the tribes trace their migration routes through Aja Tado(formerly known as Azame).{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2022}}",
"Other peoples that speak Gbe languages today are the [Gen people](/wiki/Gen_people \"Gen people\") (Mina, Ge) around [Anexo](/wiki/Anexo \"Anexo\"), who are probably of Ga and [Fante](/wiki/Fante_people \"Fante people\") origin, and the [Phla and Pherá](/wiki/Phla%E2%80%93Pher%C3%A1_languages \"Phla–Pherá languages\") peoples, some of whom consist of the traditional inhabitants of the area intermingled with early migrants from Tado.Capo 1991:10; see also the section on linguistic diversity in [Phla–Pherá languages](/wiki/Phla%E2%80%93Pher%C3%A1_languages%23Linguistic_diversity \"Phla–Pherá languages#Linguistic diversity\").",
"### European traders and the transatlantic slave trade",
"[thumb\\|right\\|First page of the Spanish/Gen version of the 1658 *Doctrina Christiana*](/wiki/Image:Doctrina_Christiana_-_Y_explicacion_de_sus_Misterios_en_nuestro_idiom_Espa%C3%B1ol%2C_y_en_lengua_Arda_%28first_page%29.png \"Doctrina Christiana - Y explicacion de sus Misterios en nuestro idiom Español, y en lengua Arda (first page).png\")",
"Little is known of the history of the Gbe languages during the time that only Portuguese, Dutch and Danish traders landed on the [Gold Coast](/wiki/Gold_Coast_%28British_colony%29 \"Gold Coast (British colony)\") (roughly 1500 to 1650\\). The trade of mostly gold and agricultural goods did not exercise much influence on social and cultural structures of the time. No need was felt to investigate the indigenous languages and cultures; the languages generally used in trade at this time were [Portuguese](/wiki/Portuguese_language \"Portuguese language\") and [Dutch](/wiki/Dutch_language \"Dutch language\"). Some [loanwords](/wiki/Loanword \"Loanword\") remain from this period, for example *atrapoe* 'stairs'{{cite book\\| page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/adictionaryasan00chrigoog/page/n635 603] \\|title\\=A Dictionary of the Asante and Fante Language Called Tshi (Chwee, Tw̌i): With a Grammatical Introduction and Appendices on the Geography of the Gold Coast and Other Subjects \\|author\\=Johann Gottlieb Christaller \\|publisher\\=Evangelical Missionary Society \\|year\\=1881 \\|via\\=New York Public Library, Internet Archive\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/adictionaryasan00chrigoog}} from Dutch *trap* and *duku* '(piece of) cloth' from Dutch *doek* or Danish *dug*. The few written accounts that stem from this period focus on trade. As more European countries established trade posts in the area, [missionaries](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") were sent out. As early as 1658, Spanish missionaries translated the *[Doctrina Christiana](/wiki/Doctrina_Christiana \"Doctrina Christiana\")* into the language of [Allada](/wiki/Allada \"Allada\"), making it one of the earliest texts in any West African language. The Gbe language used in this document is thought to be a somewhat mangled form of [Gen](/wiki/Gen_language \"Gen language\").This catechism was reprinted in Labouret \\& Rivet 1929, who also document the history of the Spanish mission in Allada or Arda.",
"The relatively peaceful situation was profoundly changed with the rise of the [transatlantic slave trade](/wiki/History_of_slavery \"History of slavery\"), which reached its peak in the late eighteenth century when as many as 15,000 slaves per year were exported from the area around Benin as part of a [triangular trade](/wiki/Triangular_trade \"Triangular trade\") between the European mainland, the west coast of Africa and the colonies of the [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\") (notably the Caribbean). The main actors in this process were [Dutch](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\") (and to a lesser extent [English](/wiki/England \"England\")) traders; captives were supplied mostly by cooperating coastal African states.",
"The [Bight of Benin](/wiki/Bight_of_Benin \"Bight of Benin\"), precisely the area where the Gbe languages are spoken, was one of the centers of the slave trade at the turn of the eighteenth century. The export of 5% of the population each year resulted in overall population decline. Moreover, since the majority of the exported captives were male, the slave trade led to an imbalance in the female/male ratio. In some parts of the [Slave Coast](/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa \"Slave Coast of West Africa\") the ratio reached two adult women for every man. Several wars (sometimes deliberately provoked by European powers in order to [divide and rule](/wiki/Divide_and_rule \"Divide and rule\")) further distorted social and economical relations in the area. The lack of earlier linguistic data makes it difficult to trace the inevitable linguistic changes that resulted from this turbulent period.",
"### Colonisation and onwards",
"Around 1850, the transatlantic slave trade had virtually ceased. As the grip of European colonial powers strengthened, slave raiding became prohibited, trading focused on goods once more and the Europeans took it to be their calling to Christianize the colonized parts of Africa. In 1847 the Norddeutsche Missions\\-Gesellschaft (Bremen) started its work in [Keta](/wiki/Keta \"Keta\").",
"In 1857, the first Ewe grammar, *Schlüssel der Ewesprache, dargeboten in den Grammatischen Grundzügen des Anlodialekts*, was published by missionary [J. B. Schlegel](/wiki/J._B._Schlegel \"J. B. Schlegel\") of the Bremen mission. Five different dialects of Gbe (at that time called the *Ewé Language\\-Field*) were already distinguished by Schlegel, notes [Robert Needham Cust](/wiki/Robert_Needham_Cust \"Robert Needham Cust\") in his *Modern Languages of Africa* (1883\\).Cust, *The Modern Languages of Africa*, p. 204\\. The dialects listed by Cust do not map exactly onto the five subgroups now distinguished by Capo, which is not too surprising since Cust himself admits that he relies on a multitude of often conflicting sources. Fon is in fact listed twice (once as 'the dialect of the province of Dahomé' and once as 'Fogbe').",
"Where previous literature consisted mostly of travel journals sometimes accompanied by short word lists, Schlegel's work marked the beginning of a period of prolific lexicographic and linguistic research into the various Gbe languages. Important writers of this period include [Johann Gottlieb Christaller](/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Christaller \"Johann Gottlieb Christaller\") (*Die Volta\\-Sprachen\\-Gruppe*, 1888\\), [Ernst Henrici](/wiki/Ernst_Henrici \"Ernst Henrici\") (*Lehrbuch der Ephe\\-Sprache*, 1891, actually the first comparative Gbe grammar), J. Knüsli (*Ewe\\-German\\-English Vocabulary*, 1892\\) and [Maurice Delafosse](/wiki/Maurice_Delafosse \"Maurice Delafosse\") (*Manuel Dahoméen* (Fon), 1894\\).",
"In 1902 the missionary [Diedrich Hermann Westermann](/wiki/Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann \"Diedrich Hermann Westermann\") contributed an article titled \"Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Yewe\\-Sprachen in Togo\" to *Zeitschrift für Afrikanische und Oceanische Sprachen*. Westermann became one of the most productive and influential writers on the Gbe languages, and his output dominated the Gbe literature and analysis of the first half of the twentieth century. He wrote mainly on the Western Gbe languages, especially on [Ewe](/wiki/Ewe_language \"Ewe language\") (though he often used the term 'Ewe' to denote the Gbe dialect continuum as a whole). Among his most important works on Ewe are his *A Study of the Ewe language* (1930\\) and *Wörterbuch der Ewe\\-Sprache* (1954\\).",
"### *Renaissance du Gbe*",
"From 1930 on, publications on various Gbe languages appeared rapidly, the vast majority of them dealing with individual Gbe languages. A significant exception is formed by the extensive [comparative linguistic](/wiki/Comparative_linguistics \"Comparative linguistics\") research of [Hounkpati B Christophe Capo](/wiki/Hounkpati_B_Christophe_Capo \"Hounkpati B Christophe Capo\"), which resulted in an internal classification of the Gbe languages and a reconstruction of the proto\\-Gbe [phonology](/wiki/Phonology \"Phonology\"). Much of the comparative research for Capo's classification of the Gbe languages was carried out in the 1970s, and partial results were published in the late 1970s and early 1980s in the form of articles on specific [phonological](/wiki/Phonology \"Phonology\") developments in various branches of Gbe and, notably, in the form of a unified standard orthography of Gbe. In his *Renaissance du Gbe* (1988\\), the internal classification of Gbe was published in full for the first time. In 1991, Capo published a comparative phonology of Gbe. In this period, Capo also initiated *Labo Gbe (Int.)*, the 'Laboratory for research on Gbe languages', based in Benin, which has since fostered research and published several collections of papers on the Gbe languages.",
"In the early 1990s, [SIL International](/wiki/SIL_International \"SIL International\") initiated a study to assess which Gbe communities could benefit from existing [literacy](/wiki/Literacy \"Literacy\") efforts and whether additional literacy campaigns in some of the remaining communities would be needed. Synchronised linguistic research carried out in the course of this study shed more light on the relations between the various varieties of Gbe.Some of the results of this study were presented in Kluge (2000, 2005, 2006\\). In general, the SIL studies corroborated many of Capo's findings and led to adjustment of some of his more tentative groupings.",
""
] |
Phonology
---------
### Consonants
The following phonetic segments are attested in Gbe languages:
| \+Gbe languages consonants phonetic inventory (Capo 1991:39\) |
[Labial](/wiki/Labial_consonant "Labial consonant")
[Labio\-
dental](/wiki/Labiodental_consonant "Labiodental consonant")
[Lamino](/wiki/Laminal_consonant "Laminal consonant")
\-[interdental](/wiki/Interdental_consonant "Interdental consonant")
Lamino\-
[alveolar](/wiki/Alveolar_consonant "Alveolar consonant")
[Apico](/wiki/Apical_consonant "Apical consonant")\-
[post\-alveolar](/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant "Postalveolar consonant")
[Alveolo
\-palatal](/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant "Alveolo-palatal consonant")
[Palatal](/wiki/Palatal_consonant "Palatal consonant")
[Velar](/wiki/Velar_consonant "Velar consonant")
[Uvular](/wiki/Uvular_consonant "Uvular consonant")
| --- |
| plain | [lab.](/wiki/Labialization "Labialization") | plain | [lab.](/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93velar_consonant "Labial–velar consonant") | plain | lab. |
| [Nasal](/wiki/Nasal_consonant "Nasal consonant")
{{IPAlink\|m}} |
| | {{IPAlink\|n}} |
| | {{IPAlink\|ɲ}} |
|
{{IPAlink\|ŋ}} |
ŋw |
| |
| [Plosive](/wiki/Stop_consonant "Stop consonant") /[Affricate](/wiki/Affricate_consonant "Affricate consonant") | [voiceless](/wiki/Voicelessness "Voicelessness") | {{IPAlink\|p}} | | {{IPAlink\|t̪\|t}} | {{IPAlink\|ts}} | | {{IPAlink\|tʃ}} | | | {{IPAlink\|k}} | {{IPAlink\|k͡p}} | | |
| [voiced](/wiki/Voice_%28phonetics%29 "Voice (phonetics)") | {{IPAlink\|b}} | | {{IPAlink\|d̪\|d}} | {{IPAlink\|dz}} | {{IPAlink\|ɖ}} | {{IPAlink\|dʒ}} | | | {{IPAlink\|ɡ}} | {{IPAlink\|ɡ͡b}} | | |
| [Fricative](/wiki/Fricative_consonant "Fricative consonant") | voiceless | {{IPAlink\|ɸ}} | {{IPAlink\|f}} | | {{IPAlink\|s}} | | {{IPAlink\|ʃ}} | | | | | {{IPAlink\|χ}} | χw |
| voiced | {{IPAlink\|β}} | {{IPAlink\|v}} | | {{IPAlink\|z}} | | {{IPAlink\|ʒ}} | | | | | {{IPAlink\|ʁ}} | ʁw |
| [Trill](/wiki/Trill_consonant "Trill consonant")
plain |
| | | | {{IPAlink\|r}} |
| | | | | | |
| [nasalized](/wiki/Nasalization "Nasalization") | | | | | r̃ | | | | | | | |
| [Approximant](/wiki/Approximant_consonant "Approximant consonant")
plain |
| | | | {{IPAlink\|l}} |
|
{{IPAlink\|j}} |
{{IPAlink\|ɥ}} |
{{IPAlink\|ɰ}} |
{{IPAlink\|w}} |
| |
| nasalized | | | | | l̃ | | j̃ | ɥ̃ | | w̃ | | |
*Notes*
* The apico\-[postalveolar consonants](/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant "Postalveolar consonant") are generally written and transcribed with the symbols for the corresponding alveolar consonants, except for the voiced stop, which uses the symbol for the voiced retroflex stop {{IPA\|\[ɖ]}}. This is only to distinguish it from the lamino\-dental voiced stop, and is not to be interpreted as the consonant being [subapical](/wiki/Subapical_consonant "Subapical consonant").
* The above table lists the attested *phonetic* segments. Some of the sounds listed here are in [free variation](/wiki/Free_variation "Free variation") with other sounds (e.g. **r** and **r̃** with **l** and **l̃**). The reader is referred to the individual languages for an overview of their phoneme inventory.
No Gbe language exhibits all of the above forty\-two phonetic segments. According to Capo (1991\), all of them have the following twenty\-three consonants in common: **b, m, t, d, ɖ, n, k, g, kp, gb, ɲ, f, v, s, z, χ, ʁ, r, r̃, l, l̃, y, w**.
### Vowels
The following vowels are found in Gbe languages:
| \+ Phonetic inventory of vowels in Gbe languages | Capo 1991:24 | [Front](/wiki/Front_vowel "Front vowel") | [Central](/wiki/Central_vowel "Central vowel") | [Back](/wiki/Back_vowel "Back vowel") |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Close](/wiki/Close_vowel "Close vowel") | {{IPA\|i • ĩ}} | | {{IPA\|u • ũ}} |
| [Close\-mid](/wiki/Close-mid_vowel "Close-mid vowel") | {{IPA\|e • ẽ}} | | {{IPA\|o • õ}} |
| | | {{IPA\|ə • ə̃}} | |
| [Open\-mid](/wiki/Open-mid_vowel "Open-mid vowel") | {{IPA\|ɛ • ɛ̃}} | | {{IPA\|ɔ • ɔ̃}} |
| [Open](/wiki/Open_vowel "Open vowel") | | {{IPA\|a • ã}} | |
In general, each Gbe variety makes use of a subset of twelve vowels, seven [oral](/wiki/Oral_vowel "Oral vowel") and five [nasalised](/wiki/Nasal_vowel "Nasal vowel"). The vowels {{IPA\|/i ĩ u ũ e o ɛ̃ ɔ ɔ̃ a ã/}} are attested in all Gbe languages.
Nasalization plays an important role in the vowel inventory: every vowel in the Gbe languages occurs in a non\-nasalized and a nasalized form. Capo (1991\) observes that the degree of nasality of nasal vowels is less when they occur after nasal consonants than after non\-nasal ones.
### Nasalization in Gbe
Capo (1981\) has argued that nasalization in Gbe languages should be analyzed phonemically as a feature relevant to vowels and not to consonants.Cf. Capo (1981\). This means that nasal vowels are distinct from oral vowels, while nasal and voiced oral stops are treated as predictable variants. For example, non\-syllabic nasal consonants are always followed by a nasal vowel, and syllabic nasal consonants are analyzed as reduced forms of consonant–vowel syllables. This analysis is in line with reconstructions of the [proto](/wiki/Protolanguage "Protolanguage")\-[Volta–Congo](/wiki/Volta%E2%80%93Congo_languages "Volta–Congo languages") language, for which similar proposals have been made.Cf. Stewart, John (1985\) 'Nasality patterns in the Volta–Congo foot.' Paper presented at the Colloquium on African Linguistics, Leiden, Sept. 1985\.
### Tone
The Gbe languages are [tonal languages](/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29 "Tone (linguistics)"). In general, they have three tone levels, High (H), Mid (M), and Low (L), of which the lower two are not phonemically contrastive. Thus, the basic tonemes of Gbe are 'High' and 'Non\-High', where the High toneme may be realised as High or Rising and the Non\-High toneme may be realised as Low or Mid. The tones of Gbe [nouns](/wiki/Noun "Noun") are often affected by the [consonant](/wiki/Consonant "Consonant") of the noun stem. The [voicing](/wiki/Phonation "Phonation") of this consonant affects the realisation of the Non\-High toneme roughly as follows: If the consonant is a voiced [obstruent](/wiki/Obstruent "Obstruent"), the Non\-High toneme is realised as Low (è\-ḏà 'snake') and if the consonant is a voiceless obstruent or a [sonorant](/wiki/Sonorant "Sonorant"), the Non\-High toneme is realised as Mid (ām̲ē 'person', à\-f̱ī 'mouse'). The consonants that induce tonal alternations in this way are sometimes called [depressor consonants](/wiki/Depressor_consonant "Depressor consonant").
### Morphology
The basic [syllable](/wiki/Syllable "Syllable") form of Gbe languages is commonly rendered (C1)(C2)V(C3), meaning that there at least has to be a nucleus V, and that there are various possible configurations of consonants (C1\-3). The V position may be filled by any of the vowels or by a syllabic nasal. It is also the location of the tone. While virtually any consonant can occur in the C1 position, there exist several restrictions on the kind of consonants that can occur in the C2 and C3 positions. In general, only [liquid consonants](/wiki/Liquid_consonants "Liquid consonants") may occur as C2 , while only nasals occur in the C3 position.
Most [verbs](/wiki/Verb "Verb") in Gbe languages have one of the basic syllable forms. Gbe [nominals](/wiki/Noun "Noun") are generally preceded by a nominal prefix consisting of a vowel (cf. the Ewe word *{{IPA\|aɖú}}*, 'tooth'). The quality of this vowel is restricted to the subset of non\-nasal vowels. In some cases the nominal prefix is reduced to [schwa](/wiki/Schwa "Schwa") or lost: the word for 'fire' is *izo* in Phelá, *{{IPA\|ədʒo}}* in Wací\-Ewe and *{{IPA\|dʒo}}* in Pecí\-Ewe. The nominal prefix can be seen as a relic of a typical Niger–Congo [noun class](/wiki/Noun_class "Noun class") system.
The Gbe languages are [isolating languages](/wiki/Isolating_language "Isolating language"), and as such express many semantic features by lexical items. Of a more [agglutinative](/wiki/Agglutinative_language "Agglutinative language") nature are the commonly used [periphrastic](/wiki/Periphrasis "Periphrasis") constructions. In contrast to [Bantu languages](/wiki/Bantu_languages "Bantu languages"), a major branch of the Niger–Congo language family, Gbe languages have very little inflectional morphology. There is for example no subject–verb [agreement](/wiki/Agreement_%28linguistics%29 "Agreement (linguistics)") whatsoever in Gbe, no [gender](/wiki/Gender_%28linguistics%29 "Gender (linguistics)") agreement, and no inflection of nouns for number. The Gbe languages make extensive use of a rich system of tense/aspect markers.
[Reduplication](/wiki/Reduplication "Reduplication") is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word, or part of it, is repeated. The Gbe languages, like most [Kwa languages](/wiki/Kwa_languages "Kwa languages"), make extensive use of reduplication in the formation of new words, especially in deriving nouns, adjectives and adverbs from verbs. Thus in Ewe, the verb *lã́*, 'to cut', is nominalised by reduplication, yielding *lãlã́*, 'the act of cutting'. Triplication is used to intensify the meaning of adjectives and adverbs, e.g. Ewe *ko* 'only' → *kokooko* 'only, only, only'.
|
[
"Phonology\n---------",
"### Consonants",
"The following phonetic segments are attested in Gbe languages:",
"",
"| \\+Gbe languages consonants phonetic inventory (Capo 1991:39\\) |",
"[Labial](/wiki/Labial_consonant \"Labial consonant\")",
"[Labio\\- \ndental](/wiki/Labiodental_consonant \"Labiodental consonant\")",
"[Lamino](/wiki/Laminal_consonant \"Laminal consonant\") \n\\-[interdental](/wiki/Interdental_consonant \"Interdental consonant\")",
"Lamino\\- \n[alveolar](/wiki/Alveolar_consonant \"Alveolar consonant\")",
"[Apico](/wiki/Apical_consonant \"Apical consonant\")\\- \n[post\\-alveolar](/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant \"Postalveolar consonant\")",
"[Alveolo \n\\-palatal](/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant \"Alveolo-palatal consonant\")",
"[Palatal](/wiki/Palatal_consonant \"Palatal consonant\")",
"[Velar](/wiki/Velar_consonant \"Velar consonant\")",
"[Uvular](/wiki/Uvular_consonant \"Uvular consonant\")",
"| --- |\n| plain | [lab.](/wiki/Labialization \"Labialization\") | plain | [lab.](/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93velar_consonant \"Labial–velar consonant\") | plain | lab. |\n| [Nasal](/wiki/Nasal_consonant \"Nasal consonant\")",
"{{IPAlink\\|m}} |\n | | {{IPAlink\\|n}} |\n | | {{IPAlink\\|ɲ}} |\n |\n {{IPAlink\\|ŋ}} |\n ŋw |\n | |\n| [Plosive](/wiki/Stop_consonant \"Stop consonant\") /[Affricate](/wiki/Affricate_consonant \"Affricate consonant\") | [voiceless](/wiki/Voicelessness \"Voicelessness\") | {{IPAlink\\|p}} | | {{IPAlink\\|t̪\\|t}} | {{IPAlink\\|ts}} | | {{IPAlink\\|tʃ}} | | | {{IPAlink\\|k}} | {{IPAlink\\|k͡p}} | | |\n| [voiced](/wiki/Voice_%28phonetics%29 \"Voice (phonetics)\") | {{IPAlink\\|b}} | | {{IPAlink\\|d̪\\|d}} | {{IPAlink\\|dz}} | {{IPAlink\\|ɖ}} | {{IPAlink\\|dʒ}} | | | {{IPAlink\\|ɡ}} | {{IPAlink\\|ɡ͡b}} | | |\n| [Fricative](/wiki/Fricative_consonant \"Fricative consonant\") | voiceless | {{IPAlink\\|ɸ}} | {{IPAlink\\|f}} | | {{IPAlink\\|s}} | | {{IPAlink\\|ʃ}} | | | | | {{IPAlink\\|χ}} | χw |\n| voiced | {{IPAlink\\|β}} | {{IPAlink\\|v}} | | {{IPAlink\\|z}} | | {{IPAlink\\|ʒ}} | | | | | {{IPAlink\\|ʁ}} | ʁw |\n| [Trill](/wiki/Trill_consonant \"Trill consonant\")",
"plain |\n | | | | {{IPAlink\\|r}} |\n | | | | | | |\n| [nasalized](/wiki/Nasalization \"Nasalization\") | | | | | r̃ | | | | | | | |\n| [Approximant](/wiki/Approximant_consonant \"Approximant consonant\")",
"plain |\n | | | | {{IPAlink\\|l}} |\n |\n {{IPAlink\\|j}} |\n {{IPAlink\\|ɥ}} |\n {{IPAlink\\|ɰ}} |\n {{IPAlink\\|w}} |\n | |\n| nasalized | | | | | l̃ | | j̃ | ɥ̃ | | w̃ | | |",
"*Notes*\n* The apico\\-[postalveolar consonants](/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant \"Postalveolar consonant\") are generally written and transcribed with the symbols for the corresponding alveolar consonants, except for the voiced stop, which uses the symbol for the voiced retroflex stop {{IPA\\|\\[ɖ]}}. This is only to distinguish it from the lamino\\-dental voiced stop, and is not to be interpreted as the consonant being [subapical](/wiki/Subapical_consonant \"Subapical consonant\").\n* The above table lists the attested *phonetic* segments. Some of the sounds listed here are in [free variation](/wiki/Free_variation \"Free variation\") with other sounds (e.g. **r** and **r̃** with **l** and **l̃**). The reader is referred to the individual languages for an overview of their phoneme inventory.",
"No Gbe language exhibits all of the above forty\\-two phonetic segments. According to Capo (1991\\), all of them have the following twenty\\-three consonants in common: **b, m, t, d, ɖ, n, k, g, kp, gb, ɲ, f, v, s, z, χ, ʁ, r, r̃, l, l̃, y, w**.",
"### Vowels",
"The following vowels are found in Gbe languages:",
"",
"| \\+ Phonetic inventory of vowels in Gbe languages | Capo 1991:24 | [Front](/wiki/Front_vowel \"Front vowel\") | [Central](/wiki/Central_vowel \"Central vowel\") | [Back](/wiki/Back_vowel \"Back vowel\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Close](/wiki/Close_vowel \"Close vowel\") | {{IPA\\|i • ĩ}} | | {{IPA\\|u • ũ}} |\n| [Close\\-mid](/wiki/Close-mid_vowel \"Close-mid vowel\") | {{IPA\\|e • ẽ}} | | {{IPA\\|o • õ}} |\n| | | {{IPA\\|ə • ə̃}} | |\n| [Open\\-mid](/wiki/Open-mid_vowel \"Open-mid vowel\") | {{IPA\\|ɛ • ɛ̃}} | | {{IPA\\|ɔ • ɔ̃}} |\n| [Open](/wiki/Open_vowel \"Open vowel\") | | {{IPA\\|a • ã}} | |",
"In general, each Gbe variety makes use of a subset of twelve vowels, seven [oral](/wiki/Oral_vowel \"Oral vowel\") and five [nasalised](/wiki/Nasal_vowel \"Nasal vowel\"). The vowels {{IPA\\|/i ĩ u ũ e o ɛ̃ ɔ ɔ̃ a ã/}} are attested in all Gbe languages.",
"Nasalization plays an important role in the vowel inventory: every vowel in the Gbe languages occurs in a non\\-nasalized and a nasalized form. Capo (1991\\) observes that the degree of nasality of nasal vowels is less when they occur after nasal consonants than after non\\-nasal ones.",
"### Nasalization in Gbe",
"Capo (1981\\) has argued that nasalization in Gbe languages should be analyzed phonemically as a feature relevant to vowels and not to consonants.Cf. Capo (1981\\). This means that nasal vowels are distinct from oral vowels, while nasal and voiced oral stops are treated as predictable variants. For example, non\\-syllabic nasal consonants are always followed by a nasal vowel, and syllabic nasal consonants are analyzed as reduced forms of consonant–vowel syllables. This analysis is in line with reconstructions of the [proto](/wiki/Protolanguage \"Protolanguage\")\\-[Volta–Congo](/wiki/Volta%E2%80%93Congo_languages \"Volta–Congo languages\") language, for which similar proposals have been made.Cf. Stewart, John (1985\\) 'Nasality patterns in the Volta–Congo foot.' Paper presented at the Colloquium on African Linguistics, Leiden, Sept. 1985\\.",
"### Tone",
"The Gbe languages are [tonal languages](/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29 \"Tone (linguistics)\"). In general, they have three tone levels, High (H), Mid (M), and Low (L), of which the lower two are not phonemically contrastive. Thus, the basic tonemes of Gbe are 'High' and 'Non\\-High', where the High toneme may be realised as High or Rising and the Non\\-High toneme may be realised as Low or Mid. The tones of Gbe [nouns](/wiki/Noun \"Noun\") are often affected by the [consonant](/wiki/Consonant \"Consonant\") of the noun stem. The [voicing](/wiki/Phonation \"Phonation\") of this consonant affects the realisation of the Non\\-High toneme roughly as follows: If the consonant is a voiced [obstruent](/wiki/Obstruent \"Obstruent\"), the Non\\-High toneme is realised as Low (è\\-ḏà 'snake') and if the consonant is a voiceless obstruent or a [sonorant](/wiki/Sonorant \"Sonorant\"), the Non\\-High toneme is realised as Mid (ām̲ē 'person', à\\-f̱ī 'mouse'). The consonants that induce tonal alternations in this way are sometimes called [depressor consonants](/wiki/Depressor_consonant \"Depressor consonant\").",
"### Morphology",
"The basic [syllable](/wiki/Syllable \"Syllable\") form of Gbe languages is commonly rendered (C1)(C2)V(C3), meaning that there at least has to be a nucleus V, and that there are various possible configurations of consonants (C1\\-3). The V position may be filled by any of the vowels or by a syllabic nasal. It is also the location of the tone. While virtually any consonant can occur in the C1 position, there exist several restrictions on the kind of consonants that can occur in the C2 and C3 positions. In general, only [liquid consonants](/wiki/Liquid_consonants \"Liquid consonants\") may occur as C2 , while only nasals occur in the C3 position.",
"Most [verbs](/wiki/Verb \"Verb\") in Gbe languages have one of the basic syllable forms. Gbe [nominals](/wiki/Noun \"Noun\") are generally preceded by a nominal prefix consisting of a vowel (cf. the Ewe word *{{IPA\\|aɖú}}*, 'tooth'). The quality of this vowel is restricted to the subset of non\\-nasal vowels. In some cases the nominal prefix is reduced to [schwa](/wiki/Schwa \"Schwa\") or lost: the word for 'fire' is *izo* in Phelá, *{{IPA\\|ədʒo}}* in Wací\\-Ewe and *{{IPA\\|dʒo}}* in Pecí\\-Ewe. The nominal prefix can be seen as a relic of a typical Niger–Congo [noun class](/wiki/Noun_class \"Noun class\") system.",
"The Gbe languages are [isolating languages](/wiki/Isolating_language \"Isolating language\"), and as such express many semantic features by lexical items. Of a more [agglutinative](/wiki/Agglutinative_language \"Agglutinative language\") nature are the commonly used [periphrastic](/wiki/Periphrasis \"Periphrasis\") constructions. In contrast to [Bantu languages](/wiki/Bantu_languages \"Bantu languages\"), a major branch of the Niger–Congo language family, Gbe languages have very little inflectional morphology. There is for example no subject–verb [agreement](/wiki/Agreement_%28linguistics%29 \"Agreement (linguistics)\") whatsoever in Gbe, no [gender](/wiki/Gender_%28linguistics%29 \"Gender (linguistics)\") agreement, and no inflection of nouns for number. The Gbe languages make extensive use of a rich system of tense/aspect markers.",
"[Reduplication](/wiki/Reduplication \"Reduplication\") is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word, or part of it, is repeated. The Gbe languages, like most [Kwa languages](/wiki/Kwa_languages \"Kwa languages\"), make extensive use of reduplication in the formation of new words, especially in deriving nouns, adjectives and adverbs from verbs. Thus in Ewe, the verb *lã́*, 'to cut', is nominalised by reduplication, yielding *lãlã́*, 'the act of cutting'. Triplication is used to intensify the meaning of adjectives and adverbs, e.g. Ewe *ko* 'only' → *kokooko* 'only, only, only'.",
""
] |
Titles
------
The act addressed:
* Energy efficiency, energy conservation and energy management (Title I),
* Natural gas imports and exports (Title II),
* Alternative fuels and requiring certain fleets to acquire [alternative fuel vehicles](/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle "Alternative fuel vehicle"), which are capable of operating on nonpetroleum fuels (Title III\-V),
* Electric motor vehicles (Title VI),
* [Radioactive waste](/wiki/Radioactive_waste "Radioactive waste") (Title VIII),
* Coal power and clean coal (Title XIII),
* Renewable energy (Title XII), and
* Other issues.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS\-109hr6eas/pdf/BILLS\-109hr6eas.pdf\|title\=Senate passage of H.R. 6\|date\=28 Jun 2005\|website\=US Government Printing office\|access\-date\=12 Apr 2014}}
### Title I\-\-Energy efficiency
Title I established a comprehensive energy efficiency program that included incentives for energy conservation in buildings and created efficiency standards for appliances.
The EPAct directed the federal government to decrease energy consumption in federal buildings when feasible, and to integrate the use of alternative fuel vehicles in federal and state fleets.
There are separate sections dedicated to coal, oil, natural gas, and nuclear energy detailing clean energy incentives, research \& development strategies, conservation goals, and responsible management practices.
#### Energy efficiency provisions
* Buildings \- Requires states to establish minimum commercial building energy codes and to consider minimum residential codes based on current voluntary codes. This gave impetus to the creation and modification of [ASHRAE 90\.1](/wiki/ASHRAE_90.1 "ASHRAE 90.1")/1999, 2001, ASHRAE 90\.2, the Model Energy Code etc.
* Utilities \- Requires states to consider new regulatory standards that would require utilities to undertake [integrated resource planning](/wiki/Integrated_resource_planning "Integrated resource planning"); allow the energy efficiency programs to be at least as profitable as new supply options; and encourage improvements in supply system efficiency.
* Equipment Standards \- Establishes efficiency standards for: Commercial heating and [air\-conditioning](/wiki/Air-conditioning "Air-conditioning") equipment; electric motors; and lamps.
* Renewable Energy \- Establishes a program for providing federal support on a competitive basis for renewable energy technologies
* Alternative Fuels
* Electric Vehicles
* Electricity \- Removes obstacles to wholesale power competition in the [Public Utilities Holding Company Act](/wiki/Public_Utility_Holding_Company_Act_of_1935 "Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935") (PUHCA).
### Title III\-\-Alternative fuels
Title III of the 1992 Energy Policy Act addresses alternative fuels. It gave the [U.S. Department of Energy](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Energy "U.S. Department of Energy") administrative power to regulate the minimum number of light duty alternative fuel vehicles required in certain federal fleets beginning in fiscal year 1993\. Title III includes:
* Federal Fleet Requirements.
* State and Alternative Fuel Provider Rule.
* Private and Local Government Fleet Rule.
* Alternative Fuel Designation Authority.
### Title VI\-\-Electric motor vehicles
The [United States Department of Energy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy "United States Department of Energy"), which has EPACT92 implementation authority, ruled that diesel\-electric or gasoline\-electric [hybrids](/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle "Hybrid electric vehicle") are not "alternative fuel vehicles."{{Cite web\|title\=U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)\|url\=https://www.eia.gov/renewable/afv/archive/index.cfm\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-22\|website\=www.eia.gov}}
### Title VIII\-\-Radioactive waste
Section 801 directed the [United States Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency") to promulgate radiation protection standards for the [Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository](/wiki/Yucca_Mountain_nuclear_waste_repository "Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository"), which had been designated by the Federal government to serve as the permanent disposal site for used nuclear fuel and other radioactive materials from commercial [nuclear power plants](/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant "Nuclear power plant") and U.S. Department of Defense activities.
### Title XII\-\-Renewable energy
Title XXII in the EPAct authorized [tax incentives](/wiki/Tax_incentive "Tax incentive") and marketing strategies for [renewable energy](/wiki/Renewable_energy "Renewable energy") technologies in an effort to encourage commercial sales and production.
### Title XX\-\-Reduction of oil vulnerability
Section 2026 known as Renewable Hydrogen Energy establishes a five year program in accordance with the [Spark M. Matsunaga Hydrogen Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1990](/wiki/Spark_M._Matsunaga_Hydrogen_Research%2C_Development%2C_and_Demonstration_Act_of_1990 "Spark M. Matsunaga Hydrogen Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1990") for the distribution, production, storage, and utilization of hydrogen.
|
[
"Titles\n------",
"The act addressed:\n* Energy efficiency, energy conservation and energy management (Title I),\n* Natural gas imports and exports (Title II),\n* Alternative fuels and requiring certain fleets to acquire [alternative fuel vehicles](/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle \"Alternative fuel vehicle\"), which are capable of operating on nonpetroleum fuels (Title III\\-V),\n* Electric motor vehicles (Title VI),\n* [Radioactive waste](/wiki/Radioactive_waste \"Radioactive waste\") (Title VIII),\n* Coal power and clean coal (Title XIII),\n* Renewable energy (Title XII), and\n* Other issues.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS\\-109hr6eas/pdf/BILLS\\-109hr6eas.pdf\\|title\\=Senate passage of H.R. 6\\|date\\=28 Jun 2005\\|website\\=US Government Printing office\\|access\\-date\\=12 Apr 2014}}",
"### Title I\\-\\-Energy efficiency",
"Title I established a comprehensive energy efficiency program that included incentives for energy conservation in buildings and created efficiency standards for appliances.",
"The EPAct directed the federal government to decrease energy consumption in federal buildings when feasible, and to integrate the use of alternative fuel vehicles in federal and state fleets. \nThere are separate sections dedicated to coal, oil, natural gas, and nuclear energy detailing clean energy incentives, research \\& development strategies, conservation goals, and responsible management practices.",
"#### Energy efficiency provisions",
"* Buildings \\- Requires states to establish minimum commercial building energy codes and to consider minimum residential codes based on current voluntary codes. This gave impetus to the creation and modification of [ASHRAE 90\\.1](/wiki/ASHRAE_90.1 \"ASHRAE 90.1\")/1999, 2001, ASHRAE 90\\.2, the Model Energy Code etc.\n* Utilities \\- Requires states to consider new regulatory standards that would require utilities to undertake [integrated resource planning](/wiki/Integrated_resource_planning \"Integrated resource planning\"); allow the energy efficiency programs to be at least as profitable as new supply options; and encourage improvements in supply system efficiency.\n* Equipment Standards \\- Establishes efficiency standards for: Commercial heating and [air\\-conditioning](/wiki/Air-conditioning \"Air-conditioning\") equipment; electric motors; and lamps.\n* Renewable Energy \\- Establishes a program for providing federal support on a competitive basis for renewable energy technologies\n* Alternative Fuels\n* Electric Vehicles\n* Electricity \\- Removes obstacles to wholesale power competition in the [Public Utilities Holding Company Act](/wiki/Public_Utility_Holding_Company_Act_of_1935 \"Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935\") (PUHCA).",
"### Title III\\-\\-Alternative fuels",
"Title III of the 1992 Energy Policy Act addresses alternative fuels. It gave the [U.S. Department of Energy](/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Energy \"U.S. Department of Energy\") administrative power to regulate the minimum number of light duty alternative fuel vehicles required in certain federal fleets beginning in fiscal year 1993\\. Title III includes:",
"* Federal Fleet Requirements.\n* State and Alternative Fuel Provider Rule.\n* Private and Local Government Fleet Rule.\n* Alternative Fuel Designation Authority.",
"### Title VI\\-\\-Electric motor vehicles",
"The [United States Department of Energy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy \"United States Department of Energy\"), which has EPACT92 implementation authority, ruled that diesel\\-electric or gasoline\\-electric [hybrids](/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle \"Hybrid electric vehicle\") are not \"alternative fuel vehicles.\"{{Cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)\\|url\\=https://www.eia.gov/renewable/afv/archive/index.cfm\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-22\\|website\\=www.eia.gov}}",
"### Title VIII\\-\\-Radioactive waste",
"Section 801 directed the [United States Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency \"United States Environmental Protection Agency\") to promulgate radiation protection standards for the [Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository](/wiki/Yucca_Mountain_nuclear_waste_repository \"Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository\"), which had been designated by the Federal government to serve as the permanent disposal site for used nuclear fuel and other radioactive materials from commercial [nuclear power plants](/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant \"Nuclear power plant\") and U.S. Department of Defense activities.",
"### Title XII\\-\\-Renewable energy",
"Title XXII in the EPAct authorized [tax incentives](/wiki/Tax_incentive \"Tax incentive\") and marketing strategies for [renewable energy](/wiki/Renewable_energy \"Renewable energy\") technologies in an effort to encourage commercial sales and production.",
"### Title XX\\-\\-Reduction of oil vulnerability",
"Section 2026 known as Renewable Hydrogen Energy establishes a five year program in accordance with the [Spark M. Matsunaga Hydrogen Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1990](/wiki/Spark_M._Matsunaga_Hydrogen_Research%2C_Development%2C_and_Demonstration_Act_of_1990 \"Spark M. Matsunaga Hydrogen Research, Development, and Demonstration Act of 1990\") for the distribution, production, storage, and utilization of hydrogen.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
There is little information available on Frank Amato before his marriage into the Castellano\-Gambino\-Lucchese blood relative family. Amato was an [Italian\-American](/wiki/Italian_Americans "Italian Americans") of [Sicilian](/wiki/Sicilian_Americans "Sicilian Americans") descent from [Brooklyn, New York](/wiki/Brooklyn%2C_New_York "Brooklyn, New York"). Frank was born out of [wedlock](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") and raised in a [blue collar](/wiki/Blue_collar "Blue collar") family in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"). He worked as a butcher and as a transport truck hijacker for a crew in the [Gambino crime family](/wiki/Gambino_crime_family "Gambino crime family") that robbed transport trucks coming in and out of [John F. Kennedy Airport](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Airport "John F. Kennedy Airport"). He was a fellow criminal associate of transport truck hijacker Edward Grillo. His marriage to Constance was an [Old World](/wiki/Old_World "Old World") traditional Sicilian style wedding that was attended by many powerful Gambino mobsters.
### Legitimate business career
FBI Special Agent Joseph O'Brien states in *Boss of Bosses: The FBI and Paul Castellano* that after Amato married Paul Castellano's daughter, Constance, Castellano set Amato up in the legitimate business world as a distributor of [Italian ice](/wiki/Italian_ice "Italian ice"). Castellano greatly misjudged Amato who did not share the same keen business sense as Castellano and the Italian ice distribution business failed. Castellano put Amato to work as a butcher at his successful Meat Palace, a butcher shop franchise owned by Castellano and his sons. As a butcher employed at Dial Meat Purveyors Inc. and the Meat Market, he was involved in the selling of rancid and expired meat products. Although Amato had little formal school education, he could quarter a lamb with great skill and was knowledgeable about [tallow](/wiki/Tallow "Tallow"). In *Boss of Bosses*, Agent O'Brien suggests that at Dial Meat and the Meat Market he was taught by Castellano's men how to bleach tainted, outdated, uninspected meats or meats of a dubious provenance by using a white preservative powder known as "dynamite" that gave the faded, discolored meat a healthy fresh red appearance. Frank was also shown how to drain meat of any foul smelling juices it had accumulated by using [formaldehyde](/wiki/Formaldehyde "Formaldehyde") and use counterfeit [United States Department of Agriculture](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture "United States Department of Agriculture") stamps to assign meats a false grade or expiration date. O'Brien would also state that at Castellano's meat suppliers he would have Amato and fellow butchers carve meat and label it as "beef" that was not always carved from cows and "pork" that was not always carved from pigs.
### FBI scrutiny
Because of his involvement in Castellano's stranglehold on the East Coast wholesale meat market and the [United Food and Commercial Workers Union](/wiki/United_Food_and_Commercial_Workers_Union "United Food and Commercial Workers Union"), Amato became a target for the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") (FBI) early on in the successful investigation dubbed "Operation Meathead". Castellano's sons, Joseph and Phillip, managed the chain. There is no evidence that Castellano promoted or wanted to induct Amato as a "[made man](/wiki/Made_man "Made man")" into the Gambino crime family. Dial Meat Purveyors, Inc. also served [Waldbaum's](/wiki/Waldbaum%27s "Waldbaum's") and [Key Food](/wiki/Key_Food "Key Food") Cooperative on whose boards of directors Gambino crime family capo [Pasquale Conte](/wiki/Pasquale_Conte "Pasquale Conte") sat as a member.
### Infidelities and divorce from Constance
Although married to Constance, after turning [state's evidence](/wiki/State%27s_evidence "State's evidence"), [Gambino crime family](/wiki/Gambino_crime_family "Gambino crime family") associate, [Dominick Montiglio](/wiki/Dominick_Montiglio "Dominick Montiglio"), informed authorities that Frank had been witnessed by mob associates and superiors, like capo [Anthony Gaggi](/wiki/Anthony_Gaggi "Anthony Gaggi"), making sexual advances and having had brief encounters with the female employees who worked with him at the Meat Palace. A few weeks after Gaggi witnessed this, Castellano had the female employee fired. Amato was later transferred to Castellano's other butcher store chain, Dial Meat Purveyors, Inc., formerly known as Blue Ribbon Meats, the business that helped poultry magnate [Frank Perdue](/wiki/Frank_Perdue "Frank Perdue") distribute his chickens in supermarket chains. Amato worked for brother\-in\-law, Paul Castellano Jr. After a few months of working at Dial Poultry, Amato was caught committing [adultery](/wiki/Adultery "Adultery").
After he caught Amato having an affair with a co\-worker, Paul Castellano became enraged and ordered Amato to move out of the [Todt Hill](/wiki/Todt_Hill "Todt Hill") mansion and had him fired from his job as a butcher at Dial Poultry. After being fired, Amato found work at a clothing store in [Queens](/wiki/Queens "Queens") with the help of cousins\-in\-law [Thomas Gambino](/wiki/Thomas_Gambino "Thomas Gambino") and [Joseph Gambino](/wiki/Joseph_Gambino "Joseph Gambino"), the sons of Carlo Gambino, and supplemented his meager income by committing petty burglaries. Constance moved to [West Palm Beach, Florida](/wiki/West_Palm_Beach%2C_Florida "West Palm Beach, Florida") and lived in her father's condominium to overcome her emotional distress.
Constance was granted a divorce from Amato in 1973 on grounds of [spousal abuse](/wiki/Spousal_abuse "Spousal abuse") and infidelity. Following the divorce, and after her mother Nina separated from her father for having an affair with their live\-in [Colombian](/wiki/Colombian_people "Colombian people") housekeeper and maid Gloria Olarte, Constance left her father. After moving with her mother into a nearby home, it was reported by FBI Special Agent Joseph O'Brien that she hardly ever left her mother's home and remained at her mother's side constantly.
### Mob slaying and aftermath
On September 20, 1980, Amato was lured to the [Gemini Lounge](/wiki/Gemini_Lounge "Gemini Lounge") in [Flatlands](/wiki/Flatlands%2C_Brooklyn "Flatlands, Brooklyn"), Brooklyn under the pretense of meeting [Roy DeMeo](/wiki/Roy_DeMeo "Roy DeMeo") to discuss a business deal. On the orders of Paul Castellano, DeMeo shot Amato to death with a machine gun, and DeMeo and members of his crew – [Henry Borelli](/wiki/Henry_Borelli "Henry Borelli"), [Anthony Senter](/wiki/Anthony_Senter "Anthony Senter"), [Joseph Testa](/wiki/Joseph_Testa "Joseph Testa"), and [Frederick](/wiki/Frederick_DiNome "Frederick DiNome") and [Richard DiNome](/wiki/Richard_DiNome "Richard DiNome") – dismembered his corpse. The DeMeo crew then used a [cabin cruiser](/wiki/Cabin_cruiser "Cabin cruiser") owned by Richard DiNome to dispose of Amato's remains several miles out to sea.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/murdermachinetru00must\_0/mode/2up\|url\-access\=registration\|author\=Jerry Capeci\|author\-link\=Jerry Capeci\|title\=Murder Machine\|publisher\=Onyx\|location\=New York City\|date\=1992\|isbn\=0\-451\-40387\-8\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/murdermachinetru00must\_0/page/297 297]}} Castellano, DeMeo, Testa, Borelli, Senter, Richard DiNome, [Joseph Guglielmo](/wiki/Joseph_Guglielmo "Joseph Guglielmo") and [Nino Gaggi](/wiki/Nino_Gaggi "Nino Gaggi") were later charged with his disappearance and suspected murder, but no convictions were ever obtained.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/RoyAlbertDeMeo/Roy%20Albert%20Demeo%20Part%2002%20of%2003/mode/2up\|url\-access\=registration\|author\=Federal Bureau of Investigation\|author\-link\=Federal Bureau of Investigation\|title\=Roy DeMeo FBI Records\|publisher\=\|location\=Washington, D.C.\|date\=2003\|isbn\=\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/RoyAlbertDeMeo/Roy%20Albert%20Demeo%20Part%2002%20of%2003/page/n435/mode/2up 435]}} Constance later married a business associate and friend of the family, alleged mob associate Joseph Catalonotti. Connie bore a daughter, Andria, and the couple moved into a modest mansion on Todt Hill, not far from her family homestead.[Crime 'ring' wars](https://nypost.com/2007/10/18/crime-ring-wars/) Todd Venezia, *[New York Post](/wiki/New_York_Post "New York Post")* (October 18, 2007\) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807224402/https://nypost.com/2007/10/18/crime\-ring\-wars/ \|date\=August 7, 2022 }} Joseph Catalanotti died on November 8, 1999, at the age of 55\.[Obituary for Joseph V. Catalanotti](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/50481921/obituary-for-joseph-v-catalanotti/) *[Sun\-Sentinel](/wiki/Sun-Sentinel "Sun-Sentinel")* (November 10, 1999\) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124004041/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/50481921/obituary\-for\-joseph\-v\-catalanotti/ \|date\=January 24, 2023 }}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"There is little information available on Frank Amato before his marriage into the Castellano\\-Gambino\\-Lucchese blood relative family. Amato was an [Italian\\-American](/wiki/Italian_Americans \"Italian Americans\") of [Sicilian](/wiki/Sicilian_Americans \"Sicilian Americans\") descent from [Brooklyn, New York](/wiki/Brooklyn%2C_New_York \"Brooklyn, New York\"). Frank was born out of [wedlock](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") and raised in a [blue collar](/wiki/Blue_collar \"Blue collar\") family in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"). He worked as a butcher and as a transport truck hijacker for a crew in the [Gambino crime family](/wiki/Gambino_crime_family \"Gambino crime family\") that robbed transport trucks coming in and out of [John F. Kennedy Airport](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Airport \"John F. Kennedy Airport\"). He was a fellow criminal associate of transport truck hijacker Edward Grillo. His marriage to Constance was an [Old World](/wiki/Old_World \"Old World\") traditional Sicilian style wedding that was attended by many powerful Gambino mobsters.",
"### Legitimate business career",
"FBI Special Agent Joseph O'Brien states in *Boss of Bosses: The FBI and Paul Castellano* that after Amato married Paul Castellano's daughter, Constance, Castellano set Amato up in the legitimate business world as a distributor of [Italian ice](/wiki/Italian_ice \"Italian ice\"). Castellano greatly misjudged Amato who did not share the same keen business sense as Castellano and the Italian ice distribution business failed. Castellano put Amato to work as a butcher at his successful Meat Palace, a butcher shop franchise owned by Castellano and his sons. As a butcher employed at Dial Meat Purveyors Inc. and the Meat Market, he was involved in the selling of rancid and expired meat products. Although Amato had little formal school education, he could quarter a lamb with great skill and was knowledgeable about [tallow](/wiki/Tallow \"Tallow\"). In *Boss of Bosses*, Agent O'Brien suggests that at Dial Meat and the Meat Market he was taught by Castellano's men how to bleach tainted, outdated, uninspected meats or meats of a dubious provenance by using a white preservative powder known as \"dynamite\" that gave the faded, discolored meat a healthy fresh red appearance. Frank was also shown how to drain meat of any foul smelling juices it had accumulated by using [formaldehyde](/wiki/Formaldehyde \"Formaldehyde\") and use counterfeit [United States Department of Agriculture](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture \"United States Department of Agriculture\") stamps to assign meats a false grade or expiration date. O'Brien would also state that at Castellano's meat suppliers he would have Amato and fellow butchers carve meat and label it as \"beef\" that was not always carved from cows and \"pork\" that was not always carved from pigs.",
"### FBI scrutiny",
"Because of his involvement in Castellano's stranglehold on the East Coast wholesale meat market and the [United Food and Commercial Workers Union](/wiki/United_Food_and_Commercial_Workers_Union \"United Food and Commercial Workers Union\"), Amato became a target for the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\") (FBI) early on in the successful investigation dubbed \"Operation Meathead\". Castellano's sons, Joseph and Phillip, managed the chain. There is no evidence that Castellano promoted or wanted to induct Amato as a \"[made man](/wiki/Made_man \"Made man\")\" into the Gambino crime family. Dial Meat Purveyors, Inc. also served [Waldbaum's](/wiki/Waldbaum%27s \"Waldbaum's\") and [Key Food](/wiki/Key_Food \"Key Food\") Cooperative on whose boards of directors Gambino crime family capo [Pasquale Conte](/wiki/Pasquale_Conte \"Pasquale Conte\") sat as a member.",
"### Infidelities and divorce from Constance",
"Although married to Constance, after turning [state's evidence](/wiki/State%27s_evidence \"State's evidence\"), [Gambino crime family](/wiki/Gambino_crime_family \"Gambino crime family\") associate, [Dominick Montiglio](/wiki/Dominick_Montiglio \"Dominick Montiglio\"), informed authorities that Frank had been witnessed by mob associates and superiors, like capo [Anthony Gaggi](/wiki/Anthony_Gaggi \"Anthony Gaggi\"), making sexual advances and having had brief encounters with the female employees who worked with him at the Meat Palace. A few weeks after Gaggi witnessed this, Castellano had the female employee fired. Amato was later transferred to Castellano's other butcher store chain, Dial Meat Purveyors, Inc., formerly known as Blue Ribbon Meats, the business that helped poultry magnate [Frank Perdue](/wiki/Frank_Perdue \"Frank Perdue\") distribute his chickens in supermarket chains. Amato worked for brother\\-in\\-law, Paul Castellano Jr. After a few months of working at Dial Poultry, Amato was caught committing [adultery](/wiki/Adultery \"Adultery\").",
"After he caught Amato having an affair with a co\\-worker, Paul Castellano became enraged and ordered Amato to move out of the [Todt Hill](/wiki/Todt_Hill \"Todt Hill\") mansion and had him fired from his job as a butcher at Dial Poultry. After being fired, Amato found work at a clothing store in [Queens](/wiki/Queens \"Queens\") with the help of cousins\\-in\\-law [Thomas Gambino](/wiki/Thomas_Gambino \"Thomas Gambino\") and [Joseph Gambino](/wiki/Joseph_Gambino \"Joseph Gambino\"), the sons of Carlo Gambino, and supplemented his meager income by committing petty burglaries. Constance moved to [West Palm Beach, Florida](/wiki/West_Palm_Beach%2C_Florida \"West Palm Beach, Florida\") and lived in her father's condominium to overcome her emotional distress.",
"Constance was granted a divorce from Amato in 1973 on grounds of [spousal abuse](/wiki/Spousal_abuse \"Spousal abuse\") and infidelity. Following the divorce, and after her mother Nina separated from her father for having an affair with their live\\-in [Colombian](/wiki/Colombian_people \"Colombian people\") housekeeper and maid Gloria Olarte, Constance left her father. After moving with her mother into a nearby home, it was reported by FBI Special Agent Joseph O'Brien that she hardly ever left her mother's home and remained at her mother's side constantly.",
"### Mob slaying and aftermath",
"On September 20, 1980, Amato was lured to the [Gemini Lounge](/wiki/Gemini_Lounge \"Gemini Lounge\") in [Flatlands](/wiki/Flatlands%2C_Brooklyn \"Flatlands, Brooklyn\"), Brooklyn under the pretense of meeting [Roy DeMeo](/wiki/Roy_DeMeo \"Roy DeMeo\") to discuss a business deal. On the orders of Paul Castellano, DeMeo shot Amato to death with a machine gun, and DeMeo and members of his crew – [Henry Borelli](/wiki/Henry_Borelli \"Henry Borelli\"), [Anthony Senter](/wiki/Anthony_Senter \"Anthony Senter\"), [Joseph Testa](/wiki/Joseph_Testa \"Joseph Testa\"), and [Frederick](/wiki/Frederick_DiNome \"Frederick DiNome\") and [Richard DiNome](/wiki/Richard_DiNome \"Richard DiNome\") – dismembered his corpse. The DeMeo crew then used a [cabin cruiser](/wiki/Cabin_cruiser \"Cabin cruiser\") owned by Richard DiNome to dispose of Amato's remains several miles out to sea.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/murdermachinetru00must\\_0/mode/2up\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|author\\=Jerry Capeci\\|author\\-link\\=Jerry Capeci\\|title\\=Murder Machine\\|publisher\\=Onyx\\|location\\=New York City\\|date\\=1992\\|isbn\\=0\\-451\\-40387\\-8\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/murdermachinetru00must\\_0/page/297 297]}} Castellano, DeMeo, Testa, Borelli, Senter, Richard DiNome, [Joseph Guglielmo](/wiki/Joseph_Guglielmo \"Joseph Guglielmo\") and [Nino Gaggi](/wiki/Nino_Gaggi \"Nino Gaggi\") were later charged with his disappearance and suspected murder, but no convictions were ever obtained.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/RoyAlbertDeMeo/Roy%20Albert%20Demeo%20Part%2002%20of%2003/mode/2up\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|author\\=Federal Bureau of Investigation\\|author\\-link\\=Federal Bureau of Investigation\\|title\\=Roy DeMeo FBI Records\\|publisher\\=\\|location\\=Washington, D.C.\\|date\\=2003\\|isbn\\=\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/RoyAlbertDeMeo/Roy%20Albert%20Demeo%20Part%2002%20of%2003/page/n435/mode/2up 435]}} Constance later married a business associate and friend of the family, alleged mob associate Joseph Catalonotti. Connie bore a daughter, Andria, and the couple moved into a modest mansion on Todt Hill, not far from her family homestead.[Crime 'ring' wars](https://nypost.com/2007/10/18/crime-ring-wars/) Todd Venezia, *[New York Post](/wiki/New_York_Post \"New York Post\")* (October 18, 2007\\) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807224402/https://nypost.com/2007/10/18/crime\\-ring\\-wars/ \\|date\\=August 7, 2022 }} Joseph Catalanotti died on November 8, 1999, at the age of 55\\.[Obituary for Joseph V. Catalanotti](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/50481921/obituary-for-joseph-v-catalanotti/) *[Sun\\-Sentinel](/wiki/Sun-Sentinel \"Sun-Sentinel\")* (November 10, 1999\\) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124004041/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/50481921/obituary\\-for\\-joseph\\-v\\-catalanotti/ \\|date\\=January 24, 2023 }}",
""
] |
Playing career
--------------
### Early career
In October 2007, Hodkinson played for the [Junior Kangaroos](/wiki/Junior_Kangaroos "Junior Kangaroos") against the [Junior Kiwis](/wiki/Junior_Kiwis "Junior Kiwis").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.leagueoftitans.com.au/showthread.php?11014\-Junior\-Kangaroos\|title\=Junior Kangaroos\|publisher\=Leagueoftitans.com.au\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} After progressing through the Parramatta Eels [S. G. Ball Cup](/wiki/S._G._Ball_Cup "S. G. Ball Cup") and [Harold Matthews Cup](/wiki/Harold_Matthews_Cup "Harold Matthews Cup") squads,{{cite web\|url\=http://m.nrl.com/harold\-matts\-to\-origin\-blues\-brothers\-reunited/tabid/10874/newsid/78813/default.aspx\|title\=Harold Matts to Origin: Blues brothers reunited \|publisher\=National Rugby League\|date\=2014\-05\-26\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} he played for the Eels' [NYC](/wiki/National_Youth_Competition_%28rugby_league%29 "National Youth Competition (rugby league)") team in 2008\.{{cite web\|url\=http://nycdatabase.org/players/h/\|title\=H\|publisher\=Nyc Database\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} In July 2008, he signed a contract with the [Manly Warringah Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly_Warringah_Sea_Eagles "Manly Warringah Sea Eagles") starting in 2009\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/nrl/eagles\-swoop\-on\-outcast\-ray\-price/story\-e6frep86\-1111116933645\|title\=Eagles Swoop on Outcast Ray Price\|work\=The Courier\-Mail\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.silvertails.net/forum/Thread\-Trent\-Hodkinson\|title\=Trent Hodkinson \| Silvertails, Manly Warringah Sea Eagles Supporter forums\|publisher\=Silvertails.net\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} In 2009, he played for the Sea Eagles' [Queensland Cup](/wiki/Queensland_Cup "Queensland Cup") team, [Sunshine Coast Sea Eagles](/wiki/Sunshine_Coast_Falcons "Sunshine Coast Falcons") and was named the club's Player of the Year.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/brookies\-the\-place\-for\-me\-trent\-hodkinson/story\-e6frexnr\-1225865272338\|title\=Brookies The Place for Me: Trent Hodkinson\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} On 15 July 2009, he played at halfback for the [Queensland Residents](/wiki/Queensland_Residents_rugby_league_team "Queensland Residents rugby league team") against the [New South Wales Residents](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Residents_rugby_league_team "New South Wales Residents rugby league team") in Queensland's 34–6 win at [Suncorp Stadium](/wiki/Lang_Park "Lang Park").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/nrl/queensland\-led\-trent\-hodkinson\-down\-state\-of\-origin\-path\-to\-new\-south\-wales\-blues/story\-fniablkr\-1226924549452\|title\=Queensland Led Trent Hodkinson Down State of Origin Path to New South Wales Blues\|work\=The Courier\-Mail\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} On 12 September 2009, he played in the Sea Eagles' [2009 Queensland Cup Grand Final](/wiki/2009_Queensland_Cup%23Final_Series "2009 Queensland Cup#Final Series") win over the [Northern Pride RLFC](/wiki/Northern_Pride_RLFC "Northern Pride RLFC").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/sunshine\-coast\-beats\-northern\-pride\-to\-win\-2009\-queensland\-cup\-grand\-final/story\-e6frep5o\-1225772192591\|title\=Sunshine Coast Beats Northern Pride to Win 2009 Queensland Cup Grand Final\|work\=The Courier\-Mail\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bulldogs.com.au/team/profiles/trent\-hodkinson.html\|title\=Trent Hodkinson\|publisher\=Bulldogs\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923195329/http://www.bulldogs.com.au/team/profiles/trent\-hodkinson.html\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015\|url\-status\=dead}}
### 2010 : NRL Debut
In round 2 of the [2010 NRL season](/wiki/2010_NRL_season "2010 NRL season"), Hodkinson made his [NRL](/wiki/National_Rugby_League "National Rugby League") debut for Manly against his former club the [Parramatta Eels](/wiki/Parramatta_Eels "Parramatta Eels"), in the Sea Eagles' 24–20 loss at [Parramatta Stadium](/wiki/Parramatta_Stadium "Parramatta Stadium").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/seasons/nrl\-2010/round\-2/parramatta\-vs\-manly\-warringah/summary.html\|title\=NRL 2010 – Round 2\|publisher\=Rugby League Project\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} He scored a try on debut.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/parramatta\-eels\-defeat\-manly\-sea\-eagles\-24\-20\-at\-parramatta\-stadium/story\-fn2mcuj6\-1225918976256\|title\=Parramatta Eels Defeat Manly Sea Eagles\|publisher\=Fox Sports\|location\=Australia\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/nrl/photos\-e6frfgjx\-1225843065680?page\=14\|title\=Photos\|work\=Herald Sun\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} On 7 May 2010, after impressing in only six matches, he played for [New South Wales city](/wiki/City_New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "City New South Wales rugby league team") against [New South Wales Country](/wiki/Country_New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "Country New South Wales rugby league team"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/city\-vs\-country\-2010/nsw\-country\-vs\-nsw\-city.html\|title\=City vs Country 2010\|publisher\=Rugby League Project\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\-hodkinson\-a\-slick\-pick\-for\-city/story\-e6frexnr\-1225860391345\|title\=Trent Hodkinson a Slick Pick for City\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} kicking 3 goals in City's 36–18 loss at [Port Macquarie Regional Stadium](/wiki/Port_Macquarie_Regional_Stadium "Port Macquarie Regional Stadium").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010\-05\-07/country\-dominates\-city\-in\-origin\-trial/426732\|title\=Country dominates City in Origin trial \|publisher\= ABC News \|location\=Australia\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} On 15 June 2010, he signed a three\-year contract with the [Canterbury\-Bankstown Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs "Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs") starting in 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\-hodkinson\-signs\-with\-canterbury\-bulldogs/story\-e6frexnr\-1225879967101\|title\=Trent Hodkinson Signs with Canterbury Bulldogs\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/trent\-hodkinson\-signs\-three\-year\-deal\-with\-canterbury\-bankstown/story\-fn2mcuj6\-1225921499731\|title\=Trent Hodkinson Signs Three Year Deal with Canterbury Bankstown\|publisher\=Fox Sports\|location\=Australia\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} In round 15 against the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs "South Sydney Rabbitohs") at [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval "Brookvale Oval"), he kicked two field goals to win the match for the Sea Eagles 26–25\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010\-06\-19/hodkinson\-kicks\-manly\-to\-victory/873156\|title\=Hodkinson kicks Manly to victory \|publisher\= ABC News \|location\=Australia\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} He finished off his debut year in the NRL, having played in 24 matches, scoring four tries and kicking three field goals.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/Custom/MTQtNzM4LTQtLS0tLS0xNDUwOC0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0\=\|title\=Custom Match List\|publisher\=Rugby League Project\|date\=2015\-08\-21\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}
### 2011 : New Club
In round 1 of the [2011 NRL season](/wiki/2011_NRL_season "2011 NRL season"), Hodkinson made his Canterbury debut against the [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers "Wests Tigers"), playing at halfback in Canterbury's 24–14 win at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/Stadium_Australia "Stadium Australia").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/seasons/nrl\-2011/round\-1/canterbury\-vs\-wests\-tigers/summary.html\|title\=NRL 2011 – Round 1\|publisher\=Rugby League Project\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/canterbury\-bulldogs\-beat\-wests\-tigers\-in\-nrl\-round\-one/story\-e6frexnr\-1226021368238\|title\=Canterbury Bulldogs Beat Wests Tigers in NRL Round One\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} He scored his first Canterbury try in round 7 against the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs "South Sydney Rabbitohs"), in the Canterbury's 36–24 win at ANZ Stadium.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/canterbury\-bankstown\-and\-south\-sydney\-meet\-in\-round\-seven\-nrl\-clash\-at\-anz\-stadium/story\-fn2mcuj6\-1226043805859\|title\=Canterbury and South Sydney Meet in Round Seven\|publisher\=Fox Sports\|location\=Australia\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} In round 20 against the Parramatta Eels at ANZ Stadium, he repeated his feat of the previous year and kicked two field goals in the Canterbury's golden point extra time 8–7 win.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/canterbury\-bankstown\-and\-parramatta\-meet\-in\-round\-20\-nrl\-clash\-at\-anz\-stadium/story\-fn2mcuj6\-1226100007188\|title\=Canterbury and Parramatta Meet in Round 20\|publisher\=Fox Sports\|location\=Australia\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} He finished off 2011 having played in 22 matches, scoring two tries and kicking three field goals.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/Custom/NC04MTktNC0tLS0tLTE0NTA4LS0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLQ\=\=\|title\=Custom Match List\|publisher\=Rugby League Project\|date\=2015\-08\-21\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}
[right\|thumb\|Hodkinson representing the Bulldogs](/wiki/File:TRENT_HODKINSON.jpg "TRENT HODKINSON.jpg")
### 2012 : Injury Interrupted Season
Hodkinson only played in six matches in the [2012 NRL season](/wiki/2012_NRL_season "2012 NRL season"), after undergoing shoulder and knee operations for injuries that interrupted his season.{{cite web\|author\=Michael Carayannis\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-news/hodkinson\-dreams\-of\-regaining\-dogs\-spot\-as\-recovery\-looms\-20121215\-2bgcx.html\|title\=Hodkinson dreams of regaining Dogs spot as recovery looms\|work\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}
### 2013
Hodkinson played his first match for Canterbury in the [2013 season](/wiki/2013_NRL_season "2013 NRL season") in round 6 against the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters") at [SFS](/wiki/Sydney_Football_Stadium_%281988%29 "Sydney Football Stadium (1988)") in Canterbury's 38–0 loss.[http://www.punters.com.au/news/SBW\-stars\-Roosters\-crush\-Dogs\-38\-0\-in\-NRL\_117145/](http://www.punters.com.au/news/SBW-stars-Roosters-crush-Dogs-38-0-in-NRL_117145/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111001637/http://www.punters.com.au/news/SBW\-stars\-Roosters\-crush\-Dogs\-38\-0\-in\-NRL\_117145/\|date\=11 November 2014}} Hodkinson was appointed the new goal kicker for Canterbury due to his impressive goal kicking when he was biding his time in the [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup "NSW Cup"). On 4 September 2013, Hodkinson re\-signed with the Canterbury club until the end of the 2015 season.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/halfback\-trent\-hodkinson\-re\-signs\-with\-canterbury\-bankstown\-bulldogs/story\-fn2mcuj6\-1226710590721\|title\=Trent Hodkinson Re\-signs with Canterbury\|publisher\=Fox Sports\|location\=Australia\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} Hodkinson finished the [2013 NRL season](/wiki/2013_NRL_season "2013 NRL season") with him playing in 20 matches, scoring four tries, kicking 64 goals and kicking three field goals.
### 2014 : State of Origin, Co\-captain and NRL Grand Final
After being injured over the 2012 season Hodkinson was unable to cement his spot as starting halfback for the Canterbury\-Bankstown Bulldogs, until the 2014 season shining on multiple occasions to get Canterbury to seven successive victories. Hodkinsion was subsequently selected to make his [State of Origin](/wiki/State_of_Origin "State of Origin") debut for New South Wales in Game I of the 2014 series. Hodkinson and fellow Bulldogs player [Josh Reynolds](/wiki/Josh_Reynolds_%28Australian_rugby_league_player%29 "Josh Reynolds (Australian rugby league player)") replaced the incumbent halves pairing of [Mitchell Pearce](/wiki/Mitchell_Pearce "Mitchell Pearce") and [James Maloney](/wiki/James_Maloney_%28rugby_league%29 "James Maloney (rugby league)") for the 2014 series and led NSW to a 12–8 victory in Game 1 at [Suncorp Stadium](/wiki/Suncorp_Stadium "Suncorp Stadium").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/state\-of\-origin\-heroic\-new\-south\-wales\-fullback\-jarryd\-hayne\-is\-the\-one\-for\-the\-blues/story\-fni3fqyo\-1226935162302\|title\=State of Origin Heroic New South Wales Fullback Jarryd Hayne is the One for the Blues\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} Hodkinson was called up to the Blues squad again for Game 2\. After 71 minutes of play Hodkinson crossed over to score the match's first try, to level the scores with the Maroons. His conversion decided the score 6–4\. The Blues held on to win after eight years of Maroon dominance, with Hodkinson scoring the Blues only points.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\-hodkinson\-steps\-up\-and\-becomes\-a\-state\-of\-origin\-hero/story\-fnca0von\-1226959296728\|title\=Trent Hodkinson Steps Up and Becomes a State of Origin Hero\|publisher\=Theaustraian.com.au\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} Hodkinson played in Game 3, kicking two goals in NSW 32–8 loss at [Suncorp Stadium](/wiki/Suncorp_Stadium "Suncorp Stadium").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/live\-stage\-of\-origin\-game\-three\-nsw\-blues\-v\-queensland\-maroons/story\-fndv2twz\-1226983403866\|title\=ORIGIN III: Queensland restores pride\|publisher\=News.com.au\|date\=2014\-07\-09\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} Hodkinson led the Bulldogs into the Top 8 at the end of the season. During the Bulldogs vs [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm "Melbourne Storm") Elimination Final round, Hodkinson kicked four goals and scored a try to assist his team to a 28–4 win.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/sport/nrl/des\-hasler\-gets\-another\-crack\-at\-manly\-after\-bulldogs\-bite\-storm/story\-fnca0von\-1227058336597\|title\=Des Hasler Gets Another Crack at Manly after Bulldogs Bite Storm\|publisher\=Theaustraian.com.au\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} In the Semi\-Final the Bulldogs played a close game with the [Manly Warringah Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly_Warringah_Sea_Eagles "Manly Warringah Sea Eagles"), with Hodkinson kicking two field goals to win for Canterbury's 18–17\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/trent\-hodkinson\-kicks\-a\-golden\-point\-field\-goal\-as\-the\-bulldogs\-claim\-a\-1817\-semifinal\-victory\-over\-manly/story\-fn2mcuj6\-1227065023145\|title\=Trent Hodkinson Kicks a Golden Point Field Goal as the Bulldogs Claim a 18–17 Semifinal Victory\|publisher\=Foxpsorts.com.au\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} In the Preliminary Final the Canterbury side beat [Penrith](/wiki/Penrith_Panthers "Penrith Panthers") 18–12 with Hodkinson kicking three goals to secure their place in the [2014 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2014_NRL_Grand_Final "2014 NRL Grand Final").{{cite web\|author\=Ash Gray\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/rugby\-league\-match\-centre/panthers\-v\-bulldogs\-20140927\-3gmw8\.html\|title\=Panthers v Bulldogs\|work\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|date\=2014\-09\-27\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} In the week leading to the Grand Final, when Canterbury captain [Michael Ennis](/wiki/Michael_Ennis "Michael Ennis") was ruled out of the 2014 NRL Grand Final due to a foot injury, Hodkinson along with teammate [James Graham](/wiki/James_Graham_%28rugby_league%29 "James Graham (rugby league)") were named co\-captains of Canterbury for the match.{{cite web\|author\=Michael Carayannis\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-news/canterbury\-bulldogs\-captain\-michael\-ennis\-ruled\-out\-of\-nrl\-grand\-final\-james\-graham\-trent\-hodkinson\-named\-as\-cocaptains\-20141004\-10q8sc.html\|title\=Canterbury Bulldogs captain Michael Ennis ruled out of NRL grand final, James Graham, Trent Hodkinson named as co\-captains\|work\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|date\=2014\-10\-04\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} Hodkinson kicked goal goal in Canterbury's 30–6 Grand Final loss.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nrl.com/bulldogs\-grand\-final\-player\-ratings/tabid/10874/newsid/82377/default.aspx\|title\=Bulldogs Grand Final Player Ratings\|publisher\=National Rugby League\|date\=2014\-10\-05\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/south\-sydney\-rabbitohs\-win\-2014\-nrl\-grand\-final\-defeating\-canterbury\-bulldogs\-306/story\-fni3fbgz\-1227080755667\|title\=South Sydney Rabbitohs Win 2014 Grand Final\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} Hodkinson finished his [2014 NRL season](/wiki/2014_NRL_season "2014 NRL season") for the Bulldogs with him playing 25 matches, scoring five tries, kicking 68 goals and kicking four field goals.
### 2015 : Last season at the Bulldogs
In round 3 against the [Manly\-Warringah Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly-Warringah_Sea_Eagles "Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles"), Hodkinson played his 100th [NRL](/wiki/National_Rugby_League "National Rugby League") match in Canterbury's 16–12 win at [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval "Brookvale Oval").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nrl.com/sea\-eagles\-v\-bulldogs\-preview/tabid/10874/newsid/84618/default.aspx\|title\=Sea Eagles v Bulldogs preview\|publisher\=National Rugby League\|date\=2015\-03\-20\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/northern\-beaches/ellas\-eagle\-eye\-canterbury\-bulldogs\-defeat\-manly\-sea\-eagles\-at\-sandy\-brookvale\-oval/story\-fngr8hax\-1227275111651\|title\=Ellas Eagle Eye Canterbury Bulldogs Defeat Manly\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} Hodkinson played at halfback and was the main goal kicker in all three matches for the [New South Wales Blues](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team "New South Wales rugby league team") in the [2015 State of Origin series](/wiki/2015_State_of_Origin_series "2015 State of Origin series") loss.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/state\-of\-origin\-2015\-game\-three\-trent\-hodkinson\-poised\-to\-convert\-sceptics/story\-fni3fqyo\-1227428528377\|title\=Trent Hodkinson Poised to Convert Sceptics\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} Hodkinson was subsequently dropped from the NSW side for the 2016 series.
On 6 July 2015, Hodkinson signed a three\-year contract with the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights "Newcastle Knights") starting in 2016\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\-hodkinson\-signs\-three\-year\-deal\-with\-newcastle\-knights\-from\-2016/story\-fni3fbgz\-1227431132470\|title\=Trent Hodkinson Signs Three Year Deal with Newcastle Knights from 2016\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}}{{cite web\|author\=Robert Dillon\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-match\-report/no\-fairytale\-ending\-for\-knight\-gidley\-as\-canterbury\-win\-but\-lose\-hodkinson\-20150829\-gjas9x.html\|title\=No fairytale ending for Newcastle Knights stalwart Kurt Gidley as Canterbury Bulldogs win but lose Trent Hodkinson\|work\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=2015\-09\-20}} He finished off his last year with the Bulldogs having played in 18 matches, scoring one try, kicking 47 goals and kicking one field goal.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/Custom/NC0xNjYwLTQtLS0tLS0xNDUwOC0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0\=\|title\=Custom Match List\|publisher\=Rugby League Project\|date\=2015\-10\-31\|access\-date\=2015\-12\-22}} On 15 December, he was named at halfback for the [World All Stars](/wiki/NRL_All_Stars_team "NRL All Stars team") team to play the [Indigenous All Stars](/wiki/Indigenous_All_Stars_%28rugby_league%29 "Indigenous All Stars (rugby league)") on 16 February 2016\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nrl.com/teams\-named\-for\-nrl\-all\-stars\-match/tabid/10874/newsid/91188/default.aspx\|title\=Teams named for NRL All Stars match\|publisher\=National Rugby League\|date\=2015\-12\-15\|access\-date\=2015\-12\-22}}
### 2016 : Knights Captain in very poor season for the club
On 26 February, Hodkinson was announced as one of three co\-captains for the Knights alongside [Tariq Sims](/wiki/Tariq_Sims "Tariq Sims") and [Jeremy Smith](/wiki/Jeremy_Smith_%28rugby_league_born_1980%29 "Jeremy Smith (rugby league born 1980)").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.newcastleknights.com.au/content/knights/club/news/2016/02/26/newcastle\_knights\_an.html\|title\=Newcastle Knights announce 2016 captains – Knights\|publisher\=Newcastleknights.com.au\|access\-date\=2016\-02\-26\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304131828/http://www.newcastleknights.com.au/content/knights/club/news/2016/02/26/newcastle\_knights\_an.html\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016}} In round 1 of the [2016 NRL season](/wiki/2016_NRL_season "2016 NRL season"), he made his club debut for Newcastle against the [Gold Coast Titans](/wiki/Gold_Coast_Titans "Gold Coast Titans"), playing at halfback and kicking two goals in Newcastle's 12–30 loss at [Cbus Super Stadium](/wiki/Robina_Stadium "Robina Stadium").{{cite web\|author\=Laine Clark\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-match\-report/gold\-coast\-titans\-grab\-nrl\-season\-opening\-win\-against\-newcastle\-knights\-20160306\-gnbzkj.html\|title\=Gold Coast Titans grab NRL season opening win against Newcastle Knights\|work\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-07}} In round 11 against the [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers "Wests Tigers"), he scored his first try for the Newcastle club.{{cite web\|author\=David Sygall\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\-league/league\-match\-report/wests\-tigers\-leave\-it\-late\-to\-put\-the\-newcastle\-knights\-to\-the\-sword\-20160521\-gp0jk6\.html\|title\=Trent Hodkinson in State of Origin frame as Wests Tigers pinch win over Newcastle Knights\|work\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=2016\-05\-22}} During the middle of the season, he was linked to a possible allegiance switch to [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team "England national rugby league team") for the [2016 Four Nations series](/wiki/2016_Rugby_League_Four_Nations "2016 Rugby League Four Nations"). He qualifies for England through his English father.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/knights/trent\-hodkinson\-admits\-he\-could\-play\-for\-england\-in\-the\-four\-nations/news\-story/63849d9a3aad64b1904e8058ffca685e\|title\=Trent Hodkinson admits he could play for England in the Four Nations\|work\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|date\=2016\-08\-11\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-04}} Hodkinson finished his first season with the Newcastle club having played in 23 matches, scoring one try, kicking 47 goals and kicking one field goal.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/Custom/MTUtMTY3Ny00LS0tLS0tMTQ1MDgtLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0t\|title\=Custom Match List\|publisher\=Rugby League Project\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-04}}
### 2017 : Demotion to reserve grade, loss of Newcastle captaincy
On 23 February 2017, Hodkinson was named as the sole captain of the Knights for the 2017 season.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\-premiership/teams/knights/trent\-hodkinson\-will\-captain\-the\-newcastle\-knights\-in\-2017/news\-story/af83e8a5590c73100598ab76a694a7ea\|title\=Knights name Trent Hodkinson as 2017 captain\|date\=24 February 2017\|access\-date\=18 March 2018}} After Round 7 and with the Knights only notching one win during that period, Hodkinson was demoted to Newcastle's [Intrust Super Premiership NSW](/wiki/Intrust_Super_Premiership_NSW "Intrust Super Premiership NSW") team with the club going for youngsters [Brock Lamb](/wiki/Brock_Lamb "Brock Lamb") and [Jaelen Feeney](/wiki/Jaelen_Feeney "Jaelen Feeney") in the halves but only had one win with them there while as Hodkinson was in reserve grade.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/knights/newcastle\-captain\-trent\-hodkinson\-dumped\-for\-the\-knights\-clash\-with\-cowboys\-in\-townsville/news\-story/f684c3214d3fb3c704a0086c47e4e078\|title\=Trent Hodkinson dumped for the Knights clash with Cowboys in Townsville\|website\=The Daily Telegraph\|location\=Sydney\|access\-date\=17 May 2018}} Hodkinson would later return in Round 17 against the [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers "Wests Tigers") where the Knights lost 33–12 at [Hunter Stadium](/wiki/Hunter_Stadium "Hunter Stadium").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nrl.com/news/2017/07/02/tigers\-thump\-knights\-to\-end\-losing\-run/\|title\=Tigers thump Knights to end losing run\|date\=2 July 2017\|access\-date\=18 March 2018}} Hodkinson did not receive the captaincy back with [Sione Mata'utia](/wiki/Sione_Mata%27utia "Sione Mata'utia") and [Jamie Buhrer](/wiki/Jamie_Buhrer "Jamie Buhrer") taking over the role until round 25 and 26 after Sione Mata’utia was ruled out for the final two rounds due to concussion.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/newcastle\-knights\-defer\-contract\-talks\-with\-sione\-matautia\-due\-to\-concussion\-history\-20171026\-gz8u6y.html\|title\=Newcastle Knights defer contract talks with Sione Mata'utia due to concussion history\|first\=Robert\|last\=Dillon\|date\=26 October 2017\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=18 March 2018}} Hodkinson finished the [2017 NRL season](/wiki/2017_NRL_season "2017 NRL season") with him playing in 17 matches, scoring one try, kicking 46 goals and kicking one field goal for the Newcastle side.
On 11 November 2019, Hodkinson spoke of his time at Newcastle and called it a "toxic environment". Hodkinson also spoke of his displeasure towards former Newcastle head coach [Nathan Brown](/wiki/Nathan_Brown_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1973%29 "Nathan Brown (rugby league, born 1973)") saying "I started the year all right, and I think it might have been early in the season I got brought into the coach’s office and he said to me: 'I want you to go back to [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup "NSW Cup") and work on your confidence, "I was like: 'Oh, OK' … I think he felt the pressure and had to make a big call, Unfortunately for me, I took the fall for where we were at the time".
Hodkinson explained his situation at the club further saying "I thought I’d go back for a couple of weeks and get my confidence back, which I didn’t really agree with, but two weeks rolls around, nothing said, "Four weeks, six weeks, didn’t hear a thing. Walked past each other, nothing was said. Ten weeks rolled around and I was just going: 'What’s doing here?, In the meantime, there were certain things getting leaked to the media – the local media up there – that I wasn’t too happy about. I know for a fact that it was coming from him".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\-hodkinson\-fires\-brutal\-shot\-at\-nathan\-browns\-toxic\-environment\-and\-media\-leaks\-at\-the\-knights/news\-story/b3f0c7eda3cb1b76b338827093240a86/\|title\=Trent Hodkinson fires brutal shot at Nathan Brown's 'toxic' environment and media leaks at the Knights\|publisher\=News.com.au}}
### 2018
On 5 February 2018, Hodkinson was released from his final year of his contract with the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights "Newcastle Knights") to sign on a one\-year deal with the [Cronulla\-Sutherland Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks "Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks") as a back\-up half.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/cronulla\-sharks\-confirm\-signing\-of\-trent\-hodkinson\-after\-newcastle\-knights\-release\-20180205\-h0u08c.html\|title\=Cronulla Sharks confirm signing of Trent Hodkinson after Newcastle Knights release\|first\=Scott\|last\=Bailey\|date\=5 February 2018\|website\=The Sydney Morning Herald\|access\-date\=18 March 2018}} In round 3 of the [2018 season](/wiki/2018_NRL_season "2018 NRL season"), he made his debut for Cronulla in their 14–4 win over the [Parramatta Eels](/wiki/Parramatta_Eels "Parramatta Eels") at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/Stadium_Australia "Stadium Australia").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/seasons/nrl\-2018/round\-3/parramatta\-vs\-cronulla/summary.html\|title\=NRL 2018 – Round 3 – Rugby League Project\|first\=Shawn Dollin and Andrew\|last\=Ferguson\|publisher\=Rugby League Project\|access\-date\=8 April 2018}}
On 15 May, Hodkinson was granted a release from the Cronulla club so he could return to Manly effectively immediately on a two\-year contract, with Cronulla allowing him to take up a longer\-term deal than they could offer.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.zerotackle.com/just\-in\-sea\-eagles\-confirm\-hodkinson\-signing\-33110/\|title\=Sea Eagles confirm Hodkinson signing – Zero Tackle\|date\=15 May 2018\|access\-date\=17 May 2018}} He made his return to the Manly club in their 24–4 win over the Melbourne Storm at [AAMI Park](/wiki/Melbourne_Rectangular_Stadium "Melbourne Rectangular Stadium") on 19 May. He played off the [interchange bench](/wiki/Rugby_league_positions%23Interchange "Rugby league positions#Interchange") and kicked three from four goals in the match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/seasons/nrl\-2018/round\-11/melbourne\-vs\-manly\-warringah/summary.html\|title\=NRL 2018 – Round 11 – Rugby League Project\|first\=Shawn Dollin and Andrew\|last\=Ferguson\|publisher\=Rugby League Project\|access\-date\=8 June 2018}}
### 2019
Hodkinson started the 2019 season at Manly from the bench in the match against [West Tigers](/wiki/West_Tigers "West Tigers"). He entered the game as a substitute during the second half at hooker, and had an error\-free 15 minutes on the field. After Manly's round 2 loss against the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters "Sydney Roosters"), Hodkinson was demoted to reserve grade to play for Manly's reserve grade side the [Blacktown Workers Sea Eagles](/wiki/Blacktown_Workers_Sea_Eagles "Blacktown Workers Sea Eagles").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nswrl.com.au/news/2019/04/01/manly\-warringah\-sea\-eagles\-halfback\-trent\-hodkinson\-determined\-to\-earn\-first\-grade\-recall/\|title\=Hodkinson happy to bide his time with Blacktown\|website\=nswrl.com.au}}
On 5 September, Hodkinson announced his retirement from [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league "Rugby league") after succumbing to career\-ending knee injuries. Hodkinson spoke to the media saying "Unfortunately due to a new injury sustained earlier this year, numerous medical procedures and intensive rehabilitation, I have been forced to give up the game that I love and will be medically retiring from rugby league".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\-hodkinson\-announces\-his\-retirement\-from\-nrl\-due\-to\-injury/news\-story/659b8ec9ac781ba9b87c4446534d0198/\|title\=Trent Hodkinson announces his retirement from NRL due to injury\|publisher\=News.com.au}}
|
[
"Playing career\n--------------",
"### Early career",
"In October 2007, Hodkinson played for the [Junior Kangaroos](/wiki/Junior_Kangaroos \"Junior Kangaroos\") against the [Junior Kiwis](/wiki/Junior_Kiwis \"Junior Kiwis\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.leagueoftitans.com.au/showthread.php?11014\\-Junior\\-Kangaroos\\|title\\=Junior Kangaroos\\|publisher\\=Leagueoftitans.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} After progressing through the Parramatta Eels [S. G. Ball Cup](/wiki/S._G._Ball_Cup \"S. G. Ball Cup\") and [Harold Matthews Cup](/wiki/Harold_Matthews_Cup \"Harold Matthews Cup\") squads,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://m.nrl.com/harold\\-matts\\-to\\-origin\\-blues\\-brothers\\-reunited/tabid/10874/newsid/78813/default.aspx\\|title\\=Harold Matts to Origin: Blues brothers reunited \\|publisher\\=National Rugby League\\|date\\=2014\\-05\\-26\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} he played for the Eels' [NYC](/wiki/National_Youth_Competition_%28rugby_league%29 \"National Youth Competition (rugby league)\") team in 2008\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://nycdatabase.org/players/h/\\|title\\=H\\|publisher\\=Nyc Database\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} In July 2008, he signed a contract with the [Manly Warringah Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly_Warringah_Sea_Eagles \"Manly Warringah Sea Eagles\") starting in 2009\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/nrl/eagles\\-swoop\\-on\\-outcast\\-ray\\-price/story\\-e6frep86\\-1111116933645\\|title\\=Eagles Swoop on Outcast Ray Price\\|work\\=The Courier\\-Mail\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.silvertails.net/forum/Thread\\-Trent\\-Hodkinson\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson \\| Silvertails, Manly Warringah Sea Eagles Supporter forums\\|publisher\\=Silvertails.net\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} In 2009, he played for the Sea Eagles' [Queensland Cup](/wiki/Queensland_Cup \"Queensland Cup\") team, [Sunshine Coast Sea Eagles](/wiki/Sunshine_Coast_Falcons \"Sunshine Coast Falcons\") and was named the club's Player of the Year.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/brookies\\-the\\-place\\-for\\-me\\-trent\\-hodkinson/story\\-e6frexnr\\-1225865272338\\|title\\=Brookies The Place for Me: Trent Hodkinson\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} On 15 July 2009, he played at halfback for the [Queensland Residents](/wiki/Queensland_Residents_rugby_league_team \"Queensland Residents rugby league team\") against the [New South Wales Residents](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Residents_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales Residents rugby league team\") in Queensland's 34–6 win at [Suncorp Stadium](/wiki/Lang_Park \"Lang Park\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/nrl/queensland\\-led\\-trent\\-hodkinson\\-down\\-state\\-of\\-origin\\-path\\-to\\-new\\-south\\-wales\\-blues/story\\-fniablkr\\-1226924549452\\|title\\=Queensland Led Trent Hodkinson Down State of Origin Path to New South Wales Blues\\|work\\=The Courier\\-Mail\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} On 12 September 2009, he played in the Sea Eagles' [2009 Queensland Cup Grand Final](/wiki/2009_Queensland_Cup%23Final_Series \"2009 Queensland Cup#Final Series\") win over the [Northern Pride RLFC](/wiki/Northern_Pride_RLFC \"Northern Pride RLFC\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/sunshine\\-coast\\-beats\\-northern\\-pride\\-to\\-win\\-2009\\-queensland\\-cup\\-grand\\-final/story\\-e6frep5o\\-1225772192591\\|title\\=Sunshine Coast Beats Northern Pride to Win 2009 Queensland Cup Grand Final\\|work\\=The Courier\\-Mail\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bulldogs.com.au/team/profiles/trent\\-hodkinson.html\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson\\|publisher\\=Bulldogs\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923195329/http://www.bulldogs.com.au/team/profiles/trent\\-hodkinson.html\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### 2010 : NRL Debut",
"In round 2 of the [2010 NRL season](/wiki/2010_NRL_season \"2010 NRL season\"), Hodkinson made his [NRL](/wiki/National_Rugby_League \"National Rugby League\") debut for Manly against his former club the [Parramatta Eels](/wiki/Parramatta_Eels \"Parramatta Eels\"), in the Sea Eagles' 24–20 loss at [Parramatta Stadium](/wiki/Parramatta_Stadium \"Parramatta Stadium\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/seasons/nrl\\-2010/round\\-2/parramatta\\-vs\\-manly\\-warringah/summary.html\\|title\\=NRL 2010 – Round 2\\|publisher\\=Rugby League Project\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} He scored a try on debut.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/parramatta\\-eels\\-defeat\\-manly\\-sea\\-eagles\\-24\\-20\\-at\\-parramatta\\-stadium/story\\-fn2mcuj6\\-1225918976256\\|title\\=Parramatta Eels Defeat Manly Sea Eagles\\|publisher\\=Fox Sports\\|location\\=Australia\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/nrl/photos\\-e6frfgjx\\-1225843065680?page\\=14\\|title\\=Photos\\|work\\=Herald Sun\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} On 7 May 2010, after impressing in only six matches, he played for [New South Wales city](/wiki/City_New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"City New South Wales rugby league team\") against [New South Wales Country](/wiki/Country_New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"Country New South Wales rugby league team\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/city\\-vs\\-country\\-2010/nsw\\-country\\-vs\\-nsw\\-city.html\\|title\\=City vs Country 2010\\|publisher\\=Rugby League Project\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\\-hodkinson\\-a\\-slick\\-pick\\-for\\-city/story\\-e6frexnr\\-1225860391345\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson a Slick Pick for City\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} kicking 3 goals in City's 36–18 loss at [Port Macquarie Regional Stadium](/wiki/Port_Macquarie_Regional_Stadium \"Port Macquarie Regional Stadium\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010\\-05\\-07/country\\-dominates\\-city\\-in\\-origin\\-trial/426732\\|title\\=Country dominates City in Origin trial \\|publisher\\= ABC News \\|location\\=Australia\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} On 15 June 2010, he signed a three\\-year contract with the [Canterbury\\-Bankstown Bulldogs](/wiki/Canterbury-Bankstown_Bulldogs \"Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs\") starting in 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\\-hodkinson\\-signs\\-with\\-canterbury\\-bulldogs/story\\-e6frexnr\\-1225879967101\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson Signs with Canterbury Bulldogs\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/trent\\-hodkinson\\-signs\\-three\\-year\\-deal\\-with\\-canterbury\\-bankstown/story\\-fn2mcuj6\\-1225921499731\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson Signs Three Year Deal with Canterbury Bankstown\\|publisher\\=Fox Sports\\|location\\=Australia\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} In round 15 against the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs \"South Sydney Rabbitohs\") at [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval \"Brookvale Oval\"), he kicked two field goals to win the match for the Sea Eagles 26–25\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010\\-06\\-19/hodkinson\\-kicks\\-manly\\-to\\-victory/873156\\|title\\=Hodkinson kicks Manly to victory \\|publisher\\= ABC News \\|location\\=Australia\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} He finished off his debut year in the NRL, having played in 24 matches, scoring four tries and kicking three field goals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/Custom/MTQtNzM4LTQtLS0tLS0xNDUwOC0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0\\=\\|title\\=Custom Match List\\|publisher\\=Rugby League Project\\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-21\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}",
"### 2011 : New Club",
"In round 1 of the [2011 NRL season](/wiki/2011_NRL_season \"2011 NRL season\"), Hodkinson made his Canterbury debut against the [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers \"Wests Tigers\"), playing at halfback in Canterbury's 24–14 win at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/Stadium_Australia \"Stadium Australia\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/seasons/nrl\\-2011/round\\-1/canterbury\\-vs\\-wests\\-tigers/summary.html\\|title\\=NRL 2011 – Round 1\\|publisher\\=Rugby League Project\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/canterbury\\-bulldogs\\-beat\\-wests\\-tigers\\-in\\-nrl\\-round\\-one/story\\-e6frexnr\\-1226021368238\\|title\\=Canterbury Bulldogs Beat Wests Tigers in NRL Round One\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} He scored his first Canterbury try in round 7 against the [South Sydney Rabbitohs](/wiki/South_Sydney_Rabbitohs \"South Sydney Rabbitohs\"), in the Canterbury's 36–24 win at ANZ Stadium.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/canterbury\\-bankstown\\-and\\-south\\-sydney\\-meet\\-in\\-round\\-seven\\-nrl\\-clash\\-at\\-anz\\-stadium/story\\-fn2mcuj6\\-1226043805859\\|title\\=Canterbury and South Sydney Meet in Round Seven\\|publisher\\=Fox Sports\\|location\\=Australia\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} In round 20 against the Parramatta Eels at ANZ Stadium, he repeated his feat of the previous year and kicked two field goals in the Canterbury's golden point extra time 8–7 win.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/canterbury\\-bankstown\\-and\\-parramatta\\-meet\\-in\\-round\\-20\\-nrl\\-clash\\-at\\-anz\\-stadium/story\\-fn2mcuj6\\-1226100007188\\|title\\=Canterbury and Parramatta Meet in Round 20\\|publisher\\=Fox Sports\\|location\\=Australia\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} He finished off 2011 having played in 22 matches, scoring two tries and kicking three field goals.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/Custom/NC04MTktNC0tLS0tLTE0NTA4LS0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLQ\\=\\=\\|title\\=Custom Match List\\|publisher\\=Rugby League Project\\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-21\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|Hodkinson representing the Bulldogs](/wiki/File:TRENT_HODKINSON.jpg \"TRENT HODKINSON.jpg\")",
"### 2012 : Injury Interrupted Season",
"Hodkinson only played in six matches in the [2012 NRL season](/wiki/2012_NRL_season \"2012 NRL season\"), after undergoing shoulder and knee operations for injuries that interrupted his season.{{cite web\\|author\\=Michael Carayannis\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-news/hodkinson\\-dreams\\-of\\-regaining\\-dogs\\-spot\\-as\\-recovery\\-looms\\-20121215\\-2bgcx.html\\|title\\=Hodkinson dreams of regaining Dogs spot as recovery looms\\|work\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}",
"### 2013",
"Hodkinson played his first match for Canterbury in the [2013 season](/wiki/2013_NRL_season \"2013 NRL season\") in round 6 against the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\") at [SFS](/wiki/Sydney_Football_Stadium_%281988%29 \"Sydney Football Stadium (1988)\") in Canterbury's 38–0 loss.[http://www.punters.com.au/news/SBW\\-stars\\-Roosters\\-crush\\-Dogs\\-38\\-0\\-in\\-NRL\\_117145/](http://www.punters.com.au/news/SBW-stars-Roosters-crush-Dogs-38-0-in-NRL_117145/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111001637/http://www.punters.com.au/news/SBW\\-stars\\-Roosters\\-crush\\-Dogs\\-38\\-0\\-in\\-NRL\\_117145/\\|date\\=11 November 2014}} Hodkinson was appointed the new goal kicker for Canterbury due to his impressive goal kicking when he was biding his time in the [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup \"NSW Cup\"). On 4 September 2013, Hodkinson re\\-signed with the Canterbury club until the end of the 2015 season.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/halfback\\-trent\\-hodkinson\\-re\\-signs\\-with\\-canterbury\\-bankstown\\-bulldogs/story\\-fn2mcuj6\\-1226710590721\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson Re\\-signs with Canterbury\\|publisher\\=Fox Sports\\|location\\=Australia\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} Hodkinson finished the [2013 NRL season](/wiki/2013_NRL_season \"2013 NRL season\") with him playing in 20 matches, scoring four tries, kicking 64 goals and kicking three field goals.",
"### 2014 : State of Origin, Co\\-captain and NRL Grand Final",
"After being injured over the 2012 season Hodkinson was unable to cement his spot as starting halfback for the Canterbury\\-Bankstown Bulldogs, until the 2014 season shining on multiple occasions to get Canterbury to seven successive victories. Hodkinsion was subsequently selected to make his [State of Origin](/wiki/State_of_Origin \"State of Origin\") debut for New South Wales in Game I of the 2014 series. Hodkinson and fellow Bulldogs player [Josh Reynolds](/wiki/Josh_Reynolds_%28Australian_rugby_league_player%29 \"Josh Reynolds (Australian rugby league player)\") replaced the incumbent halves pairing of [Mitchell Pearce](/wiki/Mitchell_Pearce \"Mitchell Pearce\") and [James Maloney](/wiki/James_Maloney_%28rugby_league%29 \"James Maloney (rugby league)\") for the 2014 series and led NSW to a 12–8 victory in Game 1 at [Suncorp Stadium](/wiki/Suncorp_Stadium \"Suncorp Stadium\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/state\\-of\\-origin\\-heroic\\-new\\-south\\-wales\\-fullback\\-jarryd\\-hayne\\-is\\-the\\-one\\-for\\-the\\-blues/story\\-fni3fqyo\\-1226935162302\\|title\\=State of Origin Heroic New South Wales Fullback Jarryd Hayne is the One for the Blues\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} Hodkinson was called up to the Blues squad again for Game 2\\. After 71 minutes of play Hodkinson crossed over to score the match's first try, to level the scores with the Maroons. His conversion decided the score 6–4\\. The Blues held on to win after eight years of Maroon dominance, with Hodkinson scoring the Blues only points.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\\-hodkinson\\-steps\\-up\\-and\\-becomes\\-a\\-state\\-of\\-origin\\-hero/story\\-fnca0von\\-1226959296728\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson Steps Up and Becomes a State of Origin Hero\\|publisher\\=Theaustraian.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} Hodkinson played in Game 3, kicking two goals in NSW 32–8 loss at [Suncorp Stadium](/wiki/Suncorp_Stadium \"Suncorp Stadium\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/live\\-stage\\-of\\-origin\\-game\\-three\\-nsw\\-blues\\-v\\-queensland\\-maroons/story\\-fndv2twz\\-1226983403866\\|title\\=ORIGIN III: Queensland restores pride\\|publisher\\=News.com.au\\|date\\=2014\\-07\\-09\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} Hodkinson led the Bulldogs into the Top 8 at the end of the season. During the Bulldogs vs [Melbourne Storm](/wiki/Melbourne_Storm \"Melbourne Storm\") Elimination Final round, Hodkinson kicked four goals and scored a try to assist his team to a 28–4 win.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/sport/nrl/des\\-hasler\\-gets\\-another\\-crack\\-at\\-manly\\-after\\-bulldogs\\-bite\\-storm/story\\-fnca0von\\-1227058336597\\|title\\=Des Hasler Gets Another Crack at Manly after Bulldogs Bite Storm\\|publisher\\=Theaustraian.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} In the Semi\\-Final the Bulldogs played a close game with the [Manly Warringah Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly_Warringah_Sea_Eagles \"Manly Warringah Sea Eagles\"), with Hodkinson kicking two field goals to win for Canterbury's 18–17\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/trent\\-hodkinson\\-kicks\\-a\\-golden\\-point\\-field\\-goal\\-as\\-the\\-bulldogs\\-claim\\-a\\-1817\\-semifinal\\-victory\\-over\\-manly/story\\-fn2mcuj6\\-1227065023145\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson Kicks a Golden Point Field Goal as the Bulldogs Claim a 18–17 Semifinal Victory\\|publisher\\=Foxpsorts.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} In the Preliminary Final the Canterbury side beat [Penrith](/wiki/Penrith_Panthers \"Penrith Panthers\") 18–12 with Hodkinson kicking three goals to secure their place in the [2014 NRL Grand Final](/wiki/2014_NRL_Grand_Final \"2014 NRL Grand Final\").{{cite web\\|author\\=Ash Gray\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/rugby\\-league\\-match\\-centre/panthers\\-v\\-bulldogs\\-20140927\\-3gmw8\\.html\\|title\\=Panthers v Bulldogs\\|work\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\\=2014\\-09\\-27\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} In the week leading to the Grand Final, when Canterbury captain [Michael Ennis](/wiki/Michael_Ennis \"Michael Ennis\") was ruled out of the 2014 NRL Grand Final due to a foot injury, Hodkinson along with teammate [James Graham](/wiki/James_Graham_%28rugby_league%29 \"James Graham (rugby league)\") were named co\\-captains of Canterbury for the match.{{cite web\\|author\\=Michael Carayannis\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-news/canterbury\\-bulldogs\\-captain\\-michael\\-ennis\\-ruled\\-out\\-of\\-nrl\\-grand\\-final\\-james\\-graham\\-trent\\-hodkinson\\-named\\-as\\-cocaptains\\-20141004\\-10q8sc.html\\|title\\=Canterbury Bulldogs captain Michael Ennis ruled out of NRL grand final, James Graham, Trent Hodkinson named as co\\-captains\\|work\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-04\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} Hodkinson kicked goal goal in Canterbury's 30–6 Grand Final loss.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nrl.com/bulldogs\\-grand\\-final\\-player\\-ratings/tabid/10874/newsid/82377/default.aspx\\|title\\=Bulldogs Grand Final Player Ratings\\|publisher\\=National Rugby League\\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-05\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/south\\-sydney\\-rabbitohs\\-win\\-2014\\-nrl\\-grand\\-final\\-defeating\\-canterbury\\-bulldogs\\-306/story\\-fni3fbgz\\-1227080755667\\|title\\=South Sydney Rabbitohs Win 2014 Grand Final\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} Hodkinson finished his [2014 NRL season](/wiki/2014_NRL_season \"2014 NRL season\") for the Bulldogs with him playing 25 matches, scoring five tries, kicking 68 goals and kicking four field goals.",
"### 2015 : Last season at the Bulldogs",
"In round 3 against the [Manly\\-Warringah Sea Eagles](/wiki/Manly-Warringah_Sea_Eagles \"Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles\"), Hodkinson played his 100th [NRL](/wiki/National_Rugby_League \"National Rugby League\") match in Canterbury's 16–12 win at [Brookvale Oval](/wiki/Brookvale_Oval \"Brookvale Oval\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nrl.com/sea\\-eagles\\-v\\-bulldogs\\-preview/tabid/10874/newsid/84618/default.aspx\\|title\\=Sea Eagles v Bulldogs preview\\|publisher\\=National Rugby League\\|date\\=2015\\-03\\-20\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/northern\\-beaches/ellas\\-eagle\\-eye\\-canterbury\\-bulldogs\\-defeat\\-manly\\-sea\\-eagles\\-at\\-sandy\\-brookvale\\-oval/story\\-fngr8hax\\-1227275111651\\|title\\=Ellas Eagle Eye Canterbury Bulldogs Defeat Manly\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} Hodkinson played at halfback and was the main goal kicker in all three matches for the [New South Wales Blues](/wiki/New_South_Wales_rugby_league_team \"New South Wales rugby league team\") in the [2015 State of Origin series](/wiki/2015_State_of_Origin_series \"2015 State of Origin series\") loss.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/state\\-of\\-origin\\-2015\\-game\\-three\\-trent\\-hodkinson\\-poised\\-to\\-convert\\-sceptics/story\\-fni3fqyo\\-1227428528377\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson Poised to Convert Sceptics\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} Hodkinson was subsequently dropped from the NSW side for the 2016 series.",
"On 6 July 2015, Hodkinson signed a three\\-year contract with the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights \"Newcastle Knights\") starting in 2016\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\\-hodkinson\\-signs\\-three\\-year\\-deal\\-with\\-newcastle\\-knights\\-from\\-2016/story\\-fni3fbgz\\-1227431132470\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson Signs Three Year Deal with Newcastle Knights from 2016\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}}{{cite web\\|author\\=Robert Dillon\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-match\\-report/no\\-fairytale\\-ending\\-for\\-knight\\-gidley\\-as\\-canterbury\\-win\\-but\\-lose\\-hodkinson\\-20150829\\-gjas9x.html\\|title\\=No fairytale ending for Newcastle Knights stalwart Kurt Gidley as Canterbury Bulldogs win but lose Trent Hodkinson\\|work\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-20}} He finished off his last year with the Bulldogs having played in 18 matches, scoring one try, kicking 47 goals and kicking one field goal.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/Custom/NC0xNjYwLTQtLS0tLS0xNDUwOC0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0\\=\\|title\\=Custom Match List\\|publisher\\=Rugby League Project\\|date\\=2015\\-10\\-31\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-12\\-22}} On 15 December, he was named at halfback for the [World All Stars](/wiki/NRL_All_Stars_team \"NRL All Stars team\") team to play the [Indigenous All Stars](/wiki/Indigenous_All_Stars_%28rugby_league%29 \"Indigenous All Stars (rugby league)\") on 16 February 2016\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nrl.com/teams\\-named\\-for\\-nrl\\-all\\-stars\\-match/tabid/10874/newsid/91188/default.aspx\\|title\\=Teams named for NRL All Stars match\\|publisher\\=National Rugby League\\|date\\=2015\\-12\\-15\\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-12\\-22}}",
"### 2016 : Knights Captain in very poor season for the club",
"On 26 February, Hodkinson was announced as one of three co\\-captains for the Knights alongside [Tariq Sims](/wiki/Tariq_Sims \"Tariq Sims\") and [Jeremy Smith](/wiki/Jeremy_Smith_%28rugby_league_born_1980%29 \"Jeremy Smith (rugby league born 1980)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.newcastleknights.com.au/content/knights/club/news/2016/02/26/newcastle\\_knights\\_an.html\\|title\\=Newcastle Knights announce 2016 captains – Knights\\|publisher\\=Newcastleknights.com.au\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-02\\-26\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304131828/http://www.newcastleknights.com.au/content/knights/club/news/2016/02/26/newcastle\\_knights\\_an.html\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016}} In round 1 of the [2016 NRL season](/wiki/2016_NRL_season \"2016 NRL season\"), he made his club debut for Newcastle against the [Gold Coast Titans](/wiki/Gold_Coast_Titans \"Gold Coast Titans\"), playing at halfback and kicking two goals in Newcastle's 12–30 loss at [Cbus Super Stadium](/wiki/Robina_Stadium \"Robina Stadium\").{{cite web\\|author\\=Laine Clark\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-match\\-report/gold\\-coast\\-titans\\-grab\\-nrl\\-season\\-opening\\-win\\-against\\-newcastle\\-knights\\-20160306\\-gnbzkj.html\\|title\\=Gold Coast Titans grab NRL season opening win against Newcastle Knights\\|work\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-07}} In round 11 against the [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers \"Wests Tigers\"), he scored his first try for the Newcastle club.{{cite web\\|author\\=David Sygall\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/rugby\\-league/league\\-match\\-report/wests\\-tigers\\-leave\\-it\\-late\\-to\\-put\\-the\\-newcastle\\-knights\\-to\\-the\\-sword\\-20160521\\-gp0jk6\\.html\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson in State of Origin frame as Wests Tigers pinch win over Newcastle Knights\\|work\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-05\\-22}} During the middle of the season, he was linked to a possible allegiance switch to [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_league_team \"England national rugby league team\") for the [2016 Four Nations series](/wiki/2016_Rugby_League_Four_Nations \"2016 Rugby League Four Nations\"). He qualifies for England through his English father.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/knights/trent\\-hodkinson\\-admits\\-he\\-could\\-play\\-for\\-england\\-in\\-the\\-four\\-nations/news\\-story/63849d9a3aad64b1904e8058ffca685e\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson admits he could play for England in the Four Nations\\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|date\\=2016\\-08\\-11\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-04}} Hodkinson finished his first season with the Newcastle club having played in 23 matches, scoring one try, kicking 47 goals and kicking one field goal.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/matches/Custom/MTUtMTY3Ny00LS0tLS0tMTQ1MDgtLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0t\\|title\\=Custom Match List\\|publisher\\=Rugby League Project\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-04}}",
"### 2017 : Demotion to reserve grade, loss of Newcastle captaincy",
"On 23 February 2017, Hodkinson was named as the sole captain of the Knights for the 2017 season.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.foxsports.com.au/nrl/nrl\\-premiership/teams/knights/trent\\-hodkinson\\-will\\-captain\\-the\\-newcastle\\-knights\\-in\\-2017/news\\-story/af83e8a5590c73100598ab76a694a7ea\\|title\\=Knights name Trent Hodkinson as 2017 captain\\|date\\=24 February 2017\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2018}} After Round 7 and with the Knights only notching one win during that period, Hodkinson was demoted to Newcastle's [Intrust Super Premiership NSW](/wiki/Intrust_Super_Premiership_NSW \"Intrust Super Premiership NSW\") team with the club going for youngsters [Brock Lamb](/wiki/Brock_Lamb \"Brock Lamb\") and [Jaelen Feeney](/wiki/Jaelen_Feeney \"Jaelen Feeney\") in the halves but only had one win with them there while as Hodkinson was in reserve grade.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/nrl/teams/knights/newcastle\\-captain\\-trent\\-hodkinson\\-dumped\\-for\\-the\\-knights\\-clash\\-with\\-cowboys\\-in\\-townsville/news\\-story/f684c3214d3fb3c704a0086c47e4e078\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson dumped for the Knights clash with Cowboys in Townsville\\|website\\=The Daily Telegraph\\|location\\=Sydney\\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2018}} Hodkinson would later return in Round 17 against the [Wests Tigers](/wiki/Wests_Tigers \"Wests Tigers\") where the Knights lost 33–12 at [Hunter Stadium](/wiki/Hunter_Stadium \"Hunter Stadium\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nrl.com/news/2017/07/02/tigers\\-thump\\-knights\\-to\\-end\\-losing\\-run/\\|title\\=Tigers thump Knights to end losing run\\|date\\=2 July 2017\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2018}} Hodkinson did not receive the captaincy back with [Sione Mata'utia](/wiki/Sione_Mata%27utia \"Sione Mata'utia\") and [Jamie Buhrer](/wiki/Jamie_Buhrer \"Jamie Buhrer\") taking over the role until round 25 and 26 after Sione Mata’utia was ruled out for the final two rounds due to concussion.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/newcastle\\-knights\\-defer\\-contract\\-talks\\-with\\-sione\\-matautia\\-due\\-to\\-concussion\\-history\\-20171026\\-gz8u6y.html\\|title\\=Newcastle Knights defer contract talks with Sione Mata'utia due to concussion history\\|first\\=Robert\\|last\\=Dillon\\|date\\=26 October 2017\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2018}} Hodkinson finished the [2017 NRL season](/wiki/2017_NRL_season \"2017 NRL season\") with him playing in 17 matches, scoring one try, kicking 46 goals and kicking one field goal for the Newcastle side.",
"On 11 November 2019, Hodkinson spoke of his time at Newcastle and called it a \"toxic environment\". Hodkinson also spoke of his displeasure towards former Newcastle head coach [Nathan Brown](/wiki/Nathan_Brown_%28rugby_league%2C_born_1973%29 \"Nathan Brown (rugby league, born 1973)\") saying \"I started the year all right, and I think it might have been early in the season I got brought into the coach’s office and he said to me: 'I want you to go back to [NSW Cup](/wiki/NSW_Cup \"NSW Cup\") and work on your confidence, \"I was like: 'Oh, OK' … I think he felt the pressure and had to make a big call, Unfortunately for me, I took the fall for where we were at the time\".",
"Hodkinson explained his situation at the club further saying \"I thought I’d go back for a couple of weeks and get my confidence back, which I didn’t really agree with, but two weeks rolls around, nothing said, \"Four weeks, six weeks, didn’t hear a thing. Walked past each other, nothing was said. Ten weeks rolled around and I was just going: 'What’s doing here?, In the meantime, there were certain things getting leaked to the media – the local media up there – that I wasn’t too happy about. I know for a fact that it was coming from him\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\\-hodkinson\\-fires\\-brutal\\-shot\\-at\\-nathan\\-browns\\-toxic\\-environment\\-and\\-media\\-leaks\\-at\\-the\\-knights/news\\-story/b3f0c7eda3cb1b76b338827093240a86/\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson fires brutal shot at Nathan Brown's 'toxic' environment and media leaks at the Knights\\|publisher\\=News.com.au}}",
"### 2018",
"On 5 February 2018, Hodkinson was released from his final year of his contract with the [Newcastle Knights](/wiki/Newcastle_Knights \"Newcastle Knights\") to sign on a one\\-year deal with the [Cronulla\\-Sutherland Sharks](/wiki/Cronulla-Sutherland_Sharks \"Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks\") as a back\\-up half.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/cronulla\\-sharks\\-confirm\\-signing\\-of\\-trent\\-hodkinson\\-after\\-newcastle\\-knights\\-release\\-20180205\\-h0u08c.html\\|title\\=Cronulla Sharks confirm signing of Trent Hodkinson after Newcastle Knights release\\|first\\=Scott\\|last\\=Bailey\\|date\\=5 February 2018\\|website\\=The Sydney Morning Herald\\|access\\-date\\=18 March 2018}} In round 3 of the [2018 season](/wiki/2018_NRL_season \"2018 NRL season\"), he made his debut for Cronulla in their 14–4 win over the [Parramatta Eels](/wiki/Parramatta_Eels \"Parramatta Eels\") at [ANZ Stadium](/wiki/Stadium_Australia \"Stadium Australia\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/seasons/nrl\\-2018/round\\-3/parramatta\\-vs\\-cronulla/summary.html\\|title\\=NRL 2018 – Round 3 – Rugby League Project\\|first\\=Shawn Dollin and Andrew\\|last\\=Ferguson\\|publisher\\=Rugby League Project\\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2018}}",
"On 15 May, Hodkinson was granted a release from the Cronulla club so he could return to Manly effectively immediately on a two\\-year contract, with Cronulla allowing him to take up a longer\\-term deal than they could offer.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.zerotackle.com/just\\-in\\-sea\\-eagles\\-confirm\\-hodkinson\\-signing\\-33110/\\|title\\=Sea Eagles confirm Hodkinson signing – Zero Tackle\\|date\\=15 May 2018\\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2018}} He made his return to the Manly club in their 24–4 win over the Melbourne Storm at [AAMI Park](/wiki/Melbourne_Rectangular_Stadium \"Melbourne Rectangular Stadium\") on 19 May. He played off the [interchange bench](/wiki/Rugby_league_positions%23Interchange \"Rugby league positions#Interchange\") and kicked three from four goals in the match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/seasons/nrl\\-2018/round\\-11/melbourne\\-vs\\-manly\\-warringah/summary.html\\|title\\=NRL 2018 – Round 11 – Rugby League Project\\|first\\=Shawn Dollin and Andrew\\|last\\=Ferguson\\|publisher\\=Rugby League Project\\|access\\-date\\=8 June 2018}}",
"### 2019",
"Hodkinson started the 2019 season at Manly from the bench in the match against [West Tigers](/wiki/West_Tigers \"West Tigers\"). He entered the game as a substitute during the second half at hooker, and had an error\\-free 15 minutes on the field. After Manly's round 2 loss against the [Sydney Roosters](/wiki/Sydney_Roosters \"Sydney Roosters\"), Hodkinson was demoted to reserve grade to play for Manly's reserve grade side the [Blacktown Workers Sea Eagles](/wiki/Blacktown_Workers_Sea_Eagles \"Blacktown Workers Sea Eagles\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nswrl.com.au/news/2019/04/01/manly\\-warringah\\-sea\\-eagles\\-halfback\\-trent\\-hodkinson\\-determined\\-to\\-earn\\-first\\-grade\\-recall/\\|title\\=Hodkinson happy to bide his time with Blacktown\\|website\\=nswrl.com.au}}",
"On 5 September, Hodkinson announced his retirement from [rugby league](/wiki/Rugby_league \"Rugby league\") after succumbing to career\\-ending knee injuries. Hodkinson spoke to the media saying \"Unfortunately due to a new injury sustained earlier this year, numerous medical procedures and intensive rehabilitation, I have been forced to give up the game that I love and will be medically retiring from rugby league\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/trent\\-hodkinson\\-announces\\-his\\-retirement\\-from\\-nrl\\-due\\-to\\-injury/news\\-story/659b8ec9ac781ba9b87c4446534d0198/\\|title\\=Trent Hodkinson announces his retirement from NRL due to injury\\|publisher\\=News.com.au}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Formation and *Electric Love Hogs* (1991–1993\)
John Feldmann, Kelly LeMieux and Bobby Hewitt formed Electric Love Hogs, as a cover band, in San Diego in 1991\.{{Cite web \| last \= DePasquale \| first \= Ron \| title \= Electric Love Hogs Biography \| publisher \= \[\[Allmusic]] \| access\-date \= January 19, 2011 \| url \= {{AllMusic\|class\=artist\|id\=electric\-love\-hogs\-p22175/biography\|pure\_url\=yes}}}} Their name was chosen as a satirical swipe at the Los Angeles [glam metal](/wiki/Glam_metal "Glam metal") scene of the late '80s. They soon added guitarists [Dave Kushner](/wiki/Dave_Kushner "Dave Kushner"), formerly of [Wasted Youth](/wiki/Wasted_Youth_%28American_band%29 "Wasted Youth (American band)"),{{Cite web\|last\=Stingley \|first\=Mick \|title\=Exclusive! Interview With Velvet Revolver Guitarist Dave Kushner \|publisher\=\[\[KNAC]] \|date\=July 14, 2004 \|access\-date\=July 14, 2004 \|url\=http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID\=3136 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614033438/http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID\=3136 \|archive\-date\=June 14, 2011 }} and Donni Campion to the lineup. They recorded their debut album at [Devonshire Sound Studios](/wiki/Devonshire_Sound_Studios "Devonshire Sound Studios"){{Citation \|title\=Electric Love Hogs \- Electric Love Hogs Album Reviews, Songs \& More {{!}} AllMusic \|url\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/electric\-love\-hogs\-mw0000073524 \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-31 \|language\=en}} with producer [Mark Dodson](/wiki/Mark_Dodson "Mark Dodson"),{{cite AV media notes \| title \= Electric Love Hogs \| others \= Electric Love Hogs \| year\= 1992 \| publisher \= \[\[London Records]] \| type \= CD booklet}} though [Mötley Crüe](/wiki/M%C3%B6tley_Cr%C3%BCe "Mötley Crüe")'s [Tommy Lee](/wiki/Tommy_Lee "Tommy Lee") co\-produced two songs. The album featured contributions from [Stephen Perkins](/wiki/Stephen_Perkins "Stephen Perkins") of [Jane's Addiction](/wiki/Jane%27s_Addiction "Jane's Addiction"), John Norwood Fisher of [Fishbone](/wiki/Fishbone "Fishbone") and [Bronx Style Bob](/wiki/Bronx_Style_Bob "Bronx Style Bob") among others. The same year, Kushner contributed guitars to the song "Punk It Up" for the [Infectious Grooves](/wiki/Infectious_Grooves "Infectious Grooves") debut album *[The Plague That Makes Your Booty Move...It's the Infectious Grooves](/wiki/The_Plague_That_Makes_Your_Booty_Move...It%27s_the_Infectious_Grooves "The Plague That Makes Your Booty Move...It's the Infectious Grooves")*, also produced by Dodson, released in 1991 before touring with the band for a short time.
*Electric Love Hogs* was released in 1992 through [London Records](/wiki/London_Records "London Records"). The band toured the US with [Stone Temple Pilots](/wiki/Stone_Temple_Pilots "Stone Temple Pilots"){{Cite book \| author \= Slash \|author2\=Bozza, Anthony \|author\-link2\=Anthony Bozza \| title \= \[\[Slash (autobiography)\|Slash]] \| publisher \= HarperCollins \| year \= 2007 \| page \= 432 \| isbn \= 978\-0\-00\-725775\-1 }} and [L.A. Guns](/wiki/L.A._Guns "L.A. Guns") while they also toured the United Kingdom with [Ugly Kid Joe](/wiki/Ugly_Kid_Joe "Ugly Kid Joe"). By 1993, Electric Love Hogs disbanded.
### Post\-breakup activities (1993–present)
Feldmann formed [Goldfinger](/wiki/Goldfinger_%28band%29 "Goldfinger (band)") in 1994 with [Simon Williams](/wiki/Simon_Williams_%28bassist%29 "Simon Williams (bassist)").{{Cite web \| last \= Prato \| first \= Greg \| title \= Goldfinger Biography \| publisher \= \[\[Allmusic]] \| access\-date \= January 19, 2011 \| url \= {{AllMusic\|class\=artist\|id\=goldfinger\-p39089/biography\|pure\_url\=yes}}}} They released seven studio albums, *[Goldfinger](/wiki/Goldfinger_%28album%29 "Goldfinger (album)")* (1996\), *[Hang\-Ups](/wiki/Hang-Ups "Hang-Ups")* (1997\), *[Stomping Ground](/wiki/Stomping_Ground "Stomping Ground")* (2000\), *[Open Your Eyes](/wiki/Open_Your_Eyes_%28Goldfinger_album%29 "Open Your Eyes (Goldfinger album)")* (2002\), *[Disconnection Notice](/wiki/Disconnection_Notice "Disconnection Notice")* (2005\), *[Hello Destiny](/wiki/Hello_Destiny "Hello Destiny")* (2008\), *[The Knife](/wiki/The_Knife_%28Goldfinger_album%29 "The Knife (Goldfinger album)")* (2017\), as well as a number of extended plays and singles while the band went through a few lineup changes. Feldmann has also produced records for [blink\-182](/wiki/Blink-182 "Blink-182"), [Mest](/wiki/Mest "Mest"), [The Used](/wiki/The_Used "The Used"), [Hilary Duff](/wiki/Hilary_Duff "Hilary Duff") and [Story of the Year](/wiki/Story_of_the_Year "Story of the Year") among others.
LeMieux joined Shrine{{Cite web \| last \= Prato \| first \= Greg \| title \= MD.45 Biography \| publisher \= \[\[Allmusic]] \| access\-date \= January 19, 2011 \| url \= {{AllMusic\|class\=artist\|id\=md45\-p182468/biography\|pure\_url\=yes}}}} before joining [MD.45](/wiki/MD.45 "MD.45"), the one\-off side project that consisted of [Megadeth](/wiki/Megadeth "Megadeth")'s [Dave Mustaine](/wiki/Dave_Mustaine "Dave Mustaine"), [Fear](/wiki/Fear_%28band%29 "Fear (band)") singer [Lee Ving](/wiki/Lee_Ving "Lee Ving") as well as then [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper "Alice Cooper") and former [Suicidal Tendencies](/wiki/Suicidal_Tendencies "Suicidal Tendencies") drummer [Jimmy DeGrasso](/wiki/Jimmy_DeGrasso "Jimmy DeGrasso"). They released one studio album entitled *[The Craving](/wiki/The_Craving_%28album%29 "The Craving (album)")* in 1996 before disbanding. In 1998, he joined Goldfinger, replacing Williams.
Hewitt formed [Orgy](/wiki/Orgy_%28band%29 "Orgy (band)"), with [Jay Gordon](/wiki/Jay_Gordon_%28singer%29 "Jay Gordon (singer)"), [Ryan Shuck](/wiki/Ryan_Shuck "Ryan Shuck"), [Amir Derakh](/wiki/Amir_Derakh "Amir Derakh") and [Paige Haley](/wiki/Paige_Haley "Paige Haley"), in 1997{{Cite web \| last \= Huey \| first \= Steve \| title \= Orgy Biography \| publisher \= \[\[Allmusic]] \| access\-date \= January 19, 2011 \| url \= {{AllMusic\|class\=artist\|id\=orgy\-p311513/biography\|pure\_url\=yes}}}} They achieved mainstream success with the albums *[Candyass](/wiki/Candyass "Candyass")* (1998\) and *[Vapor Transmission](/wiki/Vapor_Transmission "Vapor Transmission")* (2000\) before Hewitt departed to tour with [Snake River Conspiracy](/wiki/Snake_River_Conspiracy "Snake River Conspiracy"), though he participated in the recording of Orgy's third album *[Punk Statik Paranoia](/wiki/Punk_Statik_Paranoia "Punk Statik Paranoia")* (2004\).
Campion joined [Handsome](/wiki/Handsome_%28band%29 "Handsome (band)") in 1997, replacing previous guitarist Tom Capone.{{cite web \| last \= Jeffries \| first \= Vincent \| title \= Handsome Biography \| work \= \[\[Allmusic]] \| access\-date \= September 29, 2010 \| url \= {{AllMusic\|class\=artist\|id\=p200280\|pure\_url\=yes}}}} The band toured the US with [Silverchair](/wiki/Silverchair "Silverchair"), [Local H](/wiki/Local_H "Local H") and [Less Than Jake](/wiki/Less_Than_Jake "Less Than Jake"), while they supported [Wu\-Tang Clan](/wiki/Wu-Tang_Clan "Wu-Tang Clan") and [Voodoo Glow Skulls](/wiki/Voodoo_Glow_Skulls "Voodoo Glow Skulls") in Europe before disbanding in 1998\.
Kushner toured and recorded with Suicidal Tendencies and Infectious Grooves singer [Mike Muir](/wiki/Mike_Muir "Mike Muir"), on the album *[Lost My Brain! (Once Again)](/wiki/Lost_My_Brain%21_%28Once_Again%29 "Lost My Brain! (Once Again)")*{{Cite web \| last \= Kushner \| first \= Dave \| title \= Bio \| publisher \= \[\[Dave Kushner\|Davekushner.com]] \| access\-date \= July 20, 2010 \| url \= http://www.davekushner.com/bio.php \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20100212081021/http://www.davekushner.com/bio.php \| archive\-date \= February 12, 2010 \| url\-status \= dead }} before going on to join [Danzig](/wiki/Danzig_%28band%29 "Danzig (band)"). Kushner's tenure in Danzig lasted nearly a year where he performed only one show at the [Whisky a Go Go](/wiki/Whisky_a_Go_Go "Whisky a Go Go") in Hollywood, California. He joined the hard rock group [Zilch](/wiki/Zilch_%28band%29 "Zilch (band)"), formed by former [X Japan](/wiki/X_Japan "X Japan") guitarist [hide](/wiki/Hide_%28musician%29 "Hide (musician)"). Following the death of hide, they recorded and released *Skyjin* in 2001, before Kushner became musical director [Dave Navarro](/wiki/Dave_Navarro "Dave Navarro")'s solo band and later joined [Duff McKagan](/wiki/Duff_McKagan "Duff McKagan")'s band [Loaded](/wiki/Loaded_%28band%29 "Loaded (band)").{{Cite web \| last \= Lecaro \| first \= Lina \| title \= Cocked and Loaded: Blowing away the music machine (p.2\) \| work \= \[\[LA Weekly]] \| date \= June 19, 2002 \| url \= http://www.laweekly.com/2002\-06\-27/music/cocked\-and\-loaded/2/}} In 2003, along with McKagan and his former [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses "Guns N' Roses") band mates, [Slash](/wiki/Slash_%28musician%29 "Slash (musician)"), [Matt Sorum](/wiki/Matt_Sorum "Matt Sorum"), as well as then former [Stone Temple Pilots](/wiki/Stone_Temple_Pilots "Stone Temple Pilots") singer [Scott Weiland](/wiki/Scott_Weiland "Scott Weiland"), Kushner formed the hard rock [supergroup](/wiki/Supergroup_%28music%29 "Supergroup (music)") [Velvet Revolver](/wiki/Velvet_Revolver "Velvet Revolver").{{Cite web \| last \= Loftus \| first \= Johnny \| title \= Velvet Revolver Biography \| publisher \= \[\[Allmusic]] \| access\-date \= October 6, 2010 \| url \= {{AllMusic\|class\=artist\|id\=p651389\|pure\_url\=yes}}}} They released two studio albums, *[Contraband](/wiki/Contraband_%28Velvet_Revolver_album%29 "Contraband (Velvet Revolver album)")* and *[Libertad](/wiki/Libertad_%28Velvet_Revolver_album%29 "Libertad (Velvet Revolver album)")*, before going on hiatus in 2008 following the departure of Weiland.{{Cite web\|title\=It's Official: VELVET REVOLVER Parts Ways With Singer SCOTT WEILAND \|publisher\=\[\[Blabbermouth.net]] \|date\=April 1, 2008 \|url\=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=94021 \|access\-date\=2011\-10\-11 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805191509/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\=Article\&newsitemID\=94021 \|archive\-date\=2011\-08\-05 }} During this time, he began composing music for film and television, most notable, the theme song for [FX](/wiki/FX_%28TV_channel%29 "FX (TV channel)") series *[Sons of Anarchy](/wiki/Sons_of_Anarchy "Sons of Anarchy")* entitled "[This Life](/wiki/This_Life_%28Theme_from_Sons_of_Anarchy%29 "This Life (Theme from Sons of Anarchy)")" where he received an [Emmy Award](/wiki/Emmy_Award "Emmy Award") nomination for [Outstanding Main Title Theme Music](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Main_Title_Theme_Music "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music") in 2009{{Cite web \| last \= Burlingame \| first \= Jon \| title \= Emmy Music Nominations Announced \| publisher \= \[\[The Film Music Society]] \| date \= July 16, 2009 \| url \= http://www.filmmusicsociety.org/news\_events/features/2009/071609\.html?isArchive\=071609}} and an [ASCAP Award](/wiki/American_Society_of_Composers%2C_Authors_and_Publishers%23Annual_Awards "American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers#Annual Awards") in 2010\.{{Cite news \| last \= Morris \| first \= Christopher \| title \= ASCAP Honors Top Film and Television Music Composers at 25th Anniversary Awards Celebration \| work \= \[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]] \| date \= June 24, 2010 \| url \= https://www.variety.com/article/VR1118021027\.html?categoryid\=16\&cs\=1}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Formation and *Electric Love Hogs* (1991–1993\\)",
"John Feldmann, Kelly LeMieux and Bobby Hewitt formed Electric Love Hogs, as a cover band, in San Diego in 1991\\.{{Cite web \\| last \\= DePasquale \\| first \\= Ron \\| title \\= Electric Love Hogs Biography \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Allmusic]] \\| access\\-date \\= January 19, 2011 \\| url \\= {{AllMusic\\|class\\=artist\\|id\\=electric\\-love\\-hogs\\-p22175/biography\\|pure\\_url\\=yes}}}} Their name was chosen as a satirical swipe at the Los Angeles [glam metal](/wiki/Glam_metal \"Glam metal\") scene of the late '80s. They soon added guitarists [Dave Kushner](/wiki/Dave_Kushner \"Dave Kushner\"), formerly of [Wasted Youth](/wiki/Wasted_Youth_%28American_band%29 \"Wasted Youth (American band)\"),{{Cite web\\|last\\=Stingley \\|first\\=Mick \\|title\\=Exclusive! Interview With Velvet Revolver Guitarist Dave Kushner \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[KNAC]] \\|date\\=July 14, 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=July 14, 2004 \\|url\\=http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID\\=3136 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614033438/http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID\\=3136 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 14, 2011 }} and Donni Campion to the lineup. They recorded their debut album at [Devonshire Sound Studios](/wiki/Devonshire_Sound_Studios \"Devonshire Sound Studios\"){{Citation \\|title\\=Electric Love Hogs \\- Electric Love Hogs Album Reviews, Songs \\& More {{!}} AllMusic \\|url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/electric\\-love\\-hogs\\-mw0000073524 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-31 \\|language\\=en}} with producer [Mark Dodson](/wiki/Mark_Dodson \"Mark Dodson\"),{{cite AV media notes \\| title \\= Electric Love Hogs \\| others \\= Electric Love Hogs \\| year\\= 1992 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[London Records]] \\| type \\= CD booklet}} though [Mötley Crüe](/wiki/M%C3%B6tley_Cr%C3%BCe \"Mötley Crüe\")'s [Tommy Lee](/wiki/Tommy_Lee \"Tommy Lee\") co\\-produced two songs. The album featured contributions from [Stephen Perkins](/wiki/Stephen_Perkins \"Stephen Perkins\") of [Jane's Addiction](/wiki/Jane%27s_Addiction \"Jane's Addiction\"), John Norwood Fisher of [Fishbone](/wiki/Fishbone \"Fishbone\") and [Bronx Style Bob](/wiki/Bronx_Style_Bob \"Bronx Style Bob\") among others. The same year, Kushner contributed guitars to the song \"Punk It Up\" for the [Infectious Grooves](/wiki/Infectious_Grooves \"Infectious Grooves\") debut album *[The Plague That Makes Your Booty Move...It's the Infectious Grooves](/wiki/The_Plague_That_Makes_Your_Booty_Move...It%27s_the_Infectious_Grooves \"The Plague That Makes Your Booty Move...It's the Infectious Grooves\")*, also produced by Dodson, released in 1991 before touring with the band for a short time.",
"*Electric Love Hogs* was released in 1992 through [London Records](/wiki/London_Records \"London Records\"). The band toured the US with [Stone Temple Pilots](/wiki/Stone_Temple_Pilots \"Stone Temple Pilots\"){{Cite book \\| author \\= Slash \\|author2\\=Bozza, Anthony \\|author\\-link2\\=Anthony Bozza \\| title \\= \\[\\[Slash (autobiography)\\|Slash]] \\| publisher \\= HarperCollins \\| year \\= 2007 \\| page \\= 432 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-00\\-725775\\-1 }} and [L.A. Guns](/wiki/L.A._Guns \"L.A. Guns\") while they also toured the United Kingdom with [Ugly Kid Joe](/wiki/Ugly_Kid_Joe \"Ugly Kid Joe\"). By 1993, Electric Love Hogs disbanded.",
"### Post\\-breakup activities (1993–present)",
"Feldmann formed [Goldfinger](/wiki/Goldfinger_%28band%29 \"Goldfinger (band)\") in 1994 with [Simon Williams](/wiki/Simon_Williams_%28bassist%29 \"Simon Williams (bassist)\").{{Cite web \\| last \\= Prato \\| first \\= Greg \\| title \\= Goldfinger Biography \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Allmusic]] \\| access\\-date \\= January 19, 2011 \\| url \\= {{AllMusic\\|class\\=artist\\|id\\=goldfinger\\-p39089/biography\\|pure\\_url\\=yes}}}} They released seven studio albums, *[Goldfinger](/wiki/Goldfinger_%28album%29 \"Goldfinger (album)\")* (1996\\), *[Hang\\-Ups](/wiki/Hang-Ups \"Hang-Ups\")* (1997\\), *[Stomping Ground](/wiki/Stomping_Ground \"Stomping Ground\")* (2000\\), *[Open Your Eyes](/wiki/Open_Your_Eyes_%28Goldfinger_album%29 \"Open Your Eyes (Goldfinger album)\")* (2002\\), *[Disconnection Notice](/wiki/Disconnection_Notice \"Disconnection Notice\")* (2005\\), *[Hello Destiny](/wiki/Hello_Destiny \"Hello Destiny\")* (2008\\), *[The Knife](/wiki/The_Knife_%28Goldfinger_album%29 \"The Knife (Goldfinger album)\")* (2017\\), as well as a number of extended plays and singles while the band went through a few lineup changes. Feldmann has also produced records for [blink\\-182](/wiki/Blink-182 \"Blink-182\"), [Mest](/wiki/Mest \"Mest\"), [The Used](/wiki/The_Used \"The Used\"), [Hilary Duff](/wiki/Hilary_Duff \"Hilary Duff\") and [Story of the Year](/wiki/Story_of_the_Year \"Story of the Year\") among others.",
"LeMieux joined Shrine{{Cite web \\| last \\= Prato \\| first \\= Greg \\| title \\= MD.45 Biography \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Allmusic]] \\| access\\-date \\= January 19, 2011 \\| url \\= {{AllMusic\\|class\\=artist\\|id\\=md45\\-p182468/biography\\|pure\\_url\\=yes}}}} before joining [MD.45](/wiki/MD.45 \"MD.45\"), the one\\-off side project that consisted of [Megadeth](/wiki/Megadeth \"Megadeth\")'s [Dave Mustaine](/wiki/Dave_Mustaine \"Dave Mustaine\"), [Fear](/wiki/Fear_%28band%29 \"Fear (band)\") singer [Lee Ving](/wiki/Lee_Ving \"Lee Ving\") as well as then [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper \"Alice Cooper\") and former [Suicidal Tendencies](/wiki/Suicidal_Tendencies \"Suicidal Tendencies\") drummer [Jimmy DeGrasso](/wiki/Jimmy_DeGrasso \"Jimmy DeGrasso\"). They released one studio album entitled *[The Craving](/wiki/The_Craving_%28album%29 \"The Craving (album)\")* in 1996 before disbanding. In 1998, he joined Goldfinger, replacing Williams.",
"Hewitt formed [Orgy](/wiki/Orgy_%28band%29 \"Orgy (band)\"), with [Jay Gordon](/wiki/Jay_Gordon_%28singer%29 \"Jay Gordon (singer)\"), [Ryan Shuck](/wiki/Ryan_Shuck \"Ryan Shuck\"), [Amir Derakh](/wiki/Amir_Derakh \"Amir Derakh\") and [Paige Haley](/wiki/Paige_Haley \"Paige Haley\"), in 1997{{Cite web \\| last \\= Huey \\| first \\= Steve \\| title \\= Orgy Biography \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Allmusic]] \\| access\\-date \\= January 19, 2011 \\| url \\= {{AllMusic\\|class\\=artist\\|id\\=orgy\\-p311513/biography\\|pure\\_url\\=yes}}}} They achieved mainstream success with the albums *[Candyass](/wiki/Candyass \"Candyass\")* (1998\\) and *[Vapor Transmission](/wiki/Vapor_Transmission \"Vapor Transmission\")* (2000\\) before Hewitt departed to tour with [Snake River Conspiracy](/wiki/Snake_River_Conspiracy \"Snake River Conspiracy\"), though he participated in the recording of Orgy's third album *[Punk Statik Paranoia](/wiki/Punk_Statik_Paranoia \"Punk Statik Paranoia\")* (2004\\).",
"Campion joined [Handsome](/wiki/Handsome_%28band%29 \"Handsome (band)\") in 1997, replacing previous guitarist Tom Capone.{{cite web \\| last \\= Jeffries \\| first \\= Vincent \\| title \\= Handsome Biography \\| work \\= \\[\\[Allmusic]] \\| access\\-date \\= September 29, 2010 \\| url \\= {{AllMusic\\|class\\=artist\\|id\\=p200280\\|pure\\_url\\=yes}}}} The band toured the US with [Silverchair](/wiki/Silverchair \"Silverchair\"), [Local H](/wiki/Local_H \"Local H\") and [Less Than Jake](/wiki/Less_Than_Jake \"Less Than Jake\"), while they supported [Wu\\-Tang Clan](/wiki/Wu-Tang_Clan \"Wu-Tang Clan\") and [Voodoo Glow Skulls](/wiki/Voodoo_Glow_Skulls \"Voodoo Glow Skulls\") in Europe before disbanding in 1998\\.",
"Kushner toured and recorded with Suicidal Tendencies and Infectious Grooves singer [Mike Muir](/wiki/Mike_Muir \"Mike Muir\"), on the album *[Lost My Brain! (Once Again)](/wiki/Lost_My_Brain%21_%28Once_Again%29 \"Lost My Brain! (Once Again)\")*{{Cite web \\| last \\= Kushner \\| first \\= Dave \\| title \\= Bio \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Dave Kushner\\|Davekushner.com]] \\| access\\-date \\= July 20, 2010 \\| url \\= http://www.davekushner.com/bio.php \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100212081021/http://www.davekushner.com/bio.php \\| archive\\-date \\= February 12, 2010 \\| url\\-status \\= dead }} before going on to join [Danzig](/wiki/Danzig_%28band%29 \"Danzig (band)\"). Kushner's tenure in Danzig lasted nearly a year where he performed only one show at the [Whisky a Go Go](/wiki/Whisky_a_Go_Go \"Whisky a Go Go\") in Hollywood, California. He joined the hard rock group [Zilch](/wiki/Zilch_%28band%29 \"Zilch (band)\"), formed by former [X Japan](/wiki/X_Japan \"X Japan\") guitarist [hide](/wiki/Hide_%28musician%29 \"Hide (musician)\"). Following the death of hide, they recorded and released *Skyjin* in 2001, before Kushner became musical director [Dave Navarro](/wiki/Dave_Navarro \"Dave Navarro\")'s solo band and later joined [Duff McKagan](/wiki/Duff_McKagan \"Duff McKagan\")'s band [Loaded](/wiki/Loaded_%28band%29 \"Loaded (band)\").{{Cite web \\| last \\= Lecaro \\| first \\= Lina \\| title \\= Cocked and Loaded: Blowing away the music machine (p.2\\) \\| work \\= \\[\\[LA Weekly]] \\| date \\= June 19, 2002 \\| url \\= http://www.laweekly.com/2002\\-06\\-27/music/cocked\\-and\\-loaded/2/}} In 2003, along with McKagan and his former [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses \"Guns N' Roses\") band mates, [Slash](/wiki/Slash_%28musician%29 \"Slash (musician)\"), [Matt Sorum](/wiki/Matt_Sorum \"Matt Sorum\"), as well as then former [Stone Temple Pilots](/wiki/Stone_Temple_Pilots \"Stone Temple Pilots\") singer [Scott Weiland](/wiki/Scott_Weiland \"Scott Weiland\"), Kushner formed the hard rock [supergroup](/wiki/Supergroup_%28music%29 \"Supergroup (music)\") [Velvet Revolver](/wiki/Velvet_Revolver \"Velvet Revolver\").{{Cite web \\| last \\= Loftus \\| first \\= Johnny \\| title \\= Velvet Revolver Biography \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Allmusic]] \\| access\\-date \\= October 6, 2010 \\| url \\= {{AllMusic\\|class\\=artist\\|id\\=p651389\\|pure\\_url\\=yes}}}} They released two studio albums, *[Contraband](/wiki/Contraband_%28Velvet_Revolver_album%29 \"Contraband (Velvet Revolver album)\")* and *[Libertad](/wiki/Libertad_%28Velvet_Revolver_album%29 \"Libertad (Velvet Revolver album)\")*, before going on hiatus in 2008 following the departure of Weiland.{{Cite web\\|title\\=It's Official: VELVET REVOLVER Parts Ways With Singer SCOTT WEILAND \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Blabbermouth.net]] \\|date\\=April 1, 2008 \\|url\\=http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=94021 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805191509/http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode\\=Article\\&newsitemID\\=94021 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-08\\-05 }} During this time, he began composing music for film and television, most notable, the theme song for [FX](/wiki/FX_%28TV_channel%29 \"FX (TV channel)\") series *[Sons of Anarchy](/wiki/Sons_of_Anarchy \"Sons of Anarchy\")* entitled \"[This Life](/wiki/This_Life_%28Theme_from_Sons_of_Anarchy%29 \"This Life (Theme from Sons of Anarchy)\")\" where he received an [Emmy Award](/wiki/Emmy_Award \"Emmy Award\") nomination for [Outstanding Main Title Theme Music](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Main_Title_Theme_Music \"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music\") in 2009{{Cite web \\| last \\= Burlingame \\| first \\= Jon \\| title \\= Emmy Music Nominations Announced \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[The Film Music Society]] \\| date \\= July 16, 2009 \\| url \\= http://www.filmmusicsociety.org/news\\_events/features/2009/071609\\.html?isArchive\\=071609}} and an [ASCAP Award](/wiki/American_Society_of_Composers%2C_Authors_and_Publishers%23Annual_Awards \"American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers#Annual Awards\") in 2010\\.{{Cite news \\| last \\= Morris \\| first \\= Christopher \\| title \\= ASCAP Honors Top Film and Television Music Composers at 25th Anniversary Awards Celebration \\| work \\= \\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]] \\| date \\= June 24, 2010 \\| url \\= https://www.variety.com/article/VR1118021027\\.html?categoryid\\=16\\&cs\\=1}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
Eduardo and his wife are a well to do couple staying in a summer seaside house in [Yucatan](/wiki/Yucatan "Yucatan"). They are spending part of the summer months there with their two unruly children: Mauricio and Sandro who are nine and eight years old. The household is completed with the superstitious indigenous cook and a local young fisherman who serves as the children underwater swimming instructor.
As the couple leaves for six weeks to take a cruise from Miami, the mother hires Mrs. Forbes, a German governess, to take care of the children while the parents are away. Mrs. Forbes arrives by boat after a long trip and she is immediately instructed by the mother to impose "law and order" in the house and to treat the undisciplined and rude children severely in an attempt to improve their ways.
Once in charge, Mrs. Forbes treats the children with formality, displaying an authoritarian and repressive temperament. She subjects the children to iron discipline, fueling a deaf resentment in them. Mauricio, the oldest brother, is more pliable, but Bruno, the youngest takes more time to follow Mrs. Forbes commands. Spying on her at night, the brothers discover that she walks around the house drinking alcohol, eating sweets, and reading loud strange passages in German.
From her arrival, Mrs. Forbes is smitten with Aquiles, the hunky young scuba instructor who spends a great deal of time around the house playing with the children and at sea with them while wearing very little. Eating up by a burning desire for Aquiles, Mrs. Forbes sets her eyes on seducing him. She tells him the mythological story of the impossible love between his namesake, the Greek warrior [Achilles](/wiki/Achilles "Achilles"), and [Penthesilea](/wiki/Penthesilea "Penthesilea"), Queen of the Amazons, who loved each other in spite of being enemies. Although well put together, Mrs. Forbes is at least 15 years his senior, and Achilles is repelled by her advances. Only after much insistence, Aquiles
accepts her invitation to go to town for drinks one night. There, she opens up to him. She strips her soul and exposes her true self. She hates order and restraint and rather would like to be free, drink, live a love. She actually does not believe in what she has been imposing on the children. Aquiles remains indifferent. It is Achilles who hides a secret. He is always reluctant to anyone, even the children who are close to him, to go near his seaside rustic cabin. The following night, Mrs. Forbes plunges into the ocean and arrives swimming to Aquiles's house. She enters secretly only to find Aquiles naked in the company of a male lover. Before leaving undiscovered, Mrs. Forbes sets the house on fire with the two men inside.
By the next morning over breakfast, Mrs. Forbes receives a letter that shakes her, but its content remains unrevealed. Afterward, when she gives the orders of the day to the children they have had enough of her and disobey. Reaching her breaking point, Mrs. Forbes also gives in to them. They can do whatever they want. All along since Miss Forbes forced the two boys to eat [moray](/wiki/Moray_eel "Moray eel"), the same fish that they were terrified of when it was nailed to the door of the house, the children have planned to kill her poisoning her tequila. The idea came from Sandro, the more resolute of the two boys. Mauricio warns him that they could end up on the electric chair, but Sandro is determined. First, there is no [electric chair](/wiki/Electric_chair "Electric chair") in Mexico and secondly, he would make sure nobody would find out. The brothers poison the tequila and the next morning, waking up late and not seeing Mrs. Forbers around, they believe that their plan has been a success. The children cheerfully celebrate their regained freedom going scuba diving on their own. At their return, the beach house is in turmoil. Mrs. Forbers has been killed, stabbed many times. Mauricio and Sandro manage to avoid the police who guard the crime scene and enter the governess's bedroom. They see her lying dead surrounded by blood with multiple stabs and cuts instead of the poisoned tequila the boys planned her to drink. In death, Mrs. Forbes face has an expression of unsettling serenity. She seems to be happy at last.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Eduardo and his wife are a well to do couple staying in a summer seaside house in [Yucatan](/wiki/Yucatan \"Yucatan\"). They are spending part of the summer months there with their two unruly children: Mauricio and Sandro who are nine and eight years old. The household is completed with the superstitious indigenous cook and a local young fisherman who serves as the children underwater swimming instructor.",
"As the couple leaves for six weeks to take a cruise from Miami, the mother hires Mrs. Forbes, a German governess, to take care of the children while the parents are away. Mrs. Forbes arrives by boat after a long trip and she is immediately instructed by the mother to impose \"law and order\" in the house and to treat the undisciplined and rude children severely in an attempt to improve their ways.",
"Once in charge, Mrs. Forbes treats the children with formality, displaying an authoritarian and repressive temperament. She subjects the children to iron discipline, fueling a deaf resentment in them. Mauricio, the oldest brother, is more pliable, but Bruno, the youngest takes more time to follow Mrs. Forbes commands. Spying on her at night, the brothers discover that she walks around the house drinking alcohol, eating sweets, and reading loud strange passages in German.",
"From her arrival, Mrs. Forbes is smitten with Aquiles, the hunky young scuba instructor who spends a great deal of time around the house playing with the children and at sea with them while wearing very little. Eating up by a burning desire for Aquiles, Mrs. Forbes sets her eyes on seducing him. She tells him the mythological story of the impossible love between his namesake, the Greek warrior [Achilles](/wiki/Achilles \"Achilles\"), and [Penthesilea](/wiki/Penthesilea \"Penthesilea\"), Queen of the Amazons, who loved each other in spite of being enemies. Although well put together, Mrs. Forbes is at least 15 years his senior, and Achilles is repelled by her advances. Only after much insistence, Aquiles\naccepts her invitation to go to town for drinks one night. There, she opens up to him. She strips her soul and exposes her true self. She hates order and restraint and rather would like to be free, drink, live a love. She actually does not believe in what she has been imposing on the children. Aquiles remains indifferent. It is Achilles who hides a secret. He is always reluctant to anyone, even the children who are close to him, to go near his seaside rustic cabin. The following night, Mrs. Forbes plunges into the ocean and arrives swimming to Aquiles's house. She enters secretly only to find Aquiles naked in the company of a male lover. Before leaving undiscovered, Mrs. Forbes sets the house on fire with the two men inside.",
"By the next morning over breakfast, Mrs. Forbes receives a letter that shakes her, but its content remains unrevealed. Afterward, when she gives the orders of the day to the children they have had enough of her and disobey. Reaching her breaking point, Mrs. Forbes also gives in to them. They can do whatever they want. All along since Miss Forbes forced the two boys to eat [moray](/wiki/Moray_eel \"Moray eel\"), the same fish that they were terrified of when it was nailed to the door of the house, the children have planned to kill her poisoning her tequila. The idea came from Sandro, the more resolute of the two boys. Mauricio warns him that they could end up on the electric chair, but Sandro is determined. First, there is no [electric chair](/wiki/Electric_chair \"Electric chair\") in Mexico and secondly, he would make sure nobody would find out. The brothers poison the tequila and the next morning, waking up late and not seeing Mrs. Forbers around, they believe that their plan has been a success. The children cheerfully celebrate their regained freedom going scuba diving on their own. At their return, the beach house is in turmoil. Mrs. Forbers has been killed, stabbed many times. Mauricio and Sandro manage to avoid the police who guard the crime scene and enter the governess's bedroom. They see her lying dead surrounded by blood with multiple stabs and cuts instead of the poisoned tequila the boys planned her to drink. In death, Mrs. Forbes face has an expression of unsettling serenity. She seems to be happy at last.",
""
] |
Career
------
In 1926 Aaron was appointed a lecturer in the Department of Philosophy at [Swansea University](/wiki/Swansea_University "Swansea University"). After the retirement of W. Jenkin Jones in 1932, Aaron was appointed to the chair of philosophy at [Aberystwyth University](/wiki/Aberystwyth_University "Aberystwyth University") where he settled, initially on the nearby hill of [Bryn Hir](/wiki/Rhos_Bryn_Hir "Rhos Bryn Hir") and later at [Garth Celyn](/wiki/Garth_Celyn "Garth Celyn").
Although his early publications focused on [epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology "Epistemology") and the [history of ideas](/wiki/History_of_ideas "History of ideas"), Aaron became fascinated with the work and life of [John Locke](/wiki/John_Locke "John Locke"). The interest was sparked by his discovery of unexamined information in the Lovelace Collection: notes and drafts left by John Locke to his cousin [Peter King](/wiki/Peter_King%2C_1st_Baron_King "Peter King, 1st Baron King"). There he found letters, notebooks, catalogues, and most pertinently, an early draft of Locke's "[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding](/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding")", hitherto presumed missing. Aaron's research led to the 1937 publication of a book on the life and work of Locke that subsequently became an accepted standard work. The proofs were read by Rhiannon Morgan, whom Aaron married in 1937\. They had five children. One of their children is [Welsh literature](/wiki/Welsh-language_literature "Welsh-language literature") specialist [Jane Aaron](/wiki/Jane_Aaron_%28educator%29 "Jane Aaron (educator)"), born in 1951\.{{Cite web \|date\= \|title\=Aaron, Jane 1951\- \|url\=http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn\-no2003\-16419/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902032330/http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn\-no2003\-16419/ \|archive\-date\=2 September 2021 \|access\-date\=11 March 2019 \|website\=\[\[WorldCat]] \|publisher\=\[\[OCLC]] \|language\=en}}
Aaron produced several more books and articles, including a book in [Welsh](/wiki/Welsh_language "Welsh language") on the history of philosophy, *Hanes athroniaeth—o [Descartes](/wiki/Descartes "Descartes") i [Hegel](/wiki/Hegel "Hegel")* in 1932\. His attempts to boost interest in philosophy in Wales included establishing in that year a philosophy section at the University of Wales Guild of Graduates, which still conducts its proceedings in Welsh.
Other notable publications of Aaron's include an essay, "Two Senses of the Word Universal", in *[Mind](/wiki/Mind_%28journal%29 "Mind (journal)")* in 1939, and "Our Knowledge of Universals", a study read to the [British Academy](/wiki/British_Academy "British Academy") in 1945 and published in volume 23 of its *[Proceedings](/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_British_Academy "Proceedings of the British Academy")*. Aaron's work shows a fascination with the idea of a [universal](/wiki/Universal_%28metaphysics%29 "Universal (metaphysics)"), which culminated in a 1952 book *The Theory of Universals*. Here, he attacks the notion of universals as [Platonic forms](/wiki/Platonic_realism "Platonic realism"), but is as critical of [Aristotelian](/wiki/Aristotle%27s_theory_of_universals "Aristotle's theory of universals") realism on [essences](/wiki/Essences "Essences") as he is of [nominalism](/wiki/Nominalism "Nominalism") and [conceptualism](/wiki/Conceptualism "Conceptualism") as theories of universals.
In 1952–1953, Aaron was a visiting professor at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University "Yale University"). In 1956, he was able to study the third draft of Locke's *[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding](/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding")* at the [Pierpont Morgan Library](/wiki/Pierpont_Morgan_Library "Pierpont Morgan Library"), which led to a substantial addition to the second edition of *John Locke*, published in 1955\. He became a [Fellow of the British Academy](/wiki/Fellow_of_the_British_Academy "Fellow of the British Academy") (FBA) and president of the [Mind Association](/wiki/Mind_Association "Mind Association") in the same year. In 1956, an annual lecture hosted by the [Aristotelian Society](/wiki/Aristotelian_Society "Aristotelian Society") and the Mind Association (publisher of the journal *[Mind](/wiki/Mind_%28journal%29 "Mind (journal)")*) was instituted in [Aberystwyth](/wiki/Aberystwyth "Aberystwyth"), and Aaron invited to give the inaugural lecture. In 1957 he was elected President of the Aristotelian Society.
In 1967, Aaron published a second edition of *The Theory of Universals* with a new preface and several additions and rewritten chapters. In 1971, he published a third edition of his Locke biography and the book *Knowing and the Function of Reason*, which includes broad discussion of the laws of [non\-contradiction](/wiki/Law_of_noncontradiction "Law of noncontradiction"), [excluded middle](/wiki/Law_of_excluded_middle "Law of excluded middle") and [identity](/wiki/Law_of_identity "Law of identity"), of the use of [language](/wiki/Language "Language") in [speech](/wiki/Speech "Speech") and [thought](/wiki/Thought "Thought"), and of [substance](/wiki/Substance_theory "Substance theory") and [causality](/wiki/Causality "Causality").
After retiring in 1969, he taught for a semester at [Carlton College](/wiki/Carlton_College "Carlton College"), [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota "Minnesota"), before returning to Wales, where he helped to write articles for the 1974 edition of the *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica "Encyclopædia Britannica")*. He began to feel the effects of [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease "Alzheimer's disease") and died at his home in [Aberystwyth](/wiki/Aberystwyth "Aberystwyth") on 29 March 1987\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In 1926 Aaron was appointed a lecturer in the Department of Philosophy at [Swansea University](/wiki/Swansea_University \"Swansea University\"). After the retirement of W. Jenkin Jones in 1932, Aaron was appointed to the chair of philosophy at [Aberystwyth University](/wiki/Aberystwyth_University \"Aberystwyth University\") where he settled, initially on the nearby hill of [Bryn Hir](/wiki/Rhos_Bryn_Hir \"Rhos Bryn Hir\") and later at [Garth Celyn](/wiki/Garth_Celyn \"Garth Celyn\").",
"Although his early publications focused on [epistemology](/wiki/Epistemology \"Epistemology\") and the [history of ideas](/wiki/History_of_ideas \"History of ideas\"), Aaron became fascinated with the work and life of [John Locke](/wiki/John_Locke \"John Locke\"). The interest was sparked by his discovery of unexamined information in the Lovelace Collection: notes and drafts left by John Locke to his cousin [Peter King](/wiki/Peter_King%2C_1st_Baron_King \"Peter King, 1st Baron King\"). There he found letters, notebooks, catalogues, and most pertinently, an early draft of Locke's \"[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding](/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding \"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding\")\", hitherto presumed missing. Aaron's research led to the 1937 publication of a book on the life and work of Locke that subsequently became an accepted standard work. The proofs were read by Rhiannon Morgan, whom Aaron married in 1937\\. They had five children. One of their children is [Welsh literature](/wiki/Welsh-language_literature \"Welsh-language literature\") specialist [Jane Aaron](/wiki/Jane_Aaron_%28educator%29 \"Jane Aaron (educator)\"), born in 1951\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\= \\|title\\=Aaron, Jane 1951\\- \\|url\\=http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn\\-no2003\\-16419/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902032330/http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn\\-no2003\\-16419/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2 September 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[WorldCat]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[OCLC]] \\|language\\=en}}",
"Aaron produced several more books and articles, including a book in [Welsh](/wiki/Welsh_language \"Welsh language\") on the history of philosophy, *Hanes athroniaeth—o [Descartes](/wiki/Descartes \"Descartes\") i [Hegel](/wiki/Hegel \"Hegel\")* in 1932\\. His attempts to boost interest in philosophy in Wales included establishing in that year a philosophy section at the University of Wales Guild of Graduates, which still conducts its proceedings in Welsh.",
"Other notable publications of Aaron's include an essay, \"Two Senses of the Word Universal\", in *[Mind](/wiki/Mind_%28journal%29 \"Mind (journal)\")* in 1939, and \"Our Knowledge of Universals\", a study read to the [British Academy](/wiki/British_Academy \"British Academy\") in 1945 and published in volume 23 of its *[Proceedings](/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_British_Academy \"Proceedings of the British Academy\")*. Aaron's work shows a fascination with the idea of a [universal](/wiki/Universal_%28metaphysics%29 \"Universal (metaphysics)\"), which culminated in a 1952 book *The Theory of Universals*. Here, he attacks the notion of universals as [Platonic forms](/wiki/Platonic_realism \"Platonic realism\"), but is as critical of [Aristotelian](/wiki/Aristotle%27s_theory_of_universals \"Aristotle's theory of universals\") realism on [essences](/wiki/Essences \"Essences\") as he is of [nominalism](/wiki/Nominalism \"Nominalism\") and [conceptualism](/wiki/Conceptualism \"Conceptualism\") as theories of universals.",
"In 1952–1953, Aaron was a visiting professor at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\"). In 1956, he was able to study the third draft of Locke's *[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding](/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding \"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding\")* at the [Pierpont Morgan Library](/wiki/Pierpont_Morgan_Library \"Pierpont Morgan Library\"), which led to a substantial addition to the second edition of *John Locke*, published in 1955\\. He became a [Fellow of the British Academy](/wiki/Fellow_of_the_British_Academy \"Fellow of the British Academy\") (FBA) and president of the [Mind Association](/wiki/Mind_Association \"Mind Association\") in the same year. In 1956, an annual lecture hosted by the [Aristotelian Society](/wiki/Aristotelian_Society \"Aristotelian Society\") and the Mind Association (publisher of the journal *[Mind](/wiki/Mind_%28journal%29 \"Mind (journal)\")*) was instituted in [Aberystwyth](/wiki/Aberystwyth \"Aberystwyth\"), and Aaron invited to give the inaugural lecture. In 1957 he was elected President of the Aristotelian Society.",
"In 1967, Aaron published a second edition of *The Theory of Universals* with a new preface and several additions and rewritten chapters. In 1971, he published a third edition of his Locke biography and the book *Knowing and the Function of Reason*, which includes broad discussion of the laws of [non\\-contradiction](/wiki/Law_of_noncontradiction \"Law of noncontradiction\"), [excluded middle](/wiki/Law_of_excluded_middle \"Law of excluded middle\") and [identity](/wiki/Law_of_identity \"Law of identity\"), of the use of [language](/wiki/Language \"Language\") in [speech](/wiki/Speech \"Speech\") and [thought](/wiki/Thought \"Thought\"), and of [substance](/wiki/Substance_theory \"Substance theory\") and [causality](/wiki/Causality \"Causality\").",
"After retiring in 1969, he taught for a semester at [Carlton College](/wiki/Carlton_College \"Carlton College\"), [Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota \"Minnesota\"), before returning to Wales, where he helped to write articles for the 1974 edition of the *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica \"Encyclopædia Britannica\")*. He began to feel the effects of [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease \"Alzheimer's disease\") and died at his home in [Aberystwyth](/wiki/Aberystwyth \"Aberystwyth\") on 29 March 1987\\.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
A detailed description of the bugonia process can be found in [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine "Byzantine") *[Geoponica](/wiki/Geoponica "Geoponica")*:[Geoponica](/wiki/Geoponica "Geoponica"), [XV, 2, 22 sqq.](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k25235s/f479.image).
> Build a house, ten cubits high, with all the sides of equal dimensions, with one door, and four windows, one on each side; put an ox into it, thirty months old, very fat and fleshy; let a number of young men kill him by beating him violently with clubs, so as to mangle both flesh and bones, but taking care not to shed any blood; let all the orifices, mouth, eyes, nose etc. be stopped up with clean and fine linen, impregnated with pitch; let a quantity of thyme be strewed under the reclining animal, and then let windows and doors be closed and covered with a thick coating of clay, to prevent the access of air or wind. After three weeks have passed, let the house be opened, and let light and fresh air get access to it, except from the side from which the wind blows strongest. Eleven days afterwards, you will find the house full of bees, hanging together in clusters, and nothing left of the ox but horns, bones and hair.
The story of [Aristaeus](/wiki/Aristaeus "Aristaeus") was an archetype of this ritual, serving to instruct [bee keepers](/wiki/Bee_keepers "Bee keepers") on how to recover from the loss of their bees. By extension, it was thought that fumigation with [cow dung](/wiki/Cow_dung "Cow dung") was beneficial to the health of the hive.
### Variations
The idea that [wasps](/wiki/Wasp "Wasp") are born of the corpses of [horses](/wiki/Horse "Horse") was often described alongside bugonia. And given that European wasps bear a passing resemblance to European bees, it may be possible that the myth arose out of a mis\-reported or misunderstood observation of a natural event.
Different variations are attested, such as simply burying the cow, or covering the corpse with mud or dung. Another variation states that use of the [rumen](/wiki/Rumen "Rumen") alone is sufficient.
In [Ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt") the ox would be buried with its [horns](/wiki/Horn_%28anatomy%29 "Horn (anatomy)") projecting above the surface of the ground. When severed, bees would emerge from the base of the horns.[Antigonus of Carystus](/wiki/Antigonus_of_Carystus "Antigonus of Carystus") through Beckmann{{cite book\|author\=\[\[Johann Beckmann]]\|title\=Antigoni Carystii historiarum mirabilium collectanea\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=D\_uSMgAACAAJ\|year\=1791}}
Bugonia is described twice in the second half of Virgil's Georgics and frames the [Aristaeus](/wiki/Aristaeus "Aristaeus") [epyllion](/wiki/Epyllion "Epyllion") in the second half. The first description, opening the second half of the fourth book, describes a 'traditional' form of the ritual, followed by the tale of Aristaeus, who after losing his bees, descends to the home of his mother, the nymph [Cyrene](/wiki/Cyrene_%28mythology%29 "Cyrene (mythology)"), where he is given instructions on how to restore his colonies. He must capture the seer, [Proteus](/wiki/Proteus "Proteus"), and force him to reveal which divine spirit he angered. Proteus changes into many forms but is bound at last and recounts how he caused the death of [Eurydice](/wiki/Eurydice "Eurydice"), thus angering the nymphs. The ritual demanded of Aristaeus by Cyrene upon his return is markedly different. He is to sacrifice four bulls, four heifers, a black sheep and a calf in an open glen. This second version served as the climax of a large work so may be based more on the traditional Roman sacrificial ritual than bugonia itself in order to close the Georgics in a more symbolically appropriate way. Thus the first version can reflect man's relation to the gods in the [Golden Age](/wiki/Golden_Age "Golden Age") and the later the current relation.[Thomas Habinek](/wiki/Thomas_Habinek "Thomas Habinek") (1990\). [Sacrifice, Society, and Vergil's Ox\-born Bees](http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8r85c02n). UC Berkeley: Department of Classics, UCB.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"A detailed description of the bugonia process can be found in [Byzantine](/wiki/Byzantine \"Byzantine\") *[Geoponica](/wiki/Geoponica \"Geoponica\")*:[Geoponica](/wiki/Geoponica \"Geoponica\"), [XV, 2, 22 sqq.](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k25235s/f479.image).",
"",
"> Build a house, ten cubits high, with all the sides of equal dimensions, with one door, and four windows, one on each side; put an ox into it, thirty months old, very fat and fleshy; let a number of young men kill him by beating him violently with clubs, so as to mangle both flesh and bones, but taking care not to shed any blood; let all the orifices, mouth, eyes, nose etc. be stopped up with clean and fine linen, impregnated with pitch; let a quantity of thyme be strewed under the reclining animal, and then let windows and doors be closed and covered with a thick coating of clay, to prevent the access of air or wind. After three weeks have passed, let the house be opened, and let light and fresh air get access to it, except from the side from which the wind blows strongest. Eleven days afterwards, you will find the house full of bees, hanging together in clusters, and nothing left of the ox but horns, bones and hair.",
"The story of [Aristaeus](/wiki/Aristaeus \"Aristaeus\") was an archetype of this ritual, serving to instruct [bee keepers](/wiki/Bee_keepers \"Bee keepers\") on how to recover from the loss of their bees. By extension, it was thought that fumigation with [cow dung](/wiki/Cow_dung \"Cow dung\") was beneficial to the health of the hive.",
"### Variations",
"The idea that [wasps](/wiki/Wasp \"Wasp\") are born of the corpses of [horses](/wiki/Horse \"Horse\") was often described alongside bugonia. And given that European wasps bear a passing resemblance to European bees, it may be possible that the myth arose out of a mis\\-reported or misunderstood observation of a natural event.",
"Different variations are attested, such as simply burying the cow, or covering the corpse with mud or dung. Another variation states that use of the [rumen](/wiki/Rumen \"Rumen\") alone is sufficient.",
"In [Ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\") the ox would be buried with its [horns](/wiki/Horn_%28anatomy%29 \"Horn (anatomy)\") projecting above the surface of the ground. When severed, bees would emerge from the base of the horns.[Antigonus of Carystus](/wiki/Antigonus_of_Carystus \"Antigonus of Carystus\") through Beckmann{{cite book\\|author\\=\\[\\[Johann Beckmann]]\\|title\\=Antigoni Carystii historiarum mirabilium collectanea\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=D\\_uSMgAACAAJ\\|year\\=1791}}",
"Bugonia is described twice in the second half of Virgil's Georgics and frames the [Aristaeus](/wiki/Aristaeus \"Aristaeus\") [epyllion](/wiki/Epyllion \"Epyllion\") in the second half. The first description, opening the second half of the fourth book, describes a 'traditional' form of the ritual, followed by the tale of Aristaeus, who after losing his bees, descends to the home of his mother, the nymph [Cyrene](/wiki/Cyrene_%28mythology%29 \"Cyrene (mythology)\"), where he is given instructions on how to restore his colonies. He must capture the seer, [Proteus](/wiki/Proteus \"Proteus\"), and force him to reveal which divine spirit he angered. Proteus changes into many forms but is bound at last and recounts how he caused the death of [Eurydice](/wiki/Eurydice \"Eurydice\"), thus angering the nymphs. The ritual demanded of Aristaeus by Cyrene upon his return is markedly different. He is to sacrifice four bulls, four heifers, a black sheep and a calf in an open glen. This second version served as the climax of a large work so may be based more on the traditional Roman sacrificial ritual than bugonia itself in order to close the Georgics in a more symbolically appropriate way. Thus the first version can reflect man's relation to the gods in the [Golden Age](/wiki/Golden_Age \"Golden Age\") and the later the current relation.[Thomas Habinek](/wiki/Thomas_Habinek \"Thomas Habinek\") (1990\\). [Sacrifice, Society, and Vergil's Ox\\-born Bees](http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8r85c02n). UC Berkeley: Department of Classics, UCB.",
""
] |
Origins and other uses
----------------------
The term also shows up much earlier in other contexts. Film gossip columnist [Hedda Hopper](/wiki/Hedda_Hopper "Hedda Hopper") used it in 1939 referring to small cast members of *[The Wizard of Oz](/wiki/The_Wizard_of_Oz_%281939_film%29 "The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)")* (1939\), and admonished against drinking on the set. In 1942, *[The Los Angeles Times](/wiki/The_Los_Angeles_Times "The Los Angeles Times")* used the term in a pictorial on Marines training for jungle combat. In this case, "little green men" referred to [camouflaged](/wiki/Camouflage "Camouflage") Japanese soldiers. *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* in 1942 likewise used the term "little green man" in reference to a camouflaged Japanese [sniper](/wiki/Sniper "Sniper") who nearly killed one of their war correspondents.
Before its more modern application to aliens, *little green men* was commonly used to describe various [supernatural](/wiki/Supernatural "Supernatural") beings in old legends and folklore and in later fairy tales and children's books such as [goblins](/wiki/Goblin "Goblin"). Aubeck noted several examples of the latter in 19th and early 20th century literature. As an example, [Rudyard Kipling](/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling "Rudyard Kipling") had a "little green man" in *Puck of Pook's Hill* from 1906\.
Another example, and the earliest use of *little green man* in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* and the *[Chicago Tribune](/wiki/Chicago_Tribune "Chicago Tribune")*, dates from 1902, in a review of a children's book called *The Gift of the Magic Staff*, where a supernatural "Little Green Man" is a boy's friend and helps him visit the cloudland fairies. The next use in *The New York Times* was in 1950, and references a planned film by [Walt Disney Company](/wiki/Walt_Disney_Company "Walt Disney Company") of a 1927 novel by poet/novelist [Robert Nathan](/wiki/Robert_Nathan "Robert Nathan") called *The Woodcutter's House*. The only animated character in the picture was to be Nathan's "Little Green Man", a confidant of the woodland animals. (The film was never made.)
In 1923, a serialized romance, *When Hearts Command* by Elizabeth York Miller, which appeared in newspapers such as the *Chicago Tribune* and *The Washington Post*, has a former mental patient who still sees "little green men" and who simultaneously comments that a fellow patient "conversed with the inhabitants of Mars".
Other instances of imaginary small green beings have been found in a newspaper column from 1936 sarcastically discussing doctors and their medical advice, saying these are the same people who have breakdowns in middle age and start hallucinating "a little green man with big ears". Syndicated columnist [Sydney J. Harris](/wiki/Sydney_J._Harris "Sydney J. Harris") used "little green man" in 1948 as a child's imaginary friend while condemning the age\-old tradition of frightening children with stories of "[boogeymen](/wiki/Bogeyman "Bogeyman")".
These examples illustrate that use of *little green men* was already deeply engrained in English [vernacular](/wiki/Vernacular "Vernacular") long before the flying saucer era, used for a variety of supernatural, imaginary, or mythical beings. It also seems to have easily extended beyond the imaginary to real people, such as the reference to small actors in the *Wizard of Oz* or camouflaged Japanese soldiers. Similarly, Aubeck and others suspect that when flying saucers came along in 1947, with subsequent speculation about alien origins, the term naturally and quickly attached itself to the modern age equivalent. [The Mekon](/wiki/The_Mekon "The Mekon"), the green\-skinned adversary in *[Dan Dare, Pilot of the Future](/wiki/Dan_Dare "Dan Dare")*, from [*Eagle* comic's](/wiki/Eagle_%28British_comics%29 "Eagle (British comics)") long\-running series, first appeared 1950\.{{cite book \|last1\=Horton \|first1\=Ian \|last2\=Gray \|first2\=Maggie \|title\=Art history for comics : past, present and potential futures \|date\=2022 \|publisher\=Springer \|location\=Cham, Switzerland \|isbn\=9783031073533}} It is also clear that by the early 1950s, the term was already commonly used as a sarcastic reference to the occupants of flying saucers. By 1954, the image of little green men had become inscribed in the public's collective consciousness.
Further electronic searches suggest that the term became increasingly more common in the 1960s and always used in a derisive or humorous way. The *Chicago Tribune* in 1960 carried a front\-page story on the speculations of a Harvard anthropologist about how aliens might look and alien sex. The article opens with the comment, "If there really are 'little green men' out there in space, there are probably also little green women–and sex." A cartoon was attached showing two amorous [centaur](/wiki/Centaur "Centaur")\-like male and female aliens with antennae sticking out of their heads. The article also enigmatically states, "The 'little green men' designation came from Dr. [Otto Struve](/wiki/Otto_Struve "Otto Struve"), director of the national radio astronomy observatory, Green Bank, W. Va. He said that's what the possible outerspacers are called 'among themselves'."
The term even penetrated into the commentary of *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal "The Wall Street Journal")*. First use in the *Journal* was 1960 in an article on the [Brookings Report](/wiki/Brookings_Report "Brookings Report") commissioned by [NASA](/wiki/NASA "NASA"), studying the possible social effects of the discovery of extraterrestrial life. The *Journal* commented that they thought the report overly pessimistic, assuming that "the little green men with the wiggly antennae" would be hostile. Another *Journal* use of the term occurred in 1968 in an editorial on a planned Congressional investigation of [UFOs](/wiki/UFO "UFO"). The writer sarcastically asked how they planned to [subpoena](/wiki/Subpoena "Subpoena") "a little green man". In 1969, they commented that the [Condon Committee](/wiki/Condon_Committee "Condon Committee") UFO study commissioned by the Air Force was a waste of money. The editorial stated that even if they did prove that "UFOs were people with little green men", what were we supposed to do about it?{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ufoupdateslist.com/2004/feb/m29\-008\.shtml \|title\=More details on LGM quotes and other examples \|publisher\=Ufoupdateslist.com \|access\-date\=2013\-06\-17}}
A green\-skinned little green man had even appeared in *[The Flintstones](/wiki/The_Flintstones "The Flintstones")* as a recurring character. [The Great Gazoo](/wiki/The_Great_Gazoo "The Great Gazoo") (introduced in Episode 145\) typified the representation of a little green man with his short, green stature and helmet with antennae. However, the 1960s also marked a transition in the way people imagined a stereotypical alien. In [alien abduction](/wiki/Alien_abduction "Alien abduction") stories they are often small but [grey beings](/wiki/Grey_alien "Grey alien") and in [Arthur C. Clarke](/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke "Arthur C. Clarke")'s *[2001: A Space Odyssey](/wiki/2001:A_Space_Odyssey_%28novel%29 "A Space Odyssey (novel)")* (1968\) they are unseen.
|
[
"Origins and other uses\n----------------------",
"The term also shows up much earlier in other contexts. Film gossip columnist [Hedda Hopper](/wiki/Hedda_Hopper \"Hedda Hopper\") used it in 1939 referring to small cast members of *[The Wizard of Oz](/wiki/The_Wizard_of_Oz_%281939_film%29 \"The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)\")* (1939\\), and admonished against drinking on the set. In 1942, *[The Los Angeles Times](/wiki/The_Los_Angeles_Times \"The Los Angeles Times\")* used the term in a pictorial on Marines training for jungle combat. In this case, \"little green men\" referred to [camouflaged](/wiki/Camouflage \"Camouflage\") Japanese soldiers. *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* in 1942 likewise used the term \"little green man\" in reference to a camouflaged Japanese [sniper](/wiki/Sniper \"Sniper\") who nearly killed one of their war correspondents.",
"Before its more modern application to aliens, *little green men* was commonly used to describe various [supernatural](/wiki/Supernatural \"Supernatural\") beings in old legends and folklore and in later fairy tales and children's books such as [goblins](/wiki/Goblin \"Goblin\"). Aubeck noted several examples of the latter in 19th and early 20th century literature. As an example, [Rudyard Kipling](/wiki/Rudyard_Kipling \"Rudyard Kipling\") had a \"little green man\" in *Puck of Pook's Hill* from 1906\\.",
"Another example, and the earliest use of *little green man* in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* and the *[Chicago Tribune](/wiki/Chicago_Tribune \"Chicago Tribune\")*, dates from 1902, in a review of a children's book called *The Gift of the Magic Staff*, where a supernatural \"Little Green Man\" is a boy's friend and helps him visit the cloudland fairies. The next use in *The New York Times* was in 1950, and references a planned film by [Walt Disney Company](/wiki/Walt_Disney_Company \"Walt Disney Company\") of a 1927 novel by poet/novelist [Robert Nathan](/wiki/Robert_Nathan \"Robert Nathan\") called *The Woodcutter's House*. The only animated character in the picture was to be Nathan's \"Little Green Man\", a confidant of the woodland animals. (The film was never made.)",
"In 1923, a serialized romance, *When Hearts Command* by Elizabeth York Miller, which appeared in newspapers such as the *Chicago Tribune* and *The Washington Post*, has a former mental patient who still sees \"little green men\" and who simultaneously comments that a fellow patient \"conversed with the inhabitants of Mars\".",
"Other instances of imaginary small green beings have been found in a newspaper column from 1936 sarcastically discussing doctors and their medical advice, saying these are the same people who have breakdowns in middle age and start hallucinating \"a little green man with big ears\". Syndicated columnist [Sydney J. Harris](/wiki/Sydney_J._Harris \"Sydney J. Harris\") used \"little green man\" in 1948 as a child's imaginary friend while condemning the age\\-old tradition of frightening children with stories of \"[boogeymen](/wiki/Bogeyman \"Bogeyman\")\".",
"These examples illustrate that use of *little green men* was already deeply engrained in English [vernacular](/wiki/Vernacular \"Vernacular\") long before the flying saucer era, used for a variety of supernatural, imaginary, or mythical beings. It also seems to have easily extended beyond the imaginary to real people, such as the reference to small actors in the *Wizard of Oz* or camouflaged Japanese soldiers. Similarly, Aubeck and others suspect that when flying saucers came along in 1947, with subsequent speculation about alien origins, the term naturally and quickly attached itself to the modern age equivalent. [The Mekon](/wiki/The_Mekon \"The Mekon\"), the green\\-skinned adversary in *[Dan Dare, Pilot of the Future](/wiki/Dan_Dare \"Dan Dare\")*, from [*Eagle* comic's](/wiki/Eagle_%28British_comics%29 \"Eagle (British comics)\") long\\-running series, first appeared 1950\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Horton \\|first1\\=Ian \\|last2\\=Gray \\|first2\\=Maggie \\|title\\=Art history for comics : past, present and potential futures \\|date\\=2022 \\|publisher\\=Springer \\|location\\=Cham, Switzerland \\|isbn\\=9783031073533}} It is also clear that by the early 1950s, the term was already commonly used as a sarcastic reference to the occupants of flying saucers. By 1954, the image of little green men had become inscribed in the public's collective consciousness.",
"Further electronic searches suggest that the term became increasingly more common in the 1960s and always used in a derisive or humorous way. The *Chicago Tribune* in 1960 carried a front\\-page story on the speculations of a Harvard anthropologist about how aliens might look and alien sex. The article opens with the comment, \"If there really are 'little green men' out there in space, there are probably also little green women–and sex.\" A cartoon was attached showing two amorous [centaur](/wiki/Centaur \"Centaur\")\\-like male and female aliens with antennae sticking out of their heads. The article also enigmatically states, \"The 'little green men' designation came from Dr. [Otto Struve](/wiki/Otto_Struve \"Otto Struve\"), director of the national radio astronomy observatory, Green Bank, W. Va. He said that's what the possible outerspacers are called 'among themselves'.\"",
"The term even penetrated into the commentary of *[The Wall Street Journal](/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal \"The Wall Street Journal\")*. First use in the *Journal* was 1960 in an article on the [Brookings Report](/wiki/Brookings_Report \"Brookings Report\") commissioned by [NASA](/wiki/NASA \"NASA\"), studying the possible social effects of the discovery of extraterrestrial life. The *Journal* commented that they thought the report overly pessimistic, assuming that \"the little green men with the wiggly antennae\" would be hostile. Another *Journal* use of the term occurred in 1968 in an editorial on a planned Congressional investigation of [UFOs](/wiki/UFO \"UFO\"). The writer sarcastically asked how they planned to [subpoena](/wiki/Subpoena \"Subpoena\") \"a little green man\". In 1969, they commented that the [Condon Committee](/wiki/Condon_Committee \"Condon Committee\") UFO study commissioned by the Air Force was a waste of money. The editorial stated that even if they did prove that \"UFOs were people with little green men\", what were we supposed to do about it?{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ufoupdateslist.com/2004/feb/m29\\-008\\.shtml \\|title\\=More details on LGM quotes and other examples \\|publisher\\=Ufoupdateslist.com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-17}}",
"A green\\-skinned little green man had even appeared in *[The Flintstones](/wiki/The_Flintstones \"The Flintstones\")* as a recurring character. [The Great Gazoo](/wiki/The_Great_Gazoo \"The Great Gazoo\") (introduced in Episode 145\\) typified the representation of a little green man with his short, green stature and helmet with antennae. However, the 1960s also marked a transition in the way people imagined a stereotypical alien. In [alien abduction](/wiki/Alien_abduction \"Alien abduction\") stories they are often small but [grey beings](/wiki/Grey_alien \"Grey alien\") and in [Arthur C. Clarke](/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke \"Arthur C. Clarke\")'s *[2001: A Space Odyssey](/wiki/2001:A_Space_Odyssey_%28novel%29 \"A Space Odyssey (novel)\")* (1968\\) they are unseen.",
""
] |
Accession to the throne and collapse of the Han dynasty
-------------------------------------------------------
{{further\|End of the Han dynasty}}
### Rise of Dong Zhuo
After Liu Bian became emperor, He Jin became the most powerful official in the imperial court, and he and his advisor [Yuan Shao](/wiki/Yuan_Shao "Yuan Shao") quickly entered into a conspiracy to exterminate the eunuchs. They were, however, rebuffed by Empress Dowager He, and they hatched the plan to secretly order a number of warlords to advance on the capital [Luoyang](/wiki/Luoyang "Luoyang") to force Empress Dowager He to agree to their demands. One of these warlords was [Dong Zhuo](/wiki/Dong_Zhuo "Dong Zhuo"), who saw this as an opportunity to control the central government.
He Jin's plan was discovered by the eunuchs, who laid a trap for him and killed him. Yuan Shao then led his forces into the palace and killed the majority of the eunuchs. The remaining eunuchs initially took the young emperor and Liu Xie hostage, but were eventually forced to commit suicide when the battle turned against them. When Dong Zhuo then arrived on scene, he, impressed with his own power and unimpressed with the nervous Emperor Shao, by threatening the Empress Dowager He, he forced the young emperor to yield the throne to Liu Xie (partly because he was raised by Empress Dowager Dong who, while not related to Dong Zhuo, was therefore respected by Dong Zhuo), who then ascended the throne as Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo then murdered Empress Dowager He and the former Emperor Shao, and became firmly in control of the political scene.
### Forced relocation west and the death of Dong Zhuo
[thumb\|[Chariots and cavalry](/wiki/Horses_in_East_Asian_warfare "Horses in East Asian warfare"), detail of a mural from the Dahuting Tomb (打虎亭漢墓) of the late [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty "Eastern Han dynasty"), located in [Zhengzhou](/wiki/Zhengzhou "Zhengzhou"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan").](/wiki/File:Dahuting_Tomb_mural%2C_cavalry_and_chariots%2C_Eastern_Han_Dynasty.jpg "Dahuting Tomb mural, cavalry and chariots, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg")
In the spring of 190, a number of local officials, loosely [forming a coalition](/wiki/Campaign_against_Dong_Zhuo "Campaign against Dong Zhuo") led by Yuan Shao, quickly rose up against Dong Zhuo. Even though they still feared Dong Zhuo's military power and did not directly advance on Luoyang, Dong Zhuo was also fearful of their collective strength, and therefore determined to move the capital west to the old Han capital [Chang'an](/wiki/Chang%27an "Chang'an"), closer to his power base in [Liang Province](/wiki/Liang_Province "Liang Province") (涼州; covering present\-day [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu "Gansu")). On 9 April 190, he forced Emperor Xian to relocate to Chang'an and set fire to Luoyang, leaving it largely in ruins.
After the revolting coalition collapsed, a number of officials, led by [Wang Yun](/wiki/Wang_Yun_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Wang Yun (Han dynasty)") and [Lü Bu](/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu "Lü Bu"), assassinated Dong on 22 May 192\. For a while, it appeared that the Han regime might return to normal, as Wang Yun quickly established relatively friendly relations with the local officials resisting Dong but by this time acting more as local warlords. However, due to Wang Yun's failure to pacify Dong Zhuo's former subordinates, they rose in revolt and killed Wang.
### Return to Luoyang's ruins
[thumb\|Detail of a banquet scene, mural from the Dahuting Tomb (打虎亭漢墓) of the late [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty "Eastern Han dynasty"), located in [Zhengzhou](/wiki/Zhengzhou "Zhengzhou"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan").](/wiki/File:Dahuting_tomb_banquet_scene%2C_mural_detail%2C_Eastern_Han_Dynasty.jpg "Dahuting tomb banquet scene, mural detail, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg")
Dong Zhuo's former subordinates, led by [Li Jue](/wiki/Li_Jue_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Li Jue (Han dynasty)") and [Guo Si](/wiki/Guo_Si "Guo Si"), took Emperor Xian and the imperial court under their control. However, Li Jue and Guo Si did not have serious ambitions, and their incompetence in governance furthered the breakdown of the Han Empire into warlord regimes. In 195, Li Jue and Guo Si had a major fallout, and Li took Emperor Xian hostage while Guo took the officials hostage as they battled. Later in the year, after peace talks between Li Jue and Guo Si, they agreed to allow Emperor Xian to return to [Luoyang](/wiki/Luoyang "Luoyang"), but as soon as Emperor Xian departed [Chang'an](/wiki/Chang%27an "Chang'an"), they regretted their decision and chased him with their troops. While they were never able to capture him, Emperor Xian's court was rendered poor and unable to fend for itself, and once it returned to Luoyang, it lacked even the basic essentials of life. Many officials starved to death. At this time, [Yuan Shao](/wiki/Yuan_Shao "Yuan Shao")'s strategist [Ju Shou](/wiki/Ju_Shou "Ju Shou") suggested that he welcome Emperor Xian to his base in [Ji Province](/wiki/Ji_Province "Ji Province") so that he could effectively be in control of the central government, but the other strategists [Guo Tu](/wiki/Guo_Tu "Guo Tu") and [Chunyu Qiong](/wiki/Chunyu_Qiong "Chunyu Qiong") opposed – under the faulty logic that if he did, he would have to yield to Emperor Xian on key decisions. Yuan Shao listened to Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong and never again considered welcoming Emperor Xian.
### Tight control by Cao Cao
{{unreferenced section\|date\=April 2016}}
What Yuan Shao would not do, [Cao Cao](/wiki/Cao_Cao "Cao Cao") did. Cao Cao was at this time a relatively minor warlord, as the governor of [Yan Province](/wiki/Yan_Province "Yan Province") (covering present\-day western [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong") and eastern [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")), with his headquarters at Xu (present\-day [Xuchang](/wiki/Xuchang "Xuchang"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan "Henan")). He saw the strategic advantage in having the emperor under his control and protection, and in 196 he marched west to Luoyang and, after securing an agreement with Emperor Xian's generals [Dong Cheng](/wiki/Dong_Cheng_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Dong Cheng (Han dynasty)") and [Yang Feng](/wiki/Yang_Feng "Yang Feng"), convincing them of his loyalty, he entered Luoyang and technically shared power with Dong and Yang, but was in fact in command.
Unlike the situation with Dong Zhuo, though, Cao Cao knew how to assuage the other generals and nobles, and while he gave them little power, he made sure that they remained honoured, so minimal opposition against him developed at the imperial court. He then moved the capital to Xu to affirm his control over the central government, and when Yang Feng opposed him, he defeated Yang in {{circa}}November 196, and was able to move the capital.(天子之东也，奉自梁欲要之，不及。\[建安元年]冬十月，公征奉，奉南奔袁术，遂攻其梁屯，拔之。) *Sanguozhi*, vol.01\. The month corresponds to 9 Nov to 7 Dec 196 in the Julian calendar.
Cao Cao then began to issue imperial edicts in Emperor Xian's name – including a harshly\-worded edict condemning Yuan Shao for taking over nearby provinces – even though it still bestowed Yuan with the highly honorific post of Grand Commandant. Cao Cao and Emperor Xian maintained a superficially cordial relationship, but this did not prevent two major confrontations involving Cao and other court officials.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2016}}
[thumb\|The arrest of Consort Dong with Emperor Xian helpless in the background, from a [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty") illustration of the historical novel *[Romance of the Three Kingdoms](/wiki/Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms "Romance of the Three Kingdoms")*.](/wiki/File:Death_of_Consort_Dong.png "Death of Consort Dong.png")
In early 199, as Cao Cao was facing a major military confrontation against Yuan Shao, Dong Cheng claimed to have received a secret edict issued by Emperor Xian (hidden in a belt), and he entered into a conspiracy with [Liu Bei](/wiki/Liu_Bei "Liu Bei"), Zhong Ji ({{lang\|zh\|种輯}}) and Wang Fu ({{lang\|zh\|王服}}) to assassinate Cao Cao. Late in 199, Liu Bei started a rebellion and waited for Dong Cheng to act in the capital, but in 200, Dong's conspiracy was discovered, and he, along with Zhong Ji and Wang Fu, were killed. Liu Bei was later defeated by Cao Cao and forced to flee to Yuan Shao's territory. Dong Cheng's daughter, an imperial consort, was pregnant, and Emperor Xian personally tried to intercede for her, but Cao Cao had her executed anyway.{{cite book \|last\=de Crespigny \|first\=Rafe \|title\=Imperial Warlord: A Biography of Cao Cao 155–220 AD \|year\=2010 \|publisher\=Brill \|location\=Leiden \|isbn\=978\-90\-04\-18830\-3 \| page\= \[https://books.google.com/books?id\=Gd95DwAAQBAJ\&q\=Dong\+Cheng%27s\+daughter\&pg\=PA119 119] \| author\-link\= Rafe de Crespigny \| series\= Sinica Leidensia, vol. 99 \| doi\= 10\.1163/ej.9789004185227\.i\-554\.20}}
Emperor Xian's empress, Empress [Fu Shou](/wiki/Fu_Shou "Fu Shou"), angry and fearful about how Consort Dong died, wrote her father, Fu Wan ({{lang\|zh\|伏完}}), a letter accusing Cao Cao of cruelty, and implicitly asking her father to start a new conspiracy against Cao. Fu Wan was fearful of Cao Cao and never acted on the letter, in 214, her letter was discovered. Cao Cao was extremely angry and forced Emperor Xian to have Empress Fu deposed. Emperor Xian was hesitant, and Cao Cao sent his soldiers into the palace to put pressure on the emperor. Empress Fu hid inside the walls, but was finally discovered and dragged out. As she was led away, she cried out to Emperor Xian for him to save her life, but his only response was that he could not even know what would happen to him. She was killed, along with her two sonsA son, Liu Feng, had predeceased his mother on 9 August 200 (*renwu* day of the 7th [month](/wiki/Chinese_lunar_month "Chinese lunar month") of [Jian'an](/wiki/Jian%27an_Era "Jian'an Era") 5, per Vol. 63 of the *Zizhi Tongjian*) and family on 8 January 215\.According to Liu Xie's biography in *Book of the Later Han*, Empress Fu was executed on the *dingmao* day of the 11th [month](/wiki/Chinese_lunar_month "Chinese lunar month") of [Jian'an](/wiki/Jian%27an_Era "Jian'an Era") 10\. This corresponds to 8 Jan 215 in the Julian calendar. \[(建安十九年)十一月丁卯，曹操杀皇后伏氏...] *Houhanshu*, vol. 09 On 6 March 215,.According to Liu Xie's biography in *Book of the Later Han*, Lady Cao was made empress on the *jiazi* day of the 1st [month](/wiki/Chinese_lunar_month "Chinese lunar month") of [Jian'an](/wiki/Jian%27an_Era "Jian'an Era") 20\. This corresponds to 6 Mar 215 in the Julian calendar. \[(建安)二十年春正月甲子，立贵人曹氏为皇后] *Houhanshu*, vol. 09 Cao Cao forced Emperor Xian to instate his daughter [Cao Jie](/wiki/Empress_Cao_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Empress Cao (Han dynasty)"), then an imperial consort, as the new empress.
|
[
"Accession to the throne and collapse of the Han dynasty\n-------------------------------------------------------",
"{{further\\|End of the Han dynasty}}",
"### Rise of Dong Zhuo",
"After Liu Bian became emperor, He Jin became the most powerful official in the imperial court, and he and his advisor [Yuan Shao](/wiki/Yuan_Shao \"Yuan Shao\") quickly entered into a conspiracy to exterminate the eunuchs. They were, however, rebuffed by Empress Dowager He, and they hatched the plan to secretly order a number of warlords to advance on the capital [Luoyang](/wiki/Luoyang \"Luoyang\") to force Empress Dowager He to agree to their demands. One of these warlords was [Dong Zhuo](/wiki/Dong_Zhuo \"Dong Zhuo\"), who saw this as an opportunity to control the central government.",
"He Jin's plan was discovered by the eunuchs, who laid a trap for him and killed him. Yuan Shao then led his forces into the palace and killed the majority of the eunuchs. The remaining eunuchs initially took the young emperor and Liu Xie hostage, but were eventually forced to commit suicide when the battle turned against them. When Dong Zhuo then arrived on scene, he, impressed with his own power and unimpressed with the nervous Emperor Shao, by threatening the Empress Dowager He, he forced the young emperor to yield the throne to Liu Xie (partly because he was raised by Empress Dowager Dong who, while not related to Dong Zhuo, was therefore respected by Dong Zhuo), who then ascended the throne as Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo then murdered Empress Dowager He and the former Emperor Shao, and became firmly in control of the political scene.",
"### Forced relocation west and the death of Dong Zhuo",
"[thumb\\|[Chariots and cavalry](/wiki/Horses_in_East_Asian_warfare \"Horses in East Asian warfare\"), detail of a mural from the Dahuting Tomb (打虎亭漢墓) of the late [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty \"Eastern Han dynasty\"), located in [Zhengzhou](/wiki/Zhengzhou \"Zhengzhou\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\").](/wiki/File:Dahuting_Tomb_mural%2C_cavalry_and_chariots%2C_Eastern_Han_Dynasty.jpg \"Dahuting Tomb mural, cavalry and chariots, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg\")",
"In the spring of 190, a number of local officials, loosely [forming a coalition](/wiki/Campaign_against_Dong_Zhuo \"Campaign against Dong Zhuo\") led by Yuan Shao, quickly rose up against Dong Zhuo. Even though they still feared Dong Zhuo's military power and did not directly advance on Luoyang, Dong Zhuo was also fearful of their collective strength, and therefore determined to move the capital west to the old Han capital [Chang'an](/wiki/Chang%27an \"Chang'an\"), closer to his power base in [Liang Province](/wiki/Liang_Province \"Liang Province\") (涼州; covering present\\-day [Gansu](/wiki/Gansu \"Gansu\")). On 9 April 190, he forced Emperor Xian to relocate to Chang'an and set fire to Luoyang, leaving it largely in ruins.",
"After the revolting coalition collapsed, a number of officials, led by [Wang Yun](/wiki/Wang_Yun_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Wang Yun (Han dynasty)\") and [Lü Bu](/wiki/L%C3%BC_Bu \"Lü Bu\"), assassinated Dong on 22 May 192\\. For a while, it appeared that the Han regime might return to normal, as Wang Yun quickly established relatively friendly relations with the local officials resisting Dong but by this time acting more as local warlords. However, due to Wang Yun's failure to pacify Dong Zhuo's former subordinates, they rose in revolt and killed Wang.",
"### Return to Luoyang's ruins",
"[thumb\\|Detail of a banquet scene, mural from the Dahuting Tomb (打虎亭漢墓) of the late [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty \"Eastern Han dynasty\"), located in [Zhengzhou](/wiki/Zhengzhou \"Zhengzhou\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\").](/wiki/File:Dahuting_tomb_banquet_scene%2C_mural_detail%2C_Eastern_Han_Dynasty.jpg \"Dahuting tomb banquet scene, mural detail, Eastern Han Dynasty.jpg\")",
"Dong Zhuo's former subordinates, led by [Li Jue](/wiki/Li_Jue_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Li Jue (Han dynasty)\") and [Guo Si](/wiki/Guo_Si \"Guo Si\"), took Emperor Xian and the imperial court under their control. However, Li Jue and Guo Si did not have serious ambitions, and their incompetence in governance furthered the breakdown of the Han Empire into warlord regimes. In 195, Li Jue and Guo Si had a major fallout, and Li took Emperor Xian hostage while Guo took the officials hostage as they battled. Later in the year, after peace talks between Li Jue and Guo Si, they agreed to allow Emperor Xian to return to [Luoyang](/wiki/Luoyang \"Luoyang\"), but as soon as Emperor Xian departed [Chang'an](/wiki/Chang%27an \"Chang'an\"), they regretted their decision and chased him with their troops. While they were never able to capture him, Emperor Xian's court was rendered poor and unable to fend for itself, and once it returned to Luoyang, it lacked even the basic essentials of life. Many officials starved to death. At this time, [Yuan Shao](/wiki/Yuan_Shao \"Yuan Shao\")'s strategist [Ju Shou](/wiki/Ju_Shou \"Ju Shou\") suggested that he welcome Emperor Xian to his base in [Ji Province](/wiki/Ji_Province \"Ji Province\") so that he could effectively be in control of the central government, but the other strategists [Guo Tu](/wiki/Guo_Tu \"Guo Tu\") and [Chunyu Qiong](/wiki/Chunyu_Qiong \"Chunyu Qiong\") opposed – under the faulty logic that if he did, he would have to yield to Emperor Xian on key decisions. Yuan Shao listened to Guo Tu and Chunyu Qiong and never again considered welcoming Emperor Xian.",
"### Tight control by Cao Cao",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=April 2016}}",
"What Yuan Shao would not do, [Cao Cao](/wiki/Cao_Cao \"Cao Cao\") did. Cao Cao was at this time a relatively minor warlord, as the governor of [Yan Province](/wiki/Yan_Province \"Yan Province\") (covering present\\-day western [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\") and eastern [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")), with his headquarters at Xu (present\\-day [Xuchang](/wiki/Xuchang \"Xuchang\"), [Henan](/wiki/Henan \"Henan\")). He saw the strategic advantage in having the emperor under his control and protection, and in 196 he marched west to Luoyang and, after securing an agreement with Emperor Xian's generals [Dong Cheng](/wiki/Dong_Cheng_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Dong Cheng (Han dynasty)\") and [Yang Feng](/wiki/Yang_Feng \"Yang Feng\"), convincing them of his loyalty, he entered Luoyang and technically shared power with Dong and Yang, but was in fact in command.",
"Unlike the situation with Dong Zhuo, though, Cao Cao knew how to assuage the other generals and nobles, and while he gave them little power, he made sure that they remained honoured, so minimal opposition against him developed at the imperial court. He then moved the capital to Xu to affirm his control over the central government, and when Yang Feng opposed him, he defeated Yang in {{circa}}November 196, and was able to move the capital.(天子之东也，奉自梁欲要之，不及。\\[建安元年]冬十月，公征奉，奉南奔袁术，遂攻其梁屯，拔之。) *Sanguozhi*, vol.01\\. The month corresponds to 9 Nov to 7 Dec 196 in the Julian calendar.",
"Cao Cao then began to issue imperial edicts in Emperor Xian's name – including a harshly\\-worded edict condemning Yuan Shao for taking over nearby provinces – even though it still bestowed Yuan with the highly honorific post of Grand Commandant. Cao Cao and Emperor Xian maintained a superficially cordial relationship, but this did not prevent two major confrontations involving Cao and other court officials.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2016}}",
"[thumb\\|The arrest of Consort Dong with Emperor Xian helpless in the background, from a [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") illustration of the historical novel *[Romance of the Three Kingdoms](/wiki/Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\")*.](/wiki/File:Death_of_Consort_Dong.png \"Death of Consort Dong.png\")",
"In early 199, as Cao Cao was facing a major military confrontation against Yuan Shao, Dong Cheng claimed to have received a secret edict issued by Emperor Xian (hidden in a belt), and he entered into a conspiracy with [Liu Bei](/wiki/Liu_Bei \"Liu Bei\"), Zhong Ji ({{lang\\|zh\\|种輯}}) and Wang Fu ({{lang\\|zh\\|王服}}) to assassinate Cao Cao. Late in 199, Liu Bei started a rebellion and waited for Dong Cheng to act in the capital, but in 200, Dong's conspiracy was discovered, and he, along with Zhong Ji and Wang Fu, were killed. Liu Bei was later defeated by Cao Cao and forced to flee to Yuan Shao's territory. Dong Cheng's daughter, an imperial consort, was pregnant, and Emperor Xian personally tried to intercede for her, but Cao Cao had her executed anyway.{{cite book \\|last\\=de Crespigny \\|first\\=Rafe \\|title\\=Imperial Warlord: A Biography of Cao Cao 155–220 AD \\|year\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=Brill \\|location\\=Leiden \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-04\\-18830\\-3 \\| page\\= \\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Gd95DwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=Dong\\+Cheng%27s\\+daughter\\&pg\\=PA119 119] \\| author\\-link\\= Rafe de Crespigny \\| series\\= Sinica Leidensia, vol. 99 \\| doi\\= 10\\.1163/ej.9789004185227\\.i\\-554\\.20}}",
"Emperor Xian's empress, Empress [Fu Shou](/wiki/Fu_Shou \"Fu Shou\"), angry and fearful about how Consort Dong died, wrote her father, Fu Wan ({{lang\\|zh\\|伏完}}), a letter accusing Cao Cao of cruelty, and implicitly asking her father to start a new conspiracy against Cao. Fu Wan was fearful of Cao Cao and never acted on the letter, in 214, her letter was discovered. Cao Cao was extremely angry and forced Emperor Xian to have Empress Fu deposed. Emperor Xian was hesitant, and Cao Cao sent his soldiers into the palace to put pressure on the emperor. Empress Fu hid inside the walls, but was finally discovered and dragged out. As she was led away, she cried out to Emperor Xian for him to save her life, but his only response was that he could not even know what would happen to him. She was killed, along with her two sonsA son, Liu Feng, had predeceased his mother on 9 August 200 (*renwu* day of the 7th [month](/wiki/Chinese_lunar_month \"Chinese lunar month\") of [Jian'an](/wiki/Jian%27an_Era \"Jian'an Era\") 5, per Vol. 63 of the *Zizhi Tongjian*) and family on 8 January 215\\.According to Liu Xie's biography in *Book of the Later Han*, Empress Fu was executed on the *dingmao* day of the 11th [month](/wiki/Chinese_lunar_month \"Chinese lunar month\") of [Jian'an](/wiki/Jian%27an_Era \"Jian'an Era\") 10\\. This corresponds to 8 Jan 215 in the Julian calendar. \\[(建安十九年)十一月丁卯，曹操杀皇后伏氏...] *Houhanshu*, vol. 09 On 6 March 215,.According to Liu Xie's biography in *Book of the Later Han*, Lady Cao was made empress on the *jiazi* day of the 1st [month](/wiki/Chinese_lunar_month \"Chinese lunar month\") of [Jian'an](/wiki/Jian%27an_Era \"Jian'an Era\") 20\\. This corresponds to 6 Mar 215 in the Julian calendar. \\[(建安)二十年春正月甲子，立贵人曹氏为皇后] *Houhanshu*, vol. 09 Cao Cao forced Emperor Xian to instate his daughter [Cao Jie](/wiki/Empress_Cao_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Empress Cao (Han dynasty)\"), then an imperial consort, as the new empress.",
""
] |
Qualification process
---------------------
The top four finishers of the [2005 FIDE World Championship](/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championship_2005 "FIDE World Chess Championship 2005") event were granted direct entry into the 2007 event. However, [Veselin Topalov](/wiki/Veselin_Topalov "Veselin Topalov"), [FIDE World Chess Champion 2005](/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championship_2005 "FIDE World Chess Championship 2005"), was replaced by [Vladimir Kramnik](/wiki/Vladimir_Kramnik "Vladimir Kramnik"), Classical World Chess Champion, after losing his unification match to him in the [2006 World Championship](/wiki/World_Chess_Championship_2006 "World Chess Championship 2006").
Four further players qualified through the 2005–07 qualification process, which consisted of three stages:
1. Continental championships
2. 2005 World Cup
3. 2007 Candidates Tournament
### 2005 World Cup
{{main\|Chess World Cup 2005}}
The 2005 World Cup, held in [Khanty\-Mansiysk](/wiki/Khanty-Mansiysk "Khanty-Mansiysk"), Russia, was the qualification for the Candidates tournament. It was a knock\-out tournament of mini\-matches, in the style of the [FIDE World Chess Championships 1998\-2004](/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championships_1998-2004 "FIDE World Chess Championships 1998-2004"). However, once 16 players were left, they were no longer immediately eliminated, but played further mini\-matches to establish places 1 through 16\.
The top finishers were:[2005 FIDE World Cup Results](http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/a5a7$iix.htm) at [Mark Weeks' World Chess Championship Index](http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/wcc-indx.htm)[The Week in Chess 580](https://theweekinchess.com/html/twic580.html)
{{col\-begin}}
{{col\-break}}
1. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Levon Aronian]]'''\|Armenia}}
2. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Ruslan Ponomariov]]'''\|Ukraine}}
3. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Étienne Bacrot]]'''\|France}}
4. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Alexander Grischuk]]'''\|Russia}}
5. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Evgeny Bareev]]'''\|Russia}}
6. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Boris Gelfand]]'''\|Israel}}
7. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Sergei Rublevsky]]'''\|Russia}}
8. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Mikhail Gurevich (chess player)\|Mikhail Gurevich]]'''\|Turkey}}
{{col\-break}}
9. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Gata Kamsky]]'''\|USA}}
10. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Magnus Carlsen]]'''\|Norway}}
11. {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Vladimir Malakhov (chess player)\|Vladimir Malakhov]]'''\|Russia}}
12. {{flagathlete\|\[\[Francisco Vallejo Pons]]\|Spain}}
13. {{flagathlete\|\[\[Alexey Dreev]]\|Russia}}
14. {{flagathlete\|\[\[Loek van Wely]]\|Netherlands}}
15. {{flagathlete\|\[\[Joël Lautier]]\|France}}
16. {{flagathlete\|\[\[Konstantin Sakaev]]\|Russia}}
{{col\-end}}
The top 10 qualified for the Candidates Tournament. Since Bacrot was already qualified on rating, 11th placed Malakhov also qualified.
### 2007 Candidates tournament
One place in the [Candidates Tournament](/wiki/Candidates_Tournament "Candidates Tournament") was reserved for [2004 FIDE World Champion](/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championship_2004 "FIDE World Chess Championship 2004") Kasimdzhanov, who had also finished 6th in the [2005 championship tournament](/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championship_2005 "FIDE World Chess Championship 2005"). Five places were then awarded to the five [highest rated players](/wiki/Elo_rating_system "Elo rating system") (average of July 2004 and January 2005 ratings): Leko, Adams, Polgar, Shirov and Bacrot. The remaining ten places went to the highest finishers at the [2005 World Cup](/wiki/Chess_World_Cup_2005 "Chess World Cup 2005") who had not otherwise qualified (see above).
The Candidates tournament, held in [Elista](/wiki/Elista "Elista"), [Kalmykia](/wiki/Kalmykia "Kalmykia"), Russia, from 26 May to 14 June 2007, was originally to consist of a two\-round [knockout](/wiki/Single-elimination_tournament "Single-elimination tournament") with one player qualifying from each quarter of the draw. In September 2006, FIDE proposed that these players play a 16 player, single round\-robin tournament instead.[FIDE proposes Candidates tournament 2007](http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3365), Chessbase, 24 September 2006\. However this decision was reversed, and the tournament consisted of two rounds of matches as originally planned.[The Week in Chess 654](https://theweekinchess.com/html/twic654.html), [The Week in Chess](/wiki/The_Week_in_Chess "The Week in Chess"), 21 May 2007
World Cup winner Aronian was top seed, with the remaining players seeded in rating order according to the January 2006 ratings list. In the second round, the 1v16 winner played the 8v9 winner, 2v15 winner versus 7v10 winner, and so on.
#### Match conditions
Matches were best of six games, at normal time controls (40/120, then 20/60, then 15 minutes \+ 30 seconds per move). Where matches were tied after six games, tie breaks were played on the seventh day:
1. Best of four rapid games were played. Rapid time control was 25 minutes for the game, plus 10 seconds per move.
2. Where the score was still tied, best of two blitz games were played. Blitz time control was 5 minutes for the game, plus 10 seconds per move.
3. If the score was still tied, the players would have drawn lots for a single sudden death game where White had six minutes but needed to win, Black had five minutes but only needed to [draw](/wiki/Draw_%28chess%29 "Draw (chess)"). This final stage of tie break, called an [Armageddon chess](/wiki/Armageddon_chess "Armageddon chess") game, was never required.
#### Round 1
{\| class\="wikitable"
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center
\| **1**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Levon Aronian]]'''\|ARM}}
\| **2759**
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 1
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| ½
\| 4
\| **7**
\|\- align\=center
\| 16
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Magnus Carlsen]]\|NOR}}
\| 2693
\| 0
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 2
\| 5
\|\-
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center
\| **8**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Alexei Shirov]]'''\|ESP}}
\| **2699**
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 0
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 1
\| 2½
\| **5½**
\|\- align\=center
\| 9
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Michael Adams (chess player)\|Michael Adams]]\|ENG}}
\| 2734
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 1
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| ½
\| 3½
\|\-
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center
\| **2**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Peter Leko]]'''\|HUN}}
\| **2738**
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 1
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 1
\| –
\| –
\| –
\| **3½**
\|\- align\=center
\| 15
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Mikhail Gurevich (chess player)\|Mikhail Gurevich]]\|TUR}}
\| 2639
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 0
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| 0
\| –
\| –
\| –
\| ½
\|\-
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center
\| 7
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Judit Polgár]]\|HUN}}
\| 2727
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| –
\| 2½
\|\- align\=center
\| **10**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Evgeny Bareev]]'''\|RUS}}
\| **2643**
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| ½
\| –
\| **3½**
\|\-
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center
\| 3
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Ruslan Ponomariov]]\|UKR}}
\| 2717
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 0
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| –
\| 2½
\|\- align\=center
\| **14**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Sergei Rublevsky]]'''\|RUS}}
\| **2680**
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 1
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| –
\| **3½**
\|\-
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center
\| **6**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Alexander Grischuk]]'''\|RUS}}
\| **2717**
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 1
\| ½
\| –
\| –
\| **3½**
\|\- align\=center
\| 11
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Vladimir Malakhov (chess player)\|Vladimir Malakhov]]\|RUS}}
\| 2679
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 0
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| –
\| –
\| 1½
\|\-
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center
\| **4**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Boris Gelfand]]'''\|ISR}}
\| **2733**
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 2½
\| **5½**
\|\- align\=center
\| 13
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]]\|UZB}}
\| 2677
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| ½
\| 3½
\|\-
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center
\| 5
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Étienne Bacrot]]\|FRA}}
\| 2709
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 0
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| 0
\| –
\| –
\| –
\| ½
\|\- align\=center
\| **12**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Gata Kamsky]]'''\|USA}}
\| **2705**
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 1
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 1
\| –
\| –
\| –
\| **3½**
\|}
#### Round 2
{\| class\="wikitable"
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center style\="background:\#ccffcc;"
\| **1**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Levon Aronian]]'''\|ARM}}
\| **2759**
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| –
\| **3½**
\|\- align\=center
\| 8
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Alexei Shirov]]\|ESP}}
\| 2699
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| –
\| 2½
\|\-
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center style\="background:\#ccffcc;"
\| **2**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Peter Leko]]'''\|HUN}}
\| **2738**
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| –
\| –
\| **3½**
\|\- align\=center
\| 10
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Evgeny Bareev]]\|RUS}}
\| 2643
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| –
\| –
\| 1½
\|\-
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center style\="background:\#ccffcc;"
\| **4**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Boris Gelfand]]'''\|ISR}}
\| **2733**
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 1
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 1
\| –
\| –
\| **3½**
\|\- align\=center
\| 12
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Gata Kamsky]]\|USA}}
\| 2705
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 0
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 0
\| –
\| –
\| 1½
\|\-
!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total
\|\- align\=center style\="background:\#ccffcc;"
\| **6**
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|'''\[\[Alexander Grischuk]]'''\|RUS}}
\| **2717**
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 2½
\| **5½**
\|\- align\=center
\| 14
\| align\=left \| {{flagathlete\|\[\[Sergei Rublevsky]]\|RUS}}
\| 2680
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| 0
\| ½
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| 1
\| style\="background:black; color:white" \| ½
\| ½
\| ½
\| 3½
\|}
The four second round winners qualified for the championship tournament.
|
[
"Qualification process\n---------------------",
"The top four finishers of the [2005 FIDE World Championship](/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championship_2005 \"FIDE World Chess Championship 2005\") event were granted direct entry into the 2007 event. However, [Veselin Topalov](/wiki/Veselin_Topalov \"Veselin Topalov\"), [FIDE World Chess Champion 2005](/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championship_2005 \"FIDE World Chess Championship 2005\"), was replaced by [Vladimir Kramnik](/wiki/Vladimir_Kramnik \"Vladimir Kramnik\"), Classical World Chess Champion, after losing his unification match to him in the [2006 World Championship](/wiki/World_Chess_Championship_2006 \"World Chess Championship 2006\").",
"Four further players qualified through the 2005–07 qualification process, which consisted of three stages:\n1. Continental championships\n2. 2005 World Cup\n3. 2007 Candidates Tournament",
"### 2005 World Cup",
"{{main\\|Chess World Cup 2005}}",
"The 2005 World Cup, held in [Khanty\\-Mansiysk](/wiki/Khanty-Mansiysk \"Khanty-Mansiysk\"), Russia, was the qualification for the Candidates tournament. It was a knock\\-out tournament of mini\\-matches, in the style of the [FIDE World Chess Championships 1998\\-2004](/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championships_1998-2004 \"FIDE World Chess Championships 1998-2004\"). However, once 16 players were left, they were no longer immediately eliminated, but played further mini\\-matches to establish places 1 through 16\\.",
"The top finishers were:[2005 FIDE World Cup Results](http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/a5a7$iix.htm) at [Mark Weeks' World Chess Championship Index](http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/wcc-indx.htm)[The Week in Chess 580](https://theweekinchess.com/html/twic580.html)",
"{{col\\-begin}}\n{{col\\-break}}\n1. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Levon Aronian]]'''\\|Armenia}}\n2. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Ruslan Ponomariov]]'''\\|Ukraine}}\n3. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Étienne Bacrot]]'''\\|France}}\n4. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Alexander Grischuk]]'''\\|Russia}}\n5. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Evgeny Bareev]]'''\\|Russia}}\n6. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Boris Gelfand]]'''\\|Israel}}\n7. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Sergei Rublevsky]]'''\\|Russia}}\n8. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Mikhail Gurevich (chess player)\\|Mikhail Gurevich]]'''\\|Turkey}}\n{{col\\-break}}\n\t9. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Gata Kamsky]]'''\\|USA}}\n\t10. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Magnus Carlsen]]'''\\|Norway}}\n\t11. {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Vladimir Malakhov (chess player)\\|Vladimir Malakhov]]'''\\|Russia}}\n\t12. {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Francisco Vallejo Pons]]\\|Spain}}\n\t13. {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Alexey Dreev]]\\|Russia}}\n\t14. {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Loek van Wely]]\\|Netherlands}}\n\t15. {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Joël Lautier]]\\|France}}\n\t16. {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Konstantin Sakaev]]\\|Russia}}\n{{col\\-end}}",
"The top 10 qualified for the Candidates Tournament. Since Bacrot was already qualified on rating, 11th placed Malakhov also qualified.",
"### 2007 Candidates tournament",
"One place in the [Candidates Tournament](/wiki/Candidates_Tournament \"Candidates Tournament\") was reserved for [2004 FIDE World Champion](/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championship_2004 \"FIDE World Chess Championship 2004\") Kasimdzhanov, who had also finished 6th in the [2005 championship tournament](/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championship_2005 \"FIDE World Chess Championship 2005\"). Five places were then awarded to the five [highest rated players](/wiki/Elo_rating_system \"Elo rating system\") (average of July 2004 and January 2005 ratings): Leko, Adams, Polgar, Shirov and Bacrot. The remaining ten places went to the highest finishers at the [2005 World Cup](/wiki/Chess_World_Cup_2005 \"Chess World Cup 2005\") who had not otherwise qualified (see above).",
"The Candidates tournament, held in [Elista](/wiki/Elista \"Elista\"), [Kalmykia](/wiki/Kalmykia \"Kalmykia\"), Russia, from 26 May to 14 June 2007, was originally to consist of a two\\-round [knockout](/wiki/Single-elimination_tournament \"Single-elimination tournament\") with one player qualifying from each quarter of the draw. In September 2006, FIDE proposed that these players play a 16 player, single round\\-robin tournament instead.[FIDE proposes Candidates tournament 2007](http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3365), Chessbase, 24 September 2006\\. However this decision was reversed, and the tournament consisted of two rounds of matches as originally planned.[The Week in Chess 654](https://theweekinchess.com/html/twic654.html), [The Week in Chess](/wiki/The_Week_in_Chess \"The Week in Chess\"), 21 May 2007",
"World Cup winner Aronian was top seed, with the remaining players seeded in rating order according to the January 2006 ratings list. In the second round, the 1v16 winner played the 8v9 winner, 2v15 winner versus 7v10 winner, and so on.",
"#### Match conditions",
"Matches were best of six games, at normal time controls (40/120, then 20/60, then 15 minutes \\+ 30 seconds per move). Where matches were tied after six games, tie breaks were played on the seventh day:",
"1. Best of four rapid games were played. Rapid time control was 25 minutes for the game, plus 10 seconds per move.\n2. Where the score was still tied, best of two blitz games were played. Blitz time control was 5 minutes for the game, plus 10 seconds per move.\n3. If the score was still tied, the players would have drawn lots for a single sudden death game where White had six minutes but needed to win, Black had five minutes but only needed to [draw](/wiki/Draw_%28chess%29 \"Draw (chess)\"). This final stage of tie break, called an [Armageddon chess](/wiki/Armageddon_chess \"Armageddon chess\") game, was never required.",
"#### Round 1",
"{\\| class\\=\"wikitable\"\n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| **1**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Levon Aronian]]'''\\|ARM}}\n\\| **2759**\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 1\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| ½\n\\| 4\n\\| **7**\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 16\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Magnus Carlsen]]\\|NOR}}\n\\| 2693\n\\| 0\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 2\n\\| 5\n\\|\\-\n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center \n\\| **8**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Alexei Shirov]]'''\\|ESP}}\n\\| **2699**\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 0\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 1\n\\| 2½\n\\| **5½**\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 9\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Michael Adams (chess player)\\|Michael Adams]]\\|ENG}}\n\\| 2734\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 1\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| ½\n\\| 3½\n\\|\\-\n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| **2**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Peter Leko]]'''\\|HUN}}\n\\| **2738**\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 1\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 1\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| **3½**\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 15\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Mikhail Gurevich (chess player)\\|Mikhail Gurevich]]\\|TUR}}\n\\| 2639\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 0\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| 0\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| ½\n\\|\\- \n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 7\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Judit Polgár]]\\|HUN}}\n\\| 2727\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| –\n\\| 2½\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| **10**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Evgeny Bareev]]'''\\|RUS}}\n\\| **2643**\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| ½\n\\| –\n\\| **3½**\n\\|\\- \n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 3\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Ruslan Ponomariov]]\\|UKR}}\n\\| 2717\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 0\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| –\n\\| 2½\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| **14**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Sergei Rublevsky]]'''\\|RUS}}\n\\| **2680**\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 1\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| –\n\\| **3½**\n\\|\\- \n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| **6**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Alexander Grischuk]]'''\\|RUS}}\n\\| **2717**\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 1\n\\| ½\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| **3½**\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 11\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Vladimir Malakhov (chess player)\\|Vladimir Malakhov]]\\|RUS}}\n\\| 2679\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 0\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| 1½\n\\|\\- \n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| **4**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Boris Gelfand]]'''\\|ISR}}\n\\| **2733**\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 2½\n\\| **5½**\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 13\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]]\\|UZB}}\n\\| 2677\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| 3½\n\\|\\- \n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 5\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Étienne Bacrot]]\\|FRA}}\n\\| 2709\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 0\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| 0\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| ½\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| **12**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Gata Kamsky]]'''\\|USA}}\n\\| **2705**\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 1\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 1\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| **3½**\n\\|}\n#### Round 2",
"{\\| class\\=\"wikitable\"\n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center style\\=\"background:\\#ccffcc;\"\n\\| **1**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Levon Aronian]]'''\\|ARM}}\n\\| **2759**\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| –\n\\| **3½**\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 8\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Alexei Shirov]]\\|ESP}}\n\\| 2699\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| –\n\\| 2½\n\\|\\- \n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center style\\=\"background:\\#ccffcc;\"\n\\| **2**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Peter Leko]]'''\\|HUN}}\n\\| **2738**\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| **3½**\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 10\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Evgeny Bareev]]\\|RUS}}\n\\| 2643\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| 1½\n\\|\\-\n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center style\\=\"background:\\#ccffcc;\"\n\\| **4**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Boris Gelfand]]'''\\|ISR}}\n\\| **2733**\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 1\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 1\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| **3½**\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 12\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Gata Kamsky]]\\|USA}}\n\\| 2705\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 0\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 0\n\\| –\n\\| –\n\\| 1½\n\\|\\-\n!Seed!!Name!!Rating!!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!TB!!Total\n\\|\\- align\\=center style\\=\"background:\\#ccffcc;\"\n\\| **6**\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|'''\\[\\[Alexander Grischuk]]'''\\|RUS}}\n\\| **2717**\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 2½\n\\| **5½**\n\\|\\- align\\=center\n\\| 14\n\\| align\\=left \\| {{flagathlete\\|\\[\\[Sergei Rublevsky]]\\|RUS}}\n\\| 2680\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| 0\n\\| ½\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| 1\n\\| style\\=\"background:black; color:white\" \\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| ½\n\\| 3½\n\\|}\nThe four second round winners qualified for the championship tournament.",
""
] |
Trend development
-----------------
The unicorn has had an aesthetic and commercial value for centuries. The first written references to these animals dates back to the 4th Century BCE. Later on, the Unicorn became a popular [folklore](/wiki/Folklore "Folklore") figure, symbols of chastity and purity, as they could only be captured by a virgin.
Since the ancient [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks "Greeks"), the unicorn was pictured in the [mythology](/wiki/Mythology "Mythology") as an elegant beast similar to a white horse with a long and spiraling horn projecting from its forehead. The unicorn briefly appears even in the [Old Testament](/wiki/Old_Testament "Old Testament") of the [Bible](/wiki/Bible "Bible") under the name of *[re’em](/wiki/Re%27em "Re'em")* (also *reem*, [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language"): רְאֵם), making its way in the Western art and culture during the Medieval and Renaissance Ages."Unicorn." Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 17 December 2010\.
Over time the unicorn was re\-imagined as a toy, characterised by pastel bright colours and sparkly eyes that were popular among young girls during the 1980s.
### Contemporary consumption
The physical perception of the unicorn has evolved during the years from a white, pure and elegant horse (as portrayed for example in the film *[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Philosopher%27s_Stone_%28film%29 "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (film)")*) to the sparkly and colorful creatures of the media franchise [My Little Pony](/wiki/My_Little_Pony "My Little Pony").Fisher, Alice. ["Why the unicorn has become the emblem of our times"](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/oct/15/return-of-the-unicorn-the-magical-beast-of-our-times), The Guardian, 15 October 2017\.
### The start of the trend
Health food photographer Adeline WaughDavis, Arianna. ["What’s Really Behind Unicorn Fever"](https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2017/05/152423/unicorn-trend-explanation-history), Refinery29, 8 May 2017 unintentionally started the unicorn food trend in June 2016\. As a [food blogger](/wiki/Food_blogger "Food blogger") she liked experimenting with cream cheese and natural pigments on toasts, which is how she came up with a pastel\-coloured cream to decorate her toasts. Her followers appreciated the experiment and started calling it "unicorn toast". This was followed by unicorn lattes, cakes, hot chocolate, etc. The trend developed further as the colour scheme was used a variety of products, mainly beauty products. Marketers soon recognised the power of this fad and started exploiting it for commercial purposes, [Starbucks](/wiki/Starbucks "Starbucks") for example launched a unicorn Frappuccino in 2017 and really contributed to the boom of the unicorn fad. The [LGBT](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") community also started to embrace this unicorn fever, as its colors are reminiscent of the community’s signature flag.
As Vaughn Scribner points out this infatuation with unicorns is not new, however, with social media it has been spreading on a much wider scale. In 2016, it became a whole cultural phenomenon. The trend expert Daniel Levine helped explaining why the unicorn mania became a fad. According to Levine three are the key points that create a fad: "an established cultural interest in something that combines with the current *[zeitgeist](/wiki/Zeitgeist "Zeitgeist")"*, "publicity by celebrities" and "a high visual interest that gets the attention on social media".
Part of the reason why unicorns are so beloved is that they remind us of our childhood, and they help people escape from reality. Just like creatures such as vampires or werewolves were popular when times were more joyful, unicorns became popular during a time when politics and culture were dark and oppressive.
Unicorns are also connected to the millennials [nostalgia](/wiki/Nostalgia "Nostalgia"), which is evident everywhere on social media platforms. The unicorn reminds many of their carefree and happy childhood. In 2010, the TV cartoon *[My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic](/wiki/My_Little_Pony:Friendship_Is_Magic "Friendship Is Magic")* played a big role in that, it draws on the My Little Pony franchise of the 1980s. The Unicorn mania can also be linked to [Lisa Frank](/wiki/Lisa_Frank "Lisa Frank"), the founder of the a school supply company called [Lisa Frank Incorporated](/wiki/Lisa_Frank_Incorporated "Lisa Frank Incorporated"). It sold a lot of school supply and stickers characterised by colourful and neon colours. Lisa Frank, like My Little Pony, had a strong impact on kids that are now millennials.
### The Unicorn Fad
According to Google Trend, the global search of the term unicorn reached its highest point during April 2017 when Starbucks launched its [Unicorn Frappuccino](/wiki/Unicorn_Frappuccino "Unicorn Frappuccino"). From August 2016 through July 2017 searches on Pinterest for unicorn food saw an increase of nearly 400%. While those for unicorn makeup reached more than 460%. On [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram "Instagram"), the hashtag unicorn has amassed more than 5\.9 million posts.Jensen, Erin. ["Unicorns: We’ve Official Reached Peak Unicron Trend. But Is It Here to Stay?"](https://eu.usatoday.com/story/life/entertainthis/2017/08/22/unicorns-weve-officially-reached-peak-trend-whats-next/526036001/), USA Today, 15 December 2019\. Since then, the search interest has dropped off during 2018\. New fads have taken over the unicorn fever, like the mermaid trend for example.
For this reason, more than a trend it could be referred to as a [fad](/wiki/Fad "Fad"). Even if sometimes the two terms are used interchangeably, they differ in their rise, incubation period and duration. The trend rises slowly and is driven by a functional need, a fad is an ephemeral and emotional necessity to purchase that rises from a sudden hype towards something. Therefore, it rises as quickly as it disappears.
|
[
"Trend development\n-----------------",
"The unicorn has had an aesthetic and commercial value for centuries. The first written references to these animals dates back to the 4th Century BCE. Later on, the Unicorn became a popular [folklore](/wiki/Folklore \"Folklore\") figure, symbols of chastity and purity, as they could only be captured by a virgin.",
"Since the ancient [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks \"Greeks\"), the unicorn was pictured in the [mythology](/wiki/Mythology \"Mythology\") as an elegant beast similar to a white horse with a long and spiraling horn projecting from its forehead. The unicorn briefly appears even in the [Old Testament](/wiki/Old_Testament \"Old Testament\") of the [Bible](/wiki/Bible \"Bible\") under the name of *[re’em](/wiki/Re%27em \"Re'em\")* (also *reem*, [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\"): רְאֵם), making its way in the Western art and culture during the Medieval and Renaissance Ages.\"Unicorn.\" Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 17 December 2010\\.",
"Over time the unicorn was re\\-imagined as a toy, characterised by pastel bright colours and sparkly eyes that were popular among young girls during the 1980s.",
"### Contemporary consumption",
"The physical perception of the unicorn has evolved during the years from a white, pure and elegant horse (as portrayed for example in the film *[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone](/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Philosopher%27s_Stone_%28film%29 \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (film)\")*) to the sparkly and colorful creatures of the media franchise [My Little Pony](/wiki/My_Little_Pony \"My Little Pony\").Fisher, Alice. [\"Why the unicorn has become the emblem of our times\"](https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/oct/15/return-of-the-unicorn-the-magical-beast-of-our-times), The Guardian, 15 October 2017\\.",
"### The start of the trend",
"Health food photographer Adeline WaughDavis, Arianna. [\"What’s Really Behind Unicorn Fever\"](https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2017/05/152423/unicorn-trend-explanation-history), Refinery29, 8 May 2017 unintentionally started the unicorn food trend in June 2016\\. As a [food blogger](/wiki/Food_blogger \"Food blogger\") she liked experimenting with cream cheese and natural pigments on toasts, which is how she came up with a pastel\\-coloured cream to decorate her toasts. Her followers appreciated the experiment and started calling it \"unicorn toast\". This was followed by unicorn lattes, cakes, hot chocolate, etc. The trend developed further as the colour scheme was used a variety of products, mainly beauty products. Marketers soon recognised the power of this fad and started exploiting it for commercial purposes, [Starbucks](/wiki/Starbucks \"Starbucks\") for example launched a unicorn Frappuccino in 2017 and really contributed to the boom of the unicorn fad. The [LGBT](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") community also started to embrace this unicorn fever, as its colors are reminiscent of the community’s signature flag.",
"As Vaughn Scribner points out this infatuation with unicorns is not new, however, with social media it has been spreading on a much wider scale. In 2016, it became a whole cultural phenomenon. The trend expert Daniel Levine helped explaining why the unicorn mania became a fad. According to Levine three are the key points that create a fad: \"an established cultural interest in something that combines with the current *[zeitgeist](/wiki/Zeitgeist \"Zeitgeist\")\"*, \"publicity by celebrities\" and \"a high visual interest that gets the attention on social media\".",
"Part of the reason why unicorns are so beloved is that they remind us of our childhood, and they help people escape from reality. Just like creatures such as vampires or werewolves were popular when times were more joyful, unicorns became popular during a time when politics and culture were dark and oppressive.",
"Unicorns are also connected to the millennials [nostalgia](/wiki/Nostalgia \"Nostalgia\"), which is evident everywhere on social media platforms. The unicorn reminds many of their carefree and happy childhood. In 2010, the TV cartoon *[My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic](/wiki/My_Little_Pony:Friendship_Is_Magic \"Friendship Is Magic\")* played a big role in that, it draws on the My Little Pony franchise of the 1980s. The Unicorn mania can also be linked to [Lisa Frank](/wiki/Lisa_Frank \"Lisa Frank\"), the founder of the a school supply company called [Lisa Frank Incorporated](/wiki/Lisa_Frank_Incorporated \"Lisa Frank Incorporated\"). It sold a lot of school supply and stickers characterised by colourful and neon colours. Lisa Frank, like My Little Pony, had a strong impact on kids that are now millennials.",
"### The Unicorn Fad",
"According to Google Trend, the global search of the term unicorn reached its highest point during April 2017 when Starbucks launched its [Unicorn Frappuccino](/wiki/Unicorn_Frappuccino \"Unicorn Frappuccino\"). From August 2016 through July 2017 searches on Pinterest for unicorn food saw an increase of nearly 400%. While those for unicorn makeup reached more than 460%. On [Instagram](/wiki/Instagram \"Instagram\"), the hashtag unicorn has amassed more than 5\\.9 million posts.Jensen, Erin. [\"Unicorns: We’ve Official Reached Peak Unicron Trend. But Is It Here to Stay?\"](https://eu.usatoday.com/story/life/entertainthis/2017/08/22/unicorns-weve-officially-reached-peak-trend-whats-next/526036001/), USA Today, 15 December 2019\\. Since then, the search interest has dropped off during 2018\\. New fads have taken over the unicorn fever, like the mermaid trend for example.",
"For this reason, more than a trend it could be referred to as a [fad](/wiki/Fad \"Fad\"). Even if sometimes the two terms are used interchangeably, they differ in their rise, incubation period and duration. The trend rises slowly and is driven by a functional need, a fad is an ephemeral and emotional necessity to purchase that rises from a sudden hype towards something. Therefore, it rises as quickly as it disappears.",
""
] |
Subcategories of the trend
--------------------------
### Unicorn food
[thumb\|Unicorn cookies](/wiki/File:Children%27s_Unicorn_Themed_Birthday_Biscuits_%2845312116341%29.jpg "Children's Unicorn Themed Birthday Biscuits (45312116341).jpg")
The term "Unicorn food" often refers to the use of colorful or sparkly food items in dishes rather than the appearance of a unicorn figure.
The [Unicorn Frappuccino](/wiki/Unicorn_Frappuccino "Unicorn Frappuccino") consisted in a purple color\-changing drink with some blue tones and with a sweet and a fruity dominant taste.["Starbucks Weaves its Magic with New Color and Flavor Changing Unicorn Frappuccino"](https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2017/starbucks-unicorn-frappuccino/), Starbucks Stories \& News, 18 April 2017\. Since then, any kind of food, from sweet to savory recipes, has started to take the shape of a pastel colored unicorn. Food bloggers, writers, [YouTubers](/wiki/YouTubers "YouTubers"), celebrities, and ordinary people created recipes and applied them to various kind of foods. There are books, blogs, YouTube videos, and websites dedicated to the reproduction and the purchase of sparkly and colorful ingredients and meals.
Many different types of food were adapted to the unicorn style: biscuits, yogurt bowls, cakes fudges, milkshakes, cupcakes, ice\-creams, marshmallows, meringues, banana breads, doughs, popcorn, sushi, noodles, soups, sandwiches, grilled cheese, pizza.
### Unicorn beauty
The Unicorn beauty trend involves the use of pastel colors (soft pink, green, blue and lavender), [holographic](/wiki/Holography "Holography") shades, [glitters](/wiki/Glitter "Glitter") and unicorn horn\-shaped objects for makeup, [nail art](/wiki/Nail_art "Nail art"), and [hairstyling](/wiki/Hairstyle "Hairstyle").{{citation needed\|date\=September 2024}}
It is believed that the trend entered the beauty industry around 2008 when an online vegan and cruelty\-free brand for makeup and hair color (Lime Crime) was founded and used the tagline "Makeup for Unicorns" to commercialize its rainbowed products.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2024}} In 2014, the hair colorist and [youtuber](/wiki/YouTuber "YouTuber"), Guy Tang, shared a series of photos on Instagram with a unicorn\-colored hairstyle, that made him popular worldwide.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2024}}
By 2017, the unicorn trend had spread into the beauty world thanks to social media platforms such as Instagram, YouTube and Pinterest and partly overtook its counterpart, the Mermaid Trend. In the same year, Lisa Frank made a collaboration with the brand Glamour Dolls MakeupSciarretto, Amy. ["What’s in Glamour Dolls’ Lisa Frank Makeup Collection? Your Inner ‘90s Kid Will Be Stoked"](https://www.bustle.com/p/whats-in-glamour-dolls-lisa-frank-makeup-collection-your-inner-90s-kid-will-be-stoked-3216504), 3 November 2017 and released a cruelty\-free makeup collection with the packaging covered by her iconic rainbowed animal prints.
In 2018, [Paris Hilton](/wiki/Paris_Hilton "Paris Hilton") launched a skincare line, starting with the release of a limited edition rose water named "Unicorn Mist".Mandell, Janna. ["Paris Hilton Launches Skincare Line with Unicorn Mist; Cue Shocked Face"](https://www.forbes.com/sites/jannamandell/2017/11/30/paris-hilton-launches-skincare-line-with-unicorn-mist-cue-shocked-face/#7d00f9f6592c), Forbes, 30 November 2017\. In 2019, during the National Unicorn Day (celebrated on April 9 in the U.S.), Paris Hilton announced on social media the re\-release of the sold\-out product.Trivedi, Sachin. ["Paris Hilton Celebrates National Unicorn Day by Re\-Releasing Sold Out Product"](https://www.ibtimes.com/paris-hilton-celebrates-national-unicorn-day-re-releasing-sold-out-product-2784540), International Business Times, 2 October 2019\.
Thanks to the popularity of this trend in this sector, products labelled as "unicorn snot" (holographic glitter body gel), "unicorn tears" (lipsticks and lip\-glosses) and "unicorn essence" (serum for the skin) are offered in the market.Wischhover, Cheryl. ["How Did ‘Unicorn’ Become Beauty’s Goal Aesthetic?"](https://www.racked.com/2017/3/20/14944158/unicorn-beauty-trend), Racked, 20 May 2017
### Unicorn design
The Unicorn Trend has featured in the world of design with the creation of daily use objects and [gadgets](/wiki/Gadget "Gadget") with the appearance and colors of unicorns. The designs are often found on pillows, sheets and bed\-covers, drinking cups, and flatware. One of the most popular items was the unicorn [pool float](/wiki/Pool_float "Pool float"), an inflatable plastic unicorn.Mason, Melissa. ["These Extremely Portly 6\-Person Pool Floats Are Demonic \& Must Be Eliminated"](https://www.pedestrian.tv/home/6-person-pool-float-unicorn-flamingo/), Pedestrian, 13 March 2018\.
### Unicorn fashion
Rapidly the popularity of unicorn\-themed objects also reached the fashion industry. Clothes, shoes and accessories were involved, but also phone covers and tattoos. Materials such as [sheer fabrics](/wiki/Sheer_fabric "Sheer fabric") and [fake fur](/wiki/Fake_fur "Fake fur") started to be used more frequently associated with rainbow or pastel colors and unicorn images.
In 2016, actress [Margot Robbie](/wiki/Margot_Robbie "Margot Robbie") wore an [Alexander McQueen](/wiki/Alexander_McQueen_%28brand%29 "Alexander McQueen (brand)") gown adorned with a gold sequin unicorn to the premiere of the film *[Suicide Squad](/wiki/Suicide_Squad_%282016_film%29 "Suicide Squad (2016 film)")*. During the 2017, [Milan Fashion Week](/wiki/Milan_Fashion_Week "Milan Fashion Week"), [Moschino](/wiki/Moschino "Moschino") unveiled a capsule collection in collaboration with the 80s children toy brand "My Little Pony".["Moschino Launches Nostalgic My Little Pony Collection"](https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/fashion/fashion-news/a43943/moschino-my-little-pony-collection/), Harper’s Bazaar UK, 22 September 2017 Models were parading on the runway clothed with bubble\-gum pink and baby blue looks displaying the toys' graphic. During the 2018, [Paris Fashion Week](/wiki/Paris_Fashion_Week "Paris Fashion Week"), American designer [Thom Browne](/wiki/Thom_Browne "Thom Browne") ended his show with a model walking out on the runway having a unicorn on leash. The unicorn consisted of two male models wearing an elaborate white [tulle](/wiki/Tulle_%28netting%29 "Tulle (netting)") costume coordinated with the look of the model.G. Muller, Marissa. ["Thom Browne Takes the Unicorn Trend to a New Peak with His Spring 2018 Show in Paris"](https://www.wmagazine.com/story/thom-browne-unicorn-trend-peak-spring-2018-paris-fashion-week/), W Magazine, 3 October 2017
|
[
"Subcategories of the trend\n--------------------------",
"### Unicorn food",
"[thumb\\|Unicorn cookies](/wiki/File:Children%27s_Unicorn_Themed_Birthday_Biscuits_%2845312116341%29.jpg \"Children's Unicorn Themed Birthday Biscuits (45312116341).jpg\")\nThe term \"Unicorn food\" often refers to the use of colorful or sparkly food items in dishes rather than the appearance of a unicorn figure.",
"The [Unicorn Frappuccino](/wiki/Unicorn_Frappuccino \"Unicorn Frappuccino\") consisted in a purple color\\-changing drink with some blue tones and with a sweet and a fruity dominant taste.[\"Starbucks Weaves its Magic with New Color and Flavor Changing Unicorn Frappuccino\"](https://stories.starbucks.com/stories/2017/starbucks-unicorn-frappuccino/), Starbucks Stories \\& News, 18 April 2017\\. Since then, any kind of food, from sweet to savory recipes, has started to take the shape of a pastel colored unicorn. Food bloggers, writers, [YouTubers](/wiki/YouTubers \"YouTubers\"), celebrities, and ordinary people created recipes and applied them to various kind of foods. There are books, blogs, YouTube videos, and websites dedicated to the reproduction and the purchase of sparkly and colorful ingredients and meals.",
"Many different types of food were adapted to the unicorn style: biscuits, yogurt bowls, cakes fudges, milkshakes, cupcakes, ice\\-creams, marshmallows, meringues, banana breads, doughs, popcorn, sushi, noodles, soups, sandwiches, grilled cheese, pizza.",
"### Unicorn beauty",
"The Unicorn beauty trend involves the use of pastel colors (soft pink, green, blue and lavender), [holographic](/wiki/Holography \"Holography\") shades, [glitters](/wiki/Glitter \"Glitter\") and unicorn horn\\-shaped objects for makeup, [nail art](/wiki/Nail_art \"Nail art\"), and [hairstyling](/wiki/Hairstyle \"Hairstyle\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2024}}",
"It is believed that the trend entered the beauty industry around 2008 when an online vegan and cruelty\\-free brand for makeup and hair color (Lime Crime) was founded and used the tagline \"Makeup for Unicorns\" to commercialize its rainbowed products.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2024}} In 2014, the hair colorist and [youtuber](/wiki/YouTuber \"YouTuber\"), Guy Tang, shared a series of photos on Instagram with a unicorn\\-colored hairstyle, that made him popular worldwide.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2024}}",
"By 2017, the unicorn trend had spread into the beauty world thanks to social media platforms such as Instagram, YouTube and Pinterest and partly overtook its counterpart, the Mermaid Trend. In the same year, Lisa Frank made a collaboration with the brand Glamour Dolls MakeupSciarretto, Amy. [\"What’s in Glamour Dolls’ Lisa Frank Makeup Collection? Your Inner ‘90s Kid Will Be Stoked\"](https://www.bustle.com/p/whats-in-glamour-dolls-lisa-frank-makeup-collection-your-inner-90s-kid-will-be-stoked-3216504), 3 November 2017 and released a cruelty\\-free makeup collection with the packaging covered by her iconic rainbowed animal prints.",
"In 2018, [Paris Hilton](/wiki/Paris_Hilton \"Paris Hilton\") launched a skincare line, starting with the release of a limited edition rose water named \"Unicorn Mist\".Mandell, Janna. [\"Paris Hilton Launches Skincare Line with Unicorn Mist; Cue Shocked Face\"](https://www.forbes.com/sites/jannamandell/2017/11/30/paris-hilton-launches-skincare-line-with-unicorn-mist-cue-shocked-face/#7d00f9f6592c), Forbes, 30 November 2017\\. In 2019, during the National Unicorn Day (celebrated on April 9 in the U.S.), Paris Hilton announced on social media the re\\-release of the sold\\-out product.Trivedi, Sachin. [\"Paris Hilton Celebrates National Unicorn Day by Re\\-Releasing Sold Out Product\"](https://www.ibtimes.com/paris-hilton-celebrates-national-unicorn-day-re-releasing-sold-out-product-2784540), International Business Times, 2 October 2019\\.",
"Thanks to the popularity of this trend in this sector, products labelled as \"unicorn snot\" (holographic glitter body gel), \"unicorn tears\" (lipsticks and lip\\-glosses) and \"unicorn essence\" (serum for the skin) are offered in the market.Wischhover, Cheryl. [\"How Did ‘Unicorn’ Become Beauty’s Goal Aesthetic?\"](https://www.racked.com/2017/3/20/14944158/unicorn-beauty-trend), Racked, 20 May 2017",
"### Unicorn design",
"The Unicorn Trend has featured in the world of design with the creation of daily use objects and [gadgets](/wiki/Gadget \"Gadget\") with the appearance and colors of unicorns. The designs are often found on pillows, sheets and bed\\-covers, drinking cups, and flatware. One of the most popular items was the unicorn [pool float](/wiki/Pool_float \"Pool float\"), an inflatable plastic unicorn.Mason, Melissa. [\"These Extremely Portly 6\\-Person Pool Floats Are Demonic \\& Must Be Eliminated\"](https://www.pedestrian.tv/home/6-person-pool-float-unicorn-flamingo/), Pedestrian, 13 March 2018\\.",
"### Unicorn fashion",
"Rapidly the popularity of unicorn\\-themed objects also reached the fashion industry. Clothes, shoes and accessories were involved, but also phone covers and tattoos. Materials such as [sheer fabrics](/wiki/Sheer_fabric \"Sheer fabric\") and [fake fur](/wiki/Fake_fur \"Fake fur\") started to be used more frequently associated with rainbow or pastel colors and unicorn images.",
"In 2016, actress [Margot Robbie](/wiki/Margot_Robbie \"Margot Robbie\") wore an [Alexander McQueen](/wiki/Alexander_McQueen_%28brand%29 \"Alexander McQueen (brand)\") gown adorned with a gold sequin unicorn to the premiere of the film *[Suicide Squad](/wiki/Suicide_Squad_%282016_film%29 \"Suicide Squad (2016 film)\")*. During the 2017, [Milan Fashion Week](/wiki/Milan_Fashion_Week \"Milan Fashion Week\"), [Moschino](/wiki/Moschino \"Moschino\") unveiled a capsule collection in collaboration with the 80s children toy brand \"My Little Pony\".[\"Moschino Launches Nostalgic My Little Pony Collection\"](https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/fashion/fashion-news/a43943/moschino-my-little-pony-collection/), Harper’s Bazaar UK, 22 September 2017 Models were parading on the runway clothed with bubble\\-gum pink and baby blue looks displaying the toys' graphic. During the 2018, [Paris Fashion Week](/wiki/Paris_Fashion_Week \"Paris Fashion Week\"), American designer [Thom Browne](/wiki/Thom_Browne \"Thom Browne\") ended his show with a model walking out on the runway having a unicorn on leash. The unicorn consisted of two male models wearing an elaborate white [tulle](/wiki/Tulle_%28netting%29 \"Tulle (netting)\") costume coordinated with the look of the model.G. Muller, Marissa. [\"Thom Browne Takes the Unicorn Trend to a New Peak with His Spring 2018 Show in Paris\"](https://www.wmagazine.com/story/thom-browne-unicorn-trend-peak-spring-2018-paris-fashion-week/), W Magazine, 3 October 2017",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Zelazny started his publishing career in 1999 with two short stories, "Hope Is an Inanimate Desire" and "Harold Asher and His Vomiting Dogs". In 2001 he began to publish more frequently. In 2002 his story "Lovely Day for Beating an Old Guy" was published in the anthology *Random Acts of Weirdness*, edited by Brian Knight, which was the first piece to attract attention.
Zelazny's professional debut came with the publication of his short story collection *The Day the Leash Gave Way and Other Stories* (Fantastic Books: Wilder Publications, 2009\), featuring 20 previously published stories and four originals. On July 28, 2014, Black Curtain Press reissued the book with two additional stories, as well as an introduction by Zelazny. Though he had previously sold a novel (*Destination Unknown*) in 2008, it did not see release until December 2011\.
Zelazny moved to Florida, then took some time away from writing, having developed severe alcoholism, as well as having lost his fiancée to suicide.{{Cite web\|url\=http://trentzelaznybloggetyblog.blogspot.com/2012/04/angelyn.html\|title \= Bloggety Blog: Angelyn\|date \= April 8, 2012}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://stephenormsby.wordpress.com/2012/11/15/author\-interview\-special\-edition\-trent\-zelazny\-american\-writer/\|title \= Author Interview Special Edition – Trent Zelazny, American Writer\|date \= November 14, 2012}} He then attempted suicide himself, but survived, about which he has repeatedly said he is grateful.
In 2011 he returned with the novella *Fractal Despondency* (Black Curtain Press, 2011\), followed quickly by *Shadowboxer*, *To Sleep Gently*, and *A Crack in Melancholy Time* (Crossroad Press, 2011\). His novel *Destination Unknown* (iBooks) was then finally released.
*To Sleep Gently* received the 2012 Nightmare Award.
In February 2012 Zelazny wrote his first short play, *Not Any Little Girl*, which premiered in Santa Fe, New Mexico in late April 2012\. It later became an Australian bestseller. At the same time he penned the short story "Black Whispers" for the shared world anthology *World's Collider*, edited by Richard Salter (Nightscape Press). In March, he signed a contract with Nightscape Press for the release of his novella *Butterfly Potion*, which was released June 30, 2012\. Later that same year Black Curtain Press released his novel *Too Late to Call Texas* on October 31\. The novel was then reissued September 24, 2013, with a new cover and an introduction by award\-nominated crime and horror author [Billie Sue Mosiman](/wiki/Billie_Sue_Mosiman "Billie Sue Mosiman"). His most recent novel, *Voiceless*, was released on October 7, 2014, by Evil Jester Press in New York City.
His novelette *People Person*, released on September 20, 2013, by Black Curtain Press, has been considered by many to be Zelazny's best work to date.
A big movie fan, he also occasionally writes movie "Previews" for the Jean Cocteau Cinema, an [independent movie theater](/wiki/Independent_movie_theater "Independent movie theater") in [Santa Fe, New Mexico](/wiki/Santa_Fe%2C_New_Mexico "Santa Fe, New Mexico"), owned by *[A Song of Ice and Fire](/wiki/A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire "A Song of Ice and Fire")* author [George R. R. Martin](/wiki/George_R._R._Martin "George R. R. Martin").
Zelazny has also been an on\-and\-off martial artist since the age of 5, having studied multiple styles including [Taekwondo](/wiki/Taekwondo "Taekwondo"), [Tang Soo Do](/wiki/Tang_Soo_Do "Tang Soo Do"), [Aikido](/wiki/Aikido "Aikido"), [Iron Shirt](/wiki/Iron_Shirt "Iron Shirt"), [Iron Palm](/wiki/Iron_Palm "Iron Palm"), Judo, and has been investigating [Wing Chun](/wiki/Wing_Chun "Wing Chun") and [Jeet Kune Do](/wiki/Jeet_Kune_Do "Jeet Kune Do").
He has a son from a previous marriage, Corwin Random Zelazny, born June 26, 1996, who is named after characters from his father's classic *[The Chronicles of Amber](/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Amber "The Chronicles of Amber")* series.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Zelazny started his publishing career in 1999 with two short stories, \"Hope Is an Inanimate Desire\" and \"Harold Asher and His Vomiting Dogs\". In 2001 he began to publish more frequently. In 2002 his story \"Lovely Day for Beating an Old Guy\" was published in the anthology *Random Acts of Weirdness*, edited by Brian Knight, which was the first piece to attract attention.",
"Zelazny's professional debut came with the publication of his short story collection *The Day the Leash Gave Way and Other Stories* (Fantastic Books: Wilder Publications, 2009\\), featuring 20 previously published stories and four originals. On July 28, 2014, Black Curtain Press reissued the book with two additional stories, as well as an introduction by Zelazny. Though he had previously sold a novel (*Destination Unknown*) in 2008, it did not see release until December 2011\\.",
"Zelazny moved to Florida, then took some time away from writing, having developed severe alcoholism, as well as having lost his fiancée to suicide.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://trentzelaznybloggetyblog.blogspot.com/2012/04/angelyn.html\\|title \\= Bloggety Blog: Angelyn\\|date \\= April 8, 2012}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://stephenormsby.wordpress.com/2012/11/15/author\\-interview\\-special\\-edition\\-trent\\-zelazny\\-american\\-writer/\\|title \\= Author Interview Special Edition – Trent Zelazny, American Writer\\|date \\= November 14, 2012}} He then attempted suicide himself, but survived, about which he has repeatedly said he is grateful.",
"In 2011 he returned with the novella *Fractal Despondency* (Black Curtain Press, 2011\\), followed quickly by *Shadowboxer*, *To Sleep Gently*, and *A Crack in Melancholy Time* (Crossroad Press, 2011\\). His novel *Destination Unknown* (iBooks) was then finally released.",
"*To Sleep Gently* received the 2012 Nightmare Award.",
"In February 2012 Zelazny wrote his first short play, *Not Any Little Girl*, which premiered in Santa Fe, New Mexico in late April 2012\\. It later became an Australian bestseller. At the same time he penned the short story \"Black Whispers\" for the shared world anthology *World's Collider*, edited by Richard Salter (Nightscape Press). In March, he signed a contract with Nightscape Press for the release of his novella *Butterfly Potion*, which was released June 30, 2012\\. Later that same year Black Curtain Press released his novel *Too Late to Call Texas* on October 31\\. The novel was then reissued September 24, 2013, with a new cover and an introduction by award\\-nominated crime and horror author [Billie Sue Mosiman](/wiki/Billie_Sue_Mosiman \"Billie Sue Mosiman\"). His most recent novel, *Voiceless*, was released on October 7, 2014, by Evil Jester Press in New York City.",
"His novelette *People Person*, released on September 20, 2013, by Black Curtain Press, has been considered by many to be Zelazny's best work to date.",
"A big movie fan, he also occasionally writes movie \"Previews\" for the Jean Cocteau Cinema, an [independent movie theater](/wiki/Independent_movie_theater \"Independent movie theater\") in [Santa Fe, New Mexico](/wiki/Santa_Fe%2C_New_Mexico \"Santa Fe, New Mexico\"), owned by *[A Song of Ice and Fire](/wiki/A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire \"A Song of Ice and Fire\")* author [George R. R. Martin](/wiki/George_R._R._Martin \"George R. R. Martin\").",
"Zelazny has also been an on\\-and\\-off martial artist since the age of 5, having studied multiple styles including [Taekwondo](/wiki/Taekwondo \"Taekwondo\"), [Tang Soo Do](/wiki/Tang_Soo_Do \"Tang Soo Do\"), [Aikido](/wiki/Aikido \"Aikido\"), [Iron Shirt](/wiki/Iron_Shirt \"Iron Shirt\"), [Iron Palm](/wiki/Iron_Palm \"Iron Palm\"), Judo, and has been investigating [Wing Chun](/wiki/Wing_Chun \"Wing Chun\") and [Jeet Kune Do](/wiki/Jeet_Kune_Do \"Jeet Kune Do\").",
"He has a son from a previous marriage, Corwin Random Zelazny, born June 26, 1996, who is named after characters from his father's classic *[The Chronicles of Amber](/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Amber \"The Chronicles of Amber\")* series.",
""
] |
Types
-----
### {{anchor\|oxidation\|two\-way\|2\-way\|oxi\-cat}} Two\-way
A 2\-way (or "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi\-cat") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:
1. [Oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation "Oxidation") of [carbon monoxide](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide "Carbon monoxide") to [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide "Carbon dioxide"): {{nowrap\|2CO \+ O2 → 2CO2}}
2. Oxidation of [hydrocarbons](/wiki/Unburned_hydrocarbon "Unburned hydrocarbon") (unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon dioxide and [water](/wiki/Water "Water"): {{nowrap\|C''x''H2''x''\+2 \+ \[(3''x''\+1\)/2]O2 → ''x''CO2 \+ (''x''\+1\)H2O}} (a combustion reaction)
The two\-way catalytic converter is widely used on [diesel engines](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in American and Canadian automobile markets until 1981\. Because of their inability to control [oxides of nitrogen](/wiki/NOx "NOx"), manufacturers briefly installed twin catalyst systems, with an {{NOx}} reducing, rhodium/platinum catalyst ahead of the air pump, which led to the development of the three\-way catalytic converter. The two\-way catalytic comverter also continued to be used on certain, lower\-cost cars in some markets such as Europe, where {{NOx}} emissions were not universally regulated until the introduction of the Euro 3 emissions standard in 2000\.{{cite web\|url\=http://eur\-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri\=CELEX:31998L0069:EN:NOT \|title\=Directive 98/69/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 1998 relating to measures to be taken against air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles and amending Council Directive 70/220/EEC \|date\=13 October 1998 \|publisher\=Eur\-lex.europa.eu \|access\-date\=2 February 2011}}
### {{anchor\|TWC\|3\-way\|three\-way}} Three\-way
The three\-way catalytic converters have the additional advantage of controlling the emission of [nitric oxide (NO)](/wiki/Nitric_oxide "Nitric oxide") and [nitrogen dioxide (NO2)](/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide "Nitrogen dioxide") (both together abbreviated with [{{NOx}}](/wiki/NOx "NOx") and not to be confused with [nitrous oxide (N2O)](/wiki/Nitrous_oxide "Nitrous oxide")). [{{NOx}}](/wiki/NOx "NOx") are precursors to [acid rain](/wiki/Acid_rain "Acid rain") and [smog](/wiki/Smog "Smog").{{cite journal\|title\=Automotive Catalytic Converters: Current Status and Some Perspectives\|author1\=Kaspar, Jan \|author2\=Fornasiero, Paolo \|author3\=Hickey, Neal \|journal\=Catalysis Today\|year\=2003\|volume\=77\|issue\=4 \|pages\=419–449\|doi\=10\.1016/S0920\-5861(02\)00384\-X}}
Since 1981, the three\-way (oxidation\-reduction) catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent [vehicle emission regulations](/wiki/Vehicle_emissions_control "Vehicle emissions control") that in effect require three\-way converters on gasoline\-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a common housing; however, in some instances, they may be housed separately. A three\-way catalytic converter does three simultaneous tasks:
*[Reduction](/wiki/Redox "Redox") of nitrogen oxides to [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") (N2)*
* \\text{C}\+2\\text{NO}\_{2}\\,\\rightarrow\\,\\text{CO}\_{2}\+2\\text{NO}
* \\text{CO}\+\\text{NO}\\,\\rightarrow\\,\\text{CO}\_{2}\+\\frac{1}{2}\\text{N}\_{2}
* 2\\text{CO}\+\\text{NO}\_{2}\\,\\rightarrow\\,2\\text{CO}\_{2}\+\\frac{1}{2}\\text{N}\_{2}
* \\text{H}\_{2}\+\\text{NO}\\,\\rightarrow\\,\\text{H}\_{2}\\text{O}\+\\frac{1}{2}\\text{N}\_{2}
*[Oxidation](/wiki/Redox "Redox") of carbon, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide*
* \\text{C}\+\\text{O}\_{2}\\,\\rightarrow\\,\\text{CO}\_{2}
* \\text{CO}\+\\frac{1}{2}\\text{O}\_{2}\\,\\rightarrow\\,\\text{CO}\_{2}
* a\\,\\text{C}\_{x}\\text{H}\_{y}\+b\\,\\text{O}\_{2}\\,\\rightarrow\\,c\\,\\text{CO}\_{2}\+d\\,\\text{H}\_{2}\\text{O}\\qquad a,\\,b,\\,c,\\,d,\\,x,\\,y\\in\\mathbb{Z}
These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the [stoichiometric](/wiki/Stoichiometric "Stoichiometric") point. For gasoline combustion, this ratio is between 14\.6 and 14\.8 parts air to one part fuel, by weight. The ratio for [autogas](/wiki/Autogas "Autogas") (or [liquefied petroleum gas](/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas "Liquefied petroleum gas") LPG), [natural gas](/wiki/Natural_gas "Natural gas"), and [ethanol](/wiki/Ethanol "Ethanol") fuels can vary significantly for each, notably so with [oxygenated](/wiki/Oxygenate "Oxygenate") or alcohol based fuels, with [E85](/wiki/E85 "E85") requiring approximately 34% more fuel, requiring modified fuel system tuning and components when using those fuels. Engines fitted with regulated 3\-way catalytic converters are equipped with a [computerized](/wiki/Engine_control_unit "Engine control unit") [closed\-loop](/wiki/Electronic_feedback_loop "Electronic feedback loop") [feedback](/wiki/Feedback "Feedback") [fuel injection](/wiki/Fuel_injection "Fuel injection") system using one or more [oxygen sensors](/wiki/Oxygen_sensor%23Automotive_applications "Oxygen sensor#Automotive applications") (also known as Lambda Sonds or sensors). Other variants combined three\-way converters with [carburetors](/wiki/Carburetor "Carburetor") equipped with feedback mixture control were used. An unregulated three\-way converter features the same chemical processes but without the oxygen sensor, which meant higher {{NOx}} emissions, particularly under partial loads. These were low\-cost solutions, typically used for retrofitting to older cars or for smaller, cheaper cars.
Three\-way converters are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow band of air{{endash}}fuel ratios near the stoichiometric point.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science\-maths\-technology/science/chemistry/the\-three\-way\-catalytic\-converter/content\-section\-1\.3\|title\=The three way catalytic converter\|access\-date\=31 January 2022\|archive\-date\=31 January 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131002220/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science\-maths\-technology/science/chemistry/the\-three\-way\-catalytic\-converter/content\-section\-1\.3\|url\-status\=dead}} Total conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of this band. Slightly lean of stoichiometric, the exhaust gases from the engine contain excess oxygen, the production of {{NOx}} by the engine increases, and the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing {{NOx}} falls off rapidly. However, the conversion of HC and CO is very efficient due to the available oxygen, oxidizing to H2O and CO2. Slightly rich of stoichiometric, the production of CO and unburnt HC by the engine starts to increase dramatically, available oxygen decreases, and the efficiency of the catalyst for oxidizing CO and HC decreases significantly, especially as stored oxygen becomes depleted. However, the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing {{NOx}} is good, and the production of {{NOx}} by the engine decreases. To maintain catalyst efficiency, the air{{endash}}fuel ratio must stay close to stoichiometric and not remain rich or lean for too long.
Closed\-loop engine control systems are used for effective operation of three\-way catalytic converters because of this continuous rich\-lean balance required for effective {{NOx}} reduction and HC\+CO oxidation. The control system allows the catalyst to release oxygen during slightly rich operating conditions, which oxidizes CO and HC under conditions that also favor the reduction of NOx. Before the stored oxygen is depleted, the control system shifts the air{{endash}}fuel ratio to become slightly lean, improving HC and CO oxidation while storing additional oxygen in the catalyst material, at a small penalty in {{NOx}} reduction efficiency. Then the air{{endash}}fuel mixture is brought back to slightly rich, at a small penalty in CO and HC oxidation efficiency, and the cycle repeats. Efficiency is improved when this oscillation around the stoichiometric point is small and carefully controlled.{{Cite journal\|last1\= Brandt\|first1\= Erich\|last2\= Wang\|first2\= Yanying\|last3\= Grizzle\|first3\= Jessy\|title\= Dynamic Modeling of a Three Way Catalyst for SI Engine Exhaust Emission Control\|journal\= IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology\|volume\= 8\|issue\= 5\|pages\= 767–776\|year\= 2000\|url\= http://web.eecs.umich.edu/\~grizzle/papers/TWC98\.pdf\|doi\= 10\.1109/87\.865850}}
Closed\-loop control under light to moderate load is accomplished by using one or more [oxygen sensors](/wiki/Oxygen_sensor%23Automotive_applications "Oxygen sensor#Automotive applications") in the exhaust system. When oxygen is detected by the sensor, the air{{endash}}fuel ratio is lean of stoichiometric, and when oxygen is not detected, it is rich. The control system adjusts the rate of fuel being injected into the engine based on this signal to keep the air{{endash}}fuel ratio near the stoichiometric point in order to maximize the catalyst conversion efficiency. The control algorithm is also affected by the time delay between the adjustment of the fuel flow rate and the sensing of the changed air{{endash}}fuel ratio by the sensor, as well as the [sigmoidal](/wiki/Sigmoid_function "Sigmoid function") response of the oxygen sensors. Typical control systems are designed to rapidly sweep the air{{endash}}fuel ratio such that it oscillates slightly around the stoichiometric point, staying near the optimal efficiency point while managing the levels of stored oxygen and unburnt HC.
Closed loop control is often not used during high load/maximum power operation, when an increase in emissions is permitted and a rich mixture is commanded to increase power and prevent exhaust gas temperature from exceeding design limits. This presents a challenge for control system and catalyst design. During such operations, large amounts of unburnt HC are produced by the engine, well beyond the capacity of the catalyst to release oxygen. The surface of the catalyst quickly becomes saturated with HC. When returning to lower power output and leaner air{{endash}}fuel ratios, the control system must prevent excessive oxygen from reaching the catalyst too quickly, as this will rapidly burn the HC in the already hot catalyst, potentially exceeding the design temperature limit of the catalyst. Excessive catalyst temperature can prematurely age the catalyst, reducing its efficiency before reaching its design lifetime. Excessive catalyst temperature can also be caused by cylinder misfire, which continuously flows unburnt HC combined with oxygen to the hot catalyst, burning in the catalyst and increasing its temperature.{{cite journal \|last1\=Cooper \|first1\=B. J. \|title\=Durability of Platinum\-Containing Automotive Exhaust Control Catalysts: Improvements in Resistance to Thermal Degradation \|journal\=Platinum Metals Review \|date\=October 1983 \|volume\=27 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=146–155 \|doi\=10\.1595/003214083X274146155 \|s2cid\=36970773 }}
#### Unwanted reactions
Unwanted reactions result in the formation of [hydrogen sulfide](/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide "Hydrogen sulfide") and [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia "Ammonia"), which poison catalysts. [Nickel](/wiki/Nickel "Nickel") or [manganese](/wiki/Manganese "Manganese") is sometimes added to the washcoat to limit hydrogen\-sulfide emissions.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2021}} Sulfur\-free or low\-sulfur fuels eliminate or minimize problems with hydrogen sulfide.
### Diesel engines{{Anchor\|Diesel Oxidation Catalyst\|DOC}}
For compression\-ignition (i.e., [diesel](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine")) engines, the most commonly used catalytic converter is the *diesel oxidation catalyst* (DOC). DOCs contain [palladium](/wiki/Palladium "Palladium") or [platinum](/wiki/Platinum "Platinum") [supported on](/wiki/Catalyst_support "Catalyst support") [alumina](/wiki/Alumina "Alumina"). This catalyst converts [particulate matter](/wiki/Particulate_matter "Particulate matter") (PM), hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and water. These converters often operate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping reduce visible particulates. These catalysts are ineffective for {{NOx}}, so {{NOx}} emissions from diesel engines are controlled by [exhaust gas recirculation](/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculation "Exhaust gas recirculation") (EGR).
In 2010, most light\-duty diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added catalytic systems to their vehicles to meet federal emissions requirements. Two techniques have been developed for the catalytic reduction of {{NOx}} emissions under lean exhaust conditions, [selective catalytic reduction](/wiki/Selective_catalytic_reduction "Selective catalytic reduction") (SCR) and the [{{NOx}} adsorber](/wiki/NOx_adsorber "NOx adsorber").
Instead of precious metal\-containing {{NOx}} absorbers, most manufacturers selected base\-metal SCR systems that use a [reagent](/wiki/Reagent "Reagent") such as [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia "Ammonia") to reduce the {{NOx}} into [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") and water.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www3\.epa.gov/ttncatc1/dir1/fscr.pdf\|title\=Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet (PDF, US Environmental Protection Agency)}} Ammonia is supplied to the catalyst system by the injection of [urea](/wiki/Urea "Urea") into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. The urea solution is also referred to as [diesel exhaust fluid](/wiki/Diesel_exhaust_fluid "Diesel exhaust fluid") (DEF).
[Diesel exhaust](/wiki/Diesel_exhaust "Diesel exhaust") contains relatively high levels of particulate matter. Catalytic converters remove only 20–40% of PM so particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap or [diesel particulate filter](/wiki/Diesel_particulate_filter "Diesel particulate filter") (DPF). In the U.S., all on\-road light, medium, and heavy\-duty diesel\-powered vehicles built after 1 January 2007, are subject to diesel particulate emission limits, and so are equipped with a 2\-way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2021}} As long as the engine was manufactured before 1 January 2007, the vehicle is not required to have the DPF system.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2021}} This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre\-DPF vehicles well into 2007\.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.epa.gov/otaq/highway\-diesel/regs/f00057\.pdf \|title\=Heavy\-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards and Highway Diesel Fuel Sulfur Control Requirements\|date\=2015\-08\-19}} {{small\|(123 KB)}}
### Lean\-burn spark\-ignition engines
For [lean\-burn](/wiki/Lean-burn "Lean-burn") [spark\-ignition](/wiki/Spark-ignition "Spark-ignition") engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from lean burn spark ignition engines are very similar to emissions from a diesel compression ignition engine.
|
[
"Types\n-----",
"### {{anchor\\|oxidation\\|two\\-way\\|2\\-way\\|oxi\\-cat}} Two\\-way",
"A 2\\-way (or \"oxidation\", sometimes called an \"oxi\\-cat\") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:\n1. [Oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation \"Oxidation\") of [carbon monoxide](/wiki/Carbon_monoxide \"Carbon monoxide\") to [carbon dioxide](/wiki/Carbon_dioxide \"Carbon dioxide\"): {{nowrap\\|2CO \\+ O2 → 2CO2}}\n2. Oxidation of [hydrocarbons](/wiki/Unburned_hydrocarbon \"Unburned hydrocarbon\") (unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon dioxide and [water](/wiki/Water \"Water\"): {{nowrap\\|C''x''H2''x''\\+2 \\+ \\[(3''x''\\+1\\)/2]O2 → ''x''CO2 \\+ (''x''\\+1\\)H2O}} (a combustion reaction)",
"The two\\-way catalytic converter is widely used on [diesel engines](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in American and Canadian automobile markets until 1981\\. Because of their inability to control [oxides of nitrogen](/wiki/NOx \"NOx\"), manufacturers briefly installed twin catalyst systems, with an {{NOx}} reducing, rhodium/platinum catalyst ahead of the air pump, which led to the development of the three\\-way catalytic converter. The two\\-way catalytic comverter also continued to be used on certain, lower\\-cost cars in some markets such as Europe, where {{NOx}} emissions were not universally regulated until the introduction of the Euro 3 emissions standard in 2000\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://eur\\-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri\\=CELEX:31998L0069:EN:NOT \\|title\\=Directive 98/69/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 1998 relating to measures to be taken against air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles and amending Council Directive 70/220/EEC \\|date\\=13 October 1998 \\|publisher\\=Eur\\-lex.europa.eu \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2011}}",
"### {{anchor\\|TWC\\|3\\-way\\|three\\-way}} Three\\-way",
"The three\\-way catalytic converters have the additional advantage of controlling the emission of [nitric oxide (NO)](/wiki/Nitric_oxide \"Nitric oxide\") and [nitrogen dioxide (NO2)](/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide \"Nitrogen dioxide\") (both together abbreviated with [{{NOx}}](/wiki/NOx \"NOx\") and not to be confused with [nitrous oxide (N2O)](/wiki/Nitrous_oxide \"Nitrous oxide\")). [{{NOx}}](/wiki/NOx \"NOx\") are precursors to [acid rain](/wiki/Acid_rain \"Acid rain\") and [smog](/wiki/Smog \"Smog\").{{cite journal\\|title\\=Automotive Catalytic Converters: Current Status and Some Perspectives\\|author1\\=Kaspar, Jan \\|author2\\=Fornasiero, Paolo \\|author3\\=Hickey, Neal \\|journal\\=Catalysis Today\\|year\\=2003\\|volume\\=77\\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=419–449\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0920\\-5861(02\\)00384\\-X}}",
"Since 1981, the three\\-way (oxidation\\-reduction) catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent [vehicle emission regulations](/wiki/Vehicle_emissions_control \"Vehicle emissions control\") that in effect require three\\-way converters on gasoline\\-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a common housing; however, in some instances, they may be housed separately. A three\\-way catalytic converter does three simultaneous tasks:",
"*[Reduction](/wiki/Redox \"Redox\") of nitrogen oxides to [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") (N2)*\n* \\\\text{C}\\+2\\\\text{NO}\\_{2}\\\\,\\\\rightarrow\\\\,\\\\text{CO}\\_{2}\\+2\\\\text{NO}\n* \\\\text{CO}\\+\\\\text{NO}\\\\,\\\\rightarrow\\\\,\\\\text{CO}\\_{2}\\+\\\\frac{1}{2}\\\\text{N}\\_{2}\n* 2\\\\text{CO}\\+\\\\text{NO}\\_{2}\\\\,\\\\rightarrow\\\\,2\\\\text{CO}\\_{2}\\+\\\\frac{1}{2}\\\\text{N}\\_{2}\n* \\\\text{H}\\_{2}\\+\\\\text{NO}\\\\,\\\\rightarrow\\\\,\\\\text{H}\\_{2}\\\\text{O}\\+\\\\frac{1}{2}\\\\text{N}\\_{2}\n*[Oxidation](/wiki/Redox \"Redox\") of carbon, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide*\n* \\\\text{C}\\+\\\\text{O}\\_{2}\\\\,\\\\rightarrow\\\\,\\\\text{CO}\\_{2}\n* \\\\text{CO}\\+\\\\frac{1}{2}\\\\text{O}\\_{2}\\\\,\\\\rightarrow\\\\,\\\\text{CO}\\_{2}\n* a\\\\,\\\\text{C}\\_{x}\\\\text{H}\\_{y}\\+b\\\\,\\\\text{O}\\_{2}\\\\,\\\\rightarrow\\\\,c\\\\,\\\\text{CO}\\_{2}\\+d\\\\,\\\\text{H}\\_{2}\\\\text{O}\\\\qquad a,\\\\,b,\\\\,c,\\\\,d,\\\\,x,\\\\,y\\\\in\\\\mathbb{Z}\nThese three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the [stoichiometric](/wiki/Stoichiometric \"Stoichiometric\") point. For gasoline combustion, this ratio is between 14\\.6 and 14\\.8 parts air to one part fuel, by weight. The ratio for [autogas](/wiki/Autogas \"Autogas\") (or [liquefied petroleum gas](/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas \"Liquefied petroleum gas\") LPG), [natural gas](/wiki/Natural_gas \"Natural gas\"), and [ethanol](/wiki/Ethanol \"Ethanol\") fuels can vary significantly for each, notably so with [oxygenated](/wiki/Oxygenate \"Oxygenate\") or alcohol based fuels, with [E85](/wiki/E85 \"E85\") requiring approximately 34% more fuel, requiring modified fuel system tuning and components when using those fuels. Engines fitted with regulated 3\\-way catalytic converters are equipped with a [computerized](/wiki/Engine_control_unit \"Engine control unit\") [closed\\-loop](/wiki/Electronic_feedback_loop \"Electronic feedback loop\") [feedback](/wiki/Feedback \"Feedback\") [fuel injection](/wiki/Fuel_injection \"Fuel injection\") system using one or more [oxygen sensors](/wiki/Oxygen_sensor%23Automotive_applications \"Oxygen sensor#Automotive applications\") (also known as Lambda Sonds or sensors). Other variants combined three\\-way converters with [carburetors](/wiki/Carburetor \"Carburetor\") equipped with feedback mixture control were used. An unregulated three\\-way converter features the same chemical processes but without the oxygen sensor, which meant higher {{NOx}} emissions, particularly under partial loads. These were low\\-cost solutions, typically used for retrofitting to older cars or for smaller, cheaper cars.",
"Three\\-way converters are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow band of air{{endash}}fuel ratios near the stoichiometric point.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science\\-maths\\-technology/science/chemistry/the\\-three\\-way\\-catalytic\\-converter/content\\-section\\-1\\.3\\|title\\=The three way catalytic converter\\|access\\-date\\=31 January 2022\\|archive\\-date\\=31 January 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131002220/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science\\-maths\\-technology/science/chemistry/the\\-three\\-way\\-catalytic\\-converter/content\\-section\\-1\\.3\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Total conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of this band. Slightly lean of stoichiometric, the exhaust gases from the engine contain excess oxygen, the production of {{NOx}} by the engine increases, and the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing {{NOx}} falls off rapidly. However, the conversion of HC and CO is very efficient due to the available oxygen, oxidizing to H2O and CO2. Slightly rich of stoichiometric, the production of CO and unburnt HC by the engine starts to increase dramatically, available oxygen decreases, and the efficiency of the catalyst for oxidizing CO and HC decreases significantly, especially as stored oxygen becomes depleted. However, the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing {{NOx}} is good, and the production of {{NOx}} by the engine decreases. To maintain catalyst efficiency, the air{{endash}}fuel ratio must stay close to stoichiometric and not remain rich or lean for too long.",
"Closed\\-loop engine control systems are used for effective operation of three\\-way catalytic converters because of this continuous rich\\-lean balance required for effective {{NOx}} reduction and HC\\+CO oxidation. The control system allows the catalyst to release oxygen during slightly rich operating conditions, which oxidizes CO and HC under conditions that also favor the reduction of NOx. Before the stored oxygen is depleted, the control system shifts the air{{endash}}fuel ratio to become slightly lean, improving HC and CO oxidation while storing additional oxygen in the catalyst material, at a small penalty in {{NOx}} reduction efficiency. Then the air{{endash}}fuel mixture is brought back to slightly rich, at a small penalty in CO and HC oxidation efficiency, and the cycle repeats. Efficiency is improved when this oscillation around the stoichiometric point is small and carefully controlled.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\= Brandt\\|first1\\= Erich\\|last2\\= Wang\\|first2\\= Yanying\\|last3\\= Grizzle\\|first3\\= Jessy\\|title\\= Dynamic Modeling of a Three Way Catalyst for SI Engine Exhaust Emission Control\\|journal\\= IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology\\|volume\\= 8\\|issue\\= 5\\|pages\\= 767–776\\|year\\= 2000\\|url\\= http://web.eecs.umich.edu/\\~grizzle/papers/TWC98\\.pdf\\|doi\\= 10\\.1109/87\\.865850}}",
"Closed\\-loop control under light to moderate load is accomplished by using one or more [oxygen sensors](/wiki/Oxygen_sensor%23Automotive_applications \"Oxygen sensor#Automotive applications\") in the exhaust system. When oxygen is detected by the sensor, the air{{endash}}fuel ratio is lean of stoichiometric, and when oxygen is not detected, it is rich. The control system adjusts the rate of fuel being injected into the engine based on this signal to keep the air{{endash}}fuel ratio near the stoichiometric point in order to maximize the catalyst conversion efficiency. The control algorithm is also affected by the time delay between the adjustment of the fuel flow rate and the sensing of the changed air{{endash}}fuel ratio by the sensor, as well as the [sigmoidal](/wiki/Sigmoid_function \"Sigmoid function\") response of the oxygen sensors. Typical control systems are designed to rapidly sweep the air{{endash}}fuel ratio such that it oscillates slightly around the stoichiometric point, staying near the optimal efficiency point while managing the levels of stored oxygen and unburnt HC.",
"Closed loop control is often not used during high load/maximum power operation, when an increase in emissions is permitted and a rich mixture is commanded to increase power and prevent exhaust gas temperature from exceeding design limits. This presents a challenge for control system and catalyst design. During such operations, large amounts of unburnt HC are produced by the engine, well beyond the capacity of the catalyst to release oxygen. The surface of the catalyst quickly becomes saturated with HC. When returning to lower power output and leaner air{{endash}}fuel ratios, the control system must prevent excessive oxygen from reaching the catalyst too quickly, as this will rapidly burn the HC in the already hot catalyst, potentially exceeding the design temperature limit of the catalyst. Excessive catalyst temperature can prematurely age the catalyst, reducing its efficiency before reaching its design lifetime. Excessive catalyst temperature can also be caused by cylinder misfire, which continuously flows unburnt HC combined with oxygen to the hot catalyst, burning in the catalyst and increasing its temperature.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Cooper \\|first1\\=B. J. \\|title\\=Durability of Platinum\\-Containing Automotive Exhaust Control Catalysts: Improvements in Resistance to Thermal Degradation \\|journal\\=Platinum Metals Review \\|date\\=October 1983 \\|volume\\=27 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=146–155 \\|doi\\=10\\.1595/003214083X274146155 \\|s2cid\\=36970773 }}",
"#### Unwanted reactions",
"Unwanted reactions result in the formation of [hydrogen sulfide](/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide \"Hydrogen sulfide\") and [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\"), which poison catalysts. [Nickel](/wiki/Nickel \"Nickel\") or [manganese](/wiki/Manganese \"Manganese\") is sometimes added to the washcoat to limit hydrogen\\-sulfide emissions.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021}} Sulfur\\-free or low\\-sulfur fuels eliminate or minimize problems with hydrogen sulfide.",
"### Diesel engines{{Anchor\\|Diesel Oxidation Catalyst\\|DOC}}",
"For compression\\-ignition (i.e., [diesel](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\")) engines, the most commonly used catalytic converter is the *diesel oxidation catalyst* (DOC). DOCs contain [palladium](/wiki/Palladium \"Palladium\") or [platinum](/wiki/Platinum \"Platinum\") [supported on](/wiki/Catalyst_support \"Catalyst support\") [alumina](/wiki/Alumina \"Alumina\"). This catalyst converts [particulate matter](/wiki/Particulate_matter \"Particulate matter\") (PM), hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and water. These converters often operate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping reduce visible particulates. These catalysts are ineffective for {{NOx}}, so {{NOx}} emissions from diesel engines are controlled by [exhaust gas recirculation](/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculation \"Exhaust gas recirculation\") (EGR).",
"In 2010, most light\\-duty diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added catalytic systems to their vehicles to meet federal emissions requirements. Two techniques have been developed for the catalytic reduction of {{NOx}} emissions under lean exhaust conditions, [selective catalytic reduction](/wiki/Selective_catalytic_reduction \"Selective catalytic reduction\") (SCR) and the [{{NOx}} adsorber](/wiki/NOx_adsorber \"NOx adsorber\").",
"Instead of precious metal\\-containing {{NOx}} absorbers, most manufacturers selected base\\-metal SCR systems that use a [reagent](/wiki/Reagent \"Reagent\") such as [ammonia](/wiki/Ammonia \"Ammonia\") to reduce the {{NOx}} into [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") and water.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www3\\.epa.gov/ttncatc1/dir1/fscr.pdf\\|title\\=Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet (PDF, US Environmental Protection Agency)}} Ammonia is supplied to the catalyst system by the injection of [urea](/wiki/Urea \"Urea\") into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. The urea solution is also referred to as [diesel exhaust fluid](/wiki/Diesel_exhaust_fluid \"Diesel exhaust fluid\") (DEF).",
"[Diesel exhaust](/wiki/Diesel_exhaust \"Diesel exhaust\") contains relatively high levels of particulate matter. Catalytic converters remove only 20–40% of PM so particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap or [diesel particulate filter](/wiki/Diesel_particulate_filter \"Diesel particulate filter\") (DPF). In the U.S., all on\\-road light, medium, and heavy\\-duty diesel\\-powered vehicles built after 1 January 2007, are subject to diesel particulate emission limits, and so are equipped with a 2\\-way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021}} As long as the engine was manufactured before 1 January 2007, the vehicle is not required to have the DPF system.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021}} This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre\\-DPF vehicles well into 2007\\.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.epa.gov/otaq/highway\\-diesel/regs/f00057\\.pdf \\|title\\=Heavy\\-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards and Highway Diesel Fuel Sulfur Control Requirements\\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-19}} {{small\\|(123 KB)}}",
"### Lean\\-burn spark\\-ignition engines",
"For [lean\\-burn](/wiki/Lean-burn \"Lean-burn\") [spark\\-ignition](/wiki/Spark-ignition \"Spark-ignition\") engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from lean burn spark ignition engines are very similar to emissions from a diesel compression ignition engine.",
""
] |
Timeline
--------
### Murder of Sade Dixon
On the night of December 13, 2016, 24\-year\-old Sade Dixon, a [pregnant](/wiki/Pregnancy "Pregnancy") mother of two children aged 2 and 8, was shot and killed at her home in the [Pine Hills](/wiki/Pine_Hills%2C_Florida "Pine Hills, Florida") area of Orange County. Dixon was three months pregnant at the time of her death. Markeith, Dixon's 41\-year\-old ex\-boyfriend, was identified as the suspect and was considered armed and dangerous.{{cite web\|title\=Ex\-boyfriend named as suspect in pregnant woman's killing\|url\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2019/10/08/ex\-boyfriend\-named\-as\-suspect\-in\-pregnant\-womans\-killing/\|publisher\=Click Orlando\|date\=2019\-10\-08\|accessdate\=2023\-09\-19}}
According to the Orange County Sheriff's Office, Loyd arrived at Dixon's home around 9:15 p.m. and knocked on the door. When Dixon opened the door, Loyd shot her eight times.{{Cite web \|title\= \|url\=https://www.bradenton.com/news/local/crime/article152065847\.html}} Witnesses reported hearing around 10 gunshots. Dixon's 26\-year\-old brother, Ronald Steward, heard the commotion and attempted to intervene, only to be shot by Loyd as well. Steward was taken to [Orlando Regional Medical Center](/wiki/Orlando_Regional_Medical_Center "Orlando Regional Medical Center") in critical condition but was expected to make a full recovery.
Dixon's parents, Stephanie Dixon\-Daniels and Ron Dixon, held a news conference urging the shooter to turn himself in. They described their daughter as a "phenomenal woman" who was hard\-working, dedicated, unique, and strong\-minded. The family also called for an end to the violence, stating that retaliation would not bring their daughter back.
### Encounter and murder of Lt. Debra Clayton
On the morning of January 9, 2017, around 7:15 a.m., Lt. Debra Clayton was leaving a Walmart on John Young Parkway when a woman informed her that Markeith Loyd, who was wanted for the murder of his pregnant ex\-girlfriend Sade Dixon, was in line at the store. Loyd was dressed in camouflage pants, black shoes, and a black shirt with the word "Security" printed on it. He was also wearing a bulletproof vest similar to those used by the Orlando Police Department.{{cite web\|title\=Police: Markeith Loyd used same gun to kill ex\-girlfriend, Orlando officer\|url\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2019/10/08/police\-markeith\-loyd\-used\-same\-gun\-to\-kill\-ex\-girlfriend\-orlando\-officer/\|publisher\=Click Orlando\|date\=2019\-10\-08\|accessdate\=2023\-09\-19}}
According to police reports, Clayton pursued Loyd, who drew his gun and fired three rounds at her as she turned to run toward the parking lot. One bullet struck Clayton in her right hip, causing her to fall and hit her face on the pavement. While on the ground, Clayton fired seven shots at Loyd, who circled around her and fired multiple rounds. Clayton was struck four times: once in the hip, another bullet shattered her hipbone, one in the thigh, and the fatal shot went through her neck and lodged in her shoulder. The Medical Examiner's Office determined that the fatal shot was fired while Loyd stood over Clayton.
Three officers attempted CPR on Clayton until paramedics arrived and took her to Orlando Regional Medical Center, where she was pronounced dead at 7:40 a.m. Both Clayton and Loyd fired their weapons eight times during the exchange. Loyd used the same gun that he had used to kill Sade Dixon.
After the shooting, Loyd fled the scene in a dark green Mercury. He later fired shots at a deputy in an unmarked car and carjacked a 2013 Volkswagen Passat at gunpoint. The car was later found abandoned at Brookside Apartments with Loyd's clothes inside. A hole in his shirt indicated that he had been shot in the chest, but his bulletproof vest prevented any injury.
### Death of Deputy First Class Norman Lewis
On January 9, 2017, during the extensive manhunt for Markeith Loyd, Orange County Sheriff's Office Deputy First Class Norman Lewis was killed in a traffic accident. Lewis, 35, was a University of Central Florida alumnus and former football player for the UCF Knights. He was riding a motorcycle when a Honda van, driven by 78\-year\-old Billie Jarrard, collided with him at 9:43 a.m. on Pine Hills Road.{{cite web\|title\=Deputy killed in crash during manhunt was ex\-UCF football player\|url\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2017/01/10/deputy\-killed\-in\-crash\-during\-manhunt\-was\-ex\-ucf\-football\-player/\|publisher\=Click Orlando\|date\=2017\-01\-10\|accessdate\=2023\-09\-19}}
Lewis was thrown from his 2014 Harley\-Davidson motorcycle and was taken to Orlando Regional Medical Center in critical condition. He was pronounced dead shortly before 11 a.m. Orange County Sheriff Jerry Demings described Lewis as a "gentle giant" who was "very well known" and "very well liked." Demings also stated that Lewis was working "in concert" with the efforts to locate Loyd.
Billie Jarrard was later given a one thousand dollar fine and a six month driver's license suspension.{{Cite web \|date\=2018\-06\-05 \|title\=Man receives $1K fine, 6\-month license suspension in crash that killed deputy \|url\=https://www.wftv.com/news/local/80\-year\-old\-fights\-164\-ticket\-from\-crash\-that\-killed\-orange\-co\-deputy/763130151/ \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-05 \|website\=WFTV \|language\=en}}
### National attention and ongoing efforts
On January 17, 2017, Markeith Loyd was added to the U.S. Marshals Service list of the top 15 most wanted individuals in the nation. The U.S. Marshals Service also added $25,000 to the existing $100,000 reward for information leading to Loyd's arrest.{{cite web\|title\=Suspected police killer added to U.S. Marshals Service most wanted list\|url\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2019/10/08/suspected\-police\-killer\-added\-to\-us\-marshals\-service\-most\-wanted\-list/\|publisher\=Click Orlando\|date\=2019\-10\-08\|accessdate\=2023\-09\-19}}
Orlando Police Chief John Mina expressed frustration over the fact that Loyd had not yet been captured, despite receiving more than 1,400 tips. Some of these tips led authorities to believe that Loyd had attempted to disguise himself by shaving his head. A digitally altered photo of Loyd without hair was released to aid in his identification. Loyd was described as weighing between 180 and 200 pounds and being over 6 feet tall, with a raised scar on his left hand.
Chief Mina emphasized that the search for Loyd would continue relentlessly. "We just need that right piece of information to bring him in," Mina said. Authorities warned the public not to approach Loyd, as he was considered armed and dangerous.
### Capture and arrest
On January 17, 2017, Markeith Loyd was captured and arrested by Orlando police. He was found in an abandoned house on 1157 Lescot Lane in Carver Shores. Loyd emerged from the house wearing body armor and armed with two guns, one of which had a 100\-round capacity. He initially tried to escape through the back of the house but eventually surrendered at the front door, dropping his firearms.{{cite web\|title\=Manhunt ends: Markeith Loyd taken from ORMC to jail\|url\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2017/01/19/manhunt\-ends\-markeith\-loyd\-taken\-from\-ormc\-to\-jail/\|publisher\=Click Orlando\|date\=2017\-01\-19\|accessdate\=2023\-09\-19}}
Helicopter footage showed Loyd crawling on his stomach toward police officers surrounding the residence. During the arrest, one officer appeared to kick Loyd, who was lying flat on his stomach. Police Chief John Mina held a news conference to address the content of the video and provide further details on Loyd's arrest. Mina stated that officers were concerned Loyd may have been hiding something in his body armor. A large bag of ammunition was found underneath Loyd when he was apprehended.{{cite web\|title\=Police investigating use of force in Markeith Loyd arrest\|url\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2017/01/20/police\-investigating\-use\-of\-force\-in\-markeith\-loyd\-arrest/\|publisher\=Click Orlando\|date\=2017\-01\-20\|accessdate\=2023\-09\-19}}
Loyd did not comply with officers' demands to put his hands behind his back, leading to the use of force. Mina stood behind the actions of the arresting officers and stated that an investigation into the use of force would be conducted. All officers involved in the arrest remained on duty.
Orlando Police Chief John Mina announced that Loyd was arrested using the handcuffs of Lt. Debra Clayton, the officer he is accused of killing. This act was described as a long\-standing tradition in law enforcement to honor fallen officers.
Loyd was taken to Orlando Regional Medical Center for treatment of minor facial injuries before being transferred to Orange County Jail. No law enforcement officers were injured during his capture.
During his first court appearance, Loyd appeared with a bandage over his left eye, abrasions, and swelling on his face. He claimed that his eye was taken, his nose and jaw were broken, and accused the police of excessive force. Mina, however, described Loyd's injuries as minor and stated that more charges would be filed no later than Monday in relation to Clayton's death.
Orange County Sheriff Jerry Demings announced that Loyd would be charged with two counts of first\-degree murder with a firearm, two counts of aggravated assault with a firearm, and one count of attempted murder. Additional charges were expected.
Despite a $125,000 reward offered for information leading to Loyd's arrest, sources indicated that no one would be rewarded the Crimeline money, as the arrest was due to law enforcement investigative tactics.
Orange County Commissioner Regina Hill expressed gratitude to the various levels of law enforcement involved in Loyd's capture, stating she is "forever grateful for them bringing this cold\-blooded killer to justice."
|
[
"Timeline\n--------",
"### Murder of Sade Dixon",
"On the night of December 13, 2016, 24\\-year\\-old Sade Dixon, a [pregnant](/wiki/Pregnancy \"Pregnancy\") mother of two children aged 2 and 8, was shot and killed at her home in the [Pine Hills](/wiki/Pine_Hills%2C_Florida \"Pine Hills, Florida\") area of Orange County. Dixon was three months pregnant at the time of her death. Markeith, Dixon's 41\\-year\\-old ex\\-boyfriend, was identified as the suspect and was considered armed and dangerous.{{cite web\\|title\\=Ex\\-boyfriend named as suspect in pregnant woman's killing\\|url\\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2019/10/08/ex\\-boyfriend\\-named\\-as\\-suspect\\-in\\-pregnant\\-womans\\-killing/\\|publisher\\=Click Orlando\\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-08\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-09\\-19}}",
"According to the Orange County Sheriff's Office, Loyd arrived at Dixon's home around 9:15 p.m. and knocked on the door. When Dixon opened the door, Loyd shot her eight times.{{Cite web \\|title\\= \\|url\\=https://www.bradenton.com/news/local/crime/article152065847\\.html}} Witnesses reported hearing around 10 gunshots. Dixon's 26\\-year\\-old brother, Ronald Steward, heard the commotion and attempted to intervene, only to be shot by Loyd as well. Steward was taken to [Orlando Regional Medical Center](/wiki/Orlando_Regional_Medical_Center \"Orlando Regional Medical Center\") in critical condition but was expected to make a full recovery.",
"Dixon's parents, Stephanie Dixon\\-Daniels and Ron Dixon, held a news conference urging the shooter to turn himself in. They described their daughter as a \"phenomenal woman\" who was hard\\-working, dedicated, unique, and strong\\-minded. The family also called for an end to the violence, stating that retaliation would not bring their daughter back.",
"### Encounter and murder of Lt. Debra Clayton",
"On the morning of January 9, 2017, around 7:15 a.m., Lt. Debra Clayton was leaving a Walmart on John Young Parkway when a woman informed her that Markeith Loyd, who was wanted for the murder of his pregnant ex\\-girlfriend Sade Dixon, was in line at the store. Loyd was dressed in camouflage pants, black shoes, and a black shirt with the word \"Security\" printed on it. He was also wearing a bulletproof vest similar to those used by the Orlando Police Department.{{cite web\\|title\\=Police: Markeith Loyd used same gun to kill ex\\-girlfriend, Orlando officer\\|url\\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2019/10/08/police\\-markeith\\-loyd\\-used\\-same\\-gun\\-to\\-kill\\-ex\\-girlfriend\\-orlando\\-officer/\\|publisher\\=Click Orlando\\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-08\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-09\\-19}}",
"According to police reports, Clayton pursued Loyd, who drew his gun and fired three rounds at her as she turned to run toward the parking lot. One bullet struck Clayton in her right hip, causing her to fall and hit her face on the pavement. While on the ground, Clayton fired seven shots at Loyd, who circled around her and fired multiple rounds. Clayton was struck four times: once in the hip, another bullet shattered her hipbone, one in the thigh, and the fatal shot went through her neck and lodged in her shoulder. The Medical Examiner's Office determined that the fatal shot was fired while Loyd stood over Clayton.",
"Three officers attempted CPR on Clayton until paramedics arrived and took her to Orlando Regional Medical Center, where she was pronounced dead at 7:40 a.m. Both Clayton and Loyd fired their weapons eight times during the exchange. Loyd used the same gun that he had used to kill Sade Dixon.",
"After the shooting, Loyd fled the scene in a dark green Mercury. He later fired shots at a deputy in an unmarked car and carjacked a 2013 Volkswagen Passat at gunpoint. The car was later found abandoned at Brookside Apartments with Loyd's clothes inside. A hole in his shirt indicated that he had been shot in the chest, but his bulletproof vest prevented any injury.",
"### Death of Deputy First Class Norman Lewis",
"On January 9, 2017, during the extensive manhunt for Markeith Loyd, Orange County Sheriff's Office Deputy First Class Norman Lewis was killed in a traffic accident. Lewis, 35, was a University of Central Florida alumnus and former football player for the UCF Knights. He was riding a motorcycle when a Honda van, driven by 78\\-year\\-old Billie Jarrard, collided with him at 9:43 a.m. on Pine Hills Road.{{cite web\\|title\\=Deputy killed in crash during manhunt was ex\\-UCF football player\\|url\\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2017/01/10/deputy\\-killed\\-in\\-crash\\-during\\-manhunt\\-was\\-ex\\-ucf\\-football\\-player/\\|publisher\\=Click Orlando\\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-10\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-09\\-19}}",
"Lewis was thrown from his 2014 Harley\\-Davidson motorcycle and was taken to Orlando Regional Medical Center in critical condition. He was pronounced dead shortly before 11 a.m. Orange County Sheriff Jerry Demings described Lewis as a \"gentle giant\" who was \"very well known\" and \"very well liked.\" Demings also stated that Lewis was working \"in concert\" with the efforts to locate Loyd.",
"Billie Jarrard was later given a one thousand dollar fine and a six month driver's license suspension.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-05 \\|title\\=Man receives $1K fine, 6\\-month license suspension in crash that killed deputy \\|url\\=https://www.wftv.com/news/local/80\\-year\\-old\\-fights\\-164\\-ticket\\-from\\-crash\\-that\\-killed\\-orange\\-co\\-deputy/763130151/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-05 \\|website\\=WFTV \\|language\\=en}}",
"### National attention and ongoing efforts",
"On January 17, 2017, Markeith Loyd was added to the U.S. Marshals Service list of the top 15 most wanted individuals in the nation. The U.S. Marshals Service also added $25,000 to the existing $100,000 reward for information leading to Loyd's arrest.{{cite web\\|title\\=Suspected police killer added to U.S. Marshals Service most wanted list\\|url\\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2019/10/08/suspected\\-police\\-killer\\-added\\-to\\-us\\-marshals\\-service\\-most\\-wanted\\-list/\\|publisher\\=Click Orlando\\|date\\=2019\\-10\\-08\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-09\\-19}}",
"Orlando Police Chief John Mina expressed frustration over the fact that Loyd had not yet been captured, despite receiving more than 1,400 tips. Some of these tips led authorities to believe that Loyd had attempted to disguise himself by shaving his head. A digitally altered photo of Loyd without hair was released to aid in his identification. Loyd was described as weighing between 180 and 200 pounds and being over 6 feet tall, with a raised scar on his left hand.",
"Chief Mina emphasized that the search for Loyd would continue relentlessly. \"We just need that right piece of information to bring him in,\" Mina said. Authorities warned the public not to approach Loyd, as he was considered armed and dangerous.",
"### Capture and arrest",
"On January 17, 2017, Markeith Loyd was captured and arrested by Orlando police. He was found in an abandoned house on 1157 Lescot Lane in Carver Shores. Loyd emerged from the house wearing body armor and armed with two guns, one of which had a 100\\-round capacity. He initially tried to escape through the back of the house but eventually surrendered at the front door, dropping his firearms.{{cite web\\|title\\=Manhunt ends: Markeith Loyd taken from ORMC to jail\\|url\\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2017/01/19/manhunt\\-ends\\-markeith\\-loyd\\-taken\\-from\\-ormc\\-to\\-jail/\\|publisher\\=Click Orlando\\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-19\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-09\\-19}}",
"Helicopter footage showed Loyd crawling on his stomach toward police officers surrounding the residence. During the arrest, one officer appeared to kick Loyd, who was lying flat on his stomach. Police Chief John Mina held a news conference to address the content of the video and provide further details on Loyd's arrest. Mina stated that officers were concerned Loyd may have been hiding something in his body armor. A large bag of ammunition was found underneath Loyd when he was apprehended.{{cite web\\|title\\=Police investigating use of force in Markeith Loyd arrest\\|url\\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2017/01/20/police\\-investigating\\-use\\-of\\-force\\-in\\-markeith\\-loyd\\-arrest/\\|publisher\\=Click Orlando\\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-20\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-09\\-19}}",
"Loyd did not comply with officers' demands to put his hands behind his back, leading to the use of force. Mina stood behind the actions of the arresting officers and stated that an investigation into the use of force would be conducted. All officers involved in the arrest remained on duty.\nOrlando Police Chief John Mina announced that Loyd was arrested using the handcuffs of Lt. Debra Clayton, the officer he is accused of killing. This act was described as a long\\-standing tradition in law enforcement to honor fallen officers.",
"Loyd was taken to Orlando Regional Medical Center for treatment of minor facial injuries before being transferred to Orange County Jail. No law enforcement officers were injured during his capture.",
"During his first court appearance, Loyd appeared with a bandage over his left eye, abrasions, and swelling on his face. He claimed that his eye was taken, his nose and jaw were broken, and accused the police of excessive force. Mina, however, described Loyd's injuries as minor and stated that more charges would be filed no later than Monday in relation to Clayton's death.",
"Orange County Sheriff Jerry Demings announced that Loyd would be charged with two counts of first\\-degree murder with a firearm, two counts of aggravated assault with a firearm, and one count of attempted murder. Additional charges were expected.",
"Despite a $125,000 reward offered for information leading to Loyd's arrest, sources indicated that no one would be rewarded the Crimeline money, as the arrest was due to law enforcement investigative tactics.",
"Orange County Commissioner Regina Hill expressed gratitude to the various levels of law enforcement involved in Loyd's capture, stating she is \"forever grateful for them bringing this cold\\-blooded killer to justice.\"",
""
] |
### Capture and arrest
On January 17, 2017, Markeith Loyd was captured and arrested by Orlando police. He was found in an abandoned house on 1157 Lescot Lane in Carver Shores. Loyd emerged from the house wearing body armor and armed with two guns, one of which had a 100\-round capacity. He initially tried to escape through the back of the house but eventually surrendered at the front door, dropping his firearms.{{cite web\|title\=Manhunt ends: Markeith Loyd taken from ORMC to jail\|url\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2017/01/19/manhunt\-ends\-markeith\-loyd\-taken\-from\-ormc\-to\-jail/\|publisher\=Click Orlando\|date\=2017\-01\-19\|accessdate\=2023\-09\-19}}
Helicopter footage showed Loyd crawling on his stomach toward police officers surrounding the residence. During the arrest, one officer appeared to kick Loyd, who was lying flat on his stomach. Police Chief John Mina held a news conference to address the content of the video and provide further details on Loyd's arrest. Mina stated that officers were concerned Loyd may have been hiding something in his body armor. A large bag of ammunition was found underneath Loyd when he was apprehended.{{cite web\|title\=Police investigating use of force in Markeith Loyd arrest\|url\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2017/01/20/police\-investigating\-use\-of\-force\-in\-markeith\-loyd\-arrest/\|publisher\=Click Orlando\|date\=2017\-01\-20\|accessdate\=2023\-09\-19}}
Loyd did not comply with officers' demands to put his hands behind his back, leading to the use of force. Mina stood behind the actions of the arresting officers and stated that an investigation into the use of force would be conducted. All officers involved in the arrest remained on duty.
Orlando Police Chief John Mina announced that Loyd was arrested using the handcuffs of Lt. Debra Clayton, the officer he is accused of killing. This act was described as a long\-standing tradition in law enforcement to honor fallen officers.
Loyd was taken to Orlando Regional Medical Center for treatment of minor facial injuries before being transferred to Orange County Jail. No law enforcement officers were injured during his capture.
During his first court appearance, Loyd appeared with a bandage over his left eye, abrasions, and swelling on his face. He claimed that his eye was taken, his nose and jaw were broken, and accused the police of excessive force. Mina, however, described Loyd's injuries as minor and stated that more charges would be filed no later than Monday in relation to Clayton's death.
Orange County Sheriff Jerry Demings announced that Loyd would be charged with two counts of first\-degree murder with a firearm, two counts of aggravated assault with a firearm, and one count of attempted murder. Additional charges were expected.
Despite a $125,000 reward offered for information leading to Loyd's arrest, sources indicated that no one would be rewarded the Crimeline money, as the arrest was due to law enforcement investigative tactics.
Orange County Commissioner Regina Hill expressed gratitude to the various levels of law enforcement involved in Loyd's capture, stating she is "forever grateful for them bringing this cold\-blooded killer to justice."
|
[
"### Capture and arrest",
"On January 17, 2017, Markeith Loyd was captured and arrested by Orlando police. He was found in an abandoned house on 1157 Lescot Lane in Carver Shores. Loyd emerged from the house wearing body armor and armed with two guns, one of which had a 100\\-round capacity. He initially tried to escape through the back of the house but eventually surrendered at the front door, dropping his firearms.{{cite web\\|title\\=Manhunt ends: Markeith Loyd taken from ORMC to jail\\|url\\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2017/01/19/manhunt\\-ends\\-markeith\\-loyd\\-taken\\-from\\-ormc\\-to\\-jail/\\|publisher\\=Click Orlando\\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-19\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-09\\-19}}",
"Helicopter footage showed Loyd crawling on his stomach toward police officers surrounding the residence. During the arrest, one officer appeared to kick Loyd, who was lying flat on his stomach. Police Chief John Mina held a news conference to address the content of the video and provide further details on Loyd's arrest. Mina stated that officers were concerned Loyd may have been hiding something in his body armor. A large bag of ammunition was found underneath Loyd when he was apprehended.{{cite web\\|title\\=Police investigating use of force in Markeith Loyd arrest\\|url\\=https://www.clickorlando.com/news/2017/01/20/police\\-investigating\\-use\\-of\\-force\\-in\\-markeith\\-loyd\\-arrest/\\|publisher\\=Click Orlando\\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-20\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-09\\-19}}",
"Loyd did not comply with officers' demands to put his hands behind his back, leading to the use of force. Mina stood behind the actions of the arresting officers and stated that an investigation into the use of force would be conducted. All officers involved in the arrest remained on duty.\nOrlando Police Chief John Mina announced that Loyd was arrested using the handcuffs of Lt. Debra Clayton, the officer he is accused of killing. This act was described as a long\\-standing tradition in law enforcement to honor fallen officers.",
"Loyd was taken to Orlando Regional Medical Center for treatment of minor facial injuries before being transferred to Orange County Jail. No law enforcement officers were injured during his capture.",
"During his first court appearance, Loyd appeared with a bandage over his left eye, abrasions, and swelling on his face. He claimed that his eye was taken, his nose and jaw were broken, and accused the police of excessive force. Mina, however, described Loyd's injuries as minor and stated that more charges would be filed no later than Monday in relation to Clayton's death.",
"Orange County Sheriff Jerry Demings announced that Loyd would be charged with two counts of first\\-degree murder with a firearm, two counts of aggravated assault with a firearm, and one count of attempted murder. Additional charges were expected.",
"Despite a $125,000 reward offered for information leading to Loyd's arrest, sources indicated that no one would be rewarded the Crimeline money, as the arrest was due to law enforcement investigative tactics.",
"Orange County Commissioner Regina Hill expressed gratitude to the various levels of law enforcement involved in Loyd's capture, stating she is \"forever grateful for them bringing this cold\\-blooded killer to justice.\"",
""
] |
Trial and death sentence
------------------------
Markeith Loyd was sentenced to death for the fatal shooting of Orlando Police Lt. Debra Clayton in January 2017\. A jury had found Loyd, aged 46, guilty in November and unanimously recommended a death sentence during a hearing in December. Circuit Judge Leticia Marques announced the sentence during a brief hearing.{{cite web\|title\=Markeith Loyd sentenced to death for 2017 murder of Officer Debra Clayton\|url\=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/markeith\-loyd\-death\-sentence\-2017\-murder\-officer\-debra\-clayton\-orlando\-police/\|publisher\=CBS News\|date\=March 3, 2022\|accessdate\=2023\-09\-19}}
Loyd was already serving a life sentence for the murder of his pregnant ex\-girlfriend, Sade Dixon, which occurred a month before Clayton's death.
During the trial, Loyd's mental health was a significant issue. He claimed to have acted in self\-defense and that he was insane at the time of the shooting. Clinical psychologists testified that Loyd suffered from delusional beliefs. Despite this, the judge ruled that he was competent to continue with the sentencing hearing.
The defense also argued that Loyd had suffered brain damage during his arrest, where he lost an eye. However, the officers involved were cleared of any wrongdoing.
Orlando Police Chief Orlando Rolón stated, "Although nothing can undo the heartache created by the defendant's heinous actions, we hope that this brings solace to our community, knowing a dangerous murderer will face the highest penalty provided by the law."
Loyd is currently housed at [Union Correctional Institution](/wiki/Union_Correctional_Institution "Union Correctional Institution").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/2022/03/14/markeith\-loyd\-hit\-orange\-jail\-officers\-after\-dispute\-over\-time\-outside\-cell\-records\-show/ \| title\=Markeith Loyd hit Orange jail officers after dispute over time outside cell, records show \| date\=March 14, 2022 }}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.wesh.com/article/markeith\-loyd\-appeal\-death\-sentence/43768140 \| title\=Convicted killer Markeith Loyd wants death sentence, conviction overturned \| date\=May 2, 2023 }}
### Florida Supreme Court hears death penalty appeal
On April 26, 2022, the Florida Supreme Court heard oral arguments for an appeal by Lloyd, who was sentenced to death in March 2022\. The appeal was heard in Tallahassee, where assistant public defender Nancy Ryan and state prosecutor Doris Meacham presented their arguments.{{cite web\|title\=Florida Supreme Court hears Markeith Loyd death penalty appeal\|url\=https://example.com/article\|publisher\=\|date\=April 26, 2022\|accessdate\=2023\-09\-19}}
Ryan argued that the state had misled the jury and made misstatements that should be considered "structural errors." She contended that the prosecutor minimized the role of jurors in Florida's capital sentencing process and misstated the law defining premeditation. Ryan also criticized the use of music played over photos of Lt. Debra Clayton as an attempt to elicit an emotional response from the jury.
Meacham countered that many of the defense's claims were taken out of context. She said the prosecutor did not tell the jurors they were obligated to come to a unanimous verdict but should "try their best" to do so. Meacham also argued that the prosecutor did not tell the jury to disregard Loyd's mental capacity but reminded them that a judge had rejected his insanity claim.
The justices did not conclude that the music had any effect on the jury's decision. Florida Supreme Court spokesperson Paul Flemming stated that there is no schedule for a final disposition and that the court would continue to deliberate on the case.
|
[
"Trial and death sentence\n------------------------",
"Markeith Loyd was sentenced to death for the fatal shooting of Orlando Police Lt. Debra Clayton in January 2017\\. A jury had found Loyd, aged 46, guilty in November and unanimously recommended a death sentence during a hearing in December. Circuit Judge Leticia Marques announced the sentence during a brief hearing.{{cite web\\|title\\=Markeith Loyd sentenced to death for 2017 murder of Officer Debra Clayton\\|url\\=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/markeith\\-loyd\\-death\\-sentence\\-2017\\-murder\\-officer\\-debra\\-clayton\\-orlando\\-police/\\|publisher\\=CBS News\\|date\\=March 3, 2022\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-09\\-19}}\nLoyd was already serving a life sentence for the murder of his pregnant ex\\-girlfriend, Sade Dixon, which occurred a month before Clayton's death.",
"During the trial, Loyd's mental health was a significant issue. He claimed to have acted in self\\-defense and that he was insane at the time of the shooting. Clinical psychologists testified that Loyd suffered from delusional beliefs. Despite this, the judge ruled that he was competent to continue with the sentencing hearing.",
"The defense also argued that Loyd had suffered brain damage during his arrest, where he lost an eye. However, the officers involved were cleared of any wrongdoing.",
"Orlando Police Chief Orlando Rolón stated, \"Although nothing can undo the heartache created by the defendant's heinous actions, we hope that this brings solace to our community, knowing a dangerous murderer will face the highest penalty provided by the law.\"",
"Loyd is currently housed at [Union Correctional Institution](/wiki/Union_Correctional_Institution \"Union Correctional Institution\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/2022/03/14/markeith\\-loyd\\-hit\\-orange\\-jail\\-officers\\-after\\-dispute\\-over\\-time\\-outside\\-cell\\-records\\-show/ \\| title\\=Markeith Loyd hit Orange jail officers after dispute over time outside cell, records show \\| date\\=March 14, 2022 }}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.wesh.com/article/markeith\\-loyd\\-appeal\\-death\\-sentence/43768140 \\| title\\=Convicted killer Markeith Loyd wants death sentence, conviction overturned \\| date\\=May 2, 2023 }}",
"### Florida Supreme Court hears death penalty appeal",
"On April 26, 2022, the Florida Supreme Court heard oral arguments for an appeal by Lloyd, who was sentenced to death in March 2022\\. The appeal was heard in Tallahassee, where assistant public defender Nancy Ryan and state prosecutor Doris Meacham presented their arguments.{{cite web\\|title\\=Florida Supreme Court hears Markeith Loyd death penalty appeal\\|url\\=https://example.com/article\\|publisher\\=\\|date\\=April 26, 2022\\|accessdate\\=2023\\-09\\-19}}",
"Ryan argued that the state had misled the jury and made misstatements that should be considered \"structural errors.\" She contended that the prosecutor minimized the role of jurors in Florida's capital sentencing process and misstated the law defining premeditation. Ryan also criticized the use of music played over photos of Lt. Debra Clayton as an attempt to elicit an emotional response from the jury.",
"Meacham countered that many of the defense's claims were taken out of context. She said the prosecutor did not tell the jurors they were obligated to come to a unanimous verdict but should \"try their best\" to do so. Meacham also argued that the prosecutor did not tell the jury to disregard Loyd's mental capacity but reminded them that a judge had rejected his insanity claim.",
"The justices did not conclude that the music had any effect on the jury's decision. Florida Supreme Court spokesperson Paul Flemming stated that there is no schedule for a final disposition and that the court would continue to deliberate on the case.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{main\|History of the Republic of Korea Navy}}
### Origins
{{Further\|Naval history of Korea}}
[thumb\|Early 15th century Korean turtle ship in an illustration dating to 1795Hawley, Samuel: *The Imjin War. Japan's Sixteenth\-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China*, The Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, Seoul 2005, {{ISBN\|89\-954424\-2\-5}}, p.198](/wiki/File:TurtleShip1415.jpg "TurtleShip1415.jpg")
[Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea") has a long [history of naval activity](/wiki/Naval_history_of_Korea "Naval history of Korea"). In the late 4th century during the [Three Kingdoms period](/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea "Three Kingdoms of Korea"), [Goguryeo](/wiki/Goguryeo "Goguryeo") defeated [Baekje](/wiki/Baekje "Baekje"), fielding amphibious forces of 40,000 men in the process. In 732, the [Balhae](/wiki/Balhae "Balhae") navy "attacked the [Shandong peninsula](/wiki/Shandong_peninsula "Shandong peninsula") and destroyed the biggest seaport of the [Tang Empire](/wiki/Tang_Empire "Tang Empire") in the east – [Dengzhou](/wiki/Penglai%2C_Shandong "Penglai, Shandong")."{{cite web \|last1\=Kim \|first1\=Alexander A \|title\=The problem of interpretation of war between the Tang Empire and Bohai in period 732\-735 \|url\=https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/33088184 \|website\=dash.harvard.edu \|publisher\=Annales d'Université Valahia Targoviste, Section d'Archeologie et d'Histoire \|access\-date\=15 March 2020}} In the 9th century, Commissioner [Jang Bogo](/wiki/Jang_Bogo "Jang Bogo") of [Unified Silla](/wiki/Unified_Silla "Unified Silla") established a maritime base called [Cheonghaejin](/wiki/Cheonghaejin "Cheonghaejin") on an island to foster trading with [China](/wiki/China "China") and [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), and to eradicate pirates.
In 1380, naval forces of the [Goryeo dynasty](/wiki/Goryeo_dynasty "Goryeo dynasty") defeated 500 invading Japanese pirate vessels by deploying shipboard guns, devised by [Ch'oe Mu\-sŏn](/wiki/Ch%27oe_Mu-s%C5%8Fn "Ch'oe Mu-sŏn"). This is reportedly the first use of shipboard guns in [naval history](/wiki/Naval_history "Naval history"). In 1389 and 1419, Korean naval forces invaded [Tsushima Island](/wiki/Tsushima_Island "Tsushima Island") to suppress Japanese piracy. In the early years of the [Joseon dynasty](/wiki/Joseon_dynasty "Joseon dynasty"), the naval force reached its peak of 50,000 personnel, in order to combat the ongoing piracy issue.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.navy.mil.kr/mbshome/mbs/navy/subview.do?id\=navy\_060401000000\|title\=역사속의 해군\|website\=www.navy.mil.kr\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706124604/http://www.navy.mil.kr/mbshome/mbs/navy/subview.do?id\=navy\_060401000000\|archive\-date\=2018\-07\-06\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-10}}
During the [Japanese invasions of Korea](/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea "Japanese invasions of Korea") (the Imjin War) in the 16th century, the [Korean naval force](/wiki/Joseon_Navy "Joseon Navy") commanded by Admiral [Yi Sun\-sin](/wiki/Yi_Sun-sin "Yi Sun-sin"), who later became the head of the navy, cut off the invaders' naval lifeline and defeated the Japanese fleet, reversing the war in favor of Joseon.["Korea's Legendary Admiral (PDF Format)"](http://www.barrystrauss.com/pdfs/yi-mhq.2.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201195941/http://www.barrystrauss.com/pdfs/yi\-mhq.2\.pdf \|date\=2007\-12\-01 }}. barrystrauss.com. Retrieved May 1, 2007\. Admiral Yi is also credited with the creation of the [Turtle Ship](/wiki/Turtle_Ship "Turtle Ship").
By the end of the 19th century, the Joseon navy had no significant naval force["The First US Naval Attaché to Korea"](https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no1/html_files/first_attache_5.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501022425/https://www.cia.gov/library/center\-for\-the\-study\-of\-intelligence/csi\-publications/csi\-studies/studies/vol49no1/html\_files/first\_attache\_5\.html \|date\=2017\-05\-01 }}. Central Intelligence Agency Official Website. Retrieved May 6, 2007\. other than coastal defense fortresses. In 1893, the Joseon court requested the [British Consul\-General](/wiki/Walter_Hillier "Walter Hillier") to dispatch a naval officer for organizing a naval school in an attempt to modernize the navy. In September 1893, the navy school was established in [Ganghwa Island](/wiki/Ganghwa_Island "Ganghwa Island"). [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant_%28navy%29 "Lieutenant (navy)") William H. Callwell, a retired British naval officer, and John W. Curtis, a gunnery instructor, served as instructors for 160 cadets and sailor recruits. However, the [Royal Naval Academy](/wiki/Korean_Imperial_Naval_Academy "Korean Imperial Naval Academy") was closed in November 1894, and the Joseon navy was brought to an end in 1895 due to the [First Sino\-Japanese War](/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War "First Sino-Japanese War") and the [Gabo Reform](/wiki/Gabo_Reform "Gabo Reform"). In 1903, the government of the [Korean Empire](/wiki/Korean_Empire "Korean Empire") purchased its first modern naval ship, [KIS *Yangmu*](/wiki/KIS_Yangmu "KIS Yangmu").{{cite book \|last1\=Kim \|first1\=Jae\-seung \|title\=A Hidden History of Royal Corean Navy (한국근대해군창설사) \|date\=2000 \|publisher\=Hye\-an \|location\=Seoul}} Korean naval tradition was disrupted after Korea was annexed by the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan "Empire of Japan") in 1910\. During [the Japanese occupation of Korea](/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule "Korea under Japanese rule"), the [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy "Imperial Japanese Navy") (IJN) built a considerable naval base – [Chinkai Guard District](/wiki/Chinkai_Guard_District "Chinkai Guard District") in southern Korea (at present\-day [Jinhae](/wiki/Jinhae "Jinhae")).
### Founding years and Korean War
[left\|thumb\|ROKS *Baekdusan* (PC 701\), the first warship of the ROK Navy, undergoing refitting at Hawaii in March 1950](/wiki/Image:Pak_Tu_San_%28PC-701%29.jpg "Pak Tu San (PC-701).jpg")
[right\|thumb\|A ROKN sailor places a S. Korean naval ensign on a torpedo boat, after its transfer by the U.S. in the midst of the Korean War.](/wiki/File:HN-SN-98-07198.JPEG "HN-SN-98-07198.JPEG")
The Republic of Korea Navy was established as the Marine Defense Group on November 11, 1945\. After Korea was liberated from the Empire of Japan on August 15, 1945, [Sohn Won\-yil](/wiki/Sohn_Won-yil "Sohn Won-yil"), a former merchant mariner and son of the [Methodist](/wiki/Methodism "Methodism") minister and independence activist Sohn Jung\-do,["손원일 중장"](http://ki.warmemo.co.kr:8101/warmemo/jsp/data/view.jsp?type=2&pkey=625HM00015) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011031809/http://ki.warmemo.co.kr:8101/warmemo/jsp/data/view.jsp?type\=2\&pkey\=625HM00015 \|date\=2007\-10\-11 }}. War Memorial Museum Official Website. Retrieved May 2, 2007\. organized the Marine Defense Group in [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul "Seoul"). The Group formed the Korean Coast Guard and Coast Guard Academy at Jinhae, and the Korean Coast Guard acquired 36 patrol boats (mainly ex\-[IJN](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy "Imperial Japanese Navy") and [USN](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") [minecraft](/wiki/Mine_warfare_vessel "Mine warfare vessel")) through the [United States Army Military Government in Korea](/wiki/United_States_Army_Military_Government_in_Korea "United States Army Military Government in Korea"). After the [South Korean government](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Korea "First Republic of Korea") was established on August 15, 1948, the Korean Coast Guard became the Republic of Korea Navy, and Sohn was appointed as the first [Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations_%28South_Korea%29 "Chief of Naval Operations (South Korea)") of the ROK Navy.["Commander, U.S. Naval Forces Korea: The Early Years (1945 to 1957\)"](http://www.cnfk.navy.mil/history.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228064459/http://www.cnfk.navy.mil/history.html \|date\=2008\-02\-28 }}. Commander U.S. Naval Forces Korea, U.S. Navy Official Website. Retrieved March 4, 2007\. On April 15, 1949, the [Republic of Korea Marine Corps](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Marine_Corps "Republic of Korea Marine Corps") (ROKMC) was founded at Jinhae.
In October 1949, the ROK Navy purchased a 600\-ton submarine chaser, the former {{USS\|PC\-823}} with funds raised among its personnel. She was renamed [ROKS *Baekdusan* (PC 701\)](/wiki/ROKS_Baekdusan_%28PC_701%29 "ROKS Baekdusan (PC 701)") after [Paektu Mountain](/wiki/Baekdu_Mountain "Baekdu Mountain"), and became "the first significant [warship](/wiki/Warship "Warship") of the newly independent nation".["Pak Tu San (Submarine Chaser \# PC\-701, 1950\-1960\)"](http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-fornv/rok/roksh-mr/paktusn.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205014303/http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh\-fornv/rok/roksh\-mr/paktusn.htm \|date\=2010\-12\-05 }} Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center official website. Retrieved March 4, 2007\.["한국해군50년사"](http://www.navy.go.kr/pds/navyhistory/history_2_1.jsp) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202182832/http://www.navy.go.kr/pds/navyhistory/history\_2\_1\.jsp \|date\=2008\-12\-02 }}. Republic of Korea Navy Official website. Retrieved March 4, 2007\.
The [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") started with the [North Korean army](/wiki/Korean_People%27s_Army "Korean People's Army")'s surprise attack on Sunday, June 25, 1950\. The ROK Navy confronted threats from the [North Korean navy](/wiki/North_Korean_Naval_Force "North Korean Naval Force"): "Perhaps the most aggressive and effective, if smallest, member of the South Korean armed services during the first year of the Korean War was the Republic of Korea Navy (ROKN). At the outset of the conflict, the 6,956\-man ROKN, with \[33]["6·25전쟁 발발 당일, 우리 해군의 함정 척수 및 병력"](http://www.navy.go.kr/servlet/Download?file=20031231192549453.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201200001/http://www.navy.go.kr/servlet/Download?file\=20031231192549453\.pdf \|date\=2007\-12\-01 }}. 해군 vol. 2003 9\-10\. Republic of Korea Navy. Retrieved October 21, 2007\. naval vessels of various types, was outnumbered by the 13,700 men and 110 naval vessels of the North Korean navy."["Republic of Korea Navy"](http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/korea/roknavy.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212230048/http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/korea/roknavy.htm \|date\=2007\-12\-12 }}. Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center Official Website. Retrieved September 25, 2007\. With its [UN](/wiki/UN "UN") allies, dominated by U.S. forces, the ROK Navy was able to gain control in the seas surrounding the country, as a task group of the UN Blockading and Escort Force (Task Force 95\). On July 27, 1953, the three\-year\-long war was brought to an end when an armistice agreement was signed. During the war, [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia"), [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia"), [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines"), [France](/wiki/France "France"), the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand "Thailand"), the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), and the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") contributed naval vessels as UN allies; [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") sent the hospital ship [*Jutlandia*](/wiki/MS_Jutlandia "MS Jutlandia").["Allied Forces in the Korean War"](http://korea50.army.mil/history/factsheets/allied.shtml) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716130959/http://korea50\.army.mil/history/factsheets/allied.shtml \|date\=2007\-07\-16 }}. Department of Defense – Korean War Commemoration Website. Retrieved September 25, 2007\. During the Korean War, the ROK Navy acquired 28 ex\-USN ships including five [*Tacoma*\-class](/wiki/Tacoma-class_frigate "Tacoma-class frigate") [frigates](/wiki/Frigate "Frigate").
In September 1953, the ROK Navy established the Republic of Korea Fleet, which was responsible for the operation and training of the ships.
### Building up the fleet
[thumb\|left\|Ex\-USN *Cannon*\-class destroyer escorts transferred to the ROK Navy at Boston in 1956](/wiki/File:1956%EB%85%84_%ED%98%B8%EC%9C%84_%EA%B5%AC%EC%B6%95%ED%95%A8_%EC%9D%B8%EC%88%98_%287438440952%29.jpg "1956년 호위 구축함 인수 (7438440952).jpg")
[thumb\|ROK Marines prepare defensive positions near [Tuy Hòa](/wiki/Tuy_H%C3%B2a "Tuy Hòa"), in S. Vietnam, {{circa\|1965}}.](/wiki/File:Korean_Marines_prepare_defensive_positions_near_Tuy_Hoa.jpg "Korean Marines prepare defensive positions near Tuy Hoa.jpg")
After the Korean War, the ROK Navy built up its surface fleet with [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II")\-era warships loaned from the [U.S. Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy"). From 1955 to 1960, the ROK Navy acquired 42 ex\-USN warships including two [*Cannon*\-class](/wiki/Cannon-class_destroyer_escort "Cannon-class destroyer escort") [destroyer escorts](/wiki/Destroyer_escort "Destroyer escort"). In May 1963, the ROK Navy acquired its first [destroyer](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer"), [ROKS *Chungmu* (DD 91\)](/wiki/USS_Erben_%28DD-631%29 "USS Erben (DD-631)"), a {{sclass\|Fletcher\|destroyer\|2}}. Starting from 1972, nine former USN {{sclass\|Allen M. Sumner\|destroyer\|0}} and {{sclass\|Gearing\|destroyer\|2}}s were transferred and added to the ROK Fleet inventory.
During the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"), the ROK Navy dispatched the Naval Transport Group ("Seagull"), and the [Republic of Korea Marine Corps](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Marine_Corps "Republic of Korea Marine Corps") sent the [2nd Marine Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Marine_Division_%28South_Korea%29 "2nd Marine Division (South Korea)") ("Blue Dragon") to [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam"). In April 1975, just before the [Fall of Saigon](/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon "Fall of Saigon"), two ROKN [LSTs](/wiki/Landing_Ship%2C_Tank "Landing Ship, Tank") evacuated about 1,300 South Vietnamese and South Koreans from South Vietnam to South Korea.{{Cite book\|title\=베트남전쟁과 한국해군작전 (Vietnam War and ROKN Operations)\|publisher\=ROK Navy HQ\|year\=2014\|location\=South Korea\|pages\=254}}
On July 30, 1960, ROKS *Gangwon* (DE 72\), formerly {{USS\|Sutton\|DE\-771}}, sank the North Korean navy patrol craft *PBS 371* off the coast of [Geojin](/wiki/Goseong_County%2C_Gangwon "Goseong County, Gangwon"). On January 19, 1967, [ROKS *Dangpo* (PCE 56\)](/wiki/ROKS_Dangpo_%28PCEC_56%29 "ROKS Dangpo (PCEC 56)"), the former USS *Marfa*, was sunk by North Korean [coastal artillery](/wiki/Coastal_artillery "Coastal artillery") north of the demarcation line off the east coast of Korea.["Marta"](http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/m5/marta.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026102811/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/m5/marta.htm \|date\=2007\-10\-26 }}. Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center Official Website. Retrieved April 30, 2007\. In June 1970, a Navy broadcast vessel (*I 2*) was captured and abducted by North Korean patrol craft in the vicinity of [Yeonpyeong Islands](/wiki/Yeonpyeongdo "Yeonpyeongdo") in the West Sea ([Yellow Sea](/wiki/Yellow_Sea "Yellow Sea")).["남북간의 해상전과 남한 방송선 피랍사건"](http://www.ceoi.org/8ceoi(text)/8ceoi(text21).htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031072835/http://www.ceoi.org/8ceoi%28text%29/8ceoi%28text21%29\.htm \|date\=2007\-10\-31 }}. www.ceoi.org by O Wonchol. Retrieved October 4, 2007\.
On February 22, 1974, a Navy harbor [tug](/wiki/Tugboat "Tugboat") (*YTL 30*) capsized off [Tongyeong](/wiki/Tongyeong "Tongyeong"), resulting in death of 153 Navy, [Coast Guard](/wiki/Korea_Coast_Guard "Korea Coast Guard") recruits and 6 sailors.
### Indigenous warship building
[left\|thumb\|ROKS *Gyeongbuk* (FF 956\), one of the Navy's first locally built *Ulsan*\-class frigates](/wiki/File:Port_view_of_ROK_ship_Kyong_Buk_%28FF_956%29_near_San_Diego%2C_CA.jpeg "Port view of ROK ship Kyong Buk (FF 956) near San Diego, CA.jpeg")
[thumb\|right\|ROKN seamen in the early 1980s; the lettering on their hats reads "Republic of Korea Navy" in Korean.](/wiki/File:South_Korean_sailors_1981.jpeg "South Korean sailors 1981.jpeg")
In the 1970s, through the [Park Chung Hee](/wiki/Park_Chung_Hee "Park Chung Hee") Administration's "*Yulgok* Operation", a secret effort to strengthen domestic arms production,{{Cite journal\|last\=Kwon\|first\=Peter Banseok\|date\=2017\|title\=Beyond Patron and Client: Historicizing the Dialectics of US\-ROK Relations amid Park Chung Hee's Independent Defense Industry Development in South Korea, 1968–1979\|url\=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/252/article/684524\|journal\=Seoul Journal of Korean Studies\|volume\=30\|issue\=2\|pages\=185–216\|doi\=10\.1353/seo.2017\.0009\|s2cid\=149149026 \|issn\=2331\-4826}} the ROK Navy began to establish a fleet of locally built warships. The Navy acquired shipbuilding capabilities by planning and building high\-speed patrol craft such as *Baekgu* class and [*Chamsuri* class](/wiki/Chamsuri-class_patrol_boat "Chamsuri-class patrol boat") in the 1970s – in November 1972, the ROK Navy launched its first domestically built fast patrol craft to intercept North Korean spy boats. The lead ship (FF 951\) of the 2,000\-ton [*Ulsan*\-class frigates](/wiki/Ulsan-class_frigate "Ulsan-class frigate") was launched in 1980\. The lead ship (PCC 751\) of the 1,000\-ton [*Donghae*\-class corvettes](/wiki/Donghae-class_corvette "Donghae-class corvette") and the lead ship (PCC 756\) of the updated [*Pohang*\-class corvettes](/wiki/Pohang-class_corvette "Pohang-class corvette") were launched in 1982 and 1984 respectively. With local shipbuilders, the ROK Navy continued to carry out other shipbuilding programs for such as the [*Dolgorae\-*class](/wiki/Dolgorae-class_submarine "Dolgorae-class submarine") [midget submarine](/wiki/Midget_submarine "Midget submarine"), [*Gojunbong\-*class](/wiki/Go_Jun_Bong-class_LST "Go Jun Bong-class LST") [tank landing ship](/wiki/Landing_Ship%2C_Tank "Landing Ship, Tank"), mine warfare ship ([*Wonsan\-*class minelayer](/wiki/Wonsan-class_minelayer "Wonsan-class minelayer"), *Ganggyeong\-*class [minesweeper](/wiki/Minesweeper "Minesweeper")), *Cheonji\-*class logistics support ship, and [*Cheonghaejin*\-class](/wiki/Cheonghaejin-class_submarine_rescue_ship "Cheonghaejin-class submarine rescue ship") [submarine rescue ship](/wiki/Submarine_rescue_ship "Submarine rescue ship") in the 1980s and 1990s.
In November 1987, the Headquarters Republic of Korea Marine Corps was re\-established; it was disbanded in October 1973 due to budget constraint.{{Cite web\|url\=https://news.joins.com/article/1357353\|title\=해병대 사령부의 해체\|date\=1973\-09\-17\|website\=\[\[JoongAng Ilbo]]\|language\=ko\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114153359/https://news.joins.com/article/1357353\|archive\-date\=2019\-01\-14\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-01\-14}} In June 1993, the ROK Navy Headquarters was relocated from [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul "Seoul") to the Gyeryongdae complex, the tri\-service headquarters in [Gyeryong](/wiki/Gyeryong "Gyeryong").{{Cite web\|url\=https://news.joins.com/article/2821066\|title\=해군본부 대방동시대 마감/33년만에... 육·공군과 함께 계룡대 합류\|date\=1993\-06\-17\|website\=\[\[JoongAng Ilbo]]\|language\=ko\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011803/https://news.joins.com/article/2821066\|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-12\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-10}}
### From a coastal navy to a green\-water navy
[left\|thumb\|ROKS *Lee Sunsin* (SS 068\), one of the Navy's first locally built *Jang Bogo*\-class submarines](/wiki/File:ROKS_Lee_Sunsin_%28SS_068%29_arrives_at_Naval_Station_Pearl_Harbor.jpg "ROKS Lee Sunsin (SS 068) arrives at Naval Station Pearl Harbor.jpg")
[right\|thumb\|The Navy's first locally built AEGIS destroyer, ROKS *Sejong the Great* (DDG 991\), in formation](/wiki/Image:2008%EB%85%849%EC%9B%9427%EC%9D%BC_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EC%84%B8%EC%A2%85%EB%8C%80%EC%99%95%ED%95%A8%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%99%282%29_%287193823222%29.jpg "2008년9월27일 해군 세종대왕함기동(2) (7193823222).jpg")
Since the 1990s, the ROK Navy has been trying to build an ocean\-going fleet to protect its [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication "Sea lines of communication"). In 1989, the Navy mentioned the "Strategic Task Fleet" (*Jeollyak\-gidong\-hamdae*) in the Joint Strategic Objectives Plan. The ROK Naval forces began to participate in [RIMPAC](/wiki/Exercise_RIMPAC "Exercise RIMPAC") exercises from 1990\. During Admiral An Pyong\-tae's tenure as [CNO](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations_%28South_Korea%29 "Chief of Naval Operations (South Korea)"), [President](/wiki/President_of_South_Korea "President of South Korea") [Kim Young\-sam](/wiki/Kim_Young-sam "Kim Young-sam") supported the Navy by approving a long\-term shipbuilding plan for the ocean\-going navy.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.sisajournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=81682\|title\=안병태 전 해군 참모총장 '분노의 전역사'\|date\=1997\-04\-17\|website\=\[\[Sisa Journal]]\|language\=ko\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-09}} In 1999, the Navy developed its strategic vision for the 2020s as "Navy Vision 2020" that outlined the Navy's future Task Fleet, which includes [light aircraft carriers](/wiki/Light_aircraft_carrier "Light aircraft carrier") and [ballistic missile submarines](/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine "Ballistic missile submarine").["21세기 통일한국의 大洋해군 전략"](http://donga.com/docs/magazine/new_donga/200007/nd2000070130.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174601/http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/new\_donga/200007/nd2000070130\.html \|date\=2016\-03\-03 }}. Donga.com. Retrieved March 8, 2007\.
At the same time, the ROK Navy steadily upgraded its naval forces: In order to strengthen the [surface combatants](/wiki/Surface_combatant "Surface combatant"), the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (DDH 971\) of the [*Kwanggaeto the Great*\-class destroyer](/wiki/Gwanggaeto_the_Great-class_destroyer "Gwanggaeto the Great-class destroyer") in 1996 to replace the former USN destroyers. For building up a [submarine](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine") force, the ROK Navy acquired its first submarine (other than midget submarines), [ROKS *Jang Bogo* (SS 061\)](/wiki/Type_209_submarine "Type 209 submarine"), from [Howaldtswerke\-Deutsche Werft](/wiki/Howaldtswerke-Deutsche_Werft "Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft") of Germany in 1992\. In order to replace its antiquated [S\-2 Tracker](/wiki/S-2_Tracker "S-2 Tracker") [anti\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") aircraft, the ROK Navy purchased a squadron of [P\-3C Orion](/wiki/P-3C_Orion "P-3C Orion") maritime patrol aircraft, which were delivered starting in 1995\.
In October 1998, the ROK Navy hosted its first international fleet review in commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Republic of Korea and its armed forces off of the coast of Busan and Jinhae.
In June 1999, the ROK and DPRK naval forces met in the [First Battle of Yeonpyeong](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Yeonpyeong "First Battle of Yeonpyeong") near the [Northern Limit Line](/wiki/Northern_Limit_Line "Northern Limit Line") (NLL) in the vicinity of [Yeonpyeong Islands](/wiki/Yeonpyeongdo "Yeonpyeongdo"). On June 29, 2002, the two navies [engaged again](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Yeonpyeong "Second Battle of Yeonpyeong") in the same vicinity, resulting in the sinking of ROKS *Chamsuri 357* (PKM 357\).
In 2002, the lead ship [(DDH 975\)](/wiki/ROKS_Chungmugong_Yi_Sunshin_%28DDH-975%29 "ROKS Chungmugong Yi Sunshin (DDH-975)") of the 4,800\-ton [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\-sin*\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer "Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer") destroyers was launched.{{cite book \|editor1\-last\=Saunders RN \|editor1\-first\=Commodore Stephen \|title\=Jane's Fighting Ships, 2003\-2004 \|date\=2003 \|publisher\=Jane's Information Group \|isbn\=978\-0710625465 \|page\=427 \|language\=en}} In 2005, an 18,800\-ton [amphibious transport dock](/wiki/Amphibious_transport_dock "Amphibious transport dock"), [ROKS *Dokdo*](/wiki/Dokdo_class_amphibious_assault_ship "Dokdo class amphibious assault ship") (LPH 6111\) was launched. In 2006, the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (SS 072\), which was named after the first Chief of Naval Operations, of the 1,800\-ton [*Sohn Wonyil*\-class](/wiki/Type_214_submarine "Type 214 submarine") submarine equipped with an [Air\-Independent Propulsion](/wiki/Air-Independent_Propulsion "Air-Independent Propulsion") (AIP) system. In May 2007, the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (DDG 991\) of the 11,000\-ton [*Sejong the Great*\-class](/wiki/King_Sejong_the_Great_class_destroyer "King Sejong the Great class destroyer") destroyers, built around the American\-made [AEGIS combat system](/wiki/AEGIS_combat_system "AEGIS combat system") and the [SPY\-1D(v)](/wiki/AN/SPY-1_radar "AN/SPY-1 radar") multi\-function phased array radar. In December 2008, the ROK Navy commissioned the [fast missile craft](/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel "Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel") ROKS *Yoon Youngha* (PKG 711\), which was named after the skipper of ROKS *Chamsuri 357*.
From 2001 to 2003, a naval transport unit called *Haeseong* supported [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom "Operation Enduring Freedom") and the [*Sangnoksu* Unit](/wiki/Sangnoksu_Unit "Sangnoksu Unit") in [East Timor](/wiki/East_Timor "East Timor"). In 2005, the Navy dispatched transport unit *Jejung* to supply aid in [humanitarian response](/wiki/Humanitarian_response "Humanitarian response") to the [2004 Indian Ocean earthquake](/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake "2004 Indian Ocean earthquake").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.newswire.co.kr/newsRead.php?no\=25643\|title\=해군 '제중부대', 구호 장비 및 물품 싣고 1월 14일 부산항 출항\|date\=2005\-01\-11\|language\=ko\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209232419/http://www.newswire.co.kr/newsRead.php?no\=25643\|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-09\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-09}} The ROK Navy hosted its second international fleet review off coast of Busan in October 2008 to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the South Korean government.
On March 26, 2010, [ROKS *Cheonan* (PCC 772\)](/wiki/ROKS_Cheonan_%28PCC-772%29 "ROKS Cheonan (PCC-772)"), a *Pohang*\-class [corvette](/wiki/Corvette "Corvette") [was sunk by a North Korean torpedo](/wiki/Baengnyeong_incident "Baengnyeong incident"), resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors near [Baengnyeong Island](/wiki/Baengnyeong_Island "Baengnyeong Island"), in the vicinity of the Northern Limit Line.{{cite news \|author\=Adam Brookes \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia\_pacific/10129703\.stm \|title\='North Korean torpedo' sank South's navy ship – report \|publisher\=\[\[BBC News]] \|date\=2010\-05\-20 \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530225440/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia\_pacific/10129703\.stm \|archive\-date\=2010\-05\-30 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/05/19/south.korea.ship/index.html?hpt\=T1 \|title\=North Korea denies sinking warship; South Korea vows strong response \|publisher\=CNN.com \|date\=May 20, 2010 \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523165831/http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/05/19/south.korea.ship/index.html?hpt\=T1 \|archive\-date\=2010\-05\-23 \|url\-status\=live }}
### From green water to blue water
[left\|thumb\|The *Cheonghae* unit of the multinational naval task force, [Combined Task Force 151](/wiki/Combined_Task_Force_151 "Combined Task Force 151")](/wiki/File:%EC%B2%AD%ED%95%B4%EB%B6%80%EB%8C%80_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_Activity_of_CheongHae_Unit_%287876689048%29.jpg "청해부대 Rep. of Korea Navy Activity of CheongHae Unit (7876689048).jpg")
[right\|thumb\|[ROK naval commandos](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy_Special_Warfare_Flotilla "Republic of Korea Navy Special Warfare Flotilla") in a mock assault. They rescued captured tanker's crew from Somali pirates in 2011\.](/wiki/File:2013.1.18._%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%ED%8A%B9%EC%88%98%EC%A0%84%EC%A0%84%EB%8B%A8_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_Underwater_Demolition_Team_%288400684032%29.jpg "2013.1.18. 해군 특수전전단 Rep. of Korea Navy Underwater Demolition Team (8400684032).jpg")
In preparation for an ocean\-going navy, the ROK Navy established a task force called Maritime Task Flotilla Seven in February 2010\.
Since 2009, a [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\-sin*\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer "Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer") destroyer from the task force is being deployed as the [Escort Task Group (*Cheonghae*)](/wiki/Cheonghae_Unit "Cheonghae Unit") in response to [piracy](/wiki/Piracy "Piracy") off the coast of [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"). On January 21, 2011, naval commandos of the task group carried out an [operation](/wiki/Operation_Dawn_of_Gulf_of_Aden "Operation Dawn of Gulf of Aden"), and succeeded in rescuing the crew of the hijacked [MV *Samho Jewelry*](/wiki/MV_Samho_Jewelry "MV Samho Jewelry").{{cite news\|title\=South Koreans pull off daring rescue of pirated ship\|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/01/21/south.korea.pirate.rescue/index.html?hpt\=T2\|access\-date\=21 January 2011\|newspaper\=\[\[CNN]]\|date\=21 January 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109050447/http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/01/21/south.korea.pirate.rescue/index.html?hpt\=T2\|archive\-date\=2012\-11\-09\|url\-status\=live}} As a humanitarian operation, the unit was dispatched to evacuate South Koreans and foreign nationals from war\-torn [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya") in 2011 and 2014\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh\_news/khan\_art\_view.html?art\_id\=201408172154375\|title\=리비아서 교민 449명 철수... 문무대왕함 파견 이송 완료\|date\=2014\-08\-17\|website\=\[\[Kyunghyang Shinmun]]\|language\=ko\|access\-date\=2019\-01\-14}}
The ROK Navy completed a new naval base called [Jeju Civilian\-Military Complex Port](/wiki/Jeju_Civilian-Military_Complex_Port "Jeju Civilian-Military Complex Port") in February 2016 on the southern coast of [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island "Jeju Island") to protect the [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication "Sea lines of communication").{{Cite web\|url\=http://jeju.news1\.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno\=1054\|title\=\[제주해군기지 준공] 대양해군 전초기지 역할 '톡톡'\|website\=jeju.news1\.kr\|date\=26 February 2016 \|language\=ko\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124111/http://jeju.news1\.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno\=1054\|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-09\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-08}} In order to support ocean\-going operations, the ROK Navy commissioned the 10,000\-ton logistics support ship, ROKS *Soyang* (AOE 51\), and launched the first locally designed 3,000\-ton submarine, *Dosan Ahn Changho* (SS 083\) in September 2018\.{{cite web\|title\=3천t급 잠수함 '도산안창호함' 진수식...2022년 1월 실전배치\|url\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2018/09/13/0200000000AKR20180913150000014\.HTML\|publisher\=\[\[Yonhap News Agency]] \|access\-date\=23 September 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914095254/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2018/09/13/0200000000AKR20180913150000014\.HTML\|archive\-date\=2018\-09\-14\|url\-status\=live\|date\=2018\-09\-13}}
The ROK Navy continued shipbuilding programs to upgrade its fleet with local shipbuilders. In order to replace the aging [*Pohang*\-class](/wiki/Pohang-class_corvette "Pohang-class corvette") corvettes and [*Ulsan*\-class](/wiki/Ulsan-class_frigate "Ulsan-class frigate") frigates, and to take over multi\-role operations such as coast patrol and anti\-submarine warfare, the ROK Navy commissioned six 2,300\-ton [*Incheon*\-class](/wiki/Incheon-class_frigate "Incheon-class frigate") frigates between 2013 and 2016, and the lead ship (FFG 818\) of the 2,800\-ton [*Daegu*\-class](/wiki/Daegu-class_frigate "Daegu-class frigate") frigates in March 2018\. Two ex\-USN *Edenton*\-class [salvage and rescue ships](/wiki/Salvage_and_rescue_ship "Salvage and rescue ship") were replaced with two locally built 3,500\-ton *Tongyeong*\-class ships between 2014 and 2016\. The Navy commissioned a 3,000\-ton [minelayer](/wiki/Minelayer "Minelayer"), ROKS *Nampo* (MLS 570\), in June 2017\. The lead ship of the [PKX\-B](/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel "Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel") fast rocket craft, ROKS *Chamsuri 211* (PKMR 211\), was commissioned in November 2017 to relieve the aging fleet of [*Chamsuri*\-class](/wiki/Chamsuri_class_patrol_vessel "Chamsuri class patrol vessel") patrol craft. The ROK Navy commissioned four 4,500\-ton [*Cheonwangbong*\-class](/wiki/Cheon_Wang_Bong-class_LST "Cheon Wang Bong-class LST") [dock landing ships](/wiki/Dock_landing_ship "Dock landing ship") between 2014 and 2018\. In May 2018, the Navy launched the *Marado* (LPH 6112\), which was the second ship of the [*Dokdo*\-class](/wiki/Dokdo-class_amphibious_assault_ship "Dokdo-class amphibious assault ship") [amphibious transport dock](/wiki/Amphibious_transport_dock "Amphibious transport dock"). In June 2018, the Navy launched a 4,500\-ton training ship, the *Hansando* (ATH 81\), which was also designed as a casualty receiving and treatment ship (CRTS).
In October 2018, the Navy hosted its third international fleet review off coast of [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island "Jeju Island").{{cite web\|title\=Republic of Korea Navy International Fleet Review 2018\|url\=http://ifr2018\.navy.mil.kr/eng/index.html\|publisher\=Republic of Korea Navy\|access\-date\=23 September 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923200538/http://ifr2018\.navy.mil.kr/eng/index.html\|archive\-date\=2018\-09\-23\|url\-status\=live}}
In 2019, the Navy updated its strategic vision for the 100th anniversary of the ROK Navy as "Navy Vision 2045". As part of the vision, Admiral Sim Seung\-seob, the Chief of Naval Operations proposed to build an [ICT](/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology "Information and communications technology")\-based, system\-driven "Smart Navy".{{Cite web\|url\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190207/1/BBSMSTR\_000000010324/view.do\|title\=4차 산업혁명 기반 스마트 해군 도약에 통찰력\|website\=국방일보\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-09\|archive\-date\=2019\-03\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325235158/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190207/1/BBSMSTR\_000000010324/view.do\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Aircraft carrier ambitions
Since the 1990s, the ROK Navy has been planning to acquire an aircraft carrier force as part of its commitment to become a blue\-water navy. The symbol of the ROK Navy that was introduced in 2000 depicts the Navy's aircraft carrier ambitions. In 2005 and 2018 the ROK Navy launched two 18,800\-ton *Dokdo*\-class amphibious ships (LPH), equipped with a full\-length flight deck and facilities for operating helicopters.
In August 2020, the [Ministry of National Defense](/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_%28South_Korea%29 "Ministry of National Defense (South Korea)") formally announced its intent to begin construction of a 30,000\-ton light aircraft carrier. It is expected to purchase [F\-35B](/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_F-35_Lightning_II "Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II") aircraft from the United States for the carrier.{{cite news \|last1\=Lendon \|first1\=Brad \|last2\=Seo \|first2\=Loonjung \|title\=South Korea is building its first aircraft carrier \|url\=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/12/asia/south\-korea\-aircraft\-carrier\-intl\-hnk\-scli/index.html \|access\-date\=12 August 2020 \|work\=CNN \|date\=12 August 2020}} It was authorized as the [CVX program](/wiki/CVX-class_aircraft_carrier "CVX-class aircraft carrier") in February 2021\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{main\\|History of the Republic of Korea Navy}}",
"### Origins",
"{{Further\\|Naval history of Korea}}",
"[thumb\\|Early 15th century Korean turtle ship in an illustration dating to 1795Hawley, Samuel: *The Imjin War. Japan's Sixteenth\\-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China*, The Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, Seoul 2005, {{ISBN\\|89\\-954424\\-2\\-5}}, p.198](/wiki/File:TurtleShip1415.jpg \"TurtleShip1415.jpg\")\n[Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\") has a long [history of naval activity](/wiki/Naval_history_of_Korea \"Naval history of Korea\"). In the late 4th century during the [Three Kingdoms period](/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea \"Three Kingdoms of Korea\"), [Goguryeo](/wiki/Goguryeo \"Goguryeo\") defeated [Baekje](/wiki/Baekje \"Baekje\"), fielding amphibious forces of 40,000 men in the process. In 732, the [Balhae](/wiki/Balhae \"Balhae\") navy \"attacked the [Shandong peninsula](/wiki/Shandong_peninsula \"Shandong peninsula\") and destroyed the biggest seaport of the [Tang Empire](/wiki/Tang_Empire \"Tang Empire\") in the east – [Dengzhou](/wiki/Penglai%2C_Shandong \"Penglai, Shandong\").\"{{cite web \\|last1\\=Kim \\|first1\\=Alexander A \\|title\\=The problem of interpretation of war between the Tang Empire and Bohai in period 732\\-735 \\|url\\=https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/33088184 \\|website\\=dash.harvard.edu \\|publisher\\=Annales d'Université Valahia Targoviste, Section d'Archeologie et d'Histoire \\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2020}} In the 9th century, Commissioner [Jang Bogo](/wiki/Jang_Bogo \"Jang Bogo\") of [Unified Silla](/wiki/Unified_Silla \"Unified Silla\") established a maritime base called [Cheonghaejin](/wiki/Cheonghaejin \"Cheonghaejin\") on an island to foster trading with [China](/wiki/China \"China\") and [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), and to eradicate pirates.",
"In 1380, naval forces of the [Goryeo dynasty](/wiki/Goryeo_dynasty \"Goryeo dynasty\") defeated 500 invading Japanese pirate vessels by deploying shipboard guns, devised by [Ch'oe Mu\\-sŏn](/wiki/Ch%27oe_Mu-s%C5%8Fn \"Ch'oe Mu-sŏn\"). This is reportedly the first use of shipboard guns in [naval history](/wiki/Naval_history \"Naval history\"). In 1389 and 1419, Korean naval forces invaded [Tsushima Island](/wiki/Tsushima_Island \"Tsushima Island\") to suppress Japanese piracy. In the early years of the [Joseon dynasty](/wiki/Joseon_dynasty \"Joseon dynasty\"), the naval force reached its peak of 50,000 personnel, in order to combat the ongoing piracy issue.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.navy.mil.kr/mbshome/mbs/navy/subview.do?id\\=navy\\_060401000000\\|title\\=역사속의 해군\\|website\\=www.navy.mil.kr\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706124604/http://www.navy.mil.kr/mbshome/mbs/navy/subview.do?id\\=navy\\_060401000000\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-06\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-10}}",
"During the [Japanese invasions of Korea](/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea \"Japanese invasions of Korea\") (the Imjin War) in the 16th century, the [Korean naval force](/wiki/Joseon_Navy \"Joseon Navy\") commanded by Admiral [Yi Sun\\-sin](/wiki/Yi_Sun-sin \"Yi Sun-sin\"), who later became the head of the navy, cut off the invaders' naval lifeline and defeated the Japanese fleet, reversing the war in favor of Joseon.[\"Korea's Legendary Admiral (PDF Format)\"](http://www.barrystrauss.com/pdfs/yi-mhq.2.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201195941/http://www.barrystrauss.com/pdfs/yi\\-mhq.2\\.pdf \\|date\\=2007\\-12\\-01 }}. barrystrauss.com. Retrieved May 1, 2007\\. Admiral Yi is also credited with the creation of the [Turtle Ship](/wiki/Turtle_Ship \"Turtle Ship\").",
"By the end of the 19th century, the Joseon navy had no significant naval force[\"The First US Naval Attaché to Korea\"](https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no1/html_files/first_attache_5.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501022425/https://www.cia.gov/library/center\\-for\\-the\\-study\\-of\\-intelligence/csi\\-publications/csi\\-studies/studies/vol49no1/html\\_files/first\\_attache\\_5\\.html \\|date\\=2017\\-05\\-01 }}. Central Intelligence Agency Official Website. Retrieved May 6, 2007\\. other than coastal defense fortresses. In 1893, the Joseon court requested the [British Consul\\-General](/wiki/Walter_Hillier \"Walter Hillier\") to dispatch a naval officer for organizing a naval school in an attempt to modernize the navy. In September 1893, the navy school was established in [Ganghwa Island](/wiki/Ganghwa_Island \"Ganghwa Island\"). [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant_%28navy%29 \"Lieutenant (navy)\") William H. Callwell, a retired British naval officer, and John W. Curtis, a gunnery instructor, served as instructors for 160 cadets and sailor recruits. However, the [Royal Naval Academy](/wiki/Korean_Imperial_Naval_Academy \"Korean Imperial Naval Academy\") was closed in November 1894, and the Joseon navy was brought to an end in 1895 due to the [First Sino\\-Japanese War](/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War \"First Sino-Japanese War\") and the [Gabo Reform](/wiki/Gabo_Reform \"Gabo Reform\"). In 1903, the government of the [Korean Empire](/wiki/Korean_Empire \"Korean Empire\") purchased its first modern naval ship, [KIS *Yangmu*](/wiki/KIS_Yangmu \"KIS Yangmu\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Kim \\|first1\\=Jae\\-seung \\|title\\=A Hidden History of Royal Corean Navy (한국근대해군창설사) \\|date\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=Hye\\-an \\|location\\=Seoul}} Korean naval tradition was disrupted after Korea was annexed by the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") in 1910\\. During [the Japanese occupation of Korea](/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule \"Korea under Japanese rule\"), the [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy \"Imperial Japanese Navy\") (IJN) built a considerable naval base – [Chinkai Guard District](/wiki/Chinkai_Guard_District \"Chinkai Guard District\") in southern Korea (at present\\-day [Jinhae](/wiki/Jinhae \"Jinhae\")).",
"### Founding years and Korean War",
"[left\\|thumb\\|ROKS *Baekdusan* (PC 701\\), the first warship of the ROK Navy, undergoing refitting at Hawaii in March 1950](/wiki/Image:Pak_Tu_San_%28PC-701%29.jpg \"Pak Tu San (PC-701).jpg\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|A ROKN sailor places a S. Korean naval ensign on a torpedo boat, after its transfer by the U.S. in the midst of the Korean War.](/wiki/File:HN-SN-98-07198.JPEG \"HN-SN-98-07198.JPEG\")\nThe Republic of Korea Navy was established as the Marine Defense Group on November 11, 1945\\. After Korea was liberated from the Empire of Japan on August 15, 1945, [Sohn Won\\-yil](/wiki/Sohn_Won-yil \"Sohn Won-yil\"), a former merchant mariner and son of the [Methodist](/wiki/Methodism \"Methodism\") minister and independence activist Sohn Jung\\-do,[\"손원일 중장\"](http://ki.warmemo.co.kr:8101/warmemo/jsp/data/view.jsp?type=2&pkey=625HM00015) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011031809/http://ki.warmemo.co.kr:8101/warmemo/jsp/data/view.jsp?type\\=2\\&pkey\\=625HM00015 \\|date\\=2007\\-10\\-11 }}. War Memorial Museum Official Website. Retrieved May 2, 2007\\. organized the Marine Defense Group in [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul \"Seoul\"). The Group formed the Korean Coast Guard and Coast Guard Academy at Jinhae, and the Korean Coast Guard acquired 36 patrol boats (mainly ex\\-[IJN](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy \"Imperial Japanese Navy\") and [USN](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") [minecraft](/wiki/Mine_warfare_vessel \"Mine warfare vessel\")) through the [United States Army Military Government in Korea](/wiki/United_States_Army_Military_Government_in_Korea \"United States Army Military Government in Korea\"). After the [South Korean government](/wiki/First_Republic_of_Korea \"First Republic of Korea\") was established on August 15, 1948, the Korean Coast Guard became the Republic of Korea Navy, and Sohn was appointed as the first [Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations_%28South_Korea%29 \"Chief of Naval Operations (South Korea)\") of the ROK Navy.[\"Commander, U.S. Naval Forces Korea: The Early Years (1945 to 1957\\)\"](http://www.cnfk.navy.mil/history.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228064459/http://www.cnfk.navy.mil/history.html \\|date\\=2008\\-02\\-28 }}. Commander U.S. Naval Forces Korea, U.S. Navy Official Website. Retrieved March 4, 2007\\. On April 15, 1949, the [Republic of Korea Marine Corps](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Marine_Corps \"Republic of Korea Marine Corps\") (ROKMC) was founded at Jinhae.",
"In October 1949, the ROK Navy purchased a 600\\-ton submarine chaser, the former {{USS\\|PC\\-823}} with funds raised among its personnel. She was renamed [ROKS *Baekdusan* (PC 701\\)](/wiki/ROKS_Baekdusan_%28PC_701%29 \"ROKS Baekdusan (PC 701)\") after [Paektu Mountain](/wiki/Baekdu_Mountain \"Baekdu Mountain\"), and became \"the first significant [warship](/wiki/Warship \"Warship\") of the newly independent nation\".[\"Pak Tu San (Submarine Chaser \\# PC\\-701, 1950\\-1960\\)\"](http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-fornv/rok/roksh-mr/paktusn.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205014303/http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh\\-fornv/rok/roksh\\-mr/paktusn.htm \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-05 }} Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center official website. Retrieved March 4, 2007\\.[\"한국해군50년사\"](http://www.navy.go.kr/pds/navyhistory/history_2_1.jsp) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202182832/http://www.navy.go.kr/pds/navyhistory/history\\_2\\_1\\.jsp \\|date\\=2008\\-12\\-02 }}. Republic of Korea Navy Official website. Retrieved March 4, 2007\\.",
"The [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") started with the [North Korean army](/wiki/Korean_People%27s_Army \"Korean People's Army\")'s surprise attack on Sunday, June 25, 1950\\. The ROK Navy confronted threats from the [North Korean navy](/wiki/North_Korean_Naval_Force \"North Korean Naval Force\"): \"Perhaps the most aggressive and effective, if smallest, member of the South Korean armed services during the first year of the Korean War was the Republic of Korea Navy (ROKN). At the outset of the conflict, the 6,956\\-man ROKN, with \\[33][\"6·25전쟁 발발 당일, 우리 해군의 함정 척수 및 병력\"](http://www.navy.go.kr/servlet/Download?file=20031231192549453.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201200001/http://www.navy.go.kr/servlet/Download?file\\=20031231192549453\\.pdf \\|date\\=2007\\-12\\-01 }}. 해군 vol. 2003 9\\-10\\. Republic of Korea Navy. Retrieved October 21, 2007\\. naval vessels of various types, was outnumbered by the 13,700 men and 110 naval vessels of the North Korean navy.\"[\"Republic of Korea Navy\"](http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/korea/roknavy.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212230048/http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/korea/roknavy.htm \\|date\\=2007\\-12\\-12 }}. Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center Official Website. Retrieved September 25, 2007\\. With its [UN](/wiki/UN \"UN\") allies, dominated by U.S. forces, the ROK Navy was able to gain control in the seas surrounding the country, as a task group of the UN Blockading and Escort Force (Task Force 95\\). On July 27, 1953, the three\\-year\\-long war was brought to an end when an armistice agreement was signed. During the war, [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\"), [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\"), [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\"), [France](/wiki/France \"France\"), the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\"), [Thailand](/wiki/Thailand \"Thailand\"), the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), and the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") contributed naval vessels as UN allies; [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") sent the hospital ship [*Jutlandia*](/wiki/MS_Jutlandia \"MS Jutlandia\").[\"Allied Forces in the Korean War\"](http://korea50.army.mil/history/factsheets/allied.shtml) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716130959/http://korea50\\.army.mil/history/factsheets/allied.shtml \\|date\\=2007\\-07\\-16 }}. Department of Defense – Korean War Commemoration Website. Retrieved September 25, 2007\\. During the Korean War, the ROK Navy acquired 28 ex\\-USN ships including five [*Tacoma*\\-class](/wiki/Tacoma-class_frigate \"Tacoma-class frigate\") [frigates](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\").",
"In September 1953, the ROK Navy established the Republic of Korea Fleet, which was responsible for the operation and training of the ships.",
"### Building up the fleet",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Ex\\-USN *Cannon*\\-class destroyer escorts transferred to the ROK Navy at Boston in 1956](/wiki/File:1956%EB%85%84_%ED%98%B8%EC%9C%84_%EA%B5%AC%EC%B6%95%ED%95%A8_%EC%9D%B8%EC%88%98_%287438440952%29.jpg \"1956년 호위 구축함 인수 (7438440952).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|ROK Marines prepare defensive positions near [Tuy Hòa](/wiki/Tuy_H%C3%B2a \"Tuy Hòa\"), in S. Vietnam, {{circa\\|1965}}.](/wiki/File:Korean_Marines_prepare_defensive_positions_near_Tuy_Hoa.jpg \"Korean Marines prepare defensive positions near Tuy Hoa.jpg\")",
"After the Korean War, the ROK Navy built up its surface fleet with [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\")\\-era warships loaned from the [U.S. Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\"). From 1955 to 1960, the ROK Navy acquired 42 ex\\-USN warships including two [*Cannon*\\-class](/wiki/Cannon-class_destroyer_escort \"Cannon-class destroyer escort\") [destroyer escorts](/wiki/Destroyer_escort \"Destroyer escort\"). In May 1963, the ROK Navy acquired its first [destroyer](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\"), [ROKS *Chungmu* (DD 91\\)](/wiki/USS_Erben_%28DD-631%29 \"USS Erben (DD-631)\"), a {{sclass\\|Fletcher\\|destroyer\\|2}}. Starting from 1972, nine former USN {{sclass\\|Allen M. Sumner\\|destroyer\\|0}} and {{sclass\\|Gearing\\|destroyer\\|2}}s were transferred and added to the ROK Fleet inventory.",
"During the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"), the ROK Navy dispatched the Naval Transport Group (\"Seagull\"), and the [Republic of Korea Marine Corps](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Marine_Corps \"Republic of Korea Marine Corps\") sent the [2nd Marine Brigade](/wiki/2nd_Marine_Division_%28South_Korea%29 \"2nd Marine Division (South Korea)\") (\"Blue Dragon\") to [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\"). In April 1975, just before the [Fall of Saigon](/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon \"Fall of Saigon\"), two ROKN [LSTs](/wiki/Landing_Ship%2C_Tank \"Landing Ship, Tank\") evacuated about 1,300 South Vietnamese and South Koreans from South Vietnam to South Korea.{{Cite book\\|title\\=베트남전쟁과 한국해군작전 (Vietnam War and ROKN Operations)\\|publisher\\=ROK Navy HQ\\|year\\=2014\\|location\\=South Korea\\|pages\\=254}}",
"On July 30, 1960, ROKS *Gangwon* (DE 72\\), formerly {{USS\\|Sutton\\|DE\\-771}}, sank the North Korean navy patrol craft *PBS 371* off the coast of [Geojin](/wiki/Goseong_County%2C_Gangwon \"Goseong County, Gangwon\"). On January 19, 1967, [ROKS *Dangpo* (PCE 56\\)](/wiki/ROKS_Dangpo_%28PCEC_56%29 \"ROKS Dangpo (PCEC 56)\"), the former USS *Marfa*, was sunk by North Korean [coastal artillery](/wiki/Coastal_artillery \"Coastal artillery\") north of the demarcation line off the east coast of Korea.[\"Marta\"](http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/m5/marta.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026102811/http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/m5/marta.htm \\|date\\=2007\\-10\\-26 }}. Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center Official Website. Retrieved April 30, 2007\\. In June 1970, a Navy broadcast vessel (*I 2*) was captured and abducted by North Korean patrol craft in the vicinity of [Yeonpyeong Islands](/wiki/Yeonpyeongdo \"Yeonpyeongdo\") in the West Sea ([Yellow Sea](/wiki/Yellow_Sea \"Yellow Sea\")).[\"남북간의 해상전과 남한 방송선 피랍사건\"](http://www.ceoi.org/8ceoi(text)/8ceoi(text21).htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031072835/http://www.ceoi.org/8ceoi%28text%29/8ceoi%28text21%29\\.htm \\|date\\=2007\\-10\\-31 }}. www.ceoi.org by O Wonchol. Retrieved October 4, 2007\\.",
"On February 22, 1974, a Navy harbor [tug](/wiki/Tugboat \"Tugboat\") (*YTL 30*) capsized off [Tongyeong](/wiki/Tongyeong \"Tongyeong\"), resulting in death of 153 Navy, [Coast Guard](/wiki/Korea_Coast_Guard \"Korea Coast Guard\") recruits and 6 sailors.",
"### Indigenous warship building",
"[left\\|thumb\\|ROKS *Gyeongbuk* (FF 956\\), one of the Navy's first locally built *Ulsan*\\-class frigates](/wiki/File:Port_view_of_ROK_ship_Kyong_Buk_%28FF_956%29_near_San_Diego%2C_CA.jpeg \"Port view of ROK ship Kyong Buk (FF 956) near San Diego, CA.jpeg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|ROKN seamen in the early 1980s; the lettering on their hats reads \"Republic of Korea Navy\" in Korean.](/wiki/File:South_Korean_sailors_1981.jpeg \"South Korean sailors 1981.jpeg\")\nIn the 1970s, through the [Park Chung Hee](/wiki/Park_Chung_Hee \"Park Chung Hee\") Administration's \"*Yulgok* Operation\", a secret effort to strengthen domestic arms production,{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Kwon\\|first\\=Peter Banseok\\|date\\=2017\\|title\\=Beyond Patron and Client: Historicizing the Dialectics of US\\-ROK Relations amid Park Chung Hee's Independent Defense Industry Development in South Korea, 1968–1979\\|url\\=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/252/article/684524\\|journal\\=Seoul Journal of Korean Studies\\|volume\\=30\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=185–216\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/seo.2017\\.0009\\|s2cid\\=149149026 \\|issn\\=2331\\-4826}} the ROK Navy began to establish a fleet of locally built warships. The Navy acquired shipbuilding capabilities by planning and building high\\-speed patrol craft such as *Baekgu* class and [*Chamsuri* class](/wiki/Chamsuri-class_patrol_boat \"Chamsuri-class patrol boat\") in the 1970s – in November 1972, the ROK Navy launched its first domestically built fast patrol craft to intercept North Korean spy boats. The lead ship (FF 951\\) of the 2,000\\-ton [*Ulsan*\\-class frigates](/wiki/Ulsan-class_frigate \"Ulsan-class frigate\") was launched in 1980\\. The lead ship (PCC 751\\) of the 1,000\\-ton [*Donghae*\\-class corvettes](/wiki/Donghae-class_corvette \"Donghae-class corvette\") and the lead ship (PCC 756\\) of the updated [*Pohang*\\-class corvettes](/wiki/Pohang-class_corvette \"Pohang-class corvette\") were launched in 1982 and 1984 respectively. With local shipbuilders, the ROK Navy continued to carry out other shipbuilding programs for such as the [*Dolgorae\\-*class](/wiki/Dolgorae-class_submarine \"Dolgorae-class submarine\") [midget submarine](/wiki/Midget_submarine \"Midget submarine\"), [*Gojunbong\\-*class](/wiki/Go_Jun_Bong-class_LST \"Go Jun Bong-class LST\") [tank landing ship](/wiki/Landing_Ship%2C_Tank \"Landing Ship, Tank\"), mine warfare ship ([*Wonsan\\-*class minelayer](/wiki/Wonsan-class_minelayer \"Wonsan-class minelayer\"), *Ganggyeong\\-*class [minesweeper](/wiki/Minesweeper \"Minesweeper\")), *Cheonji\\-*class logistics support ship, and [*Cheonghaejin*\\-class](/wiki/Cheonghaejin-class_submarine_rescue_ship \"Cheonghaejin-class submarine rescue ship\") [submarine rescue ship](/wiki/Submarine_rescue_ship \"Submarine rescue ship\") in the 1980s and 1990s.",
"In November 1987, the Headquarters Republic of Korea Marine Corps was re\\-established; it was disbanded in October 1973 due to budget constraint.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://news.joins.com/article/1357353\\|title\\=해병대 사령부의 해체\\|date\\=1973\\-09\\-17\\|website\\=\\[\\[JoongAng Ilbo]]\\|language\\=ko\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114153359/https://news.joins.com/article/1357353\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-14\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-14}} In June 1993, the ROK Navy Headquarters was relocated from [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul \"Seoul\") to the Gyeryongdae complex, the tri\\-service headquarters in [Gyeryong](/wiki/Gyeryong \"Gyeryong\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://news.joins.com/article/2821066\\|title\\=해군본부 대방동시대 마감/33년만에... 육·공군과 함께 계룡대 합류\\|date\\=1993\\-06\\-17\\|website\\=\\[\\[JoongAng Ilbo]]\\|language\\=ko\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011803/https://news.joins.com/article/2821066\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-12\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-10}}",
"### From a coastal navy to a green\\-water navy",
"[left\\|thumb\\|ROKS *Lee Sunsin* (SS 068\\), one of the Navy's first locally built *Jang Bogo*\\-class submarines](/wiki/File:ROKS_Lee_Sunsin_%28SS_068%29_arrives_at_Naval_Station_Pearl_Harbor.jpg \"ROKS Lee Sunsin (SS 068) arrives at Naval Station Pearl Harbor.jpg\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|The Navy's first locally built AEGIS destroyer, ROKS *Sejong the Great* (DDG 991\\), in formation](/wiki/Image:2008%EB%85%849%EC%9B%9427%EC%9D%BC_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EC%84%B8%EC%A2%85%EB%8C%80%EC%99%95%ED%95%A8%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%99%282%29_%287193823222%29.jpg \"2008년9월27일 해군 세종대왕함기동(2) (7193823222).jpg\")",
"Since the 1990s, the ROK Navy has been trying to build an ocean\\-going fleet to protect its [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication \"Sea lines of communication\"). In 1989, the Navy mentioned the \"Strategic Task Fleet\" (*Jeollyak\\-gidong\\-hamdae*) in the Joint Strategic Objectives Plan. The ROK Naval forces began to participate in [RIMPAC](/wiki/Exercise_RIMPAC \"Exercise RIMPAC\") exercises from 1990\\. During Admiral An Pyong\\-tae's tenure as [CNO](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations_%28South_Korea%29 \"Chief of Naval Operations (South Korea)\"), [President](/wiki/President_of_South_Korea \"President of South Korea\") [Kim Young\\-sam](/wiki/Kim_Young-sam \"Kim Young-sam\") supported the Navy by approving a long\\-term shipbuilding plan for the ocean\\-going navy.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sisajournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=81682\\|title\\=안병태 전 해군 참모총장 '분노의 전역사'\\|date\\=1997\\-04\\-17\\|website\\=\\[\\[Sisa Journal]]\\|language\\=ko\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-09}} In 1999, the Navy developed its strategic vision for the 2020s as \"Navy Vision 2020\" that outlined the Navy's future Task Fleet, which includes [light aircraft carriers](/wiki/Light_aircraft_carrier \"Light aircraft carrier\") and [ballistic missile submarines](/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine \"Ballistic missile submarine\").[\"21세기 통일한국의 大洋해군 전략\"](http://donga.com/docs/magazine/new_donga/200007/nd2000070130.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174601/http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/new\\_donga/200007/nd2000070130\\.html \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-03 }}. Donga.com. Retrieved March 8, 2007\\.",
"At the same time, the ROK Navy steadily upgraded its naval forces: In order to strengthen the [surface combatants](/wiki/Surface_combatant \"Surface combatant\"), the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (DDH 971\\) of the [*Kwanggaeto the Great*\\-class destroyer](/wiki/Gwanggaeto_the_Great-class_destroyer \"Gwanggaeto the Great-class destroyer\") in 1996 to replace the former USN destroyers. For building up a [submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") force, the ROK Navy acquired its first submarine (other than midget submarines), [ROKS *Jang Bogo* (SS 061\\)](/wiki/Type_209_submarine \"Type 209 submarine\"), from [Howaldtswerke\\-Deutsche Werft](/wiki/Howaldtswerke-Deutsche_Werft \"Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft\") of Germany in 1992\\. In order to replace its antiquated [S\\-2 Tracker](/wiki/S-2_Tracker \"S-2 Tracker\") [anti\\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") aircraft, the ROK Navy purchased a squadron of [P\\-3C Orion](/wiki/P-3C_Orion \"P-3C Orion\") maritime patrol aircraft, which were delivered starting in 1995\\.",
"In October 1998, the ROK Navy hosted its first international fleet review in commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Republic of Korea and its armed forces off of the coast of Busan and Jinhae.",
"In June 1999, the ROK and DPRK naval forces met in the [First Battle of Yeonpyeong](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Yeonpyeong \"First Battle of Yeonpyeong\") near the [Northern Limit Line](/wiki/Northern_Limit_Line \"Northern Limit Line\") (NLL) in the vicinity of [Yeonpyeong Islands](/wiki/Yeonpyeongdo \"Yeonpyeongdo\"). On June 29, 2002, the two navies [engaged again](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Yeonpyeong \"Second Battle of Yeonpyeong\") in the same vicinity, resulting in the sinking of ROKS *Chamsuri 357* (PKM 357\\).",
"In 2002, the lead ship [(DDH 975\\)](/wiki/ROKS_Chungmugong_Yi_Sunshin_%28DDH-975%29 \"ROKS Chungmugong Yi Sunshin (DDH-975)\") of the 4,800\\-ton [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\\-sin*\\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer \"Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer\") destroyers was launched.{{cite book \\|editor1\\-last\\=Saunders RN \\|editor1\\-first\\=Commodore Stephen \\|title\\=Jane's Fighting Ships, 2003\\-2004 \\|date\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Jane's Information Group \\|isbn\\=978\\-0710625465 \\|page\\=427 \\|language\\=en}} In 2005, an 18,800\\-ton [amphibious transport dock](/wiki/Amphibious_transport_dock \"Amphibious transport dock\"), [ROKS *Dokdo*](/wiki/Dokdo_class_amphibious_assault_ship \"Dokdo class amphibious assault ship\") (LPH 6111\\) was launched. In 2006, the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (SS 072\\), which was named after the first Chief of Naval Operations, of the 1,800\\-ton [*Sohn Wonyil*\\-class](/wiki/Type_214_submarine \"Type 214 submarine\") submarine equipped with an [Air\\-Independent Propulsion](/wiki/Air-Independent_Propulsion \"Air-Independent Propulsion\") (AIP) system. In May 2007, the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (DDG 991\\) of the 11,000\\-ton [*Sejong the Great*\\-class](/wiki/King_Sejong_the_Great_class_destroyer \"King Sejong the Great class destroyer\") destroyers, built around the American\\-made [AEGIS combat system](/wiki/AEGIS_combat_system \"AEGIS combat system\") and the [SPY\\-1D(v)](/wiki/AN/SPY-1_radar \"AN/SPY-1 radar\") multi\\-function phased array radar. In December 2008, the ROK Navy commissioned the [fast missile craft](/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel \"Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel\") ROKS *Yoon Youngha* (PKG 711\\), which was named after the skipper of ROKS *Chamsuri 357*.",
"From 2001 to 2003, a naval transport unit called *Haeseong* supported [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom \"Operation Enduring Freedom\") and the [*Sangnoksu* Unit](/wiki/Sangnoksu_Unit \"Sangnoksu Unit\") in [East Timor](/wiki/East_Timor \"East Timor\"). In 2005, the Navy dispatched transport unit *Jejung* to supply aid in [humanitarian response](/wiki/Humanitarian_response \"Humanitarian response\") to the [2004 Indian Ocean earthquake](/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake \"2004 Indian Ocean earthquake\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.newswire.co.kr/newsRead.php?no\\=25643\\|title\\=해군 '제중부대', 구호 장비 및 물품 싣고 1월 14일 부산항 출항\\|date\\=2005\\-01\\-11\\|language\\=ko\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209232419/http://www.newswire.co.kr/newsRead.php?no\\=25643\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-09\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-09}} The ROK Navy hosted its second international fleet review off coast of Busan in October 2008 to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the South Korean government.",
"On March 26, 2010, [ROKS *Cheonan* (PCC 772\\)](/wiki/ROKS_Cheonan_%28PCC-772%29 \"ROKS Cheonan (PCC-772)\"), a *Pohang*\\-class [corvette](/wiki/Corvette \"Corvette\") [was sunk by a North Korean torpedo](/wiki/Baengnyeong_incident \"Baengnyeong incident\"), resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors near [Baengnyeong Island](/wiki/Baengnyeong_Island \"Baengnyeong Island\"), in the vicinity of the Northern Limit Line.{{cite news \\|author\\=Adam Brookes \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia\\_pacific/10129703\\.stm \\|title\\='North Korean torpedo' sank South's navy ship – report \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC News]] \\|date\\=2010\\-05\\-20 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530225440/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia\\_pacific/10129703\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-30 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/05/19/south.korea.ship/index.html?hpt\\=T1 \\|title\\=North Korea denies sinking warship; South Korea vows strong response \\|publisher\\=CNN.com \\|date\\=May 20, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523165831/http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/05/19/south.korea.ship/index.html?hpt\\=T1 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-23 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### From green water to blue water",
"[left\\|thumb\\|The *Cheonghae* unit of the multinational naval task force, [Combined Task Force 151](/wiki/Combined_Task_Force_151 \"Combined Task Force 151\")](/wiki/File:%EC%B2%AD%ED%95%B4%EB%B6%80%EB%8C%80_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_Activity_of_CheongHae_Unit_%287876689048%29.jpg \"청해부대 Rep. of Korea Navy Activity of CheongHae Unit (7876689048).jpg\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|[ROK naval commandos](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy_Special_Warfare_Flotilla \"Republic of Korea Navy Special Warfare Flotilla\") in a mock assault. They rescued captured tanker's crew from Somali pirates in 2011\\.](/wiki/File:2013.1.18._%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%ED%8A%B9%EC%88%98%EC%A0%84%EC%A0%84%EB%8B%A8_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_Underwater_Demolition_Team_%288400684032%29.jpg \"2013.1.18. 해군 특수전전단 Rep. of Korea Navy Underwater Demolition Team (8400684032).jpg\")\nIn preparation for an ocean\\-going navy, the ROK Navy established a task force called Maritime Task Flotilla Seven in February 2010\\.",
"Since 2009, a [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\\-sin*\\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer \"Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer\") destroyer from the task force is being deployed as the [Escort Task Group (*Cheonghae*)](/wiki/Cheonghae_Unit \"Cheonghae Unit\") in response to [piracy](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\") off the coast of [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"). On January 21, 2011, naval commandos of the task group carried out an [operation](/wiki/Operation_Dawn_of_Gulf_of_Aden \"Operation Dawn of Gulf of Aden\"), and succeeded in rescuing the crew of the hijacked [MV *Samho Jewelry*](/wiki/MV_Samho_Jewelry \"MV Samho Jewelry\").{{cite news\\|title\\=South Koreans pull off daring rescue of pirated ship\\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/01/21/south.korea.pirate.rescue/index.html?hpt\\=T2\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2011\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[CNN]]\\|date\\=21 January 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109050447/http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/01/21/south.korea.pirate.rescue/index.html?hpt\\=T2\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-09\\|url\\-status\\=live}} As a humanitarian operation, the unit was dispatched to evacuate South Koreans and foreign nationals from war\\-torn [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\") in 2011 and 2014\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh\\_news/khan\\_art\\_view.html?art\\_id\\=201408172154375\\|title\\=리비아서 교민 449명 철수... 문무대왕함 파견 이송 완료\\|date\\=2014\\-08\\-17\\|website\\=\\[\\[Kyunghyang Shinmun]]\\|language\\=ko\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-14}}",
"The ROK Navy completed a new naval base called [Jeju Civilian\\-Military Complex Port](/wiki/Jeju_Civilian-Military_Complex_Port \"Jeju Civilian-Military Complex Port\") in February 2016 on the southern coast of [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island \"Jeju Island\") to protect the [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication \"Sea lines of communication\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://jeju.news1\\.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=1054\\|title\\=\\[제주해군기지 준공] 대양해군 전초기지 역할 '톡톡'\\|website\\=jeju.news1\\.kr\\|date\\=26 February 2016 \\|language\\=ko\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124111/http://jeju.news1\\.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=1054\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-09\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-08}} In order to support ocean\\-going operations, the ROK Navy commissioned the 10,000\\-ton logistics support ship, ROKS *Soyang* (AOE 51\\), and launched the first locally designed 3,000\\-ton submarine, *Dosan Ahn Changho* (SS 083\\) in September 2018\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=3천t급 잠수함 '도산안창호함' 진수식...2022년 1월 실전배치\\|url\\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2018/09/13/0200000000AKR20180913150000014\\.HTML\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yonhap News Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914095254/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2018/09/13/0200000000AKR20180913150000014\\.HTML\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-14\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|date\\=2018\\-09\\-13}}",
"The ROK Navy continued shipbuilding programs to upgrade its fleet with local shipbuilders. In order to replace the aging [*Pohang*\\-class](/wiki/Pohang-class_corvette \"Pohang-class corvette\") corvettes and [*Ulsan*\\-class](/wiki/Ulsan-class_frigate \"Ulsan-class frigate\") frigates, and to take over multi\\-role operations such as coast patrol and anti\\-submarine warfare, the ROK Navy commissioned six 2,300\\-ton [*Incheon*\\-class](/wiki/Incheon-class_frigate \"Incheon-class frigate\") frigates between 2013 and 2016, and the lead ship (FFG 818\\) of the 2,800\\-ton [*Daegu*\\-class](/wiki/Daegu-class_frigate \"Daegu-class frigate\") frigates in March 2018\\. Two ex\\-USN *Edenton*\\-class [salvage and rescue ships](/wiki/Salvage_and_rescue_ship \"Salvage and rescue ship\") were replaced with two locally built 3,500\\-ton *Tongyeong*\\-class ships between 2014 and 2016\\. The Navy commissioned a 3,000\\-ton [minelayer](/wiki/Minelayer \"Minelayer\"), ROKS *Nampo* (MLS 570\\), in June 2017\\. The lead ship of the [PKX\\-B](/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel \"Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel\") fast rocket craft, ROKS *Chamsuri 211* (PKMR 211\\), was commissioned in November 2017 to relieve the aging fleet of [*Chamsuri*\\-class](/wiki/Chamsuri_class_patrol_vessel \"Chamsuri class patrol vessel\") patrol craft. The ROK Navy commissioned four 4,500\\-ton [*Cheonwangbong*\\-class](/wiki/Cheon_Wang_Bong-class_LST \"Cheon Wang Bong-class LST\") [dock landing ships](/wiki/Dock_landing_ship \"Dock landing ship\") between 2014 and 2018\\. In May 2018, the Navy launched the *Marado* (LPH 6112\\), which was the second ship of the [*Dokdo*\\-class](/wiki/Dokdo-class_amphibious_assault_ship \"Dokdo-class amphibious assault ship\") [amphibious transport dock](/wiki/Amphibious_transport_dock \"Amphibious transport dock\"). In June 2018, the Navy launched a 4,500\\-ton training ship, the *Hansando* (ATH 81\\), which was also designed as a casualty receiving and treatment ship (CRTS).",
"In October 2018, the Navy hosted its third international fleet review off coast of [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island \"Jeju Island\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Republic of Korea Navy International Fleet Review 2018\\|url\\=http://ifr2018\\.navy.mil.kr/eng/index.html\\|publisher\\=Republic of Korea Navy\\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923200538/http://ifr2018\\.navy.mil.kr/eng/index.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-23\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 2019, the Navy updated its strategic vision for the 100th anniversary of the ROK Navy as \"Navy Vision 2045\". As part of the vision, Admiral Sim Seung\\-seob, the Chief of Naval Operations proposed to build an [ICT](/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology \"Information and communications technology\")\\-based, system\\-driven \"Smart Navy\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190207/1/BBSMSTR\\_000000010324/view.do\\|title\\=4차 산업혁명 기반 스마트 해군 도약에 통찰력\\|website\\=국방일보\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-09\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325235158/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190207/1/BBSMSTR\\_000000010324/view.do\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Aircraft carrier ambitions",
"Since the 1990s, the ROK Navy has been planning to acquire an aircraft carrier force as part of its commitment to become a blue\\-water navy. The symbol of the ROK Navy that was introduced in 2000 depicts the Navy's aircraft carrier ambitions. In 2005 and 2018 the ROK Navy launched two 18,800\\-ton *Dokdo*\\-class amphibious ships (LPH), equipped with a full\\-length flight deck and facilities for operating helicopters.",
"In August 2020, the [Ministry of National Defense](/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_%28South_Korea%29 \"Ministry of National Defense (South Korea)\") formally announced its intent to begin construction of a 30,000\\-ton light aircraft carrier. It is expected to purchase [F\\-35B](/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_F-35_Lightning_II \"Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II\") aircraft from the United States for the carrier.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Lendon \\|first1\\=Brad \\|last2\\=Seo \\|first2\\=Loonjung \\|title\\=South Korea is building its first aircraft carrier \\|url\\=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/12/asia/south\\-korea\\-aircraft\\-carrier\\-intl\\-hnk\\-scli/index.html \\|access\\-date\\=12 August 2020 \\|work\\=CNN \\|date\\=12 August 2020}} It was authorized as the [CVX program](/wiki/CVX-class_aircraft_carrier \"CVX-class aircraft carrier\") in February 2021\\.",
""
] |
### From a coastal navy to a green\-water navy
[left\|thumb\|ROKS *Lee Sunsin* (SS 068\), one of the Navy's first locally built *Jang Bogo*\-class submarines](/wiki/File:ROKS_Lee_Sunsin_%28SS_068%29_arrives_at_Naval_Station_Pearl_Harbor.jpg "ROKS Lee Sunsin (SS 068) arrives at Naval Station Pearl Harbor.jpg")
[right\|thumb\|The Navy's first locally built AEGIS destroyer, ROKS *Sejong the Great* (DDG 991\), in formation](/wiki/Image:2008%EB%85%849%EC%9B%9427%EC%9D%BC_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EC%84%B8%EC%A2%85%EB%8C%80%EC%99%95%ED%95%A8%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%99%282%29_%287193823222%29.jpg "2008년9월27일 해군 세종대왕함기동(2) (7193823222).jpg")
Since the 1990s, the ROK Navy has been trying to build an ocean\-going fleet to protect its [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication "Sea lines of communication"). In 1989, the Navy mentioned the "Strategic Task Fleet" (*Jeollyak\-gidong\-hamdae*) in the Joint Strategic Objectives Plan. The ROK Naval forces began to participate in [RIMPAC](/wiki/Exercise_RIMPAC "Exercise RIMPAC") exercises from 1990\. During Admiral An Pyong\-tae's tenure as [CNO](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations_%28South_Korea%29 "Chief of Naval Operations (South Korea)"), [President](/wiki/President_of_South_Korea "President of South Korea") [Kim Young\-sam](/wiki/Kim_Young-sam "Kim Young-sam") supported the Navy by approving a long\-term shipbuilding plan for the ocean\-going navy.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.sisajournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=81682\|title\=안병태 전 해군 참모총장 '분노의 전역사'\|date\=1997\-04\-17\|website\=\[\[Sisa Journal]]\|language\=ko\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-09}} In 1999, the Navy developed its strategic vision for the 2020s as "Navy Vision 2020" that outlined the Navy's future Task Fleet, which includes [light aircraft carriers](/wiki/Light_aircraft_carrier "Light aircraft carrier") and [ballistic missile submarines](/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine "Ballistic missile submarine").["21세기 통일한국의 大洋해군 전략"](http://donga.com/docs/magazine/new_donga/200007/nd2000070130.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174601/http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/new\_donga/200007/nd2000070130\.html \|date\=2016\-03\-03 }}. Donga.com. Retrieved March 8, 2007\.
At the same time, the ROK Navy steadily upgraded its naval forces: In order to strengthen the [surface combatants](/wiki/Surface_combatant "Surface combatant"), the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (DDH 971\) of the [*Kwanggaeto the Great*\-class destroyer](/wiki/Gwanggaeto_the_Great-class_destroyer "Gwanggaeto the Great-class destroyer") in 1996 to replace the former USN destroyers. For building up a [submarine](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine") force, the ROK Navy acquired its first submarine (other than midget submarines), [ROKS *Jang Bogo* (SS 061\)](/wiki/Type_209_submarine "Type 209 submarine"), from [Howaldtswerke\-Deutsche Werft](/wiki/Howaldtswerke-Deutsche_Werft "Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft") of Germany in 1992\. In order to replace its antiquated [S\-2 Tracker](/wiki/S-2_Tracker "S-2 Tracker") [anti\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") aircraft, the ROK Navy purchased a squadron of [P\-3C Orion](/wiki/P-3C_Orion "P-3C Orion") maritime patrol aircraft, which were delivered starting in 1995\.
In October 1998, the ROK Navy hosted its first international fleet review in commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Republic of Korea and its armed forces off of the coast of Busan and Jinhae.
In June 1999, the ROK and DPRK naval forces met in the [First Battle of Yeonpyeong](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Yeonpyeong "First Battle of Yeonpyeong") near the [Northern Limit Line](/wiki/Northern_Limit_Line "Northern Limit Line") (NLL) in the vicinity of [Yeonpyeong Islands](/wiki/Yeonpyeongdo "Yeonpyeongdo"). On June 29, 2002, the two navies [engaged again](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Yeonpyeong "Second Battle of Yeonpyeong") in the same vicinity, resulting in the sinking of ROKS *Chamsuri 357* (PKM 357\).
In 2002, the lead ship [(DDH 975\)](/wiki/ROKS_Chungmugong_Yi_Sunshin_%28DDH-975%29 "ROKS Chungmugong Yi Sunshin (DDH-975)") of the 4,800\-ton [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\-sin*\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer "Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer") destroyers was launched.{{cite book \|editor1\-last\=Saunders RN \|editor1\-first\=Commodore Stephen \|title\=Jane's Fighting Ships, 2003\-2004 \|date\=2003 \|publisher\=Jane's Information Group \|isbn\=978\-0710625465 \|page\=427 \|language\=en}} In 2005, an 18,800\-ton [amphibious transport dock](/wiki/Amphibious_transport_dock "Amphibious transport dock"), [ROKS *Dokdo*](/wiki/Dokdo_class_amphibious_assault_ship "Dokdo class amphibious assault ship") (LPH 6111\) was launched. In 2006, the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (SS 072\), which was named after the first Chief of Naval Operations, of the 1,800\-ton [*Sohn Wonyil*\-class](/wiki/Type_214_submarine "Type 214 submarine") submarine equipped with an [Air\-Independent Propulsion](/wiki/Air-Independent_Propulsion "Air-Independent Propulsion") (AIP) system. In May 2007, the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (DDG 991\) of the 11,000\-ton [*Sejong the Great*\-class](/wiki/King_Sejong_the_Great_class_destroyer "King Sejong the Great class destroyer") destroyers, built around the American\-made [AEGIS combat system](/wiki/AEGIS_combat_system "AEGIS combat system") and the [SPY\-1D(v)](/wiki/AN/SPY-1_radar "AN/SPY-1 radar") multi\-function phased array radar. In December 2008, the ROK Navy commissioned the [fast missile craft](/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel "Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel") ROKS *Yoon Youngha* (PKG 711\), which was named after the skipper of ROKS *Chamsuri 357*.
From 2001 to 2003, a naval transport unit called *Haeseong* supported [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom "Operation Enduring Freedom") and the [*Sangnoksu* Unit](/wiki/Sangnoksu_Unit "Sangnoksu Unit") in [East Timor](/wiki/East_Timor "East Timor"). In 2005, the Navy dispatched transport unit *Jejung* to supply aid in [humanitarian response](/wiki/Humanitarian_response "Humanitarian response") to the [2004 Indian Ocean earthquake](/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake "2004 Indian Ocean earthquake").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.newswire.co.kr/newsRead.php?no\=25643\|title\=해군 '제중부대', 구호 장비 및 물품 싣고 1월 14일 부산항 출항\|date\=2005\-01\-11\|language\=ko\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209232419/http://www.newswire.co.kr/newsRead.php?no\=25643\|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-09\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-09}} The ROK Navy hosted its second international fleet review off coast of Busan in October 2008 to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the South Korean government.
On March 26, 2010, [ROKS *Cheonan* (PCC 772\)](/wiki/ROKS_Cheonan_%28PCC-772%29 "ROKS Cheonan (PCC-772)"), a *Pohang*\-class [corvette](/wiki/Corvette "Corvette") [was sunk by a North Korean torpedo](/wiki/Baengnyeong_incident "Baengnyeong incident"), resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors near [Baengnyeong Island](/wiki/Baengnyeong_Island "Baengnyeong Island"), in the vicinity of the Northern Limit Line.{{cite news \|author\=Adam Brookes \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia\_pacific/10129703\.stm \|title\='North Korean torpedo' sank South's navy ship – report \|publisher\=\[\[BBC News]] \|date\=2010\-05\-20 \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530225440/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia\_pacific/10129703\.stm \|archive\-date\=2010\-05\-30 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/05/19/south.korea.ship/index.html?hpt\=T1 \|title\=North Korea denies sinking warship; South Korea vows strong response \|publisher\=CNN.com \|date\=May 20, 2010 \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523165831/http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/05/19/south.korea.ship/index.html?hpt\=T1 \|archive\-date\=2010\-05\-23 \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"### From a coastal navy to a green\\-water navy",
"[left\\|thumb\\|ROKS *Lee Sunsin* (SS 068\\), one of the Navy's first locally built *Jang Bogo*\\-class submarines](/wiki/File:ROKS_Lee_Sunsin_%28SS_068%29_arrives_at_Naval_Station_Pearl_Harbor.jpg \"ROKS Lee Sunsin (SS 068) arrives at Naval Station Pearl Harbor.jpg\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|The Navy's first locally built AEGIS destroyer, ROKS *Sejong the Great* (DDG 991\\), in formation](/wiki/Image:2008%EB%85%849%EC%9B%9427%EC%9D%BC_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EC%84%B8%EC%A2%85%EB%8C%80%EC%99%95%ED%95%A8%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%99%282%29_%287193823222%29.jpg \"2008년9월27일 해군 세종대왕함기동(2) (7193823222).jpg\")",
"Since the 1990s, the ROK Navy has been trying to build an ocean\\-going fleet to protect its [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication \"Sea lines of communication\"). In 1989, the Navy mentioned the \"Strategic Task Fleet\" (*Jeollyak\\-gidong\\-hamdae*) in the Joint Strategic Objectives Plan. The ROK Naval forces began to participate in [RIMPAC](/wiki/Exercise_RIMPAC \"Exercise RIMPAC\") exercises from 1990\\. During Admiral An Pyong\\-tae's tenure as [CNO](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations_%28South_Korea%29 \"Chief of Naval Operations (South Korea)\"), [President](/wiki/President_of_South_Korea \"President of South Korea\") [Kim Young\\-sam](/wiki/Kim_Young-sam \"Kim Young-sam\") supported the Navy by approving a long\\-term shipbuilding plan for the ocean\\-going navy.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sisajournal.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=81682\\|title\\=안병태 전 해군 참모총장 '분노의 전역사'\\|date\\=1997\\-04\\-17\\|website\\=\\[\\[Sisa Journal]]\\|language\\=ko\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-09}} In 1999, the Navy developed its strategic vision for the 2020s as \"Navy Vision 2020\" that outlined the Navy's future Task Fleet, which includes [light aircraft carriers](/wiki/Light_aircraft_carrier \"Light aircraft carrier\") and [ballistic missile submarines](/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine \"Ballistic missile submarine\").[\"21세기 통일한국의 大洋해군 전략\"](http://donga.com/docs/magazine/new_donga/200007/nd2000070130.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174601/http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/new\\_donga/200007/nd2000070130\\.html \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-03 }}. Donga.com. Retrieved March 8, 2007\\.",
"At the same time, the ROK Navy steadily upgraded its naval forces: In order to strengthen the [surface combatants](/wiki/Surface_combatant \"Surface combatant\"), the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (DDH 971\\) of the [*Kwanggaeto the Great*\\-class destroyer](/wiki/Gwanggaeto_the_Great-class_destroyer \"Gwanggaeto the Great-class destroyer\") in 1996 to replace the former USN destroyers. For building up a [submarine](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") force, the ROK Navy acquired its first submarine (other than midget submarines), [ROKS *Jang Bogo* (SS 061\\)](/wiki/Type_209_submarine \"Type 209 submarine\"), from [Howaldtswerke\\-Deutsche Werft](/wiki/Howaldtswerke-Deutsche_Werft \"Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft\") of Germany in 1992\\. In order to replace its antiquated [S\\-2 Tracker](/wiki/S-2_Tracker \"S-2 Tracker\") [anti\\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") aircraft, the ROK Navy purchased a squadron of [P\\-3C Orion](/wiki/P-3C_Orion \"P-3C Orion\") maritime patrol aircraft, which were delivered starting in 1995\\.",
"In October 1998, the ROK Navy hosted its first international fleet review in commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Republic of Korea and its armed forces off of the coast of Busan and Jinhae.",
"In June 1999, the ROK and DPRK naval forces met in the [First Battle of Yeonpyeong](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Yeonpyeong \"First Battle of Yeonpyeong\") near the [Northern Limit Line](/wiki/Northern_Limit_Line \"Northern Limit Line\") (NLL) in the vicinity of [Yeonpyeong Islands](/wiki/Yeonpyeongdo \"Yeonpyeongdo\"). On June 29, 2002, the two navies [engaged again](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Yeonpyeong \"Second Battle of Yeonpyeong\") in the same vicinity, resulting in the sinking of ROKS *Chamsuri 357* (PKM 357\\).",
"In 2002, the lead ship [(DDH 975\\)](/wiki/ROKS_Chungmugong_Yi_Sunshin_%28DDH-975%29 \"ROKS Chungmugong Yi Sunshin (DDH-975)\") of the 4,800\\-ton [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\\-sin*\\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer \"Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer\") destroyers was launched.{{cite book \\|editor1\\-last\\=Saunders RN \\|editor1\\-first\\=Commodore Stephen \\|title\\=Jane's Fighting Ships, 2003\\-2004 \\|date\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Jane's Information Group \\|isbn\\=978\\-0710625465 \\|page\\=427 \\|language\\=en}} In 2005, an 18,800\\-ton [amphibious transport dock](/wiki/Amphibious_transport_dock \"Amphibious transport dock\"), [ROKS *Dokdo*](/wiki/Dokdo_class_amphibious_assault_ship \"Dokdo class amphibious assault ship\") (LPH 6111\\) was launched. In 2006, the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (SS 072\\), which was named after the first Chief of Naval Operations, of the 1,800\\-ton [*Sohn Wonyil*\\-class](/wiki/Type_214_submarine \"Type 214 submarine\") submarine equipped with an [Air\\-Independent Propulsion](/wiki/Air-Independent_Propulsion \"Air-Independent Propulsion\") (AIP) system. In May 2007, the ROK Navy launched the lead ship (DDG 991\\) of the 11,000\\-ton [*Sejong the Great*\\-class](/wiki/King_Sejong_the_Great_class_destroyer \"King Sejong the Great class destroyer\") destroyers, built around the American\\-made [AEGIS combat system](/wiki/AEGIS_combat_system \"AEGIS combat system\") and the [SPY\\-1D(v)](/wiki/AN/SPY-1_radar \"AN/SPY-1 radar\") multi\\-function phased array radar. In December 2008, the ROK Navy commissioned the [fast missile craft](/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel \"Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel\") ROKS *Yoon Youngha* (PKG 711\\), which was named after the skipper of ROKS *Chamsuri 357*.",
"From 2001 to 2003, a naval transport unit called *Haeseong* supported [Operation Enduring Freedom](/wiki/Operation_Enduring_Freedom \"Operation Enduring Freedom\") and the [*Sangnoksu* Unit](/wiki/Sangnoksu_Unit \"Sangnoksu Unit\") in [East Timor](/wiki/East_Timor \"East Timor\"). In 2005, the Navy dispatched transport unit *Jejung* to supply aid in [humanitarian response](/wiki/Humanitarian_response \"Humanitarian response\") to the [2004 Indian Ocean earthquake](/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake \"2004 Indian Ocean earthquake\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.newswire.co.kr/newsRead.php?no\\=25643\\|title\\=해군 '제중부대', 구호 장비 및 물품 싣고 1월 14일 부산항 출항\\|date\\=2005\\-01\\-11\\|language\\=ko\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209232419/http://www.newswire.co.kr/newsRead.php?no\\=25643\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-09\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-09}} The ROK Navy hosted its second international fleet review off coast of Busan in October 2008 to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the South Korean government.",
"On March 26, 2010, [ROKS *Cheonan* (PCC 772\\)](/wiki/ROKS_Cheonan_%28PCC-772%29 \"ROKS Cheonan (PCC-772)\"), a *Pohang*\\-class [corvette](/wiki/Corvette \"Corvette\") [was sunk by a North Korean torpedo](/wiki/Baengnyeong_incident \"Baengnyeong incident\"), resulting in the deaths of 46 sailors near [Baengnyeong Island](/wiki/Baengnyeong_Island \"Baengnyeong Island\"), in the vicinity of the Northern Limit Line.{{cite news \\|author\\=Adam Brookes \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia\\_pacific/10129703\\.stm \\|title\\='North Korean torpedo' sank South's navy ship – report \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[BBC News]] \\|date\\=2010\\-05\\-20 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530225440/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia\\_pacific/10129703\\.stm \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-30 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/05/19/south.korea.ship/index.html?hpt\\=T1 \\|title\\=North Korea denies sinking warship; South Korea vows strong response \\|publisher\\=CNN.com \\|date\\=May 20, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523165831/http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/05/19/south.korea.ship/index.html?hpt\\=T1 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-23 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
Organization
------------
{{Further\|List of operating units and shore establishments of the Republic of Korea Navy}}
The Republic of Korea Navy includes the Republic of Korea Navy Headquarters, Republic of Korea Fleet, [Republic of Korea Marine Corps](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Marine_Corps "Republic of Korea Marine Corps"), Naval Education and Training Command, Naval Logistics Command, and Naval Academy. The [Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations_%28South_Korea%29 "Chief of Naval Operations (South Korea)") (CNO) is the highest\-ranking officer of the ROK Navy.
### Republic of Korea Navy Headquarters
The ROK Navy is led by the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO). The Republic of Korea Navy Headquarters is located within the Gyeryongdae complex, the tri\-service headquarters in [Gyeryong](/wiki/Gyeryong "Gyeryong"), includes the office of the Chief of Naval Operations and various agencies and staff functions.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.navy.mil.kr/mbshome/mbs/eng/subview.do?id\=eng\_010200000000\|title\=Organization\|website\=www.navy.mil.kr\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-10\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203202221/http://www.navy.mil.kr/mbshome/mbs/eng/subview.do?id\=eng\_010200000000\|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-03\|url\-status\=live}}
The CNO is a four\-star admiral and a member of the [Joint Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff_%28South_Korea%29 "Joint Chiefs of Staff (South Korea)"). The CNO oversees the administration of organizing, recruiting, training, equipping, supplying, and mobilizing the ROK Navy. Despite the title, the Chief of Naval Operations does not have operational command authority over combat units (i.e. Republic of Korea Fleet, Republic of Korea Marine Corps). The CNO is an administrative position based in the Gyeryongdae complex, and exercises supervision of Navy organizations as the designee of the [Minister of National Defense](/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_%28South_Korea%29 "Ministry of National Defense (South Korea)"). Operational command of combat units falls within the purview of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff who reports to the Minister of National Defense.{{Cite web\|url\=https://elaw.klri.re.kr/kor\_service/lawView.do?hseq\=26880⟨\=ENG\|title\=Act on the Organization of National Armed Forces\|website\=KOREA LEGISLATION RESEARCH INSTITUTE\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-15}}
### Republic of Korea Fleet
[thumb\|right\|Map of South Korea](/wiki/Image:Southkoreamap.png "Southkoreamap.png")
The Republic of Korea Fleet, the highest operational command of the ROK Navy, was established in September 1953\. Headquartered at Busan Naval Base, the Commander Republic of Korea Fleet (formerly Commander\-in\-Chief Republic of Korea Fleet) is responsible for naval operations. COMROKFLT, a three\-star admiral, also serves as the Commander Naval Component Command (CNCC) of the [ROK\-US Combined Forces Command](/wiki/ROK-US_Combined_Forces_Command "ROK-US Combined Forces Command") (CFC).
The Republic of Korea Fleet has three numbered fleets each assigned to the seas east, west, and south of South Korea:
* First Fleet ([HQ](/wiki/Headquarters "Headquarters"): [Donghae](/wiki/Donghae_City "Donghae City"))
* Maritime Battle Group One
* Second Fleet (HQ: [Pyeongtaek](/wiki/Pyeongtaek "Pyeongtaek"))
* Maritime Battle Group Two
* Incheon Naval Sector Defense Command (HQ: [Incheon](/wiki/Incheon "Incheon"))
* Third Fleet (HQ: [Mokpo](/wiki/Mokpo "Mokpo"))
* Maritime Battle Group Three
For various types of naval operations, the ROK Fleet has a submarine force, a naval aviation [force](/wiki/Wing_%28air_force_unit%29 "Wing (air force unit)"), two surface [flotillas](/wiki/Flotilla "Flotilla"), a [special warfare](/wiki/Special_warfare "Special warfare") force, and units for combat readiness and [meteorology](/wiki/Meteorology "Meteorology")/[oceanography](/wiki/Oceanography "Oceanography"):
* Submarine Force Command{{cite web\|title\=작전권 갖춘 잠수함사령부 창설...세계 6번째\|url\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2015/01/30/0200000000AKR20150130128300043\.HTML\|website\=\[\[Yonhap News Agency]]\|access\-date\=25 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305051736/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2015/01/30/0200000000AKR20150130128300043\.HTML\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-05\|url\-status\=live\|date\=February 2015}}
* Naval Air Command
* Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five (Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, Naval Mobile Construction Squadron 59\)
* Maritime Task Flotilla Seven (Maritime Task Squadron 71, Maritime Task Squadron 72, Mobile Logistics Squadron 77\)
* Battle Training Group Eight{{cite web\|title\='해군 전투훈련의 메카' 제8전투훈련단, 창설 1주년\|url\=http://www.changwonilbo.com/news/139328\|website\=창원일보\|access\-date\=25 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828200239/http://www.changwonilbo.com/news/139328\|archive\-date\=2016\-08\-28\|url\-status\=live}}
* [Naval Special Warfare Flotilla](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy_UDT/SEAL "Republic of Korea Navy UDT/SEAL") (including UDT/SEAL, [EOD](/wiki/Explosive_ordnance_disposal "Explosive ordnance disposal"), and Sea Salvage \& Rescue Unit (SSU){{Cite web\|url\=http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2018/08/01/2018080101846\.html\|title\=\[단독] 해군, UDT와 SSU 통합한다\|date\=2018\-08\-01\|website\=\[\[The Chosun Ilbo]]\|language\=ko\|access\-date\=2019\-01\-12\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802120545/http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2018/08/01/2018080101846\.html\|archive\-date\=2018\-08\-02\|url\-status\=live}})
* Maritime Intelligence Group
* **Numbered fleets**
In 1986, the ROK Navy reorganized its patrol forces into three fleets: the First Fleet, Second Fleet, and Third Fleet. The three numbered fleets, each is led by a rear admiral (upper half), are responsible for protecting the coastal water around South Korea: The First Fleet is for the eastern naval sector, the Second Fleet is for the western naval sector and the Third Fleet is for the southern naval sector including [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island "Jeju Island"). Each fleet includes a Maritime Battle Group, Logistics Squadron, Base Squadron, and Training Squadron.{{cite web\|url\=http://daily.hankooki.com/lpage/politics/201501/dh20150131133400137530\.htm\|title\=해군함대사령부 예하에 3개전투단 창설...전투전대지휘\|website\=데일리한국\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811075645/http://daily.hankooki.com/lpage/politics/201501/dh20150131133400137530\.htm\|archive\-date\=2016\-08\-11\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=25 June 2016}} The Maritime Battle Group comprises squadrons of patrol forces composed of [*Kwanggaeto the Great*\-class](/wiki/Gwanggaeto_the_Great_class_destroyer "Gwanggaeto the Great class destroyer") destroyers, [*Daegu*\-class](/wiki/Daegu-class_frigate "Daegu-class frigate") and [*Incheon\-class*](/wiki/Incheon_class_frigate "Incheon class frigate") frigates, [*Ulsan*\-class](/wiki/Ulsan_class_frigate "Ulsan class frigate") frigates, [*Pohang*\-class](/wiki/Pohang_class_corvette "Pohang class corvette") corvettes, and patrol vessels ([*Yoon Youngha\-*class](/wiki/Gumdoksuri_class_patrol_vessel "Gumdoksuri class patrol vessel") fast missile craft, *Chamsuri 211\-*class fast rocket craft, [*Chamsuri\-*class](/wiki/Chamsuri_class_patrol_vessel "Chamsuri class patrol vessel") fast patrol boats).
* **Submarine Force Command**
Headquartered in Jinhae, the Submarine Force Command was established in February 2015\. The ROK Navy's submarine unit had a humble beginning with three *Dolgorae*\-class midget submarines in June 1990\. After acquiring ROKS *Jang Bogo* (SS 061\), a Type 209\-class submarine, the Submarine Squadron 57 of the Component Flotilla Five was upgraded to the Submarine Flotilla Nine in October 1995\. Since then, it has been playing the role of the ROK Navy's core strength.
The Submarine Force Command, which is led by a rear admiral (upper half), includes six Submarine Squadrons with [Type 214 submarines](/wiki/Type_214_submarine "Type 214 submarine") (*Sohn Wonyil* class) and [Type 209 submarines](/wiki/Type_209_submarine "Type 209 submarine") (*Jang Bogo* class). In September 2018, the ROK Navy launched the first locally designed 3,000\-ton submarine, [ROKS *Dosan Ahn Changho* (SS 083\)](/wiki/Dosan_Ahn_Changho-class_submarine "Dosan Ahn Changho-class submarine").
The Submarine Force Command offers the International Submarine Education \& Training Program (ISETP) for submariners around the world.{{cite web\|url\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\_writ\_date\=20180917\&bbs\_id\=BBSMSTR\_000000000005\&parent\_no\=3\|title\=한국군 잠수함 운용 노하우 세계로\|publisher\=국방일보\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927204442/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\_writ\_date\=20180917\&bbs\_id\=BBSMSTR\_000000000005\&parent\_no\=3\|archive\-date\=2018\-09\-27\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=27 September 2018}}
* **Naval Air Command**
Headquartered in [Pohang](/wiki/Pohang "Pohang"), the Naval Air Command is responsible for the operation of [naval aircraft](/wiki/Naval_aircraft "Naval aircraft"). South Korean naval flying started in 1951, with the reconstruction of a former [USAF](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force") [T\-6 Texan](/wiki/North_American_T-6_Texan "North American T-6 Texan") for naval duties. In 1957, the ROK Navy established the Fleet Aviation Unit, which became the Fleet Air Wing in 1977 when the Navy strengthened its naval aviation force by acquiring [Grumman S\-2 Tracker](/wiki/S-2_Tracker "S-2 Tracker") ASW aircraft and [Aérospatiale Alouette III](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III "Aérospatiale Alouette III") helicopters. In 1986, the Fleet Air Wing was renamed the Air Wing Six. In 2022, the ROK Navy upgraded the Air Wing Six to the Naval Air Command.
The Naval Air Command has naval air stations in [Pohang (K\-3\)](/wiki/Pohang_Airport "Pohang Airport"), [Mokpo (K\-15\)](/wiki/Mokpo_Airport "Mokpo Airport"), [Jinhae (K\-10\)](/wiki/Jinhae_Airport "Jinhae Airport"), and a detached unit at [Jeju International Airport](/wiki/Jeju_International_Airport "Jeju International Airport"). The Naval Air Command, which is led by a rear admiral (upper half), includes three air groups, and operates about 70 fixed\-wing and [rotary\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Rotary-wing_aircraft "Rotary-wing aircraft") such as [P\-3CK Orion](/wiki/P-3C_Orion "P-3C Orion") [maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft "Maritime patrol aircraft") and [AW159 Wildcat](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW159_Wildcat "AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat") [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") helicopters.
* **Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five**
Headquartered in Jinhae, the Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five (formerly Component Flotilla Five) has been the matrix of various units conducting naval component operations such as [anti\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") (ASW), mine warfare, [amphibious warfare](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare "Amphibious warfare"), salvage and [special operations](/wiki/Special_operations "Special operations"). As a successor to the Flotilla One and Flotilla Two, the Component Flotilla Five was founded in 1986 with the ASW Squadron 51 (later to become Maritime Task Flotilla Seven), Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, Service Squadron 55 (later Sea Salvage \& Rescue Unit), and Special Warfare Squadron 56 (later Naval Special Warfare Flotilla). In 1990 and 2007, the Submarine Squadron 57 (later Submarine Force Command) and Training Squadron 509 (later Battle Training Group Eight) were established respectively. As of December 2018, the Flotilla Five was composed of the Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, and Naval Mobile Construction Squadron 59\. The Commander Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five is a rear admiral (lower half).{{Cite web\|url\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190712/1/BBSMSTR\_000000100059/view.do\|title\=유일하고 완벽한 작전, 미래 해군 건설 선도한다\|website\=국방일보\|access\-date\=2019\-09\-30\|archive\-date\=2019\-09\-30\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930183750/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190712/1/BBSMSTR\_000000100059/view.do\|url\-status\=dead}}
* **Maritime Task Flotilla Seven**
Since the 1990s, the ROK Navy has been trying to build an ocean\-going fleet to protect the [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication "Sea lines of communication"). In 2001, President [Kim Dae\-jung](/wiki/Kim_Dae-jung "Kim Dae-jung") revealed that the Navy will have a task force called "Strategic Task Fleet" (*Jeollyak\-gidong\-hamdae*), which will "protect national interests in the five oceans and contribute to world peace."{{Cite web\|url\=http://pa.go.kr/research/contents/speech/index.jsp?spMode\=view\&catid\=c\_pa02062\&artid\=1309055\|title\=해군사관학교 제 55기 졸업 및 임관식 연설(21세기 대양해군으로 가는 길)\|website\=pa.go.kr (대통령기록연구실)\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308003000/http://pa.go.kr/research/contents/speech/index.jsp?spMode\=view\&catid\=c\_pa02062\&artid\=1309055\|archive\-date\=2019\-03\-08\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-07}}
As part of the plan, the ROK Navy established a task force called Maritime Task Flotilla Seven on February 1, 2010, which evolved from the [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") Squadron 51 of the Component Flotilla Five. It is led by a rear admiral (lower half), and headquartered at Jeju Naval Base in [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island "Jeju Island"). The task force is responsible for the defense of South Korea against sea\-borne threats and protection of its [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication "Sea lines of communication"). The Maritime Task Flotilla Seven includes three surface squadrons: The Maritime Task Squadron 71 and 72 are composed of three [*Sejong the Great*\-class](/wiki/King_Sejong_the_Great_class_destroyer "King Sejong the Great class destroyer") [AEGIS](/wiki/Aegis_Combat_System "Aegis Combat System") [guided\-missile destroyers](/wiki/Guided_missile_destroyer "Guided missile destroyer") and six [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\-sin*\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer "Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer") destroyers; the Mobile Logistics Squadron 77 is composed of [*Soyang*\-class](/wiki/ROKS_Soyang_%28AOE-51%29 "ROKS Soyang (AOE-51)") and [*Cheonji*\-class](/wiki/Cheonji-class_fast_combat_support_ship "Cheonji-class fast combat support ship") fast combat support ships.["Navy Activates 1st strategic Mobile Fleet"](https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2010/02/205_60079.html) . Korea Times. Retrieved February 1, 2010\.
A [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\-sin*\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer "Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer") destroyer of the Maritime Task Flotilla Seven is being deployed as the [Escort Task Group (*Cheonghae*)](/wiki/Cheonghae_Unit "Cheonghae Unit") in response to [piracy](/wiki/Piracy "Piracy") in shipping lanes off the coast of [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"). As a humanitarian operation, ROKS *Munmu the Great* (DDH 976\) of the task group was dispatched to evacuate South Koreans and foreign nationals from war\-torn [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya") in 2014\.
The ROK Navy plans to upgrade the Maritime Task Flotilla Seven to a fleet with 18 destroyers.
### Republic of Korea Marine Corps
{{main\|Republic of Korea Marine Corps}}
[thumb\|right\| KAAV7A1 assault amphibious vehicles of the ROKMC at Cobra Gold 2014 in Thailand](/wiki/File:2014.2.14._2014_%EC%BD%94%EB%B8%8C%EB%9D%BC%EA%B3%A8%EB%93%9C_%EC%97%B0%ED%95%A9%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A82014_Cobra_Gold_Combined_Exercise_14th%2C_Feb%2C_2014_%2812652073913%29.jpg "2014.2.14. 2014 코브라골드 연합훈련2014 Cobra Gold Combined Exercise 14th, Feb, 2014 (12652073913).jpg")
The ROK Navy includes the [Republic of Korea Marine Corps](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Marine_Corps "Republic of Korea Marine Corps"), which functions as a branch of the Navy.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.moleg.go.kr/lawinfo/lawAnalysis/nwLwAnList?pageIndex\=507\&csSeq\=378794\|title\=법령해석 사례 \- 해병대를 육ㆍ해ㆍ공군에 속하지 않는 독립된 군 조직으로 볼 수 있는지 여부\|website\=www.moleg.go.kr\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209125118/http://www.moleg.go.kr/lawinfo/lawAnalysis/nwLwAnList?pageIndex\=507\&csSeq\=378794\|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-09\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-08}} The ROK Marine Corps is responsible for conducting amphibious operations with the ROK Navy. The Marine Corps, with 29,000 personnel, is organized into two divisions and two brigades under the Headquarters ROK Marine Corps. The Commandant of the Republic of Korea Marine Corps is a three\-star general. The ROK Marine Corps has about 300 tracked vehicles including [assault amphibious vehicles](/wiki/Assault_Amphibious_Vehicle "Assault Amphibious Vehicle"), [main battle tanks](/wiki/Main_battle_tank "Main battle tank"), and [self\-propelled artillery](/wiki/Self-propelled_artillery "Self-propelled artillery").
### Shore establishments
* **Naval Education and Training Command**
Headquartered in Jinhae, the Naval Education and Training Command is one of the two major shore commands of the ROK Navy. The Command is responsible for training, education and professional development of the Navy's active duty Sailors.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.edunavy.mil.kr:10003/themes/basic/sub1/2\_2\.jsp\|title\=임무 \- 해군교육사령부\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011321/https://www.edunavy.mil.kr:10003/themes/basic/sub1/2\_2\.jsp\|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-12\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-10}} One of its primary roles is to conduct the initial orientation and basic training for new recruits of the Navy and the [Korea Coast Guard](/wiki/Korea_Coast_Guard "Korea Coast Guard"). The Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC) is under the Naval Education and Training Command. The Naval Education and Training Command is led by a vice admiral.
* **Naval Logistics Command**
The Naval Logistics Command is the other major shore command of the ROK Navy. It is located in Jinhae. The Command delivers logistics and support to the Navy, and is committed to the Navy's combat readiness. It includes the Naval Ship Yard, the Naval Supply Center, the Naval Ordnance Ammunition Center, and the Naval Technology Research Institute. The Naval Logistics Command is led by a rear admiral (upper half).{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.navylogicom.mil.kr/internet/gunsu/cons/organ.jsp\|title\=조직 – 해군군수사령부\|website\=www.navylogicom.mil.kr\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011353/http://www.navylogicom.mil.kr/internet/gunsu/cons/organ.jsp\|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-12\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-10}}
* **Republic of Korea Naval Academy**
{{main\|Korea Naval Academy}}
[thumb\|right\|Midshipmen stand in formation at the ROK Naval Academy graduation ceremony](/wiki/File:Midshipmen_at_the_ROK_Naval_Academy_graduation..jpg "Midshipmen at the ROK Naval Academy graduation..jpg")
The Republic of Korea Naval Academy is a four\-year coeducational service academy located in Jinhae. It was established in 1946\. Graduates are commissioned as Ensigns in the Navy or Second Lieutenants in the Marine Corps. The Naval Academy also hosts the Officer Candidate School (OCS), which provides training to become commissioned officers for civilian college graduates and candidates with military experience.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.navy.ac.kr/english/intro/intro\_organization.jsp\|title\=Organization \- Naval Academy Introduction Organization Page\|website\=www.navy.ac.kr\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-10\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212070455/http://www.navy.ac.kr/english/intro/intro\_organization.jsp\|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-12\|url\-status\=live}} The Superintendent of the ROK Naval Academy is a vice admiral.
### U.S. naval units in South Korea
South Korea has a joint military partnership with the United States as outlined by the [Mutual Defense Treaty](/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Treaty_Between_the_United_States_and_the_Republic_of_Korea "Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea") signed in October 1953\. The ROK Navy has worked closely with the U.S. Navy to promote regional stability.
Headquartered at Busan Naval Base,{{cite web\|title\=New Era of US, ROK Navy Alliance Begins in Busan\|url\=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story\_id\=93194\|website\=Official Website of the United States Navy\|access\-date\=25 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625144049/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story\_id\=93194\|archive\-date\=2016\-06\-25\|url\-status\=live}} the [Commander U.S. Naval Forces Korea](/wiki/Commander_Naval_Forces_Korea "Commander Naval Forces Korea") (CNFK) is a shore command of the United States Navy that serves as the shore support agency for all U.S. naval activity in South Korea. The U.S. Naval Forces Korea was established in July 1957, with headquarters in Seoul.
Originally established as the U.S. Naval Advisory Group Chinhae Detachment, the [Commander Fleet Activities Chinhae](/wiki/Commander_Fleet_Activities_Chinhae "Commander Fleet Activities Chinhae") (CFAC) is a U.S. Navy installation in Jinhae.
|
[
"Organization\n------------",
"{{Further\\|List of operating units and shore establishments of the Republic of Korea Navy}}\nThe Republic of Korea Navy includes the Republic of Korea Navy Headquarters, Republic of Korea Fleet, [Republic of Korea Marine Corps](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Marine_Corps \"Republic of Korea Marine Corps\"), Naval Education and Training Command, Naval Logistics Command, and Naval Academy. The [Chief of Naval Operations](/wiki/Chief_of_Naval_Operations_%28South_Korea%29 \"Chief of Naval Operations (South Korea)\") (CNO) is the highest\\-ranking officer of the ROK Navy.",
"### Republic of Korea Navy Headquarters",
"The ROK Navy is led by the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO). The Republic of Korea Navy Headquarters is located within the Gyeryongdae complex, the tri\\-service headquarters in [Gyeryong](/wiki/Gyeryong \"Gyeryong\"), includes the office of the Chief of Naval Operations and various agencies and staff functions.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.navy.mil.kr/mbshome/mbs/eng/subview.do?id\\=eng\\_010200000000\\|title\\=Organization\\|website\\=www.navy.mil.kr\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-10\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203202221/http://www.navy.mil.kr/mbshome/mbs/eng/subview.do?id\\=eng\\_010200000000\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-03\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The CNO is a four\\-star admiral and a member of the [Joint Chiefs of Staff](/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff_%28South_Korea%29 \"Joint Chiefs of Staff (South Korea)\"). The CNO oversees the administration of organizing, recruiting, training, equipping, supplying, and mobilizing the ROK Navy. Despite the title, the Chief of Naval Operations does not have operational command authority over combat units (i.e. Republic of Korea Fleet, Republic of Korea Marine Corps). The CNO is an administrative position based in the Gyeryongdae complex, and exercises supervision of Navy organizations as the designee of the [Minister of National Defense](/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defense_%28South_Korea%29 \"Ministry of National Defense (South Korea)\"). Operational command of combat units falls within the purview of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff who reports to the Minister of National Defense.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://elaw.klri.re.kr/kor\\_service/lawView.do?hseq\\=26880⟨\\=ENG\\|title\\=Act on the Organization of National Armed Forces\\|website\\=KOREA LEGISLATION RESEARCH INSTITUTE\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-15}}",
"### Republic of Korea Fleet",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Map of South Korea](/wiki/Image:Southkoreamap.png \"Southkoreamap.png\")\nThe Republic of Korea Fleet, the highest operational command of the ROK Navy, was established in September 1953\\. Headquartered at Busan Naval Base, the Commander Republic of Korea Fleet (formerly Commander\\-in\\-Chief Republic of Korea Fleet) is responsible for naval operations. COMROKFLT, a three\\-star admiral, also serves as the Commander Naval Component Command (CNCC) of the [ROK\\-US Combined Forces Command](/wiki/ROK-US_Combined_Forces_Command \"ROK-US Combined Forces Command\") (CFC).",
"The Republic of Korea Fleet has three numbered fleets each assigned to the seas east, west, and south of South Korea:\n* First Fleet ([HQ](/wiki/Headquarters \"Headquarters\"): [Donghae](/wiki/Donghae_City \"Donghae City\"))\n* Maritime Battle Group One\n* Second Fleet (HQ: [Pyeongtaek](/wiki/Pyeongtaek \"Pyeongtaek\"))\n* Maritime Battle Group Two\n* Incheon Naval Sector Defense Command (HQ: [Incheon](/wiki/Incheon \"Incheon\"))\n* Third Fleet (HQ: [Mokpo](/wiki/Mokpo \"Mokpo\"))\n* Maritime Battle Group Three\nFor various types of naval operations, the ROK Fleet has a submarine force, a naval aviation [force](/wiki/Wing_%28air_force_unit%29 \"Wing (air force unit)\"), two surface [flotillas](/wiki/Flotilla \"Flotilla\"), a [special warfare](/wiki/Special_warfare \"Special warfare\") force, and units for combat readiness and [meteorology](/wiki/Meteorology \"Meteorology\")/[oceanography](/wiki/Oceanography \"Oceanography\"):",
"* Submarine Force Command{{cite web\\|title\\=작전권 갖춘 잠수함사령부 창설...세계 6번째\\|url\\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2015/01/30/0200000000AKR20150130128300043\\.HTML\\|website\\=\\[\\[Yonhap News Agency]]\\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305051736/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2015/01/30/0200000000AKR20150130128300043\\.HTML\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-05\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|date\\=February 2015}}\n* Naval Air Command\n* Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five (Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, Naval Mobile Construction Squadron 59\\)\n* Maritime Task Flotilla Seven (Maritime Task Squadron 71, Maritime Task Squadron 72, Mobile Logistics Squadron 77\\)\n* Battle Training Group Eight{{cite web\\|title\\='해군 전투훈련의 메카' 제8전투훈련단, 창설 1주년\\|url\\=http://www.changwonilbo.com/news/139328\\|website\\=창원일보\\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828200239/http://www.changwonilbo.com/news/139328\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-28\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n* [Naval Special Warfare Flotilla](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy_UDT/SEAL \"Republic of Korea Navy UDT/SEAL\") (including UDT/SEAL, [EOD](/wiki/Explosive_ordnance_disposal \"Explosive ordnance disposal\"), and Sea Salvage \\& Rescue Unit (SSU){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2018/08/01/2018080101846\\.html\\|title\\=\\[단독] 해군, UDT와 SSU 통합한다\\|date\\=2018\\-08\\-01\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Chosun Ilbo]]\\|language\\=ko\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802120545/http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2018/08/01/2018080101846\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-02\\|url\\-status\\=live}})\n* Maritime Intelligence Group\n* **Numbered fleets**",
"In 1986, the ROK Navy reorganized its patrol forces into three fleets: the First Fleet, Second Fleet, and Third Fleet. The three numbered fleets, each is led by a rear admiral (upper half), are responsible for protecting the coastal water around South Korea: The First Fleet is for the eastern naval sector, the Second Fleet is for the western naval sector and the Third Fleet is for the southern naval sector including [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island \"Jeju Island\"). Each fleet includes a Maritime Battle Group, Logistics Squadron, Base Squadron, and Training Squadron.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://daily.hankooki.com/lpage/politics/201501/dh20150131133400137530\\.htm\\|title\\=해군함대사령부 예하에 3개전투단 창설...전투전대지휘\\|website\\=데일리한국\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811075645/http://daily.hankooki.com/lpage/politics/201501/dh20150131133400137530\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-11\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2016}} The Maritime Battle Group comprises squadrons of patrol forces composed of [*Kwanggaeto the Great*\\-class](/wiki/Gwanggaeto_the_Great_class_destroyer \"Gwanggaeto the Great class destroyer\") destroyers, [*Daegu*\\-class](/wiki/Daegu-class_frigate \"Daegu-class frigate\") and [*Incheon\\-class*](/wiki/Incheon_class_frigate \"Incheon class frigate\") frigates, [*Ulsan*\\-class](/wiki/Ulsan_class_frigate \"Ulsan class frigate\") frigates, [*Pohang*\\-class](/wiki/Pohang_class_corvette \"Pohang class corvette\") corvettes, and patrol vessels ([*Yoon Youngha\\-*class](/wiki/Gumdoksuri_class_patrol_vessel \"Gumdoksuri class patrol vessel\") fast missile craft, *Chamsuri 211\\-*class fast rocket craft, [*Chamsuri\\-*class](/wiki/Chamsuri_class_patrol_vessel \"Chamsuri class patrol vessel\") fast patrol boats).\n* **Submarine Force Command**",
"Headquartered in Jinhae, the Submarine Force Command was established in February 2015\\. The ROK Navy's submarine unit had a humble beginning with three *Dolgorae*\\-class midget submarines in June 1990\\. After acquiring ROKS *Jang Bogo* (SS 061\\), a Type 209\\-class submarine, the Submarine Squadron 57 of the Component Flotilla Five was upgraded to the Submarine Flotilla Nine in October 1995\\. Since then, it has been playing the role of the ROK Navy's core strength.",
"The Submarine Force Command, which is led by a rear admiral (upper half), includes six Submarine Squadrons with [Type 214 submarines](/wiki/Type_214_submarine \"Type 214 submarine\") (*Sohn Wonyil* class) and [Type 209 submarines](/wiki/Type_209_submarine \"Type 209 submarine\") (*Jang Bogo* class). In September 2018, the ROK Navy launched the first locally designed 3,000\\-ton submarine, [ROKS *Dosan Ahn Changho* (SS 083\\)](/wiki/Dosan_Ahn_Changho-class_submarine \"Dosan Ahn Changho-class submarine\").",
"The Submarine Force Command offers the International Submarine Education \\& Training Program (ISETP) for submariners around the world.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\\_writ\\_date\\=20180917\\&bbs\\_id\\=BBSMSTR\\_000000000005\\&parent\\_no\\=3\\|title\\=한국군 잠수함 운용 노하우 세계로\\|publisher\\=국방일보\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927204442/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\\_writ\\_date\\=20180917\\&bbs\\_id\\=BBSMSTR\\_000000000005\\&parent\\_no\\=3\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-27\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=27 September 2018}}",
"* **Naval Air Command**",
"Headquartered in [Pohang](/wiki/Pohang \"Pohang\"), the Naval Air Command is responsible for the operation of [naval aircraft](/wiki/Naval_aircraft \"Naval aircraft\"). South Korean naval flying started in 1951, with the reconstruction of a former [USAF](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") [T\\-6 Texan](/wiki/North_American_T-6_Texan \"North American T-6 Texan\") for naval duties. In 1957, the ROK Navy established the Fleet Aviation Unit, which became the Fleet Air Wing in 1977 when the Navy strengthened its naval aviation force by acquiring [Grumman S\\-2 Tracker](/wiki/S-2_Tracker \"S-2 Tracker\") ASW aircraft and [Aérospatiale Alouette III](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III \"Aérospatiale Alouette III\") helicopters. In 1986, the Fleet Air Wing was renamed the Air Wing Six. In 2022, the ROK Navy upgraded the Air Wing Six to the Naval Air Command.",
"The Naval Air Command has naval air stations in [Pohang (K\\-3\\)](/wiki/Pohang_Airport \"Pohang Airport\"), [Mokpo (K\\-15\\)](/wiki/Mokpo_Airport \"Mokpo Airport\"), [Jinhae (K\\-10\\)](/wiki/Jinhae_Airport \"Jinhae Airport\"), and a detached unit at [Jeju International Airport](/wiki/Jeju_International_Airport \"Jeju International Airport\"). The Naval Air Command, which is led by a rear admiral (upper half), includes three air groups, and operates about 70 fixed\\-wing and [rotary\\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Rotary-wing_aircraft \"Rotary-wing aircraft\") such as [P\\-3CK Orion](/wiki/P-3C_Orion \"P-3C Orion\") [maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft \"Maritime patrol aircraft\") and [AW159 Wildcat](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW159_Wildcat \"AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat\") [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") helicopters.",
"* **Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five**",
"Headquartered in Jinhae, the Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five (formerly Component Flotilla Five) has been the matrix of various units conducting naval component operations such as [anti\\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") (ASW), mine warfare, [amphibious warfare](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare \"Amphibious warfare\"), salvage and [special operations](/wiki/Special_operations \"Special operations\"). As a successor to the Flotilla One and Flotilla Two, the Component Flotilla Five was founded in 1986 with the ASW Squadron 51 (later to become Maritime Task Flotilla Seven), Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, Service Squadron 55 (later Sea Salvage \\& Rescue Unit), and Special Warfare Squadron 56 (later Naval Special Warfare Flotilla). In 1990 and 2007, the Submarine Squadron 57 (later Submarine Force Command) and Training Squadron 509 (later Battle Training Group Eight) were established respectively. As of December 2018, the Flotilla Five was composed of the Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, and Naval Mobile Construction Squadron 59\\. The Commander Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five is a rear admiral (lower half).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190712/1/BBSMSTR\\_000000100059/view.do\\|title\\=유일하고 완벽한 작전, 미래 해군 건설 선도한다\\|website\\=국방일보\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-30\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-30\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930183750/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190712/1/BBSMSTR\\_000000100059/view.do\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"* **Maritime Task Flotilla Seven**",
"Since the 1990s, the ROK Navy has been trying to build an ocean\\-going fleet to protect the [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication \"Sea lines of communication\"). In 2001, President [Kim Dae\\-jung](/wiki/Kim_Dae-jung \"Kim Dae-jung\") revealed that the Navy will have a task force called \"Strategic Task Fleet\" (*Jeollyak\\-gidong\\-hamdae*), which will \"protect national interests in the five oceans and contribute to world peace.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://pa.go.kr/research/contents/speech/index.jsp?spMode\\=view\\&catid\\=c\\_pa02062\\&artid\\=1309055\\|title\\=해군사관학교 제 55기 졸업 및 임관식 연설(21세기 대양해군으로 가는 길)\\|website\\=pa.go.kr (대통령기록연구실)\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308003000/http://pa.go.kr/research/contents/speech/index.jsp?spMode\\=view\\&catid\\=c\\_pa02062\\&artid\\=1309055\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-08\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-07}}",
"As part of the plan, the ROK Navy established a task force called Maritime Task Flotilla Seven on February 1, 2010, which evolved from the [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") Squadron 51 of the Component Flotilla Five. It is led by a rear admiral (lower half), and headquartered at Jeju Naval Base in [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island \"Jeju Island\"). The task force is responsible for the defense of South Korea against sea\\-borne threats and protection of its [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication \"Sea lines of communication\"). The Maritime Task Flotilla Seven includes three surface squadrons: The Maritime Task Squadron 71 and 72 are composed of three [*Sejong the Great*\\-class](/wiki/King_Sejong_the_Great_class_destroyer \"King Sejong the Great class destroyer\") [AEGIS](/wiki/Aegis_Combat_System \"Aegis Combat System\") [guided\\-missile destroyers](/wiki/Guided_missile_destroyer \"Guided missile destroyer\") and six [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\\-sin*\\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer \"Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer\") destroyers; the Mobile Logistics Squadron 77 is composed of [*Soyang*\\-class](/wiki/ROKS_Soyang_%28AOE-51%29 \"ROKS Soyang (AOE-51)\") and [*Cheonji*\\-class](/wiki/Cheonji-class_fast_combat_support_ship \"Cheonji-class fast combat support ship\") fast combat support ships.[\"Navy Activates 1st strategic Mobile Fleet\"](https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2010/02/205_60079.html) . Korea Times. Retrieved February 1, 2010\\.",
"A [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\\-sin*\\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer \"Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer\") destroyer of the Maritime Task Flotilla Seven is being deployed as the [Escort Task Group (*Cheonghae*)](/wiki/Cheonghae_Unit \"Cheonghae Unit\") in response to [piracy](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\") in shipping lanes off the coast of [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"). As a humanitarian operation, ROKS *Munmu the Great* (DDH 976\\) of the task group was dispatched to evacuate South Koreans and foreign nationals from war\\-torn [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\") in 2014\\.",
"The ROK Navy plans to upgrade the Maritime Task Flotilla Seven to a fleet with 18 destroyers.",
"### Republic of Korea Marine Corps",
"{{main\\|Republic of Korea Marine Corps}}\n[thumb\\|right\\| KAAV7A1 assault amphibious vehicles of the ROKMC at Cobra Gold 2014 in Thailand](/wiki/File:2014.2.14._2014_%EC%BD%94%EB%B8%8C%EB%9D%BC%EA%B3%A8%EB%93%9C_%EC%97%B0%ED%95%A9%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A82014_Cobra_Gold_Combined_Exercise_14th%2C_Feb%2C_2014_%2812652073913%29.jpg \"2014.2.14. 2014 코브라골드 연합훈련2014 Cobra Gold Combined Exercise 14th, Feb, 2014 (12652073913).jpg\")\nThe ROK Navy includes the [Republic of Korea Marine Corps](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Marine_Corps \"Republic of Korea Marine Corps\"), which functions as a branch of the Navy.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.moleg.go.kr/lawinfo/lawAnalysis/nwLwAnList?pageIndex\\=507\\&csSeq\\=378794\\|title\\=법령해석 사례 \\- 해병대를 육ㆍ해ㆍ공군에 속하지 않는 독립된 군 조직으로 볼 수 있는지 여부\\|website\\=www.moleg.go.kr\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209125118/http://www.moleg.go.kr/lawinfo/lawAnalysis/nwLwAnList?pageIndex\\=507\\&csSeq\\=378794\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-09\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-08}} The ROK Marine Corps is responsible for conducting amphibious operations with the ROK Navy. The Marine Corps, with 29,000 personnel, is organized into two divisions and two brigades under the Headquarters ROK Marine Corps. The Commandant of the Republic of Korea Marine Corps is a three\\-star general. The ROK Marine Corps has about 300 tracked vehicles including [assault amphibious vehicles](/wiki/Assault_Amphibious_Vehicle \"Assault Amphibious Vehicle\"), [main battle tanks](/wiki/Main_battle_tank \"Main battle tank\"), and [self\\-propelled artillery](/wiki/Self-propelled_artillery \"Self-propelled artillery\").",
"### Shore establishments",
"* **Naval Education and Training Command**\nHeadquartered in Jinhae, the Naval Education and Training Command is one of the two major shore commands of the ROK Navy. The Command is responsible for training, education and professional development of the Navy's active duty Sailors.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.edunavy.mil.kr:10003/themes/basic/sub1/2\\_2\\.jsp\\|title\\=임무 \\- 해군교육사령부\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011321/https://www.edunavy.mil.kr:10003/themes/basic/sub1/2\\_2\\.jsp\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-12\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-10}} One of its primary roles is to conduct the initial orientation and basic training for new recruits of the Navy and the [Korea Coast Guard](/wiki/Korea_Coast_Guard \"Korea Coast Guard\"). The Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC) is under the Naval Education and Training Command. The Naval Education and Training Command is led by a vice admiral.\n* **Naval Logistics Command**",
"The Naval Logistics Command is the other major shore command of the ROK Navy. It is located in Jinhae. The Command delivers logistics and support to the Navy, and is committed to the Navy's combat readiness. It includes the Naval Ship Yard, the Naval Supply Center, the Naval Ordnance Ammunition Center, and the Naval Technology Research Institute. The Naval Logistics Command is led by a rear admiral (upper half).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.navylogicom.mil.kr/internet/gunsu/cons/organ.jsp\\|title\\=조직 – 해군군수사령부\\|website\\=www.navylogicom.mil.kr\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011353/http://www.navylogicom.mil.kr/internet/gunsu/cons/organ.jsp\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-12\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-10}}\n* **Republic of Korea Naval Academy**\n{{main\\|Korea Naval Academy}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Midshipmen stand in formation at the ROK Naval Academy graduation ceremony](/wiki/File:Midshipmen_at_the_ROK_Naval_Academy_graduation..jpg \"Midshipmen at the ROK Naval Academy graduation..jpg\")\nThe Republic of Korea Naval Academy is a four\\-year coeducational service academy located in Jinhae. It was established in 1946\\. Graduates are commissioned as Ensigns in the Navy or Second Lieutenants in the Marine Corps. The Naval Academy also hosts the Officer Candidate School (OCS), which provides training to become commissioned officers for civilian college graduates and candidates with military experience.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.navy.ac.kr/english/intro/intro\\_organization.jsp\\|title\\=Organization \\- Naval Academy Introduction Organization Page\\|website\\=www.navy.ac.kr\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-10\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212070455/http://www.navy.ac.kr/english/intro/intro\\_organization.jsp\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-12\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Superintendent of the ROK Naval Academy is a vice admiral.",
"### U.S. naval units in South Korea",
"South Korea has a joint military partnership with the United States as outlined by the [Mutual Defense Treaty](/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Treaty_Between_the_United_States_and_the_Republic_of_Korea \"Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea\") signed in October 1953\\. The ROK Navy has worked closely with the U.S. Navy to promote regional stability.",
"Headquartered at Busan Naval Base,{{cite web\\|title\\=New Era of US, ROK Navy Alliance Begins in Busan\\|url\\=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story\\_id\\=93194\\|website\\=Official Website of the United States Navy\\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625144049/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story\\_id\\=93194\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-25\\|url\\-status\\=live}} the [Commander U.S. Naval Forces Korea](/wiki/Commander_Naval_Forces_Korea \"Commander Naval Forces Korea\") (CNFK) is a shore command of the United States Navy that serves as the shore support agency for all U.S. naval activity in South Korea. The U.S. Naval Forces Korea was established in July 1957, with headquarters in Seoul.",
"Originally established as the U.S. Naval Advisory Group Chinhae Detachment, the [Commander Fleet Activities Chinhae](/wiki/Commander_Fleet_Activities_Chinhae \"Commander Fleet Activities Chinhae\") (CFAC) is a U.S. Navy installation in Jinhae.",
""
] |
### Republic of Korea Fleet
[thumb\|right\|Map of South Korea](/wiki/Image:Southkoreamap.png "Southkoreamap.png")
The Republic of Korea Fleet, the highest operational command of the ROK Navy, was established in September 1953\. Headquartered at Busan Naval Base, the Commander Republic of Korea Fleet (formerly Commander\-in\-Chief Republic of Korea Fleet) is responsible for naval operations. COMROKFLT, a three\-star admiral, also serves as the Commander Naval Component Command (CNCC) of the [ROK\-US Combined Forces Command](/wiki/ROK-US_Combined_Forces_Command "ROK-US Combined Forces Command") (CFC).
The Republic of Korea Fleet has three numbered fleets each assigned to the seas east, west, and south of South Korea:
* First Fleet ([HQ](/wiki/Headquarters "Headquarters"): [Donghae](/wiki/Donghae_City "Donghae City"))
* Maritime Battle Group One
* Second Fleet (HQ: [Pyeongtaek](/wiki/Pyeongtaek "Pyeongtaek"))
* Maritime Battle Group Two
* Incheon Naval Sector Defense Command (HQ: [Incheon](/wiki/Incheon "Incheon"))
* Third Fleet (HQ: [Mokpo](/wiki/Mokpo "Mokpo"))
* Maritime Battle Group Three
For various types of naval operations, the ROK Fleet has a submarine force, a naval aviation [force](/wiki/Wing_%28air_force_unit%29 "Wing (air force unit)"), two surface [flotillas](/wiki/Flotilla "Flotilla"), a [special warfare](/wiki/Special_warfare "Special warfare") force, and units for combat readiness and [meteorology](/wiki/Meteorology "Meteorology")/[oceanography](/wiki/Oceanography "Oceanography"):
* Submarine Force Command{{cite web\|title\=작전권 갖춘 잠수함사령부 창설...세계 6번째\|url\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2015/01/30/0200000000AKR20150130128300043\.HTML\|website\=\[\[Yonhap News Agency]]\|access\-date\=25 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305051736/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2015/01/30/0200000000AKR20150130128300043\.HTML\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-05\|url\-status\=live\|date\=February 2015}}
* Naval Air Command
* Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five (Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, Naval Mobile Construction Squadron 59\)
* Maritime Task Flotilla Seven (Maritime Task Squadron 71, Maritime Task Squadron 72, Mobile Logistics Squadron 77\)
* Battle Training Group Eight{{cite web\|title\='해군 전투훈련의 메카' 제8전투훈련단, 창설 1주년\|url\=http://www.changwonilbo.com/news/139328\|website\=창원일보\|access\-date\=25 June 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828200239/http://www.changwonilbo.com/news/139328\|archive\-date\=2016\-08\-28\|url\-status\=live}}
* [Naval Special Warfare Flotilla](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy_UDT/SEAL "Republic of Korea Navy UDT/SEAL") (including UDT/SEAL, [EOD](/wiki/Explosive_ordnance_disposal "Explosive ordnance disposal"), and Sea Salvage \& Rescue Unit (SSU){{Cite web\|url\=http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2018/08/01/2018080101846\.html\|title\=\[단독] 해군, UDT와 SSU 통합한다\|date\=2018\-08\-01\|website\=\[\[The Chosun Ilbo]]\|language\=ko\|access\-date\=2019\-01\-12\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802120545/http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2018/08/01/2018080101846\.html\|archive\-date\=2018\-08\-02\|url\-status\=live}})
* Maritime Intelligence Group
* **Numbered fleets**
In 1986, the ROK Navy reorganized its patrol forces into three fleets: the First Fleet, Second Fleet, and Third Fleet. The three numbered fleets, each is led by a rear admiral (upper half), are responsible for protecting the coastal water around South Korea: The First Fleet is for the eastern naval sector, the Second Fleet is for the western naval sector and the Third Fleet is for the southern naval sector including [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island "Jeju Island"). Each fleet includes a Maritime Battle Group, Logistics Squadron, Base Squadron, and Training Squadron.{{cite web\|url\=http://daily.hankooki.com/lpage/politics/201501/dh20150131133400137530\.htm\|title\=해군함대사령부 예하에 3개전투단 창설...전투전대지휘\|website\=데일리한국\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811075645/http://daily.hankooki.com/lpage/politics/201501/dh20150131133400137530\.htm\|archive\-date\=2016\-08\-11\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=25 June 2016}} The Maritime Battle Group comprises squadrons of patrol forces composed of [*Kwanggaeto the Great*\-class](/wiki/Gwanggaeto_the_Great_class_destroyer "Gwanggaeto the Great class destroyer") destroyers, [*Daegu*\-class](/wiki/Daegu-class_frigate "Daegu-class frigate") and [*Incheon\-class*](/wiki/Incheon_class_frigate "Incheon class frigate") frigates, [*Ulsan*\-class](/wiki/Ulsan_class_frigate "Ulsan class frigate") frigates, [*Pohang*\-class](/wiki/Pohang_class_corvette "Pohang class corvette") corvettes, and patrol vessels ([*Yoon Youngha\-*class](/wiki/Gumdoksuri_class_patrol_vessel "Gumdoksuri class patrol vessel") fast missile craft, *Chamsuri 211\-*class fast rocket craft, [*Chamsuri\-*class](/wiki/Chamsuri_class_patrol_vessel "Chamsuri class patrol vessel") fast patrol boats).
* **Submarine Force Command**
Headquartered in Jinhae, the Submarine Force Command was established in February 2015\. The ROK Navy's submarine unit had a humble beginning with three *Dolgorae*\-class midget submarines in June 1990\. After acquiring ROKS *Jang Bogo* (SS 061\), a Type 209\-class submarine, the Submarine Squadron 57 of the Component Flotilla Five was upgraded to the Submarine Flotilla Nine in October 1995\. Since then, it has been playing the role of the ROK Navy's core strength.
The Submarine Force Command, which is led by a rear admiral (upper half), includes six Submarine Squadrons with [Type 214 submarines](/wiki/Type_214_submarine "Type 214 submarine") (*Sohn Wonyil* class) and [Type 209 submarines](/wiki/Type_209_submarine "Type 209 submarine") (*Jang Bogo* class). In September 2018, the ROK Navy launched the first locally designed 3,000\-ton submarine, [ROKS *Dosan Ahn Changho* (SS 083\)](/wiki/Dosan_Ahn_Changho-class_submarine "Dosan Ahn Changho-class submarine").
The Submarine Force Command offers the International Submarine Education \& Training Program (ISETP) for submariners around the world.{{cite web\|url\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\_writ\_date\=20180917\&bbs\_id\=BBSMSTR\_000000000005\&parent\_no\=3\|title\=한국군 잠수함 운용 노하우 세계로\|publisher\=국방일보\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927204442/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\_writ\_date\=20180917\&bbs\_id\=BBSMSTR\_000000000005\&parent\_no\=3\|archive\-date\=2018\-09\-27\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=27 September 2018}}
* **Naval Air Command**
Headquartered in [Pohang](/wiki/Pohang "Pohang"), the Naval Air Command is responsible for the operation of [naval aircraft](/wiki/Naval_aircraft "Naval aircraft"). South Korean naval flying started in 1951, with the reconstruction of a former [USAF](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force") [T\-6 Texan](/wiki/North_American_T-6_Texan "North American T-6 Texan") for naval duties. In 1957, the ROK Navy established the Fleet Aviation Unit, which became the Fleet Air Wing in 1977 when the Navy strengthened its naval aviation force by acquiring [Grumman S\-2 Tracker](/wiki/S-2_Tracker "S-2 Tracker") ASW aircraft and [Aérospatiale Alouette III](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III "Aérospatiale Alouette III") helicopters. In 1986, the Fleet Air Wing was renamed the Air Wing Six. In 2022, the ROK Navy upgraded the Air Wing Six to the Naval Air Command.
The Naval Air Command has naval air stations in [Pohang (K\-3\)](/wiki/Pohang_Airport "Pohang Airport"), [Mokpo (K\-15\)](/wiki/Mokpo_Airport "Mokpo Airport"), [Jinhae (K\-10\)](/wiki/Jinhae_Airport "Jinhae Airport"), and a detached unit at [Jeju International Airport](/wiki/Jeju_International_Airport "Jeju International Airport"). The Naval Air Command, which is led by a rear admiral (upper half), includes three air groups, and operates about 70 fixed\-wing and [rotary\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Rotary-wing_aircraft "Rotary-wing aircraft") such as [P\-3CK Orion](/wiki/P-3C_Orion "P-3C Orion") [maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft "Maritime patrol aircraft") and [AW159 Wildcat](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW159_Wildcat "AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat") [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") helicopters.
* **Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five**
Headquartered in Jinhae, the Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five (formerly Component Flotilla Five) has been the matrix of various units conducting naval component operations such as [anti\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") (ASW), mine warfare, [amphibious warfare](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare "Amphibious warfare"), salvage and [special operations](/wiki/Special_operations "Special operations"). As a successor to the Flotilla One and Flotilla Two, the Component Flotilla Five was founded in 1986 with the ASW Squadron 51 (later to become Maritime Task Flotilla Seven), Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, Service Squadron 55 (later Sea Salvage \& Rescue Unit), and Special Warfare Squadron 56 (later Naval Special Warfare Flotilla). In 1990 and 2007, the Submarine Squadron 57 (later Submarine Force Command) and Training Squadron 509 (later Battle Training Group Eight) were established respectively. As of December 2018, the Flotilla Five was composed of the Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, and Naval Mobile Construction Squadron 59\. The Commander Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five is a rear admiral (lower half).{{Cite web\|url\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190712/1/BBSMSTR\_000000100059/view.do\|title\=유일하고 완벽한 작전, 미래 해군 건설 선도한다\|website\=국방일보\|access\-date\=2019\-09\-30\|archive\-date\=2019\-09\-30\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930183750/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190712/1/BBSMSTR\_000000100059/view.do\|url\-status\=dead}}
* **Maritime Task Flotilla Seven**
Since the 1990s, the ROK Navy has been trying to build an ocean\-going fleet to protect the [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication "Sea lines of communication"). In 2001, President [Kim Dae\-jung](/wiki/Kim_Dae-jung "Kim Dae-jung") revealed that the Navy will have a task force called "Strategic Task Fleet" (*Jeollyak\-gidong\-hamdae*), which will "protect national interests in the five oceans and contribute to world peace."{{Cite web\|url\=http://pa.go.kr/research/contents/speech/index.jsp?spMode\=view\&catid\=c\_pa02062\&artid\=1309055\|title\=해군사관학교 제 55기 졸업 및 임관식 연설(21세기 대양해군으로 가는 길)\|website\=pa.go.kr (대통령기록연구실)\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308003000/http://pa.go.kr/research/contents/speech/index.jsp?spMode\=view\&catid\=c\_pa02062\&artid\=1309055\|archive\-date\=2019\-03\-08\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-07}}
As part of the plan, the ROK Navy established a task force called Maritime Task Flotilla Seven on February 1, 2010, which evolved from the [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") Squadron 51 of the Component Flotilla Five. It is led by a rear admiral (lower half), and headquartered at Jeju Naval Base in [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island "Jeju Island"). The task force is responsible for the defense of South Korea against sea\-borne threats and protection of its [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication "Sea lines of communication"). The Maritime Task Flotilla Seven includes three surface squadrons: The Maritime Task Squadron 71 and 72 are composed of three [*Sejong the Great*\-class](/wiki/King_Sejong_the_Great_class_destroyer "King Sejong the Great class destroyer") [AEGIS](/wiki/Aegis_Combat_System "Aegis Combat System") [guided\-missile destroyers](/wiki/Guided_missile_destroyer "Guided missile destroyer") and six [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\-sin*\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer "Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer") destroyers; the Mobile Logistics Squadron 77 is composed of [*Soyang*\-class](/wiki/ROKS_Soyang_%28AOE-51%29 "ROKS Soyang (AOE-51)") and [*Cheonji*\-class](/wiki/Cheonji-class_fast_combat_support_ship "Cheonji-class fast combat support ship") fast combat support ships.["Navy Activates 1st strategic Mobile Fleet"](https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2010/02/205_60079.html) . Korea Times. Retrieved February 1, 2010\.
A [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\-sin*\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer "Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer") destroyer of the Maritime Task Flotilla Seven is being deployed as the [Escort Task Group (*Cheonghae*)](/wiki/Cheonghae_Unit "Cheonghae Unit") in response to [piracy](/wiki/Piracy "Piracy") in shipping lanes off the coast of [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia "Somalia"). As a humanitarian operation, ROKS *Munmu the Great* (DDH 976\) of the task group was dispatched to evacuate South Koreans and foreign nationals from war\-torn [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya") in 2014\.
The ROK Navy plans to upgrade the Maritime Task Flotilla Seven to a fleet with 18 destroyers.
|
[
"### Republic of Korea Fleet",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Map of South Korea](/wiki/Image:Southkoreamap.png \"Southkoreamap.png\")\nThe Republic of Korea Fleet, the highest operational command of the ROK Navy, was established in September 1953\\. Headquartered at Busan Naval Base, the Commander Republic of Korea Fleet (formerly Commander\\-in\\-Chief Republic of Korea Fleet) is responsible for naval operations. COMROKFLT, a three\\-star admiral, also serves as the Commander Naval Component Command (CNCC) of the [ROK\\-US Combined Forces Command](/wiki/ROK-US_Combined_Forces_Command \"ROK-US Combined Forces Command\") (CFC).",
"The Republic of Korea Fleet has three numbered fleets each assigned to the seas east, west, and south of South Korea:\n* First Fleet ([HQ](/wiki/Headquarters \"Headquarters\"): [Donghae](/wiki/Donghae_City \"Donghae City\"))\n* Maritime Battle Group One\n* Second Fleet (HQ: [Pyeongtaek](/wiki/Pyeongtaek \"Pyeongtaek\"))\n* Maritime Battle Group Two\n* Incheon Naval Sector Defense Command (HQ: [Incheon](/wiki/Incheon \"Incheon\"))\n* Third Fleet (HQ: [Mokpo](/wiki/Mokpo \"Mokpo\"))\n* Maritime Battle Group Three\nFor various types of naval operations, the ROK Fleet has a submarine force, a naval aviation [force](/wiki/Wing_%28air_force_unit%29 \"Wing (air force unit)\"), two surface [flotillas](/wiki/Flotilla \"Flotilla\"), a [special warfare](/wiki/Special_warfare \"Special warfare\") force, and units for combat readiness and [meteorology](/wiki/Meteorology \"Meteorology\")/[oceanography](/wiki/Oceanography \"Oceanography\"):",
"* Submarine Force Command{{cite web\\|title\\=작전권 갖춘 잠수함사령부 창설...세계 6번째\\|url\\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2015/01/30/0200000000AKR20150130128300043\\.HTML\\|website\\=\\[\\[Yonhap News Agency]]\\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305051736/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2015/01/30/0200000000AKR20150130128300043\\.HTML\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-05\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|date\\=February 2015}}\n* Naval Air Command\n* Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five (Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, Naval Mobile Construction Squadron 59\\)\n* Maritime Task Flotilla Seven (Maritime Task Squadron 71, Maritime Task Squadron 72, Mobile Logistics Squadron 77\\)\n* Battle Training Group Eight{{cite web\\|title\\='해군 전투훈련의 메카' 제8전투훈련단, 창설 1주년\\|url\\=http://www.changwonilbo.com/news/139328\\|website\\=창원일보\\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828200239/http://www.changwonilbo.com/news/139328\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-28\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n* [Naval Special Warfare Flotilla](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy_UDT/SEAL \"Republic of Korea Navy UDT/SEAL\") (including UDT/SEAL, [EOD](/wiki/Explosive_ordnance_disposal \"Explosive ordnance disposal\"), and Sea Salvage \\& Rescue Unit (SSU){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2018/08/01/2018080101846\\.html\\|title\\=\\[단독] 해군, UDT와 SSU 통합한다\\|date\\=2018\\-08\\-01\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Chosun Ilbo]]\\|language\\=ko\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-12\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802120545/http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2018/08/01/2018080101846\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-08\\-02\\|url\\-status\\=live}})\n* Maritime Intelligence Group\n* **Numbered fleets**",
"In 1986, the ROK Navy reorganized its patrol forces into three fleets: the First Fleet, Second Fleet, and Third Fleet. The three numbered fleets, each is led by a rear admiral (upper half), are responsible for protecting the coastal water around South Korea: The First Fleet is for the eastern naval sector, the Second Fleet is for the western naval sector and the Third Fleet is for the southern naval sector including [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island \"Jeju Island\"). Each fleet includes a Maritime Battle Group, Logistics Squadron, Base Squadron, and Training Squadron.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://daily.hankooki.com/lpage/politics/201501/dh20150131133400137530\\.htm\\|title\\=해군함대사령부 예하에 3개전투단 창설...전투전대지휘\\|website\\=데일리한국\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811075645/http://daily.hankooki.com/lpage/politics/201501/dh20150131133400137530\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-08\\-11\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=25 June 2016}} The Maritime Battle Group comprises squadrons of patrol forces composed of [*Kwanggaeto the Great*\\-class](/wiki/Gwanggaeto_the_Great_class_destroyer \"Gwanggaeto the Great class destroyer\") destroyers, [*Daegu*\\-class](/wiki/Daegu-class_frigate \"Daegu-class frigate\") and [*Incheon\\-class*](/wiki/Incheon_class_frigate \"Incheon class frigate\") frigates, [*Ulsan*\\-class](/wiki/Ulsan_class_frigate \"Ulsan class frigate\") frigates, [*Pohang*\\-class](/wiki/Pohang_class_corvette \"Pohang class corvette\") corvettes, and patrol vessels ([*Yoon Youngha\\-*class](/wiki/Gumdoksuri_class_patrol_vessel \"Gumdoksuri class patrol vessel\") fast missile craft, *Chamsuri 211\\-*class fast rocket craft, [*Chamsuri\\-*class](/wiki/Chamsuri_class_patrol_vessel \"Chamsuri class patrol vessel\") fast patrol boats).\n* **Submarine Force Command**",
"Headquartered in Jinhae, the Submarine Force Command was established in February 2015\\. The ROK Navy's submarine unit had a humble beginning with three *Dolgorae*\\-class midget submarines in June 1990\\. After acquiring ROKS *Jang Bogo* (SS 061\\), a Type 209\\-class submarine, the Submarine Squadron 57 of the Component Flotilla Five was upgraded to the Submarine Flotilla Nine in October 1995\\. Since then, it has been playing the role of the ROK Navy's core strength.",
"The Submarine Force Command, which is led by a rear admiral (upper half), includes six Submarine Squadrons with [Type 214 submarines](/wiki/Type_214_submarine \"Type 214 submarine\") (*Sohn Wonyil* class) and [Type 209 submarines](/wiki/Type_209_submarine \"Type 209 submarine\") (*Jang Bogo* class). In September 2018, the ROK Navy launched the first locally designed 3,000\\-ton submarine, [ROKS *Dosan Ahn Changho* (SS 083\\)](/wiki/Dosan_Ahn_Changho-class_submarine \"Dosan Ahn Changho-class submarine\").",
"The Submarine Force Command offers the International Submarine Education \\& Training Program (ISETP) for submariners around the world.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\\_writ\\_date\\=20180917\\&bbs\\_id\\=BBSMSTR\\_000000000005\\&parent\\_no\\=3\\|title\\=한국군 잠수함 운용 노하우 세계로\\|publisher\\=국방일보\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927204442/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\\_writ\\_date\\=20180917\\&bbs\\_id\\=BBSMSTR\\_000000000005\\&parent\\_no\\=3\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-27\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=27 September 2018}}",
"* **Naval Air Command**",
"Headquartered in [Pohang](/wiki/Pohang \"Pohang\"), the Naval Air Command is responsible for the operation of [naval aircraft](/wiki/Naval_aircraft \"Naval aircraft\"). South Korean naval flying started in 1951, with the reconstruction of a former [USAF](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") [T\\-6 Texan](/wiki/North_American_T-6_Texan \"North American T-6 Texan\") for naval duties. In 1957, the ROK Navy established the Fleet Aviation Unit, which became the Fleet Air Wing in 1977 when the Navy strengthened its naval aviation force by acquiring [Grumman S\\-2 Tracker](/wiki/S-2_Tracker \"S-2 Tracker\") ASW aircraft and [Aérospatiale Alouette III](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III \"Aérospatiale Alouette III\") helicopters. In 1986, the Fleet Air Wing was renamed the Air Wing Six. In 2022, the ROK Navy upgraded the Air Wing Six to the Naval Air Command.",
"The Naval Air Command has naval air stations in [Pohang (K\\-3\\)](/wiki/Pohang_Airport \"Pohang Airport\"), [Mokpo (K\\-15\\)](/wiki/Mokpo_Airport \"Mokpo Airport\"), [Jinhae (K\\-10\\)](/wiki/Jinhae_Airport \"Jinhae Airport\"), and a detached unit at [Jeju International Airport](/wiki/Jeju_International_Airport \"Jeju International Airport\"). The Naval Air Command, which is led by a rear admiral (upper half), includes three air groups, and operates about 70 fixed\\-wing and [rotary\\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Rotary-wing_aircraft \"Rotary-wing aircraft\") such as [P\\-3CK Orion](/wiki/P-3C_Orion \"P-3C Orion\") [maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft \"Maritime patrol aircraft\") and [AW159 Wildcat](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW159_Wildcat \"AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat\") [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") helicopters.",
"* **Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five**",
"Headquartered in Jinhae, the Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five (formerly Component Flotilla Five) has been the matrix of various units conducting naval component operations such as [anti\\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") (ASW), mine warfare, [amphibious warfare](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare \"Amphibious warfare\"), salvage and [special operations](/wiki/Special_operations \"Special operations\"). As a successor to the Flotilla One and Flotilla Two, the Component Flotilla Five was founded in 1986 with the ASW Squadron 51 (later to become Maritime Task Flotilla Seven), Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, Service Squadron 55 (later Sea Salvage \\& Rescue Unit), and Special Warfare Squadron 56 (later Naval Special Warfare Flotilla). In 1990 and 2007, the Submarine Squadron 57 (later Submarine Force Command) and Training Squadron 509 (later Battle Training Group Eight) were established respectively. As of December 2018, the Flotilla Five was composed of the Mine Squadron 52, Amphibious Squadron 53, and Naval Mobile Construction Squadron 59\\. The Commander Mine/Amphibious Flotilla Five is a rear admiral (lower half).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190712/1/BBSMSTR\\_000000100059/view.do\\|title\\=유일하고 완벽한 작전, 미래 해군 건설 선도한다\\|website\\=국방일보\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-30\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-30\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930183750/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20190712/1/BBSMSTR\\_000000100059/view.do\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"* **Maritime Task Flotilla Seven**",
"Since the 1990s, the ROK Navy has been trying to build an ocean\\-going fleet to protect the [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication \"Sea lines of communication\"). In 2001, President [Kim Dae\\-jung](/wiki/Kim_Dae-jung \"Kim Dae-jung\") revealed that the Navy will have a task force called \"Strategic Task Fleet\" (*Jeollyak\\-gidong\\-hamdae*), which will \"protect national interests in the five oceans and contribute to world peace.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://pa.go.kr/research/contents/speech/index.jsp?spMode\\=view\\&catid\\=c\\_pa02062\\&artid\\=1309055\\|title\\=해군사관학교 제 55기 졸업 및 임관식 연설(21세기 대양해군으로 가는 길)\\|website\\=pa.go.kr (대통령기록연구실)\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308003000/http://pa.go.kr/research/contents/speech/index.jsp?spMode\\=view\\&catid\\=c\\_pa02062\\&artid\\=1309055\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-08\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-07}}",
"As part of the plan, the ROK Navy established a task force called Maritime Task Flotilla Seven on February 1, 2010, which evolved from the [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") Squadron 51 of the Component Flotilla Five. It is led by a rear admiral (lower half), and headquartered at Jeju Naval Base in [Jeju Island](/wiki/Jeju_Island \"Jeju Island\"). The task force is responsible for the defense of South Korea against sea\\-borne threats and protection of its [sea lines of communication](/wiki/Sea_lines_of_communication \"Sea lines of communication\"). The Maritime Task Flotilla Seven includes three surface squadrons: The Maritime Task Squadron 71 and 72 are composed of three [*Sejong the Great*\\-class](/wiki/King_Sejong_the_Great_class_destroyer \"King Sejong the Great class destroyer\") [AEGIS](/wiki/Aegis_Combat_System \"Aegis Combat System\") [guided\\-missile destroyers](/wiki/Guided_missile_destroyer \"Guided missile destroyer\") and six [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\\-sin*\\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer \"Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer\") destroyers; the Mobile Logistics Squadron 77 is composed of [*Soyang*\\-class](/wiki/ROKS_Soyang_%28AOE-51%29 \"ROKS Soyang (AOE-51)\") and [*Cheonji*\\-class](/wiki/Cheonji-class_fast_combat_support_ship \"Cheonji-class fast combat support ship\") fast combat support ships.[\"Navy Activates 1st strategic Mobile Fleet\"](https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2010/02/205_60079.html) . Korea Times. Retrieved February 1, 2010\\.",
"A [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\\-sin*\\-class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer \"Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer\") destroyer of the Maritime Task Flotilla Seven is being deployed as the [Escort Task Group (*Cheonghae*)](/wiki/Cheonghae_Unit \"Cheonghae Unit\") in response to [piracy](/wiki/Piracy \"Piracy\") in shipping lanes off the coast of [Somalia](/wiki/Somalia \"Somalia\"). As a humanitarian operation, ROKS *Munmu the Great* (DDH 976\\) of the task group was dispatched to evacuate South Koreans and foreign nationals from war\\-torn [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\") in 2014\\.",
"The ROK Navy plans to upgrade the Maritime Task Flotilla Seven to a fleet with 18 destroyers.",
""
] |
Personnel
---------
The ROK Navy has about 70,000 personnel, including the 29,000 members of the ROK Marine Corps.
[Military service is mandatory for all South Korean men](/wiki/Conscription_in_South_Korea "Conscription in South Korea"). In the ROK Navy, all members are volunteers, with enlisted seamen serving for 20\-month periods; commissioned officers, warrant officers, and petty officers serving longer terms than those of enlisted seamen, or as career. Women can volunteer as officers, warrant officers, or petty officers. In 2001, six female [ensigns](/wiki/Ensign_%28rank%29 "Ensign (rank)"), who had become commissioned officers through the Officer Candidate School, were assigned to serve on surface ships of the ROK Navy, for the first time.["女해군장교들 첫 함정근무 (신문기사)"](http://www2.mogaha.go.kr/webapp/bbs/notice/view.action?serial=161024&sc_param=for_frame&listStatusStr=rO0ABXNyABpjb20uZ2VuMTI4LmRhdGEuTGlzdFN0YXR1c7sGCWct5HSSAgAESQAHbWF4U2l6ZUkABm9mZnNldEwACmNvbmRpdGlvbnN0ABNMamF2YS91dGlsL0hhc2hNYXA7TAAEc29ydHQAEkxqYXZhL2xhbmcvU3RyaW5nO3hwAAAADwAAAHhzcgARamF2YS51dGlsLkhhc2hNYXAFB9rBwxZg0QMAAkYACmxvYWRGYWN0b3JJAAl0aHJlc2hvbGR4cD9AAAAAAAAMdwgAAAAQAAAAAHh0AAZzZXJpYWw=) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070531181047/http://www2\.mogaha.go.kr/webapp/bbs/notice/view.action?serial\=161024≻\_param\=for\_frame\&listStatusStr\=rO0ABXNyABpjb20uZ2VuMTI4LmRhdGEuTGlzdFN0YXR1c7sGCWct5HSSAgAESQAHbWF4U2l6ZUkABm9mZnNldEwACmNvbmRpdGlvbnN0ABNMamF2YS91dGlsL0hhc2hNYXA7TAAEc29ydHQAEkxqYXZhL2xhbmcvU3RyaW5nO3hwAAAADwAAAHhzcgARamF2YS51dGlsLkhhc2hNYXAFB9rBwxZg0QMAAkYACmxvYWRGYWN0b3JJAAl0aHJlc2hvbGR4cD9AAAAAAAAMdwgAAAAQAAAAAHh0AAZzZXJpYWw%3D \|date\=2007\-05\-31 }}. Ministry of Government Administration and Home affairs Official Website. Retrieved May 11, 2007\.
* **Commissioned officers**
[Three ROKN Lieutenants were appointed as the first female commanding officers of [*Chamsuri*\-class patrol boats](/wiki/Chamsuri_class_patrol_boat "Chamsuri class patrol boat") in 2012\.\|right\|thumb](/wiki/Image:2012_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EC%97%AC%EA%B5%B0_%EA%B3%A0%EC%86%8D%EC%A0%95_%EC%A0%95%EC%9E%A5_%EC%9E%84%EB%AA%85_%287559205702%29.jpg "2012 해군 여군 고속정 정장 임명 (7559205702).jpg")
There are several paths to becoming a commissioned officer in the ROK Navy, including the Naval Academy, Officer Candidate School (OCS), and Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC). Officer Candidate School, located at the Naval Academy, Jinhae, provides training for candidates with current or prior enlisted experience in the military and civilian college graduates, which take majority in OCS.
* **Warrant officers**
The [warrant officer](/wiki/Warrant_officer "Warrant officer") rank in the [South Korean armed forces](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Armed_Forces "Republic of Korea Armed Forces") falls in between that of non\-commissioned and commissioned officers. In the ROK Navy, warrant officers are mostly former [non\-commissioned officers](/wiki/Non-commissioned_officers "Non-commissioned officers") who had earned the rating of *[Sangsa](/wiki/Sangsa "Sangsa")* (Chief petty officer) or *[Wonsa](/wiki/Wonsa "Wonsa")* (Master chief petty officer) and who had been selected for and completed the warrant officer candidate program. Other routes include the naval aviation program and Air Intercept Controller (AIC) program; a small number of warrant officers serve as language officers who specialize in English translation and interpretation.{{cite web\|url\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\_writ\_date\=20131202\&parent\_no\=2\&bbs\_id\=BBSMSTR\_000000000004\|title\=해·공군 女준위 첫 탄생\|publisher\=국방일보\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206143730/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\_writ\_date\=20131202\&parent\_no\=2\&bbs\_id\=BBSMSTR\_000000000004\|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-06\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=25 September 2018}}
Warrant officers mess in the [wardroom](/wiki/Wardroom "Wardroom") with commissioned officers.
* **Petty officers**
[A South Korean navy petty officer aboard ROKS *Munmu the Great* (DDH 976\) waves to onlookers pier side.\|right\|thumb](/wiki/Image:A_South_Korean_navy_petty_officer.jpg "A South Korean navy petty officer.jpg")
Petty officers originate from a petty officer candidate program, which trains military personnel and civilians who take majority \- seamen experience is not required to become petty officers. In the ROK Navy, personnel with ranks of *Hasa* (Petty officer) through *Wonsa* are considered petty officers (i.e. [non\-commissioned officers](/wiki/Non-commissioned_officers "Non-commissioned officers")). Those at *Sangsa* and *Wonsa* are further referred to as "CPO" ([chief petty officer](/wiki/Chief_petty_officer "Chief petty officer")) collectively and considered a separate community within the Navy. "CPO"s have privileges such as separate dining and living areas.
There are the appointments of *Juim\-wonsa* and *Juim\-sangsa* equivalent to that of the U.S. Navy's [command master chief petty officer](/wiki/Command_master_chief_petty_officer "Command master chief petty officer") (CMDCM). The positions are filled by senior *Wonsa* and *Sangsa* respectively and unlike their U.S. Navy counterparts, the ROK Navy *Juim\-wonsa* and *Juim\-sangsa* wear the same standard rate insignia of *Wonsa* or *Sangsa* with an identification badge.<http://blog.daum.net/howbuddy/547>
* **Seamen**
[Two South Korean navy seamen find the time to relax.\|right\|thumb](/wiki/Image:Two_Republic_of_Korea_Navy_sailors_find_the_time_to_relax_RIMPAC_980708-N-2619S-002.jpg "Two Republic of Korea Navy sailors find the time to relax RIMPAC 980708-N-2619S-002.jpg")
In the ROK Navy, seamen are referred to as "*Subyeong*" ({{lang\-ko\|수병}}; [Hanja](/wiki/Hanja "Hanja"): 水兵). Normally the enlisted seamen serve in the Navy for 20 months; civilian recruits get initial trainings at the basic military training center in Jinhae as *Ideungbyeong* (Seaman 2nd class). After completing their military services as *[Byeongjang](/wiki/Byeongjang "Byeongjang")* (Leading seaman), most of them are transferred from active duty to the naval reserve. Others continue the military service as *Hasa* (Petty officer) and may become career petty officers.{{cite web\|title\=해군 유급지원병 지원 '러시'\|url\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\_writ\_date\=20180425\&bbs\_id\=BBSMSTR\_000000000005\&parent\_no\=5\|publisher\=국방일보\|access\-date\=25 September 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130222816/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\_writ\_date\=20180425\&bbs\_id\=BBSMSTR\_000000000005\&parent\_no\=5\|archive\-date\=30 November 2018\|url\-status\=live\|df\=dmy\-all}}
### Uniforms
ROK Navy uniforms were influenced by US Navy uniforms with some notable differences. Petty officers, not just chief petty officers, wear uniforms identical to that of a commissioned officer's uniform except with different insignia, and petty officers wear a [combination cap](/wiki/Combination_cap "Combination cap") with a white cover and a gold [chinstrap](/wiki/wikt:Chinstrap "Chinstrap"). Seamen wear dungaree trousers, chambray shirts and "dixie cup" hats as their work uniforms. Honor guards and musicians of the navy bands of seaman rates wear [sailor caps](/wiki/Sailor_cap "Sailor cap") bearing "Republic of Korea Navy" in [Hangul](/wiki/Hangul "Hangul") with the dress uniforms.
A new shipboard working uniform similar to the [NWU](/wiki/Navy_Working_Uniform "Navy Working Uniform") Type I has been issued since 2021\.{{cite news\|url\=https://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20210219/2/BBSMSTR\_000000010024/view.do\|title\=해군 신형 함상복·함상화 보급\|publisher\=Kookbang Ilbo\|date\=2021\-02\-18\|language\=Korean}}
### Ranks and rates
{{main\|Military ranks of South Korea}}
In the ROK Navy, as in the rest of the ROK Armed Forces, ranks fall into one of four categories: commissioned officer, warrant officer, petty officer (non\-commissioned officer), and seaman, in decreasing order of authority. Commissioned officer ranks are subdivided into flag officers, senior officers (lieutenant commander through captain), and junior officers (ensign through lieutenant).
ROK Navy [commissioned officer](/wiki/Commissioned_officers "Commissioned officers") ranks have two distinct sets of rank insignia: On [dress uniform](/wiki/Dress_uniform "Dress uniform") a series of stripes similar to [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations") naval ranks are worn; on service uniforms, working uniforms, and special uniform situations (combat utilities and flight suits), the rank insignia are the same as the equivalent rank in the Army or the Air Force. The warrant officer rank insignia is denoted by a gold\-colored *Sowi* insignia, and a single broken stripe.
All three branches – the [Army](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Army "Republic of Korea Army"), the Navy, and the [Air Force](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Air_Force "Republic of Korea Air Force") of the ROK Armed Forces share the same rank insignia and the same names of ranks in Korean.
Commissioned officer
| Rank group | Flag officers | | | | | | | | | | Senior officers | | | | | | Junior officers | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|
{{Ranks and Insignia of Non NATO Navies/OF/South Korea}}
Warrant officer
| Rank group | Warrant officer |
| --- | --- |
| **{{naval\|South Korea}}** | [100px](/wiki/File:SouthKorea-Collar-WO.svg "SouthKorea-Collar-WO.svg")[100px](/wiki/File:SouthKorea-Navy-WO.svg "SouthKorea-Navy-WO.svg") |
| {{lang\|ko\|준위}}{{lang\|ko\-Latn\|\[\[Junwi]]}} |
Enlisted
| Rank group | Petty officers | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Seamen | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|
{{Ranks and Insignia of Non NATO Navies/OR/South Korea}}
|
[
"Personnel\n---------",
"The ROK Navy has about 70,000 personnel, including the 29,000 members of the ROK Marine Corps.",
"[Military service is mandatory for all South Korean men](/wiki/Conscription_in_South_Korea \"Conscription in South Korea\"). In the ROK Navy, all members are volunteers, with enlisted seamen serving for 20\\-month periods; commissioned officers, warrant officers, and petty officers serving longer terms than those of enlisted seamen, or as career. Women can volunteer as officers, warrant officers, or petty officers. In 2001, six female [ensigns](/wiki/Ensign_%28rank%29 \"Ensign (rank)\"), who had become commissioned officers through the Officer Candidate School, were assigned to serve on surface ships of the ROK Navy, for the first time.[\"女해군장교들 첫 함정근무 (신문기사)\"](http://www2.mogaha.go.kr/webapp/bbs/notice/view.action?serial=161024&sc_param=for_frame&listStatusStr=rO0ABXNyABpjb20uZ2VuMTI4LmRhdGEuTGlzdFN0YXR1c7sGCWct5HSSAgAESQAHbWF4U2l6ZUkABm9mZnNldEwACmNvbmRpdGlvbnN0ABNMamF2YS91dGlsL0hhc2hNYXA7TAAEc29ydHQAEkxqYXZhL2xhbmcvU3RyaW5nO3hwAAAADwAAAHhzcgARamF2YS51dGlsLkhhc2hNYXAFB9rBwxZg0QMAAkYACmxvYWRGYWN0b3JJAAl0aHJlc2hvbGR4cD9AAAAAAAAMdwgAAAAQAAAAAHh0AAZzZXJpYWw=) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070531181047/http://www2\\.mogaha.go.kr/webapp/bbs/notice/view.action?serial\\=161024≻\\_param\\=for\\_frame\\&listStatusStr\\=rO0ABXNyABpjb20uZ2VuMTI4LmRhdGEuTGlzdFN0YXR1c7sGCWct5HSSAgAESQAHbWF4U2l6ZUkABm9mZnNldEwACmNvbmRpdGlvbnN0ABNMamF2YS91dGlsL0hhc2hNYXA7TAAEc29ydHQAEkxqYXZhL2xhbmcvU3RyaW5nO3hwAAAADwAAAHhzcgARamF2YS51dGlsLkhhc2hNYXAFB9rBwxZg0QMAAkYACmxvYWRGYWN0b3JJAAl0aHJlc2hvbGR4cD9AAAAAAAAMdwgAAAAQAAAAAHh0AAZzZXJpYWw%3D \\|date\\=2007\\-05\\-31 }}. Ministry of Government Administration and Home affairs Official Website. Retrieved May 11, 2007\\.\n* **Commissioned officers**\n[Three ROKN Lieutenants were appointed as the first female commanding officers of [*Chamsuri*\\-class patrol boats](/wiki/Chamsuri_class_patrol_boat \"Chamsuri class patrol boat\") in 2012\\.\\|right\\|thumb](/wiki/Image:2012_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EC%97%AC%EA%B5%B0_%EA%B3%A0%EC%86%8D%EC%A0%95_%EC%A0%95%EC%9E%A5_%EC%9E%84%EB%AA%85_%287559205702%29.jpg \"2012 해군 여군 고속정 정장 임명 (7559205702).jpg\")\nThere are several paths to becoming a commissioned officer in the ROK Navy, including the Naval Academy, Officer Candidate School (OCS), and Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC). Officer Candidate School, located at the Naval Academy, Jinhae, provides training for candidates with current or prior enlisted experience in the military and civilian college graduates, which take majority in OCS.\n* **Warrant officers**",
"The [warrant officer](/wiki/Warrant_officer \"Warrant officer\") rank in the [South Korean armed forces](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Armed_Forces \"Republic of Korea Armed Forces\") falls in between that of non\\-commissioned and commissioned officers. In the ROK Navy, warrant officers are mostly former [non\\-commissioned officers](/wiki/Non-commissioned_officers \"Non-commissioned officers\") who had earned the rating of *[Sangsa](/wiki/Sangsa \"Sangsa\")* (Chief petty officer) or *[Wonsa](/wiki/Wonsa \"Wonsa\")* (Master chief petty officer) and who had been selected for and completed the warrant officer candidate program. Other routes include the naval aviation program and Air Intercept Controller (AIC) program; a small number of warrant officers serve as language officers who specialize in English translation and interpretation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\\_writ\\_date\\=20131202\\&parent\\_no\\=2\\&bbs\\_id\\=BBSMSTR\\_000000000004\\|title\\=해·공군 女준위 첫 탄생\\|publisher\\=국방일보\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206143730/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\\_writ\\_date\\=20131202\\&parent\\_no\\=2\\&bbs\\_id\\=BBSMSTR\\_000000000004\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-06\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=25 September 2018}}",
"Warrant officers mess in the [wardroom](/wiki/Wardroom \"Wardroom\") with commissioned officers.\n* **Petty officers**\n[A South Korean navy petty officer aboard ROKS *Munmu the Great* (DDH 976\\) waves to onlookers pier side.\\|right\\|thumb](/wiki/Image:A_South_Korean_navy_petty_officer.jpg \"A South Korean navy petty officer.jpg\")\nPetty officers originate from a petty officer candidate program, which trains military personnel and civilians who take majority \\- seamen experience is not required to become petty officers. In the ROK Navy, personnel with ranks of *Hasa* (Petty officer) through *Wonsa* are considered petty officers (i.e. [non\\-commissioned officers](/wiki/Non-commissioned_officers \"Non-commissioned officers\")). Those at *Sangsa* and *Wonsa* are further referred to as \"CPO\" ([chief petty officer](/wiki/Chief_petty_officer \"Chief petty officer\")) collectively and considered a separate community within the Navy. \"CPO\"s have privileges such as separate dining and living areas.",
"There are the appointments of *Juim\\-wonsa* and *Juim\\-sangsa* equivalent to that of the U.S. Navy's [command master chief petty officer](/wiki/Command_master_chief_petty_officer \"Command master chief petty officer\") (CMDCM). The positions are filled by senior *Wonsa* and *Sangsa* respectively and unlike their U.S. Navy counterparts, the ROK Navy *Juim\\-wonsa* and *Juim\\-sangsa* wear the same standard rate insignia of *Wonsa* or *Sangsa* with an identification badge.<http://blog.daum.net/howbuddy/547>\n* **Seamen**\n[Two South Korean navy seamen find the time to relax.\\|right\\|thumb](/wiki/Image:Two_Republic_of_Korea_Navy_sailors_find_the_time_to_relax_RIMPAC_980708-N-2619S-002.jpg \"Two Republic of Korea Navy sailors find the time to relax RIMPAC 980708-N-2619S-002.jpg\")\nIn the ROK Navy, seamen are referred to as \"*Subyeong*\" ({{lang\\-ko\\|수병}}; [Hanja](/wiki/Hanja \"Hanja\"): 水兵). Normally the enlisted seamen serve in the Navy for 20 months; civilian recruits get initial trainings at the basic military training center in Jinhae as *Ideungbyeong* (Seaman 2nd class). After completing their military services as *[Byeongjang](/wiki/Byeongjang \"Byeongjang\")* (Leading seaman), most of them are transferred from active duty to the naval reserve. Others continue the military service as *Hasa* (Petty officer) and may become career petty officers.{{cite web\\|title\\=해군 유급지원병 지원 '러시'\\|url\\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\\_writ\\_date\\=20180425\\&bbs\\_id\\=BBSMSTR\\_000000000005\\&parent\\_no\\=5\\|publisher\\=국방일보\\|access\\-date\\=25 September 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130222816/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\\_writ\\_date\\=20180425\\&bbs\\_id\\=BBSMSTR\\_000000000005\\&parent\\_no\\=5\\|archive\\-date\\=30 November 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"### Uniforms",
"ROK Navy uniforms were influenced by US Navy uniforms with some notable differences. Petty officers, not just chief petty officers, wear uniforms identical to that of a commissioned officer's uniform except with different insignia, and petty officers wear a [combination cap](/wiki/Combination_cap \"Combination cap\") with a white cover and a gold [chinstrap](/wiki/wikt:Chinstrap \"Chinstrap\"). Seamen wear dungaree trousers, chambray shirts and \"dixie cup\" hats as their work uniforms. Honor guards and musicians of the navy bands of seaman rates wear [sailor caps](/wiki/Sailor_cap \"Sailor cap\") bearing \"Republic of Korea Navy\" in [Hangul](/wiki/Hangul \"Hangul\") with the dress uniforms.",
"A new shipboard working uniform similar to the [NWU](/wiki/Navy_Working_Uniform \"Navy Working Uniform\") Type I has been issued since 2021\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20210219/2/BBSMSTR\\_000000010024/view.do\\|title\\=해군 신형 함상복·함상화 보급\\|publisher\\=Kookbang Ilbo\\|date\\=2021\\-02\\-18\\|language\\=Korean}}",
"### Ranks and rates",
"{{main\\|Military ranks of South Korea}}",
"In the ROK Navy, as in the rest of the ROK Armed Forces, ranks fall into one of four categories: commissioned officer, warrant officer, petty officer (non\\-commissioned officer), and seaman, in decreasing order of authority. Commissioned officer ranks are subdivided into flag officers, senior officers (lieutenant commander through captain), and junior officers (ensign through lieutenant).",
"ROK Navy [commissioned officer](/wiki/Commissioned_officers \"Commissioned officers\") ranks have two distinct sets of rank insignia: On [dress uniform](/wiki/Dress_uniform \"Dress uniform\") a series of stripes similar to [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations \"Commonwealth of Nations\") naval ranks are worn; on service uniforms, working uniforms, and special uniform situations (combat utilities and flight suits), the rank insignia are the same as the equivalent rank in the Army or the Air Force. The warrant officer rank insignia is denoted by a gold\\-colored *Sowi* insignia, and a single broken stripe.",
"All three branches – the [Army](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Army \"Republic of Korea Army\"), the Navy, and the [Air Force](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Air_Force \"Republic of Korea Air Force\") of the ROK Armed Forces share the same rank insignia and the same names of ranks in Korean.",
"Commissioned officer",
"| Rank group | Flag officers | | | | | | | | | | Senior officers | | | | | | Junior officers | | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|\n{{Ranks and Insignia of Non NATO Navies/OF/South Korea}}",
"",
"Warrant officer",
"| Rank group | Warrant officer |\n| --- | --- |\n| **{{naval\\|South Korea}}** | [100px](/wiki/File:SouthKorea-Collar-WO.svg \"SouthKorea-Collar-WO.svg\")[100px](/wiki/File:SouthKorea-Navy-WO.svg \"SouthKorea-Navy-WO.svg\") |\n| {{lang\\|ko\\|준위}}{{lang\\|ko\\-Latn\\|\\[\\[Junwi]]}} |",
"Enlisted",
"| Rank group | Petty officers | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Seamen | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|\n{{Ranks and Insignia of Non NATO Navies/OR/South Korea}}",
"",
""
] |
Equipment
---------
There are about 160 commissioned ships with the ROK Navy (a total displacement of about 350,000 tonnes{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.mod.go.jp/e/publ/w\_paper/pdf/2018/DOJ2018\_Full\_1130\.pdf\|title\=DEFENSE OF JAPAN 2018\|website\=Japan Ministry of Defense\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202133929/http://www.mod.go.jp/e/publ/w\_paper/pdf/2018/DOJ2018\_Full\_1130\.pdf\|archive\-date\=2018\-12\-02\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-11}}). The naval aviation force consists of about 70 fixed\-wing and [rotary\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Rotary-wing_aircraft "Rotary-wing aircraft").
### Ships
{{Further\|List of active Republic of Korea Navy ships}}
{{See also\-text\|\[\[List of ships of the Republic of Korea Navy]] for a list of decommissioned ships of the South Korean navy}}
The vessels are categorized into four levels. A first\-rate ship (*Sohn Wonyil*–class SS, DDG, DDH, LPH, MLS, and AOE) is commanded by a captain; a second\-rate ship (SS, FFG, FF, PCC, LST, ATS, and ASR) by a commander; a third\-rate ship (PKG, MSH, and MHC) by a lieutenant commander; and a fourth\-rate craft (PKMR, PKM, and LSF) is commanded by a lieutenant or a warrant officer.
The ROK Navy employs the U.S. Navy–style letter based [hull classification symbols](/wiki/Hull_classification_symbols "Hull classification symbols") to designate the types of its ships and [hull numbers](/wiki/Hull_number "Hull number") to uniquely identify its vessels (e.g. DDH 975{{NoteTag\|The ROK Navy does not use the number '4' when assigning hull numbers to their ships.}}). The names are that of the historical figures, Navy heroes, provinces, cities, counties, peaks, lakes, islands, and birds. The Chief of Naval Operations selects the names of ships.
The [ship prefix](/wiki/Ship_prefix "Ship prefix") for all the commissioned ROK Navy ship is **ROKS** (Republic of Korea Ship) when the names of ships are written in English.
| Class | Image | ROKN classification | Displacement(light/full tons) | First deployment | Commissioned | Launched | Note |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **[Submarines](/wiki/Submarines "Submarines")** | | | | | | | |
| [*Dosan Ahn Changho* class](/wiki/KSS-III_submarine "KSS-III submarine") | [180px](/wiki/File:ROKS_Dosan_Ahn_Changho_class_submarine.png "ROKS Dosan Ahn Changho class submarine.png") | SS: Submarine | 3,750 (submerged) | 2021 | 3 | \- | KSS\-III Batch\-I; 3 in batch |
| [*Sohn Wonyil* class](/wiki/Type_214_submarine "Type 214 submarine") | [180px\|ROKS Ahn Junggeun, a Sohn Wonyil\-class submarine](/wiki/File:2015.10.19._2015%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C%EB%AF%BC%EA%B5%AD%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EA%B4%80%ED%95%A8%EC%8B%9D_2%EC%B0%A8_%ED%95%B4%EC%83%81%EC%82%AC%EC%97%B4_%EB%B0%8F_%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8%EC%8B%9C%EB%B2%94_%2822125537148%29.jpg "2015.10.19. 2015대한민국해군 관함식 2차 해상사열 및 훈련시범 (22125537148).jpg") | SS: Submarine | 1,860 (submerged) | 2007 | 9 | \- | SS\-II (9 in class); Capable of launching cruise missiles{{cite web\|url\=http://www.spacewar.com/reports/South\_Korea\_launches\_guided\-missile\_submarine\_999\.html\|title\=South Korea launches guided\-missile submarine\|access\-date\=2016\-04\-08\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408174108/http://www.spacewar.com/reports/South\_Korea\_launches\_guided\-missile\_submarine\_999\.html\|archive\-date\=2016\-04\-08\|url\-status\=live}} |
| [*Jang Bogo* class](/wiki/Jang_Bogo-class_submarine "Jang Bogo-class submarine") | [180px\|ROKS Lee Eokgi (SS 071\)](/wiki/File:US_Navy_100707-N-7200S-207_ROKS_Lee_Eokgi_%28SS_071%29_leads_a_formation_of_U.S._and_coalition_forces_during_Rim_of_the_Pacific_%28RIMPAC%29_2010_exercises.jpg "US Navy 100707-N-7200S-207 ROKS Lee Eokgi (SS 071) leads a formation of U.S. and coalition forces during Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) 2010 exercises.jpg") | SS: Submarine | 1,290 (submerged) | 1993 | 9{{cite web\|title\=9번째 잠수함 '이억기함' 취역\|url\=http://legacy.www.hani.co.kr/section\-003100002/2001/12/003100002200112022024011\.html\|publisher\=\[\[The Hankyoreh]]\|access\-date\=6 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621093245/http://legacy.www.hani.co.kr/section\-003100002/2001/12/003100002200112022024011\.html\|archive\-date\=2018\-06\-21\|url\-status\=live}} | \- | SS\-I (Being upgraded){{Cite web\|url\=http://biz.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2016/11/21/2016112101109\.html\|title\=대우조선해양, 장보고급 잠수함 통합전투체계 성능 테스트 '통과'\|date\=2016\-11\-21\|website\=biz.chosun.com\|language\=ko\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226173051/http://biz.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2016/11/21/2016112101109\.html\|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-26\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-26}} |
| **[Destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer")** | | | | | | | |
| [*Sejong the Great* class](/wiki/Sejong_the_Great-class_destroyer "Sejong the Great-class destroyer") | [180px\|ROKS Sejong the Great (Sejong the Great class)](/wiki/File:2008%EB%85%849%EC%9B%9427%EC%9D%BC_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EC%84%B8%EC%A2%85%EB%8C%80%EC%99%95%ED%95%A8%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%99_%281%29_%287193823614%29.jpg "2008년9월27일 해군 세종대왕함기동 (1) (7193823614).jpg") | DDG: Destroyer Guided\-missile | 7,650/10,600 | 2008 | 3 {{cite web\|title\=3번째 '신의 방패' 서애류성룡함 취역\|url\=http://news.joins.com/article/9220216\|publisher\=\[\[JoongAng Ilbo]]\|access\-date\=6 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207031614/http://news.joins.com/article/9220216\|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-07\|url\-status\=live\|date\=2012\-09\-03}} | 1 | 3 more planned as KDX\-III Batch\-II{{cite web\|title\=South Korea's DAPA Selects HHI for KDX\-III Batch II Destroyer Design \& Construction\|date\=29 May 2016 \|url\=http://www.navyrecognition.com/index.php/news/defence\-news/2016/may\-2016\-navy\-naval\-forces\-defense\-industry\-technology\-maritime\-security\-global\-news/4035\-south\-koreas\-dapa\-selects\-hhi\-for\-kdx\-iii\-batch\-ii\-destroyer\-design\-a\-construction.html\|publisher\=Navy Recognition\|access\-date\=14 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215020954/http://www.navyrecognition.com/index.php/news/defence\-news/2016/may\-2016\-navy\-naval\-forces\-defense\-industry\-technology\-maritime\-security\-global\-news/4035\-south\-koreas\-dapa\-selects\-hhi\-for\-kdx\-iii\-batch\-ii\-destroyer\-design\-a\-construction.html\|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-15\|url\-status\=live}} |
| [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\-sin* class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer "Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer") | [180px\|ROKS Munmu the Great (DDH 976\), a Chungmugong Yi Sunshin\-class destroyer](/wiki/File:ROKS_Munmu_the_Great_%28DDH_976%29.jpg "ROKS Munmu the Great (DDH 976).jpg") | DDH: Destroyer Helicopter | 4,500/5,520 | 2003 | 6{{cite web\|title\=6번째 한국형 구축함(DDH\-II)인 '최영함'(4천200t급) 취역\|url\=http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2008/09/04/2008090401208\.html\|publisher\=\[\[The Chosun Ilbo]]\|access\-date\=6 February 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207112537/http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\_dir/2008/09/04/2008090401208\.html\|archive\-date\=7 February 2017}} | \- | DDH\-II; To be followed by [KDDX](/wiki/KDDX-class_destroyer "KDDX-class destroyer") |
| [*Kwanggaeto the Great* class](/wiki/Gwanggaeto_the_Great-class_destroyer "Gwanggaeto the Great-class destroyer") | [180px\|ROKS Kwanggaeto the Great (DDH 971\), the Navy's first indigenously built destroyer](/wiki/File:2009%EB%85%845%EC%9B%9415%EC%9D%BC_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_1%ED%95%A8%EB%8C%80%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8_%287193824738%29.jpg "2009년5월15일 해군 1함대훈련 (7193824738).jpg") | DDH: Destroyer Helicopter | 3,200/3,900 | 1998 | 3 | \- | DDH\-I |
| **[Frigates](/wiki/Frigate "Frigate")** | | | | | | | |
| [*Chungnam* class](/wiki/Chungnam-class_frigate "Chungnam-class frigate") | | FFG: Frigate Guided\-missile | 3,600/4,300 | 2024 | \- | 1 | FFG\-III (FFX Batch\-III; 6 in batch) |
| [*Daegu* class](/wiki/Daegu-class_frigate "Daegu-class frigate") | [180px\|ROKS Daegu (Daegu class)](/wiki/File:ROKS_Daegu_%28FFG-818%29.jpg "ROKS Daegu (FFG-818).jpg") | FFG: Frigate Guided\-missile | 3,100/3,650 | 2018 | 8 | \- | FFG\-II |
| [*Incheon* class](/wiki/Incheon-class_frigate "Incheon-class frigate") | [180px\|ROKS Incheon (Incheon class)](/wiki/File:20130626_%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C%ED%95%B4%ED%98%91_%EC%A0%84%EC%8A%B9%ED%96%89%EC%82%AC_%284%29_%289460603621%29.jpg "20130626 대한해협 전승행사 (4) (9460603621).jpg") | FFG: Frigate Guided\-missile | 2,500/3,251 | 2013 | 6 | \- | FFG\-I |
| [*Ulsan* class](/wiki/Ulsan-class_frigate "Ulsan-class frigate") | [180px\|ROKS Busan (Ulsan class)](/wiki/File:2009%EB%85%845%EC%9B%9415%EC%9D%BC_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_1%ED%95%A8%EB%8C%80%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A82_%287193824422%29.jpg "2009년5월15일 해군 1함대훈련2 (7193824422).jpg") | FF: Frigate | 1,446/2,350 | 1981 | 2 | \- | To be replaced by FFG |
| **[Corvettes](/wiki/Corvette "Corvette")** | | | | | | | |
| [*Pohang* class](/wiki/Pohang-class_corvette "Pohang-class corvette") | [180px\|ROKS Bucheon (Pohang class)](/wiki/File:2010._3._%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_PCC%ED%95%A8%EC%9D%98_%EC%9D%BC%EC%83%81_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_%287548298946%29.jpg "2010. 3. 해군 PCC함의 일상 Rep. of Korea Navy (7548298946).jpg") | PCC: Patrol Combat Corvette | 950/1,220 | 1984 | 3 | \- | To be replaced by FFG |
| **[Patrol vessels](/wiki/Patrol_vessels "Patrol vessels")** | | | | | | | |
| [*Yoon Youngha* class](/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel "Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel") | [180px\|ROKS Hyun Sihak (Yoon Youngha class)](/wiki/File:2012._9._%EC%84%9C%ED%95%B4_NLL%ED%95%B4%EC%83%81%EA%B2%BD%EA%B3%84_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_NLL_Maritime_Security_in_the_western_sea_%288031753530%29.jpg "2012. 9. 서해 NLL해상경계 Rep. of Korea Navy NLL Maritime Security in the western sea (8031753530).jpg") | PKG: Patrol Killer Guided\-missile | 440/570 | 2008 | 18{{cite web\|title\=유도탄고속함 '전병익함' 취역\|url\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\_writ\_date\=20180112\&parent\_no\=2\&bbs\_id\=BBSMSTR\_000000000005\|publisher\=국방일보\|access\-date\=24 September 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116101744/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\_writ\_date\=20180112\&parent\_no\=2\&bbs\_id\=BBSMSTR\_000000000005\|archive\-date\=2018\-01\-16\|url\-status\=live}} | \- | \- |
| [*Chamsuri* (PKMR 211\) class](/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel "Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel") | \- | PKMR: Patrol Killer Medium Rocket | 210/250 | 2017 | 16 | \- | PKX\-B Batch\-I (16 in batch), Batch\-II (18 in batch) |
| [*Chamsuri* (PKM 268\) class](/wiki/Chamsuri-class_patrol_boat "Chamsuri-class patrol boat") | [180px\|A Chamsuri\-class patrol craft and a Sohn Wonyil\-class submarine on background](/wiki/File:2010._7._%EB%8F%99%ED%95%B4_%ED%95%9C%EB%AF%B8%EC%97%B0%ED%95%A9_%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_korea_us_combine_training_%287554655104%29.jpg "2010. 7. 동해 한미연합 훈련 Rep. of Korea Navy korea us combine training (7554655104).jpg") | PKM: Patrol Killer Medium | 151/170 | 1978 | 26 | \- | To be replaced by PKG \& PKMR |
| **[Amphibious warfare ships](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare_ships "Amphibious warfare ships")** | | | | | | | |
| [*Dokdo* class](/wiki/Dokdo-class_amphibious_assault_ship "Dokdo-class amphibious assault ship") | [180px\|Amphibious transport dock, ROKS Dokdo (LPH 6111\)](/wiki/File:%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EB%8F%85%EB%8F%84%ED%95%A8_%287438321572%29.jpg "해군 독도함 (7438321572).jpg") | LPH: Landing Transport Helicopter{{Cite web\|url\=http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode\=LSD∣\=sec\&oid\=170\&aid\=0000000062\&sid1\=001\|title\=독도함 정확한 명칭은 '대형수송함(LPH)'\|website\=news.naver.com\|language\=ko\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-10}} | 14,550/19,000 | 2007 | 2 | \- | \- |
| [*Cheonwangbong* class](/wiki/Cheon_Wang_Bong-class_LST "Cheon Wang Bong-class LST") | [180px\|Christening ceremony of ROKS Cheonwangbong (Cheonwangbong class)](/wiki/File:2013._9._%EC%B2%9C%EC%99%95%EB%B4%89%ED%95%A8_%EC%A7%84%EC%88%98%EC%8B%9D_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_ROK_Ship_Chunwangbong_Launching_Ceremony_%289732841805%29.jpg "2013. 9. 천왕봉함 진수식 Rep. of Korea Navy ROK Ship Chunwangbong Launching Ceremony (9732841805).jpg") | LST: Landing Ship Tank | 4,900/8,000 | 2014 | 4{{Cite news\|url\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20181204/4/BBSMSTR\_000000010024/view.do\|title\=신형상륙함 4번함 '노적봉함' 취역기 펄럭\~\|work\=Kookbang Ilbo\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-11\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214065707/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20181204/4/BBSMSTR\_000000010024/view.do\|archive\-date\=2018\-12\-14\|url\-status\=live}} | \- | LST\-II |
| [*Gojunbong* class](/wiki/Go_Jun_Bong-class_LST "Go Jun Bong-class LST") | [180px\|ROKS Birobong (Gojunbong class)](/wiki/File:ROK_LST682_behind_a_LCAC.jpg "ROK LST682 behind a LCAC.jpg") | LST: Landing Ship Tank | 2,900/4,900 | 1993 | 4 | \- | \- |
| [*Solgae* (LSF 631\) class](/wiki/LSF-II_631 "LSF-II 631") | [180px\|ROKS Solgae 632 (Solgae 631 class)](/wiki/File:ROKS_LSF_632_launched_from_the_ROKS_Dokdo_%28LPH_6111%29.jpg "ROKS LSF 632 launched from the ROKS Dokdo (LPH 6111).jpg") | LSF: Landing Ship Fast | 95/155 | 2007 | 4 | 2 | LSF\-II (locally\-built [LCAC](/wiki/Landing_Craft_Air_Cushion "Landing Craft Air Cushion")) |
| [*Solgae* (LSF 621\) class](/wiki/Tsaplya-class_LCAC "Tsaplya-class LCAC") | [180px\|ROKS Solgae 623 (Solgae 621 class)](/wiki/File:2011.4.7_%ED%95%B4%EB%B3%912%EC%82%AC%EB%8B%A8_%EC%A0%81%EA%B5%AD%EC%A7%80%EB%8F%84%EB%B0%9C%EB%8C%80%EB%B9%84%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8_%287633940020%29.jpg "2011.4.7 해병2사단 적국지도발대비훈련 (7633940020).jpg") | LSF: Landing Ship Fast | 132/149 | 2005 | 3 | \- | Assault [hovercraft](/wiki/Hovercraft "Hovercraft") ([Project 12061E Murena\-E](/wiki/Tsaplya-class_LCAC "Tsaplya-class LCAC")) transferred from [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia")["Navy Catalog" (PDF Format)](http://www.rusarm.ru/cataloque/navy_cataloque.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917094214/http://www.rusarm.ru/cataloque/navy\_cataloque.html\|date\=2008\-09\-17}}. Rosoboronexport State Export Corporation Official Website. Retrieved March 22, 2007\.["러시아제 공기부양정 동원"](http://article.joins.com/article/article.asp?total_id=2481487) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104132007/http://article.joins.com/article/article.asp?total\_id\=2481487\|date\=2006\-11\-04}}. Joins.com. Retrieved April 5, 2007\. |
| **[Mine warfare ships](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine")** | | | | | | | |
| [*Nampo* class](/wiki/Nampo-class_minelayer "Nampo-class minelayer") | [180px\|ROKS Nampo (Nampo class)](/wiki/File:Trial_run_of_the_Nampo-class_minelayer_on_5_June_2017.jpg "Trial run of the Nampo-class minelayer on 5 June 2017.jpg") | MLS: Mine Layer Ship | 3,000/4,240 | 2017 | 1{{cite web\|title\=차기 기뢰부설함 '남포함' 해군 인도...내년초 실전배치 \- 연합뉴스\|url\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2017/06/09/0200000000AKR20170609032700014\.HTML\|publisher\=\[\[Yonhap News Agency]] \|access\-date\=23 September 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923162936/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2017/06/09/0200000000AKR20170609032700014\.HTML\|archive\-date\=2018\-09\-23\|url\-status\=live\|date\=2017\-06\-08}} | \- | MLS\-II |
| [*Wonsan* class](/wiki/Wonsan-class_minelayer "Wonsan-class minelayer") | [180px\|ROKS Wonsan (Wonsan class)](/wiki/File:2013._11._%ED%95%9C%EB%AF%B8_%EC%97%B0%ED%95%A9_%EA%B8%B0%EB%A2%B0%EC%A0%84_%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8_Republic_of_Korea_Navy_%2810917179044%29.jpg "2013. 11. 한미 연합 기뢰전 훈련 Republic of Korea Navy (10917179044).jpg") | MLS: Mine Layer Ship | 2,500/3,300 | 1997 | 1 | \- | MLS\-I |
| [*Yangyang* class](/wiki/Yangyang-class_minesweeper "Yangyang-class minesweeper") | [180px\|ROKS Ongjin (Yangyang class) and ROKS Goryeong (Ganggyeong class) on background](/wiki/File:2012._9._%EC%9D%B8%EC%B2%9C%EC%83%81%EB%A5%99%EC%9E%91%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EC%8A%B9%ED%96%89%EC%82%AC_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_62th_Anniversary_of_Incheon_Landing_Operation_%287998836744%29.jpg "2012. 9. 인천상륙작전 전승행사 Rep. of Korea Navy 62th Anniversary of Incheon Landing Operation (7998836744).jpg") | MSH: Mine Sweeper Hunter | 730/880 | 1999 | 6["최신예 국산 소해함 '해남함' 취역"](http://navy.korea.kr/navy/jsp/navy1_branch.jsp?_action=news_view&_property=p_sec_1&_id=65081998&) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028143638/http://navy.korea.kr/navy/jsp/navy1\_branch.jsp?\_action\=news\_view\&\_property\=p\_sec\_1\&\_id\=65081998\& \|date\=2007\-10\-28 }}. Republic of Korea Navy i\-News. Retrieved March 10, 2007\. | | \- |
| [*Ganggyeong* class](/wiki/Ganggyeong-class_minehunter "Ganggyeong-class minehunter") | MHC: Mine Hunter Coastal | 470/520 | 1986 | 6 | \- | \- |
| **[Auxiliary ships](/wiki/Auxiliary_ship "Auxiliary ship")** | | | | | | | |
| *Hansando* class | \- | ATH: Training Ship Helicopter | 4,500/6,000 | 2020 | 1[South Korea's first training ship enters naval service](https://www.defensenews.com/training-sim/2020/10/22/south-koreas-first-training-ship-enters-naval-service/), Brian Kim, [DefenseNews.com](/wiki/DefenseNews.com "DefenseNews.com"), 2020\-10\-23 | \- | Training ship and Casualty Receiving \& Treatment Ships (CRTS) |
| *Soyang* class | [180px\|Republic of Korea Navy Fast Combat Support Ship "Soyang"(AOE\-51\) berthed at Busan Naval Base in Jan 2020\.](/wiki/File:ROKS_Soyang_in_Busan_Naval_Base.jpg "ROKS Soyang in Busan Naval Base.jpg") | AOE: Fast Combat Support Ship | 10,600/23,000 | 2018 | 1{{cite web\|title\=국내 최대 군수지원함 '소양함' 취역...올해 연말 임무 투입\|url\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2018/09/18/0200000000AKR20180918101200051\.HTML\|publisher\=\[\[Yonhap News Agency]] \|access\-date\=23 September 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918083724/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2018/09/18/0200000000AKR20180918101200051\.HTML\|archive\-date\=2018\-09\-18\|url\-status\=live\|date\=2018\-09\-17}} | \- | AOE\-II |
| [*Cheonji* class](/wiki/Cheonji-class_combat_support_ship "Cheonji-class combat support ship") | [180px\|ROKS Hwacheon (AOE 59\) in counter\-terror exercise](/wiki/File:ROKS_Hwacheon_in_counter-terror_training_October_2015.jpg "ROKS Hwacheon in counter-terror training October 2015.jpg") | AOE: Fast Combat Support Ship | 4,200/9,200 | 1991 | 3 | \- | \- |
| *Tongyeong* class | [180px\|Christening ceremony of ROKS Tongyeong (Tongyeong class)](/wiki/File:2012._9._%ED%86%B5%EC%98%81%ED%95%A8_%EC%A7%84%EC%88%98%EC%8B%9D_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_Launching_ceremoney_of_ATS2_%287998812649%29.jpg "2012. 9. 통영함 진수식 Rep. of Korea Navy Launching ceremoney of ATS2 (7998812649).jpg") | ATS: Salvage and Rescue Ship | 3,500/4,710 | 2014 | 2{{cite web\|title\=해군 차기 수상함구조함(ATS\-II) 2번함 광양함이 정식으로 해군 함정으로 배치\|url\=http://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/4666778\|publisher\=CBSi\|access\-date\=6 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107010155/http://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/4666778\|archive\-date\=2017\-11\-07\|url\-status\=live\|date\=2016\-10\-10}} | \- | ATS\-II |
| [*Ganghwado* class](/wiki/Ganghwado-class_submarine_rescue_ship "Ganghwado-class submarine rescue ship") | \- | ASR: Submarine Rescue Ship | 5,600/6,800 | 2023 | \- | 1 | ASR\-II |
| [*Cheonghaejin* class](/wiki/Cheonghaejin-class_submarine_rescue_ship "Cheonghaejin-class submarine rescue ship") | [180px\|ROKS Cheonghaejin (Cheonghaejin class)](/wiki/File:2014.4_%EC%84%B8%EC%9B%94%ED%98%B8_%EA%B5%AC%EC%A1%B0_%EC%9E%91%EC%A0%84_%2813979529595%29.jpg "2014.4 세월호 구조 작전 (13979529595).jpg") | ASR: Submarine Rescue Ship | 3,200/4,300 | 1996 | 1 | \- | To be followed by ASR\-II |
| *Singiwon* class | \- | AGS: Surveying Ship | 3,500/4,600 | 2014 | 1{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/1118373\|title\=해군 도입 계획 무인항공기, GPS 전파교란에 무방비\|publisher\=CBSnocutnews\|access\-date\=8 October 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127080252/http://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/1118373\|archive\-date\=2016\-01\-27\|url\-status\=live\|date\=2013\-10\-23}}{{cite web\|url\=http://news.mt.co.kr/mtview.php?no\=2015091708417691998\|title\=해군 정보함 '신기원함' 무인항공기 추가도입사업 '꼼수'\|date\=17 September 2015 \|publisher\=MONEYTODAY\|access\-date\=8 October 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130090605/http://news.mt.co.kr/mtview.php?no\=2015091708417691998\|archive\-date\=2016\-01\-30\|url\-status\=live}} | \- | AGX\-II |
| *Sinsegi* class | \- | AGS: Surveying Ship | 2,850/3,700 | 2003 | 1{{cite web\|url\=http://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?nNewsNumb\=201101100011 \|title\=서해 5도 감시용 정보수집함은 鎭海 기지에서 '쿨쿨'... 연평도 포격 탐지는 '감감' \|publisher\=\[\[Monthly Chosun]] \|access\-date\=8 October 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127132222/http://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?nNewsNumb\=201101100011 \|archive\-date\=27 January 2016 }} | \- | AGX\-I |
| *Mulgae* (LCU 87\) class | \- | LCU: Landing Craft Utility | 540/940 | 2010 | 3 | \- | 500\-ton LCU for logistics support |
| *Mulgae* (LCU/L 79\) class | \- | LCU/L: Landing Craft Utility Minelayer | 235/442 | 1998 | 7 | \- | Littoral transport, logistics and mine warfare support |
|
### Aircraft
The Air Wing Six operates about 70 fixed\-wing and [rotary\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Rotary-wing_aircraft "Rotary-wing aircraft") including P\-3CK Orion maritime patrol aircraft and AW159 Wildcat ASW helicopters. These aircraft operate from bases throughout South Korea, as well as from the ROK Navy's ships.
The ROK Navy had operated about 30 [S\-2](/wiki/Grumman_S-2_Tracker "Grumman S-2 Tracker") [anti\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare") aircraft from 1976 to 2001\. From 1977 to 1979, the Navy had acquired 12 [Aérospatiale Alouette III](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III "Aérospatiale Alouette III") helicopters for [shipboard helicopter operations](/wiki/Shipboard_helicopter_operations "Shipboard helicopter operations") with ex\-USN [*Gearing*\-class](/wiki/Gearing-class_destroyer "Gearing-class destroyer") destroyers. The ROK Navy had acquired eight [P\-3C](/wiki/P-3_Orion "P-3 Orion") aircraft by 1996, and eight more [P\-3CK](/wiki/P-3_Orion "P-3 Orion") maritime patrol aircraft (ex\-USN P\-3B) were delivered to the ROK Navy by 2010 after undergoing extensive refurbishment and modernization. The Navy took delivery of the first batch of 12 Mk.99 [Lynx helicopters](/wiki/Westland_Lynx "Westland Lynx") in 1991; a second batch of 13 Mk.99A Super Lynx helicopters began delivery in 1999\. In 2016, the Navy took delivery of eight AW159 Wildcats helicopters.
| Aircraft | Image | Type | Variant | First deployment | In service | Note |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **[Fixed\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft "Fixed-wing aircraft")** | | | | | | |
| [Boeing P\-8 Poseidon](/wiki/Boeing_P-8_Poseidon "Boeing P-8 Poseidon") | | [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare%23Modern_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare#Modern warfare")/[Maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft "Maritime patrol aircraft") | P\-8A | 2023 | 6{{cite news\|url\=https://news.kbs.co.kr/news/pc/view/view.do?ncd\=8004091\&ref\=A\|title\=‘잠수함 사냥꾼’ 포세이돈 6대 해군에 인도…내부 공개\|trans\-title\=The Posideon, "submarine hunter" all 6 has been handed over to the Navy ...Internal disclosure\|date\=4 July 2024\|publisher\=KBS}} | |
|[Lockheed P\-3 Orion](/wiki/Lockheed_P-3_Orion "Lockheed P-3 Orion")
[180px\|A ROKN P\-3 Orion taking part in searching for Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501](/wiki/File:P-3_ROK-Jakarta.JPG "P-3 ROK-Jakarta.JPG")
[ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare%23Modern_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare#Modern warfare")/[Maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft "Maritime patrol aircraft")
P\-3CK |
2010 |
8{{cite web \|title\=Lockheed P\-3 Orion \- South Korea \|url\=http://www.amarcexperience.com/ui/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=22\&catid\=8\&Itemid\=159 \|website\=AMARC Experience \|access\-date\=1 March 2021}} |
8 ex\-USN P\-3B sent from AMARC for modernization by [KAI](/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Industries "Korea Aerospace Industries"); 1 additional spare aircraft used for parts and remaining hull scrapped in [Tucson, Arizona](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona").{{cite web \| url\=http://www.amarcexperience.com/ui/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=22\&catid\=8\&Itemid\=159 \| title\=The AMARC Experience \- Lockheed P\-3 Orion \- South Korea }} |
| P\-3C | 1995 | 8 | Updated{{cite web\|url\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/07/13/0200000000AKR20160713033900014\.HTML\|title\=레이더와 소노부이 등을 최신장비로 교체한 P\-3C 해상초계기가 지난 11일 해군에 처음 인도\|publisher\=\[\[Yonhap News Agency]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160714155553/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/07/13/0200000000AKR20160713033900014\.HTML\|archive\-date\=2016\-07\-14\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=6 February 2017\|date\=2016\-07\-12}} |
| [Reims\-Cessna F406 Caravan II](/wiki/Reims-Cessna_F406_Caravan_II "Reims-Cessna F406 Caravan II") | [180px\|A French Reims F406](/wiki/File:Reims_F406_Caravan_II%2C_France_-_Army_AN0632367.jpg "Reims F406 Caravan II, France - Army AN0632367.jpg") | light utility aircraft | F406 | 1999 | 5{{cite book\|title\=ROK Military Weapon Systems (2016\-2017\)\|date\=2016\|publisher\=Defense Times Korea}} | [Target tug](/wiki/Target_tug "Target tug") |
| **[Rotary\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Rotorcraft "Rotorcraft")** | | | | | | |
| [AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW159_Wildcat "AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat") | [180px\|A Royal Navy Wildcat](/wiki/File:Royal_Navy_Wildcat_Helicopter_MOD_45158434.jpg "Royal Navy Wildcat Helicopter MOD 45158434.jpg") | [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare%23Modern_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare#Modern warfare") helicopter | AW159 | 2017 | 8{{cite web\|title\=英 "한국 해군 '와일드캣' 작전헬기 첨단 성능 부럽다"\|url\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2017/02/21/0200000000AKR20170221145500009\.HTML\|publisher\=\[\[Yonhap News Agency]] \|access\-date\=10 October 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010134907/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2017/02/21/0200000000AKR20170221145500009\.HTML\|archive\-date\=2018\-10\-10\|url\-status\=live\|date\=2017\-02\-20}} | \- |
|[Westland Lynx](/wiki/Westland_Lynx "Westland Lynx")
[180px\|A ROKN Lynx ASW helo](/wiki/File:2012._9._%EC%9D%B8%EC%B2%9C%EC%83%81%EB%A5%99%EC%9E%91%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EC%8A%B9%ED%96%89%EC%82%AC_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_62th_Anniversary_of_Incheon_Landing_Operation_Rep.of_Korea_Navy_%287998834439%29.jpg "2012. 9. 인천상륙작전 전승행사 Rep. of Korea Navy 62th Anniversary of Incheon Landing Operation Rep.of Korea Navy (7998834439).jpg")
[ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare%23Modern_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare#Modern warfare") helicopter
Super Lynx Mk.99A |
1999 |
12{{cite web\|title\=추락 링스헬기 잔해 발견...해군, 운용중인 링스헬기 20여대 '운행중단'\|date\=27 September 2016\|url\=http://www.segye.com/content/html/2016/09/27/20160927000907\.html\|publisher\=\[\[Segye Ilbo]]\|access\-date\=6 February 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207192408/http://www.segye.com/content/html/2016/09/27/20160927000907\.html\|archive\-date\=2017\-02\-07\|url\-status\=live}} |
\- |
| Lynx Mk.99 | 1991 | 11 | \- |
| [Sikorsky UH\-60 Black Hawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk "Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk") | [180px\|A ROKN UH\-60P supporting SSU training](/wiki/File:%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%ED%95%B4%EB%82%9C%EA%B5%AC%EC%A1%B0%EB%8C%80_%ED%98%B9%ED%95%9C%EA%B8%B0_%EB%82%B4%ED%95%9C%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8.jpg "해군 해난구조대 혹한기 내한훈련.jpg") | utility transport helicopter | UH\-60P | 1994 | 8 | Built by [KAL\-ASD](/wiki/Korean_Air%23Aerospace_research_and_manufacturing "Korean Air#Aerospace research and manufacturing") |
| [Bell UH\-1 Iroquois](/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois "Bell UH-1 Iroquois") | [180px\|A ROKN UH\-1 supporting ROKMC training](/wiki/File:2014.8.12._%ED%95%B4%EB%B3%91%EB%8C%80_%EC%A0%9C2%EC%82%AC%EB%8B%A8-%EA%B3%A0%EA%B0%95%EB%8F%84_%ED%95%B4%EC%83%81%EC%B9%A8%ED%88%AC%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8_%28ROKMC_2nd_DIV_Gogang-Do_Surface_Infilfration_Training%29_%2814985290221%29.jpg "2014.8.12. 해병대 제2사단-고강도 해상침투훈련 (ROKMC 2nd DIV Gogang-Do Surface Infilfration Training) (14985290221).jpg") | utility transport helicopter | UH\-1H | 1978 | 8 | \- |
### Weaponry
{{main\|List of Republic of Korea Navy weaponry}}The ROK Navy, the [Defense Acquisition Program Administration](/wiki/Defense_Acquisition_Program_Administration "Defense Acquisition Program Administration") (DAPA), and the [Agency for Defense Development](/wiki/Agency_for_Defense_Development "Agency for Defense Development") (ADD) have been developing naval weaponry with local defense companies.
|
[
"Equipment\n---------",
"There are about 160 commissioned ships with the ROK Navy (a total displacement of about 350,000 tonnes{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mod.go.jp/e/publ/w\\_paper/pdf/2018/DOJ2018\\_Full\\_1130\\.pdf\\|title\\=DEFENSE OF JAPAN 2018\\|website\\=Japan Ministry of Defense\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202133929/http://www.mod.go.jp/e/publ/w\\_paper/pdf/2018/DOJ2018\\_Full\\_1130\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-02\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-11}}). The naval aviation force consists of about 70 fixed\\-wing and [rotary\\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Rotary-wing_aircraft \"Rotary-wing aircraft\").",
"### Ships",
"{{Further\\|List of active Republic of Korea Navy ships}}\n{{See also\\-text\\|\\[\\[List of ships of the Republic of Korea Navy]] for a list of decommissioned ships of the South Korean navy}}",
"The vessels are categorized into four levels. A first\\-rate ship (*Sohn Wonyil*–class SS, DDG, DDH, LPH, MLS, and AOE) is commanded by a captain; a second\\-rate ship (SS, FFG, FF, PCC, LST, ATS, and ASR) by a commander; a third\\-rate ship (PKG, MSH, and MHC) by a lieutenant commander; and a fourth\\-rate craft (PKMR, PKM, and LSF) is commanded by a lieutenant or a warrant officer.",
"The ROK Navy employs the U.S. Navy–style letter based [hull classification symbols](/wiki/Hull_classification_symbols \"Hull classification symbols\") to designate the types of its ships and [hull numbers](/wiki/Hull_number \"Hull number\") to uniquely identify its vessels (e.g. DDH 975{{NoteTag\\|The ROK Navy does not use the number '4' when assigning hull numbers to their ships.}}). The names are that of the historical figures, Navy heroes, provinces, cities, counties, peaks, lakes, islands, and birds. The Chief of Naval Operations selects the names of ships.",
"The [ship prefix](/wiki/Ship_prefix \"Ship prefix\") for all the commissioned ROK Navy ship is **ROKS** (Republic of Korea Ship) when the names of ships are written in English.",
"",
"| Class | Image | ROKN classification | Displacement(light/full tons) | First deployment | Commissioned | Launched | Note |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **[Submarines](/wiki/Submarines \"Submarines\")** | | | | | | | |\n| [*Dosan Ahn Changho* class](/wiki/KSS-III_submarine \"KSS-III submarine\") | [180px](/wiki/File:ROKS_Dosan_Ahn_Changho_class_submarine.png \"ROKS Dosan Ahn Changho class submarine.png\") | SS: Submarine | 3,750 (submerged) | 2021 | 3 | \\- | KSS\\-III Batch\\-I; 3 in batch |\n| [*Sohn Wonyil* class](/wiki/Type_214_submarine \"Type 214 submarine\") | [180px\\|ROKS Ahn Junggeun, a Sohn Wonyil\\-class submarine](/wiki/File:2015.10.19._2015%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C%EB%AF%BC%EA%B5%AD%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EA%B4%80%ED%95%A8%EC%8B%9D_2%EC%B0%A8_%ED%95%B4%EC%83%81%EC%82%AC%EC%97%B4_%EB%B0%8F_%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8%EC%8B%9C%EB%B2%94_%2822125537148%29.jpg \"2015.10.19. 2015대한민국해군 관함식 2차 해상사열 및 훈련시범 (22125537148).jpg\") | SS: Submarine | 1,860 (submerged) | 2007 | 9 | \\- | SS\\-II (9 in class); Capable of launching cruise missiles{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.spacewar.com/reports/South\\_Korea\\_launches\\_guided\\-missile\\_submarine\\_999\\.html\\|title\\=South Korea launches guided\\-missile submarine\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-08\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408174108/http://www.spacewar.com/reports/South\\_Korea\\_launches\\_guided\\-missile\\_submarine\\_999\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-08\\|url\\-status\\=live}} |\n| [*Jang Bogo* class](/wiki/Jang_Bogo-class_submarine \"Jang Bogo-class submarine\") | [180px\\|ROKS Lee Eokgi (SS 071\\)](/wiki/File:US_Navy_100707-N-7200S-207_ROKS_Lee_Eokgi_%28SS_071%29_leads_a_formation_of_U.S._and_coalition_forces_during_Rim_of_the_Pacific_%28RIMPAC%29_2010_exercises.jpg \"US Navy 100707-N-7200S-207 ROKS Lee Eokgi (SS 071) leads a formation of U.S. and coalition forces during Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) 2010 exercises.jpg\") | SS: Submarine | 1,290 (submerged) | 1993 | 9{{cite web\\|title\\=9번째 잠수함 '이억기함' 취역\\|url\\=http://legacy.www.hani.co.kr/section\\-003100002/2001/12/003100002200112022024011\\.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Hankyoreh]]\\|access\\-date\\=6 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621093245/http://legacy.www.hani.co.kr/section\\-003100002/2001/12/003100002200112022024011\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-21\\|url\\-status\\=live}} | \\- | SS\\-I (Being upgraded){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://biz.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2016/11/21/2016112101109\\.html\\|title\\=대우조선해양, 장보고급 잠수함 통합전투체계 성능 테스트 '통과'\\|date\\=2016\\-11\\-21\\|website\\=biz.chosun.com\\|language\\=ko\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226173051/http://biz.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2016/11/21/2016112101109\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-26\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-26}} |\n| **[Destroyers](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\")** | | | | | | | |\n| [*Sejong the Great* class](/wiki/Sejong_the_Great-class_destroyer \"Sejong the Great-class destroyer\") | [180px\\|ROKS Sejong the Great (Sejong the Great class)](/wiki/File:2008%EB%85%849%EC%9B%9427%EC%9D%BC_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EC%84%B8%EC%A2%85%EB%8C%80%EC%99%95%ED%95%A8%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%99_%281%29_%287193823614%29.jpg \"2008년9월27일 해군 세종대왕함기동 (1) (7193823614).jpg\") | DDG: Destroyer Guided\\-missile | 7,650/10,600 | 2008 | 3 {{cite web\\|title\\=3번째 '신의 방패' 서애류성룡함 취역\\|url\\=http://news.joins.com/article/9220216\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[JoongAng Ilbo]]\\|access\\-date\\=6 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207031614/http://news.joins.com/article/9220216\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-07\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|date\\=2012\\-09\\-03}} | 1 | 3 more planned as KDX\\-III Batch\\-II{{cite web\\|title\\=South Korea's DAPA Selects HHI for KDX\\-III Batch II Destroyer Design \\& Construction\\|date\\=29 May 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.navyrecognition.com/index.php/news/defence\\-news/2016/may\\-2016\\-navy\\-naval\\-forces\\-defense\\-industry\\-technology\\-maritime\\-security\\-global\\-news/4035\\-south\\-koreas\\-dapa\\-selects\\-hhi\\-for\\-kdx\\-iii\\-batch\\-ii\\-destroyer\\-design\\-a\\-construction.html\\|publisher\\=Navy Recognition\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215020954/http://www.navyrecognition.com/index.php/news/defence\\-news/2016/may\\-2016\\-navy\\-naval\\-forces\\-defense\\-industry\\-technology\\-maritime\\-security\\-global\\-news/4035\\-south\\-koreas\\-dapa\\-selects\\-hhi\\-for\\-kdx\\-iii\\-batch\\-ii\\-destroyer\\-design\\-a\\-construction.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-15\\|url\\-status\\=live}} |\n| [*Chungmugong Yi Sun\\-sin* class](/wiki/Chungmugong_Yi_Sun-sin-class_destroyer \"Chungmugong Yi Sun-sin-class destroyer\") | [180px\\|ROKS Munmu the Great (DDH 976\\), a Chungmugong Yi Sunshin\\-class destroyer](/wiki/File:ROKS_Munmu_the_Great_%28DDH_976%29.jpg \"ROKS Munmu the Great (DDH 976).jpg\") | DDH: Destroyer Helicopter | 4,500/5,520 | 2003 | 6{{cite web\\|title\\=6번째 한국형 구축함(DDH\\-II)인 '최영함'(4천200t급) 취역\\|url\\=http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2008/09/04/2008090401208\\.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Chosun Ilbo]]\\|access\\-date\\=6 February 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207112537/http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html\\_dir/2008/09/04/2008090401208\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=7 February 2017}} | \\- | DDH\\-II; To be followed by [KDDX](/wiki/KDDX-class_destroyer \"KDDX-class destroyer\") |\n| [*Kwanggaeto the Great* class](/wiki/Gwanggaeto_the_Great-class_destroyer \"Gwanggaeto the Great-class destroyer\") | [180px\\|ROKS Kwanggaeto the Great (DDH 971\\), the Navy's first indigenously built destroyer](/wiki/File:2009%EB%85%845%EC%9B%9415%EC%9D%BC_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_1%ED%95%A8%EB%8C%80%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8_%287193824738%29.jpg \"2009년5월15일 해군 1함대훈련 (7193824738).jpg\") | DDH: Destroyer Helicopter | 3,200/3,900 | 1998 | 3 | \\- | DDH\\-I |\n| **[Frigates](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\")** | | | | | | | |\n| [*Chungnam* class](/wiki/Chungnam-class_frigate \"Chungnam-class frigate\") | | FFG: Frigate Guided\\-missile | 3,600/4,300 | 2024 | \\- | 1 | FFG\\-III (FFX Batch\\-III; 6 in batch) |\n| [*Daegu* class](/wiki/Daegu-class_frigate \"Daegu-class frigate\") | [180px\\|ROKS Daegu (Daegu class)](/wiki/File:ROKS_Daegu_%28FFG-818%29.jpg \"ROKS Daegu (FFG-818).jpg\") | FFG: Frigate Guided\\-missile | 3,100/3,650 | 2018 | 8 | \\- | FFG\\-II |\n| [*Incheon* class](/wiki/Incheon-class_frigate \"Incheon-class frigate\") | [180px\\|ROKS Incheon (Incheon class)](/wiki/File:20130626_%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C%ED%95%B4%ED%98%91_%EC%A0%84%EC%8A%B9%ED%96%89%EC%82%AC_%284%29_%289460603621%29.jpg \"20130626 대한해협 전승행사 (4) (9460603621).jpg\") | FFG: Frigate Guided\\-missile | 2,500/3,251 | 2013 | 6 | \\- | FFG\\-I |\n| [*Ulsan* class](/wiki/Ulsan-class_frigate \"Ulsan-class frigate\") | [180px\\|ROKS Busan (Ulsan class)](/wiki/File:2009%EB%85%845%EC%9B%9415%EC%9D%BC_%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_1%ED%95%A8%EB%8C%80%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A82_%287193824422%29.jpg \"2009년5월15일 해군 1함대훈련2 (7193824422).jpg\") | FF: Frigate | 1,446/2,350 | 1981 | 2 | \\- | To be replaced by FFG |\n| **[Corvettes](/wiki/Corvette \"Corvette\")** | | | | | | | |\n| [*Pohang* class](/wiki/Pohang-class_corvette \"Pohang-class corvette\") | [180px\\|ROKS Bucheon (Pohang class)](/wiki/File:2010._3._%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_PCC%ED%95%A8%EC%9D%98_%EC%9D%BC%EC%83%81_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_%287548298946%29.jpg \"2010. 3. 해군 PCC함의 일상 Rep. of Korea Navy (7548298946).jpg\") | PCC: Patrol Combat Corvette | 950/1,220 | 1984 | 3 | \\- | To be replaced by FFG |\n| **[Patrol vessels](/wiki/Patrol_vessels \"Patrol vessels\")** | | | | | | | |\n| [*Yoon Youngha* class](/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel \"Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel\") | [180px\\|ROKS Hyun Sihak (Yoon Youngha class)](/wiki/File:2012._9._%EC%84%9C%ED%95%B4_NLL%ED%95%B4%EC%83%81%EA%B2%BD%EA%B3%84_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_NLL_Maritime_Security_in_the_western_sea_%288031753530%29.jpg \"2012. 9. 서해 NLL해상경계 Rep. of Korea Navy NLL Maritime Security in the western sea (8031753530).jpg\") | PKG: Patrol Killer Guided\\-missile | 440/570 | 2008 | 18{{cite web\\|title\\=유도탄고속함 '전병익함' 취역\\|url\\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\\_writ\\_date\\=20180112\\&parent\\_no\\=2\\&bbs\\_id\\=BBSMSTR\\_000000000005\\|publisher\\=국방일보\\|access\\-date\\=24 September 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116101744/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/kookbangWeb/view.do?ntt\\_writ\\_date\\=20180112\\&parent\\_no\\=2\\&bbs\\_id\\=BBSMSTR\\_000000000005\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-16\\|url\\-status\\=live}} | \\- | \\- |\n| [*Chamsuri* (PKMR 211\\) class](/wiki/Gumdoksuri-class_patrol_vessel \"Gumdoksuri-class patrol vessel\") | \\- | PKMR: Patrol Killer Medium Rocket | 210/250 | 2017 | 16 | \\- | PKX\\-B Batch\\-I (16 in batch), Batch\\-II (18 in batch) |\n| [*Chamsuri* (PKM 268\\) class](/wiki/Chamsuri-class_patrol_boat \"Chamsuri-class patrol boat\") | [180px\\|A Chamsuri\\-class patrol craft and a Sohn Wonyil\\-class submarine on background](/wiki/File:2010._7._%EB%8F%99%ED%95%B4_%ED%95%9C%EB%AF%B8%EC%97%B0%ED%95%A9_%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_korea_us_combine_training_%287554655104%29.jpg \"2010. 7. 동해 한미연합 훈련 Rep. of Korea Navy korea us combine training (7554655104).jpg\") | PKM: Patrol Killer Medium | 151/170 | 1978 | 26 | \\- | To be replaced by PKG \\& PKMR |\n| **[Amphibious warfare ships](/wiki/Amphibious_warfare_ships \"Amphibious warfare ships\")** | | | | | | | |\n| [*Dokdo* class](/wiki/Dokdo-class_amphibious_assault_ship \"Dokdo-class amphibious assault ship\") | [180px\\|Amphibious transport dock, ROKS Dokdo (LPH 6111\\)](/wiki/File:%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%EB%8F%85%EB%8F%84%ED%95%A8_%287438321572%29.jpg \"해군 독도함 (7438321572).jpg\") | LPH: Landing Transport Helicopter{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode\\=LSD∣\\=sec\\&oid\\=170\\&aid\\=0000000062\\&sid1\\=001\\|title\\=독도함 정확한 명칭은 '대형수송함(LPH)'\\|website\\=news.naver.com\\|language\\=ko\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-10}} | 14,550/19,000 | 2007 | 2 | \\- | \\- |\n| [*Cheonwangbong* class](/wiki/Cheon_Wang_Bong-class_LST \"Cheon Wang Bong-class LST\") | [180px\\|Christening ceremony of ROKS Cheonwangbong (Cheonwangbong class)](/wiki/File:2013._9._%EC%B2%9C%EC%99%95%EB%B4%89%ED%95%A8_%EC%A7%84%EC%88%98%EC%8B%9D_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_ROK_Ship_Chunwangbong_Launching_Ceremony_%289732841805%29.jpg \"2013. 9. 천왕봉함 진수식 Rep. of Korea Navy ROK Ship Chunwangbong Launching Ceremony (9732841805).jpg\") | LST: Landing Ship Tank | 4,900/8,000 | 2014 | 4{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20181204/4/BBSMSTR\\_000000010024/view.do\\|title\\=신형상륙함 4번함 '노적봉함' 취역기 펄럭\\~\\|work\\=Kookbang Ilbo\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-11\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214065707/http://kookbang.dema.mil.kr/newsWeb/20181204/4/BBSMSTR\\_000000010024/view.do\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-14\\|url\\-status\\=live}} | \\- | LST\\-II |\n| [*Gojunbong* class](/wiki/Go_Jun_Bong-class_LST \"Go Jun Bong-class LST\") | [180px\\|ROKS Birobong (Gojunbong class)](/wiki/File:ROK_LST682_behind_a_LCAC.jpg \"ROK LST682 behind a LCAC.jpg\") | LST: Landing Ship Tank | 2,900/4,900 | 1993 | 4 | \\- | \\- |\n| [*Solgae* (LSF 631\\) class](/wiki/LSF-II_631 \"LSF-II 631\") | [180px\\|ROKS Solgae 632 (Solgae 631 class)](/wiki/File:ROKS_LSF_632_launched_from_the_ROKS_Dokdo_%28LPH_6111%29.jpg \"ROKS LSF 632 launched from the ROKS Dokdo (LPH 6111).jpg\") | LSF: Landing Ship Fast | 95/155 | 2007 | 4 | 2 | LSF\\-II (locally\\-built [LCAC](/wiki/Landing_Craft_Air_Cushion \"Landing Craft Air Cushion\")) |\n| [*Solgae* (LSF 621\\) class](/wiki/Tsaplya-class_LCAC \"Tsaplya-class LCAC\") | [180px\\|ROKS Solgae 623 (Solgae 621 class)](/wiki/File:2011.4.7_%ED%95%B4%EB%B3%912%EC%82%AC%EB%8B%A8_%EC%A0%81%EA%B5%AD%EC%A7%80%EB%8F%84%EB%B0%9C%EB%8C%80%EB%B9%84%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8_%287633940020%29.jpg \"2011.4.7 해병2사단 적국지도발대비훈련 (7633940020).jpg\") | LSF: Landing Ship Fast | 132/149 | 2005 | 3 | \\- | Assault [hovercraft](/wiki/Hovercraft \"Hovercraft\") ([Project 12061E Murena\\-E](/wiki/Tsaplya-class_LCAC \"Tsaplya-class LCAC\")) transferred from [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\")[\"Navy Catalog\" (PDF Format)](http://www.rusarm.ru/cataloque/navy_cataloque.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917094214/http://www.rusarm.ru/cataloque/navy\\_cataloque.html\\|date\\=2008\\-09\\-17}}. Rosoboronexport State Export Corporation Official Website. Retrieved March 22, 2007\\.[\"러시아제 공기부양정 동원\"](http://article.joins.com/article/article.asp?total_id=2481487) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104132007/http://article.joins.com/article/article.asp?total\\_id\\=2481487\\|date\\=2006\\-11\\-04}}. Joins.com. Retrieved April 5, 2007\\. |\n| **[Mine warfare ships](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\")** | | | | | | | |\n| [*Nampo* class](/wiki/Nampo-class_minelayer \"Nampo-class minelayer\") | [180px\\|ROKS Nampo (Nampo class)](/wiki/File:Trial_run_of_the_Nampo-class_minelayer_on_5_June_2017.jpg \"Trial run of the Nampo-class minelayer on 5 June 2017.jpg\") | MLS: Mine Layer Ship | 3,000/4,240 | 2017 | 1{{cite web\\|title\\=차기 기뢰부설함 '남포함' 해군 인도...내년초 실전배치 \\- 연합뉴스\\|url\\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2017/06/09/0200000000AKR20170609032700014\\.HTML\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yonhap News Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923162936/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2017/06/09/0200000000AKR20170609032700014\\.HTML\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-23\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|date\\=2017\\-06\\-08}} | \\- | MLS\\-II |\n| [*Wonsan* class](/wiki/Wonsan-class_minelayer \"Wonsan-class minelayer\") | [180px\\|ROKS Wonsan (Wonsan class)](/wiki/File:2013._11._%ED%95%9C%EB%AF%B8_%EC%97%B0%ED%95%A9_%EA%B8%B0%EB%A2%B0%EC%A0%84_%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8_Republic_of_Korea_Navy_%2810917179044%29.jpg \"2013. 11. 한미 연합 기뢰전 훈련 Republic of Korea Navy (10917179044).jpg\") | MLS: Mine Layer Ship | 2,500/3,300 | 1997 | 1 | \\- | MLS\\-I |\n| [*Yangyang* class](/wiki/Yangyang-class_minesweeper \"Yangyang-class minesweeper\") | [180px\\|ROKS Ongjin (Yangyang class) and ROKS Goryeong (Ganggyeong class) on background](/wiki/File:2012._9._%EC%9D%B8%EC%B2%9C%EC%83%81%EB%A5%99%EC%9E%91%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EC%8A%B9%ED%96%89%EC%82%AC_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_62th_Anniversary_of_Incheon_Landing_Operation_%287998836744%29.jpg \"2012. 9. 인천상륙작전 전승행사 Rep. of Korea Navy 62th Anniversary of Incheon Landing Operation (7998836744).jpg\") | MSH: Mine Sweeper Hunter | 730/880 | 1999 | 6[\"최신예 국산 소해함 '해남함' 취역\"](http://navy.korea.kr/navy/jsp/navy1_branch.jsp?_action=news_view&_property=p_sec_1&_id=65081998&) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028143638/http://navy.korea.kr/navy/jsp/navy1\\_branch.jsp?\\_action\\=news\\_view\\&\\_property\\=p\\_sec\\_1\\&\\_id\\=65081998\\& \\|date\\=2007\\-10\\-28 }}. Republic of Korea Navy i\\-News. Retrieved March 10, 2007\\. | | \\- |\n| [*Ganggyeong* class](/wiki/Ganggyeong-class_minehunter \"Ganggyeong-class minehunter\") | MHC: Mine Hunter Coastal | 470/520 | 1986 | 6 | \\- | \\- |\n| **[Auxiliary ships](/wiki/Auxiliary_ship \"Auxiliary ship\")** | | | | | | | |\n| *Hansando* class | \\- | ATH: Training Ship Helicopter | 4,500/6,000 | 2020 | 1[South Korea's first training ship enters naval service](https://www.defensenews.com/training-sim/2020/10/22/south-koreas-first-training-ship-enters-naval-service/), Brian Kim, [DefenseNews.com](/wiki/DefenseNews.com \"DefenseNews.com\"), 2020\\-10\\-23 | \\- | Training ship and Casualty Receiving \\& Treatment Ships (CRTS) |\n| *Soyang* class | [180px\\|Republic of Korea Navy Fast Combat Support Ship \"Soyang\"(AOE\\-51\\) berthed at Busan Naval Base in Jan 2020\\.](/wiki/File:ROKS_Soyang_in_Busan_Naval_Base.jpg \"ROKS Soyang in Busan Naval Base.jpg\") | AOE: Fast Combat Support Ship | 10,600/23,000 | 2018 | 1{{cite web\\|title\\=국내 최대 군수지원함 '소양함' 취역...올해 연말 임무 투입\\|url\\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2018/09/18/0200000000AKR20180918101200051\\.HTML\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yonhap News Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918083724/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2018/09/18/0200000000AKR20180918101200051\\.HTML\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-18\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|date\\=2018\\-09\\-17}} | \\- | AOE\\-II |\n| [*Cheonji* class](/wiki/Cheonji-class_combat_support_ship \"Cheonji-class combat support ship\") | [180px\\|ROKS Hwacheon (AOE 59\\) in counter\\-terror exercise](/wiki/File:ROKS_Hwacheon_in_counter-terror_training_October_2015.jpg \"ROKS Hwacheon in counter-terror training October 2015.jpg\") | AOE: Fast Combat Support Ship | 4,200/9,200 | 1991 | 3 | \\- | \\- |\n| *Tongyeong* class | [180px\\|Christening ceremony of ROKS Tongyeong (Tongyeong class)](/wiki/File:2012._9._%ED%86%B5%EC%98%81%ED%95%A8_%EC%A7%84%EC%88%98%EC%8B%9D_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_Launching_ceremoney_of_ATS2_%287998812649%29.jpg \"2012. 9. 통영함 진수식 Rep. of Korea Navy Launching ceremoney of ATS2 (7998812649).jpg\") | ATS: Salvage and Rescue Ship | 3,500/4,710 | 2014 | 2{{cite web\\|title\\=해군 차기 수상함구조함(ATS\\-II) 2번함 광양함이 정식으로 해군 함정으로 배치\\|url\\=http://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/4666778\\|publisher\\=CBSi\\|access\\-date\\=6 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107010155/http://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/4666778\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-07\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|date\\=2016\\-10\\-10}} | \\- | ATS\\-II |\n| [*Ganghwado* class](/wiki/Ganghwado-class_submarine_rescue_ship \"Ganghwado-class submarine rescue ship\") | \\- | ASR: Submarine Rescue Ship | 5,600/6,800 | 2023 | \\- | 1 | ASR\\-II |\n| [*Cheonghaejin* class](/wiki/Cheonghaejin-class_submarine_rescue_ship \"Cheonghaejin-class submarine rescue ship\") | [180px\\|ROKS Cheonghaejin (Cheonghaejin class)](/wiki/File:2014.4_%EC%84%B8%EC%9B%94%ED%98%B8_%EA%B5%AC%EC%A1%B0_%EC%9E%91%EC%A0%84_%2813979529595%29.jpg \"2014.4 세월호 구조 작전 (13979529595).jpg\") | ASR: Submarine Rescue Ship | 3,200/4,300 | 1996 | 1 | \\- | To be followed by ASR\\-II |\n| *Singiwon* class | \\- | AGS: Surveying Ship | 3,500/4,600 | 2014 | 1{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/1118373\\|title\\=해군 도입 계획 무인항공기, GPS 전파교란에 무방비\\|publisher\\=CBSnocutnews\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127080252/http://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/1118373\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-01\\-27\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|date\\=2013\\-10\\-23}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.mt.co.kr/mtview.php?no\\=2015091708417691998\\|title\\=해군 정보함 '신기원함' 무인항공기 추가도입사업 '꼼수'\\|date\\=17 September 2015 \\|publisher\\=MONEYTODAY\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130090605/http://news.mt.co.kr/mtview.php?no\\=2015091708417691998\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-01\\-30\\|url\\-status\\=live}} | \\- | AGX\\-II |\n| *Sinsegi* class | \\- | AGS: Surveying Ship | 2,850/3,700 | 2003 | 1{{cite web\\|url\\=http://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?nNewsNumb\\=201101100011 \\|title\\=서해 5도 감시용 정보수집함은 鎭海 기지에서 '쿨쿨'... 연평도 포격 탐지는 '감감' \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Monthly Chosun]] \\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127132222/http://monthly.chosun.com/client/news/viw.asp?nNewsNumb\\=201101100011 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 January 2016 }} | \\- | AGX\\-I |\n| *Mulgae* (LCU 87\\) class | \\- | LCU: Landing Craft Utility | 540/940 | 2010 | 3 | \\- | 500\\-ton LCU for logistics support |\n| *Mulgae* (LCU/L 79\\) class | \\- | LCU/L: Landing Craft Utility Minelayer | 235/442 | 1998 | 7 | \\- | Littoral transport, logistics and mine warfare support |\n|",
"### Aircraft",
"The Air Wing Six operates about 70 fixed\\-wing and [rotary\\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Rotary-wing_aircraft \"Rotary-wing aircraft\") including P\\-3CK Orion maritime patrol aircraft and AW159 Wildcat ASW helicopters. These aircraft operate from bases throughout South Korea, as well as from the ROK Navy's ships.",
"The ROK Navy had operated about 30 [S\\-2](/wiki/Grumman_S-2_Tracker \"Grumman S-2 Tracker\") [anti\\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\") aircraft from 1976 to 2001\\. From 1977 to 1979, the Navy had acquired 12 [Aérospatiale Alouette III](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III \"Aérospatiale Alouette III\") helicopters for [shipboard helicopter operations](/wiki/Shipboard_helicopter_operations \"Shipboard helicopter operations\") with ex\\-USN [*Gearing*\\-class](/wiki/Gearing-class_destroyer \"Gearing-class destroyer\") destroyers. The ROK Navy had acquired eight [P\\-3C](/wiki/P-3_Orion \"P-3 Orion\") aircraft by 1996, and eight more [P\\-3CK](/wiki/P-3_Orion \"P-3 Orion\") maritime patrol aircraft (ex\\-USN P\\-3B) were delivered to the ROK Navy by 2010 after undergoing extensive refurbishment and modernization. The Navy took delivery of the first batch of 12 Mk.99 [Lynx helicopters](/wiki/Westland_Lynx \"Westland Lynx\") in 1991; a second batch of 13 Mk.99A Super Lynx helicopters began delivery in 1999\\. In 2016, the Navy took delivery of eight AW159 Wildcats helicopters.",
"",
"| Aircraft | Image | Type | Variant | First deployment | In service | Note |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| **[Fixed\\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft \"Fixed-wing aircraft\")** | | | | | | |\n| [Boeing P\\-8 Poseidon](/wiki/Boeing_P-8_Poseidon \"Boeing P-8 Poseidon\") | | [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare%23Modern_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare#Modern warfare\")/[Maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft \"Maritime patrol aircraft\") | P\\-8A | 2023 | 6{{cite news\\|url\\=https://news.kbs.co.kr/news/pc/view/view.do?ncd\\=8004091\\&ref\\=A\\|title\\=‘잠수함 사냥꾼’ 포세이돈 6대 해군에 인도…내부 공개\\|trans\\-title\\=The Posideon, \"submarine hunter\" all 6 has been handed over to the Navy ...Internal disclosure\\|date\\=4 July 2024\\|publisher\\=KBS}} | |\n|[Lockheed P\\-3 Orion](/wiki/Lockheed_P-3_Orion \"Lockheed P-3 Orion\")",
"[180px\\|A ROKN P\\-3 Orion taking part in searching for Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501](/wiki/File:P-3_ROK-Jakarta.JPG \"P-3 ROK-Jakarta.JPG\")",
"[ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare%23Modern_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare#Modern warfare\")/[Maritime patrol aircraft](/wiki/Maritime_patrol_aircraft \"Maritime patrol aircraft\")",
"P\\-3CK |\n 2010 |\n 8{{cite web \\|title\\=Lockheed P\\-3 Orion \\- South Korea \\|url\\=http://www.amarcexperience.com/ui/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=22\\&catid\\=8\\&Itemid\\=159 \\|website\\=AMARC Experience \\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2021}} |\n 8 ex\\-USN P\\-3B sent from AMARC for modernization by [KAI](/wiki/Korea_Aerospace_Industries \"Korea Aerospace Industries\"); 1 additional spare aircraft used for parts and remaining hull scrapped in [Tucson, Arizona](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\").{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.amarcexperience.com/ui/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=22\\&catid\\=8\\&Itemid\\=159 \\| title\\=The AMARC Experience \\- Lockheed P\\-3 Orion \\- South Korea }} |\n| P\\-3C | 1995 | 8 | Updated{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/07/13/0200000000AKR20160713033900014\\.HTML\\|title\\=레이더와 소노부이 등을 최신장비로 교체한 P\\-3C 해상초계기가 지난 11일 해군에 처음 인도\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yonhap News Agency]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160714155553/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/07/13/0200000000AKR20160713033900014\\.HTML\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-14\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=6 February 2017\\|date\\=2016\\-07\\-12}} |\n| [Reims\\-Cessna F406 Caravan II](/wiki/Reims-Cessna_F406_Caravan_II \"Reims-Cessna F406 Caravan II\") | [180px\\|A French Reims F406](/wiki/File:Reims_F406_Caravan_II%2C_France_-_Army_AN0632367.jpg \"Reims F406 Caravan II, France - Army AN0632367.jpg\") | light utility aircraft | F406 | 1999 | 5{{cite book\\|title\\=ROK Military Weapon Systems (2016\\-2017\\)\\|date\\=2016\\|publisher\\=Defense Times Korea}} | [Target tug](/wiki/Target_tug \"Target tug\") |\n| **[Rotary\\-wing aircraft](/wiki/Rotorcraft \"Rotorcraft\")** | | | | | | |\n| [AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat](/wiki/AgustaWestland_AW159_Wildcat \"AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat\") | [180px\\|A Royal Navy Wildcat](/wiki/File:Royal_Navy_Wildcat_Helicopter_MOD_45158434.jpg \"Royal Navy Wildcat Helicopter MOD 45158434.jpg\") | [ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare%23Modern_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare#Modern warfare\") helicopter | AW159 | 2017 | 8{{cite web\\|title\\=英 \"한국 해군 '와일드캣' 작전헬기 첨단 성능 부럽다\"\\|url\\=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2017/02/21/0200000000AKR20170221145500009\\.HTML\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Yonhap News Agency]] \\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010134907/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2017/02/21/0200000000AKR20170221145500009\\.HTML\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-10\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-20}} | \\- |\n|[Westland Lynx](/wiki/Westland_Lynx \"Westland Lynx\")",
"[180px\\|A ROKN Lynx ASW helo](/wiki/File:2012._9._%EC%9D%B8%EC%B2%9C%EC%83%81%EB%A5%99%EC%9E%91%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EC%8A%B9%ED%96%89%EC%82%AC_Rep._of_Korea_Navy_62th_Anniversary_of_Incheon_Landing_Operation_Rep.of_Korea_Navy_%287998834439%29.jpg \"2012. 9. 인천상륙작전 전승행사 Rep. of Korea Navy 62th Anniversary of Incheon Landing Operation Rep.of Korea Navy (7998834439).jpg\")",
"[ASW](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare%23Modern_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare#Modern warfare\") helicopter",
"Super Lynx Mk.99A |\n 1999 |\n 12{{cite web\\|title\\=추락 링스헬기 잔해 발견...해군, 운용중인 링스헬기 20여대 '운행중단'\\|date\\=27 September 2016\\|url\\=http://www.segye.com/content/html/2016/09/27/20160927000907\\.html\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Segye Ilbo]]\\|access\\-date\\=6 February 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207192408/http://www.segye.com/content/html/2016/09/27/20160927000907\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-02\\-07\\|url\\-status\\=live}} |\n \\- |\n| Lynx Mk.99 | 1991 | 11 | \\- |\n| [Sikorsky UH\\-60 Black Hawk](/wiki/Sikorsky_UH-60_Black_Hawk \"Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk\") | [180px\\|A ROKN UH\\-60P supporting SSU training](/wiki/File:%ED%95%B4%EA%B5%B0_%ED%95%B4%EB%82%9C%EA%B5%AC%EC%A1%B0%EB%8C%80_%ED%98%B9%ED%95%9C%EA%B8%B0_%EB%82%B4%ED%95%9C%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8.jpg \"해군 해난구조대 혹한기 내한훈련.jpg\") | utility transport helicopter | UH\\-60P | 1994 | 8 | Built by [KAL\\-ASD](/wiki/Korean_Air%23Aerospace_research_and_manufacturing \"Korean Air#Aerospace research and manufacturing\") |\n| [Bell UH\\-1 Iroquois](/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois \"Bell UH-1 Iroquois\") | [180px\\|A ROKN UH\\-1 supporting ROKMC training](/wiki/File:2014.8.12._%ED%95%B4%EB%B3%91%EB%8C%80_%EC%A0%9C2%EC%82%AC%EB%8B%A8-%EA%B3%A0%EA%B0%95%EB%8F%84_%ED%95%B4%EC%83%81%EC%B9%A8%ED%88%AC%ED%9B%88%EB%A0%A8_%28ROKMC_2nd_DIV_Gogang-Do_Surface_Infilfration_Training%29_%2814985290221%29.jpg \"2014.8.12. 해병대 제2사단-고강도 해상침투훈련 (ROKMC 2nd DIV Gogang-Do Surface Infilfration Training) (14985290221).jpg\") | utility transport helicopter | UH\\-1H | 1978 | 8 | \\- |",
"### Weaponry",
"{{main\\|List of Republic of Korea Navy weaponry}}The ROK Navy, the [Defense Acquisition Program Administration](/wiki/Defense_Acquisition_Program_Administration \"Defense Acquisition Program Administration\") (DAPA), and the [Agency for Defense Development](/wiki/Agency_for_Defense_Development \"Agency for Defense Development\") (ADD) have been developing naval weaponry with local defense companies.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{see also\|Timeline of Włocławek}}
Włocławek's history dates back to the late [Bronze Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") – early Iron Age (1300 BCE – 500 BCE). Archaeological excavations conducted on the current city site uncovered the remains of a [settlement](/wiki/Human_settlement "Human settlement") belonging to the [Lusatian culture](/wiki/Lusatian_culture "Lusatian culture"), as well as evidence of a settlement of early [Pomeranian culture](/wiki/Pomeranian_culture "Pomeranian culture") which had been established. Traces of additional settlements dating to the [Roman period](/wiki/Roman_period "Roman period") and the early [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") have also been excavated in the area.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lo2\.wloclawek.q4\.pl/Comenius/kulturawl.pdf\|title\=About Włocławek\|website\=Lo2\.wloclawek.q4\.pl\|access\-date\=22 May 2018}}
### Middle Ages
[thumb\|left\|17th\-century drawing of the medieval castle in Włocławek](/wiki/File:Castle_of_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek.jpg "Castle of Włocławek.jpg")
{{Historical populations\|1950\|54536\|1960\|66820\|1970\|82599\|1980\|106771\|1990\|122144\|2000\|121833\|2010\|116914\|2020\|108561}}
The settlement was founded in the 9th century and its early inhabitants were occupied with agriculture and crafts.{{cite book\|author\=\|title\=Atlas historyczny miast polskich. Tom II: Kujawy. Zeszyt 4: Włocławek\|year\=2016\|language\=pl,en\|location\=Toruń\|publisher\=\[\[The Nicolaus Copernicus University Press\|Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika]]\|pages\=9, 40\|isbn\=978\-83\-231\-3551\-7}} In the 10th century it became part of the emerging Polish state under the [Piast dynasty](/wiki/Piast_dynasty "Piast dynasty"). Already under the rule of [Bolesław I the Brave](/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_the_Brave "Bolesław I the Brave") it was one of Poland's most important administrative centers, as mentioned in the *[Gesta principum Polonorum](/wiki/Gesta_principum_Polonorum "Gesta principum Polonorum")* chronicle from the 1110s, which also happens to be the oldest known mention of the city. The name is derived from the Old Polish male name Włodzisław, possibly the founder of Włocławek.{{cite book\|author\=\|title\=Atlas historyczny miast polskich. Tom II: Kujawy. Zeszyt 4: Włocławek\|pages\=10, 41}} In the mid\-10th century, under [Casimir I the Restorer](/wiki/Casimir_I_the_Restorer "Casimir I the Restorer"), Włocławek was the seat of a [castellany](/wiki/Castellany "Castellany") and the administrative center of [Kuyavia](/wiki/Kuyavia "Kuyavia").
One of the earliest references to the town came from an assistant to the [Archbishop of Gniezno](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Gniezno "Archbishop of Gniezno") who was noted as residing in the town in 1123\. Later the [Diocese of Włocławek](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek "Roman Catholic Diocese of Włocławek") ({{langx\|la\|Vladislaviensis}}) of [Kuyavia](/wiki/Kuyavia "Kuyavia") in 1148, notates its existence in a [bull](/wiki/Papal_bull "Papal bull") issued by [Pope Eugene III](/wiki/Pope_Eugene_III "Pope Eugene III"), while mentioning the first bishop of Włocławek as Warner. Warner was followed by an [Italian](/wiki/Italian_people "Italian people"), Onoldius; the diocese was recorded as "Włocławek and [Pomerania](/wiki/Pomerania "Pomerania")" (*Vladislaviensis et Pomeraniae*).
In the 12th century, there was a mint and a customs chamber, where tolls were collected from ships and boats sailing on the Vistula and [Zgłowiączka](/wiki/Zg%C5%82owi%C4%85czka_%28river%29 "Zgłowiączka (river)") rivers. A hospital was founded at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, whereas the local school was first mentioned in 1215\.{{cite book\|author\=\|title\=Atlas historyczny miast polskich. Tom II: Kujawy. Zeszyt 4: Włocławek\|pages\=19, 50–51}}
Włocławek received its [city rights](/wiki/Town_privileges "Town privileges") in 1255\. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the city was destroyed and captured several times by the [Teutonic Knights](/wiki/Teutonic_Knights "Teutonic Knights") and renamed it Leslau.{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2010}} The [Treaty of Thorn](/wiki/Second_Peace_of_Thorn_%281466%29 "Second Peace of Thorn (1466)"), signed in 1411, resulted in short\-lived peace for the city, however, it prospered from its involvement in the ransoming of the captured Teutonic Knights which was payable in three instalments and proved to be a hardship on the Prussian faction. Włocławek was located within the [Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship](/wiki/Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_Kujawski_Voivodeship "Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship") of the [Greater Poland Province](/wiki/Greater_Poland_Province%2C_Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland "Greater Poland Province, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland"). There is a possibility that [Nicolaus Copernicus](/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus "Nicolaus Copernicus"), the later renowned astronomer, may have attended the local cathedral school in the late 15th century.{{cite web\|url\=https://szlakkopernikowski.pl/pl/wloclawek\|title\=Włocławek\|website\=Szlak Kopernikowski\|access\-date\=11 December 2023\|language\=pl}}
### Modern era
[thumb\|left\|Włocławek in 1896](/wiki/File:W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek-Kopernik_Square_on_photograph_by_Sztejner.jpg "Włocławek-Kopernik Square on photograph by Sztejner.jpg")
The city's prosperity came from river transport of grain from Kuyavia, the collection of tolls on grain floated from the more southern part of Poland to the country's main port of [Gdańsk](/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk "Gdańsk"), transport of timber from the [Narew](/wiki/Narew "Narew"), [Bug](/wiki/Bug_%28river%29 "Bug (river)") and upper Vistula rivers for export to Western Europe and [brewing](/wiki/Brewing "Brewing").{{cite book\|author\=\|title\=Przewodnik ilustrowany po Włocławku\|year\=1922\|language\=pl\|location\=Włocławek\|publisher\=Księgarnia Powszechna i Drukarnia Diecezjalna we Włocławku\|pages\=19–20}} This is mentioned in the 1595 poem *Flis, to jest Spuszczanie statków Wisłą i inszymi rzekami do niej przypadającymi* by [Sebastian Klonowic](/wiki/Sebastian_Klonowic "Sebastian Klonowic").
In 1569, Bishop [Stanisław Karnkowski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Karnkowski "Stanisław Karnkowski") founded a theological seminary in Włocławek, one of the oldest seminaries in Poland.{{cite web\|url\=https://ekai.pl/450\-lat\-temu\-powstalo\-seminarium\-we\-wloclawku/\|title\=450 lat temu powstało seminarium we Włocławku\|website\=eKAI.pl\|author\=Artur Niemira\|date\=12 October 2019 \|access\-date\=27 June 2020\|language\=pl}} In 1625, the Reformed Franciscans were brought to Włocławek by Bishop Andrzej Lipski, and soon their [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_in_Poland "Baroque in Poland") monastery was built.{{cite web\|url\=https://zabytek.pl/pl/obiekty/wloclawek\-zespol\-klasztorny\-franciszkanow\|title\=Zespół klasztorny Franciszkanów\|website\=Zabytek.pl\|author\=Bernardeta Popek\-Olszowa\|accessdate\=8 August 2021\|language\=pl}}
The city was ravaged by the Swedes during the [Swedish invasion of Poland](/wiki/Deluge_%28history%29 "Deluge (history)") in 1657 and by the Russians during the [Great Northern War](/wiki/Great_Northern_War "Great Northern War") in 1707\. In 1790, Polish national hero [Tadeusz Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko "Tadeusz Kościuszko") stayed in Włocławek.
After the [Second Partition of Poland](/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland "Second Partition of Poland") of 1793, Włocławek became part of [Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia"). It was the site of Polish resistance during the [Kościuszko Uprising](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising "Kościuszko Uprising") of 1794, when {{ill\|Dionizy Mniewski\|pl}} sank Prussian ships with ammunition headed for [besieged Warsaw](/wiki/Siege_of_Warsaw_%281794%29 "Siege of Warsaw (1794)").{{cite book\|author\=\|title\=Przewodnik ilustrowany po Włocławku\|page\=21}} After the [Treaties of Tilsit](/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit "Treaties of Tilsit") in 1807 it became part of the Polish short\-lived [Duchy of Warsaw](/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw "Duchy of Warsaw"). Subsequently, after the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna "Congress of Vienna") it became part of [Congress Poland](/wiki/Congress_Poland "Congress Poland") in the [Russian Partition](/wiki/Russian_Partition "Russian Partition") of Poland in 1815\. Polish insurgents operated in the city and in its vicinity during the [January Uprising](/wiki/January_Uprising "January Uprising") of 1863–1864\. The insurgents clashed with Russian troops in Włocławek on November 8, 1863, and February 17, 1864\.{{cite book\|last\=Zieliński\|first\=Stanisław\|title\=Bitwy i potyczki 1863\-1864\. Na podstawie materyałów drukowanych i rękopiśmiennych Muzeum Narodowego w Rapperswilu\|year\=1913\|language\=pl\|publisher\=Fundusz Wydawniczy \[\[Polish Museum, Rapperswil\|Muzeum Narodowego w Rapperswilu]]\|location\=Rapperswil\|pages\=50, 53}} The oldest Polish theological journal *{{interlanguage link\|Ateneum Kapłańskie\|pl}}* has been published in Włocławek since 1909\. The city was again destroyed during the battles of [German offensive](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Eastern Front (World War I)") during the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War "First World War").
When Poland declared independence in 1918, local Poles disarmed the Germans and liberated the city.{{cite book\|author\=\|title\=Przewodnik ilustrowany po Włocławku\|page\=34}} In 1920, Poles successfully defended the city against the invading Soviets during the [Polish–Soviet War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War "Polish–Soviet War").{{cite web\|url\=https://bydgoszcz.tvp.pl/8267323/wojna\-polskobolszewicka\-zostawila\-trwaly\-slad\-w\-historii\-wloclawka\|title\=Wojna polsko\-bolszewicka zostawiła trwały ślad w historii Włocławka\|website\=TVP3 Bydgoszcz\|author\=Marta Karpińska\|access\-date\=27 June 2020\|language\=pl}}
### World War II
{{multiple image \|align\=right \|caption\_align\=center \|perrow\=2 \|total\_width\=370 \|header\=Memorials to the victims of the \[\[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945\)\|German occupation]] in Włocławek (examples):
\| image1 \= 2008\-05\-26 Pomnik Pamięci Nauczycieli we Włocławku \- zbliżenie.jpg
\| image2 \= Pomnik Kolejarzy Włocławek.JPG
\| image3 \= Plaque in Włocławek commemorating pulp and paper workers killed by the Nazis.jpg
\| image4 \= Włocławek\-monument of killed pottery factory workers.jpg
\| caption1 \= Memorial at the site where Germans imprisoned Polish teachers and priests in 1939
\| caption2 \= Memorial to murdered Polish railwaymen
\| caption3 \= Memorial to murdered paper factory workers
\| caption4 \= Memorial to murdered pottery factory workers
}}
During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Włocławek was occupied by German troops, which entered the city on 14 September 1939\. Under the [Nazi German occupation](/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%931945%29 "Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)") Włocławek was again renamed Leslau, annexed by decree to the German Reich on 8 October 1939 and administered from 26 October as a part of Reichsgau Posen (renamed on 29 January 1940 [Reichsgau Wartheland](/wiki/Reichsgau_Wartheland "Reichsgau Wartheland")).
Already in September 1939, Germans committed a massacre of a group of local Jews{{cite book\|last\=Wardzyńska\|first\=Maria\|year\=2009\|title\=Był rok 1939\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion\|language\=pl\|location\=Warszawa\|publisher\=\[\[Institute of National Remembrance\|IPN]]\|page\=124}} and burned both synagogues. The *[Einsatzgruppe III](/wiki/Einsatzgruppen "Einsatzgruppen")* entered the city between September 23 and October 5, 1939, and afterwards carried out mass arrests of local Poles in October and November as part of the *[Intelligenzaktion](/wiki/Intelligenzaktion "Intelligenzaktion")*.Wardzyńska, Maria, *Był rok 1939\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, p. 57, 209 Dozens of Catholic priests from Włocławek, including Auxiliary Bishop of Włocławek [Michał Kozal](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kozal "Michał Kozal"), and lecturers and students of the seminary were arrested, and then deported in January 1940 to the [Dachau concentration camp](/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp "Dachau concentration camp"), where most of them were killed.Wardzyńska, Maria, *Był rok 1939\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, p. 209 [Rector](/wiki/Rector_%28academia%29 "Rector (academia)") of the local seminary Henryk Kaczorowski and two students Bronisław Kostkowski and Tadeusz Dulny are now considered three of the [108 Blessed Polish Martyrs of World War II](/wiki/108_Martyrs_of_World_War_II "108 Martyrs of World War II") by the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church"). Local teachers were arrested in October 1939, and then deported to [concentration camps](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps "Nazi concentration camps") and murdered. In late 1939, the *[SS](/wiki/SS "SS")* and *[Selbstschutz](/wiki/Selbstschutz "Selbstschutz")* burnt down the Grzywno district and murdered many of its inhabitants in the nearby village of [Warząchewka Polska](/wiki/Warz%C4%85chewka_Polska "Warząchewka Polska").{{cite book\|last\=Wardzyńska\|first\=Maria\|year\=2017\|title\=Wysiedlenia ludności polskiej z okupowanych ziem polskich włączonych do III Rzeszy w latach 1939\-1945\|language\=pl\|location\=Warszawa\|publisher\=\[\[Institute of National Remembrance\|IPN]]\|page\=176\|isbn\=978\-83\-8098\-174\-4}} Poles from Włocławek were also massacred in the nearby village of [Pińczata](/wiki/Pi%C5%84czata "Pińczata").Wardzyńska, Maria, *Był rok 1939\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, p. 210 Arrested Polish teachers, landowners and priests from the Włocławek and [Lipno](/wiki/Lipno_County "Lipno County") counties were also imprisoned in Włocławek, and some were later also deported to concentration camps and murdered.Wardzyńska, Maria, *Był rok 1939\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, p. 175\-176
Families of deported and murdered Poles, as well as the remaining residents of Grzywno were [expelled](/wiki/Expulsion_of_Poles_by_Nazi_Germany "Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany") to the so\-called [General Government](/wiki/General_Government "General Government") in late 1939, and in 1940 also owners of shops, workshops and bigger houses were expelled, so their properties could be handed over to German colonists as part of the *[Lebensraum](/wiki/Lebensraum "Lebensraum")* policy.Wardzyńska, Maria, *Wysiedlenia ludności polskiej z okupowanych ziem polskich włączonych do III Rzeszy w latach 1939\-1945*, p. 226 The Germans also [robbed](/wiki/World_War_II_looting_of_Poland "World War II looting of Poland") the precious historical collections of the Diocese of Włocławek and the Baroque Franciscan monastery and closed down the cathedral.Wardzyńska, Maria, *Był rok 1939\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, p. 209\-210 The city's central square, *Plac Wolności* ("Liberty Square"), was renamed *Adolf\-Hitler\-Platz* by the Germans.{{cite web\|url\=https://ddwloclawek.pl/pl/545\_historia/739\_wloclawek\_z\_dawnych\_lat/32541\_tak\-plac\-wolno\-ci\-wygl\-da\-podczas\-okupacji\-niemieckiej\-nosi\-w\-wczas\-imi\-adolfa\-hitlera.html\|title\=Tak plac Wolności wyglądał podczas okupacji niemieckiej. Nosił wówczas imię Adolfa Hitlera\|website\=DDWloclawek.pl\|access\-date\=27 June 2020\|language\=pl}} By the time the war ended, nearly the entire Jewish population of more than 10,000 had been murdered.
[thumb\|Monument of the [Home Army](/wiki/Home_Army "Home Army"), the leading [Polish resistance movement in World War II](/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II "Polish resistance movement in World War II")](/wiki/File:W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek-monument_of_AK.JPG "Włocławek-monument of AK.JPG")
Włocławek was liberated on 20 January 1945 by [Soviet](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") troops of the [1st Belorussian Front](/wiki/1st_Belorussian_Front "1st Belorussian Front") during the [Vistula–Oder Offensive](/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_Offensive "Vistula–Oder Offensive"). One third of the city was destroyed, but its factories and workshops were rebuilt by the [Polish government](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Poland "People's Republic of Poland") in the following decades.
### Recent period
The most important industries in Włocławek today are [chemical industry](/wiki/Chemical_industry "Chemical industry"), production of [furniture](/wiki/Furniture "Furniture"), and [food processing](/wiki/Food_processing "Food processing"). The [dam](/wiki/Dam "Dam") which was constructed in 1969 regulates the water level of the [Vistula river](/wiki/Vistula_river "Vistula river"), forming [Włocławek Reservoir](/wiki/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_Reservoir "Włocławek Reservoir"). From 1975 to 1999, the city was the capital of the [Włocławek Voivodeship](/wiki/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_Voivodeship "Włocławek Voivodeship").
The Catholic [priest](/wiki/Priesthood_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Priesthood (Catholic Church)") Fr. (now [Blessed](/wiki/Beatification "Beatification")), [Jerzy Popiełuszko](/wiki/Jerzy_Popie%C5%82uszko "Jerzy Popiełuszko"), who was associated with the workers' and trade union movement [Solidarity](/wiki/Solidarity_%28Polish_trade_union%29 "Solidarity (Polish trade union)"), and who was also a member of the opposition to the Communist regime in Poland, was tortured and murdered by three [Security Police](/wiki/Security_Police "Security Police") officers, and was thrown into the Włocławek Reservoir, close to the city. His body was recovered from the reservoir on 30 October 1984\.
From 2012 the city is part of the Special Economic Zone \- Włocławek Economic Development Area – Industrial and Technological Park with tax\-free areas and incentives for investors.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.wloclawek.pl/strefa \|title\=W這c豉wska Strefa Rozwoju Gospodarczego \- Park Przemys這wo\-Technologiczny \|access\-date\=17 June 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529204010/http://www.wloclawek.pl/strefa/ \|archive\-date\=29 May 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}
### The Jewish Community in Włocławek
[thumb\|Memorial at the site of the former World War II ghetto](/wiki/File:Wloclawek_Ghetto_memorial.jpg "Wloclawek Ghetto memorial.jpg")
The Jewish population increased from 218 (6\.6%) in 1820 to 6,919 in 1910 (20\.5%) and 13,500 in 1939\. One of the founders of the [Mizracḥi](/wiki/Mizrachi_%28religious_Zionism%29 "Mizrachi (religious Zionism)") movement, rabbi Leib Kowalski (1895–1925\), lived and worked in Włocławek. During the interbellum period, the town had several Jewish schools (primary and high schools), two yeshivas, and three Jewish sports clubs.[Włocławek](http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek). "The YIVO Encyclopedia. Jews in Eastern Europe". Retrieved 12 March 2015
With the beginning of the [German occupation of Poland](/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%9345%29 "Occupation of Poland (1939–45)"), Włocławek became the first town in Europe in which Jews were required to wear distinctive [yellow badges](/wiki/Yellow_badge "Yellow badge")."[Jewish Badge: During the Nazi Era](https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10008211)". [United States Holocaust Memorial Museum](/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum"). ushmm.org. Retrieved 3 May 2017\. Murders of Jews began in 1939 and the Włocławek [ghetto](/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland "Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland") was created in November 1940\. The Nazis deported 3,000 of Włocławek's Jews to ghettos and labor camps between December 1939 and June 1941\. Some 2,000 Jews were deported to [Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA "Łódź") and then to the [Chełmno extermination camp](/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp "Chełmno extermination camp") between 26 and 30 September 1941\. The ghetto was burnt in late April 1942 after the remaining Jews were sent to Chelmno where they were immediately gassed. Most of the Jews sent to the [Łódź Ghetto](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto "Łódź Ghetto") died of starvation or illness, and many were sent to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp "Auschwitz concentration camp") from Łódź.{{cite book \|last1\=Megargee \|first1\=Geoffrey \|title\=Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos \|date\=2012 \|publisher\=University of Indiana Press \|location\=Bloomington, Indiana \|isbn\=978\-0\-253\-35599\-7 \|page\=Volume II 118–119}}
After the war nearly 1000 Jews returned to Włocławek and re\-established their community. However, Jews left after disputes within the community itself, and the desire of most Jews not to live under Communism, installed by the Soviets.{{cite web \|title\=Wloclawek \|url\=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek \|website\=YIVO Encyclopedia of Eastern European Jews \|publisher\=YIVO}} By the late 1960s, the community had disappeared.
Today there is only very little, if any trace at all, of their once rich and lively community. There is a table for victims of Jewish ghetto in Włocławek's Rakutówek neighborhood (Polish Tablica Ofiar Getta we Włocławku) and Jewish Cemetery at Municipal/Communal Cemetery (Polish Cmentarz Komunalny we Włocławku).
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{see also\\|Timeline of Włocławek}}\nWłocławek's history dates back to the late [Bronze Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") – early Iron Age (1300 BCE – 500 BCE). Archaeological excavations conducted on the current city site uncovered the remains of a [settlement](/wiki/Human_settlement \"Human settlement\") belonging to the [Lusatian culture](/wiki/Lusatian_culture \"Lusatian culture\"), as well as evidence of a settlement of early [Pomeranian culture](/wiki/Pomeranian_culture \"Pomeranian culture\") which had been established. Traces of additional settlements dating to the [Roman period](/wiki/Roman_period \"Roman period\") and the early [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") have also been excavated in the area.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lo2\\.wloclawek.q4\\.pl/Comenius/kulturawl.pdf\\|title\\=About Włocławek\\|website\\=Lo2\\.wloclawek.q4\\.pl\\|access\\-date\\=22 May 2018}}",
"### Middle Ages",
"[thumb\\|left\\|17th\\-century drawing of the medieval castle in Włocławek](/wiki/File:Castle_of_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek.jpg \"Castle of Włocławek.jpg\")\n{{Historical populations\\|1950\\|54536\\|1960\\|66820\\|1970\\|82599\\|1980\\|106771\\|1990\\|122144\\|2000\\|121833\\|2010\\|116914\\|2020\\|108561}}\nThe settlement was founded in the 9th century and its early inhabitants were occupied with agriculture and crafts.{{cite book\\|author\\=\\|title\\=Atlas historyczny miast polskich. Tom II: Kujawy. Zeszyt 4: Włocławek\\|year\\=2016\\|language\\=pl,en\\|location\\=Toruń\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Nicolaus Copernicus University Press\\|Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika]]\\|pages\\=9, 40\\|isbn\\=978\\-83\\-231\\-3551\\-7}} In the 10th century it became part of the emerging Polish state under the [Piast dynasty](/wiki/Piast_dynasty \"Piast dynasty\"). Already under the rule of [Bolesław I the Brave](/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_I_the_Brave \"Bolesław I the Brave\") it was one of Poland's most important administrative centers, as mentioned in the *[Gesta principum Polonorum](/wiki/Gesta_principum_Polonorum \"Gesta principum Polonorum\")* chronicle from the 1110s, which also happens to be the oldest known mention of the city. The name is derived from the Old Polish male name Włodzisław, possibly the founder of Włocławek.{{cite book\\|author\\=\\|title\\=Atlas historyczny miast polskich. Tom II: Kujawy. Zeszyt 4: Włocławek\\|pages\\=10, 41}} In the mid\\-10th century, under [Casimir I the Restorer](/wiki/Casimir_I_the_Restorer \"Casimir I the Restorer\"), Włocławek was the seat of a [castellany](/wiki/Castellany \"Castellany\") and the administrative center of [Kuyavia](/wiki/Kuyavia \"Kuyavia\").",
"One of the earliest references to the town came from an assistant to the [Archbishop of Gniezno](/wiki/Archbishop_of_Gniezno \"Archbishop of Gniezno\") who was noted as residing in the town in 1123\\. Later the [Diocese of Włocławek](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Włocławek\") ({{langx\\|la\\|Vladislaviensis}}) of [Kuyavia](/wiki/Kuyavia \"Kuyavia\") in 1148, notates its existence in a [bull](/wiki/Papal_bull \"Papal bull\") issued by [Pope Eugene III](/wiki/Pope_Eugene_III \"Pope Eugene III\"), while mentioning the first bishop of Włocławek as Warner. Warner was followed by an [Italian](/wiki/Italian_people \"Italian people\"), Onoldius; the diocese was recorded as \"Włocławek and [Pomerania](/wiki/Pomerania \"Pomerania\")\" (*Vladislaviensis et Pomeraniae*).",
"In the 12th century, there was a mint and a customs chamber, where tolls were collected from ships and boats sailing on the Vistula and [Zgłowiączka](/wiki/Zg%C5%82owi%C4%85czka_%28river%29 \"Zgłowiączka (river)\") rivers. A hospital was founded at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, whereas the local school was first mentioned in 1215\\.{{cite book\\|author\\=\\|title\\=Atlas historyczny miast polskich. Tom II: Kujawy. Zeszyt 4: Włocławek\\|pages\\=19, 50–51}}",
"Włocławek received its [city rights](/wiki/Town_privileges \"Town privileges\") in 1255\\. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the city was destroyed and captured several times by the [Teutonic Knights](/wiki/Teutonic_Knights \"Teutonic Knights\") and renamed it Leslau.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2010}} The [Treaty of Thorn](/wiki/Second_Peace_of_Thorn_%281466%29 \"Second Peace of Thorn (1466)\"), signed in 1411, resulted in short\\-lived peace for the city, however, it prospered from its involvement in the ransoming of the captured Teutonic Knights which was payable in three instalments and proved to be a hardship on the Prussian faction. Włocławek was located within the [Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship](/wiki/Brze%C5%9B%C4%87_Kujawski_Voivodeship \"Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship\") of the [Greater Poland Province](/wiki/Greater_Poland_Province%2C_Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland \"Greater Poland Province, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland\"). There is a possibility that [Nicolaus Copernicus](/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus \"Nicolaus Copernicus\"), the later renowned astronomer, may have attended the local cathedral school in the late 15th century.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://szlakkopernikowski.pl/pl/wloclawek\\|title\\=Włocławek\\|website\\=Szlak Kopernikowski\\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2023\\|language\\=pl}}",
"### Modern era",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Włocławek in 1896](/wiki/File:W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek-Kopernik_Square_on_photograph_by_Sztejner.jpg \"Włocławek-Kopernik Square on photograph by Sztejner.jpg\")\nThe city's prosperity came from river transport of grain from Kuyavia, the collection of tolls on grain floated from the more southern part of Poland to the country's main port of [Gdańsk](/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk \"Gdańsk\"), transport of timber from the [Narew](/wiki/Narew \"Narew\"), [Bug](/wiki/Bug_%28river%29 \"Bug (river)\") and upper Vistula rivers for export to Western Europe and [brewing](/wiki/Brewing \"Brewing\").{{cite book\\|author\\=\\|title\\=Przewodnik ilustrowany po Włocławku\\|year\\=1922\\|language\\=pl\\|location\\=Włocławek\\|publisher\\=Księgarnia Powszechna i Drukarnia Diecezjalna we Włocławku\\|pages\\=19–20}} This is mentioned in the 1595 poem *Flis, to jest Spuszczanie statków Wisłą i inszymi rzekami do niej przypadającymi* by [Sebastian Klonowic](/wiki/Sebastian_Klonowic \"Sebastian Klonowic\").",
"In 1569, Bishop [Stanisław Karnkowski](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Karnkowski \"Stanisław Karnkowski\") founded a theological seminary in Włocławek, one of the oldest seminaries in Poland.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://ekai.pl/450\\-lat\\-temu\\-powstalo\\-seminarium\\-we\\-wloclawku/\\|title\\=450 lat temu powstało seminarium we Włocławku\\|website\\=eKAI.pl\\|author\\=Artur Niemira\\|date\\=12 October 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2020\\|language\\=pl}} In 1625, the Reformed Franciscans were brought to Włocławek by Bishop Andrzej Lipski, and soon their [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_in_Poland \"Baroque in Poland\") monastery was built.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://zabytek.pl/pl/obiekty/wloclawek\\-zespol\\-klasztorny\\-franciszkanow\\|title\\=Zespół klasztorny Franciszkanów\\|website\\=Zabytek.pl\\|author\\=Bernardeta Popek\\-Olszowa\\|accessdate\\=8 August 2021\\|language\\=pl}}",
"The city was ravaged by the Swedes during the [Swedish invasion of Poland](/wiki/Deluge_%28history%29 \"Deluge (history)\") in 1657 and by the Russians during the [Great Northern War](/wiki/Great_Northern_War \"Great Northern War\") in 1707\\. In 1790, Polish national hero [Tadeusz Kościuszko](/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko \"Tadeusz Kościuszko\") stayed in Włocławek.",
"After the [Second Partition of Poland](/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland \"Second Partition of Poland\") of 1793, Włocławek became part of [Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\"). It was the site of Polish resistance during the [Kościuszko Uprising](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising \"Kościuszko Uprising\") of 1794, when {{ill\\|Dionizy Mniewski\\|pl}} sank Prussian ships with ammunition headed for [besieged Warsaw](/wiki/Siege_of_Warsaw_%281794%29 \"Siege of Warsaw (1794)\").{{cite book\\|author\\=\\|title\\=Przewodnik ilustrowany po Włocławku\\|page\\=21}} After the [Treaties of Tilsit](/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit \"Treaties of Tilsit\") in 1807 it became part of the Polish short\\-lived [Duchy of Warsaw](/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw \"Duchy of Warsaw\"). Subsequently, after the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna \"Congress of Vienna\") it became part of [Congress Poland](/wiki/Congress_Poland \"Congress Poland\") in the [Russian Partition](/wiki/Russian_Partition \"Russian Partition\") of Poland in 1815\\. Polish insurgents operated in the city and in its vicinity during the [January Uprising](/wiki/January_Uprising \"January Uprising\") of 1863–1864\\. The insurgents clashed with Russian troops in Włocławek on November 8, 1863, and February 17, 1864\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Zieliński\\|first\\=Stanisław\\|title\\=Bitwy i potyczki 1863\\-1864\\. Na podstawie materyałów drukowanych i rękopiśmiennych Muzeum Narodowego w Rapperswilu\\|year\\=1913\\|language\\=pl\\|publisher\\=Fundusz Wydawniczy \\[\\[Polish Museum, Rapperswil\\|Muzeum Narodowego w Rapperswilu]]\\|location\\=Rapperswil\\|pages\\=50, 53}} The oldest Polish theological journal *{{interlanguage link\\|Ateneum Kapłańskie\\|pl}}* has been published in Włocławek since 1909\\. The city was again destroyed during the battles of [German offensive](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Eastern Front (World War I)\") during the [First World War](/wiki/First_World_War \"First World War\").",
"When Poland declared independence in 1918, local Poles disarmed the Germans and liberated the city.{{cite book\\|author\\=\\|title\\=Przewodnik ilustrowany po Włocławku\\|page\\=34}} In 1920, Poles successfully defended the city against the invading Soviets during the [Polish–Soviet War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War \"Polish–Soviet War\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://bydgoszcz.tvp.pl/8267323/wojna\\-polskobolszewicka\\-zostawila\\-trwaly\\-slad\\-w\\-historii\\-wloclawka\\|title\\=Wojna polsko\\-bolszewicka zostawiła trwały ślad w historii Włocławka\\|website\\=TVP3 Bydgoszcz\\|author\\=Marta Karpińska\\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2020\\|language\\=pl}}",
"### World War II",
"{{multiple image \\|align\\=right \\|caption\\_align\\=center \\|perrow\\=2 \\|total\\_width\\=370 \\|header\\=Memorials to the victims of the \\[\\[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945\\)\\|German occupation]] in Włocławek (examples):\n\\| image1 \\= 2008\\-05\\-26 Pomnik Pamięci Nauczycieli we Włocławku \\- zbliżenie.jpg\n\\| image2 \\= Pomnik Kolejarzy Włocławek.JPG\n\\| image3 \\= Plaque in Włocławek commemorating pulp and paper workers killed by the Nazis.jpg\n\\| image4 \\= Włocławek\\-monument of killed pottery factory workers.jpg\n\\| caption1 \\= Memorial at the site where Germans imprisoned Polish teachers and priests in 1939\n\\| caption2 \\= Memorial to murdered Polish railwaymen\n\\| caption3 \\= Memorial to murdered paper factory workers\n\\| caption4 \\= Memorial to murdered pottery factory workers\n}}\nDuring [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Włocławek was occupied by German troops, which entered the city on 14 September 1939\\. Under the [Nazi German occupation](/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%931945%29 \"Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)\") Włocławek was again renamed Leslau, annexed by decree to the German Reich on 8 October 1939 and administered from 26 October as a part of Reichsgau Posen (renamed on 29 January 1940 [Reichsgau Wartheland](/wiki/Reichsgau_Wartheland \"Reichsgau Wartheland\")).",
"Already in September 1939, Germans committed a massacre of a group of local Jews{{cite book\\|last\\=Wardzyńska\\|first\\=Maria\\|year\\=2009\\|title\\=Był rok 1939\\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion\\|language\\=pl\\|location\\=Warszawa\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Institute of National Remembrance\\|IPN]]\\|page\\=124}} and burned both synagogues. The *[Einsatzgruppe III](/wiki/Einsatzgruppen \"Einsatzgruppen\")* entered the city between September 23 and October 5, 1939, and afterwards carried out mass arrests of local Poles in October and November as part of the *[Intelligenzaktion](/wiki/Intelligenzaktion \"Intelligenzaktion\")*.Wardzyńska, Maria, *Był rok 1939\\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, p. 57, 209 Dozens of Catholic priests from Włocławek, including Auxiliary Bishop of Włocławek [Michał Kozal](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kozal \"Michał Kozal\"), and lecturers and students of the seminary were arrested, and then deported in January 1940 to the [Dachau concentration camp](/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp \"Dachau concentration camp\"), where most of them were killed.Wardzyńska, Maria, *Był rok 1939\\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, p. 209 [Rector](/wiki/Rector_%28academia%29 \"Rector (academia)\") of the local seminary Henryk Kaczorowski and two students Bronisław Kostkowski and Tadeusz Dulny are now considered three of the [108 Blessed Polish Martyrs of World War II](/wiki/108_Martyrs_of_World_War_II \"108 Martyrs of World War II\") by the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\"). Local teachers were arrested in October 1939, and then deported to [concentration camps](/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps \"Nazi concentration camps\") and murdered. In late 1939, the *[SS](/wiki/SS \"SS\")* and *[Selbstschutz](/wiki/Selbstschutz \"Selbstschutz\")* burnt down the Grzywno district and murdered many of its inhabitants in the nearby village of [Warząchewka Polska](/wiki/Warz%C4%85chewka_Polska \"Warząchewka Polska\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Wardzyńska\\|first\\=Maria\\|year\\=2017\\|title\\=Wysiedlenia ludności polskiej z okupowanych ziem polskich włączonych do III Rzeszy w latach 1939\\-1945\\|language\\=pl\\|location\\=Warszawa\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Institute of National Remembrance\\|IPN]]\\|page\\=176\\|isbn\\=978\\-83\\-8098\\-174\\-4}} Poles from Włocławek were also massacred in the nearby village of [Pińczata](/wiki/Pi%C5%84czata \"Pińczata\").Wardzyńska, Maria, *Był rok 1939\\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, p. 210 Arrested Polish teachers, landowners and priests from the Włocławek and [Lipno](/wiki/Lipno_County \"Lipno County\") counties were also imprisoned in Włocławek, and some were later also deported to concentration camps and murdered.Wardzyńska, Maria, *Był rok 1939\\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, p. 175\\-176",
"Families of deported and murdered Poles, as well as the remaining residents of Grzywno were [expelled](/wiki/Expulsion_of_Poles_by_Nazi_Germany \"Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany\") to the so\\-called [General Government](/wiki/General_Government \"General Government\") in late 1939, and in 1940 also owners of shops, workshops and bigger houses were expelled, so their properties could be handed over to German colonists as part of the *[Lebensraum](/wiki/Lebensraum \"Lebensraum\")* policy.Wardzyńska, Maria, *Wysiedlenia ludności polskiej z okupowanych ziem polskich włączonych do III Rzeszy w latach 1939\\-1945*, p. 226 The Germans also [robbed](/wiki/World_War_II_looting_of_Poland \"World War II looting of Poland\") the precious historical collections of the Diocese of Włocławek and the Baroque Franciscan monastery and closed down the cathedral.Wardzyńska, Maria, *Był rok 1939\\. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion*, p. 209\\-210 The city's central square, *Plac Wolności* (\"Liberty Square\"), was renamed *Adolf\\-Hitler\\-Platz* by the Germans.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://ddwloclawek.pl/pl/545\\_historia/739\\_wloclawek\\_z\\_dawnych\\_lat/32541\\_tak\\-plac\\-wolno\\-ci\\-wygl\\-da\\-podczas\\-okupacji\\-niemieckiej\\-nosi\\-w\\-wczas\\-imi\\-adolfa\\-hitlera.html\\|title\\=Tak plac Wolności wyglądał podczas okupacji niemieckiej. Nosił wówczas imię Adolfa Hitlera\\|website\\=DDWloclawek.pl\\|access\\-date\\=27 June 2020\\|language\\=pl}} By the time the war ended, nearly the entire Jewish population of more than 10,000 had been murdered.\n[thumb\\|Monument of the [Home Army](/wiki/Home_Army \"Home Army\"), the leading [Polish resistance movement in World War II](/wiki/Polish_resistance_movement_in_World_War_II \"Polish resistance movement in World War II\")](/wiki/File:W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek-monument_of_AK.JPG \"Włocławek-monument of AK.JPG\")\nWłocławek was liberated on 20 January 1945 by [Soviet](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") troops of the [1st Belorussian Front](/wiki/1st_Belorussian_Front \"1st Belorussian Front\") during the [Vistula–Oder Offensive](/wiki/Vistula%E2%80%93Oder_Offensive \"Vistula–Oder Offensive\"). One third of the city was destroyed, but its factories and workshops were rebuilt by the [Polish government](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Poland \"People's Republic of Poland\") in the following decades.",
"### Recent period",
"The most important industries in Włocławek today are [chemical industry](/wiki/Chemical_industry \"Chemical industry\"), production of [furniture](/wiki/Furniture \"Furniture\"), and [food processing](/wiki/Food_processing \"Food processing\"). The [dam](/wiki/Dam \"Dam\") which was constructed in 1969 regulates the water level of the [Vistula river](/wiki/Vistula_river \"Vistula river\"), forming [Włocławek Reservoir](/wiki/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_Reservoir \"Włocławek Reservoir\"). From 1975 to 1999, the city was the capital of the [Włocławek Voivodeship](/wiki/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek_Voivodeship \"Włocławek Voivodeship\").",
"The Catholic [priest](/wiki/Priesthood_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Priesthood (Catholic Church)\") Fr. (now [Blessed](/wiki/Beatification \"Beatification\")), [Jerzy Popiełuszko](/wiki/Jerzy_Popie%C5%82uszko \"Jerzy Popiełuszko\"), who was associated with the workers' and trade union movement [Solidarity](/wiki/Solidarity_%28Polish_trade_union%29 \"Solidarity (Polish trade union)\"), and who was also a member of the opposition to the Communist regime in Poland, was tortured and murdered by three [Security Police](/wiki/Security_Police \"Security Police\") officers, and was thrown into the Włocławek Reservoir, close to the city. His body was recovered from the reservoir on 30 October 1984\\.",
"From 2012 the city is part of the Special Economic Zone \\- Włocławek Economic Development Area – Industrial and Technological Park with tax\\-free areas and incentives for investors.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.wloclawek.pl/strefa \\|title\\=W這c豉wska Strefa Rozwoju Gospodarczego \\- Park Przemys這wo\\-Technologiczny \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529204010/http://www.wloclawek.pl/strefa/ \\|archive\\-date\\=29 May 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### The Jewish Community in Włocławek",
"[thumb\\|Memorial at the site of the former World War II ghetto](/wiki/File:Wloclawek_Ghetto_memorial.jpg \"Wloclawek Ghetto memorial.jpg\")\nThe Jewish population increased from 218 (6\\.6%) in 1820 to 6,919 in 1910 (20\\.5%) and 13,500 in 1939\\. One of the founders of the [Mizracḥi](/wiki/Mizrachi_%28religious_Zionism%29 \"Mizrachi (religious Zionism)\") movement, rabbi Leib Kowalski (1895–1925\\), lived and worked in Włocławek. During the interbellum period, the town had several Jewish schools (primary and high schools), two yeshivas, and three Jewish sports clubs.[Włocławek](http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek). \"The YIVO Encyclopedia. Jews in Eastern Europe\". Retrieved 12 March 2015",
"With the beginning of the [German occupation of Poland](/wiki/Occupation_of_Poland_%281939%E2%80%9345%29 \"Occupation of Poland (1939–45)\"), Włocławek became the first town in Europe in which Jews were required to wear distinctive [yellow badges](/wiki/Yellow_badge \"Yellow badge\").\"[Jewish Badge: During the Nazi Era](https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10008211)\". [United States Holocaust Memorial Museum](/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum \"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum\"). ushmm.org. Retrieved 3 May 2017\\. Murders of Jews began in 1939 and the Włocławek [ghetto](/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_German-occupied_Poland \"Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland\") was created in November 1940\\. The Nazis deported 3,000 of Włocławek's Jews to ghettos and labor camps between December 1939 and June 1941\\. Some 2,000 Jews were deported to [Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA \"Łódź\") and then to the [Chełmno extermination camp](/wiki/Che%C5%82mno_extermination_camp \"Chełmno extermination camp\") between 26 and 30 September 1941\\. The ghetto was burnt in late April 1942 after the remaining Jews were sent to Chelmno where they were immediately gassed. Most of the Jews sent to the [Łódź Ghetto](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Ghetto \"Łódź Ghetto\") died of starvation or illness, and many were sent to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp \"Auschwitz concentration camp\") from Łódź.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Megargee \\|first1\\=Geoffrey \\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos \\|date\\=2012 \\|publisher\\=University of Indiana Press \\|location\\=Bloomington, Indiana \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-253\\-35599\\-7 \\|page\\=Volume II 118–119}}",
"After the war nearly 1000 Jews returned to Włocławek and re\\-established their community. However, Jews left after disputes within the community itself, and the desire of most Jews not to live under Communism, installed by the Soviets.{{cite web \\|title\\=Wloclawek \\|url\\=https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/W%C5%82oc%C5%82awek \\|website\\=YIVO Encyclopedia of Eastern European Jews \\|publisher\\=YIVO}} By the late 1960s, the community had disappeared.",
"Today there is only very little, if any trace at all, of their once rich and lively community. There is a table for victims of Jewish ghetto in Włocławek's Rakutówek neighborhood (Polish Tablica Ofiar Getta we Włocławku) and Jewish Cemetery at Municipal/Communal Cemetery (Polish Cmentarz Komunalny we Włocławku).",
""
] |
Racing career
-------------
### 1969
His last race on the flat was 9 May 1969 at [New Cross Stadium](/wiki/New_Cross_Stadium "New Cross Stadium") before being schooled for hurdles by Shevlin at [West Ham Stadium](/wiki/West_Ham_Stadium "West Ham Stadium").{{cite book\|last\=Genders\|first\=Roy\|title\=NGRC book of Greyhound Racing\|year\=1990\|publisher\=Pelham Books Ltd\|isbn\=0\-7207\-1804\-X}} He came to prominence after setting new hurdle track records at [White City](/wiki/White_City_Greyhounds "White City Greyhounds") and [Wembley](/wiki/Wembley_Greyhounds "Wembley Greyhounds").
### 1970
He dominated the 1970 Grand National at White City.{{cite book\|last\=Genders\|first\=Roy\|title\=The Encyclopedia of Greyhound Racing\|year\=1981\|publisher\=Pelham Books Ltd\|isbn\=07207\-1106\-1}} He won his heat and semi final before winning the final on 18 April. He also won the Long Hop Hurdles at the same track during April. Unfortunately he broke a hock when finishing runner\-up in the Scottish Grand National final, at [Powderhall](/wiki/Powderhall_Stadium "Powderhall Stadium") over 500 yards hurdles.
By October he had recovered and had returned to racing but his trainer John Shevlin's health was failing at the time. Shevlin died which resulted in his West Ham kennel being allocated to Colin West with McNally remaining to help the kennel.
### 1971
He won the New Year Hurdles at Wembley but was defeated by Derry Palm in the Supreme Hurdles Champion Stakes over 525 yards at White City.{{cite web\|url\=http://greyhoundstar.co.uk/remember\-march\-3\-5/\|title\=Remember When March 1971\|date\=16 March 2017\|publisher\=Greyhound Star}} In April he then equalled the record of Juvenile Classic and Blossom of Annagura, by winning a second Grand National title. He once again went unbeaten throughout the 1971 edition. The success included two track records in the heats and semi finals. He later set a world record in the final of the Wimbledon Gold Cup when recording 28\.83 seconds.
### 1972
He won the Cobb Marathon hurdles on 5 February 1972, setting a new track record of 35\.75 before being struck with a kidney infection. However, by April he had recovered and then rewrote the record books by becoming the first greyhound to win a third Grand National. The record was even more significant because he went unbeaten again for the third successive time.{{cite web\|url\=http://greyhoundstar.co.uk/remember\-april\-2\-4/\|title\=Remember When April 1972\|date\=21 April 2018\|publisher\=Greyhound Star}}{{cite book\|last\=Barnes\|first\=Julia\|title\=Daily Mirror Greyhound Fact File\|year\=1988\|publisher\=Ringpress Books\|isbn\=0\-948955\-15\-5}}
He retired after running in 105 hurdle races, winning 70 and finishing runner\-up 15 times, in addition to setting 15 track records. He died in 1978\.
|
[
"Racing career\n-------------",
"### 1969",
"His last race on the flat was 9 May 1969 at [New Cross Stadium](/wiki/New_Cross_Stadium \"New Cross Stadium\") before being schooled for hurdles by Shevlin at [West Ham Stadium](/wiki/West_Ham_Stadium \"West Ham Stadium\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Genders\\|first\\=Roy\\|title\\=NGRC book of Greyhound Racing\\|year\\=1990\\|publisher\\=Pelham Books Ltd\\|isbn\\=0\\-7207\\-1804\\-X}} He came to prominence after setting new hurdle track records at [White City](/wiki/White_City_Greyhounds \"White City Greyhounds\") and [Wembley](/wiki/Wembley_Greyhounds \"Wembley Greyhounds\").",
"### 1970",
"He dominated the 1970 Grand National at White City.{{cite book\\|last\\=Genders\\|first\\=Roy\\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Greyhound Racing\\|year\\=1981\\|publisher\\=Pelham Books Ltd\\|isbn\\=07207\\-1106\\-1}} He won his heat and semi final before winning the final on 18 April. He also won the Long Hop Hurdles at the same track during April. Unfortunately he broke a hock when finishing runner\\-up in the Scottish Grand National final, at [Powderhall](/wiki/Powderhall_Stadium \"Powderhall Stadium\") over 500 yards hurdles.",
"By October he had recovered and had returned to racing but his trainer John Shevlin's health was failing at the time. Shevlin died which resulted in his West Ham kennel being allocated to Colin West with McNally remaining to help the kennel.",
"### 1971",
"He won the New Year Hurdles at Wembley but was defeated by Derry Palm in the Supreme Hurdles Champion Stakes over 525 yards at White City.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://greyhoundstar.co.uk/remember\\-march\\-3\\-5/\\|title\\=Remember When March 1971\\|date\\=16 March 2017\\|publisher\\=Greyhound Star}} In April he then equalled the record of Juvenile Classic and Blossom of Annagura, by winning a second Grand National title. He once again went unbeaten throughout the 1971 edition. The success included two track records in the heats and semi finals. He later set a world record in the final of the Wimbledon Gold Cup when recording 28\\.83 seconds.",
"### 1972",
"He won the Cobb Marathon hurdles on 5 February 1972, setting a new track record of 35\\.75 before being struck with a kidney infection. However, by April he had recovered and then rewrote the record books by becoming the first greyhound to win a third Grand National. The record was even more significant because he went unbeaten again for the third successive time.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://greyhoundstar.co.uk/remember\\-april\\-2\\-4/\\|title\\=Remember When April 1972\\|date\\=21 April 2018\\|publisher\\=Greyhound Star}}{{cite book\\|last\\=Barnes\\|first\\=Julia\\|title\\=Daily Mirror Greyhound Fact File\\|year\\=1988\\|publisher\\=Ringpress Books\\|isbn\\=0\\-948955\\-15\\-5}}",
"He retired after running in 105 hurdle races, winning 70 and finishing runner\\-up 15 times, in addition to setting 15 track records. He died in 1978\\.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life and career
Ilbert was born at [Kingsbridge](/wiki/Kingsbridge "Kingsbridge"), [Devon](/wiki/Devon "Devon") to the Reverend Peregrine Arthur Ilbert, rector of [Thurlestone](/wiki/Thurlestone "Thurlestone"), and Rose Anne (daughter of George Welsh Owen, of Lowman Green, [Tiverton](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Devon "Tiverton, Devon"), Devon). He was educated at [Marlborough College](/wiki/Marlborough_College "Marlborough College") (1852–60\) and at [Balliol College, Oxford](/wiki/Balliol_College%2C_Oxford "Balliol College, Oxford"), where he won the Hertford, Ireland, Craven, and Eldon scholarships. He took first\-class honours in [classical moderations](/wiki/Classical_Moderations "Classical Moderations") and [*literae humaniores*](/wiki/Literae_Humaniores "Literae Humaniores") and was elected a fellow of Balliol in 1864, where he was Bursar from 1871 to 1874\.{{Cite ODNB\|first\=R.C.J.\|last\=Cocks\|title\=Ilbert, Sir Courtenay Peregrine\|id\=34090\|year\=2004}} He was [President of the Oxford Union](/wiki/President_of_the_Oxford_Union "President of the Oxford Union") in Michaelmas 1865\.
### Legal career
Ilbert was [called to the Bar](/wiki/Call_to_the_bar "Call to the bar") by [Lincoln's Inn](/wiki/Lincoln%27s_Inn "Lincoln's Inn") in 1869, and began to practice in property law, with an emphasis on drafting trusts and other documents. His expertise as a draftsman attracted the attention of [Sir Henry Thring](/wiki/Henry_Thring%2C_1st_Baron_Thring "Henry Thring, 1st Baron Thring") who invited him to help prepare bills: among his bills he helped to prepare were the Statute Law Revision and Civil Procedure Act of [1881](/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_and_Civil_Procedure_Act_1881 "Statute Law Revision and Civil Procedure Act 1881") and [1883](/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_and_Civil_Procedure_Act_1881 "Statute Law Revision and Civil Procedure Act 1881").
The [Viceroy of India](/wiki/Viceroy_of_India "Viceroy of India"), the [Marquess of Ripon](/wiki/George_Robinson%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon "George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon") sought an imaginative constitutional lawyer and a [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28UK%29 "Liberal Party (UK)") to become the Law Member of the Viceroy's Council, in succession to the likes of [Lord Macaulay](/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay "Thomas Babington Macaulay"), [Sir Henry Maine](/wiki/Henry_James_Sumner_Maine "Henry James Sumner Maine"), and [Sir James Fitzjames Stephen](/wiki/James_Fitzjames_Stephen "James Fitzjames Stephen"). At the invitation of [Lord Hartington](/wiki/Spencer_Cavendish%2C_8th_Duke_of_Devonshire "Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire"), [Secretary of State for India](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India "Secretary of State for India"), Ilbert was offered the position in 1882 and proceeded to India, where he served until 1886\.
During his time in India, Ilbert drafted many important pieces of legislation, but by far the most famous was his eponymous [Ilbert Bill](/wiki/Ilbert_Bill "Ilbert Bill"). Introduced by Ilbert in 1883, the Bill proposed to allow non\-European Magistrates or Sessions Judges to try "European British subjects", something which existing legislation did not allow. European reactions in India to the proposal were extremely hostile, which in turn stimulated the growth of [Indian nationalism](/wiki/Indian_nationalism "Indian nationalism"). The response in Britain was more divided: the Bill was criticized by some, notably by Ilbert's predecessor [Sir James Fitzjames Stephen](/wiki/James_Fitzjames_Stephen "James Fitzjames Stephen"), but the Bill received substantial support in Britain as well. As a result of the controversy, the bill was significantly amended. The extent of Ilbert's personal support for the Bill are unclear: R. C. J. Cocks speculated that Ilbert approved of the principles the Bill embodied, but was dubious as to its political expediency.
He was appointed assistant parliamentary counsel to Treasury in 1886 and [First Parliamentary Counsel](/wiki/Office_of_the_Parliamentary_Counsel_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Office of the Parliamentary Counsel (United Kingdom)") in 1899\. In February 1902, Ilbert was appointed [Clerk of the House of Commons](/wiki/Clerk_of_the_House_of_Commons "Clerk of the House of Commons"),{{London Gazette\|issue\=27408\|page\=1037\|date\=18 February 1902}} and he served as such until 1921\.
### Personal life
Ilbert married Jessie, daughter of Reverend Charles Bradley and niece of George Bradley, former headmaster of Marlborough College in 1874\. They had five daughters, the oldest, [Lettice Fisher](/wiki/Lettice_Fisher "Lettice Fisher") became the first to head the National Council for the Unmarried Mother and her Child. His fourth daughter Margaret Peregrina Ilbert (1882–1952\) married Sir [Arthur Cochrane](/wiki/Arthur_Cochrane_%28officer_of_arms%29 "Arthur Cochrane (officer of arms)") of the [College of Arms](/wiki/College_of_Arms "College of Arms").
Ilbert was an outdoorsman in his youth and he climbed in Chamonix (1871 with Leslie Stephen and M. Loppe){{cite book\|author\=Maitland, Frederic William\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/lifelettersofles00maituoft\#page/94/mode/2up/\|title\=The life and letters of Leslie Stephen\|publisher\=Duckworth \& Co.\|year\=1906\|place\=London\|page\=94}} the Hekla in Iceland and the Vignemale in the Pyrenees in 1872–73 with [James Bryce](/wiki/James_Bryce%2C_1st_Viscount_Bryce "James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce").{{cite book\|author\=Carlyle, E.I.\|title\=Dictionary of National Biography (1922\-1930\)\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=1937\|pages\=127–135\|chapter\=Bryce, James\|chapter\-url\=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofnati04leesuoft\#page/128/mode/2up}} When Ilbert lived in Simla, at Chapslee house, he founded a Simla Natural History Society around 1885 but the organization dissolved when he left Simla in 1886\.{{cite book\|author\=Buck, Edward J.\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/simlapastpresent00buckrich\#page/194/mode/2up\|title\=Past and Present\|publisher\=Thacker, Spink and Co.\|year\=1904\|place\=Calcutta\|pages\=33, 195}}
Ilbert died a few months after the death of his wife at his home in Troutwells, [Buckinghamshire](/wiki/Buckinghamshire "Buckinghamshire") on 14 May 1924\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life and career",
"Ilbert was born at [Kingsbridge](/wiki/Kingsbridge \"Kingsbridge\"), [Devon](/wiki/Devon \"Devon\") to the Reverend Peregrine Arthur Ilbert, rector of [Thurlestone](/wiki/Thurlestone \"Thurlestone\"), and Rose Anne (daughter of George Welsh Owen, of Lowman Green, [Tiverton](/wiki/Tiverton%2C_Devon \"Tiverton, Devon\"), Devon). He was educated at [Marlborough College](/wiki/Marlborough_College \"Marlborough College\") (1852–60\\) and at [Balliol College, Oxford](/wiki/Balliol_College%2C_Oxford \"Balliol College, Oxford\"), where he won the Hertford, Ireland, Craven, and Eldon scholarships. He took first\\-class honours in [classical moderations](/wiki/Classical_Moderations \"Classical Moderations\") and [*literae humaniores*](/wiki/Literae_Humaniores \"Literae Humaniores\") and was elected a fellow of Balliol in 1864, where he was Bursar from 1871 to 1874\\.{{Cite ODNB\\|first\\=R.C.J.\\|last\\=Cocks\\|title\\=Ilbert, Sir Courtenay Peregrine\\|id\\=34090\\|year\\=2004}} He was [President of the Oxford Union](/wiki/President_of_the_Oxford_Union \"President of the Oxford Union\") in Michaelmas 1865\\.",
"### Legal career",
"Ilbert was [called to the Bar](/wiki/Call_to_the_bar \"Call to the bar\") by [Lincoln's Inn](/wiki/Lincoln%27s_Inn \"Lincoln's Inn\") in 1869, and began to practice in property law, with an emphasis on drafting trusts and other documents. His expertise as a draftsman attracted the attention of [Sir Henry Thring](/wiki/Henry_Thring%2C_1st_Baron_Thring \"Henry Thring, 1st Baron Thring\") who invited him to help prepare bills: among his bills he helped to prepare were the Statute Law Revision and Civil Procedure Act of [1881](/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_and_Civil_Procedure_Act_1881 \"Statute Law Revision and Civil Procedure Act 1881\") and [1883](/wiki/Statute_Law_Revision_and_Civil_Procedure_Act_1881 \"Statute Law Revision and Civil Procedure Act 1881\").",
"The [Viceroy of India](/wiki/Viceroy_of_India \"Viceroy of India\"), the [Marquess of Ripon](/wiki/George_Robinson%2C_1st_Marquess_of_Ripon \"George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon\") sought an imaginative constitutional lawyer and a [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28UK%29 \"Liberal Party (UK)\") to become the Law Member of the Viceroy's Council, in succession to the likes of [Lord Macaulay](/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay \"Thomas Babington Macaulay\"), [Sir Henry Maine](/wiki/Henry_James_Sumner_Maine \"Henry James Sumner Maine\"), and [Sir James Fitzjames Stephen](/wiki/James_Fitzjames_Stephen \"James Fitzjames Stephen\"). At the invitation of [Lord Hartington](/wiki/Spencer_Cavendish%2C_8th_Duke_of_Devonshire \"Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire\"), [Secretary of State for India](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_India \"Secretary of State for India\"), Ilbert was offered the position in 1882 and proceeded to India, where he served until 1886\\.",
"During his time in India, Ilbert drafted many important pieces of legislation, but by far the most famous was his eponymous [Ilbert Bill](/wiki/Ilbert_Bill \"Ilbert Bill\"). Introduced by Ilbert in 1883, the Bill proposed to allow non\\-European Magistrates or Sessions Judges to try \"European British subjects\", something which existing legislation did not allow. European reactions in India to the proposal were extremely hostile, which in turn stimulated the growth of [Indian nationalism](/wiki/Indian_nationalism \"Indian nationalism\"). The response in Britain was more divided: the Bill was criticized by some, notably by Ilbert's predecessor [Sir James Fitzjames Stephen](/wiki/James_Fitzjames_Stephen \"James Fitzjames Stephen\"), but the Bill received substantial support in Britain as well. As a result of the controversy, the bill was significantly amended. The extent of Ilbert's personal support for the Bill are unclear: R. C. J. Cocks speculated that Ilbert approved of the principles the Bill embodied, but was dubious as to its political expediency.",
"He was appointed assistant parliamentary counsel to Treasury in 1886 and [First Parliamentary Counsel](/wiki/Office_of_the_Parliamentary_Counsel_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Office of the Parliamentary Counsel (United Kingdom)\") in 1899\\. In February 1902, Ilbert was appointed [Clerk of the House of Commons](/wiki/Clerk_of_the_House_of_Commons \"Clerk of the House of Commons\"),{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=27408\\|page\\=1037\\|date\\=18 February 1902}} and he served as such until 1921\\.",
"### Personal life",
"Ilbert married Jessie, daughter of Reverend Charles Bradley and niece of George Bradley, former headmaster of Marlborough College in 1874\\. They had five daughters, the oldest, [Lettice Fisher](/wiki/Lettice_Fisher \"Lettice Fisher\") became the first to head the National Council for the Unmarried Mother and her Child. His fourth daughter Margaret Peregrina Ilbert (1882–1952\\) married Sir [Arthur Cochrane](/wiki/Arthur_Cochrane_%28officer_of_arms%29 \"Arthur Cochrane (officer of arms)\") of the [College of Arms](/wiki/College_of_Arms \"College of Arms\").",
"Ilbert was an outdoorsman in his youth and he climbed in Chamonix (1871 with Leslie Stephen and M. Loppe){{cite book\\|author\\=Maitland, Frederic William\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/lifelettersofles00maituoft\\#page/94/mode/2up/\\|title\\=The life and letters of Leslie Stephen\\|publisher\\=Duckworth \\& Co.\\|year\\=1906\\|place\\=London\\|page\\=94}} the Hekla in Iceland and the Vignemale in the Pyrenees in 1872–73 with [James Bryce](/wiki/James_Bryce%2C_1st_Viscount_Bryce \"James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Carlyle, E.I.\\|title\\=Dictionary of National Biography (1922\\-1930\\)\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=1937\\|pages\\=127–135\\|chapter\\=Bryce, James\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofnati04leesuoft\\#page/128/mode/2up}} When Ilbert lived in Simla, at Chapslee house, he founded a Simla Natural History Society around 1885 but the organization dissolved when he left Simla in 1886\\.{{cite book\\|author\\=Buck, Edward J.\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/simlapastpresent00buckrich\\#page/194/mode/2up\\|title\\=Past and Present\\|publisher\\=Thacker, Spink and Co.\\|year\\=1904\\|place\\=Calcutta\\|pages\\=33, 195}}",
"Ilbert died a few months after the death of his wife at his home in Troutwells, [Buckinghamshire](/wiki/Buckinghamshire \"Buckinghamshire\") on 14 May 1924\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|right\|alt\=Texmade Truprest Bedsheets\|Purple variation of Dominion Textile's 1970's "Labyrinth" Texmade Truprest lineFollowing](/wiki/File:Texmade_Truprest_Bedsheets.jpg "Texmade Truprest Bedsheets.jpg") the instituting of the [National Policy](/wiki/National_Policy "National Policy") in 1879, Canadian manufacturers gained a degree of insulation from global markets, leading to a rapid increase in the number of [cotton mills](/wiki/Cotton_mill "Cotton mill").{{sfn\|Brandt\|1990}} Overproduction soon ensued, which created problems for the industry. Toward the turn of the century, it became increasingly consolidated and dominated by trusts and cartels.{{sfn\|Brandt\|1990}} In 1905, four of the largest textile companies in Canada, which between them owned over half the [looms](/wiki/Loom "Loom") and [spindles](/wiki/Spindle_%28textiles%29 "Spindle (textiles)") in the country,{{sfn\|Brandt\|1990}} merged to form Dominion Textile, which soon gained a near monopoly in the [tariff](/wiki/Tariff "Tariff")\-protected Canadian market. Based in Montreal, it was one of Canada's leading companies and had close links to the government. Most of the company's production was based in small towns in Quebec and elsewhere across Canada; in most of these towns, the mill was the primary employer. Dominion Textile and its affiliate, Montreal Cottons, used the Slater, or family method of recruitment, which involved sending agents into the rural Quebec countryside to encourage entire families to move to mill towns. This was successful because of Quebec's large population of surplus labour relative to its arable land.{{sfn\|Brandt\|1990}} In general, the Quebec cotton industry had employed children since the 1880s, but legislation and a large working population resulted in a slow shift toward greater predominance of adults by the 20th century, many of whom were unmarried women.{{sfn\|Brandt\|1990}} A concentration of textile mill workers were young women aged around sixteen to eighteen, who lived with their parents, often also mill workers, and who formed a significant part of the family as an economic unit.{{sfn\|Brandt\|1981\|p\=118}} These women were concentrated heavily in lighter, semi\-skilled work, with little upward mobility.{{sfn\|Brandt\|1990}}
Canada's textile industry suffered considerably during the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), resulting in layoffs and shifting the balance of employees for the first time to a majority of men.{{sfn\|Brandt\|1981\|p\=116}} This was abruptly reversed during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), with production rising and women taking on new roles within the mills.{{sfn\|Brandt\|1990}} Amidst labour market instability and the postwar Canadian strike wave (which also saw [a major strike at Ford in Windsor, Ontario](/wiki/Ford_Strike_of_1945 "Ford Strike of 1945")), there was [a strike in June 1946](/wiki/1946_Montreal_Cottons_strike "1946 Montreal Cottons strike") by the [United Textile Workers of America](/wiki/United_Textile_Workers_of_America "United Textile Workers of America") (UTWA) at the Montreal Cottons plant in [Valleyfield, Quebec](/wiki/Valleyfield%2C_Quebec "Valleyfield, Quebec") as well as four Dominion Textile mills in Montreal. While the latter strikes were settled by August, the former continued on bitterly until September, and became notable for its rioting.
In 1948 the economic situation changed dramatically as tariffs between western nations were greatly reduced, and Dominion Textile was exposed to strong competition from the United States and Britain. Dominion Textiles' market share fell dramatically from nearly 100% of the Canadian market in 1947 to only 47% a decade later. The company almost collapsed, but eventually adapted to the new conditions. It was rebranded as Domtex and moved into new areas such as the production of [polyester](/wiki/Polyester "Polyester"). In the same period it became seen by Quebec nationalists as a prime example of the anglophone businesses that controlled the province. In 1967 [FLQ](/wiki/FLQ "FLQ") member Jean Corbo died when a bomb detonated prematurely in an attempted attack on a Dominion Textile plant in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal").
In the 1970s the company began to expand abroad, seeking to compete outside Canada. It purchased smaller companies in other nations and built new factories. At its peak in the 1980s it had 14,000 employees and factories in Canada, the United States, Ireland, France, Italy and Tunisia. A leader in a number of areas, it became the world's largest producer of [denim](/wiki/Denim "Denim").
In the 1980s the textile industry was again changing, as [General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade](/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade "General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade") (GATT) provisions came into effect that opened the business to competition from low wage developing economies. Domtex tried to adapt. It entered into a long battle to try to get concessions from its unions and closed half its Canadian factories. In 1987 it made a failed bid for American giant [Burlington Industries](/wiki/Burlington_Industries "Burlington Industries"), that would have made it a global textile leader. Over the course of the 1990s the company slowly collapsed, and by 1997 it was left with only two factories. The remnants were bought for some $600 million by the [Polymer Group](/wiki/Polymer_Group "Polymer Group") of [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina "South Carolina") in 1998\.
Many of its products were once household names in Canada, such as the Texmade bedding line, Caldwell towels, and Penman's underwear.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|alt\\=Texmade Truprest Bedsheets\\|Purple variation of Dominion Textile's 1970's \"Labyrinth\" Texmade Truprest lineFollowing](/wiki/File:Texmade_Truprest_Bedsheets.jpg \"Texmade Truprest Bedsheets.jpg\") the instituting of the [National Policy](/wiki/National_Policy \"National Policy\") in 1879, Canadian manufacturers gained a degree of insulation from global markets, leading to a rapid increase in the number of [cotton mills](/wiki/Cotton_mill \"Cotton mill\").{{sfn\\|Brandt\\|1990}} Overproduction soon ensued, which created problems for the industry. Toward the turn of the century, it became increasingly consolidated and dominated by trusts and cartels.{{sfn\\|Brandt\\|1990}} In 1905, four of the largest textile companies in Canada, which between them owned over half the [looms](/wiki/Loom \"Loom\") and [spindles](/wiki/Spindle_%28textiles%29 \"Spindle (textiles)\") in the country,{{sfn\\|Brandt\\|1990}} merged to form Dominion Textile, which soon gained a near monopoly in the [tariff](/wiki/Tariff \"Tariff\")\\-protected Canadian market. Based in Montreal, it was one of Canada's leading companies and had close links to the government. Most of the company's production was based in small towns in Quebec and elsewhere across Canada; in most of these towns, the mill was the primary employer. Dominion Textile and its affiliate, Montreal Cottons, used the Slater, or family method of recruitment, which involved sending agents into the rural Quebec countryside to encourage entire families to move to mill towns. This was successful because of Quebec's large population of surplus labour relative to its arable land.{{sfn\\|Brandt\\|1990}} In general, the Quebec cotton industry had employed children since the 1880s, but legislation and a large working population resulted in a slow shift toward greater predominance of adults by the 20th century, many of whom were unmarried women.{{sfn\\|Brandt\\|1990}} A concentration of textile mill workers were young women aged around sixteen to eighteen, who lived with their parents, often also mill workers, and who formed a significant part of the family as an economic unit.{{sfn\\|Brandt\\|1981\\|p\\=118}} These women were concentrated heavily in lighter, semi\\-skilled work, with little upward mobility.{{sfn\\|Brandt\\|1990}}",
"Canada's textile industry suffered considerably during the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), resulting in layoffs and shifting the balance of employees for the first time to a majority of men.{{sfn\\|Brandt\\|1981\\|p\\=116}} This was abruptly reversed during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), with production rising and women taking on new roles within the mills.{{sfn\\|Brandt\\|1990}} Amidst labour market instability and the postwar Canadian strike wave (which also saw [a major strike at Ford in Windsor, Ontario](/wiki/Ford_Strike_of_1945 \"Ford Strike of 1945\")), there was [a strike in June 1946](/wiki/1946_Montreal_Cottons_strike \"1946 Montreal Cottons strike\") by the [United Textile Workers of America](/wiki/United_Textile_Workers_of_America \"United Textile Workers of America\") (UTWA) at the Montreal Cottons plant in [Valleyfield, Quebec](/wiki/Valleyfield%2C_Quebec \"Valleyfield, Quebec\") as well as four Dominion Textile mills in Montreal. While the latter strikes were settled by August, the former continued on bitterly until September, and became notable for its rioting.",
"In 1948 the economic situation changed dramatically as tariffs between western nations were greatly reduced, and Dominion Textile was exposed to strong competition from the United States and Britain. Dominion Textiles' market share fell dramatically from nearly 100% of the Canadian market in 1947 to only 47% a decade later. The company almost collapsed, but eventually adapted to the new conditions. It was rebranded as Domtex and moved into new areas such as the production of [polyester](/wiki/Polyester \"Polyester\"). In the same period it became seen by Quebec nationalists as a prime example of the anglophone businesses that controlled the province. In 1967 [FLQ](/wiki/FLQ \"FLQ\") member Jean Corbo died when a bomb detonated prematurely in an attempted attack on a Dominion Textile plant in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\").",
"In the 1970s the company began to expand abroad, seeking to compete outside Canada. It purchased smaller companies in other nations and built new factories. At its peak in the 1980s it had 14,000 employees and factories in Canada, the United States, Ireland, France, Italy and Tunisia. A leader in a number of areas, it became the world's largest producer of [denim](/wiki/Denim \"Denim\").",
"In the 1980s the textile industry was again changing, as [General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade](/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade \"General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade\") (GATT) provisions came into effect that opened the business to competition from low wage developing economies. Domtex tried to adapt. It entered into a long battle to try to get concessions from its unions and closed half its Canadian factories. In 1987 it made a failed bid for American giant [Burlington Industries](/wiki/Burlington_Industries \"Burlington Industries\"), that would have made it a global textile leader. Over the course of the 1990s the company slowly collapsed, and by 1997 it was left with only two factories. The remnants were bought for some $600 million by the [Polymer Group](/wiki/Polymer_Group \"Polymer Group\") of [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina \"South Carolina\") in 1998\\.",
"Many of its products were once household names in Canada, such as the Texmade bedding line, Caldwell towels, and Penman's underwear.",
""
] |
Career in the CIA
-----------------
From 1963 to 1973 Sam Adams served in the CIA, mostly at its headquarters in [Langley, Virginia](/wiki/Langley%2C_Virginia "Langley, Virginia"). About the intelligence agency, he said, "I found to my astonishment that I really loved the place."Randolph (1985\), ¶ 19\.
### Africa division
Starting as an intelligence analyst at the [Congo](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo "Democratic Republic of the Congo") desk, in the CIA's new Africa Division, he read everything and talked to everybody, and "quickly became one of Washington's reigning authorities on the Congo". He wrote on its economy, but it was political turbulence in the newly independent state that drew world attention, including Cuban under [Che](/wiki/Che_Guevara "Che Guevara").Sinclair (1995\), §1: ¶¶ 5–9 ("reigning authorities" quote, Cubans, Simba invasion)."Krebs (1988\), ¶ 7 (Congo economy). Adams later commented that "the Congo's problem" was "being both rich and weak at the same time."Adams (1994\), at p. 4 (quote).
Especially, it was for his coverage of the [Simba rebellion](/wiki/Simba_rebellion "Simba rebellion") that Adams won commendations. Although at first greeted with 'snickers' from intelligence agents at [State](/wiki/Bureau_of_Intelligence_and_Research "Bureau of Intelligence and Research"), he successfully predicted the crisis appointment of [Moise Tshombe](/wiki/Moise_Tshombe "Moise Tshombe") by [Joseph Kasavubu](/wiki/Joseph_Kasavubu "Joseph Kasavubu"), then President of Congo. He briefed a high\-level CIA conclave about the Simba and their invasion of the Congo from the east. The Simba reached [Kisangani](/wiki/Kisangani "Kisangani") (then called Stanleyville), which prompted an intervention to rescue hostages. Tshombe was cheered "wherever he went". Adams won the esteem of analysts at CIA. As he later recalled, "It was terrific ... one of the high points of my life."Powers (1979\), pp. 138–140 (Simba), 139 (Adams).Randolph (1985\), ¶¶ 21–23 ("terrific" quote from Adams, 'snickers').Adams (1994\), pp. 1–24; pp. 11–12, 17, quote at 20 (Kasavubu, Tshombe); pp. 14–17 (briefs [DCI](/wiki/Director_of_Central_Intelligence "Director of Central Intelligence") [McCone](/wiki/John_McCone "John McCone"), DDI [Cline](/wiki/Ray_Cline "Ray Cline"), [DDP](/wiki/Deputy_Director_for_Plans "Deputy Director for Plans") [Helms](/wiki/Richard_Helms "Richard Helms"), 30 others).Powers (1979\), p. 139, Adams at CIA conclave re Simba.
### Far East division
In 1965 Adams transferred to the Vietnam desk, Southeast Asia Branch of the Far East Division.Ranelagh (1978\), p. 455 (CIA organization). He read as background then\-recent books by [Võ Nguyên Giáp](/wiki/V%C3%B5_Nguy%C3%AAn_Gi%C3%A1p "Võ Nguyên Giáp") on the north's view of its earlier victory, *People's War, People's Army*, [Bernard Fall](/wiki/Bernard_Fall "Bernard Fall") on the French defeat, *[Street without Joy](/wiki/Street_without_Joy_%28book%29 "Street without Joy (book)")*, and [Joseph Buttinger](/wiki/Joseph_Buttinger "Joseph Buttinger")'s history of Vietnam, *Smaller Dragon*. His branch chief, Edward Hauck, when asked told Adams that the Vietnamese communists would probably outlast the Americans and, after 10 or 20 years, win the war.Adams (1994\), p. 28 (books). pp. 26–27 (Ed Hauck, cf. p. 32\).Hiam (2006\), pp. 41–43 (Ed Huack).
#### Viet Cong motivation
In the role of a "generalist" and "roving analyst", Adams was assigned to study the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong "Viet Cong"). Its motivation and morale were his first objectives. Following his procedure per the Congo, he began assembling biographies of Viet Cong operatives, but stopped when told the names were all fake. He also netted little by reading captured documents in translation. He drew welcome information, however, out of statistics compiled in Saigon from the files of [Chieu Hoi](/wiki/Chieu_Hoi "Chieu Hoi") ([South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam")'s defector program).Adams (1994\), pp. 23, 26, 28 (roving analyst, VC morale), pp. 28–29 (VC names are aliases), pp. 33–34 (captured documents), pp. 33–34 (statistics, Chieu Hoi).Hiam (2006\), pp. 52–55, 100, 125 (Chieu Hoi).Tucker (2000\), pp. 69–70, "Chiêu Hôi (Open Arms) Program".
Adams found VC [defections](/wiki/Defection "Defection") per year were 10,000, and thus a 5% defection rate which was high, and rising. The statistics also showed an increase in VC killed, paralleling the higher defections. This information would counter the general CIA pessimism about the war. Yet feedback within his CIA office was ambiguous, noncommittal, cautious; they knew well enough the widespread evidence of the Viet Cong's growing success in the field, of its confidence and morale. His report "Viet Cong Morale: Possible Indicator of Downward Drift" was published, but with caveats in footnotes and distributed only within the CIA.Adams (1994\), pp. 34–35, 46 (10,000 defectors, 5% rate, statistics), p. 36 (his report), pp. 36, 37, 38 (VC success, CIA pessimism), pp. 26–27, 62 (CIA pessimism).Hiam (2006\), pp. 47–48, 51–52, 73 (defections). "South Vietnam was awash in escaped Viet Cong recruits" (p. 73\).
While in Vietnam, Adams got advice from a senior analyst.George W. Allen, author of *None so Blind* (2001\), later Adams' boss at CIA.Adams (1994\), p. 44 (Allen).Cf., Hiam (2006\), p. 54 (Allen). Accordingly, he inquired about VC [desertions](/wiki/Desertion "Desertion"). A [Rand Corporation](/wiki/Rand_Corporation "Rand Corporation") office in Saigon was doing similar VC investigations; it was headed by [Leon Gouré](/wiki/Leon_Gour%C3%A9 "Leon Gouré"). He told Adams that VC deserters were seven times the number of VC defectors. This surprised and puzzled Adams, considering the math. Such a combined loss rate per year (10,000 defectors \+ 70,000 deserters), in addition to VC annual casualties (reported at 150,000\), would severely reduce the Viet Cong's overall strength (which MACV's O/B put at 280,000\). Yet the VC did not seem to be losing the war.Adams (1994\), pp. 44, 46, 59 (VC deserters), pp. 46, 59, 63 (ratio of Gouré), pp. 36, 39, 44 (George Allen).Hiam (2006\), pp. 52, 54–55 (desertion numbers and ratios to defection, O/B numbers).
While doing this perplexing research, Adams discovered that in the provinces the [ARVN](/wiki/Army_of_the_Republic_of_Viet_Nam "Army of the Republic of Viet Nam")'s count of the VC guerrillas and militia was often much higher than [MACV](/wiki/MACV "MACV")'s, e.g., in [Long An](/wiki/Long_An "Long An") province it was 2000 to 160\. He got permission to "look into enemy manpower".Adams (1994\), pp. 56–57, 58 (VC numbers for Long An), p. 63 (MACV's O/B numbers for VC), p.64 (permission).Powers (1979\), pp. 214–215 (trail of Adams from VC desertion to VC O/B).
MACV's *Combined Document Exploitation Center* (CDEC) in Saigon had been publishing annotated versions of captured documents in its bulletins. "Bulletin 689" contained a single three\-page document, "Recapitulated Report on the People's Warfare Movement from [Bình Định Province](/wiki/B%C3%ACnh_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_Province "Bình Định Province")". It listed VC troop counts for several types of guerrillas and militias, which all together totaled 50,244\. In MACV's country\-wide O/B for VC, of the 280,000 grand total, only 100,000 were guerrillas or militia. Adams asked, "Why should Bình Định—one of forty\-four provinces–have half of them?"Adams (1994\), p. 64 (MACV bulletins), pp. 65–66, 67 (Buelliten 689\), p. 66 (quote). Adams writes, "For the rest of the day I galloped around CIA headquarters like [Paul Revere](/wiki/The_Ride_of_Paul_Revere "The Ride of Paul Revere"), ballooing about Viet Cong guerrillas" (p. 67\).Hiam (2006\), pp. 75–76, 259, 262 (Bulletin 689\).
#### Order of Battle
{{See also\|Order of Battle for the Viet Cong}}
Adams assignment in motivation led to his work in estimating the number of VC guerrillas. From his research into captured enemy documents and other sources, he "concluded that previous estimates had undercounted the communists by hundreds of thousands. The implications were astounding."Theoharis (2005\), p. 233 (quote). If the Viet Cong enemy combatant count was higher, it implied that the prospects for a South Vietnamese military victory were dimmed. It questioned American claims of progress on the battlefield. It would be "politically disastrous" for the U.S. government. This numbers dispute became known in military terms as the Order of Battle (O/B) controversy.Powers (1978\), pp. 213–219\.Ford (1998\), pp. 89–90 (Sam Adams), 87 ("disastrous" quote).
His findings, at first ignored, then challenged, after a heated struggle were not adopted. MACV forcefully insisted on its lower numbers, and the CIA in 1967, due to the domestic political environment, reluctantly agreed. Following the [Tet offensive](/wiki/Tet_offensive "Tet offensive") in early 1968, however, the controversy was revisited. The numbers of enemy combatants were raised to a higher count, more in accord with Adams' original conclusions.Ranelagh (1986\), pp. 455–471, at pp. 462–463, 465 (Adams and numbers after Tet).Theoharis (2005\), p. 233\.See below, "Order of Battle controversy".
#### Challenging the CIA
By then, Adams had resigned his Vietnam post and was doing CIA analysis of neighboring [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia"). Yet he persisted in advancing the higher count of Viet Cong in the 'Order of Battle' controversy, despite the institutional fallout between CIA and MACV. He claimed that the CIA had compromised its integrity. He filed formal charges against [DCI](/wiki/Director_of_Central_Intelligence "Director of Central Intelligence") [Richard Helms](/wiki/Richard_Helms "Richard Helms"). He became notorious to many in the agency, and acquired a general reputation as a "gadfly, pariah and nemesis."Andersen (1994\), p. 1\.Cf. Helms (2003\), pp. 326–328\.Powers (1978\), pp. 221–222 (files charges).Ranelagh (1986\), pp. 469–470 (Adams bitter as wrong numbers lost lives).
In 1969 Adams, fearing that his opponents would destroy them, secretly removed CIA files and documents which would support his case. He buried them in the woods near his {{convert\|250\|acre\|km2\|adj\=on}} farm in rural Virginia. His 1973 testimony in federal court,At the Ellsberg espionage trial, see section below. where he restated his position on the 'Order of Battle' numbers, caused consternation at CIA. Following this trial, he retired from the agency.Krebs (1988\).
|
[
"Career in the CIA\n-----------------",
"From 1963 to 1973 Sam Adams served in the CIA, mostly at its headquarters in [Langley, Virginia](/wiki/Langley%2C_Virginia \"Langley, Virginia\"). About the intelligence agency, he said, \"I found to my astonishment that I really loved the place.\"Randolph (1985\\), ¶ 19\\.",
"### Africa division",
"Starting as an intelligence analyst at the [Congo](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo \"Democratic Republic of the Congo\") desk, in the CIA's new Africa Division, he read everything and talked to everybody, and \"quickly became one of Washington's reigning authorities on the Congo\". He wrote on its economy, but it was political turbulence in the newly independent state that drew world attention, including Cuban under [Che](/wiki/Che_Guevara \"Che Guevara\").Sinclair (1995\\), §1: ¶¶ 5–9 (\"reigning authorities\" quote, Cubans, Simba invasion).\"Krebs (1988\\), ¶ 7 (Congo economy). Adams later commented that \"the Congo's problem\" was \"being both rich and weak at the same time.\"Adams (1994\\), at p. 4 (quote).",
"Especially, it was for his coverage of the [Simba rebellion](/wiki/Simba_rebellion \"Simba rebellion\") that Adams won commendations. Although at first greeted with 'snickers' from intelligence agents at [State](/wiki/Bureau_of_Intelligence_and_Research \"Bureau of Intelligence and Research\"), he successfully predicted the crisis appointment of [Moise Tshombe](/wiki/Moise_Tshombe \"Moise Tshombe\") by [Joseph Kasavubu](/wiki/Joseph_Kasavubu \"Joseph Kasavubu\"), then President of Congo. He briefed a high\\-level CIA conclave about the Simba and their invasion of the Congo from the east. The Simba reached [Kisangani](/wiki/Kisangani \"Kisangani\") (then called Stanleyville), which prompted an intervention to rescue hostages. Tshombe was cheered \"wherever he went\". Adams won the esteem of analysts at CIA. As he later recalled, \"It was terrific ... one of the high points of my life.\"Powers (1979\\), pp. 138–140 (Simba), 139 (Adams).Randolph (1985\\), ¶¶ 21–23 (\"terrific\" quote from Adams, 'snickers').Adams (1994\\), pp. 1–24; pp. 11–12, 17, quote at 20 (Kasavubu, Tshombe); pp. 14–17 (briefs [DCI](/wiki/Director_of_Central_Intelligence \"Director of Central Intelligence\") [McCone](/wiki/John_McCone \"John McCone\"), DDI [Cline](/wiki/Ray_Cline \"Ray Cline\"), [DDP](/wiki/Deputy_Director_for_Plans \"Deputy Director for Plans\") [Helms](/wiki/Richard_Helms \"Richard Helms\"), 30 others).Powers (1979\\), p. 139, Adams at CIA conclave re Simba.",
"### Far East division",
"In 1965 Adams transferred to the Vietnam desk, Southeast Asia Branch of the Far East Division.Ranelagh (1978\\), p. 455 (CIA organization). He read as background then\\-recent books by [Võ Nguyên Giáp](/wiki/V%C3%B5_Nguy%C3%AAn_Gi%C3%A1p \"Võ Nguyên Giáp\") on the north's view of its earlier victory, *People's War, People's Army*, [Bernard Fall](/wiki/Bernard_Fall \"Bernard Fall\") on the French defeat, *[Street without Joy](/wiki/Street_without_Joy_%28book%29 \"Street without Joy (book)\")*, and [Joseph Buttinger](/wiki/Joseph_Buttinger \"Joseph Buttinger\")'s history of Vietnam, *Smaller Dragon*. His branch chief, Edward Hauck, when asked told Adams that the Vietnamese communists would probably outlast the Americans and, after 10 or 20 years, win the war.Adams (1994\\), p. 28 (books). pp. 26–27 (Ed Hauck, cf. p. 32\\).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 41–43 (Ed Huack).",
"#### Viet Cong motivation",
"In the role of a \"generalist\" and \"roving analyst\", Adams was assigned to study the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong \"Viet Cong\"). Its motivation and morale were his first objectives. Following his procedure per the Congo, he began assembling biographies of Viet Cong operatives, but stopped when told the names were all fake. He also netted little by reading captured documents in translation. He drew welcome information, however, out of statistics compiled in Saigon from the files of [Chieu Hoi](/wiki/Chieu_Hoi \"Chieu Hoi\") ([South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\")'s defector program).Adams (1994\\), pp. 23, 26, 28 (roving analyst, VC morale), pp. 28–29 (VC names are aliases), pp. 33–34 (captured documents), pp. 33–34 (statistics, Chieu Hoi).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 52–55, 100, 125 (Chieu Hoi).Tucker (2000\\), pp. 69–70, \"Chiêu Hôi (Open Arms) Program\".",
"Adams found VC [defections](/wiki/Defection \"Defection\") per year were 10,000, and thus a 5% defection rate which was high, and rising. The statistics also showed an increase in VC killed, paralleling the higher defections. This information would counter the general CIA pessimism about the war. Yet feedback within his CIA office was ambiguous, noncommittal, cautious; they knew well enough the widespread evidence of the Viet Cong's growing success in the field, of its confidence and morale. His report \"Viet Cong Morale: Possible Indicator of Downward Drift\" was published, but with caveats in footnotes and distributed only within the CIA.Adams (1994\\), pp. 34–35, 46 (10,000 defectors, 5% rate, statistics), p. 36 (his report), pp. 36, 37, 38 (VC success, CIA pessimism), pp. 26–27, 62 (CIA pessimism).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 47–48, 51–52, 73 (defections). \"South Vietnam was awash in escaped Viet Cong recruits\" (p. 73\\).",
"While in Vietnam, Adams got advice from a senior analyst.George W. Allen, author of *None so Blind* (2001\\), later Adams' boss at CIA.Adams (1994\\), p. 44 (Allen).Cf., Hiam (2006\\), p. 54 (Allen). Accordingly, he inquired about VC [desertions](/wiki/Desertion \"Desertion\"). A [Rand Corporation](/wiki/Rand_Corporation \"Rand Corporation\") office in Saigon was doing similar VC investigations; it was headed by [Leon Gouré](/wiki/Leon_Gour%C3%A9 \"Leon Gouré\"). He told Adams that VC deserters were seven times the number of VC defectors. This surprised and puzzled Adams, considering the math. Such a combined loss rate per year (10,000 defectors \\+ 70,000 deserters), in addition to VC annual casualties (reported at 150,000\\), would severely reduce the Viet Cong's overall strength (which MACV's O/B put at 280,000\\). Yet the VC did not seem to be losing the war.Adams (1994\\), pp. 44, 46, 59 (VC deserters), pp. 46, 59, 63 (ratio of Gouré), pp. 36, 39, 44 (George Allen).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 52, 54–55 (desertion numbers and ratios to defection, O/B numbers).",
"While doing this perplexing research, Adams discovered that in the provinces the [ARVN](/wiki/Army_of_the_Republic_of_Viet_Nam \"Army of the Republic of Viet Nam\")'s count of the VC guerrillas and militia was often much higher than [MACV](/wiki/MACV \"MACV\")'s, e.g., in [Long An](/wiki/Long_An \"Long An\") province it was 2000 to 160\\. He got permission to \"look into enemy manpower\".Adams (1994\\), pp. 56–57, 58 (VC numbers for Long An), p. 63 (MACV's O/B numbers for VC), p.64 (permission).Powers (1979\\), pp. 214–215 (trail of Adams from VC desertion to VC O/B).",
"MACV's *Combined Document Exploitation Center* (CDEC) in Saigon had been publishing annotated versions of captured documents in its bulletins. \"Bulletin 689\" contained a single three\\-page document, \"Recapitulated Report on the People's Warfare Movement from [Bình Định Province](/wiki/B%C3%ACnh_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_Province \"Bình Định Province\")\". It listed VC troop counts for several types of guerrillas and militias, which all together totaled 50,244\\. In MACV's country\\-wide O/B for VC, of the 280,000 grand total, only 100,000 were guerrillas or militia. Adams asked, \"Why should Bình Định—one of forty\\-four provinces–have half of them?\"Adams (1994\\), p. 64 (MACV bulletins), pp. 65–66, 67 (Buelliten 689\\), p. 66 (quote). Adams writes, \"For the rest of the day I galloped around CIA headquarters like [Paul Revere](/wiki/The_Ride_of_Paul_Revere \"The Ride of Paul Revere\"), ballooing about Viet Cong guerrillas\" (p. 67\\).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 75–76, 259, 262 (Bulletin 689\\).",
"#### Order of Battle",
"{{See also\\|Order of Battle for the Viet Cong}}\nAdams assignment in motivation led to his work in estimating the number of VC guerrillas. From his research into captured enemy documents and other sources, he \"concluded that previous estimates had undercounted the communists by hundreds of thousands. The implications were astounding.\"Theoharis (2005\\), p. 233 (quote). If the Viet Cong enemy combatant count was higher, it implied that the prospects for a South Vietnamese military victory were dimmed. It questioned American claims of progress on the battlefield. It would be \"politically disastrous\" for the U.S. government. This numbers dispute became known in military terms as the Order of Battle (O/B) controversy.Powers (1978\\), pp. 213–219\\.Ford (1998\\), pp. 89–90 (Sam Adams), 87 (\"disastrous\" quote).",
"His findings, at first ignored, then challenged, after a heated struggle were not adopted. MACV forcefully insisted on its lower numbers, and the CIA in 1967, due to the domestic political environment, reluctantly agreed. Following the [Tet offensive](/wiki/Tet_offensive \"Tet offensive\") in early 1968, however, the controversy was revisited. The numbers of enemy combatants were raised to a higher count, more in accord with Adams' original conclusions.Ranelagh (1986\\), pp. 455–471, at pp. 462–463, 465 (Adams and numbers after Tet).Theoharis (2005\\), p. 233\\.See below, \"Order of Battle controversy\".",
"#### Challenging the CIA",
"By then, Adams had resigned his Vietnam post and was doing CIA analysis of neighboring [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia \"Cambodia\"). Yet he persisted in advancing the higher count of Viet Cong in the 'Order of Battle' controversy, despite the institutional fallout between CIA and MACV. He claimed that the CIA had compromised its integrity. He filed formal charges against [DCI](/wiki/Director_of_Central_Intelligence \"Director of Central Intelligence\") [Richard Helms](/wiki/Richard_Helms \"Richard Helms\"). He became notorious to many in the agency, and acquired a general reputation as a \"gadfly, pariah and nemesis.\"Andersen (1994\\), p. 1\\.Cf. Helms (2003\\), pp. 326–328\\.Powers (1978\\), pp. 221–222 (files charges).Ranelagh (1986\\), pp. 469–470 (Adams bitter as wrong numbers lost lives).",
"In 1969 Adams, fearing that his opponents would destroy them, secretly removed CIA files and documents which would support his case. He buried them in the woods near his {{convert\\|250\\|acre\\|km2\\|adj\\=on}} farm in rural Virginia. His 1973 testimony in federal court,At the Ellsberg espionage trial, see section below. where he restated his position on the 'Order of Battle' numbers, caused consternation at CIA. Following this trial, he retired from the agency.Krebs (1988\\).",
""
] |
### Far East division
In 1965 Adams transferred to the Vietnam desk, Southeast Asia Branch of the Far East Division.Ranelagh (1978\), p. 455 (CIA organization). He read as background then\-recent books by [Võ Nguyên Giáp](/wiki/V%C3%B5_Nguy%C3%AAn_Gi%C3%A1p "Võ Nguyên Giáp") on the north's view of its earlier victory, *People's War, People's Army*, [Bernard Fall](/wiki/Bernard_Fall "Bernard Fall") on the French defeat, *[Street without Joy](/wiki/Street_without_Joy_%28book%29 "Street without Joy (book)")*, and [Joseph Buttinger](/wiki/Joseph_Buttinger "Joseph Buttinger")'s history of Vietnam, *Smaller Dragon*. His branch chief, Edward Hauck, when asked told Adams that the Vietnamese communists would probably outlast the Americans and, after 10 or 20 years, win the war.Adams (1994\), p. 28 (books). pp. 26–27 (Ed Hauck, cf. p. 32\).Hiam (2006\), pp. 41–43 (Ed Huack).
#### Viet Cong motivation
In the role of a "generalist" and "roving analyst", Adams was assigned to study the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong "Viet Cong"). Its motivation and morale were his first objectives. Following his procedure per the Congo, he began assembling biographies of Viet Cong operatives, but stopped when told the names were all fake. He also netted little by reading captured documents in translation. He drew welcome information, however, out of statistics compiled in Saigon from the files of [Chieu Hoi](/wiki/Chieu_Hoi "Chieu Hoi") ([South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam")'s defector program).Adams (1994\), pp. 23, 26, 28 (roving analyst, VC morale), pp. 28–29 (VC names are aliases), pp. 33–34 (captured documents), pp. 33–34 (statistics, Chieu Hoi).Hiam (2006\), pp. 52–55, 100, 125 (Chieu Hoi).Tucker (2000\), pp. 69–70, "Chiêu Hôi (Open Arms) Program".
Adams found VC [defections](/wiki/Defection "Defection") per year were 10,000, and thus a 5% defection rate which was high, and rising. The statistics also showed an increase in VC killed, paralleling the higher defections. This information would counter the general CIA pessimism about the war. Yet feedback within his CIA office was ambiguous, noncommittal, cautious; they knew well enough the widespread evidence of the Viet Cong's growing success in the field, of its confidence and morale. His report "Viet Cong Morale: Possible Indicator of Downward Drift" was published, but with caveats in footnotes and distributed only within the CIA.Adams (1994\), pp. 34–35, 46 (10,000 defectors, 5% rate, statistics), p. 36 (his report), pp. 36, 37, 38 (VC success, CIA pessimism), pp. 26–27, 62 (CIA pessimism).Hiam (2006\), pp. 47–48, 51–52, 73 (defections). "South Vietnam was awash in escaped Viet Cong recruits" (p. 73\).
While in Vietnam, Adams got advice from a senior analyst.George W. Allen, author of *None so Blind* (2001\), later Adams' boss at CIA.Adams (1994\), p. 44 (Allen).Cf., Hiam (2006\), p. 54 (Allen). Accordingly, he inquired about VC [desertions](/wiki/Desertion "Desertion"). A [Rand Corporation](/wiki/Rand_Corporation "Rand Corporation") office in Saigon was doing similar VC investigations; it was headed by [Leon Gouré](/wiki/Leon_Gour%C3%A9 "Leon Gouré"). He told Adams that VC deserters were seven times the number of VC defectors. This surprised and puzzled Adams, considering the math. Such a combined loss rate per year (10,000 defectors \+ 70,000 deserters), in addition to VC annual casualties (reported at 150,000\), would severely reduce the Viet Cong's overall strength (which MACV's O/B put at 280,000\). Yet the VC did not seem to be losing the war.Adams (1994\), pp. 44, 46, 59 (VC deserters), pp. 46, 59, 63 (ratio of Gouré), pp. 36, 39, 44 (George Allen).Hiam (2006\), pp. 52, 54–55 (desertion numbers and ratios to defection, O/B numbers).
While doing this perplexing research, Adams discovered that in the provinces the [ARVN](/wiki/Army_of_the_Republic_of_Viet_Nam "Army of the Republic of Viet Nam")'s count of the VC guerrillas and militia was often much higher than [MACV](/wiki/MACV "MACV")'s, e.g., in [Long An](/wiki/Long_An "Long An") province it was 2000 to 160\. He got permission to "look into enemy manpower".Adams (1994\), pp. 56–57, 58 (VC numbers for Long An), p. 63 (MACV's O/B numbers for VC), p.64 (permission).Powers (1979\), pp. 214–215 (trail of Adams from VC desertion to VC O/B).
MACV's *Combined Document Exploitation Center* (CDEC) in Saigon had been publishing annotated versions of captured documents in its bulletins. "Bulletin 689" contained a single three\-page document, "Recapitulated Report on the People's Warfare Movement from [Bình Định Province](/wiki/B%C3%ACnh_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_Province "Bình Định Province")". It listed VC troop counts for several types of guerrillas and militias, which all together totaled 50,244\. In MACV's country\-wide O/B for VC, of the 280,000 grand total, only 100,000 were guerrillas or militia. Adams asked, "Why should Bình Định—one of forty\-four provinces–have half of them?"Adams (1994\), p. 64 (MACV bulletins), pp. 65–66, 67 (Buelliten 689\), p. 66 (quote). Adams writes, "For the rest of the day I galloped around CIA headquarters like [Paul Revere](/wiki/The_Ride_of_Paul_Revere "The Ride of Paul Revere"), ballooing about Viet Cong guerrillas" (p. 67\).Hiam (2006\), pp. 75–76, 259, 262 (Bulletin 689\).
#### Order of Battle
{{See also\|Order of Battle for the Viet Cong}}
Adams assignment in motivation led to his work in estimating the number of VC guerrillas. From his research into captured enemy documents and other sources, he "concluded that previous estimates had undercounted the communists by hundreds of thousands. The implications were astounding."Theoharis (2005\), p. 233 (quote). If the Viet Cong enemy combatant count was higher, it implied that the prospects for a South Vietnamese military victory were dimmed. It questioned American claims of progress on the battlefield. It would be "politically disastrous" for the U.S. government. This numbers dispute became known in military terms as the Order of Battle (O/B) controversy.Powers (1978\), pp. 213–219\.Ford (1998\), pp. 89–90 (Sam Adams), 87 ("disastrous" quote).
His findings, at first ignored, then challenged, after a heated struggle were not adopted. MACV forcefully insisted on its lower numbers, and the CIA in 1967, due to the domestic political environment, reluctantly agreed. Following the [Tet offensive](/wiki/Tet_offensive "Tet offensive") in early 1968, however, the controversy was revisited. The numbers of enemy combatants were raised to a higher count, more in accord with Adams' original conclusions.Ranelagh (1986\), pp. 455–471, at pp. 462–463, 465 (Adams and numbers after Tet).Theoharis (2005\), p. 233\.See below, "Order of Battle controversy".
#### Challenging the CIA
By then, Adams had resigned his Vietnam post and was doing CIA analysis of neighboring [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia"). Yet he persisted in advancing the higher count of Viet Cong in the 'Order of Battle' controversy, despite the institutional fallout between CIA and MACV. He claimed that the CIA had compromised its integrity. He filed formal charges against [DCI](/wiki/Director_of_Central_Intelligence "Director of Central Intelligence") [Richard Helms](/wiki/Richard_Helms "Richard Helms"). He became notorious to many in the agency, and acquired a general reputation as a "gadfly, pariah and nemesis."Andersen (1994\), p. 1\.Cf. Helms (2003\), pp. 326–328\.Powers (1978\), pp. 221–222 (files charges).Ranelagh (1986\), pp. 469–470 (Adams bitter as wrong numbers lost lives).
In 1969 Adams, fearing that his opponents would destroy them, secretly removed CIA files and documents which would support his case. He buried them in the woods near his {{convert\|250\|acre\|km2\|adj\=on}} farm in rural Virginia. His 1973 testimony in federal court,At the Ellsberg espionage trial, see section below. where he restated his position on the 'Order of Battle' numbers, caused consternation at CIA. Following this trial, he retired from the agency.Krebs (1988\).
|
[
"### Far East division",
"In 1965 Adams transferred to the Vietnam desk, Southeast Asia Branch of the Far East Division.Ranelagh (1978\\), p. 455 (CIA organization). He read as background then\\-recent books by [Võ Nguyên Giáp](/wiki/V%C3%B5_Nguy%C3%AAn_Gi%C3%A1p \"Võ Nguyên Giáp\") on the north's view of its earlier victory, *People's War, People's Army*, [Bernard Fall](/wiki/Bernard_Fall \"Bernard Fall\") on the French defeat, *[Street without Joy](/wiki/Street_without_Joy_%28book%29 \"Street without Joy (book)\")*, and [Joseph Buttinger](/wiki/Joseph_Buttinger \"Joseph Buttinger\")'s history of Vietnam, *Smaller Dragon*. His branch chief, Edward Hauck, when asked told Adams that the Vietnamese communists would probably outlast the Americans and, after 10 or 20 years, win the war.Adams (1994\\), p. 28 (books). pp. 26–27 (Ed Hauck, cf. p. 32\\).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 41–43 (Ed Huack).",
"#### Viet Cong motivation",
"In the role of a \"generalist\" and \"roving analyst\", Adams was assigned to study the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong \"Viet Cong\"). Its motivation and morale were his first objectives. Following his procedure per the Congo, he began assembling biographies of Viet Cong operatives, but stopped when told the names were all fake. He also netted little by reading captured documents in translation. He drew welcome information, however, out of statistics compiled in Saigon from the files of [Chieu Hoi](/wiki/Chieu_Hoi \"Chieu Hoi\") ([South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\")'s defector program).Adams (1994\\), pp. 23, 26, 28 (roving analyst, VC morale), pp. 28–29 (VC names are aliases), pp. 33–34 (captured documents), pp. 33–34 (statistics, Chieu Hoi).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 52–55, 100, 125 (Chieu Hoi).Tucker (2000\\), pp. 69–70, \"Chiêu Hôi (Open Arms) Program\".",
"Adams found VC [defections](/wiki/Defection \"Defection\") per year were 10,000, and thus a 5% defection rate which was high, and rising. The statistics also showed an increase in VC killed, paralleling the higher defections. This information would counter the general CIA pessimism about the war. Yet feedback within his CIA office was ambiguous, noncommittal, cautious; they knew well enough the widespread evidence of the Viet Cong's growing success in the field, of its confidence and morale. His report \"Viet Cong Morale: Possible Indicator of Downward Drift\" was published, but with caveats in footnotes and distributed only within the CIA.Adams (1994\\), pp. 34–35, 46 (10,000 defectors, 5% rate, statistics), p. 36 (his report), pp. 36, 37, 38 (VC success, CIA pessimism), pp. 26–27, 62 (CIA pessimism).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 47–48, 51–52, 73 (defections). \"South Vietnam was awash in escaped Viet Cong recruits\" (p. 73\\).",
"While in Vietnam, Adams got advice from a senior analyst.George W. Allen, author of *None so Blind* (2001\\), later Adams' boss at CIA.Adams (1994\\), p. 44 (Allen).Cf., Hiam (2006\\), p. 54 (Allen). Accordingly, he inquired about VC [desertions](/wiki/Desertion \"Desertion\"). A [Rand Corporation](/wiki/Rand_Corporation \"Rand Corporation\") office in Saigon was doing similar VC investigations; it was headed by [Leon Gouré](/wiki/Leon_Gour%C3%A9 \"Leon Gouré\"). He told Adams that VC deserters were seven times the number of VC defectors. This surprised and puzzled Adams, considering the math. Such a combined loss rate per year (10,000 defectors \\+ 70,000 deserters), in addition to VC annual casualties (reported at 150,000\\), would severely reduce the Viet Cong's overall strength (which MACV's O/B put at 280,000\\). Yet the VC did not seem to be losing the war.Adams (1994\\), pp. 44, 46, 59 (VC deserters), pp. 46, 59, 63 (ratio of Gouré), pp. 36, 39, 44 (George Allen).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 52, 54–55 (desertion numbers and ratios to defection, O/B numbers).",
"While doing this perplexing research, Adams discovered that in the provinces the [ARVN](/wiki/Army_of_the_Republic_of_Viet_Nam \"Army of the Republic of Viet Nam\")'s count of the VC guerrillas and militia was often much higher than [MACV](/wiki/MACV \"MACV\")'s, e.g., in [Long An](/wiki/Long_An \"Long An\") province it was 2000 to 160\\. He got permission to \"look into enemy manpower\".Adams (1994\\), pp. 56–57, 58 (VC numbers for Long An), p. 63 (MACV's O/B numbers for VC), p.64 (permission).Powers (1979\\), pp. 214–215 (trail of Adams from VC desertion to VC O/B).",
"MACV's *Combined Document Exploitation Center* (CDEC) in Saigon had been publishing annotated versions of captured documents in its bulletins. \"Bulletin 689\" contained a single three\\-page document, \"Recapitulated Report on the People's Warfare Movement from [Bình Định Province](/wiki/B%C3%ACnh_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_Province \"Bình Định Province\")\". It listed VC troop counts for several types of guerrillas and militias, which all together totaled 50,244\\. In MACV's country\\-wide O/B for VC, of the 280,000 grand total, only 100,000 were guerrillas or militia. Adams asked, \"Why should Bình Định—one of forty\\-four provinces–have half of them?\"Adams (1994\\), p. 64 (MACV bulletins), pp. 65–66, 67 (Buelliten 689\\), p. 66 (quote). Adams writes, \"For the rest of the day I galloped around CIA headquarters like [Paul Revere](/wiki/The_Ride_of_Paul_Revere \"The Ride of Paul Revere\"), ballooing about Viet Cong guerrillas\" (p. 67\\).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 75–76, 259, 262 (Bulletin 689\\).",
"#### Order of Battle",
"{{See also\\|Order of Battle for the Viet Cong}}\nAdams assignment in motivation led to his work in estimating the number of VC guerrillas. From his research into captured enemy documents and other sources, he \"concluded that previous estimates had undercounted the communists by hundreds of thousands. The implications were astounding.\"Theoharis (2005\\), p. 233 (quote). If the Viet Cong enemy combatant count was higher, it implied that the prospects for a South Vietnamese military victory were dimmed. It questioned American claims of progress on the battlefield. It would be \"politically disastrous\" for the U.S. government. This numbers dispute became known in military terms as the Order of Battle (O/B) controversy.Powers (1978\\), pp. 213–219\\.Ford (1998\\), pp. 89–90 (Sam Adams), 87 (\"disastrous\" quote).",
"His findings, at first ignored, then challenged, after a heated struggle were not adopted. MACV forcefully insisted on its lower numbers, and the CIA in 1967, due to the domestic political environment, reluctantly agreed. Following the [Tet offensive](/wiki/Tet_offensive \"Tet offensive\") in early 1968, however, the controversy was revisited. The numbers of enemy combatants were raised to a higher count, more in accord with Adams' original conclusions.Ranelagh (1986\\), pp. 455–471, at pp. 462–463, 465 (Adams and numbers after Tet).Theoharis (2005\\), p. 233\\.See below, \"Order of Battle controversy\".",
"#### Challenging the CIA",
"By then, Adams had resigned his Vietnam post and was doing CIA analysis of neighboring [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia \"Cambodia\"). Yet he persisted in advancing the higher count of Viet Cong in the 'Order of Battle' controversy, despite the institutional fallout between CIA and MACV. He claimed that the CIA had compromised its integrity. He filed formal charges against [DCI](/wiki/Director_of_Central_Intelligence \"Director of Central Intelligence\") [Richard Helms](/wiki/Richard_Helms \"Richard Helms\"). He became notorious to many in the agency, and acquired a general reputation as a \"gadfly, pariah and nemesis.\"Andersen (1994\\), p. 1\\.Cf. Helms (2003\\), pp. 326–328\\.Powers (1978\\), pp. 221–222 (files charges).Ranelagh (1986\\), pp. 469–470 (Adams bitter as wrong numbers lost lives).",
"In 1969 Adams, fearing that his opponents would destroy them, secretly removed CIA files and documents which would support his case. He buried them in the woods near his {{convert\\|250\\|acre\\|km2\\|adj\\=on}} farm in rural Virginia. His 1973 testimony in federal court,At the Ellsberg espionage trial, see section below. where he restated his position on the 'Order of Battle' numbers, caused consternation at CIA. Following this trial, he retired from the agency.Krebs (1988\\).",
""
] |
#### Viet Cong motivation
In the role of a "generalist" and "roving analyst", Adams was assigned to study the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong "Viet Cong"). Its motivation and morale were his first objectives. Following his procedure per the Congo, he began assembling biographies of Viet Cong operatives, but stopped when told the names were all fake. He also netted little by reading captured documents in translation. He drew welcome information, however, out of statistics compiled in Saigon from the files of [Chieu Hoi](/wiki/Chieu_Hoi "Chieu Hoi") ([South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam")'s defector program).Adams (1994\), pp. 23, 26, 28 (roving analyst, VC morale), pp. 28–29 (VC names are aliases), pp. 33–34 (captured documents), pp. 33–34 (statistics, Chieu Hoi).Hiam (2006\), pp. 52–55, 100, 125 (Chieu Hoi).Tucker (2000\), pp. 69–70, "Chiêu Hôi (Open Arms) Program".
Adams found VC [defections](/wiki/Defection "Defection") per year were 10,000, and thus a 5% defection rate which was high, and rising. The statistics also showed an increase in VC killed, paralleling the higher defections. This information would counter the general CIA pessimism about the war. Yet feedback within his CIA office was ambiguous, noncommittal, cautious; they knew well enough the widespread evidence of the Viet Cong's growing success in the field, of its confidence and morale. His report "Viet Cong Morale: Possible Indicator of Downward Drift" was published, but with caveats in footnotes and distributed only within the CIA.Adams (1994\), pp. 34–35, 46 (10,000 defectors, 5% rate, statistics), p. 36 (his report), pp. 36, 37, 38 (VC success, CIA pessimism), pp. 26–27, 62 (CIA pessimism).Hiam (2006\), pp. 47–48, 51–52, 73 (defections). "South Vietnam was awash in escaped Viet Cong recruits" (p. 73\).
While in Vietnam, Adams got advice from a senior analyst.George W. Allen, author of *None so Blind* (2001\), later Adams' boss at CIA.Adams (1994\), p. 44 (Allen).Cf., Hiam (2006\), p. 54 (Allen). Accordingly, he inquired about VC [desertions](/wiki/Desertion "Desertion"). A [Rand Corporation](/wiki/Rand_Corporation "Rand Corporation") office in Saigon was doing similar VC investigations; it was headed by [Leon Gouré](/wiki/Leon_Gour%C3%A9 "Leon Gouré"). He told Adams that VC deserters were seven times the number of VC defectors. This surprised and puzzled Adams, considering the math. Such a combined loss rate per year (10,000 defectors \+ 70,000 deserters), in addition to VC annual casualties (reported at 150,000\), would severely reduce the Viet Cong's overall strength (which MACV's O/B put at 280,000\). Yet the VC did not seem to be losing the war.Adams (1994\), pp. 44, 46, 59 (VC deserters), pp. 46, 59, 63 (ratio of Gouré), pp. 36, 39, 44 (George Allen).Hiam (2006\), pp. 52, 54–55 (desertion numbers and ratios to defection, O/B numbers).
While doing this perplexing research, Adams discovered that in the provinces the [ARVN](/wiki/Army_of_the_Republic_of_Viet_Nam "Army of the Republic of Viet Nam")'s count of the VC guerrillas and militia was often much higher than [MACV](/wiki/MACV "MACV")'s, e.g., in [Long An](/wiki/Long_An "Long An") province it was 2000 to 160\. He got permission to "look into enemy manpower".Adams (1994\), pp. 56–57, 58 (VC numbers for Long An), p. 63 (MACV's O/B numbers for VC), p.64 (permission).Powers (1979\), pp. 214–215 (trail of Adams from VC desertion to VC O/B).
MACV's *Combined Document Exploitation Center* (CDEC) in Saigon had been publishing annotated versions of captured documents in its bulletins. "Bulletin 689" contained a single three\-page document, "Recapitulated Report on the People's Warfare Movement from [Bình Định Province](/wiki/B%C3%ACnh_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_Province "Bình Định Province")". It listed VC troop counts for several types of guerrillas and militias, which all together totaled 50,244\. In MACV's country\-wide O/B for VC, of the 280,000 grand total, only 100,000 were guerrillas or militia. Adams asked, "Why should Bình Định—one of forty\-four provinces–have half of them?"Adams (1994\), p. 64 (MACV bulletins), pp. 65–66, 67 (Buelliten 689\), p. 66 (quote). Adams writes, "For the rest of the day I galloped around CIA headquarters like [Paul Revere](/wiki/The_Ride_of_Paul_Revere "The Ride of Paul Revere"), ballooing about Viet Cong guerrillas" (p. 67\).Hiam (2006\), pp. 75–76, 259, 262 (Bulletin 689\).
|
[
"#### Viet Cong motivation",
"In the role of a \"generalist\" and \"roving analyst\", Adams was assigned to study the [Viet Cong](/wiki/Viet_Cong \"Viet Cong\"). Its motivation and morale were his first objectives. Following his procedure per the Congo, he began assembling biographies of Viet Cong operatives, but stopped when told the names were all fake. He also netted little by reading captured documents in translation. He drew welcome information, however, out of statistics compiled in Saigon from the files of [Chieu Hoi](/wiki/Chieu_Hoi \"Chieu Hoi\") ([South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\")'s defector program).Adams (1994\\), pp. 23, 26, 28 (roving analyst, VC morale), pp. 28–29 (VC names are aliases), pp. 33–34 (captured documents), pp. 33–34 (statistics, Chieu Hoi).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 52–55, 100, 125 (Chieu Hoi).Tucker (2000\\), pp. 69–70, \"Chiêu Hôi (Open Arms) Program\".",
"Adams found VC [defections](/wiki/Defection \"Defection\") per year were 10,000, and thus a 5% defection rate which was high, and rising. The statistics also showed an increase in VC killed, paralleling the higher defections. This information would counter the general CIA pessimism about the war. Yet feedback within his CIA office was ambiguous, noncommittal, cautious; they knew well enough the widespread evidence of the Viet Cong's growing success in the field, of its confidence and morale. His report \"Viet Cong Morale: Possible Indicator of Downward Drift\" was published, but with caveats in footnotes and distributed only within the CIA.Adams (1994\\), pp. 34–35, 46 (10,000 defectors, 5% rate, statistics), p. 36 (his report), pp. 36, 37, 38 (VC success, CIA pessimism), pp. 26–27, 62 (CIA pessimism).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 47–48, 51–52, 73 (defections). \"South Vietnam was awash in escaped Viet Cong recruits\" (p. 73\\).",
"While in Vietnam, Adams got advice from a senior analyst.George W. Allen, author of *None so Blind* (2001\\), later Adams' boss at CIA.Adams (1994\\), p. 44 (Allen).Cf., Hiam (2006\\), p. 54 (Allen). Accordingly, he inquired about VC [desertions](/wiki/Desertion \"Desertion\"). A [Rand Corporation](/wiki/Rand_Corporation \"Rand Corporation\") office in Saigon was doing similar VC investigations; it was headed by [Leon Gouré](/wiki/Leon_Gour%C3%A9 \"Leon Gouré\"). He told Adams that VC deserters were seven times the number of VC defectors. This surprised and puzzled Adams, considering the math. Such a combined loss rate per year (10,000 defectors \\+ 70,000 deserters), in addition to VC annual casualties (reported at 150,000\\), would severely reduce the Viet Cong's overall strength (which MACV's O/B put at 280,000\\). Yet the VC did not seem to be losing the war.Adams (1994\\), pp. 44, 46, 59 (VC deserters), pp. 46, 59, 63 (ratio of Gouré), pp. 36, 39, 44 (George Allen).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 52, 54–55 (desertion numbers and ratios to defection, O/B numbers).",
"While doing this perplexing research, Adams discovered that in the provinces the [ARVN](/wiki/Army_of_the_Republic_of_Viet_Nam \"Army of the Republic of Viet Nam\")'s count of the VC guerrillas and militia was often much higher than [MACV](/wiki/MACV \"MACV\")'s, e.g., in [Long An](/wiki/Long_An \"Long An\") province it was 2000 to 160\\. He got permission to \"look into enemy manpower\".Adams (1994\\), pp. 56–57, 58 (VC numbers for Long An), p. 63 (MACV's O/B numbers for VC), p.64 (permission).Powers (1979\\), pp. 214–215 (trail of Adams from VC desertion to VC O/B).",
"MACV's *Combined Document Exploitation Center* (CDEC) in Saigon had been publishing annotated versions of captured documents in its bulletins. \"Bulletin 689\" contained a single three\\-page document, \"Recapitulated Report on the People's Warfare Movement from [Bình Định Province](/wiki/B%C3%ACnh_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh_Province \"Bình Định Province\")\". It listed VC troop counts for several types of guerrillas and militias, which all together totaled 50,244\\. In MACV's country\\-wide O/B for VC, of the 280,000 grand total, only 100,000 were guerrillas or militia. Adams asked, \"Why should Bình Định—one of forty\\-four provinces–have half of them?\"Adams (1994\\), p. 64 (MACV bulletins), pp. 65–66, 67 (Buelliten 689\\), p. 66 (quote). Adams writes, \"For the rest of the day I galloped around CIA headquarters like [Paul Revere](/wiki/The_Ride_of_Paul_Revere \"The Ride of Paul Revere\"), ballooing about Viet Cong guerrillas\" (p. 67\\).Hiam (2006\\), pp. 75–76, 259, 262 (Bulletin 689\\).",
""
] |
In the media, and testimony
---------------------------
Outside the CIA Adams continued to advance the issues stemming from the 'Order of Battle' controversy. In particular, the tailoring of 'pure' intelligence in order to fit the political agenda of its primary consumers: the American government, and its chief executive.
### Trial of Ellsberg and Russo
Adams appeared as a defense witness at the 1973 trial of [Daniel Ellsberg](/wiki/Daniel_Ellsberg "Daniel Ellsberg") and [Anthony J. Russo](/wiki/Anthony_J._Russo "Anthony J. Russo"). The case involved their role in the unauthorized publication of the top secret [Pentagon Papers](/wiki/Pentagon_Papers "Pentagon Papers"), a 47\-volume, government\-produced, secret history of the Vietnam War. The prosecution alleged [felony](/wiki/Felony "Felony") violations of the [Espionage Act of 1917](/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917 "Espionage Act of 1917"), and of signed secrecy agreements. The charges involved disclosure of government secrets, yet not to foreign powers, but to American newspapers.Ellsberg (2002\), pp. 303 (secrecy agreements), 304 ("thousands of pages of top secret documents"), 429–430 (criminal prosecution, Espionage Act).
Adams testified concerning the military's false numbers for Viet Cong combatants. The undercounting had been deliberately adopted by the American intelligence community as official. His testimony was offered to show that supposed 'secret information' in the text of the *Pentagon Papers* contained in reality many fictions.Randolph (1985\) ¶36\. Adams volunteered to testify that "the numbers Ellsberg was being tried for leaking were false anyway."
The trial was held at the [U.S. District Court in Los Angeles](/wiki/U.S._District_Court_for_the_Central_District_of_California "U.S. District Court for the Central District of California"). Eventually, citing the "totality" of government misconduct, Federal judge [William Matthew Byrne Jr.](/wiki/William_Matthew_Byrne_Jr. "William Matthew Byrne Jr.") dismissed all charges against Ellsberg and Russo.Ellsberg (2002\), pp. 454–456 (case dismissed).
### Article on CIA in *Harper's*
Adams did additional research. Fearful that his opponents would destroy evidence, he had already removed files and documents from the CIA, hiding them on a farm in rural Virginia. He also scouted out former contacts and CIA employees in order to bolster his cause. After his resignation from the agency in 1973, he sought the support of other intelligence officials to prove that there was a Saigon cover\-up. He detailed his allegations in an article sent to *Harper's Magazine*.
In 1975, in its May issue, *[Harper's](/wiki/Harper%27s "Harper's")* published his article, "Vietnam Cover\-Up: Playing war with numbers". Adams brought his cause to the public.Adams (1975\).
As a result of the 'cover\-up' article, Adams was sought out for further comments.
### House Intelligence Committee
Adams gave sworn testimony before the [Pike Committee](/wiki/Otis_G._Pike "Otis G. Pike"),Now (2017\) called the [House Select Committee on Intelligence](/wiki/United_States_House_Permanent_Select_Committee_on_Intelligence "United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence"). of the House of Representatives. This committee was holding hearings during the latter half of 1975\. Although it shed needed light on the secret operations of CIA, it also acquired controversy.The Pike Committee was tagged for its "politically partisan manner" and as the source of [leaks](/wiki/News_leak "News leak") that "damaged national security". Publication of its official report was suppressed by House vote, but was leaked to the press. Ranelagh (1986\), p.595 (quotes), cf. 593 (leaks). His remarks were welcomed; Adams and the House Pike committee on intelligence reached similar conclusions.Jeffreys\-Jones (1989\), pp. 207–212\.Theoharis (2005\), p. 234\.
### CBS Vietnam documentary
In 1982 Adams provided critical evidence to CBS News reporters who made the documentary *[The Uncounted Enemy](/wiki/The_Uncounted_Enemy "The Uncounted Enemy"): A Vietnam Deception.* He claimed [U.S. Army](/wiki/U.S._Army "U.S. Army") General [William C. Westmoreland](/wiki/William_C._Westmoreland "William C. Westmoreland") had conspired to minimize reported enemy troop strength in 1967\.Ford (1998\), p. 100\.Theoharis (2005\), p. 234\.
### *Westmoreland v. CBS*
General Westmoreland in 1982 sued for libel against CBS News, and named as co\-defendants the producer [George Crile](/wiki/George_Crile_III "George Crile III"), correspondent [Mike Wallace](/wiki/Mike_Wallace "Mike Wallace"), and consultant Sam Adams. The case, *[Westmoreland v. CBS](/wiki/Westmoreland_v._CBS "Westmoreland v. CBS")*, went to trial but ended in a private, out\-of\-court settlement.Jeffreys\-Jones (1989\), p. 243\.Westmoreland's law suit was financed by politically conservative foundations. Mascaro, ¶ 10\.
Adams testified "concerning the intelligence gathering and reporting of enemy strength." He told the court, "I believe there was a conspiracy. There was an attempt to do wrong with the numbers... . I have always felt that what went on in the 1967–1968 period was a conspiracy." Adams also stated, "I do not believe Gen. Westmoreland communicated fully to Washington."Times Wire Services (1988\), quotes of Sam Adams.
Also testifying at the 1984–1985 trial were several Army officers of MACV in the mid\-1960s. Then Col. (later Gen.) [Daniel O. Graham](/wiki/Daniel_O._Graham "Daniel O. Graham") (chief of MACV intelligence estimates), Gen. [Joseph A. McChristian](/wiki/Joseph_A._McChristian "Joseph A. McChristian") (MACV intelligence), and Col. Gaines Hawkins (chief of MACV's O/B section). The MACV O/B ('Order of Battle') estimate was "undercut" by "latter admissions" at trial that
> \[The officers] had known at the time that General Westmoreland's insistence on an O/B total of no more than 300,000 was an artificial position dictated by political considerations, and that the true number of enemy forces had almost certainly been much higher.Ford (1998\), pp. 100–101 (officers' testimony), 91 (re Hawkins, re McChristian), 93 and 94 (re Graham), 100–101 ("known at that time" quote, cf. pp. 92, 94\).
After an 18\-week trial, while the jury was beginning their deliberation, the parties negotiated and reached agreement. Evidently it was testimony "by his former chief of military intelligence" in Vietnam, which agreed more with Adams, that convinced Westmoreland to settle.Times Wire Services (1988\), quote re Westmoreland. The General received no money, but in a public statement each side expressed respect for the other.Theoharis (2005\), pp. 234 (18\-week trial, statement), 248–249 (Carver was a witness).
The lawsuit ended in February 1985\. In May 1993, Westmoreland appeared on NBC's *[The Today Show](/wiki/The_Today_Show "The Today Show")*. He discussed the Vietnam War in 1967–68, and opined that the true calamity of the Tet Offensive was its surprise, because the public did not know the VC's real strength. "And if I had to do it over again, I would have called a press conference and made known to the media the intelligence we had."Mascaro, ¶ 13 (last ¶).
### *War of Numbers*
Adams worked on his revising his memoirs at his home in Vermont. The book was published posthumously.Andersen (1994\).
|
[
"In the media, and testimony\n---------------------------",
"Outside the CIA Adams continued to advance the issues stemming from the 'Order of Battle' controversy. In particular, the tailoring of 'pure' intelligence in order to fit the political agenda of its primary consumers: the American government, and its chief executive.",
"### Trial of Ellsberg and Russo",
"Adams appeared as a defense witness at the 1973 trial of [Daniel Ellsberg](/wiki/Daniel_Ellsberg \"Daniel Ellsberg\") and [Anthony J. Russo](/wiki/Anthony_J._Russo \"Anthony J. Russo\"). The case involved their role in the unauthorized publication of the top secret [Pentagon Papers](/wiki/Pentagon_Papers \"Pentagon Papers\"), a 47\\-volume, government\\-produced, secret history of the Vietnam War. The prosecution alleged [felony](/wiki/Felony \"Felony\") violations of the [Espionage Act of 1917](/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917 \"Espionage Act of 1917\"), and of signed secrecy agreements. The charges involved disclosure of government secrets, yet not to foreign powers, but to American newspapers.Ellsberg (2002\\), pp. 303 (secrecy agreements), 304 (\"thousands of pages of top secret documents\"), 429–430 (criminal prosecution, Espionage Act).",
"Adams testified concerning the military's false numbers for Viet Cong combatants. The undercounting had been deliberately adopted by the American intelligence community as official. His testimony was offered to show that supposed 'secret information' in the text of the *Pentagon Papers* contained in reality many fictions.Randolph (1985\\) ¶36\\. Adams volunteered to testify that \"the numbers Ellsberg was being tried for leaking were false anyway.\"",
"The trial was held at the [U.S. District Court in Los Angeles](/wiki/U.S._District_Court_for_the_Central_District_of_California \"U.S. District Court for the Central District of California\"). Eventually, citing the \"totality\" of government misconduct, Federal judge [William Matthew Byrne Jr.](/wiki/William_Matthew_Byrne_Jr. \"William Matthew Byrne Jr.\") dismissed all charges against Ellsberg and Russo.Ellsberg (2002\\), pp. 454–456 (case dismissed).",
"### Article on CIA in *Harper's*",
"Adams did additional research. Fearful that his opponents would destroy evidence, he had already removed files and documents from the CIA, hiding them on a farm in rural Virginia. He also scouted out former contacts and CIA employees in order to bolster his cause. After his resignation from the agency in 1973, he sought the support of other intelligence officials to prove that there was a Saigon cover\\-up. He detailed his allegations in an article sent to *Harper's Magazine*.\nIn 1975, in its May issue, *[Harper's](/wiki/Harper%27s \"Harper's\")* published his article, \"Vietnam Cover\\-Up: Playing war with numbers\". Adams brought his cause to the public.Adams (1975\\).",
"As a result of the 'cover\\-up' article, Adams was sought out for further comments.",
"### House Intelligence Committee",
"Adams gave sworn testimony before the [Pike Committee](/wiki/Otis_G._Pike \"Otis G. Pike\"),Now (2017\\) called the [House Select Committee on Intelligence](/wiki/United_States_House_Permanent_Select_Committee_on_Intelligence \"United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence\"). of the House of Representatives. This committee was holding hearings during the latter half of 1975\\. Although it shed needed light on the secret operations of CIA, it also acquired controversy.The Pike Committee was tagged for its \"politically partisan manner\" and as the source of [leaks](/wiki/News_leak \"News leak\") that \"damaged national security\". Publication of its official report was suppressed by House vote, but was leaked to the press. Ranelagh (1986\\), p.595 (quotes), cf. 593 (leaks). His remarks were welcomed; Adams and the House Pike committee on intelligence reached similar conclusions.Jeffreys\\-Jones (1989\\), pp. 207–212\\.Theoharis (2005\\), p. 234\\.",
"### CBS Vietnam documentary",
"In 1982 Adams provided critical evidence to CBS News reporters who made the documentary *[The Uncounted Enemy](/wiki/The_Uncounted_Enemy \"The Uncounted Enemy\"): A Vietnam Deception.* He claimed [U.S. Army](/wiki/U.S._Army \"U.S. Army\") General [William C. Westmoreland](/wiki/William_C._Westmoreland \"William C. Westmoreland\") had conspired to minimize reported enemy troop strength in 1967\\.Ford (1998\\), p. 100\\.Theoharis (2005\\), p. 234\\.",
"### *Westmoreland v. CBS*",
"General Westmoreland in 1982 sued for libel against CBS News, and named as co\\-defendants the producer [George Crile](/wiki/George_Crile_III \"George Crile III\"), correspondent [Mike Wallace](/wiki/Mike_Wallace \"Mike Wallace\"), and consultant Sam Adams. The case, *[Westmoreland v. CBS](/wiki/Westmoreland_v._CBS \"Westmoreland v. CBS\")*, went to trial but ended in a private, out\\-of\\-court settlement.Jeffreys\\-Jones (1989\\), p. 243\\.Westmoreland's law suit was financed by politically conservative foundations. Mascaro, ¶ 10\\.",
"Adams testified \"concerning the intelligence gathering and reporting of enemy strength.\" He told the court, \"I believe there was a conspiracy. There was an attempt to do wrong with the numbers... . I have always felt that what went on in the 1967–1968 period was a conspiracy.\" Adams also stated, \"I do not believe Gen. Westmoreland communicated fully to Washington.\"Times Wire Services (1988\\), quotes of Sam Adams.",
"Also testifying at the 1984–1985 trial were several Army officers of MACV in the mid\\-1960s. Then Col. (later Gen.) [Daniel O. Graham](/wiki/Daniel_O._Graham \"Daniel O. Graham\") (chief of MACV intelligence estimates), Gen. [Joseph A. McChristian](/wiki/Joseph_A._McChristian \"Joseph A. McChristian\") (MACV intelligence), and Col. Gaines Hawkins (chief of MACV's O/B section). The MACV O/B ('Order of Battle') estimate was \"undercut\" by \"latter admissions\" at trial that",
"",
"> \\[The officers] had known at the time that General Westmoreland's insistence on an O/B total of no more than 300,000 was an artificial position dictated by political considerations, and that the true number of enemy forces had almost certainly been much higher.Ford (1998\\), pp. 100–101 (officers' testimony), 91 (re Hawkins, re McChristian), 93 and 94 (re Graham), 100–101 (\"known at that time\" quote, cf. pp. 92, 94\\).",
"After an 18\\-week trial, while the jury was beginning their deliberation, the parties negotiated and reached agreement. Evidently it was testimony \"by his former chief of military intelligence\" in Vietnam, which agreed more with Adams, that convinced Westmoreland to settle.Times Wire Services (1988\\), quote re Westmoreland. The General received no money, but in a public statement each side expressed respect for the other.Theoharis (2005\\), pp. 234 (18\\-week trial, statement), 248–249 (Carver was a witness).",
"The lawsuit ended in February 1985\\. In May 1993, Westmoreland appeared on NBC's *[The Today Show](/wiki/The_Today_Show \"The Today Show\")*. He discussed the Vietnam War in 1967–68, and opined that the true calamity of the Tet Offensive was its surprise, because the public did not know the VC's real strength. \"And if I had to do it over again, I would have called a press conference and made known to the media the intelligence we had.\"Mascaro, ¶ 13 (last ¶).",
"### *War of Numbers*",
"Adams worked on his revising his memoirs at his home in Vermont. The book was published posthumously.Andersen (1994\\).",
""
] |
History
-------
### Olmec
Founded some time in the centuries before 1000 [BCE](/wiki/Common_Era "Common Era"),Diehl, p. 182\. Tres Zapotes emerged as a regional center early in the [Middle Formative period](/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology "Mesoamerican chronology"), perhaps 900 \- 800 BCE, roughly coinciding with the decline of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan. The earliest public architecture yet detected has been dated to the end of the Middle Formative, perhaps 500 BCE.Pool, p. 248\.
It is thought that the two [colossal heads](/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads "Olmec colossal heads") date from this period.Pool, p. 152\. It was near Tres Zapotes that the first colossal head was discovered in 1862 by José Melgar. To date, two have been found locally, labeled "Monument A" and Monument Q". Smaller than the colossal heads at [San Lorenzo](/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n "San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán"), they measure slightly less than {{convert\|1\.5\|m\|0\|abbr\=on}} high. Together with the cruder and significantly larger head at Rancho la Cobata, these colossal heads show evidence of a local style of dress and sculpture, differing from that of San Lorenzo and La Venta.
And, unlike the [Olmec](/wiki/Olmec "Olmec") site of La Venta, Tres Zapotes was not abandoned at the close of the Middle Formative period, {{circa\|400}} BCE, nor was it immediately affected by the folding of the Olmec culture in the eastern [Olmec heartland](/wiki/Olmec_heartland "Olmec heartland"). However, during the next several hundred years, the Olmec culture at Tres Zapotes and on the western edge of the Olmec heartland would be gradually transformed into what has come to be called the [Epi\-Olmec (or post\-Olmec) culture](/wiki/Epi-Olmec_culture "Epi-Olmec culture").
### Epi\-Olmec
Most of the monumental sculpture at Tres Zapotes is epi\-Olmec, dating from the Late Formative period.The Late Formative period stretches from 400 BCE until roughly 200 CE. These sculptures show, as do Tres Zapotes ceramics, a continuity with and yet a gradual change away from Olmec patterns.Pool, p. 250\-251\. Tres Zapotes Stela D depicts a scene that is framed by the mouth of a monster, similar to the framing of La Venta's much more ancient [Altar 4](/wiki/Altar_4_La_Venta_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg "Altar 4 La Venta (Ruben Charles).jpg") — but while the Olmec altar refers to a mythical event, Stela D's content is historical in nature.
This framing device can also be seen [Izapa](/wiki/Izapa "Izapa") [Stela 2](/wiki/Izapa_stela2.jpg "Izapa stela2.jpg") which was carved at much the same time as Stela D. This and other similarities have led some archaeologists to suggest that Izapa heavily influenced Tres Zapotes' Epi\-Olmec artistic conventions, or even that Tres Zapotes Epi\-Olmec styles developed from the Izapan style.See Coe (1965\), p. 769 and 773, who also conversely suggests that possibility that the Izapan style developed from Epi\-Olmec. However, recent scholarship instead highlights "their descent from a common ancestor, the Olmec culture, with some sharing of motifs and techniques in an evolving co\-tradition".Pool, p. 255\. Diehl, p. 183, is also unenthusiastic concerning significant Izapan influences at Tres Zapotes.
Despite similarities with earlier Olmec sculptures, though, Tres Zapotes Epi\-Olmec sculpture appears to lack the artisanship, refinement, and detail of its San Lorenzo and La Venta predecessors. This is only partially attributable to the coarser local Cerro El Vigía basalt.Diehl, p. 183\. Williams and Heizer state that the Cerro El Vigía basalt is "exceptionally coarse\-grained", p. 4\.
It was during this Epi\-Olmec period that a new [Mesoamerican writing system](/wiki/Mesoamerican_writing_systems "Mesoamerican writing systems") appeared at Tres Zapotes: the [Isthmian (or Epi\-Olmec) script](/wiki/Isthmian_script "Isthmian script"), as well as some of the earliest dates in the [Long Count calendar](/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar "Mesoamerican Long Count calendar") format.
[thumb\|300px\|right\|**The back of Stela C**
The bars and circles show the Mesoamerican Long Count date of 7\.16\.6\.16\.18\. The [glyphs](/wiki/Glyph_%28archaeology%29 "Glyph (archaeology)") surrounding the date are one of the few surviving examples of [Epi\-Olmec script](/wiki/Epi-Olmec_script "Epi-Olmec script").](/wiki/Image:Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg "Estela C de Tres Zapotes.jpg")
### Classic era
Although the Classic era, starting roughly 300 CE, saw continued mound construction and Tres Zapotes remained a regional center, the era nonetheless brought a perceptible decline in Tres Zapotes' fortunes, as the centers of the new [Classic Veracruz culture](/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture "Classic Veracruz culture") grew in prominence and size.
Tres Zapotes may have been abandoned by 900 CE, although there was a smaller and later occupation.Pool, p. 250\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Olmec",
"Founded some time in the centuries before 1000 [BCE](/wiki/Common_Era \"Common Era\"),Diehl, p. 182\\. Tres Zapotes emerged as a regional center early in the [Middle Formative period](/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology \"Mesoamerican chronology\"), perhaps 900 \\- 800 BCE, roughly coinciding with the decline of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan. The earliest public architecture yet detected has been dated to the end of the Middle Formative, perhaps 500 BCE.Pool, p. 248\\.",
"It is thought that the two [colossal heads](/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads \"Olmec colossal heads\") date from this period.Pool, p. 152\\. It was near Tres Zapotes that the first colossal head was discovered in 1862 by José Melgar. To date, two have been found locally, labeled \"Monument A\" and Monument Q\". Smaller than the colossal heads at [San Lorenzo](/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n \"San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán\"), they measure slightly less than {{convert\\|1\\.5\\|m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} high. Together with the cruder and significantly larger head at Rancho la Cobata, these colossal heads show evidence of a local style of dress and sculpture, differing from that of San Lorenzo and La Venta.",
"And, unlike the [Olmec](/wiki/Olmec \"Olmec\") site of La Venta, Tres Zapotes was not abandoned at the close of the Middle Formative period, {{circa\\|400}} BCE, nor was it immediately affected by the folding of the Olmec culture in the eastern [Olmec heartland](/wiki/Olmec_heartland \"Olmec heartland\"). However, during the next several hundred years, the Olmec culture at Tres Zapotes and on the western edge of the Olmec heartland would be gradually transformed into what has come to be called the [Epi\\-Olmec (or post\\-Olmec) culture](/wiki/Epi-Olmec_culture \"Epi-Olmec culture\").",
"### Epi\\-Olmec",
"Most of the monumental sculpture at Tres Zapotes is epi\\-Olmec, dating from the Late Formative period.The Late Formative period stretches from 400 BCE until roughly 200 CE. These sculptures show, as do Tres Zapotes ceramics, a continuity with and yet a gradual change away from Olmec patterns.Pool, p. 250\\-251\\. Tres Zapotes Stela D depicts a scene that is framed by the mouth of a monster, similar to the framing of La Venta's much more ancient [Altar 4](/wiki/Altar_4_La_Venta_%28Ruben_Charles%29.jpg \"Altar 4 La Venta (Ruben Charles).jpg\") — but while the Olmec altar refers to a mythical event, Stela D's content is historical in nature.",
"This framing device can also be seen [Izapa](/wiki/Izapa \"Izapa\") [Stela 2](/wiki/Izapa_stela2.jpg \"Izapa stela2.jpg\") which was carved at much the same time as Stela D. This and other similarities have led some archaeologists to suggest that Izapa heavily influenced Tres Zapotes' Epi\\-Olmec artistic conventions, or even that Tres Zapotes Epi\\-Olmec styles developed from the Izapan style.See Coe (1965\\), p. 769 and 773, who also conversely suggests that possibility that the Izapan style developed from Epi\\-Olmec. However, recent scholarship instead highlights \"their descent from a common ancestor, the Olmec culture, with some sharing of motifs and techniques in an evolving co\\-tradition\".Pool, p. 255\\. Diehl, p. 183, is also unenthusiastic concerning significant Izapan influences at Tres Zapotes.",
"Despite similarities with earlier Olmec sculptures, though, Tres Zapotes Epi\\-Olmec sculpture appears to lack the artisanship, refinement, and detail of its San Lorenzo and La Venta predecessors. This is only partially attributable to the coarser local Cerro El Vigía basalt.Diehl, p. 183\\. Williams and Heizer state that the Cerro El Vigía basalt is \"exceptionally coarse\\-grained\", p. 4\\.",
"It was during this Epi\\-Olmec period that a new [Mesoamerican writing system](/wiki/Mesoamerican_writing_systems \"Mesoamerican writing systems\") appeared at Tres Zapotes: the [Isthmian (or Epi\\-Olmec) script](/wiki/Isthmian_script \"Isthmian script\"), as well as some of the earliest dates in the [Long Count calendar](/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar \"Mesoamerican Long Count calendar\") format.",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|**The back of Stela C** \nThe bars and circles show the Mesoamerican Long Count date of 7\\.16\\.6\\.16\\.18\\. The [glyphs](/wiki/Glyph_%28archaeology%29 \"Glyph (archaeology)\") surrounding the date are one of the few surviving examples of [Epi\\-Olmec script](/wiki/Epi-Olmec_script \"Epi-Olmec script\").](/wiki/Image:Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg \"Estela C de Tres Zapotes.jpg\")",
"### Classic era",
"Although the Classic era, starting roughly 300 CE, saw continued mound construction and Tres Zapotes remained a regional center, the era nonetheless brought a perceptible decline in Tres Zapotes' fortunes, as the centers of the new [Classic Veracruz culture](/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture \"Classic Veracruz culture\") grew in prominence and size.",
"Tres Zapotes may have been abandoned by 900 CE, although there was a smaller and later occupation.Pool, p. 250\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Ava ([Joelle Carter](/wiki/Joelle_Carter "Joelle Carter")) visits Limehouse ([Mykelti Williamson](/wiki/Mykelti_Williamson "Mykelti Williamson")) at one of his barbecue parties. She and Limehouse then drive to a bridge to meet with Boyd ([Walton Goggins](/wiki/Walton_Goggins "Walton Goggins")) and his crew. Boyd tries to negotiate splitting Mags' money if he kills Dickie but Limehouse does not even confirm he has the money, mocking him for his failure of the marijuana business. Limehouse leaves and Boyd attacks Devil ([Kevin Rankin](/wiki/Kevin_Rankin_%28actor%29 "Kevin Rankin (actor)")) for failing to burn the marijuana.
Raylan ([Timothy Olyphant](/wiki/Timothy_Olyphant "Timothy Olyphant")) receives a tip that may lead to Wade Messer ([James LeGros](/wiki/James_LeGros "James LeGros")). Wade tries to escape in a truck with the help of a colleague, J.T. (Mike Foy) but Raylan notices him from a roadblock. Wade and J.T. try to escape but the truck crashes. Raylan arrives at the truck but Wade escapes. In prison, Dickie ([Jeremy Davies](/wiki/Jeremy_Davies "Jeremy Davies")) is approached by a guard, Ash Murphy ([Todd Stashwick](/wiki/Todd_Stashwick "Todd Stashwick")), who heard his conversation with Boyd and is interested in Mags' money. Dickie denies knowledge but claims that if he was out of prison, he would help him. Murphy then tells him he will be released soon.
Trooper Tom Bergen ([Peter Murnik](/wiki/Peter_Murnik "Peter Murnik")) tells Raylan that the truck was associated with the [Dixie Mafia](/wiki/Dixie_Mafia "Dixie Mafia"). He also tells him about a dealer involved in [Oxy](/wiki/Oxycodone "Oxycodone") that hires drug addicts to steal. Wade flees to a pawn shop, meeting with the owner Glen Fogle ([Pruitt Taylor Vince](/wiki/Pruitt_Taylor_Vince "Pruitt Taylor Vince")) and Wally Beckett ([Eric Ladin](/wiki/Eric_Ladin "Eric Ladin")). Beckett takes J.T. to the pawn shop, as Fogle suspects that he talked with the police. Seizing on J.T.'s drug addiction, he forces him to play [Russian roulette](/wiki/Russian_roulette "Russian roulette") in exchange for Oxy. J.T. survives twice, but he wets himself. He tries to kill Fogle with the gun but finds that he didn't put a bullet in the gun. Fogle then puts in a bullet and kills J.T., after which Wade and Beckett are ordered to bury his corpse.
Duffy ([Jere Burns](/wiki/Jere_Burns "Jere Burns")) visits Quarles ([Neal McDonough](/wiki/Neal_McDonough "Neal McDonough")) in his new house, which he intends to use as a base of operations for his illegal activities. Raylan visits the pawn shop, asking for J.T. and Wade but Fogle denies any knowledge and refuses to let him inspect the shop without a warrant. When Raylan makes a snarky remark about hiding in the shop, Fogle suspects that he knows. He contacts Duffy and Quarles, both tell him to kill Raylan although they are skeptical that he will do it. But Fogle blackmails Wade to do it himself at his house, as Raylan told him that Wade was a fugitive.
Wanting to fix his relationship with Johnny ([David Meunier](/wiki/David_Meunier "David Meunier")), Boyd and his crew go to Johnny's bar that belongs to another person. Boyd threatens the owner to hand over the ownership as he took it while Johnny was hospitalized. The owner also has henchmen at the bar, targeting their guns at them. Johnny enters, threatening to have more of his crew arrive and kill him. Feeling overrun, the owner is forced to hand over the ownership to Boyd. Boyd tells Devil that he intends to hire more men for his cause: controlling the whole Harlan area.
Wade invites Raylan to his house, pretending to have vital information. However, Raylan knows Wade intends to kill him and forces him to lie to Fogle, telling him he succeeded but was wounded in the progress. Fogle and Beckett arrive at the house, where they are greeted by Raylan. In order to save themselves, Fogle offers to confess about many criminals in [Frankfort](/wiki/Frankfort%2C_Kentucky "Frankfort, Kentucky"), including Duffy. But Beckett is furious at the deal and confesses that Fogle killed J.T., offering to turn himself in if Raylan kills Fogle. Fogle and Beckett trade insults and both end up shooting each other, killing themselves.
Quarles and Duffy discuss in Duffy's car when Raylan appears thanks to Fogle's tip. He reminds Duffy of [their incoming conversation](/wiki/Full_Commitment "Full Commitment"), telling him that it is happening now. He attacks Duffy, telling him he knows he hired Fogle to kill him and is responsible for Arnett's disappearance. Instead of shooting him, he just leaves a bullet, telling him "next one's coming faster". Quarles tries to intimidate Raylan but is unsuccessful. Raylan takes a picture of Quarles and leaves the trailer.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Ava ([Joelle Carter](/wiki/Joelle_Carter \"Joelle Carter\")) visits Limehouse ([Mykelti Williamson](/wiki/Mykelti_Williamson \"Mykelti Williamson\")) at one of his barbecue parties. She and Limehouse then drive to a bridge to meet with Boyd ([Walton Goggins](/wiki/Walton_Goggins \"Walton Goggins\")) and his crew. Boyd tries to negotiate splitting Mags' money if he kills Dickie but Limehouse does not even confirm he has the money, mocking him for his failure of the marijuana business. Limehouse leaves and Boyd attacks Devil ([Kevin Rankin](/wiki/Kevin_Rankin_%28actor%29 \"Kevin Rankin (actor)\")) for failing to burn the marijuana.",
"Raylan ([Timothy Olyphant](/wiki/Timothy_Olyphant \"Timothy Olyphant\")) receives a tip that may lead to Wade Messer ([James LeGros](/wiki/James_LeGros \"James LeGros\")). Wade tries to escape in a truck with the help of a colleague, J.T. (Mike Foy) but Raylan notices him from a roadblock. Wade and J.T. try to escape but the truck crashes. Raylan arrives at the truck but Wade escapes. In prison, Dickie ([Jeremy Davies](/wiki/Jeremy_Davies \"Jeremy Davies\")) is approached by a guard, Ash Murphy ([Todd Stashwick](/wiki/Todd_Stashwick \"Todd Stashwick\")), who heard his conversation with Boyd and is interested in Mags' money. Dickie denies knowledge but claims that if he was out of prison, he would help him. Murphy then tells him he will be released soon.",
"Trooper Tom Bergen ([Peter Murnik](/wiki/Peter_Murnik \"Peter Murnik\")) tells Raylan that the truck was associated with the [Dixie Mafia](/wiki/Dixie_Mafia \"Dixie Mafia\"). He also tells him about a dealer involved in [Oxy](/wiki/Oxycodone \"Oxycodone\") that hires drug addicts to steal. Wade flees to a pawn shop, meeting with the owner Glen Fogle ([Pruitt Taylor Vince](/wiki/Pruitt_Taylor_Vince \"Pruitt Taylor Vince\")) and Wally Beckett ([Eric Ladin](/wiki/Eric_Ladin \"Eric Ladin\")). Beckett takes J.T. to the pawn shop, as Fogle suspects that he talked with the police. Seizing on J.T.'s drug addiction, he forces him to play [Russian roulette](/wiki/Russian_roulette \"Russian roulette\") in exchange for Oxy. J.T. survives twice, but he wets himself. He tries to kill Fogle with the gun but finds that he didn't put a bullet in the gun. Fogle then puts in a bullet and kills J.T., after which Wade and Beckett are ordered to bury his corpse.",
"Duffy ([Jere Burns](/wiki/Jere_Burns \"Jere Burns\")) visits Quarles ([Neal McDonough](/wiki/Neal_McDonough \"Neal McDonough\")) in his new house, which he intends to use as a base of operations for his illegal activities. Raylan visits the pawn shop, asking for J.T. and Wade but Fogle denies any knowledge and refuses to let him inspect the shop without a warrant. When Raylan makes a snarky remark about hiding in the shop, Fogle suspects that he knows. He contacts Duffy and Quarles, both tell him to kill Raylan although they are skeptical that he will do it. But Fogle blackmails Wade to do it himself at his house, as Raylan told him that Wade was a fugitive.",
"Wanting to fix his relationship with Johnny ([David Meunier](/wiki/David_Meunier \"David Meunier\")), Boyd and his crew go to Johnny's bar that belongs to another person. Boyd threatens the owner to hand over the ownership as he took it while Johnny was hospitalized. The owner also has henchmen at the bar, targeting their guns at them. Johnny enters, threatening to have more of his crew arrive and kill him. Feeling overrun, the owner is forced to hand over the ownership to Boyd. Boyd tells Devil that he intends to hire more men for his cause: controlling the whole Harlan area.",
"Wade invites Raylan to his house, pretending to have vital information. However, Raylan knows Wade intends to kill him and forces him to lie to Fogle, telling him he succeeded but was wounded in the progress. Fogle and Beckett arrive at the house, where they are greeted by Raylan. In order to save themselves, Fogle offers to confess about many criminals in [Frankfort](/wiki/Frankfort%2C_Kentucky \"Frankfort, Kentucky\"), including Duffy. But Beckett is furious at the deal and confesses that Fogle killed J.T., offering to turn himself in if Raylan kills Fogle. Fogle and Beckett trade insults and both end up shooting each other, killing themselves.",
"Quarles and Duffy discuss in Duffy's car when Raylan appears thanks to Fogle's tip. He reminds Duffy of [their incoming conversation](/wiki/Full_Commitment \"Full Commitment\"), telling him that it is happening now. He attacks Duffy, telling him he knows he hired Fogle to kill him and is responsible for Arnett's disappearance. Instead of shooting him, he just leaves a bullet, telling him \"next one's coming faster\". Quarles tries to intimidate Raylan but is unsuccessful. Raylan takes a picture of Quarles and leaves the trailer.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Sud America
Martinez started his career with [Sud América](/wiki/Sud_Am%C3%A9rica "Sud América") in 2001\. He spent three years with the club.
### Plaza Colonica
In 2004, Martinez moved to [Plaza Colonia](/wiki/Club_Plaza_Colonia_de_Deportes "Club Plaza Colonia de Deportes") for an undisclosed fee. He spent about a year with the club, playing in 19 matches in the league.
### Cerro
In January 2005, Martinez moved to [C.A. Cerro](/wiki/C.A._Cerro "C.A. Cerro"). In four years with the club, he made 72 league appearances, scoring twice and winning the [Uruguayan Segunda División](/wiki/Uruguayan_Segunda_Divisi%C3%B3n "Uruguayan Segunda División") in 2006\.
### Godoy Cruz
In January 2009, Martinez was loaned out to [Godoy Cruz](/wiki/Godoy_Cruz_Antonio_Tomba "Godoy Cruz Antonio Tomba"). The loan lasted about a year and a half, in which Martinez made 29 appearances in the [league](/wiki/Argentine_Primera_Divisi%C3%B3n "Argentine Primera División"), scoring once.
### Quilmes
In the summer of 2010, Martinez was sold to [Quilmes](/wiki/Quilmes_Atl%C3%A9tico_Club "Quilmes Atlético Club") on a free transfer. He spent five years at the club, making 99 appearances and sticking with them through relegation in the [2010\-11 season](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Argentine_Primera_Divisi%C3%B3n_season "2010–11 Argentine Primera División season"), and helping them to promotion in the [2011\-12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Primera_B_Nacional "2011–12 Primera B Nacional").
### Newell's
In February 2015, Martinez left [Quilmes](/wiki/Quilmes_Atl%C3%A9tico_Club "Quilmes Atlético Club") for [Newell's](/wiki/Newell%27s_Old_Boys "Newell's Old Boys"). He couldn't really make an impact for them, and he only made three league appearances in the half\-season he spent there.
### Atletico Rafaela
In July 2015, Martinez moved to [Atletico Rafaela](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_de_Rafaela "Atlético de Rafaela"). He made 15 appearances in the 15–16 season.[Sebastian Martinez was confirmed as new player for Atlético de Rafaela \- DiarioCastellanos.net](http://www.diariocastellanos.net/noticia/se-confirmo-a-sebastian-martinez-y-es-el-segundo-refuerzo)
### Argentinos Jrs.
In the summer of 2016, Martinez moved again, this time to [Argentinos Juniors](/wiki/Argentinos_Juniors "Argentinos Juniors"). In his debut season, Martinez made 26 appearances, scoring once, and helped his side to promotion to the [Argentine Primera División](/wiki/Argentine_Primera_Divisi%C3%B3n "Argentine Primera División").
### Deportivo Moron
In the 2018 winter transfer window, Martinez was loaned out to [Deportivo Moron](/wiki/Deportivo_Moron "Deportivo Moron").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Sud America",
"Martinez started his career with [Sud América](/wiki/Sud_Am%C3%A9rica \"Sud América\") in 2001\\. He spent three years with the club.",
"### Plaza Colonica",
"In 2004, Martinez moved to [Plaza Colonia](/wiki/Club_Plaza_Colonia_de_Deportes \"Club Plaza Colonia de Deportes\") for an undisclosed fee. He spent about a year with the club, playing in 19 matches in the league.",
"### Cerro",
"In January 2005, Martinez moved to [C.A. Cerro](/wiki/C.A._Cerro \"C.A. Cerro\"). In four years with the club, he made 72 league appearances, scoring twice and winning the [Uruguayan Segunda División](/wiki/Uruguayan_Segunda_Divisi%C3%B3n \"Uruguayan Segunda División\") in 2006\\.",
"### Godoy Cruz",
"In January 2009, Martinez was loaned out to [Godoy Cruz](/wiki/Godoy_Cruz_Antonio_Tomba \"Godoy Cruz Antonio Tomba\"). The loan lasted about a year and a half, in which Martinez made 29 appearances in the [league](/wiki/Argentine_Primera_Divisi%C3%B3n \"Argentine Primera División\"), scoring once.",
"### Quilmes",
"In the summer of 2010, Martinez was sold to [Quilmes](/wiki/Quilmes_Atl%C3%A9tico_Club \"Quilmes Atlético Club\") on a free transfer. He spent five years at the club, making 99 appearances and sticking with them through relegation in the [2010\\-11 season](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Argentine_Primera_Divisi%C3%B3n_season \"2010–11 Argentine Primera División season\"), and helping them to promotion in the [2011\\-12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Primera_B_Nacional \"2011–12 Primera B Nacional\").",
"### Newell's",
"In February 2015, Martinez left [Quilmes](/wiki/Quilmes_Atl%C3%A9tico_Club \"Quilmes Atlético Club\") for [Newell's](/wiki/Newell%27s_Old_Boys \"Newell's Old Boys\"). He couldn't really make an impact for them, and he only made three league appearances in the half\\-season he spent there.",
"### Atletico Rafaela",
"In July 2015, Martinez moved to [Atletico Rafaela](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_de_Rafaela \"Atlético de Rafaela\"). He made 15 appearances in the 15–16 season.[Sebastian Martinez was confirmed as new player for Atlético de Rafaela \\- DiarioCastellanos.net](http://www.diariocastellanos.net/noticia/se-confirmo-a-sebastian-martinez-y-es-el-segundo-refuerzo)",
"### Argentinos Jrs.",
"In the summer of 2016, Martinez moved again, this time to [Argentinos Juniors](/wiki/Argentinos_Juniors \"Argentinos Juniors\"). In his debut season, Martinez made 26 appearances, scoring once, and helped his side to promotion to the [Argentine Primera División](/wiki/Argentine_Primera_Divisi%C3%B3n \"Argentine Primera División\").",
"### Deportivo Moron",
"In the 2018 winter transfer window, Martinez was loaned out to [Deportivo Moron](/wiki/Deportivo_Moron \"Deportivo Moron\").",
""
] |
History
-------
Previous to the construction of the Colony House, the site had been home to a small wooden courthouse built in 1687\. The new building was among several projects undertaken as an attempt to apply formal [planning](/wiki/Urban_planning "Urban planning") to the development of Newport, which had previously lacked it. By putting the home of the colonial assembly at the top of the Parade (as Washington Square was then known), the town's leadership hoped to create a public space similar to that found in the English cities they or their parents had emigrated from.
Architect [Richard Munday](/wiki/Richard_Munday "Richard Munday")'s design, one of his last, emulates [Christopher Wren](/wiki/Christopher_Wren "Christopher Wren")'s buildings on the exterior but incorporates an interior layout similar to that of English town or guild halls. The first floor was thus an open space that could be used as a market, with civic offices upstairs.
### Revolution
Many of the events leading up to and surrounding the [Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution "American Revolution") [in Rhode Island](/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island%23Revolutionary_era%2C_1775%E2%80%931790 "History of Rhode Island#Revolutionary era, 1775–1790") centered on the Colony House. In 1761, news of the death of King [George II](/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain "George II of Great Britain") and his succession by his grandson [George III](/wiki/George_III_of_Great_Britain "George III of Great Britain") was announced from the balcony. Three years later, the inaugural board meeting of the Corporation of the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island, which became [Brown University](/wiki/Brown_University "Brown University"), took place in the building.{{cite encyclopedia\|title\=Bicentennial celebration\|url\=http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News\_Bureau/Databases/Encyclopedia/search.php?serial\=B0180\|encyclopedia\=Encyclopedia Brunoniana\|publisher\=\[\[Brown University]]\|access\-date\=2008\-04\-25}} In 1765, Newport's citizens gathered around to celebrate the repeal of the [Stamp Act](/wiki/Stamp_Act_1765 "Stamp Act 1765"), which led to riots that damaged the houses of three prominent supporters of the Act, including the nearby [Wanton\-Lyman\-Hazard House](/wiki/Wanton-Lyman-Hazard_House "Wanton-Lyman-Hazard House"), an NHL which is today the oldest house in the city.{{cite book\|last\=Carroll\|first\=Charles\|title\=Rhode Island: Three Centuries of Democracy\|chapter\-url\=http://www.gaspee.org/3Centuries.htm\|year\=1932\|publisher\=Lewis Historical Publishing Company, Inc.\|location\=New York, NY\|chapter\=XI\|page\=241\|quote\=On August 27, Augustus Johnston, who had been appointed distributor of stamps in the colony; Thomas Moffat, Scotch physician, temporarily resident in Newport and outspoken advocate of the English policy; and Martin Howard, whose 'Letter from a Gentleman of Halifax to His Friend in Rhode Island,' answering 'The Rights of Colonies Examined,' by Stephen Hopkins, had been second in a series of pamphlets recalling exchanges a century earlier by Roger Williams and John Cotton, were hanged in effigy on a gallows erected in front of the Colony House. In the evening the effigies were cut down and burned in the presence of a throng of people that filled every available space from which the fire might be seen. The demonstration was continued on the following day, when the houses of Johnston, Moffat and Howard were wrecked, and much of their furnishings destroyed.}}
Tensions between the colonies and Britain continued to grow, leading to the [Gaspée Affair](/wiki/Gasp%C3%A9e_Affair "Gaspée Affair") of 1772, in which a ship of the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") was burned off present\-day [Warwick](/wiki/Warwick%2C_Rhode_Island "Warwick, Rhode Island") by colonists resisting the enforcement of the [Navigation Acts](/wiki/Navigation_Acts "Navigation Acts"). The [Royal Commission of Inquiry](/wiki/Royal_Commission "Royal Commission") into the incident was convened at Colony House the following year.{{Cite book\|last\=Staples\|first\=William Read\|title\=The Documentary History of the Destruction of the Gaspee\|url\=https://archive.org/details/documentaryhist00stapgoog\|quote\=Colony House\+Newport.\|publisher\=Knowles, Vose and Anthony\|year\=1845\|location\=Rhode Island\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/documentaryhist00stapgoog/page/n30 25]}} Although it could have sent any suspects to London to face trial before an [Admiralty](/wiki/British_Admiralty "British Admiralty") court, a provision which greatly concerned most colonists, it found insufficient evidence to prosecute anyone.
The incident further galvanized colonial opposition to British rule. The colony's General Assembly began preparing for war, and ordered that weapons be stored in Colony House in 1774\.Carroll, *op. cit.*, 263\. Two years later, the [Declaration of Independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence "United States Declaration of Independence") was read from the front steps. The British [occupied](/wiki/Military_occupation "Military occupation") Newport, then the colonial capital, later that year. During that time the building was used as a [barracks](/wiki/Barracks "Barracks"). When the [French](/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War "France in the American Revolutionary War") joined the war later and drove the British out of the city, they used the building as a [hospital](/wiki/Hospital "Hospital"). It is widely believed that a French Army [chaplain](/wiki/Chaplain "Chaplain") celebrated Rhode Island's first [Roman Catholic Mass](/wiki/Eucharist_%28Catholic_Church%29 "Eucharist (Catholic Church)") at Colony House during this period, but no evidence has been found of this. After the [surrender at Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown "Siege of Yorktown"), in 1782, [Rochambeau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Donatien_de_Vimeur%2C_comte_de_Rochambeau "Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau") held a [banquet](/wiki/Banquet "Banquet") in the building's first\-floor Great Hall to honor [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington "George Washington"). A portrait of Washington, painted by Rhode Island native [Gilbert Stuart](/wiki/Gilbert_Stuart "Gilbert Stuart"), hangs in the first floor. In 1786 [Trevett v. Weeden](/wiki/Trevett_v._Weeden "Trevett v. Weeden") one of the earliest cases of [judicial review](/wiki/Judicial_review "Judicial review") was decided in the building by the [Rhode Island Supreme Court](/wiki/Rhode_Island_Supreme_Court "Rhode Island Supreme Court").*Power of Federal Judiciary Over Legislation*
```
by John Hampden Dougherty (Putnam, 1912) pg. 28-32
```
<https://archive.org/details/cu31924030476851/page/n47> [James Mitchell Varnum](/wiki/James_Mitchell_Varnum "James Mitchell Varnum") successfully represented the defendant in the cause.
### 1842 Constitutional convention
[thumb\|150px\|right\|The 1842 Constitution](/wiki/File:Rhode_Island_Constitution_of_1842.jpg "Rhode Island Constitution of 1842.jpg")
In September 1842, delegates met at Colony House to draft a new [constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Rhode_Island "Constitution of Rhode Island") to replace the 1663 [Royal Charter](/wiki/Rhode_Island_Royal_Charter "Rhode Island Royal Charter").{{cite news\|author1\=Erik J. Chaput and Russell J. DeSimone\|title\=My Turn: Erik J. Chaput and Russell J. DeSimone: How Rhode Island expanded black rights\|url\=http://www.providencejournal.com/opinion/20170916/my\-turn\-erik\-j\-chaput\-and\-russell\-j\-desimone\-how\-rhode\-island\-expanded\-black\-rights\|access\-date\=17 September 2017\|publisher\=The Providence Journal\|date\=16 September 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917155413/http://www.providencejournal.com/opinion/20170916/my\-turn\-erik\-j\-chaput\-and\-russell\-j\-desimone\-how\-rhode\-island\-expanded\-black\-rights\|archive\-date\=17 September 2017\|location\=Providence, RI}} The convention, held as a response to the [Dorr Rebellion](/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion "Dorr Rebellion"), debated questions of expansion of citizenship and suffrage. Prior to 1842, the vote was held only by a small minority of rural elite landowners.
By November 1842, a new Constitution was put before the voters of the state. The new Constitution, which passed 7024 to 51, expanded the vote to include African\-Americans, becoming the first state to do so. But it also contained a $134 suffrage qualification to block the vote from naturalized citizens.{{cite web\|title\=State Constitution\|url\=http://sos.ri.gov/archon/?p\=digitallibrary/digitalcontent\&id\=435\|website\=State Archives Catalog\|publisher\=State of Rhode Island\|access\-date\=17 September 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917173533/http://sos.ri.gov/archon/?p\=digitallibrary%2Fdigitalcontent\&id\=435\|archive\-date\=17 September 2017\|url\-status\=dead}}
### 19th century
The occupation of Newport had forced the colonists to establish their capital at Providence, and it remained there after [independence](/wiki/American_independence "American independence"). But the [state legislature](/wiki/Rhode_Island_General_Assembly "Rhode Island General Assembly") continued to meet in Newport every other year, and one day each May known as 'Lection Day. After the ceremonial meeting, results of the state's April elections would be announced, and the winners [inaugurated](/wiki/Inauguration "Inauguration") on the spot. It was Newport's most important holiday for many years.
[thumb\|175px\|left\|Colony House from an early 20th\-century postcard](/wiki/File:Newport_RI_Courthouse_postcard.JPG "Newport RI Courthouse postcard.JPG")
In 1900, with Rhode Island's [current capitol building](/wiki/Rhode_Island_State_House "Rhode Island State House") mostly complete, the legislature ended its tradition of alternating sessions between the state's two largest cities. It subsequently became the [Newport County](/wiki/Newport_County%2C_Rhode_Island "Newport County, Rhode Island") courthouse.
### 20th century
It continued to serve as the courthouse until 1926\. Afterwards, it and the other two future NHLs nearby were the first three historic nearby buildings renovated by [Norman Isham](/wiki/Norman_Isham "Norman Isham") at the behest of the [Newport Historical Society](/wiki/Newport_Historical_Society "Newport Historical Society"). That work was completed in 1932\.
In 1957, the building received its first sitting American president, [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower"). In a short speech from the steps, he began a two\-day visit to the city and its historic sites by praising the city's hospitality and expressing regret that [his wife](/wiki/Mamie_Eisenhower "Mamie Eisenhower"), who had accompanied him from Washington, could not join him at the building. "It is her great ambition to visit so many of these places," he said, "particularly those where the heroes of the Revolutionary times spent so much of their time."{{cite web\|title\=Dwight D. Eisenhower, Remarks Upon Arrival at Old Colony House, Newport, Rhode Island.\|url\=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid\=10885\|publisher\=American Presidency Project, \[\[University of California at Santa Barbara]]\|date\=1957\-09\-04\|access\-date\=2008\-04\-25}}
His administration its last year designated the building one of the first [National Historic Landmarks](/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark "National Historic Landmark") in 1960\. Six years after that, it was duly listed on the inaugural [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places"). Newport's well\-preserved historic character drew [Steven Spielberg](/wiki/Steven_Spielberg "Steven Spielberg") to the city in 1997, where it stood in for mid\-19th century [New Haven, Connecticut](/wiki/New_Haven%2C_Connecticut "New Haven, Connecticut"), during [principal photography](/wiki/Principal_photography "Principal photography") for *[Amistad](/wiki/Amistad_%281997_film%29 "Amistad (1997 film)")*. Colony House's exterior can be seen in the background in a few scenes, and the courtroom scenes were filmed inside.{{Cite news\|last\=Sabar\|first\=Arial\|title\='Amistad' debuts in R.I.\|url\=http://www.projo.com/cgi\-bin/include.pl/movies/amistad/1210fea1\.htm\|publisher\=\[\[Providence Journal]]\|date\=1997\-12\-10\|access\-date\=2008\-04\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011075358/http://www.projo.com/cgi\-bin/include.pl/movies/amistad/1210fea1\.htm\|archive\-date\=2008\-10\-11\|url\-status\=dead}} [Rhode Island Senate](/wiki/Rhode_Island_Senate "Rhode Island Senate") [majority leader](/wiki/Majority_leader "Majority leader") [M. Teresa Paiva\-Weed](/wiki/M._Teresa_Paiva-Weed "M. Teresa Paiva-Weed"), who represents the area, got the Senate to pass a resolution calling for the legislature to again meet in Newport on the [centenary](/wiki/Centenary "Centenary") of their last meeting there in 1900\.{{cite web\|title\=Resolution 258\|url\=http://www.rilin.state.ri.us/PublicLaws99/res99/res99258\.htm\|date\=1999\-06\-15\|access\-date\=2008\-04\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518220711/http://www.rilin.state.ri.us/PublicLaws99/res99/res99258\.htm\|archive\-date\=2011\-05\-18\|url\-status\=dead}}
The [Newport Historical Society](/wiki/Newport_Historical_Society "Newport Historical Society") manages the building for the state, which still owns it. It is open as a museum for tours during the summer months.{{cite web\|title\=Old Colony House\|url\=http://www.professionaltravelguide.com/historic\-sites/sightseeing/see\-do/old\-colony\-house/see\-and\-do\-474159/\|access\-date\=2008\-04\-25\|quote\=Open mid\-June to early September, 11:15 am\-2:15 pm, with tours on Monday, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday. US$3 adults.}} {{Dead link\|date\=October 2010\|bot\=H3llBot}} It is also available for event rentals.{{cite web\|title\=Newport Historical Society \- Facility Rentals\|url\=http://www.newporthistorical.org/facility\_rental.htm\|access\-date\=2008\-04\-25 \|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20080303070543/http://www.newporthistorical.org/facility\_rental.htm \|archive\-date \= 2008\-03\-03}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Previous to the construction of the Colony House, the site had been home to a small wooden courthouse built in 1687\\. The new building was among several projects undertaken as an attempt to apply formal [planning](/wiki/Urban_planning \"Urban planning\") to the development of Newport, which had previously lacked it. By putting the home of the colonial assembly at the top of the Parade (as Washington Square was then known), the town's leadership hoped to create a public space similar to that found in the English cities they or their parents had emigrated from.",
"Architect [Richard Munday](/wiki/Richard_Munday \"Richard Munday\")'s design, one of his last, emulates [Christopher Wren](/wiki/Christopher_Wren \"Christopher Wren\")'s buildings on the exterior but incorporates an interior layout similar to that of English town or guild halls. The first floor was thus an open space that could be used as a market, with civic offices upstairs.",
"### Revolution",
"Many of the events leading up to and surrounding the [Revolution](/wiki/American_Revolution \"American Revolution\") [in Rhode Island](/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island%23Revolutionary_era%2C_1775%E2%80%931790 \"History of Rhode Island#Revolutionary era, 1775–1790\") centered on the Colony House. In 1761, news of the death of King [George II](/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain \"George II of Great Britain\") and his succession by his grandson [George III](/wiki/George_III_of_Great_Britain \"George III of Great Britain\") was announced from the balcony. Three years later, the inaugural board meeting of the Corporation of the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island, which became [Brown University](/wiki/Brown_University \"Brown University\"), took place in the building.{{cite encyclopedia\\|title\\=Bicentennial celebration\\|url\\=http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News\\_Bureau/Databases/Encyclopedia/search.php?serial\\=B0180\\|encyclopedia\\=Encyclopedia Brunoniana\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Brown University]]\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-25}} In 1765, Newport's citizens gathered around to celebrate the repeal of the [Stamp Act](/wiki/Stamp_Act_1765 \"Stamp Act 1765\"), which led to riots that damaged the houses of three prominent supporters of the Act, including the nearby [Wanton\\-Lyman\\-Hazard House](/wiki/Wanton-Lyman-Hazard_House \"Wanton-Lyman-Hazard House\"), an NHL which is today the oldest house in the city.{{cite book\\|last\\=Carroll\\|first\\=Charles\\|title\\=Rhode Island: Three Centuries of Democracy\\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.gaspee.org/3Centuries.htm\\|year\\=1932\\|publisher\\=Lewis Historical Publishing Company, Inc.\\|location\\=New York, NY\\|chapter\\=XI\\|page\\=241\\|quote\\=On August 27, Augustus Johnston, who had been appointed distributor of stamps in the colony; Thomas Moffat, Scotch physician, temporarily resident in Newport and outspoken advocate of the English policy; and Martin Howard, whose 'Letter from a Gentleman of Halifax to His Friend in Rhode Island,' answering 'The Rights of Colonies Examined,' by Stephen Hopkins, had been second in a series of pamphlets recalling exchanges a century earlier by Roger Williams and John Cotton, were hanged in effigy on a gallows erected in front of the Colony House. In the evening the effigies were cut down and burned in the presence of a throng of people that filled every available space from which the fire might be seen. The demonstration was continued on the following day, when the houses of Johnston, Moffat and Howard were wrecked, and much of their furnishings destroyed.}}",
"Tensions between the colonies and Britain continued to grow, leading to the [Gaspée Affair](/wiki/Gasp%C3%A9e_Affair \"Gaspée Affair\") of 1772, in which a ship of the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") was burned off present\\-day [Warwick](/wiki/Warwick%2C_Rhode_Island \"Warwick, Rhode Island\") by colonists resisting the enforcement of the [Navigation Acts](/wiki/Navigation_Acts \"Navigation Acts\"). The [Royal Commission of Inquiry](/wiki/Royal_Commission \"Royal Commission\") into the incident was convened at Colony House the following year.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Staples\\|first\\=William Read\\|title\\=The Documentary History of the Destruction of the Gaspee\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/documentaryhist00stapgoog\\|quote\\=Colony House\\+Newport.\\|publisher\\=Knowles, Vose and Anthony\\|year\\=1845\\|location\\=Rhode Island\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/documentaryhist00stapgoog/page/n30 25]}} Although it could have sent any suspects to London to face trial before an [Admiralty](/wiki/British_Admiralty \"British Admiralty\") court, a provision which greatly concerned most colonists, it found insufficient evidence to prosecute anyone.",
"The incident further galvanized colonial opposition to British rule. The colony's General Assembly began preparing for war, and ordered that weapons be stored in Colony House in 1774\\.Carroll, *op. cit.*, 263\\. Two years later, the [Declaration of Independence](/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence \"United States Declaration of Independence\") was read from the front steps. The British [occupied](/wiki/Military_occupation \"Military occupation\") Newport, then the colonial capital, later that year. During that time the building was used as a [barracks](/wiki/Barracks \"Barracks\"). When the [French](/wiki/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War \"France in the American Revolutionary War\") joined the war later and drove the British out of the city, they used the building as a [hospital](/wiki/Hospital \"Hospital\"). It is widely believed that a French Army [chaplain](/wiki/Chaplain \"Chaplain\") celebrated Rhode Island's first [Roman Catholic Mass](/wiki/Eucharist_%28Catholic_Church%29 \"Eucharist (Catholic Church)\") at Colony House during this period, but no evidence has been found of this. After the [surrender at Yorktown](/wiki/Siege_of_Yorktown \"Siege of Yorktown\"), in 1782, [Rochambeau](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Donatien_de_Vimeur%2C_comte_de_Rochambeau \"Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau\") held a [banquet](/wiki/Banquet \"Banquet\") in the building's first\\-floor Great Hall to honor [George Washington](/wiki/George_Washington \"George Washington\"). A portrait of Washington, painted by Rhode Island native [Gilbert Stuart](/wiki/Gilbert_Stuart \"Gilbert Stuart\"), hangs in the first floor. In 1786 [Trevett v. Weeden](/wiki/Trevett_v._Weeden \"Trevett v. Weeden\") one of the earliest cases of [judicial review](/wiki/Judicial_review \"Judicial review\") was decided in the building by the [Rhode Island Supreme Court](/wiki/Rhode_Island_Supreme_Court \"Rhode Island Supreme Court\").*Power of Federal Judiciary Over Legislation*",
"```\nby John Hampden Dougherty (Putnam, 1912) pg. 28-32 \n```",
"<https://archive.org/details/cu31924030476851/page/n47> [James Mitchell Varnum](/wiki/James_Mitchell_Varnum \"James Mitchell Varnum\") successfully represented the defendant in the cause.",
"### 1842 Constitutional convention",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|right\\|The 1842 Constitution](/wiki/File:Rhode_Island_Constitution_of_1842.jpg \"Rhode Island Constitution of 1842.jpg\")\nIn September 1842, delegates met at Colony House to draft a new [constitution](/wiki/Constitution_of_Rhode_Island \"Constitution of Rhode Island\") to replace the 1663 [Royal Charter](/wiki/Rhode_Island_Royal_Charter \"Rhode Island Royal Charter\").{{cite news\\|author1\\=Erik J. Chaput and Russell J. DeSimone\\|title\\=My Turn: Erik J. Chaput and Russell J. DeSimone: How Rhode Island expanded black rights\\|url\\=http://www.providencejournal.com/opinion/20170916/my\\-turn\\-erik\\-j\\-chaput\\-and\\-russell\\-j\\-desimone\\-how\\-rhode\\-island\\-expanded\\-black\\-rights\\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2017\\|publisher\\=The Providence Journal\\|date\\=16 September 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917155413/http://www.providencejournal.com/opinion/20170916/my\\-turn\\-erik\\-j\\-chaput\\-and\\-russell\\-j\\-desimone\\-how\\-rhode\\-island\\-expanded\\-black\\-rights\\|archive\\-date\\=17 September 2017\\|location\\=Providence, RI}} The convention, held as a response to the [Dorr Rebellion](/wiki/Dorr_Rebellion \"Dorr Rebellion\"), debated questions of expansion of citizenship and suffrage. Prior to 1842, the vote was held only by a small minority of rural elite landowners.",
"By November 1842, a new Constitution was put before the voters of the state. The new Constitution, which passed 7024 to 51, expanded the vote to include African\\-Americans, becoming the first state to do so. But it also contained a $134 suffrage qualification to block the vote from naturalized citizens.{{cite web\\|title\\=State Constitution\\|url\\=http://sos.ri.gov/archon/?p\\=digitallibrary/digitalcontent\\&id\\=435\\|website\\=State Archives Catalog\\|publisher\\=State of Rhode Island\\|access\\-date\\=17 September 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917173533/http://sos.ri.gov/archon/?p\\=digitallibrary%2Fdigitalcontent\\&id\\=435\\|archive\\-date\\=17 September 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### 19th century",
"The occupation of Newport had forced the colonists to establish their capital at Providence, and it remained there after [independence](/wiki/American_independence \"American independence\"). But the [state legislature](/wiki/Rhode_Island_General_Assembly \"Rhode Island General Assembly\") continued to meet in Newport every other year, and one day each May known as 'Lection Day. After the ceremonial meeting, results of the state's April elections would be announced, and the winners [inaugurated](/wiki/Inauguration \"Inauguration\") on the spot. It was Newport's most important holiday for many years.\n[thumb\\|175px\\|left\\|Colony House from an early 20th\\-century postcard](/wiki/File:Newport_RI_Courthouse_postcard.JPG \"Newport RI Courthouse postcard.JPG\")\nIn 1900, with Rhode Island's [current capitol building](/wiki/Rhode_Island_State_House \"Rhode Island State House\") mostly complete, the legislature ended its tradition of alternating sessions between the state's two largest cities. It subsequently became the [Newport County](/wiki/Newport_County%2C_Rhode_Island \"Newport County, Rhode Island\") courthouse.",
"### 20th century",
"It continued to serve as the courthouse until 1926\\. Afterwards, it and the other two future NHLs nearby were the first three historic nearby buildings renovated by [Norman Isham](/wiki/Norman_Isham \"Norman Isham\") at the behest of the [Newport Historical Society](/wiki/Newport_Historical_Society \"Newport Historical Society\"). That work was completed in 1932\\.",
"In 1957, the building received its first sitting American president, [Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\"). In a short speech from the steps, he began a two\\-day visit to the city and its historic sites by praising the city's hospitality and expressing regret that [his wife](/wiki/Mamie_Eisenhower \"Mamie Eisenhower\"), who had accompanied him from Washington, could not join him at the building. \"It is her great ambition to visit so many of these places,\" he said, \"particularly those where the heroes of the Revolutionary times spent so much of their time.\"{{cite web\\|title\\=Dwight D. Eisenhower, Remarks Upon Arrival at Old Colony House, Newport, Rhode Island.\\|url\\=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid\\=10885\\|publisher\\=American Presidency Project, \\[\\[University of California at Santa Barbara]]\\|date\\=1957\\-09\\-04\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-25}}",
"His administration its last year designated the building one of the first [National Historic Landmarks](/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark \"National Historic Landmark\") in 1960\\. Six years after that, it was duly listed on the inaugural [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\"). Newport's well\\-preserved historic character drew [Steven Spielberg](/wiki/Steven_Spielberg \"Steven Spielberg\") to the city in 1997, where it stood in for mid\\-19th century [New Haven, Connecticut](/wiki/New_Haven%2C_Connecticut \"New Haven, Connecticut\"), during [principal photography](/wiki/Principal_photography \"Principal photography\") for *[Amistad](/wiki/Amistad_%281997_film%29 \"Amistad (1997 film)\")*. Colony House's exterior can be seen in the background in a few scenes, and the courtroom scenes were filmed inside.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Sabar\\|first\\=Arial\\|title\\='Amistad' debuts in R.I.\\|url\\=http://www.projo.com/cgi\\-bin/include.pl/movies/amistad/1210fea1\\.htm\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Providence Journal]]\\|date\\=1997\\-12\\-10\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011075358/http://www.projo.com/cgi\\-bin/include.pl/movies/amistad/1210fea1\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-10\\-11\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} [Rhode Island Senate](/wiki/Rhode_Island_Senate \"Rhode Island Senate\") [majority leader](/wiki/Majority_leader \"Majority leader\") [M. Teresa Paiva\\-Weed](/wiki/M._Teresa_Paiva-Weed \"M. Teresa Paiva-Weed\"), who represents the area, got the Senate to pass a resolution calling for the legislature to again meet in Newport on the [centenary](/wiki/Centenary \"Centenary\") of their last meeting there in 1900\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Resolution 258\\|url\\=http://www.rilin.state.ri.us/PublicLaws99/res99/res99258\\.htm\\|date\\=1999\\-06\\-15\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518220711/http://www.rilin.state.ri.us/PublicLaws99/res99/res99258\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-18\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The [Newport Historical Society](/wiki/Newport_Historical_Society \"Newport Historical Society\") manages the building for the state, which still owns it. It is open as a museum for tours during the summer months.{{cite web\\|title\\=Old Colony House\\|url\\=http://www.professionaltravelguide.com/historic\\-sites/sightseeing/see\\-do/old\\-colony\\-house/see\\-and\\-do\\-474159/\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-25\\|quote\\=Open mid\\-June to early September, 11:15 am\\-2:15 pm, with tours on Monday, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday. US$3 adults.}} {{Dead link\\|date\\=October 2010\\|bot\\=H3llBot}} It is also available for event rentals.{{cite web\\|title\\=Newport Historical Society \\- Facility Rentals\\|url\\=http://www.newporthistorical.org/facility\\_rental.htm\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-25 \\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20080303070543/http://www.newporthistorical.org/facility\\_rental.htm \\|archive\\-date \\= 2008\\-03\\-03}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
Arthur Lane is a young boy with profound cerebral palsy, who is unable to walk, talk, feed himself, or sit unsupported. He is abandoned in a grim hospital in the north of England in 1921, at the age of seven. His family believe they are sending him to a specialised facility for the good of all, where they will have the equipment and expertise to give him a better life. In reality he is subject to extreme cruelty and neglect. Through his decades\-long ordeal, his faith in the 'Skallagrigg' – a special being with a keen empathy for people with his disabilities – sustains him, and stories grow up about Arthur and the Skallagrigg.
Half a century later comes Esther – a keenly intelligent teenager who also has cerebral palsy, but whose talents are recognised in a more enlightened age. Her mother died at her birth due to a fatal car accident, and as a result, Esther was delivered prematurely by caesarian section – which is implied to have possibly contributed to her condition. Since her father, Richard, is unable to cope with her condition and the loss of her mother, Esther is bounced between multiple foster parents – who struggle to cope with her profoundly demanding and unique medical needs – before winding up at a home for disabled children called the Dale Centre. There she meets Peter Rowne – an even more disabled, even more intelligent boy slightly older than her, Karen – a severely learning\-disabled 'frienemy', and Tom – a docile and courageous, though sometimes invasive young boy with Down syndrome, who becomes her lifelong ally and protector.
At the age of eleven, Esther takes up residence with her father, and finally manages to communicate her intelligence to him with Tom's help (specialists had emphatically cautioned her father and non\-disabled carers not to see intelligence that wasn't there). She is subsequently sent off to Netherton – an adapted school for highly gifted disabled students. Having squandered her first term, the death of Peter Rowne from pneumonia, and her recently reconnected Grandmother's firm words, inspire a reformation in her, and she does exceptionally well. There she ponders the life questions every teenager does – love, marriage, sex, friendships, jobs, future living, but with the added fear and uncertainty of her disability. She also learns about the terrible conditions disabled people have had to endure, both in the past and in her lifetime. Through all of this she grows up with the myth of the Skallagrigg, and the secret stories told among the disabled community through non\-verbal language. She eventually realises that these stories are real, told by a real person and describing a real place. Piecing them together with the help of her friends and family, she eventually discovers Arthur, the true identity of the Skallagrigg, the characters in the story, and the fact that Arthur has an estranged son and grandson, reuniting Arthur with his beloved Skallagrigg.
Following this, Esther becomes interested in writing computer games, and carries on written conversation with Daniel, an American computer graphics genius. Together they develop first a friendship, then, when he comes to England, a relationship which develops into a marriage. Meanwhile, Esther obsessively works on writing a computer game based on her experiences finding the Skallagrigg, her sense that Arthur's grandson should have the chance to discover his family (despite Arthur's belief that it would be better for him not to know what his grandfather was), and her own anguish at not being able to do more for Daniel, and for their infant child, due to her severe disabilities. The work, giving birth, and the relentless frustration and upset, take a heavy toll on her mental and physical health, which is exacerbated by frailty caused by her cerebral palsy – but she remains surrounded by love and purpose throughout.
The story ends with Arthur's son and grandson, Esther's granddaughter, father, husband and son, and Tom, all reuniting and reconciling – having been torn apart by Esther's death and by Richard's marriage to Kate and subsequent emigration to Australia.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Arthur Lane is a young boy with profound cerebral palsy, who is unable to walk, talk, feed himself, or sit unsupported. He is abandoned in a grim hospital in the north of England in 1921, at the age of seven. His family believe they are sending him to a specialised facility for the good of all, where they will have the equipment and expertise to give him a better life. In reality he is subject to extreme cruelty and neglect. Through his decades\\-long ordeal, his faith in the 'Skallagrigg' – a special being with a keen empathy for people with his disabilities – sustains him, and stories grow up about Arthur and the Skallagrigg.",
"Half a century later comes Esther – a keenly intelligent teenager who also has cerebral palsy, but whose talents are recognised in a more enlightened age. Her mother died at her birth due to a fatal car accident, and as a result, Esther was delivered prematurely by caesarian section – which is implied to have possibly contributed to her condition. Since her father, Richard, is unable to cope with her condition and the loss of her mother, Esther is bounced between multiple foster parents – who struggle to cope with her profoundly demanding and unique medical needs – before winding up at a home for disabled children called the Dale Centre. There she meets Peter Rowne – an even more disabled, even more intelligent boy slightly older than her, Karen – a severely learning\\-disabled 'frienemy', and Tom – a docile and courageous, though sometimes invasive young boy with Down syndrome, who becomes her lifelong ally and protector.",
"At the age of eleven, Esther takes up residence with her father, and finally manages to communicate her intelligence to him with Tom's help (specialists had emphatically cautioned her father and non\\-disabled carers not to see intelligence that wasn't there). She is subsequently sent off to Netherton – an adapted school for highly gifted disabled students. Having squandered her first term, the death of Peter Rowne from pneumonia, and her recently reconnected Grandmother's firm words, inspire a reformation in her, and she does exceptionally well. There she ponders the life questions every teenager does – love, marriage, sex, friendships, jobs, future living, but with the added fear and uncertainty of her disability. She also learns about the terrible conditions disabled people have had to endure, both in the past and in her lifetime. Through all of this she grows up with the myth of the Skallagrigg, and the secret stories told among the disabled community through non\\-verbal language. She eventually realises that these stories are real, told by a real person and describing a real place. Piecing them together with the help of her friends and family, she eventually discovers Arthur, the true identity of the Skallagrigg, the characters in the story, and the fact that Arthur has an estranged son and grandson, reuniting Arthur with his beloved Skallagrigg.",
"Following this, Esther becomes interested in writing computer games, and carries on written conversation with Daniel, an American computer graphics genius. Together they develop first a friendship, then, when he comes to England, a relationship which develops into a marriage. Meanwhile, Esther obsessively works on writing a computer game based on her experiences finding the Skallagrigg, her sense that Arthur's grandson should have the chance to discover his family (despite Arthur's belief that it would be better for him not to know what his grandfather was), and her own anguish at not being able to do more for Daniel, and for their infant child, due to her severe disabilities. The work, giving birth, and the relentless frustration and upset, take a heavy toll on her mental and physical health, which is exacerbated by frailty caused by her cerebral palsy – but she remains surrounded by love and purpose throughout.",
"The story ends with Arthur's son and grandson, Esther's granddaughter, father, husband and son, and Tom, all reuniting and reconciling – having been torn apart by Esther's death and by Richard's marriage to Kate and subsequent emigration to Australia.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early years
[thumb\|Schott Music store in London](/wiki/File:Schott_Music_London.jpg "Schott Music London.jpg")
The Schott publishing house was founded by Bernhard Schott (1748–1809\) in Mainz in 1770, the year of [Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven "Ludwig van Beethoven")'s birth.{{sfn\|Brück\|2007}} The historic building is still the company's head office. At the time of the foundation of the publishing house, Mainz boasted a flourishing cultural life and a busy court chapel. In 1780, Bernhard Schott was awarded the *privilegium exclusivum* together with the title of court [music engraver](/wiki/Music_engraving "Music engraving"). This meant that within the boundaries of the [electorate of Mainz](/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Mainz "Archbishopric of Mainz") no third party was allowed to re\-engrave or sell the works produced by him. Schott was one of the first publishers to use the printing technique of [lithography](/wiki/Lithography "Lithography"), which meant that his editions were soon being printed and distributed on a wide scale.{{sfn\|Brück\|2007}}
During the [French years of Mainz](/wiki/Republic_of_Mainz "Republic of Mainz"), the publisher was heavily taxed, but the affectation to French music helped him in this stage. As a later consequence, the publishing house rapidly became established beyond the national borders of Germany. As early as 1823, Schott founded a branch in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp"), relocated to Brussels in 1839 (called [Schott frères](/wiki/Schott_fr%C3%A8res "Schott frères") from 1879 onward), and further offices in musical centres such as [Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig "Leipzig"), London, Paris and Vienna.{{sfn\|Brück\|2007}} From the beginning, the house was committed to contemporary music. The publishing program included works by composers from the [Mannheim School](/wiki/Mannheim_School "Mannheim School") such as [Carl Stamitz](/wiki/Carl_Stamitz "Carl Stamitz") and [Georg Joseph Vogler](/wiki/Georg_Joseph_Vogler "Georg Joseph Vogler"), as well as virtuoso ballroom music and comic operas. The publication of the piano scores and first editions of Mozart's *[Don Giovanni](/wiki/Don_Giovanni "Don Giovanni")* and *[Die Entführung aus dem Serail](/wiki/Die_Entf%C3%BChrung_aus_dem_Serail "Die Entführung aus dem Serail")* were among the highlights of its early history. They were followed by major late works by Ludwig van Beethoven, including the [Ninth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Beethoven%29 "Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)"),{{Cite journal\|last\=Noorduin\|first\=Marten\|date\=17 May 2021\|title\=The metronome marks for Beethoven's Ninth Symphony in context\|journal\=Early Music\|volume\=49 \|issue\=caab005\|pages\=129–145 \|doi\=10\.1093/em/caab005\|issn\=0306\-1078\|doi\-access\=free}} the [Missa solemnis](/wiki/Missa_solemnis_%28Beethoven%29 "Missa solemnis (Beethoven)") and the last two string quartets.{{sfn\|Brück\|2007}}
### Wagner years
In the first decades, Schott felt committed to the French tradition popular at that time. The catalogue therefore included names such as [Adolphe Adam](/wiki/Adolphe_Adam "Adolphe Adam") and [Daniel Auber](/wiki/Daniel_Auber "Daniel Auber") as well as [Gaetano Donizetti](/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti "Gaetano Donizetti"), [Ignaz Pleyel](/wiki/Ignaz_Pleyel "Ignaz Pleyel"), [Elise Rondonneau](/wiki/Elise_Rondonneau "Elise Rondonneau"),{{Cite book \|last\=Cohen \|first\=Aaron I. \|title\=International Encyclopedia of Women Composers \|date\=1987 \|publisher\=Books \& Music (USA) \|isbn\=978\-0\-9617485\-0\-0 \|pages\=599 \|language\=en}} [H. Servier](/wiki/H._Servier "H. Servier"), and [Gioacchino Rossini](/wiki/Gioacchino_Rossini "Gioacchino Rossini"). With the works of [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt "Franz Liszt") and [Peter Cornelius](/wiki/Peter_Cornelius "Peter Cornelius"), Schott indicated a stronger interest in the German repertoire. In 1859 Franz Schott (1811–1874\), the grandson of Bernhard Schott, succeeded in winning the exclusive collaboration of [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner"), and Schott published *[Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg](/wiki/Die_Meistersinger_von_N%C3%BCrnberg "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg")*, the complete *[Ring des Nibelungen](/wiki/Ring_des_Nibelungen "Ring des Nibelungen")* and *[Parsifal](/wiki/Parsifal "Parsifal")*. The connection with Wagner proved extremely expensive for the publishing house: on 21 October 1862, Franz Schott wrote to Wagner: "Anyway, no music publisher can possibly satisfy your needs, this can only be done by an enormously rich banker or a prince who has got millions ..." Wagner did indeed find his generous prince in the person of [Ludwig II](/wiki/Ludwig_II "Ludwig II"), the young [King of Bavaria](/wiki/King_of_Bavaria "King of Bavaria").{{sfn\|Robert Eitner\|1891}} Wagner wrote a short piano piece dedicated a member of the Schott family: *Albumblatt für Frau Betty Schott*, WWV 108\.
### Modern classics
[right\|thumb \|upright\|[Ludwig Strecker](/wiki/Ludwig_Strecker "Ludwig Strecker")](/wiki/File:Ludwig_Strecker_sr.jpg "Ludwig Strecker sr.jpg")
[thumb\|[Ludwig Strecker Jr.](/wiki/Ludwig_Strecker_Jr. "Ludwig Strecker Jr.") (right)](/wiki/File:Freiburg_Dr._Ludwig_Strecker%2C_Seniorchef_des_Musikverlages_Schotts_S%C3%B6hne%2C_Mainz.png "Freiburg Dr. Ludwig Strecker, Seniorchef des Musikverlages Schotts Söhne, Mainz.png")
Since there were no descendants, the Schott family appointed the privy councillor [Ludwig Strecker](/wiki/Ludwig_Strecker "Ludwig Strecker") (1853–1943\) as their successor in 1874\. His sons, [Ludwig Strecker Jr.](/wiki/Ludwig_Strecker_Jr. "Ludwig Strecker Jr.") (1883–1978\) and Willi Strecker (1884–1958\), continued to run the publishing house. They were succeeded by Heinz Schneider\-Schott (1906–1988\).{{sfn\|Brück\|2007}}
Schott's prestigious 20th century publishing programme, now known as Music of Our Time, was initiated by the publication of works by [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky"), a close friend of Willi and Ludwig Strecker for many years.{{sfn\|Brück\|2007}} Schott published major works, from early orchestral works such as *[Feu d'artifice](/wiki/Feu_d%27artifice "Feu d'artifice")* and *[Scherzo fantastique](/wiki/Scherzo_fantastique "Scherzo fantastique")* and the complete {{lang\|fr\|L’Oiseau de feu}} (*[The Firebird](/wiki/The_Firebird "The Firebird")*) to the [Violin Concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Stravinsky%29 "Violin Concerto (Stravinsky)"), [Symphony in C](/wiki/Symphony_in_C_%28Stravinsky%29 "Symphony in C (Stravinsky)") and [Symphony in Three Movements](/wiki/Symphony_in_Three_Movements_%28Stravinsky%29 "Symphony in Three Movements (Stravinsky)"). Schott also published several major scores of [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg"), including *[Moses und Aron](/wiki/Moses_und_Aron "Moses und Aron")* and *[Von heute auf morgen](/wiki/Von_heute_auf_morgen "Von heute auf morgen")*.
### Contemporary music
Schott established lifelong working relationships with [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith "Paul Hindemith") and [Carl Orff](/wiki/Carl_Orff "Carl Orff"), and this commitment between composer and publisher has defined the character of the catalogue, involving some of the important composers of their time. [Hans Werner Henze](/wiki/Hans_Werner_Henze "Hans Werner Henze"), for example, joined Schott at the age of twenty, his considerable oeuvre being published exclusively by them for over 55 years. [Michael Tippett](/wiki/Michael_Tippett "Michael Tippett")'s lifelong relationship with Schott began in March 1939 when Willy Strecker visited London for the first (concert) performance in England of Hindemith's [Mathis der Maler](/wiki/Symphony:Mathis_der_Maler "Mathis der Maler"). Shortly after war had been declared, he heard through their London office that Schott would like to publish his [Concerto for Double String Orchestra](/wiki/Concerto_for_Double_String_Orchestra_%28Tippett%29 "Concerto for Double String Orchestra (Tippett)") and an early Piano Sonata. "Being a born internationalist I thoroughly enjoyed this outcome and thought it a good omen." [György Ligeti](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Ligeti "György Ligeti"), [Krzysztof Penderecki](/wiki/Krzysztof_Penderecki "Krzysztof Penderecki"), [Alexander Goehr](/wiki/Alexander_Goehr "Alexander Goehr"), [Aribert Reimann](/wiki/Aribert_Reimann "Aribert Reimann"), and [Else Schmitz\-Gohr](/wiki/Else_Schmitz-Gohr "Else Schmitz-Gohr") have all been published exclusively by Schott for more than thirty years.
This close collaboration continues to support the work of many distinguished composers including [Henri Dutilleux](/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux "Henri Dutilleux"), [Mark\-Anthony Turnage](/wiki/Mark-Anthony_Turnage "Mark-Anthony Turnage"), [Peter Eötvös](/wiki/Peter_E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s "Peter Eötvös"), [Chaya Czernowin](/wiki/Chaya_Czernowin "Chaya Czernowin"), [Joe Duddell](/wiki/Joe_Duddell "Joe Duddell"), [Moritz Eggert](/wiki/Moritz_Eggert "Moritz Eggert"), [Mary Finsterer](/wiki/Mary_Finsterer "Mary Finsterer"), [Kenneth Hesketh](/wiki/Kenneth_Hesketh "Kenneth Hesketh"), [Christian Jost](/wiki/Christian_Jost_%28composer%29 "Christian Jost (composer)"), Tatjana Komarova, [Nicholas Lens](/wiki/Nicholas_Lens "Nicholas Lens"), [Olli Mustonen](/wiki/Olli_Mustonen "Olli Mustonen"), Benjamin Schweitzer, [Jörg Widmann](/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Widmann "Jörg Widmann") and [Lei Liang](/wiki/Lei_Liang "Lei Liang").
In 2006, the company changed the name to Schott Music. In 2023, Schott Music became the property of the Strecker Foundation.{{cite web \| title\=Music Publisher Schott becomes the property of the Strecker Foundation \| website\=Schott Music Shop \| date\=7 December 2023 \| url\=https://www.schott\-music.com/en/blog/music\-publisher\-schott\-becomes\-the\-property\-of\-the\-strecker\-foundation/ \| access\-date\=30 January 2024}}
#### Music in film
Schott Music also publishes the film music compositions of a number of modern film composers. Some of the more prominent film composers on Schott's roster include [Erich Wolfgang Korngold](/wiki/Erich_Wolfgang_Korngold "Erich Wolfgang Korngold"), [Nino Rota](/wiki/Nino_Rota "Nino Rota") and [Howard Shore](/wiki/Howard_Shore "Howard Shore").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early years",
"[thumb\\|Schott Music store in London](/wiki/File:Schott_Music_London.jpg \"Schott Music London.jpg\")\nThe Schott publishing house was founded by Bernhard Schott (1748–1809\\) in Mainz in 1770, the year of [Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\")'s birth.{{sfn\\|Brück\\|2007}} The historic building is still the company's head office. At the time of the foundation of the publishing house, Mainz boasted a flourishing cultural life and a busy court chapel. In 1780, Bernhard Schott was awarded the *privilegium exclusivum* together with the title of court [music engraver](/wiki/Music_engraving \"Music engraving\"). This meant that within the boundaries of the [electorate of Mainz](/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Mainz \"Archbishopric of Mainz\") no third party was allowed to re\\-engrave or sell the works produced by him. Schott was one of the first publishers to use the printing technique of [lithography](/wiki/Lithography \"Lithography\"), which meant that his editions were soon being printed and distributed on a wide scale.{{sfn\\|Brück\\|2007}}",
"During the [French years of Mainz](/wiki/Republic_of_Mainz \"Republic of Mainz\"), the publisher was heavily taxed, but the affectation to French music helped him in this stage. As a later consequence, the publishing house rapidly became established beyond the national borders of Germany. As early as 1823, Schott founded a branch in [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\"), relocated to Brussels in 1839 (called [Schott frères](/wiki/Schott_fr%C3%A8res \"Schott frères\") from 1879 onward), and further offices in musical centres such as [Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig \"Leipzig\"), London, Paris and Vienna.{{sfn\\|Brück\\|2007}} From the beginning, the house was committed to contemporary music. The publishing program included works by composers from the [Mannheim School](/wiki/Mannheim_School \"Mannheim School\") such as [Carl Stamitz](/wiki/Carl_Stamitz \"Carl Stamitz\") and [Georg Joseph Vogler](/wiki/Georg_Joseph_Vogler \"Georg Joseph Vogler\"), as well as virtuoso ballroom music and comic operas. The publication of the piano scores and first editions of Mozart's *[Don Giovanni](/wiki/Don_Giovanni \"Don Giovanni\")* and *[Die Entführung aus dem Serail](/wiki/Die_Entf%C3%BChrung_aus_dem_Serail \"Die Entführung aus dem Serail\")* were among the highlights of its early history. They were followed by major late works by Ludwig van Beethoven, including the [Ninth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Beethoven%29 \"Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)\"),{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Noorduin\\|first\\=Marten\\|date\\=17 May 2021\\|title\\=The metronome marks for Beethoven's Ninth Symphony in context\\|journal\\=Early Music\\|volume\\=49 \\|issue\\=caab005\\|pages\\=129–145 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/em/caab005\\|issn\\=0306\\-1078\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} the [Missa solemnis](/wiki/Missa_solemnis_%28Beethoven%29 \"Missa solemnis (Beethoven)\") and the last two string quartets.{{sfn\\|Brück\\|2007}}",
"### Wagner years",
"In the first decades, Schott felt committed to the French tradition popular at that time. The catalogue therefore included names such as [Adolphe Adam](/wiki/Adolphe_Adam \"Adolphe Adam\") and [Daniel Auber](/wiki/Daniel_Auber \"Daniel Auber\") as well as [Gaetano Donizetti](/wiki/Gaetano_Donizetti \"Gaetano Donizetti\"), [Ignaz Pleyel](/wiki/Ignaz_Pleyel \"Ignaz Pleyel\"), [Elise Rondonneau](/wiki/Elise_Rondonneau \"Elise Rondonneau\"),{{Cite book \\|last\\=Cohen \\|first\\=Aaron I. \\|title\\=International Encyclopedia of Women Composers \\|date\\=1987 \\|publisher\\=Books \\& Music (USA) \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-9617485\\-0\\-0 \\|pages\\=599 \\|language\\=en}} [H. Servier](/wiki/H._Servier \"H. Servier\"), and [Gioacchino Rossini](/wiki/Gioacchino_Rossini \"Gioacchino Rossini\"). With the works of [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt \"Franz Liszt\") and [Peter Cornelius](/wiki/Peter_Cornelius \"Peter Cornelius\"), Schott indicated a stronger interest in the German repertoire. In 1859 Franz Schott (1811–1874\\), the grandson of Bernhard Schott, succeeded in winning the exclusive collaboration of [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"), and Schott published *[Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg](/wiki/Die_Meistersinger_von_N%C3%BCrnberg \"Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg\")*, the complete *[Ring des Nibelungen](/wiki/Ring_des_Nibelungen \"Ring des Nibelungen\")* and *[Parsifal](/wiki/Parsifal \"Parsifal\")*. The connection with Wagner proved extremely expensive for the publishing house: on 21 October 1862, Franz Schott wrote to Wagner: \"Anyway, no music publisher can possibly satisfy your needs, this can only be done by an enormously rich banker or a prince who has got millions ...\" Wagner did indeed find his generous prince in the person of [Ludwig II](/wiki/Ludwig_II \"Ludwig II\"), the young [King of Bavaria](/wiki/King_of_Bavaria \"King of Bavaria\").{{sfn\\|Robert Eitner\\|1891}} Wagner wrote a short piano piece dedicated a member of the Schott family: *Albumblatt für Frau Betty Schott*, WWV 108\\.",
"### Modern classics",
"[right\\|thumb \\|upright\\|[Ludwig Strecker](/wiki/Ludwig_Strecker \"Ludwig Strecker\")](/wiki/File:Ludwig_Strecker_sr.jpg \"Ludwig Strecker sr.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Ludwig Strecker Jr.](/wiki/Ludwig_Strecker_Jr. \"Ludwig Strecker Jr.\") (right)](/wiki/File:Freiburg_Dr._Ludwig_Strecker%2C_Seniorchef_des_Musikverlages_Schotts_S%C3%B6hne%2C_Mainz.png \"Freiburg Dr. Ludwig Strecker, Seniorchef des Musikverlages Schotts Söhne, Mainz.png\")",
"Since there were no descendants, the Schott family appointed the privy councillor [Ludwig Strecker](/wiki/Ludwig_Strecker \"Ludwig Strecker\") (1853–1943\\) as their successor in 1874\\. His sons, [Ludwig Strecker Jr.](/wiki/Ludwig_Strecker_Jr. \"Ludwig Strecker Jr.\") (1883–1978\\) and Willi Strecker (1884–1958\\), continued to run the publishing house. They were succeeded by Heinz Schneider\\-Schott (1906–1988\\).{{sfn\\|Brück\\|2007}}",
"Schott's prestigious 20th century publishing programme, now known as Music of Our Time, was initiated by the publication of works by [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\"), a close friend of Willi and Ludwig Strecker for many years.{{sfn\\|Brück\\|2007}} Schott published major works, from early orchestral works such as *[Feu d'artifice](/wiki/Feu_d%27artifice \"Feu d'artifice\")* and *[Scherzo fantastique](/wiki/Scherzo_fantastique \"Scherzo fantastique\")* and the complete {{lang\\|fr\\|L’Oiseau de feu}} (*[The Firebird](/wiki/The_Firebird \"The Firebird\")*) to the [Violin Concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Stravinsky%29 \"Violin Concerto (Stravinsky)\"), [Symphony in C](/wiki/Symphony_in_C_%28Stravinsky%29 \"Symphony in C (Stravinsky)\") and [Symphony in Three Movements](/wiki/Symphony_in_Three_Movements_%28Stravinsky%29 \"Symphony in Three Movements (Stravinsky)\"). Schott also published several major scores of [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\"), including *[Moses und Aron](/wiki/Moses_und_Aron \"Moses und Aron\")* and *[Von heute auf morgen](/wiki/Von_heute_auf_morgen \"Von heute auf morgen\")*.",
"### Contemporary music",
"Schott established lifelong working relationships with [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith \"Paul Hindemith\") and [Carl Orff](/wiki/Carl_Orff \"Carl Orff\"), and this commitment between composer and publisher has defined the character of the catalogue, involving some of the important composers of their time. [Hans Werner Henze](/wiki/Hans_Werner_Henze \"Hans Werner Henze\"), for example, joined Schott at the age of twenty, his considerable oeuvre being published exclusively by them for over 55 years. [Michael Tippett](/wiki/Michael_Tippett \"Michael Tippett\")'s lifelong relationship with Schott began in March 1939 when Willy Strecker visited London for the first (concert) performance in England of Hindemith's [Mathis der Maler](/wiki/Symphony:Mathis_der_Maler \"Mathis der Maler\"). Shortly after war had been declared, he heard through their London office that Schott would like to publish his [Concerto for Double String Orchestra](/wiki/Concerto_for_Double_String_Orchestra_%28Tippett%29 \"Concerto for Double String Orchestra (Tippett)\") and an early Piano Sonata. \"Being a born internationalist I thoroughly enjoyed this outcome and thought it a good omen.\" [György Ligeti](/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Ligeti \"György Ligeti\"), [Krzysztof Penderecki](/wiki/Krzysztof_Penderecki \"Krzysztof Penderecki\"), [Alexander Goehr](/wiki/Alexander_Goehr \"Alexander Goehr\"), [Aribert Reimann](/wiki/Aribert_Reimann \"Aribert Reimann\"), and [Else Schmitz\\-Gohr](/wiki/Else_Schmitz-Gohr \"Else Schmitz-Gohr\") have all been published exclusively by Schott for more than thirty years.",
"This close collaboration continues to support the work of many distinguished composers including [Henri Dutilleux](/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux \"Henri Dutilleux\"), [Mark\\-Anthony Turnage](/wiki/Mark-Anthony_Turnage \"Mark-Anthony Turnage\"), [Peter Eötvös](/wiki/Peter_E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s \"Peter Eötvös\"), [Chaya Czernowin](/wiki/Chaya_Czernowin \"Chaya Czernowin\"), [Joe Duddell](/wiki/Joe_Duddell \"Joe Duddell\"), [Moritz Eggert](/wiki/Moritz_Eggert \"Moritz Eggert\"), [Mary Finsterer](/wiki/Mary_Finsterer \"Mary Finsterer\"), [Kenneth Hesketh](/wiki/Kenneth_Hesketh \"Kenneth Hesketh\"), [Christian Jost](/wiki/Christian_Jost_%28composer%29 \"Christian Jost (composer)\"), Tatjana Komarova, [Nicholas Lens](/wiki/Nicholas_Lens \"Nicholas Lens\"), [Olli Mustonen](/wiki/Olli_Mustonen \"Olli Mustonen\"), Benjamin Schweitzer, [Jörg Widmann](/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Widmann \"Jörg Widmann\") and [Lei Liang](/wiki/Lei_Liang \"Lei Liang\").",
"In 2006, the company changed the name to Schott Music. In 2023, Schott Music became the property of the Strecker Foundation.{{cite web \\| title\\=Music Publisher Schott becomes the property of the Strecker Foundation \\| website\\=Schott Music Shop \\| date\\=7 December 2023 \\| url\\=https://www.schott\\-music.com/en/blog/music\\-publisher\\-schott\\-becomes\\-the\\-property\\-of\\-the\\-strecker\\-foundation/ \\| access\\-date\\=30 January 2024}}",
"#### Music in film",
"Schott Music also publishes the film music compositions of a number of modern film composers. Some of the more prominent film composers on Schott's roster include [Erich Wolfgang Korngold](/wiki/Erich_Wolfgang_Korngold \"Erich Wolfgang Korngold\"), [Nino Rota](/wiki/Nino_Rota \"Nino Rota\") and [Howard Shore](/wiki/Howard_Shore \"Howard Shore\").",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1970\= 5558
\|1980\= 6475
\|1990\= 6181
\|2000\= 6003
\|2010\= 5907
\|2020\= 6655
\|footnote\=Population sources: 1970\-1980Staff. \[https://books.google.com/books?id\=1AVxMztHPuoC\&pg\=PA50 ''1980 Census of Population: Number of Inhabitants United States Summary''], p. 1\-141\. \[\[United States Census Bureau]], June 1983\. Accessed June 17, 2013\.
1990\-2010 2000
2010 2020
}}
### 2010 census
The [2010 United States census](/wiki/2010_United_States_census "2010 United States census") counted 5,907 people, 2,246 households, and 1,532 families in the CDP. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1752\.0\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|people \|people\|}}. There were 2,388 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|708\.3\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|units \|units\|}}. The racial makeup was 83\.38% (4,925\) [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._census%29 "White (U.S. census)"), 7\.64% (451\) [Black or African American](/wiki/Black_%28U.S._census%29 "Black (U.S. census)"), 0\.17% (10\) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._census%29 "Native American (U.S. census)"), 6\.08% (359\) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._census%29 "Asian (U.S. census)"), 0\.02% (1\) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. census)"), 0\.81% (48\) from [other races](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census%23Race "Race and ethnicity in the United States census#Race"), and 1\.91% (113\) from two or more races. [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. census)") of any race were 4\.16% (246\) of the population.
Of the 2,246 households, 30\.8% had children under the age of 18; 55\.9% were married couples living together; 8\.8% had a female householder with no husband present and 31\.8% were non\-families. Of all households, 25\.5% were made up of individuals and 7\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.57 and the average family size was 3\.14\.
22\.3% of the population were under the age of 18, 7\.5% from 18 to 24, 27\.0% from 25 to 44, 27\.6% from 45 to 64, and 15\.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40\.8 years. For every 100 females, the population had 97\.0 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 93\.1 males.
### 2000 census
As of the [2000 United States Census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census "2000 United States Census") there were 6,003 people, 2,306 households, and 1,568 families living in the CDP. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|683\.7\|/km2\|/mi2\|disp\=preunit\|people\|people\|abbr\=on}}. There were 2,379 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|271\.0\|/km2\|/mi2\|disp\=preunit\|units\|units\|abbr\=on}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 90\.05% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 4\.78% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.05% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 3\.48% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.48% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.15% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.03% of the population.[DP\-1 \- Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000 from the Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1\) 100\-Percent Data for Ramblewood CDP, New Jersey](http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/00_SF1/DP1/1600000US3461650) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20200212092448/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\.0/en/DEC/00\_SF1/DP1/1600000US3461650 \|date\=2020\-02\-12 }}, [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"). Accessed June 17, 2013\.
There were 2,306 households, out of which 29\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\.0% were non\-families. 26\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.51 and the average family size was 3\.10\.
In the CDP the population was spread out, with 22\.0% under the age of 18, 5\.7% from 18 to 24, 30\.4% from 25 to 44, 26\.1% from 45 to 64, and 15\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 93\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91\.8 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $71,230, and the median income for a family was $76,519\. Males had a median income of $57,152 versus $36,436 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the CDP was $30,308\. About 1\.1% of families and 1\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 2\.8% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1970\\= 5558\n\\|1980\\= 6475\n\\|1990\\= 6181\n\\|2000\\= 6003\n\\|2010\\= 5907\n\\|2020\\= 6655\n\\|footnote\\=Population sources: 1970\\-1980Staff. \\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=1AVxMztHPuoC\\&pg\\=PA50 ''1980 Census of Population: Number of Inhabitants United States Summary''], p. 1\\-141\\. \\[\\[United States Census Bureau]], June 1983\\. Accessed June 17, 2013\\. \n1990\\-2010 2000 \n2010 2020\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"The [2010 United States census](/wiki/2010_United_States_census \"2010 United States census\") counted 5,907 people, 2,246 households, and 1,532 families in the CDP. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1752\\.0\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|people \\|people\\|}}. There were 2,388 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|708\\.3\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|units \\|units\\|}}. The racial makeup was 83\\.38% (4,925\\) [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._census%29 \"White (U.S. census)\"), 7\\.64% (451\\) [Black or African American](/wiki/Black_%28U.S._census%29 \"Black (U.S. census)\"), 0\\.17% (10\\) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._census%29 \"Native American (U.S. census)\"), 6\\.08% (359\\) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._census%29 \"Asian (U.S. census)\"), 0\\.02% (1\\) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. census)\"), 0\\.81% (48\\) from [other races](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census%23Race \"Race and ethnicity in the United States census#Race\"), and 1\\.91% (113\\) from two or more races. [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. census)\") of any race were 4\\.16% (246\\) of the population.",
"Of the 2,246 households, 30\\.8% had children under the age of 18; 55\\.9% were married couples living together; 8\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present and 31\\.8% were non\\-families. Of all households, 25\\.5% were made up of individuals and 7\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.57 and the average family size was 3\\.14\\.",
"22\\.3% of the population were under the age of 18, 7\\.5% from 18 to 24, 27\\.0% from 25 to 44, 27\\.6% from 45 to 64, and 15\\.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40\\.8 years. For every 100 females, the population had 97\\.0 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 93\\.1 males.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [2000 United States Census](/wiki/2000_United_States_Census \"2000 United States Census\") there were 6,003 people, 2,306 households, and 1,568 families living in the CDP. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|683\\.7\\|/km2\\|/mi2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|people\\|people\\|abbr\\=on}}. There were 2,379 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|271\\.0\\|/km2\\|/mi2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|units\\|units\\|abbr\\=on}}. The racial makeup of the CDP was 90\\.05% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 4\\.78% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.05% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.48% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.48% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.15% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.03% of the population.[DP\\-1 \\- Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000 from the Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1\\) 100\\-Percent Data for Ramblewood CDP, New Jersey](http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/00_SF1/DP1/1600000US3461650) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20200212092448/http://factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1\\.0/en/DEC/00\\_SF1/DP1/1600000US3461650 \\|date\\=2020\\-02\\-12 }}, [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"). Accessed June 17, 2013\\.",
"There were 2,306 households, out of which 29\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58\\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32\\.0% were non\\-families. 26\\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.51 and the average family size was 3\\.10\\.",
"In the CDP the population was spread out, with 22\\.0% under the age of 18, 5\\.7% from 18 to 24, 30\\.4% from 25 to 44, 26\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 15\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 93\\.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91\\.8 males.",
"The median income for a household in the CDP was $71,230, and the median income for a family was $76,519\\. Males had a median income of $57,152 versus $36,436 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the CDP was $30,308\\. About 1\\.1% of families and 1\\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 2\\.8% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Architecture
------------
Each functionally specialized system (*module*) has a common structure consisting of a **store** and a **processor**. This store/processor combination holds for all systems and is a simple, abstract version of what, in its neural manifestation, can involve multiple locations and pathways in the physical brain.
The processor is run according to the special operating principles of the given cognitive system as determined by the theory adopted by researchers in their relevant area of specialization. It controls the creation and combination online of its representations.
The store is where representations are housed at various resting levels of activation and where they are activated.
The mind does not have a single memory where all representations are stored and activated: it has many, that is, one store for each system. In a given store, an activated representation, complex or otherwise, is said to be in that system's **[working memory](/wiki/Working_memory "Working memory")**(WM). In other words, WM is a *state* and not a system in its own right (Cowan 1999 Cowan 1999\). In a more general sense, WM can be thought of as a combination of all the currently activated representations, each in their individual stores.
Representations are also called (cognitive) *structures* and this is reflected in the abbreviations. Hence a visual representation is called a visual structure and abbreviated as *VS*. Cognitive systems are linked by *interfaces* which can be thought of as simple processors that enable the association and coactivation of representations in adjoining systems. The *visual/auditory interface*, for example, links these two sensory perceptual systems and allows a visual representation to be associated and coactivated with a given auditory representation. Where a visual representation of, say, a tree is associated with the abstract meaning TREE, this would be explained as an association occurring between the visual and conceptual systems, i.e. across the VS/CS interface.
The set of cognitive systems can be conceptualised as consisting of two types. The first, forming an *outer* ring, consists of the set of *perceptual* systems that each receive a particular type of raw input (visual, auditory, olfactory etc) from the external environment via the senses and each produce as their output their own cognitive representations of the world outside. This means that the world that we feel we *know* as the *external* world is actually the world that is represented *internally* in our five perceptual systems. Representations in these systems are collectively known as *perceptual* output structures (**POpS**). They are richly connected with one another and capable of the very high activation levels necessary for survival. This makes them an essential part of how conscious experience is to be explained.
The second set of systems at an *inner* or *deeper* level are not connected directly with raw input coming in from the environment. They comprise the *conceptual* system responsible for abstract meanings, the *affective* system which is responsible for positive and negative values and basic emotions, the *motor* system and the *spatial* system. The final system or set of two systems are responsible for creating linguistic structure. The MCF currently uses the two\-system alternative following Jackendoff Jackendoff, 1987, Jackendoff 2002\. are, respectively, the *phonological* system which associates specific auditory structures with *phonological structures* (**PS**) and the *syntactic* system which associates *syntactic representations* (**SS**) with meanings, i.e. conceptual structures (**CS**). Similarly, associations are also made between the two linguistic systems at the PS/SS interface. Inevitably the two linguistic systems are richly interconnected along with their direct connections with the conceptual and auditory system and also the visual system as well since it is currently assumed that [sign language](/wiki/Sign_language "Sign language") users make direct associations between visual representations (**VS**) and representations in the phonological store hence making the phonological system do double duty (Sandler 2012 Sandler 1999\).
|
[
"Architecture\n------------",
"Each functionally specialized system (*module*) has a common structure consisting of a **store** and a **processor**. This store/processor combination holds for all systems and is a simple, abstract version of what, in its neural manifestation, can involve multiple locations and pathways in the physical brain.",
"The processor is run according to the special operating principles of the given cognitive system as determined by the theory adopted by researchers in their relevant area of specialization. It controls the creation and combination online of its representations.",
"The store is where representations are housed at various resting levels of activation and where they are activated.",
"The mind does not have a single memory where all representations are stored and activated: it has many, that is, one store for each system. In a given store, an activated representation, complex or otherwise, is said to be in that system's **[working memory](/wiki/Working_memory \"Working memory\")**(WM). In other words, WM is a *state* and not a system in its own right (Cowan 1999 Cowan 1999\\). In a more general sense, WM can be thought of as a combination of all the currently activated representations, each in their individual stores.",
"Representations are also called (cognitive) *structures* and this is reflected in the abbreviations. Hence a visual representation is called a visual structure and abbreviated as *VS*. Cognitive systems are linked by *interfaces* which can be thought of as simple processors that enable the association and coactivation of representations in adjoining systems. The *visual/auditory interface*, for example, links these two sensory perceptual systems and allows a visual representation to be associated and coactivated with a given auditory representation. Where a visual representation of, say, a tree is associated with the abstract meaning TREE, this would be explained as an association occurring between the visual and conceptual systems, i.e. across the VS/CS interface.",
"The set of cognitive systems can be conceptualised as consisting of two types. The first, forming an *outer* ring, consists of the set of *perceptual* systems that each receive a particular type of raw input (visual, auditory, olfactory etc) from the external environment via the senses and each produce as their output their own cognitive representations of the world outside. This means that the world that we feel we *know* as the *external* world is actually the world that is represented *internally* in our five perceptual systems. Representations in these systems are collectively known as *perceptual* output structures (**POpS**). They are richly connected with one another and capable of the very high activation levels necessary for survival. This makes them an essential part of how conscious experience is to be explained.",
"The second set of systems at an *inner* or *deeper* level are not connected directly with raw input coming in from the environment. They comprise the *conceptual* system responsible for abstract meanings, the *affective* system which is responsible for positive and negative values and basic emotions, the *motor* system and the *spatial* system. The final system or set of two systems are responsible for creating linguistic structure. The MCF currently uses the two\\-system alternative following Jackendoff Jackendoff, 1987, Jackendoff 2002\\. are, respectively, the *phonological* system which associates specific auditory structures with *phonological structures* (**PS**) and the *syntactic* system which associates *syntactic representations* (**SS**) with meanings, i.e. conceptual structures (**CS**). Similarly, associations are also made between the two linguistic systems at the PS/SS interface. Inevitably the two linguistic systems are richly interconnected along with their direct connections with the conceptual and auditory system and also the visual system as well since it is currently assumed that [sign language](/wiki/Sign_language \"Sign language\") users make direct associations between visual representations (**VS**) and representations in the phonological store hence making the phonological system do double duty (Sandler 2012 Sandler 1999\\).",
""
] |
Life
----
[thumb\|A self\-portrait, 1830s–1840s](/wiki/File:Aivazovsky_sketch.jpg "Aivazovsky sketch.jpg")
### Background
Ivan Aivazovsky was born on {{OldStyleDate\|29 July\|1817\|17 July}} in the city of [Feodosia](/wiki/Feodosia "Feodosia") (Theodosia), [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea "Crimea"), Russian Empire. In the baptismal records of the local St. Sargis [Armenian Apostolic](/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church "Armenian Apostolic Church") Church, Aivazovsky was listed as *Hovhannes, son of Gevorg Aivazian* ({{lang\-hy\|Գէորգ Այվազեանի որդի Յօհաննեսն}}).{{sfn\|Harutiunian\|1965\|p\=89}} During his study at the [Imperial Academy of Arts](/wiki/Imperial_Academy_of_Arts "Imperial Academy of Arts"), he was known in Russian as Ivan Gaivazovsky (Иванъ Гайвазовскій in the pre\-1918 spelling).{{cite book\|last\=Petrov\|first\=Pyotr\|title\=Указатель к Сборнику матеріалов для исторіи Императорской С.\-Петербургской Академіи художеств за сто лѣт ея существованія \[Index to the collection of materials for the history of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Arts for 100 years of its existence]\|year\=1887\|publisher\=\[\[:ru:Стасюлевич, Михаил Матвеевич\|M. M. Stasulevich]]\|location\=St. Petersburg\|page\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=gQQoAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA51 51]\|author\-link\=:ru:Петров, Пётр Николаевич\|language\=ru}} He became known as Aivazovsky since {{circa\|1840}}, while in Italy.{{sfn\|Harutiunian\|1965\|p\=93}} He signed an 1844 letter with an [Italianized](/wiki/Italianization "Italianization") rendition of his name: "Giovani Aivazovsky".{{cite web\|title\=AIVAZOVKSY, Ivan (1817–1900\). Autograph letter signed ('Giovani Aivazovsky') to Auguste Vecchy, St Petersburg, 28 August 1844, in eccentric Italian\|url\=http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/books\-manuscripts/aivazovksy\-ivan\-autograph\-letter\-signed\-5625851\-details.aspx\|publisher\=\[\[Christie's]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829153810/https://www.christies.com/lot/lot\-aivazovksy\-ivan\-autograph\-letter\-signed\-5625851/ \|archive\-date\=29 August 2021}}
His father, Konstantin, ({{circa\|1765}}–1840\),{{sfn\|Mikaelian\|1991\|p\=69}} was an Armenian merchant from the [Polish](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth") region of [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 "Galicia (Eastern Europe)"). His family had migrated to Europe from [Western Armenia](/wiki/Western_Armenia "Western Armenia") in the 18th century. After numerous familial conflicts, Konstantin left Galicia for [Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia "Moldavia"), later moving to [Bukovina](/wiki/Bukovina "Bukovina"), before settling in Feodosia in the early 1800s.{{sfn\|Sarkssian\|1963\|p\=25}} He was initially known as Gevorg Aivazian (Haivazian or Haivazi), but he changed his last name to Gaivazovsky by adding the Slavic suffix "\-sky". Aivazovsky's mother, Ripsime, was a Feodosia Armenian. The couple had five children—three daughters and two sons.{{sfn\|Sarkssian\|1963\|p\=25}} Aivazovsky's elder brother, [Gabriel](/wiki/Gabriel_Aivazovsky "Gabriel Aivazovsky"), was a prominent historian and an Armenian Apostolic archbishop.{{cite book\|last1\=Donenko\|first1\=Nikolay\|title\=Православные монастыри: Симферопольская и Крымская епархия Украинской православной церкви Московского патриархата\|date\=2007\|publisher\=Sonat\|page\=82\|language\=ru\|quote\=О нем писал армянский епископ Гавриил (Айвазовский), брат выдающегося художника\- мариниста...}}{{cite news\|title\=Armenia's in Venice to Highlight Save Venice 2004\|url\=http://asbarez.com/49660/armenias\-in\-venice\-to\-highlight\-save\-venice\-2004/\|work\=\[\[Asbarez]]\|date\=23 March 2004\|quote\=The great seascape painter Ivan Aivazovsky (Hovhannes Aivazian)–while visiting his brother Archbishop Gabriel Aivazovsky–immortalized the Island and the Venetian lagoon in numerous magnificent paintings. \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319185316/https://asbarez.com/armenias\-in\-venice\-to\-highlight\-save\-venice\-2004/ \|archive\-date\=19 March 2022}}
[thumb\|upright\=1\|Aivazovsky in Italian costume, by [Vasily Sternberg](/wiki/Vasily_Sternberg "Vasily Sternberg"), 1842](/wiki/File:Aivazovsky_Sternberg_Italian.jpg "Aivazovsky Sternberg Italian.jpg")
### Education
The young Aivazovsky received parochial education at Feodosia's St. Sargis Armenian Church.{{sfn\|Mikaelian\|1991\|p\=59}} He was taught drawing by Jacob Koch, a local architect. Aivazovsky moved to [Simferopol](/wiki/Simferopol "Simferopol") with [Taurida Governor](/wiki/Taurida_Governorate "Taurida Governorate") Alexander Kaznacheyev's family in 1830 and attended the city's [Russian gymnasium](/wiki/Simferopol_gymnasium_%E2%84%961 "Simferopol gymnasium №1").{{cite journal\|last\=Bobkov\|first\=V. V.\|journal\=Учёные записки Таврического национального университета им. В. И. Вернадского\|title\=Феодосийский Градоначальник Александр Иванович Казначеев: Основные Вехи Административной Деятельности \[Feodosia Mayor Alexander Ivanovich Kaznacheyev: Major Milestones In Administrative Activities]\|pages\=39–40\|url\=http://sn\-histor.crimea.edu/arhiv/2010/uch\_23\_1h/04\.pdf\|publisher\=\[\[Tavrida National V.I. Vernadsky University]]\|location\=Simferopol\|language\=ru\|year\=2010\|access\-date\=2 February 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215749/http://sn\-histor.crimea.edu/arhiv/2010/uch\_23\_1h/04\.pdf\|archive\-date\=3 March 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} In 1833, Aivazovsky arrived in the Russian capital, [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg"), to study at the Imperial Academy of Arts in [Maxim Vorobiev](/wiki/Maxim_Vorobiev "Maxim Vorobiev")'s landscape class. In 1835, he was awarded with a silver medal and appointed assistant to the French painter {{ill\|Philippe Tanneur\|fr}}. In September 1836, Aivazovsky met Russia's national poet [Alexander Pushkin](/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin "Alexander Pushkin") during the latter's visit to the Academy.{{cite book\|title\=Alexander Pushkin: a celebration of Russia's best\-loved writer\|year\=1999\|publisher\=Hazar Publishing\|location\=London\|isbn\=1\-874371\-14\-8\|page\=219\|editor\=Briggs, A.D.P.}}{{cite web\|title\=Sotheby's Russian Art Evening sale\|url\=http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/lot.pdf.L08112\.html/f/6/L08112\-6\.pdf\|publisher\=\[\[Sotheby's]]\|date\=9 June 2008 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001183906/http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/lot.pdf.L08112\.html/f/6/L08112\-6\.pdf \|archive\-date\=1 October 2020}} In 1837, Aivazovsky joined the [battle\-painting](/wiki/Military_art "Military art") class of [Alexander Sauerweid](/wiki/Alexander_Sauerweid "Alexander Sauerweid") and participated in [Baltic Fleet](/wiki/Baltic_Fleet "Baltic Fleet") exercises in the [Gulf of Finland](/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland "Gulf of Finland"). In October 1837, he graduated from the Imperial Academy of Arts with a gold medal, two years earlier than intended.{{sfn\|Bolton\|2010\|p\=140}}{{sfn\|Mikaelian\|1991\|p\=59}}{{sfn\|Leek\|2012\|p\=178}} Aivazovsky returned to Feodosia in 1838 and spent two years in his native Crimea.{{sfn\|Sarkssian\|1963\|p\=25}} In 1839, he took part in military exercises in the shores of Crimea, where he met Russian admirals [Mikhail Lazarev](/wiki/Mikhail_Lazarev "Mikhail Lazarev"), [Pavel Nakhimov](/wiki/Pavel_Nakhimov "Pavel Nakhimov") and [Vladimir Kornilov](/wiki/Vladimir_Alexeyevich_Kornilov "Vladimir Alexeyevich Kornilov").{{sfn\|Bolton\|2010\|p\=141}}
### First visit to Europe
[thumb\|upright\|left\|Portrait of Aivazovsky by [Alexey Tyranov](/wiki/Alexey_Tyranov "Alexey Tyranov"), 1841](/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Ivan_Konstantinovich_Aivazovsky_1841.png "Portrait of Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky 1841.png")
In 1840, Aivazovsky was sent by the Imperial Academy of Arts to study in Europe.{{sfn\|Bolton\|2010\|p\=140}} He first traveled to [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice") via [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin") and [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna") and visited [San Lazzaro degli Armeni](/wiki/San_Lazzaro_degli_Armeni "San Lazzaro degli Armeni"), where an important [Armenian Catholic](/wiki/Armenian_Catholic "Armenian Catholic") congregation was located and his brother Gabriel lived at the time. Aivazovsky studied Armenian manuscripts and became familiar with Armenian art. He met Russian novelist [Nikolai Gogol](/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol "Nikolai Gogol") in Venice. He then headed to [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence"), [Amalfi](/wiki/Amalfi "Amalfi") and [Sorrento](/wiki/Sorrento "Sorrento"). In Florence, he met painter [Alexander Ivanov](/wiki/Alexander_Andreyevich_Ivanov "Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov"). He remained in [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples") and [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") between 1840 and 1842\. Aivazovsky was heavily influenced by Italian art and their museums became the "second academy" for him. According to Rogachevsky the news of successful exhibitions in Italy reached Russia.{{sfn\|Leek\|2012\|p\=178}} [Pope Gregory XVI](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XVI "Pope Gregory XVI") awarded him with a golden medal. He then visited Switzerland, Germany, the Netherlands and Britain. In an international exhibition at [the Louvre](/wiki/The_Louvre "The Louvre"), he was the only representative from Russia. In France, he received a gold medal from the [Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_royale_de_peinture_et_de_sculpture "Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture"). He then returned to Naples via Marseille and again visited Britain, Portugal, Spain, and Malta in 1843\. Aivazovsky was admired throughout Europe.{{sfn\|Bolton\|2010\|p\=141}} He returned to Russia via Paris and Amsterdam in 1844\.{{sfn\|Bolton\|2010\|p\=141}}
### Return to Russia and first marriage
[thumb\|upright\=0\.9\|Photograph of Aivazovsky with his first wife, Julia, and their four daughters](/wiki/File:Aivazovsky_wife_and_daughters.png "Aivazovsky wife and daughters.png")
Upon his return to Russia, Aivazovsky was made an academician of the Imperial Academy of Arts and was appointed the "official artist of the Russian Navy to paint seascapes, coastal scenes and naval battles." In 1845, Aivazovsky traveled to the [Aegean Sea](/wiki/Aegean_Sea "Aegean Sea") with [Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Konstantin_Nikolayevich_of_Russia "Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia") and visited the Ottoman capital, [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople"), and the Greek islands of [Patmos](/wiki/Patmos "Patmos") and [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes "Rhodes").
In 1845, Aivazovsky settled in his hometown of Feodosia, where he built a house and studio. He isolated himself from the outside world, keeping a small circle of friends and relatives. Yet the solitude played a negative role in his art career. By the mid\-nineteenth century, Russian art was moving from [Romanticism](/wiki/Romanticism "Romanticism") towards a distinct Russian style of [Realism](/wiki/Realism_%28arts%29 "Realism (arts)"), while Aivazovsky continued to paint Romantic seascapes and attracted heavy criticism.
In 1845 and 1846, Aivazovsky attended the maneuvers of the [Black Sea Fleet](/wiki/Black_Sea_Fleet "Black Sea Fleet") and the Baltic Fleet at [Petergof](/wiki/Petergof "Petergof"), near the [imperial palace](/wiki/Peterhof_Palace "Peterhof Palace"). In 1847, he was given the title of professor of seascape painting by the Imperial Academy of Arts and elevated to the rank of nobility. In the same year, he was elected to the [Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences "Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences").
In 1848, Aivazovsky married Julia Graves, an English governess. They had four daughters: Elena (1849\), Maria (1851\), Alexandra (1852\) and Joanne (1858\). They separated in 1860 and divorced in 1877 with permission from the [Armenian Church](/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church "Armenian Apostolic Church"), since Graves was a [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran "Lutheran").{{sfn\|Mikaelian\|1991\|p\=63}}
### Rise to prominence
[thumb\|left\|alt\=painting of whitecaps on the sea\|The vast majority of his works depict the sea. Pictured is an 1898 painting titled *Among the Waves*, Aivazovsky National Art Gallery, Feodosia](/wiki/File:Ayvaz_sredy_voln.jpg "Ayvaz sredy voln.jpg")
In 1851, traveling with the Russian emperor [Nicholas I](/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia "Nicholas I of Russia"), Aivazovsky sailed to [Sevastopol](/wiki/Sevastopol "Sevastopol") to participate in military maneuvers. His archaeological excavations near Feodosia lead to his election as a full member of the [Russian Geographical Society](/wiki/Russian_Geographical_Society "Russian Geographical Society") in 1853\. In that year, the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War "Crimean War") erupted between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, and he was evacuated to [Kharkiv](/wiki/Kharkiv "Kharkiv"). While safe, he returned to the besieged fortress of Sevastopol to paint battle scenes. His work was exhibited in Sevastopol while it was under Ottoman siege.
Between 1856 and 1857, Aivazovsky worked in Paris and became the first Russian (and the first non\-French) artist to receive the [Legion of Honour](/wiki/Legion_of_Honour "Legion of Honour"). In 1857, Aivazovsky visited Constantinople and was awarded the [Order of the Medjidie](/wiki/Order_of_the_Medjidie "Order of the Medjidie"). In the same year, he was elected an honorary member of the Moscow Art Society. He was awarded the Greek [Order of the Redeemer](/wiki/Order_of_the_Redeemer "Order of the Redeemer") in 1859 and the Russian [Order of St. Vladimir](/wiki/Order_of_St._Vladimir "Order of St. Vladimir") in 1865\.
Aivazovsky opened an art studio in Feodosia in 1865 and was awarded a salary by the Imperial Academy of Arts the same year.
[thumb\|upright\|alt\=A man facing left with whiskers\|A photograph of Aivazovsky, 1870](/wiki/File:Aivazovsky_1870_photo.jpg "Aivazovsky 1870 photo.jpg")
### Travels and accolades: 1860s–1880s
In the 1860s, the artist produced several paintings inspired by Greek nationalism and the [Italian unification](/wiki/Italian_unification "Italian unification"). In 1868, he once again visited Constantinople and produced a series of works about the Greek resistance to the Turks, during the [Great Cretan Revolution](/wiki/Cretan_Revolt_%281866%E2%80%9369%29 "Cretan Revolt (1866–69)"). In 1868, Aivazovsky traveled in the [Caucasus](/wiki/Caucasus "Caucasus") and visited the [Russian part of Armenia](/wiki/Russian_Armenia "Russian Armenia") for the first time. He painted several mountainous landscapes and in 1869 held an exhibition in [Tiflis](/wiki/Tiflis "Tiflis"). Later in the year, he made a trip to Egypt and took part in the opening ceremony of the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal "Suez Canal"). He became the "first artist to paint the Suez Canal, thus marking an epoch\-making event in the history of Europe, Africa and Asia."{{cite web\|last\=Shaljyan\|first\=Emma\|title\=Walter and Laurel Karabian Speak on Artist Aivazian (Aivazovsky)\|url\=http://armenianstudies.csufresno.edu/hye\_sharzhoom/vol33/march12/1\_karabians.html\|publisher\=Hye Sahrzoom, Armenian Studies Program \[\[California State University, Fresno]]\|access\-date\=10 January 2014\|date\=March 2012\|quote\=Aivazovsky, in fact, was the first painter to paint the Suez Canal.\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203153459/http://armenianstudies.csufresno.edu/hye\_sharzhoom/vol33/march12/1\_karabians.html\|archive\-date\=3 February 2014}}
In 1870, Aivazovsky was made an [Actual Civil Councilor](/wiki/Table_of_Ranks "Table of Ranks"), the fourth highest civil rank in Russia. In 1871, he initiated the construction of the archaeological museum in Feodosia. In 1872, he traveled to Nice and Florence to exhibit his paintings. In 1874, the [Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze](/wiki/Accademia_di_Belle_Arti_di_Firenze "Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze") (Florence Academy of Fine Art) asked him for a self\-portrait to be hung in the [Uffizi Gallery](/wiki/Uffizi_Gallery "Uffizi Gallery").{{cite book\|last\=Bird\|first\=Alan\|title\=A history of Russian painting\|year\=1987\|publisher\=G.K. Hall\|location\=Boston\|isbn\=978\-0\-8161\-8911\-3\|page\=162}} The same year, Aivazovsky was invited to Constantinople by [Sultan Abdülaziz](/wiki/Sultan_Abd%C3%BClaziz "Sultan Abdülaziz") who subsequently bestowed upon him the Turkish [Order of Osmanieh](/wiki/Order_of_Osmanieh "Order of Osmanieh"). In 1876, he was made a member of the Academy of Arts in Florence and became the second Russian artist (after [Orest Kiprensky](/wiki/Orest_Kiprensky "Orest Kiprensky")) to paint a self\-portrait for the [Palazzo Pitti](/wiki/Palazzo_Pitti "Palazzo Pitti").
Aivazovsky was elected an honorary member of [Stuttgart's Royal Academy of Fine Arts](/wiki/State_Academy_of_Fine_Arts_Stuttgart "State Academy of Fine Arts Stuttgart") in 1878\. He made a trip to the Netherlands and France, staying briefly in [Frankfurt](/wiki/Frankfurt "Frankfurt") until 1879\. He then visited [Munich](/wiki/Munich "Munich") and traveled to [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa "Genoa") and Venice "to collect material on the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus."
In 1880, Aivazovsky opened an art gallery in his Feodosia house; it became the third museum in the Russian Empire, after the [Hermitage Museum](/wiki/Hermitage_Museum "Hermitage Museum") and the [Tretyakov Gallery](/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery "Tretyakov Gallery"). Aivazovsky held an 1881 exhibition at London's [Pall Mall](/wiki/Pall_Mall%2C_London "Pall Mall, London"), attended by English painter [John Everett Millais](/wiki/John_Everett_Millais "John Everett Millais") and [Edward VII](/wiki/Edward_VII "Edward VII"), [Prince of Wales](/wiki/Prince_of_Wales "Prince of Wales").
### Second marriage and later life
{{multiple image\|align\=left\|caption\_align\=center\|direction\=horizontal\|image1\=Aivazovsky by Bolotov, 1876\.jpg\|width1\=150\|caption1\=Portrait of Aivazovsky by Dmitry Bolotov (1876\)\|image2\=Aivazovsky \- Portret of wife, Anna Burnazyan\-Sarkisova.jpg\|width2\=163\|caption2\=Aivazovsky's painting of his second wife Anna Burnazian (1882\)}}
Aivazovsky's second wife, Anna Burnazian, was a young Armenian widow 40 years his junior. Aivazovsky said that by marrying her in 1882, he "became closer to \[his] nation", referring to the Armenian people.{{sfn\|Mikaelian\|1991\|p\=63}} In 1882, Aivazovsky visited Moscow and St Petersburg and then toured the countryside of Russia by traveling along the [Volga River](/wiki/Volga_River "Volga River") in 1884\.
In 1885, he was promoted to the rank of [Privy Councilor](/wiki/Table_of_Ranks "Table of Ranks"). The next year, the 50th anniversary of his creative labors, was celebrated with an exhibition in St Petersburg, and an honorary membership in the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts.
In 1887, as part of a jubilee celebration of his career, Aivazovsky hosted a dinner for 150 friends. Each guest received a miniature painting by Aivazovsky set into a studio photograph of the artist at work.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/286403 \|title\=Ivan Constantinovich Aivasovski, The Met Museum \|access\-date\=1 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=21 January 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121203011/http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/286403 \|url\-status\=live }}
After meeting Aivazovsky in person, [Anton Chekhov](/wiki/Anton_Chekhov "Anton Chekhov") wrote a letter to his wife on 22 July 1888 describing him as follows:{{cite book\|last\=Karlinsky\|first\=Simon\|title\=Anton Chekhov's Life and Thought: Selected Letters and Commentary\|year\=1999\|publisher\=\[\[Northwestern University Press]]\|location\=Evanston, Illinois\|isbn\=0\-8101\-1460\-7\|pages\=310–311\|edition\=2nd\|others\=Heim, Michael Henry; Karlinsky, Simon}}{{cite journal\|last\=Vasyanin\|first\=Andrey\|title\=Айвазовский на ладони\|journal\=\[\[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]]\|date\=10 August 2016\|issue\=178\|url\=https://rg.ru/2016/08/10/ivan\-samarin\-ajvazovskij\-byl\-spilbergom\-xix\-veka.html\|language\=ru \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103010603/https://rg.ru/2016/08/10/ivan\-samarin\-ajvazovskij\-byl\-spilbergom\-xix\-veka.html \|archive\-date\=3 November 2020}}
{{blockquote\|Aivazovsky himself is a hale and hearty old man of about seventy\-five, looking like an insignificant Armenian and a bishop; he is full of a sense of his own importance, has soft hands and shakes your hand like a general. He's not very bright, but he is a complex personality, worthy of a further study. In him alone there are combined a general, a bishop, an artist, an Armenian, an naive old peasant, and an Othello.}}
[thumb\|The house in Feodosia, where Aivazovsky lived between 1845 and 1892\. It is now an [art gallery](/wiki/Aivazovsky_National_Art_Gallery "Aivazovsky National Art Gallery").](/wiki/File:%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%2C_%D0%B2_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%98._%D0%9A._%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_1845-1892.JPG "Дом, в котором жил художник И. К. Айвазовский 1845-1892.JPG")
After traveling to Paris with his wife, in October 1892 he made a trip to the United States, visiting [Niagara Falls](/wiki/Niagara_Falls "Niagara Falls") in New York and Washington D.C.{{cite news \|last\=Вакуленко \|first\=Алексей (Vakulenko, Alexey) \|url\=https://crimea.ria.ru/20190618/1116865203\.html \|title\=За что Айвазовский благодарил США: картинная дипломатия без запретов \|trans\-title\=What Aivazovsky Thanked the US for: Picture Diplomacy Without Prohibitions \|language\=ru \|work\=\[\[RIA Novosti\|«Россия сегодня»]] \|date\=June 18, 2019 \|access\-date\=September 11, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911215942/https://crimea.ria.ru/20190618/1116865203\.html \|archive\-date\=September 11, 2024}}{{cite news \|last\=Легалов \|first\=Евгений (Legalov, Evgeniy) \|url\=https://www.svoboda.org/a/sama\-rodila\-sama\-i\-syem\-v\-prage\-proshel\-pokaz\-filma\-golod/32190900\.html \|title\="Сама родила – сама и съем". В Праге прошёл показ фильма "Голод" \|trans\-title\="I gave birth to her myself \- I'll eat her myself." The film "Hunger" was screened in Prague \|language\=ru \|work\=\[\[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty\|«Радио Свобода»]] \|date\=December 23, 2022 \|access\-date\=September 11, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911220759/https://www.svoboda.org/a/sama\-rodila\-sama\-i\-syem\-v\-prage\-proshel\-pokaz\-filma\-golod/32190900\.html \|archive\-date\=September 11, 2024}} During this trip, he performed an act of diplomacy by donating to the [Corcoran Museum](/wiki/Corcoran_Gallery_of_Art "Corcoran Gallery of Art") two of his paintings, which he had painted in "Russia, Crimea, Feodosia", *Relief Ship* ({{lang\-ru\|Корабль помощи}}) and *Food Distribution* ({{lang\-ru\|Раздача продовольствия}}) which commemorated the arrival of American aid to Russia during the [Tsar's famine of 1891\-1892](/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1891%E2%80%931892 "Russian famine of 1891–1892") but the Tsar barred these paintings in Russia because of their [anti\-monarchist](/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy "Criticism of monarchy") unpatriotic themes.{{cite news \|last\=Алекин \|first\=Алексей (Alekin, Alexey) \|url\=https://xn\-\-j1akbb.xn\-\-p1acf/2022/11/28/%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F\-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0\-%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE/ \|title\=«НЕПАТРИОТИЧНАЯ» КАРТИНА АЙВАЗОВСКОГО И ЗАБЫТАЯ ДАТА \|trans\-title\="UNPATRIOTIC" PAINTING BY AIVAZOVSKY AND A FORGOTTEN DATE \|language\=ru \|work\=\[\[Russian Communist Workers' Party of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\|Российская коммунистическая рабочая партия]] \|date\=November 28, 2022 \|access\-date\=September 11, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911221800/https://xn\-\-j1akbb.xn\-\-p1acf/2022/11/28/%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F\-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0\-%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE/ \|archive\-date\=September 11, 2024}} In 1896, at 79, Aivazovsky was promoted to the rank of full privy councillor.
Aivazovsky was deeply affected by the [Hamidian massacres](/wiki/Hamidian_massacres "Hamidian massacres") that took place in the Armenian\-inhabited areas of the Ottoman Empire between 1894 and 1896\. He painted a number of works on the subject such as *The Expulsion of the Turkish Ship*, and *The Armenian Massacres at Trebizond* (1895\). He threw the medals given to him by the Ottoman Sultan into the sea and told the Turkish consul in Feodosia: "Tell your bloodthirsty master that I've thrown away all the medals given to me, here are their ribbons, send it to him and if he wants, he can throw them into the seas painted by me."{{sfn\|Harutiunian\|1965\|pp\=90–91\|ps\=: "Բռնակալության դեմ ի նշան բողոքի, նա բոլոր շքանշանները նետում է ծովը և ապա երիտասարդի աշխուժությամբ դնում է թուրքական հյուպատոսի մոտ ու զայրացած ասում. «Արյունակզակ տիրոջդ ինձի տված պատվանշանները ծովր նետեցի, ահավասիկ անոնց ժապավենները, իրեն ղրկել եթե կուզե թող ինքն ալ իմ պատկերներս ծովը նետե, բայց հոդս չէ, վասն զի անոնց փոխարժեքը ստացուած եմ»։ Ու կը մեկնի։}} He created several other paintings capturing the events, such as *Lonely Ship* and *Night. Tragedy in the Sea of Marmara* (1897\).{{sfn\|Koorghinian\|1967\|p\=190}}{{sfn\|Sarkssian\|1963\|p\=31}}
{{multiple image\|align\=right\|direction\=vertical\|image1\=Ajwazowski grob.jpg\|width\=255\|image2\=Feodosiya tomb of Ivan Aivazovsky IMG 2968 1725\.jpg\|footer\_align\=center\|footer\=Tomb of Aivazovsky}}
He spent his final years in Feodosia. In the 1890s, thanks to his efforts a commercial port ([ru](/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82 "Феодосийский морской торговый порт")) was established in Feodosia and linked to the railway network of the Russian Empire. The railway station, opened in 1892, is now called {{ill\|Ayvazovskaya\|ru\|Айвазовская (станция)}} and is one of the two stations within the city of Feodosia. Aivazovsky also supplied Feodosia with drinking water.{{cite web\|last\=Novouspensky \|first\=Nikolay \|title\=Ivan Aivazovsky \|work\=artsstudio.com \|url\=http://www.artsstudio.com/reproductions/new\_aivazovsky\-biography.htm \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910211018/http://www.artsstudio.com/reproductions/new\_aivazovsky\-biography.htm \|archive\-date\=10 September 2012 }}{{cite web\|title\=Моря пламенный поэт. Иван Айвазовский\|url\=http://tvkultura.ru/brand/show/brand\_id/32708/\|publisher\=\[\[Russia\-K]]\|language\=ru\|date\=2007\|quote\=Благодаря ему в Феодосии был создан водопровод, построены морской торговый порт, железная дорога, возведено здание археологического музея и многое другое. \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084619/http://tvkultura.ru/brand/show/brand\_id/32708/ \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016}}
### Death
Aivazovsky died on 19 April (2 May in New Style) 1900 in Feodosia. In accordance with his wishes, he was buried at the courtyard of St. Sargis Armenian Church. A white marble [sarcophagus](/wiki/Sarcophagus "Sarcophagus") was made by Italian sculptor L. Biogiolli in 1901\.{{cite news\|last\=Yefremova\|first\=Svetlana\|script\-title\=ru:Оставил о себе бессмертную память\|url\=http://rk.crimea.ua/17/18/article\_290\.htm\|newspaper\=Respublika Krym\|date\=24 July 2008\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140319025025/http://rk.crimea.ua/17/18/article\_290\.htm\|archive\-date\=19 March 2014\|language\=ru}} A quote from [Movses Khorenatsi](/wiki/Movses_Khorenatsi "Movses Khorenatsi")'s *[History of Armenia](/wiki/History_of_Armenia_%28book%29 "History of Armenia (book)")* in [Classical Armenian](/wiki/Classical_Armenian "Classical Armenian") is engraved on his tombstone: {{transliteration\|hy\|Mahkanatsu tsneal anmah ziurn yishatak yetogh}} ({{lang\|hy\|Մահկանացու ծնեալ անմահ զիւրն յիշատակ եթող}}),{{cite web\|title\=Այվազովսկի Հովհաննես Կոստանդնի \[Aivazovsky Hovhannes Konstandni]\|url\=http://www.gallery.am/hy/database/authors/18/\|publisher\=\[\[National Gallery of Armenia]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319025051/http://www.gallery.am/hy/database/authors/18/\|archive\-date\=19 March 2014\|language\=hy}} which translates: "He was born a mortal, left an immortal legacy" or "Born as a mortal, left the immortal memory of himself".{{cite book\|title\=How Did I Survive?\|first1\=Artavazd M.\|last1\=Minasyan\|last2\=Gevorkyan\|first2\=Aleksadr V.\|publisher\=Cambridge Scholars Publishing\|location\=Newcastle upon Tyne\|year\=2008\|isbn\=978\-1\-84718\-601\-0\|oclc\=318443997\|page\=56\|quote\=Aivazovsky, Ivan Konstantionvich (real name: Hovannes Gevorgovich Aivazyan) (1817–1900\) – grand Russian artist\-painter of seascapes, ethnic Armenian. Aside from his artwork, I.A. was also known for his valuable contributions to the developments of the Russian and Armenian cultures of the 19th century. He lived and worked in Feodosia, Crimea. He was buried there according to his will. A sign on his tombstone, written in ancient Armenian, has a quote from the 5th century "History of Armenia" by Moses Khorenatsi says: "Born as a mortal, left the immortal memory of himself."}} The inscription beneath reads: "Professor Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky 1817–1900" ({{lang\|ru\|Профессоръ Иванъ Константиновичъ АЙВАЗОВСКIЙ 1817–1900}}).
After his death, his wife Anna led a generally secluded life, living in several rooms she had retained after nationalization, until 1941\. She died on 25 July 1944 and was buried next to Aivazovsky. Two of his daughters (Maria and Alexandra) left Russia following the Revolution of 1917, while the other two died shortly thereafter: Yelena in 1918 and Zhanna in 1922\.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"[thumb\\|A self\\-portrait, 1830s–1840s](/wiki/File:Aivazovsky_sketch.jpg \"Aivazovsky sketch.jpg\")",
"### Background",
"Ivan Aivazovsky was born on {{OldStyleDate\\|29 July\\|1817\\|17 July}} in the city of [Feodosia](/wiki/Feodosia \"Feodosia\") (Theodosia), [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\"), Russian Empire. In the baptismal records of the local St. Sargis [Armenian Apostolic](/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church \"Armenian Apostolic Church\") Church, Aivazovsky was listed as *Hovhannes, son of Gevorg Aivazian* ({{lang\\-hy\\|Գէորգ Այվազեանի որդի Յօհաննեսն}}).{{sfn\\|Harutiunian\\|1965\\|p\\=89}} During his study at the [Imperial Academy of Arts](/wiki/Imperial_Academy_of_Arts \"Imperial Academy of Arts\"), he was known in Russian as Ivan Gaivazovsky (Иванъ Гайвазовскій in the pre\\-1918 spelling).{{cite book\\|last\\=Petrov\\|first\\=Pyotr\\|title\\=Указатель к Сборнику матеріалов для исторіи Императорской С.\\-Петербургской Академіи художеств за сто лѣт ея существованія \\[Index to the collection of materials for the history of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Arts for 100 years of its existence]\\|year\\=1887\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[:ru:Стасюлевич, Михаил Матвеевич\\|M. M. Stasulevich]]\\|location\\=St. Petersburg\\|page\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gQQoAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA51 51]\\|author\\-link\\=:ru:Петров, Пётр Николаевич\\|language\\=ru}} He became known as Aivazovsky since {{circa\\|1840}}, while in Italy.{{sfn\\|Harutiunian\\|1965\\|p\\=93}} He signed an 1844 letter with an [Italianized](/wiki/Italianization \"Italianization\") rendition of his name: \"Giovani Aivazovsky\".{{cite web\\|title\\=AIVAZOVKSY, Ivan (1817–1900\\). Autograph letter signed ('Giovani Aivazovsky') to Auguste Vecchy, St Petersburg, 28 August 1844, in eccentric Italian\\|url\\=http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/books\\-manuscripts/aivazovksy\\-ivan\\-autograph\\-letter\\-signed\\-5625851\\-details.aspx\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Christie's]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829153810/https://www.christies.com/lot/lot\\-aivazovksy\\-ivan\\-autograph\\-letter\\-signed\\-5625851/ \\|archive\\-date\\=29 August 2021}}",
"His father, Konstantin, ({{circa\\|1765}}–1840\\),{{sfn\\|Mikaelian\\|1991\\|p\\=69}} was an Armenian merchant from the [Polish](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\") region of [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 \"Galicia (Eastern Europe)\"). His family had migrated to Europe from [Western Armenia](/wiki/Western_Armenia \"Western Armenia\") in the 18th century. After numerous familial conflicts, Konstantin left Galicia for [Moldavia](/wiki/Moldavia \"Moldavia\"), later moving to [Bukovina](/wiki/Bukovina \"Bukovina\"), before settling in Feodosia in the early 1800s.{{sfn\\|Sarkssian\\|1963\\|p\\=25}} He was initially known as Gevorg Aivazian (Haivazian or Haivazi), but he changed his last name to Gaivazovsky by adding the Slavic suffix \"\\-sky\". Aivazovsky's mother, Ripsime, was a Feodosia Armenian. The couple had five children—three daughters and two sons.{{sfn\\|Sarkssian\\|1963\\|p\\=25}} Aivazovsky's elder brother, [Gabriel](/wiki/Gabriel_Aivazovsky \"Gabriel Aivazovsky\"), was a prominent historian and an Armenian Apostolic archbishop.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Donenko\\|first1\\=Nikolay\\|title\\=Православные монастыри: Симферопольская и Крымская епархия Украинской православной церкви Московского патриархата\\|date\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Sonat\\|page\\=82\\|language\\=ru\\|quote\\=О нем писал армянский епископ Гавриил (Айвазовский), брат выдающегося художника\\- мариниста...}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Armenia's in Venice to Highlight Save Venice 2004\\|url\\=http://asbarez.com/49660/armenias\\-in\\-venice\\-to\\-highlight\\-save\\-venice\\-2004/\\|work\\=\\[\\[Asbarez]]\\|date\\=23 March 2004\\|quote\\=The great seascape painter Ivan Aivazovsky (Hovhannes Aivazian)–while visiting his brother Archbishop Gabriel Aivazovsky–immortalized the Island and the Venetian lagoon in numerous magnificent paintings. \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319185316/https://asbarez.com/armenias\\-in\\-venice\\-to\\-highlight\\-save\\-venice\\-2004/ \\|archive\\-date\\=19 March 2022}}",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\|Aivazovsky in Italian costume, by [Vasily Sternberg](/wiki/Vasily_Sternberg \"Vasily Sternberg\"), 1842](/wiki/File:Aivazovsky_Sternberg_Italian.jpg \"Aivazovsky Sternberg Italian.jpg\")",
"### Education",
"The young Aivazovsky received parochial education at Feodosia's St. Sargis Armenian Church.{{sfn\\|Mikaelian\\|1991\\|p\\=59}} He was taught drawing by Jacob Koch, a local architect. Aivazovsky moved to [Simferopol](/wiki/Simferopol \"Simferopol\") with [Taurida Governor](/wiki/Taurida_Governorate \"Taurida Governorate\") Alexander Kaznacheyev's family in 1830 and attended the city's [Russian gymnasium](/wiki/Simferopol_gymnasium_%E2%84%961 \"Simferopol gymnasium №1\").{{cite journal\\|last\\=Bobkov\\|first\\=V. V.\\|journal\\=Учёные записки Таврического национального университета им. В. И. Вернадского\\|title\\=Феодосийский Градоначальник Александр Иванович Казначеев: Основные Вехи Административной Деятельности \\[Feodosia Mayor Alexander Ivanovich Kaznacheyev: Major Milestones In Administrative Activities]\\|pages\\=39–40\\|url\\=http://sn\\-histor.crimea.edu/arhiv/2010/uch\\_23\\_1h/04\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Tavrida National V.I. Vernadsky University]]\\|location\\=Simferopol\\|language\\=ru\\|year\\=2010\\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215749/http://sn\\-histor.crimea.edu/arhiv/2010/uch\\_23\\_1h/04\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In 1833, Aivazovsky arrived in the Russian capital, [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\"), to study at the Imperial Academy of Arts in [Maxim Vorobiev](/wiki/Maxim_Vorobiev \"Maxim Vorobiev\")'s landscape class. In 1835, he was awarded with a silver medal and appointed assistant to the French painter {{ill\\|Philippe Tanneur\\|fr}}. In September 1836, Aivazovsky met Russia's national poet [Alexander Pushkin](/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin \"Alexander Pushkin\") during the latter's visit to the Academy.{{cite book\\|title\\=Alexander Pushkin: a celebration of Russia's best\\-loved writer\\|year\\=1999\\|publisher\\=Hazar Publishing\\|location\\=London\\|isbn\\=1\\-874371\\-14\\-8\\|page\\=219\\|editor\\=Briggs, A.D.P.}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Sotheby's Russian Art Evening sale\\|url\\=http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/lot.pdf.L08112\\.html/f/6/L08112\\-6\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sotheby's]]\\|date\\=9 June 2008 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001183906/http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/lot.pdf.L08112\\.html/f/6/L08112\\-6\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=1 October 2020}} In 1837, Aivazovsky joined the [battle\\-painting](/wiki/Military_art \"Military art\") class of [Alexander Sauerweid](/wiki/Alexander_Sauerweid \"Alexander Sauerweid\") and participated in [Baltic Fleet](/wiki/Baltic_Fleet \"Baltic Fleet\") exercises in the [Gulf of Finland](/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland \"Gulf of Finland\"). In October 1837, he graduated from the Imperial Academy of Arts with a gold medal, two years earlier than intended.{{sfn\\|Bolton\\|2010\\|p\\=140}}{{sfn\\|Mikaelian\\|1991\\|p\\=59}}{{sfn\\|Leek\\|2012\\|p\\=178}} Aivazovsky returned to Feodosia in 1838 and spent two years in his native Crimea.{{sfn\\|Sarkssian\\|1963\\|p\\=25}} In 1839, he took part in military exercises in the shores of Crimea, where he met Russian admirals [Mikhail Lazarev](/wiki/Mikhail_Lazarev \"Mikhail Lazarev\"), [Pavel Nakhimov](/wiki/Pavel_Nakhimov \"Pavel Nakhimov\") and [Vladimir Kornilov](/wiki/Vladimir_Alexeyevich_Kornilov \"Vladimir Alexeyevich Kornilov\").{{sfn\\|Bolton\\|2010\\|p\\=141}}",
"### First visit to Europe",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|Portrait of Aivazovsky by [Alexey Tyranov](/wiki/Alexey_Tyranov \"Alexey Tyranov\"), 1841](/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Ivan_Konstantinovich_Aivazovsky_1841.png \"Portrait of Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky 1841.png\")\nIn 1840, Aivazovsky was sent by the Imperial Academy of Arts to study in Europe.{{sfn\\|Bolton\\|2010\\|p\\=140}} He first traveled to [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") via [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\") and [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") and visited [San Lazzaro degli Armeni](/wiki/San_Lazzaro_degli_Armeni \"San Lazzaro degli Armeni\"), where an important [Armenian Catholic](/wiki/Armenian_Catholic \"Armenian Catholic\") congregation was located and his brother Gabriel lived at the time. Aivazovsky studied Armenian manuscripts and became familiar with Armenian art. He met Russian novelist [Nikolai Gogol](/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol \"Nikolai Gogol\") in Venice. He then headed to [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\"), [Amalfi](/wiki/Amalfi \"Amalfi\") and [Sorrento](/wiki/Sorrento \"Sorrento\"). In Florence, he met painter [Alexander Ivanov](/wiki/Alexander_Andreyevich_Ivanov \"Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov\"). He remained in [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\") and [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") between 1840 and 1842\\. Aivazovsky was heavily influenced by Italian art and their museums became the \"second academy\" for him. According to Rogachevsky the news of successful exhibitions in Italy reached Russia.{{sfn\\|Leek\\|2012\\|p\\=178}} [Pope Gregory XVI](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XVI \"Pope Gregory XVI\") awarded him with a golden medal. He then visited Switzerland, Germany, the Netherlands and Britain. In an international exhibition at [the Louvre](/wiki/The_Louvre \"The Louvre\"), he was the only representative from Russia. In France, he received a gold medal from the [Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_royale_de_peinture_et_de_sculpture \"Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture\"). He then returned to Naples via Marseille and again visited Britain, Portugal, Spain, and Malta in 1843\\. Aivazovsky was admired throughout Europe.{{sfn\\|Bolton\\|2010\\|p\\=141}} He returned to Russia via Paris and Amsterdam in 1844\\.{{sfn\\|Bolton\\|2010\\|p\\=141}}",
"### Return to Russia and first marriage",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.9\\|Photograph of Aivazovsky with his first wife, Julia, and their four daughters](/wiki/File:Aivazovsky_wife_and_daughters.png \"Aivazovsky wife and daughters.png\")",
"Upon his return to Russia, Aivazovsky was made an academician of the Imperial Academy of Arts and was appointed the \"official artist of the Russian Navy to paint seascapes, coastal scenes and naval battles.\" In 1845, Aivazovsky traveled to the [Aegean Sea](/wiki/Aegean_Sea \"Aegean Sea\") with [Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Konstantin_Nikolayevich_of_Russia \"Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia\") and visited the Ottoman capital, [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\"), and the Greek islands of [Patmos](/wiki/Patmos \"Patmos\") and [Rhodes](/wiki/Rhodes \"Rhodes\").",
"In 1845, Aivazovsky settled in his hometown of Feodosia, where he built a house and studio. He isolated himself from the outside world, keeping a small circle of friends and relatives. Yet the solitude played a negative role in his art career. By the mid\\-nineteenth century, Russian art was moving from [Romanticism](/wiki/Romanticism \"Romanticism\") towards a distinct Russian style of [Realism](/wiki/Realism_%28arts%29 \"Realism (arts)\"), while Aivazovsky continued to paint Romantic seascapes and attracted heavy criticism.",
"In 1845 and 1846, Aivazovsky attended the maneuvers of the [Black Sea Fleet](/wiki/Black_Sea_Fleet \"Black Sea Fleet\") and the Baltic Fleet at [Petergof](/wiki/Petergof \"Petergof\"), near the [imperial palace](/wiki/Peterhof_Palace \"Peterhof Palace\"). In 1847, he was given the title of professor of seascape painting by the Imperial Academy of Arts and elevated to the rank of nobility. In the same year, he was elected to the [Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences \"Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences\").",
"In 1848, Aivazovsky married Julia Graves, an English governess. They had four daughters: Elena (1849\\), Maria (1851\\), Alexandra (1852\\) and Joanne (1858\\). They separated in 1860 and divorced in 1877 with permission from the [Armenian Church](/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church \"Armenian Apostolic Church\"), since Graves was a [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran \"Lutheran\").{{sfn\\|Mikaelian\\|1991\\|p\\=63}}",
"### Rise to prominence",
"[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=painting of whitecaps on the sea\\|The vast majority of his works depict the sea. Pictured is an 1898 painting titled *Among the Waves*, Aivazovsky National Art Gallery, Feodosia](/wiki/File:Ayvaz_sredy_voln.jpg \"Ayvaz sredy voln.jpg\")\nIn 1851, traveling with the Russian emperor [Nicholas I](/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia \"Nicholas I of Russia\"), Aivazovsky sailed to [Sevastopol](/wiki/Sevastopol \"Sevastopol\") to participate in military maneuvers. His archaeological excavations near Feodosia lead to his election as a full member of the [Russian Geographical Society](/wiki/Russian_Geographical_Society \"Russian Geographical Society\") in 1853\\. In that year, the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\") erupted between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, and he was evacuated to [Kharkiv](/wiki/Kharkiv \"Kharkiv\"). While safe, he returned to the besieged fortress of Sevastopol to paint battle scenes. His work was exhibited in Sevastopol while it was under Ottoman siege.",
"Between 1856 and 1857, Aivazovsky worked in Paris and became the first Russian (and the first non\\-French) artist to receive the [Legion of Honour](/wiki/Legion_of_Honour \"Legion of Honour\"). In 1857, Aivazovsky visited Constantinople and was awarded the [Order of the Medjidie](/wiki/Order_of_the_Medjidie \"Order of the Medjidie\"). In the same year, he was elected an honorary member of the Moscow Art Society. He was awarded the Greek [Order of the Redeemer](/wiki/Order_of_the_Redeemer \"Order of the Redeemer\") in 1859 and the Russian [Order of St. Vladimir](/wiki/Order_of_St._Vladimir \"Order of St. Vladimir\") in 1865\\.",
"Aivazovsky opened an art studio in Feodosia in 1865 and was awarded a salary by the Imperial Academy of Arts the same year.\n[thumb\\|upright\\|alt\\=A man facing left with whiskers\\|A photograph of Aivazovsky, 1870](/wiki/File:Aivazovsky_1870_photo.jpg \"Aivazovsky 1870 photo.jpg\")",
"### Travels and accolades: 1860s–1880s",
"In the 1860s, the artist produced several paintings inspired by Greek nationalism and the [Italian unification](/wiki/Italian_unification \"Italian unification\"). In 1868, he once again visited Constantinople and produced a series of works about the Greek resistance to the Turks, during the [Great Cretan Revolution](/wiki/Cretan_Revolt_%281866%E2%80%9369%29 \"Cretan Revolt (1866–69)\"). In 1868, Aivazovsky traveled in the [Caucasus](/wiki/Caucasus \"Caucasus\") and visited the [Russian part of Armenia](/wiki/Russian_Armenia \"Russian Armenia\") for the first time. He painted several mountainous landscapes and in 1869 held an exhibition in [Tiflis](/wiki/Tiflis \"Tiflis\"). Later in the year, he made a trip to Egypt and took part in the opening ceremony of the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal \"Suez Canal\"). He became the \"first artist to paint the Suez Canal, thus marking an epoch\\-making event in the history of Europe, Africa and Asia.\"{{cite web\\|last\\=Shaljyan\\|first\\=Emma\\|title\\=Walter and Laurel Karabian Speak on Artist Aivazian (Aivazovsky)\\|url\\=http://armenianstudies.csufresno.edu/hye\\_sharzhoom/vol33/march12/1\\_karabians.html\\|publisher\\=Hye Sahrzoom, Armenian Studies Program \\[\\[California State University, Fresno]]\\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2014\\|date\\=March 2012\\|quote\\=Aivazovsky, in fact, was the first painter to paint the Suez Canal.\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203153459/http://armenianstudies.csufresno.edu/hye\\_sharzhoom/vol33/march12/1\\_karabians.html\\|archive\\-date\\=3 February 2014}}",
"In 1870, Aivazovsky was made an [Actual Civil Councilor](/wiki/Table_of_Ranks \"Table of Ranks\"), the fourth highest civil rank in Russia. In 1871, he initiated the construction of the archaeological museum in Feodosia. In 1872, he traveled to Nice and Florence to exhibit his paintings. In 1874, the [Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze](/wiki/Accademia_di_Belle_Arti_di_Firenze \"Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze\") (Florence Academy of Fine Art) asked him for a self\\-portrait to be hung in the [Uffizi Gallery](/wiki/Uffizi_Gallery \"Uffizi Gallery\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Bird\\|first\\=Alan\\|title\\=A history of Russian painting\\|year\\=1987\\|publisher\\=G.K. Hall\\|location\\=Boston\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8161\\-8911\\-3\\|page\\=162}} The same year, Aivazovsky was invited to Constantinople by [Sultan Abdülaziz](/wiki/Sultan_Abd%C3%BClaziz \"Sultan Abdülaziz\") who subsequently bestowed upon him the Turkish [Order of Osmanieh](/wiki/Order_of_Osmanieh \"Order of Osmanieh\"). In 1876, he was made a member of the Academy of Arts in Florence and became the second Russian artist (after [Orest Kiprensky](/wiki/Orest_Kiprensky \"Orest Kiprensky\")) to paint a self\\-portrait for the [Palazzo Pitti](/wiki/Palazzo_Pitti \"Palazzo Pitti\").",
"Aivazovsky was elected an honorary member of [Stuttgart's Royal Academy of Fine Arts](/wiki/State_Academy_of_Fine_Arts_Stuttgart \"State Academy of Fine Arts Stuttgart\") in 1878\\. He made a trip to the Netherlands and France, staying briefly in [Frankfurt](/wiki/Frankfurt \"Frankfurt\") until 1879\\. He then visited [Munich](/wiki/Munich \"Munich\") and traveled to [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa \"Genoa\") and Venice \"to collect material on the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus.\"",
"In 1880, Aivazovsky opened an art gallery in his Feodosia house; it became the third museum in the Russian Empire, after the [Hermitage Museum](/wiki/Hermitage_Museum \"Hermitage Museum\") and the [Tretyakov Gallery](/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery \"Tretyakov Gallery\"). Aivazovsky held an 1881 exhibition at London's [Pall Mall](/wiki/Pall_Mall%2C_London \"Pall Mall, London\"), attended by English painter [John Everett Millais](/wiki/John_Everett_Millais \"John Everett Millais\") and [Edward VII](/wiki/Edward_VII \"Edward VII\"), [Prince of Wales](/wiki/Prince_of_Wales \"Prince of Wales\").",
"### Second marriage and later life",
"{{multiple image\\|align\\=left\\|caption\\_align\\=center\\|direction\\=horizontal\\|image1\\=Aivazovsky by Bolotov, 1876\\.jpg\\|width1\\=150\\|caption1\\=Portrait of Aivazovsky by Dmitry Bolotov (1876\\)\\|image2\\=Aivazovsky \\- Portret of wife, Anna Burnazyan\\-Sarkisova.jpg\\|width2\\=163\\|caption2\\=Aivazovsky's painting of his second wife Anna Burnazian (1882\\)}}",
"Aivazovsky's second wife, Anna Burnazian, was a young Armenian widow 40 years his junior. Aivazovsky said that by marrying her in 1882, he \"became closer to \\[his] nation\", referring to the Armenian people.{{sfn\\|Mikaelian\\|1991\\|p\\=63}} In 1882, Aivazovsky visited Moscow and St Petersburg and then toured the countryside of Russia by traveling along the [Volga River](/wiki/Volga_River \"Volga River\") in 1884\\.",
"In 1885, he was promoted to the rank of [Privy Councilor](/wiki/Table_of_Ranks \"Table of Ranks\"). The next year, the 50th anniversary of his creative labors, was celebrated with an exhibition in St Petersburg, and an honorary membership in the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts.",
"In 1887, as part of a jubilee celebration of his career, Aivazovsky hosted a dinner for 150 friends. Each guest received a miniature painting by Aivazovsky set into a studio photograph of the artist at work.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/286403 \\|title\\=Ivan Constantinovich Aivasovski, The Met Museum \\|access\\-date\\=1 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 January 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121203011/http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/286403 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"After meeting Aivazovsky in person, [Anton Chekhov](/wiki/Anton_Chekhov \"Anton Chekhov\") wrote a letter to his wife on 22 July 1888 describing him as follows:{{cite book\\|last\\=Karlinsky\\|first\\=Simon\\|title\\=Anton Chekhov's Life and Thought: Selected Letters and Commentary\\|year\\=1999\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Northwestern University Press]]\\|location\\=Evanston, Illinois\\|isbn\\=0\\-8101\\-1460\\-7\\|pages\\=310–311\\|edition\\=2nd\\|others\\=Heim, Michael Henry; Karlinsky, Simon}}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Vasyanin\\|first\\=Andrey\\|title\\=Айвазовский на ладони\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]]\\|date\\=10 August 2016\\|issue\\=178\\|url\\=https://rg.ru/2016/08/10/ivan\\-samarin\\-ajvazovskij\\-byl\\-spilbergom\\-xix\\-veka.html\\|language\\=ru \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103010603/https://rg.ru/2016/08/10/ivan\\-samarin\\-ajvazovskij\\-byl\\-spilbergom\\-xix\\-veka.html \\|archive\\-date\\=3 November 2020}}",
"{{blockquote\\|Aivazovsky himself is a hale and hearty old man of about seventy\\-five, looking like an insignificant Armenian and a bishop; he is full of a sense of his own importance, has soft hands and shakes your hand like a general. He's not very bright, but he is a complex personality, worthy of a further study. In him alone there are combined a general, a bishop, an artist, an Armenian, an naive old peasant, and an Othello.}}",
"[thumb\\|The house in Feodosia, where Aivazovsky lived between 1845 and 1892\\. It is now an [art gallery](/wiki/Aivazovsky_National_Art_Gallery \"Aivazovsky National Art Gallery\").](/wiki/File:%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%2C_%D0%B2_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%98._%D0%9A._%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_1845-1892.JPG \"Дом, в котором жил художник И. К. Айвазовский 1845-1892.JPG\")",
"After traveling to Paris with his wife, in October 1892 he made a trip to the United States, visiting [Niagara Falls](/wiki/Niagara_Falls \"Niagara Falls\") in New York and Washington D.C.{{cite news \\|last\\=Вакуленко \\|first\\=Алексей (Vakulenko, Alexey) \\|url\\=https://crimea.ria.ru/20190618/1116865203\\.html \\|title\\=За что Айвазовский благодарил США: картинная дипломатия без запретов \\|trans\\-title\\=What Aivazovsky Thanked the US for: Picture Diplomacy Without Prohibitions \\|language\\=ru \\|work\\=\\[\\[RIA Novosti\\|«Россия сегодня»]] \\|date\\=June 18, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=September 11, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911215942/https://crimea.ria.ru/20190618/1116865203\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=September 11, 2024}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Легалов \\|first\\=Евгений (Legalov, Evgeniy) \\|url\\=https://www.svoboda.org/a/sama\\-rodila\\-sama\\-i\\-syem\\-v\\-prage\\-proshel\\-pokaz\\-filma\\-golod/32190900\\.html \\|title\\=\"Сама родила – сама и съем\". В Праге прошёл показ фильма \"Голод\" \\|trans\\-title\\=\"I gave birth to her myself \\- I'll eat her myself.\" The film \"Hunger\" was screened in Prague \\|language\\=ru \\|work\\=\\[\\[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty\\|«Радио Свобода»]] \\|date\\=December 23, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=September 11, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911220759/https://www.svoboda.org/a/sama\\-rodila\\-sama\\-i\\-syem\\-v\\-prage\\-proshel\\-pokaz\\-filma\\-golod/32190900\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=September 11, 2024}} During this trip, he performed an act of diplomacy by donating to the [Corcoran Museum](/wiki/Corcoran_Gallery_of_Art \"Corcoran Gallery of Art\") two of his paintings, which he had painted in \"Russia, Crimea, Feodosia\", *Relief Ship* ({{lang\\-ru\\|Корабль помощи}}) and *Food Distribution* ({{lang\\-ru\\|Раздача продовольствия}}) which commemorated the arrival of American aid to Russia during the [Tsar's famine of 1891\\-1892](/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1891%E2%80%931892 \"Russian famine of 1891–1892\") but the Tsar barred these paintings in Russia because of their [anti\\-monarchist](/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy \"Criticism of monarchy\") unpatriotic themes.{{cite news \\|last\\=Алекин \\|first\\=Алексей (Alekin, Alexey) \\|url\\=https://xn\\-\\-j1akbb.xn\\-\\-p1acf/2022/11/28/%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F\\-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0\\-%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE/ \\|title\\=«НЕПАТРИОТИЧНАЯ» КАРТИНА АЙВАЗОВСКОГО И ЗАБЫТАЯ ДАТА \\|trans\\-title\\=\"UNPATRIOTIC\" PAINTING BY AIVAZOVSKY AND A FORGOTTEN DATE \\|language\\=ru \\|work\\=\\[\\[Russian Communist Workers' Party of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union\\|Российская коммунистическая рабочая партия]] \\|date\\=November 28, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=September 11, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911221800/https://xn\\-\\-j1akbb.xn\\-\\-p1acf/2022/11/28/%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F\\-%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0\\-%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE/ \\|archive\\-date\\=September 11, 2024}} In 1896, at 79, Aivazovsky was promoted to the rank of full privy councillor.",
"Aivazovsky was deeply affected by the [Hamidian massacres](/wiki/Hamidian_massacres \"Hamidian massacres\") that took place in the Armenian\\-inhabited areas of the Ottoman Empire between 1894 and 1896\\. He painted a number of works on the subject such as *The Expulsion of the Turkish Ship*, and *The Armenian Massacres at Trebizond* (1895\\). He threw the medals given to him by the Ottoman Sultan into the sea and told the Turkish consul in Feodosia: \"Tell your bloodthirsty master that I've thrown away all the medals given to me, here are their ribbons, send it to him and if he wants, he can throw them into the seas painted by me.\"{{sfn\\|Harutiunian\\|1965\\|pp\\=90–91\\|ps\\=: \"Բռնակալության դեմ ի նշան բողոքի, նա բոլոր շքանշանները նետում է ծովը և ապա երիտասարդի աշխուժությամբ դնում է թուրքական հյուպատոսի մոտ ու զայրացած ասում. «Արյունակզակ տիրոջդ ինձի տված պատվանշանները ծովր նետեցի, ահավասիկ անոնց ժապավենները, իրեն ղրկել եթե կուզե թող ինքն ալ իմ պատկերներս ծովը նետե, բայց հոդս չէ, վասն զի անոնց փոխարժեքը ստացուած եմ»։ Ու կը մեկնի։}} He created several other paintings capturing the events, such as *Lonely Ship* and *Night. Tragedy in the Sea of Marmara* (1897\\).{{sfn\\|Koorghinian\\|1967\\|p\\=190}}{{sfn\\|Sarkssian\\|1963\\|p\\=31}}",
"{{multiple image\\|align\\=right\\|direction\\=vertical\\|image1\\=Ajwazowski grob.jpg\\|width\\=255\\|image2\\=Feodosiya tomb of Ivan Aivazovsky IMG 2968 1725\\.jpg\\|footer\\_align\\=center\\|footer\\=Tomb of Aivazovsky}}",
"He spent his final years in Feodosia. In the 1890s, thanks to his efforts a commercial port ([ru](/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82 \"Феодосийский морской торговый порт\")) was established in Feodosia and linked to the railway network of the Russian Empire. The railway station, opened in 1892, is now called {{ill\\|Ayvazovskaya\\|ru\\|Айвазовская (станция)}} and is one of the two stations within the city of Feodosia. Aivazovsky also supplied Feodosia with drinking water.{{cite web\\|last\\=Novouspensky \\|first\\=Nikolay \\|title\\=Ivan Aivazovsky \\|work\\=artsstudio.com \\|url\\=http://www.artsstudio.com/reproductions/new\\_aivazovsky\\-biography.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910211018/http://www.artsstudio.com/reproductions/new\\_aivazovsky\\-biography.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=10 September 2012 }}{{cite web\\|title\\=Моря пламенный поэт. Иван Айвазовский\\|url\\=http://tvkultura.ru/brand/show/brand\\_id/32708/\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Russia\\-K]]\\|language\\=ru\\|date\\=2007\\|quote\\=Благодаря ему в Феодосии был создан водопровод, построены морской торговый порт, железная дорога, возведено здание археологического музея и многое другое. \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084619/http://tvkultura.ru/brand/show/brand\\_id/32708/ \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016}}",
"### Death",
"Aivazovsky died on 19 April (2 May in New Style) 1900 in Feodosia. In accordance with his wishes, he was buried at the courtyard of St. Sargis Armenian Church. A white marble [sarcophagus](/wiki/Sarcophagus \"Sarcophagus\") was made by Italian sculptor L. Biogiolli in 1901\\.{{cite news\\|last\\=Yefremova\\|first\\=Svetlana\\|script\\-title\\=ru:Оставил о себе бессмертную память\\|url\\=http://rk.crimea.ua/17/18/article\\_290\\.htm\\|newspaper\\=Respublika Krym\\|date\\=24 July 2008\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140319025025/http://rk.crimea.ua/17/18/article\\_290\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=19 March 2014\\|language\\=ru}} A quote from [Movses Khorenatsi](/wiki/Movses_Khorenatsi \"Movses Khorenatsi\")'s *[History of Armenia](/wiki/History_of_Armenia_%28book%29 \"History of Armenia (book)\")* in [Classical Armenian](/wiki/Classical_Armenian \"Classical Armenian\") is engraved on his tombstone: {{transliteration\\|hy\\|Mahkanatsu tsneal anmah ziurn yishatak yetogh}} ({{lang\\|hy\\|Մահկանացու ծնեալ անմահ զիւրն յիշատակ եթող}}),{{cite web\\|title\\=Այվազովսկի Հովհաննես Կոստանդնի \\[Aivazovsky Hovhannes Konstandni]\\|url\\=http://www.gallery.am/hy/database/authors/18/\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Gallery of Armenia]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319025051/http://www.gallery.am/hy/database/authors/18/\\|archive\\-date\\=19 March 2014\\|language\\=hy}} which translates: \"He was born a mortal, left an immortal legacy\" or \"Born as a mortal, left the immortal memory of himself\".{{cite book\\|title\\=How Did I Survive?\\|first1\\=Artavazd M.\\|last1\\=Minasyan\\|last2\\=Gevorkyan\\|first2\\=Aleksadr V.\\|publisher\\=Cambridge Scholars Publishing\\|location\\=Newcastle upon Tyne\\|year\\=2008\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-84718\\-601\\-0\\|oclc\\=318443997\\|page\\=56\\|quote\\=Aivazovsky, Ivan Konstantionvich (real name: Hovannes Gevorgovich Aivazyan) (1817–1900\\) – grand Russian artist\\-painter of seascapes, ethnic Armenian. Aside from his artwork, I.A. was also known for his valuable contributions to the developments of the Russian and Armenian cultures of the 19th century. He lived and worked in Feodosia, Crimea. He was buried there according to his will. A sign on his tombstone, written in ancient Armenian, has a quote from the 5th century \"History of Armenia\" by Moses Khorenatsi says: \"Born as a mortal, left the immortal memory of himself.\"}} The inscription beneath reads: \"Professor Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky 1817–1900\" ({{lang\\|ru\\|Профессоръ Иванъ Константиновичъ АЙВАЗОВСКIЙ 1817–1900}}).",
"After his death, his wife Anna led a generally secluded life, living in several rooms she had retained after nationalization, until 1941\\. She died on 25 July 1944 and was buried next to Aivazovsky. Two of his daughters (Maria and Alexandra) left Russia following the Revolution of 1917, while the other two died shortly thereafter: Yelena in 1918 and Zhanna in 1922\\.",
""
] |
Lining materials
----------------
Dental lining materials are used during restorations of large [cavities](/wiki/Tooth_decay "Tooth decay"), and are placed between the remaining tooth structure and the restoration material. The purpose of this is to protect the [dentinal tubules](/wiki/Dentinal_tubules "Dentinal tubules") and the sensitive [pulp](/wiki/Pulp_%28tooth%29 "Pulp (tooth)"), forming a barrier\-like structure. After drilling the caries out of the tooth, the dentist applies a thin layer (approximately 1/2mm) to the base of the tooth, followed by light curing.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Schenkel\|first1\=Andrew B.\|last2\=Veitz\-Keenan\|first2\=Analia\|date\=5 March 2019\|title\=Dental cavity liners for Class I and Class II resin\-based composite restorations\|journal\=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|volume\=3\|issue\=3 \|pages\=CD010526\|doi\=10\.1002/14651858\.CD010526\.pub3\|issn\=1469\-493X\|pmc\=6399099\|pmid\=30834516}} Another layer might be applied if the cavity is very large and deep.
There are many functions to dental lining materials, some of which are listed below:
* Lining materials protect the weak tooth from post\-operative [hypersensitivity](/wiki/Dentin_hypersensitivity "Dentin hypersensitivity"), reducing patient discomfort and allowing the tooth to heal at a faster rate after the procedure.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dentistryiq.com/articles/2012/06/liner\-base\-dad\-june2012\.html\|title\=When and why you should use a liner/base\|last\=Dail\|first\=Krissy \| name\-list\-style \= vanc \|date\=22 June 2012\|website\=Dentistry IQ \|access\-date\=14 November 2017}}
* Some dental restorative materials, such as acrylic monomers in resin\-based materials and [phosphoric acid](/wiki/Phosphoric_acid "Phosphoric acid") in [silicate](/wiki/Silicate "Silicate") materials, may pose toxic and irritable effects to the pulp. Lining materials protect the tooth from such irritants.
* Lining materials serve as an insulating layer to the tooth pulp from sudden changes in temperature when the patient takes hot or cold food, protecting them from potential pain resulting from [thermal conductivity](/wiki/Thermal_conductivity "Thermal conductivity").
* Lining materials are electrically insulating, preventing corrosion by [galvanic cell](/wiki/Galvanic_cell "Galvanic cell") where two dissimilar metals (e.g. gold or [amalgam](/wiki/Amalgam_%28dentistry%29 "Amalgam (dentistry)")) are placed next to each other.
### Types
**Calcium hydroxide**
[Calcium hydroxide](/wiki/Calcium_hydroxide "Calcium hydroxide") is a relatively low [compressive strength](/wiki/Compressive_strength "Compressive strength") and a viscous consistency, making it difficult to apply to cavities in thick sections. A common technique to overcome this issue is to apply a thin sub\-lining of calcium hydroxide, then build up with [zinc phosphate](/wiki/Zinc_phosphate "Zinc phosphate") prior to amalgam condensation. This generates a relatively high [pH](/wiki/PH "PH") environment around the area surrounding the cement due to calcium hydroxide leaking out, thus making it bactericidal.
It also has a unique effect of initiating [calcification](/wiki/Calcification "Calcification") and stimulating the formation of secondary [dentine](/wiki/Dentin "Dentin"), due to an irritation effect of the pulp tissues by the cement.
Calcium hydroxide is [radio\-opaque](/wiki/Radiodensity "Radiodensity") and acts as a good thermal and electrical insulation. However, due to its low compressive strength it is unable to withstand amalgam packing; a strong cement base material should be placed above it to counter this.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Arandi NZ \| title \= Calcium hydroxide liners: a literature review \| journal \= Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dentistry \| volume \= 9 \| pages \= 67–72 \| date \= 2017\-07\-01 \| pmid \= 28761378 \| pmc \= 5516779 \| doi \= 10\.2147/CCIDE.S141381 \| doi\-access \= free }}
[Calcium silicate](/wiki/Calcium_silicate "Calcium silicate")\-based liners have become alternatives to calcium hydroxide and are preferred by practitioners for their [bioactive](/wiki/Bioactive_compound "Bioactive compound") and sealing properties;{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Karadas M, Cantekin K, Gumus H, Ateş SM, Duymuş ZY \| title \= Evaluation of the bond strength of different adhesive agents to a resin\-modified calcium silicate material (TheraCal LC) \| journal \= Scanning \| volume \= 38 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 403–411 \| date \= September 2016 \| pmid \= 26553783 \| doi \= 10\.1002/sca.21284 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Corral\-Núñez C, Fernández\-Godoy E, Casielles JM, Estay J, Bersezio\-Miranda C, Cisternas\-Pinto P, Batista\-de Oliveira O \| title \= The Current State of Calcium Silicate Cements in Restorative Dentistry: A Review \| journal \= Revista Facultad de Odontología Universidad de Antioquia \| date \= January 2016 \| volume \= 27 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 425–41 \| doi \= 10\.17533/udea.rfo.v27n2a10 \| doi\-access \= free }} the material triggers a biological response and results in formation of bonding with the tissue.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Karabucak B, Li D, Lim J, Iqbal M \| title \= Vital pulp therapy with mineral trioxide aggregate \| journal \= Dental Traumatology \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 240–3 \| date \= August 2005 \| pmid \= 16026533 \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1600\-9657\.2005\.00306\.x }} They are commonly used as pulp capping agents and lining materials for silicate and resin\-based filling materials.
[thumb\|300x300px\|Calcium\-silicate liner used as a pulp capping material](/wiki/File:Calcium_silicate_liner.jpg "Calcium silicate liner.jpg")
It is usually supplied as two pastes, a [glycol](/wiki/Diol "Diol") [salicylate](/wiki/Salicylic_acid "Salicylic acid") and another paste containing [zinc oxide](/wiki/Zinc_oxide "Zinc oxide") with calcium hydroxide. On mixing, a chelate compound is formed. Light\-activated versions are also available; these contain [polymerization](/wiki/Polymerization "Polymerization") activators, [hydroexyethyl methacrylate](/wiki/%28Hydroxyethyl%29methacrylate "(Hydroxyethyl)methacrylate"), dimethacrylate which when light activated will result in a polymerization reaction of a modified methacrylate monomer.
**Polycarboxylate cement**
[Polycarboxylate](/wiki/Polycarboxylates "Polycarboxylates") cement has the compressive strength to resist amalgam condensation. It is acidic, but less acidic than phosphate cements due to it having a higher [molecular weight](/wiki/Molecular_mass "Molecular mass") and [polyacrylic acid](/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid "Polyacrylic acid") being weaker than [phosphoric acid](/wiki/Phosphoric_acid "Phosphoric acid"). It forms a strong bond with dentine and enamel, allowing it to form a coronal seal. In addition, it is an electrical and thermal insulator while also releasing [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride "Fluoride"), rendering it [bacteriostatic](/wiki/Bacteriostatic_agent "Bacteriostatic agent"). It is also radio\-opaque, making it an excellent lining material.
Care has to be taken in handling such material, as it has a strong bond with stainless steel instruments once it sets.
Polycarboxylate cement is commonly used as a [luting agents](/wiki/Luting_agent "Luting agent") or as a cavity base material. However, it tends to be rubbery during its setting reaction and adheres to stainless steel instruments, so most operators prefer not to use it in deep cavities.
It is usually supplied as a power containing zinc oxide and a liquid containing aqueous polyacrylic acid. The reaction consists of an acid base reaction with zinc oxide reacting with the acid groups in polyacid. This forms a reaction product of unreacted zinc oxide cores bound by a salt matrix, with polyacrylic acid chains cross linking with zinc ions.
**Glass ionomer**
[Glass ionomer](/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement "Glass ionomer cement") (GI) has the strongest compressive and tensile strength of all linings, so it can withstand amalgam condensation in high stress bearing areas such as class II cavities. GI is used as a lining material as it is very compatible with most restorative materials, insulates thermally and electrically, and adheres to enamel and dentine. GI lining contains glass of smaller particle sizes compared to its adhesive restorative mix, to allow formation of a thinner film. Some variations are also radiopaque, making them good for X\-ray cavity detection. In addition, GI is bacteriostatic due to its fluoride release from un\-reacted glass cores.
GIs are usually used as a lining material for [composite resins](/wiki/Dental_composite "Dental composite") or as [luting agents](/wiki/Luting_agent "Luting agent") for orthodontic bands.
The reaction is an acid\-base reaction between calcium\-aluminum\-silicate glass powder and polyacrylic acid. They come in a powder and liquid which are mixed on a pad or in capsules which are for single usage. Resin\-modified GIs contain a [photoinitiator](/wiki/Photoinitiator "Photoinitiator") (usually [camphorquinone](/wiki/Camphorquinone "Camphorquinone")) and an amide, and are light cured with a LED light curing unit. Setting takes place by a combination of acid\-base reaction and chemically activated polymerization.
**Zinc oxide eugenol**
[Zinc oxide eugenol](/wiki/Zinc_oxide_eugenol "Zinc oxide eugenol") has the lowest [compressive](/wiki/Compressive_strength "Compressive strength") and [tensile strength](/wiki/Tensile_strength "Tensile strength") of the liners, so its use is limited to small or non\-stress\-bearing areas such as Class V cavities. This cavity lining is often used with a high strength base to provide strength, rigidity and thermal insulation. Zinc oxide eugenol can be used as linings in deep cavities without causing harm to the pulp, due to its obtundant effect on the pulp as well as its bactericidal properties due to zinc. However, eugenol may have an effect on resin\-based filling materials, as it interferes with polymerization and occasionally causes discoloration. Caution could therefore be exercised when using both in tandem. It is also radio\-opaque, allowing fillings to be visible by X\-rays.
Zinc oxide eugenol is usually used as a temporary filling/luting agent due to its low compressive strength making it easily removed, or as a lining for amalgam as it is incompatible with composites resins.
It is supplied as a two paste system. Equal length of two pastes are dispensed into a paper pad and mixed.
| Agent | Advantages | Disadvantages |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Calcium hydroxide | Alkaline nature promotes anti\-bacterial atmosphere Therapeutic effect for dentinal tubules Low thermal conductivity can provide thermal insulation Radiopaque Thermal and electrical insulator Good restorative material compatibility | Soluble for oral fluids thus restricted to dentine coverage only Viscous consistency makes it difficult to apply to cavities in thick sections Low compressive strength, requiring a second layer of strong cement base above it |
| Polycarboxylate cement | Decent compressive and tensile strength Radiopaque Bacteriostatic due to fluoride release Adhesive thus coronal seal Compatible with most restorative materials Thermal and electrical insulator | Mildly acidic thus a mild irritant Hard to handle due to strong bond with stainless steel instruments Rubbery during setting reaction thus hard to manipulate in deep cavities |
| Zinc oxide eugenol | Can be used as a temporary filling or lining as it is easy to remove even after set{{Cite book\|title\=Dental materials : properties and manipulation \| first1 \= John M \| last1 \= Powers \| first2 \= John C \| last2 \= Wataha \| name\-list\-style \= vanc \|date\=2013\|publisher\=Elsevier/Mosby \|isbn\=978\-0\-323\-07836\-8\|edition\=10th \|location\=St. Louis, Mo.\|oclc\=768071631}} Bactericidal due to zinc Thermal and electrical insulator Radiopaque due to zinc Obtundant | Lowest compressive and tensile strength of all linings; can only be used on areas with little or no stress Incompatible with resin composites due to polymerization interference Non adhesive thus no coronal seal |
| Glass ionomer | Relatively high compressive and tensile strength Radiopaque Very adhesive to enamel and dentine thus don't need a bonding agent Bacteriosatic due to fluoride release Adhesive thus coronal seal Good compatibility with restorative materials Thermal and electrical insulator | Mildly acidic thus a mild irritant Remains acidic for some time after mixing Not an obtundant |
|
[
"Lining materials\n----------------",
"Dental lining materials are used during restorations of large [cavities](/wiki/Tooth_decay \"Tooth decay\"), and are placed between the remaining tooth structure and the restoration material. The purpose of this is to protect the [dentinal tubules](/wiki/Dentinal_tubules \"Dentinal tubules\") and the sensitive [pulp](/wiki/Pulp_%28tooth%29 \"Pulp (tooth)\"), forming a barrier\\-like structure. After drilling the caries out of the tooth, the dentist applies a thin layer (approximately 1/2mm) to the base of the tooth, followed by light curing.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Schenkel\\|first1\\=Andrew B.\\|last2\\=Veitz\\-Keenan\\|first2\\=Analia\\|date\\=5 March 2019\\|title\\=Dental cavity liners for Class I and Class II resin\\-based composite restorations\\|journal\\=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\\|volume\\=3\\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=CD010526\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/14651858\\.CD010526\\.pub3\\|issn\\=1469\\-493X\\|pmc\\=6399099\\|pmid\\=30834516}} Another layer might be applied if the cavity is very large and deep.",
"There are many functions to dental lining materials, some of which are listed below:",
"* Lining materials protect the weak tooth from post\\-operative [hypersensitivity](/wiki/Dentin_hypersensitivity \"Dentin hypersensitivity\"), reducing patient discomfort and allowing the tooth to heal at a faster rate after the procedure.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dentistryiq.com/articles/2012/06/liner\\-base\\-dad\\-june2012\\.html\\|title\\=When and why you should use a liner/base\\|last\\=Dail\\|first\\=Krissy \\| name\\-list\\-style \\= vanc \\|date\\=22 June 2012\\|website\\=Dentistry IQ \\|access\\-date\\=14 November 2017}}\n* Some dental restorative materials, such as acrylic monomers in resin\\-based materials and [phosphoric acid](/wiki/Phosphoric_acid \"Phosphoric acid\") in [silicate](/wiki/Silicate \"Silicate\") materials, may pose toxic and irritable effects to the pulp. Lining materials protect the tooth from such irritants.\n* Lining materials serve as an insulating layer to the tooth pulp from sudden changes in temperature when the patient takes hot or cold food, protecting them from potential pain resulting from [thermal conductivity](/wiki/Thermal_conductivity \"Thermal conductivity\").\n* Lining materials are electrically insulating, preventing corrosion by [galvanic cell](/wiki/Galvanic_cell \"Galvanic cell\") where two dissimilar metals (e.g. gold or [amalgam](/wiki/Amalgam_%28dentistry%29 \"Amalgam (dentistry)\")) are placed next to each other.",
"### Types",
"**Calcium hydroxide**",
"[Calcium hydroxide](/wiki/Calcium_hydroxide \"Calcium hydroxide\") is a relatively low [compressive strength](/wiki/Compressive_strength \"Compressive strength\") and a viscous consistency, making it difficult to apply to cavities in thick sections. A common technique to overcome this issue is to apply a thin sub\\-lining of calcium hydroxide, then build up with [zinc phosphate](/wiki/Zinc_phosphate \"Zinc phosphate\") prior to amalgam condensation. This generates a relatively high [pH](/wiki/PH \"PH\") environment around the area surrounding the cement due to calcium hydroxide leaking out, thus making it bactericidal.",
"It also has a unique effect of initiating [calcification](/wiki/Calcification \"Calcification\") and stimulating the formation of secondary [dentine](/wiki/Dentin \"Dentin\"), due to an irritation effect of the pulp tissues by the cement.",
"Calcium hydroxide is [radio\\-opaque](/wiki/Radiodensity \"Radiodensity\") and acts as a good thermal and electrical insulation. However, due to its low compressive strength it is unable to withstand amalgam packing; a strong cement base material should be placed above it to counter this.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Arandi NZ \\| title \\= Calcium hydroxide liners: a literature review \\| journal \\= Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dentistry \\| volume \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 67–72 \\| date \\= 2017\\-07\\-01 \\| pmid \\= 28761378 \\| pmc \\= 5516779 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2147/CCIDE.S141381 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}",
"[Calcium silicate](/wiki/Calcium_silicate \"Calcium silicate\")\\-based liners have become alternatives to calcium hydroxide and are preferred by practitioners for their [bioactive](/wiki/Bioactive_compound \"Bioactive compound\") and sealing properties;{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Karadas M, Cantekin K, Gumus H, Ateş SM, Duymuş ZY \\| title \\= Evaluation of the bond strength of different adhesive agents to a resin\\-modified calcium silicate material (TheraCal LC) \\| journal \\= Scanning \\| volume \\= 38 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 403–411 \\| date \\= September 2016 \\| pmid \\= 26553783 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/sca.21284 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Corral\\-Núñez C, Fernández\\-Godoy E, Casielles JM, Estay J, Bersezio\\-Miranda C, Cisternas\\-Pinto P, Batista\\-de Oliveira O \\| title \\= The Current State of Calcium Silicate Cements in Restorative Dentistry: A Review \\| journal \\= Revista Facultad de Odontología Universidad de Antioquia \\| date \\= January 2016 \\| volume \\= 27 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 425–41 \\| doi \\= 10\\.17533/udea.rfo.v27n2a10 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} the material triggers a biological response and results in formation of bonding with the tissue.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Karabucak B, Li D, Lim J, Iqbal M \\| title \\= Vital pulp therapy with mineral trioxide aggregate \\| journal \\= Dental Traumatology \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 240–3 \\| date \\= August 2005 \\| pmid \\= 16026533 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1600\\-9657\\.2005\\.00306\\.x }} They are commonly used as pulp capping agents and lining materials for silicate and resin\\-based filling materials.\n[thumb\\|300x300px\\|Calcium\\-silicate liner used as a pulp capping material](/wiki/File:Calcium_silicate_liner.jpg \"Calcium silicate liner.jpg\")\nIt is usually supplied as two pastes, a [glycol](/wiki/Diol \"Diol\") [salicylate](/wiki/Salicylic_acid \"Salicylic acid\") and another paste containing [zinc oxide](/wiki/Zinc_oxide \"Zinc oxide\") with calcium hydroxide. On mixing, a chelate compound is formed. Light\\-activated versions are also available; these contain [polymerization](/wiki/Polymerization \"Polymerization\") activators, [hydroexyethyl methacrylate](/wiki/%28Hydroxyethyl%29methacrylate \"(Hydroxyethyl)methacrylate\"), dimethacrylate which when light activated will result in a polymerization reaction of a modified methacrylate monomer.",
"**Polycarboxylate cement**",
"[Polycarboxylate](/wiki/Polycarboxylates \"Polycarboxylates\") cement has the compressive strength to resist amalgam condensation. It is acidic, but less acidic than phosphate cements due to it having a higher [molecular weight](/wiki/Molecular_mass \"Molecular mass\") and [polyacrylic acid](/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid \"Polyacrylic acid\") being weaker than [phosphoric acid](/wiki/Phosphoric_acid \"Phosphoric acid\"). It forms a strong bond with dentine and enamel, allowing it to form a coronal seal. In addition, it is an electrical and thermal insulator while also releasing [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride \"Fluoride\"), rendering it [bacteriostatic](/wiki/Bacteriostatic_agent \"Bacteriostatic agent\"). It is also radio\\-opaque, making it an excellent lining material.",
"Care has to be taken in handling such material, as it has a strong bond with stainless steel instruments once it sets.",
"Polycarboxylate cement is commonly used as a [luting agents](/wiki/Luting_agent \"Luting agent\") or as a cavity base material. However, it tends to be rubbery during its setting reaction and adheres to stainless steel instruments, so most operators prefer not to use it in deep cavities.",
"It is usually supplied as a power containing zinc oxide and a liquid containing aqueous polyacrylic acid. The reaction consists of an acid base reaction with zinc oxide reacting with the acid groups in polyacid. This forms a reaction product of unreacted zinc oxide cores bound by a salt matrix, with polyacrylic acid chains cross linking with zinc ions.",
"**Glass ionomer**",
"[Glass ionomer](/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement \"Glass ionomer cement\") (GI) has the strongest compressive and tensile strength of all linings, so it can withstand amalgam condensation in high stress bearing areas such as class II cavities. GI is used as a lining material as it is very compatible with most restorative materials, insulates thermally and electrically, and adheres to enamel and dentine. GI lining contains glass of smaller particle sizes compared to its adhesive restorative mix, to allow formation of a thinner film. Some variations are also radiopaque, making them good for X\\-ray cavity detection. In addition, GI is bacteriostatic due to its fluoride release from un\\-reacted glass cores.",
"GIs are usually used as a lining material for [composite resins](/wiki/Dental_composite \"Dental composite\") or as [luting agents](/wiki/Luting_agent \"Luting agent\") for orthodontic bands.",
"The reaction is an acid\\-base reaction between calcium\\-aluminum\\-silicate glass powder and polyacrylic acid. They come in a powder and liquid which are mixed on a pad or in capsules which are for single usage. Resin\\-modified GIs contain a [photoinitiator](/wiki/Photoinitiator \"Photoinitiator\") (usually [camphorquinone](/wiki/Camphorquinone \"Camphorquinone\")) and an amide, and are light cured with a LED light curing unit. Setting takes place by a combination of acid\\-base reaction and chemically activated polymerization.",
"**Zinc oxide eugenol**",
"[Zinc oxide eugenol](/wiki/Zinc_oxide_eugenol \"Zinc oxide eugenol\") has the lowest [compressive](/wiki/Compressive_strength \"Compressive strength\") and [tensile strength](/wiki/Tensile_strength \"Tensile strength\") of the liners, so its use is limited to small or non\\-stress\\-bearing areas such as Class V cavities. This cavity lining is often used with a high strength base to provide strength, rigidity and thermal insulation. Zinc oxide eugenol can be used as linings in deep cavities without causing harm to the pulp, due to its obtundant effect on the pulp as well as its bactericidal properties due to zinc. However, eugenol may have an effect on resin\\-based filling materials, as it interferes with polymerization and occasionally causes discoloration. Caution could therefore be exercised when using both in tandem. It is also radio\\-opaque, allowing fillings to be visible by X\\-rays.",
"Zinc oxide eugenol is usually used as a temporary filling/luting agent due to its low compressive strength making it easily removed, or as a lining for amalgam as it is incompatible with composites resins.",
"It is supplied as a two paste system. Equal length of two pastes are dispensed into a paper pad and mixed.",
"",
"| Agent | Advantages | Disadvantages |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Calcium hydroxide | Alkaline nature promotes anti\\-bacterial atmosphere Therapeutic effect for dentinal tubules Low thermal conductivity can provide thermal insulation Radiopaque Thermal and electrical insulator Good restorative material compatibility | Soluble for oral fluids thus restricted to dentine coverage only Viscous consistency makes it difficult to apply to cavities in thick sections Low compressive strength, requiring a second layer of strong cement base above it |\n| Polycarboxylate cement | Decent compressive and tensile strength Radiopaque Bacteriostatic due to fluoride release Adhesive thus coronal seal Compatible with most restorative materials Thermal and electrical insulator | Mildly acidic thus a mild irritant Hard to handle due to strong bond with stainless steel instruments Rubbery during setting reaction thus hard to manipulate in deep cavities |\n| Zinc oxide eugenol | Can be used as a temporary filling or lining as it is easy to remove even after set{{Cite book\\|title\\=Dental materials : properties and manipulation \\| first1 \\= John M \\| last1 \\= Powers \\| first2 \\= John C \\| last2 \\= Wataha \\| name\\-list\\-style \\= vanc \\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Elsevier/Mosby \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-323\\-07836\\-8\\|edition\\=10th \\|location\\=St. Louis, Mo.\\|oclc\\=768071631}} Bactericidal due to zinc Thermal and electrical insulator Radiopaque due to zinc Obtundant | Lowest compressive and tensile strength of all linings; can only be used on areas with little or no stress Incompatible with resin composites due to polymerization interference Non adhesive thus no coronal seal |\n| Glass ionomer | Relatively high compressive and tensile strength Radiopaque Very adhesive to enamel and dentine thus don't need a bonding agent Bacteriosatic due to fluoride release Adhesive thus coronal seal Good compatibility with restorative materials Thermal and electrical insulator | Mildly acidic thus a mild irritant Remains acidic for some time after mixing Not an obtundant |",
""
] |
### Types
**Calcium hydroxide**
[Calcium hydroxide](/wiki/Calcium_hydroxide "Calcium hydroxide") is a relatively low [compressive strength](/wiki/Compressive_strength "Compressive strength") and a viscous consistency, making it difficult to apply to cavities in thick sections. A common technique to overcome this issue is to apply a thin sub\-lining of calcium hydroxide, then build up with [zinc phosphate](/wiki/Zinc_phosphate "Zinc phosphate") prior to amalgam condensation. This generates a relatively high [pH](/wiki/PH "PH") environment around the area surrounding the cement due to calcium hydroxide leaking out, thus making it bactericidal.
It also has a unique effect of initiating [calcification](/wiki/Calcification "Calcification") and stimulating the formation of secondary [dentine](/wiki/Dentin "Dentin"), due to an irritation effect of the pulp tissues by the cement.
Calcium hydroxide is [radio\-opaque](/wiki/Radiodensity "Radiodensity") and acts as a good thermal and electrical insulation. However, due to its low compressive strength it is unable to withstand amalgam packing; a strong cement base material should be placed above it to counter this.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Arandi NZ \| title \= Calcium hydroxide liners: a literature review \| journal \= Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dentistry \| volume \= 9 \| pages \= 67–72 \| date \= 2017\-07\-01 \| pmid \= 28761378 \| pmc \= 5516779 \| doi \= 10\.2147/CCIDE.S141381 \| doi\-access \= free }}
[Calcium silicate](/wiki/Calcium_silicate "Calcium silicate")\-based liners have become alternatives to calcium hydroxide and are preferred by practitioners for their [bioactive](/wiki/Bioactive_compound "Bioactive compound") and sealing properties;{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Karadas M, Cantekin K, Gumus H, Ateş SM, Duymuş ZY \| title \= Evaluation of the bond strength of different adhesive agents to a resin\-modified calcium silicate material (TheraCal LC) \| journal \= Scanning \| volume \= 38 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 403–411 \| date \= September 2016 \| pmid \= 26553783 \| doi \= 10\.1002/sca.21284 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Corral\-Núñez C, Fernández\-Godoy E, Casielles JM, Estay J, Bersezio\-Miranda C, Cisternas\-Pinto P, Batista\-de Oliveira O \| title \= The Current State of Calcium Silicate Cements in Restorative Dentistry: A Review \| journal \= Revista Facultad de Odontología Universidad de Antioquia \| date \= January 2016 \| volume \= 27 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 425–41 \| doi \= 10\.17533/udea.rfo.v27n2a10 \| doi\-access \= free }} the material triggers a biological response and results in formation of bonding with the tissue.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Karabucak B, Li D, Lim J, Iqbal M \| title \= Vital pulp therapy with mineral trioxide aggregate \| journal \= Dental Traumatology \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 240–3 \| date \= August 2005 \| pmid \= 16026533 \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1600\-9657\.2005\.00306\.x }} They are commonly used as pulp capping agents and lining materials for silicate and resin\-based filling materials.
[thumb\|300x300px\|Calcium\-silicate liner used as a pulp capping material](/wiki/File:Calcium_silicate_liner.jpg "Calcium silicate liner.jpg")
It is usually supplied as two pastes, a [glycol](/wiki/Diol "Diol") [salicylate](/wiki/Salicylic_acid "Salicylic acid") and another paste containing [zinc oxide](/wiki/Zinc_oxide "Zinc oxide") with calcium hydroxide. On mixing, a chelate compound is formed. Light\-activated versions are also available; these contain [polymerization](/wiki/Polymerization "Polymerization") activators, [hydroexyethyl methacrylate](/wiki/%28Hydroxyethyl%29methacrylate "(Hydroxyethyl)methacrylate"), dimethacrylate which when light activated will result in a polymerization reaction of a modified methacrylate monomer.
**Polycarboxylate cement**
[Polycarboxylate](/wiki/Polycarboxylates "Polycarboxylates") cement has the compressive strength to resist amalgam condensation. It is acidic, but less acidic than phosphate cements due to it having a higher [molecular weight](/wiki/Molecular_mass "Molecular mass") and [polyacrylic acid](/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid "Polyacrylic acid") being weaker than [phosphoric acid](/wiki/Phosphoric_acid "Phosphoric acid"). It forms a strong bond with dentine and enamel, allowing it to form a coronal seal. In addition, it is an electrical and thermal insulator while also releasing [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride "Fluoride"), rendering it [bacteriostatic](/wiki/Bacteriostatic_agent "Bacteriostatic agent"). It is also radio\-opaque, making it an excellent lining material.
Care has to be taken in handling such material, as it has a strong bond with stainless steel instruments once it sets.
Polycarboxylate cement is commonly used as a [luting agents](/wiki/Luting_agent "Luting agent") or as a cavity base material. However, it tends to be rubbery during its setting reaction and adheres to stainless steel instruments, so most operators prefer not to use it in deep cavities.
It is usually supplied as a power containing zinc oxide and a liquid containing aqueous polyacrylic acid. The reaction consists of an acid base reaction with zinc oxide reacting with the acid groups in polyacid. This forms a reaction product of unreacted zinc oxide cores bound by a salt matrix, with polyacrylic acid chains cross linking with zinc ions.
**Glass ionomer**
[Glass ionomer](/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement "Glass ionomer cement") (GI) has the strongest compressive and tensile strength of all linings, so it can withstand amalgam condensation in high stress bearing areas such as class II cavities. GI is used as a lining material as it is very compatible with most restorative materials, insulates thermally and electrically, and adheres to enamel and dentine. GI lining contains glass of smaller particle sizes compared to its adhesive restorative mix, to allow formation of a thinner film. Some variations are also radiopaque, making them good for X\-ray cavity detection. In addition, GI is bacteriostatic due to its fluoride release from un\-reacted glass cores.
GIs are usually used as a lining material for [composite resins](/wiki/Dental_composite "Dental composite") or as [luting agents](/wiki/Luting_agent "Luting agent") for orthodontic bands.
The reaction is an acid\-base reaction between calcium\-aluminum\-silicate glass powder and polyacrylic acid. They come in a powder and liquid which are mixed on a pad or in capsules which are for single usage. Resin\-modified GIs contain a [photoinitiator](/wiki/Photoinitiator "Photoinitiator") (usually [camphorquinone](/wiki/Camphorquinone "Camphorquinone")) and an amide, and are light cured with a LED light curing unit. Setting takes place by a combination of acid\-base reaction and chemically activated polymerization.
**Zinc oxide eugenol**
[Zinc oxide eugenol](/wiki/Zinc_oxide_eugenol "Zinc oxide eugenol") has the lowest [compressive](/wiki/Compressive_strength "Compressive strength") and [tensile strength](/wiki/Tensile_strength "Tensile strength") of the liners, so its use is limited to small or non\-stress\-bearing areas such as Class V cavities. This cavity lining is often used with a high strength base to provide strength, rigidity and thermal insulation. Zinc oxide eugenol can be used as linings in deep cavities without causing harm to the pulp, due to its obtundant effect on the pulp as well as its bactericidal properties due to zinc. However, eugenol may have an effect on resin\-based filling materials, as it interferes with polymerization and occasionally causes discoloration. Caution could therefore be exercised when using both in tandem. It is also radio\-opaque, allowing fillings to be visible by X\-rays.
Zinc oxide eugenol is usually used as a temporary filling/luting agent due to its low compressive strength making it easily removed, or as a lining for amalgam as it is incompatible with composites resins.
It is supplied as a two paste system. Equal length of two pastes are dispensed into a paper pad and mixed.
| Agent | Advantages | Disadvantages |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Calcium hydroxide | Alkaline nature promotes anti\-bacterial atmosphere Therapeutic effect for dentinal tubules Low thermal conductivity can provide thermal insulation Radiopaque Thermal and electrical insulator Good restorative material compatibility | Soluble for oral fluids thus restricted to dentine coverage only Viscous consistency makes it difficult to apply to cavities in thick sections Low compressive strength, requiring a second layer of strong cement base above it |
| Polycarboxylate cement | Decent compressive and tensile strength Radiopaque Bacteriostatic due to fluoride release Adhesive thus coronal seal Compatible with most restorative materials Thermal and electrical insulator | Mildly acidic thus a mild irritant Hard to handle due to strong bond with stainless steel instruments Rubbery during setting reaction thus hard to manipulate in deep cavities |
| Zinc oxide eugenol | Can be used as a temporary filling or lining as it is easy to remove even after set{{Cite book\|title\=Dental materials : properties and manipulation \| first1 \= John M \| last1 \= Powers \| first2 \= John C \| last2 \= Wataha \| name\-list\-style \= vanc \|date\=2013\|publisher\=Elsevier/Mosby \|isbn\=978\-0\-323\-07836\-8\|edition\=10th \|location\=St. Louis, Mo.\|oclc\=768071631}} Bactericidal due to zinc Thermal and electrical insulator Radiopaque due to zinc Obtundant | Lowest compressive and tensile strength of all linings; can only be used on areas with little or no stress Incompatible with resin composites due to polymerization interference Non adhesive thus no coronal seal |
| Glass ionomer | Relatively high compressive and tensile strength Radiopaque Very adhesive to enamel and dentine thus don't need a bonding agent Bacteriosatic due to fluoride release Adhesive thus coronal seal Good compatibility with restorative materials Thermal and electrical insulator | Mildly acidic thus a mild irritant Remains acidic for some time after mixing Not an obtundant |
|
[
"### Types",
"**Calcium hydroxide**",
"[Calcium hydroxide](/wiki/Calcium_hydroxide \"Calcium hydroxide\") is a relatively low [compressive strength](/wiki/Compressive_strength \"Compressive strength\") and a viscous consistency, making it difficult to apply to cavities in thick sections. A common technique to overcome this issue is to apply a thin sub\\-lining of calcium hydroxide, then build up with [zinc phosphate](/wiki/Zinc_phosphate \"Zinc phosphate\") prior to amalgam condensation. This generates a relatively high [pH](/wiki/PH \"PH\") environment around the area surrounding the cement due to calcium hydroxide leaking out, thus making it bactericidal.",
"It also has a unique effect of initiating [calcification](/wiki/Calcification \"Calcification\") and stimulating the formation of secondary [dentine](/wiki/Dentin \"Dentin\"), due to an irritation effect of the pulp tissues by the cement.",
"Calcium hydroxide is [radio\\-opaque](/wiki/Radiodensity \"Radiodensity\") and acts as a good thermal and electrical insulation. However, due to its low compressive strength it is unable to withstand amalgam packing; a strong cement base material should be placed above it to counter this.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Arandi NZ \\| title \\= Calcium hydroxide liners: a literature review \\| journal \\= Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dentistry \\| volume \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 67–72 \\| date \\= 2017\\-07\\-01 \\| pmid \\= 28761378 \\| pmc \\= 5516779 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2147/CCIDE.S141381 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}",
"[Calcium silicate](/wiki/Calcium_silicate \"Calcium silicate\")\\-based liners have become alternatives to calcium hydroxide and are preferred by practitioners for their [bioactive](/wiki/Bioactive_compound \"Bioactive compound\") and sealing properties;{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Karadas M, Cantekin K, Gumus H, Ateş SM, Duymuş ZY \\| title \\= Evaluation of the bond strength of different adhesive agents to a resin\\-modified calcium silicate material (TheraCal LC) \\| journal \\= Scanning \\| volume \\= 38 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 403–411 \\| date \\= September 2016 \\| pmid \\= 26553783 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/sca.21284 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Corral\\-Núñez C, Fernández\\-Godoy E, Casielles JM, Estay J, Bersezio\\-Miranda C, Cisternas\\-Pinto P, Batista\\-de Oliveira O \\| title \\= The Current State of Calcium Silicate Cements in Restorative Dentistry: A Review \\| journal \\= Revista Facultad de Odontología Universidad de Antioquia \\| date \\= January 2016 \\| volume \\= 27 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 425–41 \\| doi \\= 10\\.17533/udea.rfo.v27n2a10 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} the material triggers a biological response and results in formation of bonding with the tissue.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Karabucak B, Li D, Lim J, Iqbal M \\| title \\= Vital pulp therapy with mineral trioxide aggregate \\| journal \\= Dental Traumatology \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 240–3 \\| date \\= August 2005 \\| pmid \\= 16026533 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1600\\-9657\\.2005\\.00306\\.x }} They are commonly used as pulp capping agents and lining materials for silicate and resin\\-based filling materials.\n[thumb\\|300x300px\\|Calcium\\-silicate liner used as a pulp capping material](/wiki/File:Calcium_silicate_liner.jpg \"Calcium silicate liner.jpg\")\nIt is usually supplied as two pastes, a [glycol](/wiki/Diol \"Diol\") [salicylate](/wiki/Salicylic_acid \"Salicylic acid\") and another paste containing [zinc oxide](/wiki/Zinc_oxide \"Zinc oxide\") with calcium hydroxide. On mixing, a chelate compound is formed. Light\\-activated versions are also available; these contain [polymerization](/wiki/Polymerization \"Polymerization\") activators, [hydroexyethyl methacrylate](/wiki/%28Hydroxyethyl%29methacrylate \"(Hydroxyethyl)methacrylate\"), dimethacrylate which when light activated will result in a polymerization reaction of a modified methacrylate monomer.",
"**Polycarboxylate cement**",
"[Polycarboxylate](/wiki/Polycarboxylates \"Polycarboxylates\") cement has the compressive strength to resist amalgam condensation. It is acidic, but less acidic than phosphate cements due to it having a higher [molecular weight](/wiki/Molecular_mass \"Molecular mass\") and [polyacrylic acid](/wiki/Polyacrylic_acid \"Polyacrylic acid\") being weaker than [phosphoric acid](/wiki/Phosphoric_acid \"Phosphoric acid\"). It forms a strong bond with dentine and enamel, allowing it to form a coronal seal. In addition, it is an electrical and thermal insulator while also releasing [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride \"Fluoride\"), rendering it [bacteriostatic](/wiki/Bacteriostatic_agent \"Bacteriostatic agent\"). It is also radio\\-opaque, making it an excellent lining material.",
"Care has to be taken in handling such material, as it has a strong bond with stainless steel instruments once it sets.",
"Polycarboxylate cement is commonly used as a [luting agents](/wiki/Luting_agent \"Luting agent\") or as a cavity base material. However, it tends to be rubbery during its setting reaction and adheres to stainless steel instruments, so most operators prefer not to use it in deep cavities.",
"It is usually supplied as a power containing zinc oxide and a liquid containing aqueous polyacrylic acid. The reaction consists of an acid base reaction with zinc oxide reacting with the acid groups in polyacid. This forms a reaction product of unreacted zinc oxide cores bound by a salt matrix, with polyacrylic acid chains cross linking with zinc ions.",
"**Glass ionomer**",
"[Glass ionomer](/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement \"Glass ionomer cement\") (GI) has the strongest compressive and tensile strength of all linings, so it can withstand amalgam condensation in high stress bearing areas such as class II cavities. GI is used as a lining material as it is very compatible with most restorative materials, insulates thermally and electrically, and adheres to enamel and dentine. GI lining contains glass of smaller particle sizes compared to its adhesive restorative mix, to allow formation of a thinner film. Some variations are also radiopaque, making them good for X\\-ray cavity detection. In addition, GI is bacteriostatic due to its fluoride release from un\\-reacted glass cores.",
"GIs are usually used as a lining material for [composite resins](/wiki/Dental_composite \"Dental composite\") or as [luting agents](/wiki/Luting_agent \"Luting agent\") for orthodontic bands.",
"The reaction is an acid\\-base reaction between calcium\\-aluminum\\-silicate glass powder and polyacrylic acid. They come in a powder and liquid which are mixed on a pad or in capsules which are for single usage. Resin\\-modified GIs contain a [photoinitiator](/wiki/Photoinitiator \"Photoinitiator\") (usually [camphorquinone](/wiki/Camphorquinone \"Camphorquinone\")) and an amide, and are light cured with a LED light curing unit. Setting takes place by a combination of acid\\-base reaction and chemically activated polymerization.",
"**Zinc oxide eugenol**",
"[Zinc oxide eugenol](/wiki/Zinc_oxide_eugenol \"Zinc oxide eugenol\") has the lowest [compressive](/wiki/Compressive_strength \"Compressive strength\") and [tensile strength](/wiki/Tensile_strength \"Tensile strength\") of the liners, so its use is limited to small or non\\-stress\\-bearing areas such as Class V cavities. This cavity lining is often used with a high strength base to provide strength, rigidity and thermal insulation. Zinc oxide eugenol can be used as linings in deep cavities without causing harm to the pulp, due to its obtundant effect on the pulp as well as its bactericidal properties due to zinc. However, eugenol may have an effect on resin\\-based filling materials, as it interferes with polymerization and occasionally causes discoloration. Caution could therefore be exercised when using both in tandem. It is also radio\\-opaque, allowing fillings to be visible by X\\-rays.",
"Zinc oxide eugenol is usually used as a temporary filling/luting agent due to its low compressive strength making it easily removed, or as a lining for amalgam as it is incompatible with composites resins.",
"It is supplied as a two paste system. Equal length of two pastes are dispensed into a paper pad and mixed.",
"",
"| Agent | Advantages | Disadvantages |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Calcium hydroxide | Alkaline nature promotes anti\\-bacterial atmosphere Therapeutic effect for dentinal tubules Low thermal conductivity can provide thermal insulation Radiopaque Thermal and electrical insulator Good restorative material compatibility | Soluble for oral fluids thus restricted to dentine coverage only Viscous consistency makes it difficult to apply to cavities in thick sections Low compressive strength, requiring a second layer of strong cement base above it |\n| Polycarboxylate cement | Decent compressive and tensile strength Radiopaque Bacteriostatic due to fluoride release Adhesive thus coronal seal Compatible with most restorative materials Thermal and electrical insulator | Mildly acidic thus a mild irritant Hard to handle due to strong bond with stainless steel instruments Rubbery during setting reaction thus hard to manipulate in deep cavities |\n| Zinc oxide eugenol | Can be used as a temporary filling or lining as it is easy to remove even after set{{Cite book\\|title\\=Dental materials : properties and manipulation \\| first1 \\= John M \\| last1 \\= Powers \\| first2 \\= John C \\| last2 \\= Wataha \\| name\\-list\\-style \\= vanc \\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Elsevier/Mosby \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-323\\-07836\\-8\\|edition\\=10th \\|location\\=St. Louis, Mo.\\|oclc\\=768071631}} Bactericidal due to zinc Thermal and electrical insulator Radiopaque due to zinc Obtundant | Lowest compressive and tensile strength of all linings; can only be used on areas with little or no stress Incompatible with resin composites due to polymerization interference Non adhesive thus no coronal seal |\n| Glass ionomer | Relatively high compressive and tensile strength Radiopaque Very adhesive to enamel and dentine thus don't need a bonding agent Bacteriosatic due to fluoride release Adhesive thus coronal seal Good compatibility with restorative materials Thermal and electrical insulator | Mildly acidic thus a mild irritant Remains acidic for some time after mixing Not an obtundant |",
""
] |
Restorative materials
---------------------
[thumb\|350px\|right\|[Glass ionomer cement](/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement "Glass ionomer cement") \- [composite resin](/wiki/Dental_composite "Dental composite") spectrum of restorative materials used in dentistry. Towards the GIC end of the spectrum, there is increasing fluoride release and increasing acid\-base content; towards the composite resin end of the spectrum, there is increasing light cure percentage and increased flexural strength.](/wiki/File:Restorative_materials.png "Restorative materials.png")
**Dental restorative materials** are used to replace tooth structure loss, usually due to [dental caries](/wiki/Tooth_decay "Tooth decay") (cavities), but also [tooth wear](/wiki/Tooth_wear "Tooth wear") and [dental trauma](/wiki/Dental_trauma "Dental trauma"). On other occasions, such materials may be used for [cosmetic](/wiki/Cosmetic_dentistry "Cosmetic dentistry") purposes to alter the appearance of an individual's teeth.
There are many challenges for the physical properties of the ideal dental restorative material. The ideal material would be identical to natural tooth structure in strength, adherence, and appearance. The properties of such material can be divided into four categories: physical properties, [biocompatibility](/wiki/Biocompatibility "Biocompatibility"), aesthetics and application.
* Physical properties of good restorative materials include low thermal conductivity and expansion, resistance to different categories of forces and wear such as [attrition](/wiki/Dental_attrition "Dental attrition") and [abrasion](/wiki/Dental_abrasion "Dental abrasion"), and resistance to chemical erosion. There must also be good bonding strength to the tooth. Everyday [masticatory](/wiki/Chewing "Chewing") forces and conditions must be withstood without material fatigue.
* [thumb\|263x263px\|Root canal sealer used in endodontic therapyBiocompatibility](/wiki/File:Resin_based_root_canal_sealer.jpg "Resin based root canal sealer.jpg") refers to how well the material coexists with the biological equilibrium of the tooth and body systems. Since [fillings](/wiki/Dental_filling "Dental filling") are in close contact with [mucosa](/wiki/Mucous_membrane "Mucous membrane"), tooth, and pulp, biocompatibility is very important. Common problems with some of the current dental materials include chemical leakage from the material, pulpal irritation and, less commonly, allergic reactions. Some of the byproducts of the chemical reactions during different stages of material hardening need to be considered.
* Radiopacity in dental materials is an important property that allows for distinguishing restorations from teeth and surrounding structures, assessing the absorption of materials into bone structure, and detecting cement dissolution or other failures that could cause harm to the patient.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2022}} Cements, composites, endodontic sealers, bone grafts, and acrylic resins all benefit from the addition of radiopaque materials.{{cite journal\|pmid\=24473719\|pmc\=3891277\|year\=2013\|last1\=Collares\|first1\=F. M\|title\=Influence of radiopaque fillers on physicochemical properties of a model epoxy resin\-based root canal sealer\|journal\=Journal of Applied Oral Science\|volume\=21\|issue\=6\|pages\=533–9\|last2\=Klein\|first2\=M\|last3\=Santos\|first3\=P. D\|last4\=Portella\|first4\=F. F\|last5\=Ogliari\|first5\=F\|last6\=Leitune\|first6\=V. C\|last7\=Samuel\|first7\=S. M\|doi\=10\.1590/1679\-775720130334}}\> Examples of these materials include [zinc oxide](/wiki/Zinc_oxide "Zinc oxide"), [zirconium dioxide](/wiki/Zirconium_dioxide "Zirconium dioxide"), [titanium dioxide](/wiki/Titanium_dioxide "Titanium dioxide"), [barium sulfate](/wiki/Barium_sulfate "Barium sulfate"), and [ytterbium(III) fluoride](/wiki/Ytterbium%28III%29_fluoride "Ytterbium(III) fluoride").{{cite journal\|pmid\=20579134\|year\=2010\|last1\=Collares\|first1\=F. M.\|title\=Ytterbium trifluoride as a radiopaque agent for dental cements\|journal\=International Endodontic Journal\|volume\=43\|issue\=9\|pages\=792–7\|last2\=Ogliari\|first2\=F. A.\|last3\=Lima\|first3\=G. S.\|last4\=Fontanella\|first4\=V. R.\|last5\=Piva\|first5\=E.\|last6\=Samuel\|first6\=S. M.\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1365\-2591\.2010\.01746\.x}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.americanelements.com/dentistry.html \|title\=Dentistry\|publisher\=American Elements\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-16}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Kastyl\|first1\=Jaroslav\|last2\=Chlup\|first2\=Zdenek\|last3\=Stastny\|first3\=Premysl\|last4\=Trunec\|first4\=Martin\|date\=2020\-08\-17\|title\=Machinability and properties of zirconia ceramics prepared by gelcasting method\|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/17436753\.2019\.1675402\|journal\=Advances in Applied Ceramics\|volume\=119\|issue\=5–6\|pages\=252–260\|doi\=10\.1080/17436753\.2019\.1675402\|bibcode\=2020AdApC.119\..252K \|hdl\=11012/181089\|s2cid\=210795876\|issn\=1743\-6753\|hdl\-access\=free}}
* Ideally, filling materials should match the surrounding tooth structure in shade, translucency, and texture.
* Dental operators require materials that are easy to manipulate and shape, where the chemistry of any reactions that need to occur are predictable or controllable.
### Direct restorative materials
Direct restorations are ones which are placed directly into a cavity on a tooth, and shaped to fit. The chemistry of the setting reaction for direct restorative materials is designed to be more biologically compatible. Heat and byproducts generated cannot damage the tooth or patient, since the reaction needs to take place while in contact with the tooth during restoration. This ultimately limits the strength of the materials, since harder materials need more energy to manipulate. The type of filling material used has a minor effect on how long they last. The majority of clinical studies indicate the annual failure rates (AFRs) are between 1% and 3% with tooth colored fillings on back teeth. Root canaled (endodontically) treated teeth have AFRs between 2% and 12%. The main reasons for failure are cavities that occur around the filling and fracture of the real tooth. These are related to personal cavity risk and factors like grinding teeth ([bruxism](/wiki/Bruxism "Bruxism")).{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Demarco FF, Corrêa MB, Cenci MS, Moraes RR, Opdam NJ \| title \= Longevity of posterior composite restorations: not only a matter of materials \| journal \= Dental Materials \| volume \= 28 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 87–101 \| date \= January 2012 \| pmid \= 22192253 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.dental.2011\.09\.003 }}
#### Amalgam
{{Main\|Amalgam (dentistry)}}
[Amalgam](/wiki/Amalgam_%28dentistry%29 "Amalgam (dentistry)") is a metallic filling material composed from a mixture of [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 "Mercury (element)") (from 43% to 54%) and a powdered [alloy](/wiki/Alloy "Alloy") made mostly of [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver"), [tin](/wiki/Tin "Tin"), [zinc](/wiki/Zinc "Zinc") and [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper"), commonly called the amalgam alloy.[WHO \- Mercury in Health Care :Amalgam is a mixture of mercury and a metal alloy](https://web.archive.org/web/20061129024451/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/medicalwaste/mercurypolpaper/en/) page 1 item \# 2, third paragraph. Amalgam does not adhere to tooth structure without the aid of cements or use of techniques which lock in the filling, using the same principles as a [dovetail joint](/wiki/Dovetail_joint "Dovetail joint").
Amalgam is still used extensively in many parts of the world because of its cost effectiveness, superior strength and longevity. However, the metallic colour is not aesthetically pleasing and tooth coloured alternatives are continually emerging with increasingly comparable properties. Due to the known toxicity of mercury, there is some [controversy about the use of amalgams](/wiki/Dental_amalgam_controversy "Dental amalgam controversy"). The Swedish government banned the use of mercury amalgam in June 2009\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.government.se/sb/d/574/a/119559\|title\=Sweden will ban the use of mercury on 1 juni 2009\|work\=Regeringskansliet\|date\=29 January 2009}} Research has shown that, while amalgam use is controversial and may increase mercury levels in the human body, these levels are below safety threshold levels established by the [World Health Organization](/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") and the U.S. [Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency"). However, there are certain subpopulations who, due to inherited genetic variabilities, are more sensitive to mercury than these threshold levels. They may experience adverse effects caused by amalgam restoration, including neural defects caused by impaired [neurotransmitter](/wiki/Neurotransmitter "Neurotransmitter") processing.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Woods JS, Heyer NJ, Russo JE, Martin MD, Pillai PB, Bammler TK, Farin FM \| title \= Genetic polymorphisms of catechol\-O\-methyltransferase modify the neurobehavioral effects of mercury in children \| journal \= Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A \| volume \= 77 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 293–312 \| date \= 2014 \| pmid \= 24593143 \| pmc \= 3967503 \| doi \= 10\.1080/15287394\.2014\.867210 }}
#### Composite resin
{{Main\|Dental composite}}
[thumb\|Enamel and dentin shades of composite. Other A2 universal shade for direct and indirect restorations, and flowable composite.](/wiki/File:Composite_material.jpg "Composite material.jpg")
Composite resin fillings (also called white fillings) are a mixture of [nanoparticles](/wiki/Nanoparticle "Nanoparticle"){{cite journal \| last1 \= Sonal \| first1 \= Sonal \| last2 \= Kumar \| first2 \= Shiv Ranjan\| last3 \= Patnaik \| first3 \= Amar\| last4 \= Meena \| first4 \= Anoj \| last5 \= Godara \| first5 \= Manish \| year \= 2017 \| title \= Effect of adding nanosilica particulate filler on the wear behavior of dental composite \| journal \= Polymer Composites \| volume \= 39 \| issue \= S1\| pages \= 332–341 \| doi \= 10\.1002/pc.24436 }}{{cite journal \| last1 \= Sonal \| first1 \= Sonal \| last2 \= Patnaik \| first2 \= Amar \| last3 \= Kumar \| first3 \= Shiv Ranjan\| last4 \= Godara \| first4 \= Manish \| year \= 2019 \| title \= Investigating influence of low fraction of polytetrafluoroethylene filler on mechanical and wear behavior of light\-cured dental composite \| journal \= Materials Research Express \| volume \= 6 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 085403 \| doi \= 10\.1088/2053\-1591/ab209a \| bibcode \= 2019MRE.....6h5403S \| s2cid \= 164705598 }}{{Cite journal \|last\=Porto \|first\=Thiago Soares \|last2\=Medeiros da Silva \|first2\=Italo Guimaraes \|last3\=de Freitas Vallerini \|first3\=Bruna \|last4\=Fernando de Goes \|first4\=Mario \|date\=November 2023 \|title\=Different surface treatment strategies on etchable CAD\-CAM materials: Part 1—Effect on the surface morphology \|url\=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002239132100593X \|journal\=The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry \|language\=en \|volume\=130 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=761–769 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.prosdent.2021\.10\.020}} or powdered glass and plastic resin, and can be made to resemble the appearance of the natural tooth. Although cosmetically superior to amalgam fillings, composite resin fillings are usually more expensive. [Bis\-GMA](/wiki/Bis-GMA "Bis-GMA") based resins contain [Bisphenol A](/wiki/Bisphenol_A "Bisphenol A"), a known endocrine disrupter chemical, and may contribute to the development of [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer "Breast cancer"). However, there is no added risk of [kidney](/wiki/Kidney "Kidney") or [endocrine](/wiki/Endocrine_system "Endocrine system") injury in choosing composite restorations over amalgams. [PEX](/wiki/Cross-linked_polyethylene "Cross-linked polyethylene")\-based materials do not contain Bisphenol A and are the least [cytotoxic](/wiki/Cytotoxicity "Cytotoxicity") material available.
Most modern composite resins are light\-cured [photopolymers](/wiki/Photopolymer "Photopolymer"), meaning that they harden with light exposure. They can then be polished to achieve maximum aesthetic results. Composite resins experience a very small amount of shrinkage upon curing, causing the material to pull away from the walls of the cavity preparation. This makes the tooth slightly more vulnerable to microleakage and recurrent decay. Microleakage can be minimized or eliminated with proper handling techniques and appropriate material selection.
In some circumstances, using composite resin allows less of the tooth structure to be removed compared to other dental materials such as amalgam and indirect methods of restoration. This is because composite resins bind to enamel (and dentin too, although not as well) via a micromechanical bond. As conservation of tooth structure is a key ingredient in tooth preservation, many dentists prefer placing materials like composite instead of amalgam fillings whenever possible.
Generally, composite fillings are used to fill a [carious lesion](/wiki/Carious_lesion "Carious lesion") involving [highly visible areas](/wiki/Aesthetic_anterior_composite_restoration "Aesthetic anterior composite restoration") (such as the central [incisors](/wiki/Incisor "Incisor") or any other teeth that can be seen when smiling) or when conservation of tooth structure is a top priority.
The bond of composite resin to tooth is especially affected by moisture contamination and the cleanliness of the prepared surface. Other materials can be selected when restoring teeth where moisture control techniques are not effective.
#### Glass ionomer cement
{{Main\|Glass ionomer cement}}
The concept of using "smart" materials in dentistry has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Conventional glass ionomer cements (GICs) have many applications in dentistry. They are biocompatible with the dental pulp to some extent. Clinically, this material was initially used as a biomaterial to replace the lost osseous tissues in the human body.
GIC fillings are a mixture of glass and an organic acid.
The cavity preparation of a GIC filling is the same as a composite resin. GICs are chemically set via an acid\-base reaction. Upon mixing of the material components, no light cure is needed to harden the material once placed in the cavity preparation. After the initial set, GICs still need time to fully set and harden.
An advantage of GICs compared to other restorative materials is that they can be placed in cavities without any need for bonding agents. Another advantage is that they are not subject to shrinkage and microleakage, as the bonding mechanism is an acid\-base reaction and not a polymerization reaction. Additionally, GICs contain and release [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride "Fluoride"), which is important to prevent carious lesions. As GICs release their fluoride, they can be "recharged" by the use of fluoride\-containing toothpaste; this means they can be used to treat patients at high risk of caries.
Although they are tooth\-colored, GICs vary in translucency, and their aesthetic potential is not as great as that of composite resins. Newer formulations that contain light\-cured resins can achieve a greater aesthetic result, but do not release fluoride as well as conventional GICs.
The most important disadvantage of GICs is lack of adequate strength and toughness. To improve the mechanical properties of the conventional GIC, resin\-modified ionomers have been marketed. GICs are usually weak after setting and are not stable in water; however, they become stronger with the progression of reactions and become more resistant to moisture.
New generations of GICs aim to regenerate tissues; they use bioactive materials in the form of a powder or solution to induce local tissue repair. These materials release chemical agents in the form of dissolved ions or growth factors such as [bone morphogenetic protein](/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein "Bone morphogenetic protein"), which stimulates activate cells.
GICs are about as expensive as composite resin. The fillings do not wear as well as composite resin fillings, but they are generally considered good materials to use for root caries and for sealants.
#### Resin modified glass\-ionomer cement (RMGIC)
A combination of glass\-ionomer and composite resin, these fillings are a mixture of glass, an organic acid, and resin [monomers](/wiki/Monomer "Monomer") that harden when light cured (light\-activated polymerization besides the acid\-base reaction of conventional GICs). The cost is similar to composite resin. It holds up better than GIC, but not as well as composite resin, and is not recommended for biting surfaces of adult teeth,{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Cho SY, Cheng AC \| title \= A review of glass ionomer restorations in the primary dentition \| journal \= Journal (Canadian Dental Association) \| volume \= 65 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 491–5 \| date \= October 1999 \| pmid \= 10560209 \| url \= https://www.cda\-adc.ca/jcda/vol\-65/issue\-9/491\.html }} or when control of moisture cannot be achieved.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mickenautsch S, Yengopal V \| title \= Retention loss of resin based fissure sealants \- a valid predictor for clinical outcome? \| journal \= The Open Dentistry Journal \| volume \= 7 \| pages \= 102–8 \| date \= 2013\-08\-23 \| pmid \= 24078856 \| pmc \= 3785037 \| doi \= 10\.2174/18742106201305130001 \|doi\-access\=free}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Smallridge J \| title \= UK National Clinical Guidelines in Paediatric Dentistry: Use of fissure sealants including management of the stained fissure in first permanent molars \| journal \= International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry \| pages \= no \| date \= June 2010 \| pmid \= 20545793 \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1365\-263x.2009\.01035\.x }}
Generally, RMGICs can achieve a better aesthetic result than conventional GICs, but not as good as pure composites.
#### Compomers
{{Main\|Dental compomer}}
{{Cite book\| first1 \= Stephen J \| last1 \= Bonsor \| first2 \= Gavin J \| last2 \= Pearson \| name\-list\-style \= vanc \|title\=A clinical guide to applied dental materials \|date\=2013\|publisher\=Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone \|isbn\=9780702046964\|location\=Amsterdam\|pages\=99–104\|oclc\=824491168}} Another combination of composite resin and GIC technology, compomers are essentially made up of filler, dimethacrylate monomer, difunctional resin, photo\-activator and initiator, and hydrophilic monomers. The filler decreases the proportion of resin and increases the mechanical strength, as well as improving the material's appearance.
Although compomers have better mechanical and aesthetic properties than RMGIC, they have some disadvantages which limit their applications:
* Compomers have weaker wear properties.
* They cannot adhere to tooth tissue due to the presence of resin, which can make it shrink on polymerisation. They therefore require bonding materials.
* They release low levels of fluoride, so cannot act as a fluoride reservoir.
* They have high staining susceptibility; uptake of oral fluid causes them to show staining soon after placement.
Due to its relatively weaker mechanical properties, Compomers are unfit for stress\-bearing restorations but can be used in the [deciduous dentition](/wiki/Deciduous_teeth "Deciduous teeth") where lower loads are anticipated.
#### Cermets
{{Main\|Dental cermets}}
Dental cermets, also known as silver cermets, were created to improve the wear resistance and hardness of glass ionomer cements by adding [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver"). Their other advantages are that they adhere directly to tooth tissue, and are [radio\-opaque](/wiki/Radiodensity "Radiodensity"), which helps with identification of [secondary caries](/wiki/Tooth_decay "Tooth decay") when future [radiographs](/wiki/Radiography "Radiography") are taken.
However, cermets have poorer aesthetics, appearing metallic rather than white. They also have a similar [compressive strength](/wiki/Compressive_strength "Compressive strength"), [flexural strength](/wiki/Flexural_strength "Flexural strength"), and [solubility](/wiki/Solubility "Solubility") as GICs, some of the main limiting factors for both materials. In addition, their [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride "Fluoride") release is poorer than that of GICs. Clinical studies have shown cermets perform poorly. All these disadvantages led to the decline in the use of this restorative material.{{Cite book\|title\=Introduction to dental materials\|last\=Noort, Richard van.\|date\=2013\|publisher\=Mosby Elsevier\|isbn\=978\-0\-7234\-3659\-1\|edition\=4th\|location\=Edinburgh\|oclc\=821697096}}
### Indirect restorative materials
[thumb\|A fabricated indirect restoration (inlay) made of porcelain](/wiki/File:Before_and_after_cementation_of_inlay.jpg "Before and after cementation of inlay.jpg")
An indirect restoration is one where the teeth are first prepared, then an [impression](/wiki/Dental_impression "Dental impression") is taken and sent to a [dental technician](/wiki/Dental_technician "Dental technician") who fabricates the restoration according to the dentist's prescription.
#### Porcelain
**[Porcelain](/wiki/Porcelain "Porcelain")** fillings are hard, but can cause wear on opposing teeth. Their hardness and rigidity enables them to resist abrasion forces, and are good aesthetically as they mimic the appearance of natural teeth.{{rp\|91–92}} However, they are also brittle and not always recommended for [molar](/wiki/Molar_%28tooth%29 "Molar (tooth)") fillings.{{rp\|91–92}} Porcelain materials can be strengthened by soaking fired material in molten salt to allow exchange of sodium and potassium ions on the surface; this successfully creates compressive stresses on the outer layer, by controlling cooling after firing, and by the use of pure alumina inserts, a core of alumina or alumina powder, as they act as crack stoppers and are highly compatible to porcelain.{{Clarify\|reason\=Unclear sentence due to structure/grammar\|date\=September 2023}}{{rp\|91–92}}
#### Dental composite materials
Tooth colored **[dental composite](/wiki/Dental_composite "Dental composite")** materials are either used as a direct filling or as the construction material for an indirect inlay. They are usually cured by light.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Pallesen U, Qvist V \| title \= Composite resin fillings and inlays. An 11\-year evaluation \| journal \= Clinical Oral Investigations \| volume \= 7 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 71–9 \| date \= June 2003 \| pmid \= 12740693 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s00784\-003\-0201\-z \| s2cid \= 157974 }}
#### Nano\-ceramic particles
[**Nano\-ceramic**](/wiki/Ceramic_nanoparticle "Ceramic nanoparticle") particles embedded in a resin matrix are less brittle and therefore less likely to crack, or chip, than all\-ceramic indirect fillings. They absorb the shock of chewing more like natural teeth, and more like resin or gold fillings, than do ceramic fillings; at the same time they are more resistant to wear than all\-resin indirect fillings. They are available in blocks for use with [CAD/CAM](/wiki/CAD/CAM_dentistry "CAD/CAM dentistry") systems.{{medical citation needed\|date\=January 2018}}
#### Gold fillings
**Gold fillings** have excellent durability, wear well, and do not cause excessive wear to the opposing teeth, but they do conduct heat and cold, which can be irritating. There are two categories: cast gold fillings (gold inlays and onlays) made with 14 or 18 kt gold, and gold foil made with pure 24 kt gold that is burnished layer by layer. For years, they have been considered the benchmark of restorative dental materials. However, recent advances in dental porcelains and a consumer focus on aesthetic results have caused the demand for gold fillings to drop. Gold fillings are sometimes quite expensive, but they last a very long time, meaning that gold restorations are less costly and painful in the long run. It is not uncommon for a gold crown to last 30 years.{{medical citation needed\|date\=January 2018}}
### Other historical fillings
{{More citations needed section\|date\=September 2023}}
[Lead](/wiki/Lead "Lead") fillings were used in the 18th century, but became unpopular in the 19th century because of their softness. This was before [lead poisoning](/wiki/Lead_poisoning "Lead poisoning") was understood.
According to [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War")\-era dental handbooks, since the early 19th century metallic fillings had been made of [lead](/wiki/Lead "Lead"), [gold](/wiki/Gold "Gold"), [tin](/wiki/Tin "Tin"), [platinum](/wiki/Platinum "Platinum"), [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver"), [aluminum](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium"), or [amalgam](/wiki/Amalgam_%28dentistry%29 "Amalgam (dentistry)"). A pellet was rolled slightly larger than the cavity, condensed into place with instruments, then shaped and polished in the patient's mouth. The filling was usually left "high", with final condensation—"tamping down"—occurring while the patient chewed food. Gold foil was the most popular filling material during the Civil War. Tin and amalgam were also popular due to lower cost, but were held in lower regard.
One survey{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2020}} of dental practices in the mid\-19th century catalogued dental fillings found in the remains of seven [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America "Confederate States of America") soldiers from the Civil War. They were made of:
* Gold foil: preferred because of its durability and safety.
* Platinum: rarely used because it was too hard, inflexible and difficult to form into foil.
* Aluminum: failed because of its lack of malleability but has been added to some amalgams.
* Tin and iron: believed to have been a very popular filling material during the Civil War. Tin foil was recommended when a cheaper material than gold was requested by the patient, but it wore down rapidly; even if it could be replaced cheaply and quickly, there was a concern, specifically from [Chapin A. Harris](/wiki/Chapin_A._Harris "Chapin A. Harris"), that it would [oxidise](/wiki/Oxidation "Oxidation") in the mouth and cause a recurrence of caries. Due to blackening, tin was only recommended for [posterior teeth](/wiki/Posterior_teeth "Posterior teeth").
* [Thorium](/wiki/Thorium "Thorium"): the element's radioactivity was unknown at that time, and the dentist probably thought he was working with tin.
* Lead and tungsten mixture: probably from shotgun pellets. Lead was rarely used in the 19th century, as it is soft and quickly worn down by mastication, and had known harmful health effects.
### Acrylic polymers
Acrylics are used in the fabrication of [dentures](/wiki/Dentures "Dentures"), artificial teeth, impression trays, maxillofacial / [orthodontic appliances](/wiki/Orthodontic_technology "Orthodontic technology") and [temporary (provisional) restorations](/wiki/Temporary_crown "Temporary crown"). They cannot be used as tooth filling materials because they can lead to [pulpitis](/wiki/Pulpitis "Pulpitis") and [periodontitis](/wiki/Periodontal_disease "Periodontal disease"), as they may generate heat and acids during setting, and in addition they shrink.{{Cite book\|title\=Craig's Restorative Dental Materials\|year\=2012\|isbn\=978\-0\-323\-08108\-5\|last1\=Sakaguchi\|first1\=Ronald L.\|last2\=Powers\|first2\=John M.\|publisher\=Elsevier/Mosby }}
### Failure of dental restorations
Fillings have a finite lifespan; composites appear to have a higher failure rate than amalgam over five to seven years.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Worthington \|first1\=Helen V. \|last2\=Khangura \|first2\=Sara \|last3\=Seal \|first3\=Kelsey \|last4\=Mierzwinski\-Urban \|first4\=Monika \|last5\=Veitz\-Keenan \|first5\=Analia \|last6\=Sahrmann \|first6\=Philipp \|last7\=Schmidlin \|first7\=Patrick Roger \|last8\=Davis \|first8\=Dell \|last9\=Iheozor\-Ejiofor \|first9\=Zipporah \|last10\=Rasines Alcaraz \|first10\=María Graciela \|date\=2021\-08\-13 \|title\=Direct composite resin fillings versus amalgam fillings for permanent posterior teeth \|url\= \|journal\=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|volume\=2021 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=CD005620 \|doi\=10\.1002/14651858\.CD005620\.pub3 \|issn\=1469\-493X \|pmc\=8407050 \|pmid\=34387873}} How well people keep their teeth clean and avoid cavities is probably a more important factor than the material chosen for the restoration.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Opdam NJ, van de Sande FH, Bronkhorst E, Cenci MS, Bottenberg P, Pallesen U, Gaengler P, Lindberg A, Huysmans MC, van Dijken JW \| title \= Longevity of posterior composite restorations: a systematic review and meta\-analysis \| journal \= Journal of Dental Research \| volume \= 93 \| issue \= 10 \| pages \= 943–9 \| date \= October 2014 \| pmid \= 25048250 \| pmc \= 4293707 \| doi \= 10\.1177/0022034514544217 }}
### Evaluation and regulation of dental materials
The [Nordic Institute of Dental Materials](/wiki/Nordic_Institute_of_Dental_Materials "Nordic Institute of Dental Materials") (NIOM) performs several tests to evaluate dental products in the [Nordic countries](/wiki/Nordic_countries "Nordic countries"). In the European Union, dental materials are classified as medical devices according to the [Medical Devices Directive](/wiki/Medical_Devices_Directive "Medical Devices Directive"). In USA, the [Food and Drug Administration](/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration "Food and Drug Administration") is the regulatory body for dental products.
|
[
"Restorative materials\n---------------------",
"[thumb\\|350px\\|right\\|[Glass ionomer cement](/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement \"Glass ionomer cement\") \\- [composite resin](/wiki/Dental_composite \"Dental composite\") spectrum of restorative materials used in dentistry. Towards the GIC end of the spectrum, there is increasing fluoride release and increasing acid\\-base content; towards the composite resin end of the spectrum, there is increasing light cure percentage and increased flexural strength.](/wiki/File:Restorative_materials.png \"Restorative materials.png\")\n**Dental restorative materials** are used to replace tooth structure loss, usually due to [dental caries](/wiki/Tooth_decay \"Tooth decay\") (cavities), but also [tooth wear](/wiki/Tooth_wear \"Tooth wear\") and [dental trauma](/wiki/Dental_trauma \"Dental trauma\"). On other occasions, such materials may be used for [cosmetic](/wiki/Cosmetic_dentistry \"Cosmetic dentistry\") purposes to alter the appearance of an individual's teeth.",
"There are many challenges for the physical properties of the ideal dental restorative material. The ideal material would be identical to natural tooth structure in strength, adherence, and appearance. The properties of such material can be divided into four categories: physical properties, [biocompatibility](/wiki/Biocompatibility \"Biocompatibility\"), aesthetics and application.",
"* Physical properties of good restorative materials include low thermal conductivity and expansion, resistance to different categories of forces and wear such as [attrition](/wiki/Dental_attrition \"Dental attrition\") and [abrasion](/wiki/Dental_abrasion \"Dental abrasion\"), and resistance to chemical erosion. There must also be good bonding strength to the tooth. Everyday [masticatory](/wiki/Chewing \"Chewing\") forces and conditions must be withstood without material fatigue.\n* [thumb\\|263x263px\\|Root canal sealer used in endodontic therapyBiocompatibility](/wiki/File:Resin_based_root_canal_sealer.jpg \"Resin based root canal sealer.jpg\") refers to how well the material coexists with the biological equilibrium of the tooth and body systems. Since [fillings](/wiki/Dental_filling \"Dental filling\") are in close contact with [mucosa](/wiki/Mucous_membrane \"Mucous membrane\"), tooth, and pulp, biocompatibility is very important. Common problems with some of the current dental materials include chemical leakage from the material, pulpal irritation and, less commonly, allergic reactions. Some of the byproducts of the chemical reactions during different stages of material hardening need to be considered.\n* Radiopacity in dental materials is an important property that allows for distinguishing restorations from teeth and surrounding structures, assessing the absorption of materials into bone structure, and detecting cement dissolution or other failures that could cause harm to the patient.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2022}} Cements, composites, endodontic sealers, bone grafts, and acrylic resins all benefit from the addition of radiopaque materials.{{cite journal\\|pmid\\=24473719\\|pmc\\=3891277\\|year\\=2013\\|last1\\=Collares\\|first1\\=F. M\\|title\\=Influence of radiopaque fillers on physicochemical properties of a model epoxy resin\\-based root canal sealer\\|journal\\=Journal of Applied Oral Science\\|volume\\=21\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=533–9\\|last2\\=Klein\\|first2\\=M\\|last3\\=Santos\\|first3\\=P. D\\|last4\\=Portella\\|first4\\=F. F\\|last5\\=Ogliari\\|first5\\=F\\|last6\\=Leitune\\|first6\\=V. C\\|last7\\=Samuel\\|first7\\=S. M\\|doi\\=10\\.1590/1679\\-775720130334}}\\> Examples of these materials include [zinc oxide](/wiki/Zinc_oxide \"Zinc oxide\"), [zirconium dioxide](/wiki/Zirconium_dioxide \"Zirconium dioxide\"), [titanium dioxide](/wiki/Titanium_dioxide \"Titanium dioxide\"), [barium sulfate](/wiki/Barium_sulfate \"Barium sulfate\"), and [ytterbium(III) fluoride](/wiki/Ytterbium%28III%29_fluoride \"Ytterbium(III) fluoride\").{{cite journal\\|pmid\\=20579134\\|year\\=2010\\|last1\\=Collares\\|first1\\=F. M.\\|title\\=Ytterbium trifluoride as a radiopaque agent for dental cements\\|journal\\=International Endodontic Journal\\|volume\\=43\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=792–7\\|last2\\=Ogliari\\|first2\\=F. A.\\|last3\\=Lima\\|first3\\=G. S.\\|last4\\=Fontanella\\|first4\\=V. R.\\|last5\\=Piva\\|first5\\=E.\\|last6\\=Samuel\\|first6\\=S. M.\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1365\\-2591\\.2010\\.01746\\.x}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.americanelements.com/dentistry.html \\|title\\=Dentistry\\|publisher\\=American Elements\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-16}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Kastyl\\|first1\\=Jaroslav\\|last2\\=Chlup\\|first2\\=Zdenek\\|last3\\=Stastny\\|first3\\=Premysl\\|last4\\=Trunec\\|first4\\=Martin\\|date\\=2020\\-08\\-17\\|title\\=Machinability and properties of zirconia ceramics prepared by gelcasting method\\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/17436753\\.2019\\.1675402\\|journal\\=Advances in Applied Ceramics\\|volume\\=119\\|issue\\=5–6\\|pages\\=252–260\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/17436753\\.2019\\.1675402\\|bibcode\\=2020AdApC.119\\..252K \\|hdl\\=11012/181089\\|s2cid\\=210795876\\|issn\\=1743\\-6753\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}}\n* Ideally, filling materials should match the surrounding tooth structure in shade, translucency, and texture.\n* Dental operators require materials that are easy to manipulate and shape, where the chemistry of any reactions that need to occur are predictable or controllable.",
"### Direct restorative materials",
"Direct restorations are ones which are placed directly into a cavity on a tooth, and shaped to fit. The chemistry of the setting reaction for direct restorative materials is designed to be more biologically compatible. Heat and byproducts generated cannot damage the tooth or patient, since the reaction needs to take place while in contact with the tooth during restoration. This ultimately limits the strength of the materials, since harder materials need more energy to manipulate. The type of filling material used has a minor effect on how long they last. The majority of clinical studies indicate the annual failure rates (AFRs) are between 1% and 3% with tooth colored fillings on back teeth. Root canaled (endodontically) treated teeth have AFRs between 2% and 12%. The main reasons for failure are cavities that occur around the filling and fracture of the real tooth. These are related to personal cavity risk and factors like grinding teeth ([bruxism](/wiki/Bruxism \"Bruxism\")).{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Demarco FF, Corrêa MB, Cenci MS, Moraes RR, Opdam NJ \\| title \\= Longevity of posterior composite restorations: not only a matter of materials \\| journal \\= Dental Materials \\| volume \\= 28 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 87–101 \\| date \\= January 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22192253 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.dental.2011\\.09\\.003 }}",
"#### Amalgam",
"{{Main\\|Amalgam (dentistry)}}\n[Amalgam](/wiki/Amalgam_%28dentistry%29 \"Amalgam (dentistry)\") is a metallic filling material composed from a mixture of [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\") (from 43% to 54%) and a powdered [alloy](/wiki/Alloy \"Alloy\") made mostly of [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\"), [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\"), [zinc](/wiki/Zinc \"Zinc\") and [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\"), commonly called the amalgam alloy.[WHO \\- Mercury in Health Care :Amalgam is a mixture of mercury and a metal alloy](https://web.archive.org/web/20061129024451/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/medicalwaste/mercurypolpaper/en/) page 1 item \\# 2, third paragraph. Amalgam does not adhere to tooth structure without the aid of cements or use of techniques which lock in the filling, using the same principles as a [dovetail joint](/wiki/Dovetail_joint \"Dovetail joint\").",
"Amalgam is still used extensively in many parts of the world because of its cost effectiveness, superior strength and longevity. However, the metallic colour is not aesthetically pleasing and tooth coloured alternatives are continually emerging with increasingly comparable properties. Due to the known toxicity of mercury, there is some [controversy about the use of amalgams](/wiki/Dental_amalgam_controversy \"Dental amalgam controversy\"). The Swedish government banned the use of mercury amalgam in June 2009\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.government.se/sb/d/574/a/119559\\|title\\=Sweden will ban the use of mercury on 1 juni 2009\\|work\\=Regeringskansliet\\|date\\=29 January 2009}} Research has shown that, while amalgam use is controversial and may increase mercury levels in the human body, these levels are below safety threshold levels established by the [World Health Organization](/wiki/World_Health_Organization \"World Health Organization\") and the U.S. [Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency \"United States Environmental Protection Agency\"). However, there are certain subpopulations who, due to inherited genetic variabilities, are more sensitive to mercury than these threshold levels. They may experience adverse effects caused by amalgam restoration, including neural defects caused by impaired [neurotransmitter](/wiki/Neurotransmitter \"Neurotransmitter\") processing.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Woods JS, Heyer NJ, Russo JE, Martin MD, Pillai PB, Bammler TK, Farin FM \\| title \\= Genetic polymorphisms of catechol\\-O\\-methyltransferase modify the neurobehavioral effects of mercury in children \\| journal \\= Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A \\| volume \\= 77 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 293–312 \\| date \\= 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24593143 \\| pmc \\= 3967503 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/15287394\\.2014\\.867210 }}",
"#### Composite resin",
"{{Main\\|Dental composite}}\n[thumb\\|Enamel and dentin shades of composite. Other A2 universal shade for direct and indirect restorations, and flowable composite.](/wiki/File:Composite_material.jpg \"Composite material.jpg\")\nComposite resin fillings (also called white fillings) are a mixture of [nanoparticles](/wiki/Nanoparticle \"Nanoparticle\"){{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Sonal \\| first1 \\= Sonal \\| last2 \\= Kumar \\| first2 \\= Shiv Ranjan\\| last3 \\= Patnaik \\| first3 \\= Amar\\| last4 \\= Meena \\| first4 \\= Anoj \\| last5 \\= Godara \\| first5 \\= Manish \\| year \\= 2017 \\| title \\= Effect of adding nanosilica particulate filler on the wear behavior of dental composite \\| journal \\= Polymer Composites \\| volume \\= 39 \\| issue \\= S1\\| pages \\= 332–341 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/pc.24436 }}{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Sonal \\| first1 \\= Sonal \\| last2 \\= Patnaik \\| first2 \\= Amar \\| last3 \\= Kumar \\| first3 \\= Shiv Ranjan\\| last4 \\= Godara \\| first4 \\= Manish \\| year \\= 2019 \\| title \\= Investigating influence of low fraction of polytetrafluoroethylene filler on mechanical and wear behavior of light\\-cured dental composite \\| journal \\= Materials Research Express \\| volume \\= 6 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 085403 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1088/2053\\-1591/ab209a \\| bibcode \\= 2019MRE.....6h5403S \\| s2cid \\= 164705598 }}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Porto \\|first\\=Thiago Soares \\|last2\\=Medeiros da Silva \\|first2\\=Italo Guimaraes \\|last3\\=de Freitas Vallerini \\|first3\\=Bruna \\|last4\\=Fernando de Goes \\|first4\\=Mario \\|date\\=November 2023 \\|title\\=Different surface treatment strategies on etchable CAD\\-CAM materials: Part 1—Effect on the surface morphology \\|url\\=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002239132100593X \\|journal\\=The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=130 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=761–769 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.prosdent.2021\\.10\\.020}} or powdered glass and plastic resin, and can be made to resemble the appearance of the natural tooth. Although cosmetically superior to amalgam fillings, composite resin fillings are usually more expensive. [Bis\\-GMA](/wiki/Bis-GMA \"Bis-GMA\") based resins contain [Bisphenol A](/wiki/Bisphenol_A \"Bisphenol A\"), a known endocrine disrupter chemical, and may contribute to the development of [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer \"Breast cancer\"). However, there is no added risk of [kidney](/wiki/Kidney \"Kidney\") or [endocrine](/wiki/Endocrine_system \"Endocrine system\") injury in choosing composite restorations over amalgams. [PEX](/wiki/Cross-linked_polyethylene \"Cross-linked polyethylene\")\\-based materials do not contain Bisphenol A and are the least [cytotoxic](/wiki/Cytotoxicity \"Cytotoxicity\") material available.",
"Most modern composite resins are light\\-cured [photopolymers](/wiki/Photopolymer \"Photopolymer\"), meaning that they harden with light exposure. They can then be polished to achieve maximum aesthetic results. Composite resins experience a very small amount of shrinkage upon curing, causing the material to pull away from the walls of the cavity preparation. This makes the tooth slightly more vulnerable to microleakage and recurrent decay. Microleakage can be minimized or eliminated with proper handling techniques and appropriate material selection.",
"In some circumstances, using composite resin allows less of the tooth structure to be removed compared to other dental materials such as amalgam and indirect methods of restoration. This is because composite resins bind to enamel (and dentin too, although not as well) via a micromechanical bond. As conservation of tooth structure is a key ingredient in tooth preservation, many dentists prefer placing materials like composite instead of amalgam fillings whenever possible.",
"Generally, composite fillings are used to fill a [carious lesion](/wiki/Carious_lesion \"Carious lesion\") involving [highly visible areas](/wiki/Aesthetic_anterior_composite_restoration \"Aesthetic anterior composite restoration\") (such as the central [incisors](/wiki/Incisor \"Incisor\") or any other teeth that can be seen when smiling) or when conservation of tooth structure is a top priority.",
"The bond of composite resin to tooth is especially affected by moisture contamination and the cleanliness of the prepared surface. Other materials can be selected when restoring teeth where moisture control techniques are not effective.",
"#### Glass ionomer cement",
"{{Main\\|Glass ionomer cement}}\nThe concept of using \"smart\" materials in dentistry has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Conventional glass ionomer cements (GICs) have many applications in dentistry. They are biocompatible with the dental pulp to some extent. Clinically, this material was initially used as a biomaterial to replace the lost osseous tissues in the human body.",
"GIC fillings are a mixture of glass and an organic acid.",
"The cavity preparation of a GIC filling is the same as a composite resin. GICs are chemically set via an acid\\-base reaction. Upon mixing of the material components, no light cure is needed to harden the material once placed in the cavity preparation. After the initial set, GICs still need time to fully set and harden.",
"An advantage of GICs compared to other restorative materials is that they can be placed in cavities without any need for bonding agents. Another advantage is that they are not subject to shrinkage and microleakage, as the bonding mechanism is an acid\\-base reaction and not a polymerization reaction. Additionally, GICs contain and release [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride \"Fluoride\"), which is important to prevent carious lesions. As GICs release their fluoride, they can be \"recharged\" by the use of fluoride\\-containing toothpaste; this means they can be used to treat patients at high risk of caries.",
"Although they are tooth\\-colored, GICs vary in translucency, and their aesthetic potential is not as great as that of composite resins. Newer formulations that contain light\\-cured resins can achieve a greater aesthetic result, but do not release fluoride as well as conventional GICs.",
"The most important disadvantage of GICs is lack of adequate strength and toughness. To improve the mechanical properties of the conventional GIC, resin\\-modified ionomers have been marketed. GICs are usually weak after setting and are not stable in water; however, they become stronger with the progression of reactions and become more resistant to moisture.",
"New generations of GICs aim to regenerate tissues; they use bioactive materials in the form of a powder or solution to induce local tissue repair. These materials release chemical agents in the form of dissolved ions or growth factors such as [bone morphogenetic protein](/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein \"Bone morphogenetic protein\"), which stimulates activate cells.",
"GICs are about as expensive as composite resin. The fillings do not wear as well as composite resin fillings, but they are generally considered good materials to use for root caries and for sealants.",
"#### Resin modified glass\\-ionomer cement (RMGIC)",
"A combination of glass\\-ionomer and composite resin, these fillings are a mixture of glass, an organic acid, and resin [monomers](/wiki/Monomer \"Monomer\") that harden when light cured (light\\-activated polymerization besides the acid\\-base reaction of conventional GICs). The cost is similar to composite resin. It holds up better than GIC, but not as well as composite resin, and is not recommended for biting surfaces of adult teeth,{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Cho SY, Cheng AC \\| title \\= A review of glass ionomer restorations in the primary dentition \\| journal \\= Journal (Canadian Dental Association) \\| volume \\= 65 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 491–5 \\| date \\= October 1999 \\| pmid \\= 10560209 \\| url \\= https://www.cda\\-adc.ca/jcda/vol\\-65/issue\\-9/491\\.html }} or when control of moisture cannot be achieved.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mickenautsch S, Yengopal V \\| title \\= Retention loss of resin based fissure sealants \\- a valid predictor for clinical outcome? \\| journal \\= The Open Dentistry Journal \\| volume \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 102–8 \\| date \\= 2013\\-08\\-23 \\| pmid \\= 24078856 \\| pmc \\= 3785037 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2174/18742106201305130001 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Smallridge J \\| title \\= UK National Clinical Guidelines in Paediatric Dentistry: Use of fissure sealants including management of the stained fissure in first permanent molars \\| journal \\= International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry \\| pages \\= no \\| date \\= June 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20545793 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1365\\-263x.2009\\.01035\\.x }}",
"Generally, RMGICs can achieve a better aesthetic result than conventional GICs, but not as good as pure composites.",
"#### Compomers",
"{{Main\\|Dental compomer}}\n{{Cite book\\| first1 \\= Stephen J \\| last1 \\= Bonsor \\| first2 \\= Gavin J \\| last2 \\= Pearson \\| name\\-list\\-style \\= vanc \\|title\\=A clinical guide to applied dental materials \\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone \\|isbn\\=9780702046964\\|location\\=Amsterdam\\|pages\\=99–104\\|oclc\\=824491168}} Another combination of composite resin and GIC technology, compomers are essentially made up of filler, dimethacrylate monomer, difunctional resin, photo\\-activator and initiator, and hydrophilic monomers. The filler decreases the proportion of resin and increases the mechanical strength, as well as improving the material's appearance.",
"Although compomers have better mechanical and aesthetic properties than RMGIC, they have some disadvantages which limit their applications:\n* Compomers have weaker wear properties.\n* They cannot adhere to tooth tissue due to the presence of resin, which can make it shrink on polymerisation. They therefore require bonding materials.\n* They release low levels of fluoride, so cannot act as a fluoride reservoir.\n* They have high staining susceptibility; uptake of oral fluid causes them to show staining soon after placement.\nDue to its relatively weaker mechanical properties, Compomers are unfit for stress\\-bearing restorations but can be used in the [deciduous dentition](/wiki/Deciduous_teeth \"Deciduous teeth\") where lower loads are anticipated.",
"#### Cermets",
"{{Main\\|Dental cermets}}\nDental cermets, also known as silver cermets, were created to improve the wear resistance and hardness of glass ionomer cements by adding [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\"). Their other advantages are that they adhere directly to tooth tissue, and are [radio\\-opaque](/wiki/Radiodensity \"Radiodensity\"), which helps with identification of [secondary caries](/wiki/Tooth_decay \"Tooth decay\") when future [radiographs](/wiki/Radiography \"Radiography\") are taken.",
"However, cermets have poorer aesthetics, appearing metallic rather than white. They also have a similar [compressive strength](/wiki/Compressive_strength \"Compressive strength\"), [flexural strength](/wiki/Flexural_strength \"Flexural strength\"), and [solubility](/wiki/Solubility \"Solubility\") as GICs, some of the main limiting factors for both materials. In addition, their [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride \"Fluoride\") release is poorer than that of GICs. Clinical studies have shown cermets perform poorly. All these disadvantages led to the decline in the use of this restorative material.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Introduction to dental materials\\|last\\=Noort, Richard van.\\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Mosby Elsevier\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7234\\-3659\\-1\\|edition\\=4th\\|location\\=Edinburgh\\|oclc\\=821697096}}",
"### Indirect restorative materials",
"[thumb\\|A fabricated indirect restoration (inlay) made of porcelain](/wiki/File:Before_and_after_cementation_of_inlay.jpg \"Before and after cementation of inlay.jpg\")\nAn indirect restoration is one where the teeth are first prepared, then an [impression](/wiki/Dental_impression \"Dental impression\") is taken and sent to a [dental technician](/wiki/Dental_technician \"Dental technician\") who fabricates the restoration according to the dentist's prescription.",
"#### Porcelain",
"**[Porcelain](/wiki/Porcelain \"Porcelain\")** fillings are hard, but can cause wear on opposing teeth. Their hardness and rigidity enables them to resist abrasion forces, and are good aesthetically as they mimic the appearance of natural teeth.{{rp\\|91–92}} However, they are also brittle and not always recommended for [molar](/wiki/Molar_%28tooth%29 \"Molar (tooth)\") fillings.{{rp\\|91–92}} Porcelain materials can be strengthened by soaking fired material in molten salt to allow exchange of sodium and potassium ions on the surface; this successfully creates compressive stresses on the outer layer, by controlling cooling after firing, and by the use of pure alumina inserts, a core of alumina or alumina powder, as they act as crack stoppers and are highly compatible to porcelain.{{Clarify\\|reason\\=Unclear sentence due to structure/grammar\\|date\\=September 2023}}{{rp\\|91–92}}",
"#### Dental composite materials",
"Tooth colored **[dental composite](/wiki/Dental_composite \"Dental composite\")** materials are either used as a direct filling or as the construction material for an indirect inlay. They are usually cured by light.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Pallesen U, Qvist V \\| title \\= Composite resin fillings and inlays. An 11\\-year evaluation \\| journal \\= Clinical Oral Investigations \\| volume \\= 7 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 71–9 \\| date \\= June 2003 \\| pmid \\= 12740693 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s00784\\-003\\-0201\\-z \\| s2cid \\= 157974 }}",
"#### Nano\\-ceramic particles",
"[**Nano\\-ceramic**](/wiki/Ceramic_nanoparticle \"Ceramic nanoparticle\") particles embedded in a resin matrix are less brittle and therefore less likely to crack, or chip, than all\\-ceramic indirect fillings. They absorb the shock of chewing more like natural teeth, and more like resin or gold fillings, than do ceramic fillings; at the same time they are more resistant to wear than all\\-resin indirect fillings. They are available in blocks for use with [CAD/CAM](/wiki/CAD/CAM_dentistry \"CAD/CAM dentistry\") systems.{{medical citation needed\\|date\\=January 2018}}",
"#### Gold fillings",
"**Gold fillings** have excellent durability, wear well, and do not cause excessive wear to the opposing teeth, but they do conduct heat and cold, which can be irritating. There are two categories: cast gold fillings (gold inlays and onlays) made with 14 or 18 kt gold, and gold foil made with pure 24 kt gold that is burnished layer by layer. For years, they have been considered the benchmark of restorative dental materials. However, recent advances in dental porcelains and a consumer focus on aesthetic results have caused the demand for gold fillings to drop. Gold fillings are sometimes quite expensive, but they last a very long time, meaning that gold restorations are less costly and painful in the long run. It is not uncommon for a gold crown to last 30 years.{{medical citation needed\\|date\\=January 2018}}",
"### Other historical fillings",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=September 2023}}\n[Lead](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\") fillings were used in the 18th century, but became unpopular in the 19th century because of their softness. This was before [lead poisoning](/wiki/Lead_poisoning \"Lead poisoning\") was understood.",
"According to [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\")\\-era dental handbooks, since the early 19th century metallic fillings had been made of [lead](/wiki/Lead \"Lead\"), [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\"), [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\"), [platinum](/wiki/Platinum \"Platinum\"), [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\"), [aluminum](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\"), or [amalgam](/wiki/Amalgam_%28dentistry%29 \"Amalgam (dentistry)\"). A pellet was rolled slightly larger than the cavity, condensed into place with instruments, then shaped and polished in the patient's mouth. The filling was usually left \"high\", with final condensation—\"tamping down\"—occurring while the patient chewed food. Gold foil was the most popular filling material during the Civil War. Tin and amalgam were also popular due to lower cost, but were held in lower regard.",
"One survey{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2020}} of dental practices in the mid\\-19th century catalogued dental fillings found in the remains of seven [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\") soldiers from the Civil War. They were made of:\n* Gold foil: preferred because of its durability and safety.\n* Platinum: rarely used because it was too hard, inflexible and difficult to form into foil.\n* Aluminum: failed because of its lack of malleability but has been added to some amalgams.\n* Tin and iron: believed to have been a very popular filling material during the Civil War. Tin foil was recommended when a cheaper material than gold was requested by the patient, but it wore down rapidly; even if it could be replaced cheaply and quickly, there was a concern, specifically from [Chapin A. Harris](/wiki/Chapin_A._Harris \"Chapin A. Harris\"), that it would [oxidise](/wiki/Oxidation \"Oxidation\") in the mouth and cause a recurrence of caries. Due to blackening, tin was only recommended for [posterior teeth](/wiki/Posterior_teeth \"Posterior teeth\").\n* [Thorium](/wiki/Thorium \"Thorium\"): the element's radioactivity was unknown at that time, and the dentist probably thought he was working with tin.\n* Lead and tungsten mixture: probably from shotgun pellets. Lead was rarely used in the 19th century, as it is soft and quickly worn down by mastication, and had known harmful health effects.",
"### Acrylic polymers",
"Acrylics are used in the fabrication of [dentures](/wiki/Dentures \"Dentures\"), artificial teeth, impression trays, maxillofacial / [orthodontic appliances](/wiki/Orthodontic_technology \"Orthodontic technology\") and [temporary (provisional) restorations](/wiki/Temporary_crown \"Temporary crown\"). They cannot be used as tooth filling materials because they can lead to [pulpitis](/wiki/Pulpitis \"Pulpitis\") and [periodontitis](/wiki/Periodontal_disease \"Periodontal disease\"), as they may generate heat and acids during setting, and in addition they shrink.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Craig's Restorative Dental Materials\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-323\\-08108\\-5\\|last1\\=Sakaguchi\\|first1\\=Ronald L.\\|last2\\=Powers\\|first2\\=John M.\\|publisher\\=Elsevier/Mosby }}",
"### Failure of dental restorations",
"Fillings have a finite lifespan; composites appear to have a higher failure rate than amalgam over five to seven years.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Worthington \\|first1\\=Helen V. \\|last2\\=Khangura \\|first2\\=Sara \\|last3\\=Seal \\|first3\\=Kelsey \\|last4\\=Mierzwinski\\-Urban \\|first4\\=Monika \\|last5\\=Veitz\\-Keenan \\|first5\\=Analia \\|last6\\=Sahrmann \\|first6\\=Philipp \\|last7\\=Schmidlin \\|first7\\=Patrick Roger \\|last8\\=Davis \\|first8\\=Dell \\|last9\\=Iheozor\\-Ejiofor \\|first9\\=Zipporah \\|last10\\=Rasines Alcaraz \\|first10\\=María Graciela \\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-13 \\|title\\=Direct composite resin fillings versus amalgam fillings for permanent posterior teeth \\|url\\= \\|journal\\=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \\|volume\\=2021 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=CD005620 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/14651858\\.CD005620\\.pub3 \\|issn\\=1469\\-493X \\|pmc\\=8407050 \\|pmid\\=34387873}} How well people keep their teeth clean and avoid cavities is probably a more important factor than the material chosen for the restoration.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Opdam NJ, van de Sande FH, Bronkhorst E, Cenci MS, Bottenberg P, Pallesen U, Gaengler P, Lindberg A, Huysmans MC, van Dijken JW \\| title \\= Longevity of posterior composite restorations: a systematic review and meta\\-analysis \\| journal \\= Journal of Dental Research \\| volume \\= 93 \\| issue \\= 10 \\| pages \\= 943–9 \\| date \\= October 2014 \\| pmid \\= 25048250 \\| pmc \\= 4293707 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1177/0022034514544217 }}",
"### Evaluation and regulation of dental materials",
"The [Nordic Institute of Dental Materials](/wiki/Nordic_Institute_of_Dental_Materials \"Nordic Institute of Dental Materials\") (NIOM) performs several tests to evaluate dental products in the [Nordic countries](/wiki/Nordic_countries \"Nordic countries\"). In the European Union, dental materials are classified as medical devices according to the [Medical Devices Directive](/wiki/Medical_Devices_Directive \"Medical Devices Directive\"). In USA, the [Food and Drug Administration](/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration \"Food and Drug Administration\") is the regulatory body for dental products.",
""
] |
### Direct restorative materials
Direct restorations are ones which are placed directly into a cavity on a tooth, and shaped to fit. The chemistry of the setting reaction for direct restorative materials is designed to be more biologically compatible. Heat and byproducts generated cannot damage the tooth or patient, since the reaction needs to take place while in contact with the tooth during restoration. This ultimately limits the strength of the materials, since harder materials need more energy to manipulate. The type of filling material used has a minor effect on how long they last. The majority of clinical studies indicate the annual failure rates (AFRs) are between 1% and 3% with tooth colored fillings on back teeth. Root canaled (endodontically) treated teeth have AFRs between 2% and 12%. The main reasons for failure are cavities that occur around the filling and fracture of the real tooth. These are related to personal cavity risk and factors like grinding teeth ([bruxism](/wiki/Bruxism "Bruxism")).{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Demarco FF, Corrêa MB, Cenci MS, Moraes RR, Opdam NJ \| title \= Longevity of posterior composite restorations: not only a matter of materials \| journal \= Dental Materials \| volume \= 28 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 87–101 \| date \= January 2012 \| pmid \= 22192253 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.dental.2011\.09\.003 }}
#### Amalgam
{{Main\|Amalgam (dentistry)}}
[Amalgam](/wiki/Amalgam_%28dentistry%29 "Amalgam (dentistry)") is a metallic filling material composed from a mixture of [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 "Mercury (element)") (from 43% to 54%) and a powdered [alloy](/wiki/Alloy "Alloy") made mostly of [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver"), [tin](/wiki/Tin "Tin"), [zinc](/wiki/Zinc "Zinc") and [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper"), commonly called the amalgam alloy.[WHO \- Mercury in Health Care :Amalgam is a mixture of mercury and a metal alloy](https://web.archive.org/web/20061129024451/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/medicalwaste/mercurypolpaper/en/) page 1 item \# 2, third paragraph. Amalgam does not adhere to tooth structure without the aid of cements or use of techniques which lock in the filling, using the same principles as a [dovetail joint](/wiki/Dovetail_joint "Dovetail joint").
Amalgam is still used extensively in many parts of the world because of its cost effectiveness, superior strength and longevity. However, the metallic colour is not aesthetically pleasing and tooth coloured alternatives are continually emerging with increasingly comparable properties. Due to the known toxicity of mercury, there is some [controversy about the use of amalgams](/wiki/Dental_amalgam_controversy "Dental amalgam controversy"). The Swedish government banned the use of mercury amalgam in June 2009\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.government.se/sb/d/574/a/119559\|title\=Sweden will ban the use of mercury on 1 juni 2009\|work\=Regeringskansliet\|date\=29 January 2009}} Research has shown that, while amalgam use is controversial and may increase mercury levels in the human body, these levels are below safety threshold levels established by the [World Health Organization](/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") and the U.S. [Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency"). However, there are certain subpopulations who, due to inherited genetic variabilities, are more sensitive to mercury than these threshold levels. They may experience adverse effects caused by amalgam restoration, including neural defects caused by impaired [neurotransmitter](/wiki/Neurotransmitter "Neurotransmitter") processing.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Woods JS, Heyer NJ, Russo JE, Martin MD, Pillai PB, Bammler TK, Farin FM \| title \= Genetic polymorphisms of catechol\-O\-methyltransferase modify the neurobehavioral effects of mercury in children \| journal \= Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A \| volume \= 77 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 293–312 \| date \= 2014 \| pmid \= 24593143 \| pmc \= 3967503 \| doi \= 10\.1080/15287394\.2014\.867210 }}
#### Composite resin
{{Main\|Dental composite}}
[thumb\|Enamel and dentin shades of composite. Other A2 universal shade for direct and indirect restorations, and flowable composite.](/wiki/File:Composite_material.jpg "Composite material.jpg")
Composite resin fillings (also called white fillings) are a mixture of [nanoparticles](/wiki/Nanoparticle "Nanoparticle"){{cite journal \| last1 \= Sonal \| first1 \= Sonal \| last2 \= Kumar \| first2 \= Shiv Ranjan\| last3 \= Patnaik \| first3 \= Amar\| last4 \= Meena \| first4 \= Anoj \| last5 \= Godara \| first5 \= Manish \| year \= 2017 \| title \= Effect of adding nanosilica particulate filler on the wear behavior of dental composite \| journal \= Polymer Composites \| volume \= 39 \| issue \= S1\| pages \= 332–341 \| doi \= 10\.1002/pc.24436 }}{{cite journal \| last1 \= Sonal \| first1 \= Sonal \| last2 \= Patnaik \| first2 \= Amar \| last3 \= Kumar \| first3 \= Shiv Ranjan\| last4 \= Godara \| first4 \= Manish \| year \= 2019 \| title \= Investigating influence of low fraction of polytetrafluoroethylene filler on mechanical and wear behavior of light\-cured dental composite \| journal \= Materials Research Express \| volume \= 6 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 085403 \| doi \= 10\.1088/2053\-1591/ab209a \| bibcode \= 2019MRE.....6h5403S \| s2cid \= 164705598 }}{{Cite journal \|last\=Porto \|first\=Thiago Soares \|last2\=Medeiros da Silva \|first2\=Italo Guimaraes \|last3\=de Freitas Vallerini \|first3\=Bruna \|last4\=Fernando de Goes \|first4\=Mario \|date\=November 2023 \|title\=Different surface treatment strategies on etchable CAD\-CAM materials: Part 1—Effect on the surface morphology \|url\=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002239132100593X \|journal\=The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry \|language\=en \|volume\=130 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=761–769 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.prosdent.2021\.10\.020}} or powdered glass and plastic resin, and can be made to resemble the appearance of the natural tooth. Although cosmetically superior to amalgam fillings, composite resin fillings are usually more expensive. [Bis\-GMA](/wiki/Bis-GMA "Bis-GMA") based resins contain [Bisphenol A](/wiki/Bisphenol_A "Bisphenol A"), a known endocrine disrupter chemical, and may contribute to the development of [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer "Breast cancer"). However, there is no added risk of [kidney](/wiki/Kidney "Kidney") or [endocrine](/wiki/Endocrine_system "Endocrine system") injury in choosing composite restorations over amalgams. [PEX](/wiki/Cross-linked_polyethylene "Cross-linked polyethylene")\-based materials do not contain Bisphenol A and are the least [cytotoxic](/wiki/Cytotoxicity "Cytotoxicity") material available.
Most modern composite resins are light\-cured [photopolymers](/wiki/Photopolymer "Photopolymer"), meaning that they harden with light exposure. They can then be polished to achieve maximum aesthetic results. Composite resins experience a very small amount of shrinkage upon curing, causing the material to pull away from the walls of the cavity preparation. This makes the tooth slightly more vulnerable to microleakage and recurrent decay. Microleakage can be minimized or eliminated with proper handling techniques and appropriate material selection.
In some circumstances, using composite resin allows less of the tooth structure to be removed compared to other dental materials such as amalgam and indirect methods of restoration. This is because composite resins bind to enamel (and dentin too, although not as well) via a micromechanical bond. As conservation of tooth structure is a key ingredient in tooth preservation, many dentists prefer placing materials like composite instead of amalgam fillings whenever possible.
Generally, composite fillings are used to fill a [carious lesion](/wiki/Carious_lesion "Carious lesion") involving [highly visible areas](/wiki/Aesthetic_anterior_composite_restoration "Aesthetic anterior composite restoration") (such as the central [incisors](/wiki/Incisor "Incisor") or any other teeth that can be seen when smiling) or when conservation of tooth structure is a top priority.
The bond of composite resin to tooth is especially affected by moisture contamination and the cleanliness of the prepared surface. Other materials can be selected when restoring teeth where moisture control techniques are not effective.
#### Glass ionomer cement
{{Main\|Glass ionomer cement}}
The concept of using "smart" materials in dentistry has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Conventional glass ionomer cements (GICs) have many applications in dentistry. They are biocompatible with the dental pulp to some extent. Clinically, this material was initially used as a biomaterial to replace the lost osseous tissues in the human body.
GIC fillings are a mixture of glass and an organic acid.
The cavity preparation of a GIC filling is the same as a composite resin. GICs are chemically set via an acid\-base reaction. Upon mixing of the material components, no light cure is needed to harden the material once placed in the cavity preparation. After the initial set, GICs still need time to fully set and harden.
An advantage of GICs compared to other restorative materials is that they can be placed in cavities without any need for bonding agents. Another advantage is that they are not subject to shrinkage and microleakage, as the bonding mechanism is an acid\-base reaction and not a polymerization reaction. Additionally, GICs contain and release [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride "Fluoride"), which is important to prevent carious lesions. As GICs release their fluoride, they can be "recharged" by the use of fluoride\-containing toothpaste; this means they can be used to treat patients at high risk of caries.
Although they are tooth\-colored, GICs vary in translucency, and their aesthetic potential is not as great as that of composite resins. Newer formulations that contain light\-cured resins can achieve a greater aesthetic result, but do not release fluoride as well as conventional GICs.
The most important disadvantage of GICs is lack of adequate strength and toughness. To improve the mechanical properties of the conventional GIC, resin\-modified ionomers have been marketed. GICs are usually weak after setting and are not stable in water; however, they become stronger with the progression of reactions and become more resistant to moisture.
New generations of GICs aim to regenerate tissues; they use bioactive materials in the form of a powder or solution to induce local tissue repair. These materials release chemical agents in the form of dissolved ions or growth factors such as [bone morphogenetic protein](/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein "Bone morphogenetic protein"), which stimulates activate cells.
GICs are about as expensive as composite resin. The fillings do not wear as well as composite resin fillings, but they are generally considered good materials to use for root caries and for sealants.
#### Resin modified glass\-ionomer cement (RMGIC)
A combination of glass\-ionomer and composite resin, these fillings are a mixture of glass, an organic acid, and resin [monomers](/wiki/Monomer "Monomer") that harden when light cured (light\-activated polymerization besides the acid\-base reaction of conventional GICs). The cost is similar to composite resin. It holds up better than GIC, but not as well as composite resin, and is not recommended for biting surfaces of adult teeth,{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Cho SY, Cheng AC \| title \= A review of glass ionomer restorations in the primary dentition \| journal \= Journal (Canadian Dental Association) \| volume \= 65 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= 491–5 \| date \= October 1999 \| pmid \= 10560209 \| url \= https://www.cda\-adc.ca/jcda/vol\-65/issue\-9/491\.html }} or when control of moisture cannot be achieved.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mickenautsch S, Yengopal V \| title \= Retention loss of resin based fissure sealants \- a valid predictor for clinical outcome? \| journal \= The Open Dentistry Journal \| volume \= 7 \| pages \= 102–8 \| date \= 2013\-08\-23 \| pmid \= 24078856 \| pmc \= 3785037 \| doi \= 10\.2174/18742106201305130001 \|doi\-access\=free}}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Smallridge J \| title \= UK National Clinical Guidelines in Paediatric Dentistry: Use of fissure sealants including management of the stained fissure in first permanent molars \| journal \= International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry \| pages \= no \| date \= June 2010 \| pmid \= 20545793 \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1365\-263x.2009\.01035\.x }}
Generally, RMGICs can achieve a better aesthetic result than conventional GICs, but not as good as pure composites.
#### Compomers
{{Main\|Dental compomer}}
{{Cite book\| first1 \= Stephen J \| last1 \= Bonsor \| first2 \= Gavin J \| last2 \= Pearson \| name\-list\-style \= vanc \|title\=A clinical guide to applied dental materials \|date\=2013\|publisher\=Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone \|isbn\=9780702046964\|location\=Amsterdam\|pages\=99–104\|oclc\=824491168}} Another combination of composite resin and GIC technology, compomers are essentially made up of filler, dimethacrylate monomer, difunctional resin, photo\-activator and initiator, and hydrophilic monomers. The filler decreases the proportion of resin and increases the mechanical strength, as well as improving the material's appearance.
Although compomers have better mechanical and aesthetic properties than RMGIC, they have some disadvantages which limit their applications:
* Compomers have weaker wear properties.
* They cannot adhere to tooth tissue due to the presence of resin, which can make it shrink on polymerisation. They therefore require bonding materials.
* They release low levels of fluoride, so cannot act as a fluoride reservoir.
* They have high staining susceptibility; uptake of oral fluid causes them to show staining soon after placement.
Due to its relatively weaker mechanical properties, Compomers are unfit for stress\-bearing restorations but can be used in the [deciduous dentition](/wiki/Deciduous_teeth "Deciduous teeth") where lower loads are anticipated.
#### Cermets
{{Main\|Dental cermets}}
Dental cermets, also known as silver cermets, were created to improve the wear resistance and hardness of glass ionomer cements by adding [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver"). Their other advantages are that they adhere directly to tooth tissue, and are [radio\-opaque](/wiki/Radiodensity "Radiodensity"), which helps with identification of [secondary caries](/wiki/Tooth_decay "Tooth decay") when future [radiographs](/wiki/Radiography "Radiography") are taken.
However, cermets have poorer aesthetics, appearing metallic rather than white. They also have a similar [compressive strength](/wiki/Compressive_strength "Compressive strength"), [flexural strength](/wiki/Flexural_strength "Flexural strength"), and [solubility](/wiki/Solubility "Solubility") as GICs, some of the main limiting factors for both materials. In addition, their [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride "Fluoride") release is poorer than that of GICs. Clinical studies have shown cermets perform poorly. All these disadvantages led to the decline in the use of this restorative material.{{Cite book\|title\=Introduction to dental materials\|last\=Noort, Richard van.\|date\=2013\|publisher\=Mosby Elsevier\|isbn\=978\-0\-7234\-3659\-1\|edition\=4th\|location\=Edinburgh\|oclc\=821697096}}
|
[
"### Direct restorative materials",
"Direct restorations are ones which are placed directly into a cavity on a tooth, and shaped to fit. The chemistry of the setting reaction for direct restorative materials is designed to be more biologically compatible. Heat and byproducts generated cannot damage the tooth or patient, since the reaction needs to take place while in contact with the tooth during restoration. This ultimately limits the strength of the materials, since harder materials need more energy to manipulate. The type of filling material used has a minor effect on how long they last. The majority of clinical studies indicate the annual failure rates (AFRs) are between 1% and 3% with tooth colored fillings on back teeth. Root canaled (endodontically) treated teeth have AFRs between 2% and 12%. The main reasons for failure are cavities that occur around the filling and fracture of the real tooth. These are related to personal cavity risk and factors like grinding teeth ([bruxism](/wiki/Bruxism \"Bruxism\")).{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Demarco FF, Corrêa MB, Cenci MS, Moraes RR, Opdam NJ \\| title \\= Longevity of posterior composite restorations: not only a matter of materials \\| journal \\= Dental Materials \\| volume \\= 28 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 87–101 \\| date \\= January 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22192253 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.dental.2011\\.09\\.003 }}",
"#### Amalgam",
"{{Main\\|Amalgam (dentistry)}}\n[Amalgam](/wiki/Amalgam_%28dentistry%29 \"Amalgam (dentistry)\") is a metallic filling material composed from a mixture of [mercury](/wiki/Mercury_%28element%29 \"Mercury (element)\") (from 43% to 54%) and a powdered [alloy](/wiki/Alloy \"Alloy\") made mostly of [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\"), [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\"), [zinc](/wiki/Zinc \"Zinc\") and [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\"), commonly called the amalgam alloy.[WHO \\- Mercury in Health Care :Amalgam is a mixture of mercury and a metal alloy](https://web.archive.org/web/20061129024451/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/medicalwaste/mercurypolpaper/en/) page 1 item \\# 2, third paragraph. Amalgam does not adhere to tooth structure without the aid of cements or use of techniques which lock in the filling, using the same principles as a [dovetail joint](/wiki/Dovetail_joint \"Dovetail joint\").",
"Amalgam is still used extensively in many parts of the world because of its cost effectiveness, superior strength and longevity. However, the metallic colour is not aesthetically pleasing and tooth coloured alternatives are continually emerging with increasingly comparable properties. Due to the known toxicity of mercury, there is some [controversy about the use of amalgams](/wiki/Dental_amalgam_controversy \"Dental amalgam controversy\"). The Swedish government banned the use of mercury amalgam in June 2009\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.government.se/sb/d/574/a/119559\\|title\\=Sweden will ban the use of mercury on 1 juni 2009\\|work\\=Regeringskansliet\\|date\\=29 January 2009}} Research has shown that, while amalgam use is controversial and may increase mercury levels in the human body, these levels are below safety threshold levels established by the [World Health Organization](/wiki/World_Health_Organization \"World Health Organization\") and the U.S. [Environmental Protection Agency](/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency \"United States Environmental Protection Agency\"). However, there are certain subpopulations who, due to inherited genetic variabilities, are more sensitive to mercury than these threshold levels. They may experience adverse effects caused by amalgam restoration, including neural defects caused by impaired [neurotransmitter](/wiki/Neurotransmitter \"Neurotransmitter\") processing.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Woods JS, Heyer NJ, Russo JE, Martin MD, Pillai PB, Bammler TK, Farin FM \\| title \\= Genetic polymorphisms of catechol\\-O\\-methyltransferase modify the neurobehavioral effects of mercury in children \\| journal \\= Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A \\| volume \\= 77 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 293–312 \\| date \\= 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24593143 \\| pmc \\= 3967503 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/15287394\\.2014\\.867210 }}",
"#### Composite resin",
"{{Main\\|Dental composite}}\n[thumb\\|Enamel and dentin shades of composite. Other A2 universal shade for direct and indirect restorations, and flowable composite.](/wiki/File:Composite_material.jpg \"Composite material.jpg\")\nComposite resin fillings (also called white fillings) are a mixture of [nanoparticles](/wiki/Nanoparticle \"Nanoparticle\"){{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Sonal \\| first1 \\= Sonal \\| last2 \\= Kumar \\| first2 \\= Shiv Ranjan\\| last3 \\= Patnaik \\| first3 \\= Amar\\| last4 \\= Meena \\| first4 \\= Anoj \\| last5 \\= Godara \\| first5 \\= Manish \\| year \\= 2017 \\| title \\= Effect of adding nanosilica particulate filler on the wear behavior of dental composite \\| journal \\= Polymer Composites \\| volume \\= 39 \\| issue \\= S1\\| pages \\= 332–341 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1002/pc.24436 }}{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Sonal \\| first1 \\= Sonal \\| last2 \\= Patnaik \\| first2 \\= Amar \\| last3 \\= Kumar \\| first3 \\= Shiv Ranjan\\| last4 \\= Godara \\| first4 \\= Manish \\| year \\= 2019 \\| title \\= Investigating influence of low fraction of polytetrafluoroethylene filler on mechanical and wear behavior of light\\-cured dental composite \\| journal \\= Materials Research Express \\| volume \\= 6 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 085403 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1088/2053\\-1591/ab209a \\| bibcode \\= 2019MRE.....6h5403S \\| s2cid \\= 164705598 }}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Porto \\|first\\=Thiago Soares \\|last2\\=Medeiros da Silva \\|first2\\=Italo Guimaraes \\|last3\\=de Freitas Vallerini \\|first3\\=Bruna \\|last4\\=Fernando de Goes \\|first4\\=Mario \\|date\\=November 2023 \\|title\\=Different surface treatment strategies on etchable CAD\\-CAM materials: Part 1—Effect on the surface morphology \\|url\\=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002239132100593X \\|journal\\=The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=130 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=761–769 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.prosdent.2021\\.10\\.020}} or powdered glass and plastic resin, and can be made to resemble the appearance of the natural tooth. Although cosmetically superior to amalgam fillings, composite resin fillings are usually more expensive. [Bis\\-GMA](/wiki/Bis-GMA \"Bis-GMA\") based resins contain [Bisphenol A](/wiki/Bisphenol_A \"Bisphenol A\"), a known endocrine disrupter chemical, and may contribute to the development of [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer \"Breast cancer\"). However, there is no added risk of [kidney](/wiki/Kidney \"Kidney\") or [endocrine](/wiki/Endocrine_system \"Endocrine system\") injury in choosing composite restorations over amalgams. [PEX](/wiki/Cross-linked_polyethylene \"Cross-linked polyethylene\")\\-based materials do not contain Bisphenol A and are the least [cytotoxic](/wiki/Cytotoxicity \"Cytotoxicity\") material available.",
"Most modern composite resins are light\\-cured [photopolymers](/wiki/Photopolymer \"Photopolymer\"), meaning that they harden with light exposure. They can then be polished to achieve maximum aesthetic results. Composite resins experience a very small amount of shrinkage upon curing, causing the material to pull away from the walls of the cavity preparation. This makes the tooth slightly more vulnerable to microleakage and recurrent decay. Microleakage can be minimized or eliminated with proper handling techniques and appropriate material selection.",
"In some circumstances, using composite resin allows less of the tooth structure to be removed compared to other dental materials such as amalgam and indirect methods of restoration. This is because composite resins bind to enamel (and dentin too, although not as well) via a micromechanical bond. As conservation of tooth structure is a key ingredient in tooth preservation, many dentists prefer placing materials like composite instead of amalgam fillings whenever possible.",
"Generally, composite fillings are used to fill a [carious lesion](/wiki/Carious_lesion \"Carious lesion\") involving [highly visible areas](/wiki/Aesthetic_anterior_composite_restoration \"Aesthetic anterior composite restoration\") (such as the central [incisors](/wiki/Incisor \"Incisor\") or any other teeth that can be seen when smiling) or when conservation of tooth structure is a top priority.",
"The bond of composite resin to tooth is especially affected by moisture contamination and the cleanliness of the prepared surface. Other materials can be selected when restoring teeth where moisture control techniques are not effective.",
"#### Glass ionomer cement",
"{{Main\\|Glass ionomer cement}}\nThe concept of using \"smart\" materials in dentistry has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Conventional glass ionomer cements (GICs) have many applications in dentistry. They are biocompatible with the dental pulp to some extent. Clinically, this material was initially used as a biomaterial to replace the lost osseous tissues in the human body.",
"GIC fillings are a mixture of glass and an organic acid.",
"The cavity preparation of a GIC filling is the same as a composite resin. GICs are chemically set via an acid\\-base reaction. Upon mixing of the material components, no light cure is needed to harden the material once placed in the cavity preparation. After the initial set, GICs still need time to fully set and harden.",
"An advantage of GICs compared to other restorative materials is that they can be placed in cavities without any need for bonding agents. Another advantage is that they are not subject to shrinkage and microleakage, as the bonding mechanism is an acid\\-base reaction and not a polymerization reaction. Additionally, GICs contain and release [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride \"Fluoride\"), which is important to prevent carious lesions. As GICs release their fluoride, they can be \"recharged\" by the use of fluoride\\-containing toothpaste; this means they can be used to treat patients at high risk of caries.",
"Although they are tooth\\-colored, GICs vary in translucency, and their aesthetic potential is not as great as that of composite resins. Newer formulations that contain light\\-cured resins can achieve a greater aesthetic result, but do not release fluoride as well as conventional GICs.",
"The most important disadvantage of GICs is lack of adequate strength and toughness. To improve the mechanical properties of the conventional GIC, resin\\-modified ionomers have been marketed. GICs are usually weak after setting and are not stable in water; however, they become stronger with the progression of reactions and become more resistant to moisture.",
"New generations of GICs aim to regenerate tissues; they use bioactive materials in the form of a powder or solution to induce local tissue repair. These materials release chemical agents in the form of dissolved ions or growth factors such as [bone morphogenetic protein](/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein \"Bone morphogenetic protein\"), which stimulates activate cells.",
"GICs are about as expensive as composite resin. The fillings do not wear as well as composite resin fillings, but they are generally considered good materials to use for root caries and for sealants.",
"#### Resin modified glass\\-ionomer cement (RMGIC)",
"A combination of glass\\-ionomer and composite resin, these fillings are a mixture of glass, an organic acid, and resin [monomers](/wiki/Monomer \"Monomer\") that harden when light cured (light\\-activated polymerization besides the acid\\-base reaction of conventional GICs). The cost is similar to composite resin. It holds up better than GIC, but not as well as composite resin, and is not recommended for biting surfaces of adult teeth,{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Cho SY, Cheng AC \\| title \\= A review of glass ionomer restorations in the primary dentition \\| journal \\= Journal (Canadian Dental Association) \\| volume \\= 65 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 491–5 \\| date \\= October 1999 \\| pmid \\= 10560209 \\| url \\= https://www.cda\\-adc.ca/jcda/vol\\-65/issue\\-9/491\\.html }} or when control of moisture cannot be achieved.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mickenautsch S, Yengopal V \\| title \\= Retention loss of resin based fissure sealants \\- a valid predictor for clinical outcome? \\| journal \\= The Open Dentistry Journal \\| volume \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 102–8 \\| date \\= 2013\\-08\\-23 \\| pmid \\= 24078856 \\| pmc \\= 3785037 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2174/18742106201305130001 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Smallridge J \\| title \\= UK National Clinical Guidelines in Paediatric Dentistry: Use of fissure sealants including management of the stained fissure in first permanent molars \\| journal \\= International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry \\| pages \\= no \\| date \\= June 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20545793 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1365\\-263x.2009\\.01035\\.x }}",
"Generally, RMGICs can achieve a better aesthetic result than conventional GICs, but not as good as pure composites.",
"#### Compomers",
"{{Main\\|Dental compomer}}\n{{Cite book\\| first1 \\= Stephen J \\| last1 \\= Bonsor \\| first2 \\= Gavin J \\| last2 \\= Pearson \\| name\\-list\\-style \\= vanc \\|title\\=A clinical guide to applied dental materials \\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone \\|isbn\\=9780702046964\\|location\\=Amsterdam\\|pages\\=99–104\\|oclc\\=824491168}} Another combination of composite resin and GIC technology, compomers are essentially made up of filler, dimethacrylate monomer, difunctional resin, photo\\-activator and initiator, and hydrophilic monomers. The filler decreases the proportion of resin and increases the mechanical strength, as well as improving the material's appearance.",
"Although compomers have better mechanical and aesthetic properties than RMGIC, they have some disadvantages which limit their applications:\n* Compomers have weaker wear properties.\n* They cannot adhere to tooth tissue due to the presence of resin, which can make it shrink on polymerisation. They therefore require bonding materials.\n* They release low levels of fluoride, so cannot act as a fluoride reservoir.\n* They have high staining susceptibility; uptake of oral fluid causes them to show staining soon after placement.\nDue to its relatively weaker mechanical properties, Compomers are unfit for stress\\-bearing restorations but can be used in the [deciduous dentition](/wiki/Deciduous_teeth \"Deciduous teeth\") where lower loads are anticipated.",
"#### Cermets",
"{{Main\\|Dental cermets}}\nDental cermets, also known as silver cermets, were created to improve the wear resistance and hardness of glass ionomer cements by adding [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\"). Their other advantages are that they adhere directly to tooth tissue, and are [radio\\-opaque](/wiki/Radiodensity \"Radiodensity\"), which helps with identification of [secondary caries](/wiki/Tooth_decay \"Tooth decay\") when future [radiographs](/wiki/Radiography \"Radiography\") are taken.",
"However, cermets have poorer aesthetics, appearing metallic rather than white. They also have a similar [compressive strength](/wiki/Compressive_strength \"Compressive strength\"), [flexural strength](/wiki/Flexural_strength \"Flexural strength\"), and [solubility](/wiki/Solubility \"Solubility\") as GICs, some of the main limiting factors for both materials. In addition, their [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride \"Fluoride\") release is poorer than that of GICs. Clinical studies have shown cermets perform poorly. All these disadvantages led to the decline in the use of this restorative material.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Introduction to dental materials\\|last\\=Noort, Richard van.\\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Mosby Elsevier\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7234\\-3659\\-1\\|edition\\=4th\\|location\\=Edinburgh\\|oclc\\=821697096}}",
""
] |
#### Glass ionomer cement
{{Main\|Glass ionomer cement}}
The concept of using "smart" materials in dentistry has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Conventional glass ionomer cements (GICs) have many applications in dentistry. They are biocompatible with the dental pulp to some extent. Clinically, this material was initially used as a biomaterial to replace the lost osseous tissues in the human body.
GIC fillings are a mixture of glass and an organic acid.
The cavity preparation of a GIC filling is the same as a composite resin. GICs are chemically set via an acid\-base reaction. Upon mixing of the material components, no light cure is needed to harden the material once placed in the cavity preparation. After the initial set, GICs still need time to fully set and harden.
An advantage of GICs compared to other restorative materials is that they can be placed in cavities without any need for bonding agents. Another advantage is that they are not subject to shrinkage and microleakage, as the bonding mechanism is an acid\-base reaction and not a polymerization reaction. Additionally, GICs contain and release [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride "Fluoride"), which is important to prevent carious lesions. As GICs release their fluoride, they can be "recharged" by the use of fluoride\-containing toothpaste; this means they can be used to treat patients at high risk of caries.
Although they are tooth\-colored, GICs vary in translucency, and their aesthetic potential is not as great as that of composite resins. Newer formulations that contain light\-cured resins can achieve a greater aesthetic result, but do not release fluoride as well as conventional GICs.
The most important disadvantage of GICs is lack of adequate strength and toughness. To improve the mechanical properties of the conventional GIC, resin\-modified ionomers have been marketed. GICs are usually weak after setting and are not stable in water; however, they become stronger with the progression of reactions and become more resistant to moisture.
New generations of GICs aim to regenerate tissues; they use bioactive materials in the form of a powder or solution to induce local tissue repair. These materials release chemical agents in the form of dissolved ions or growth factors such as [bone morphogenetic protein](/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein "Bone morphogenetic protein"), which stimulates activate cells.
GICs are about as expensive as composite resin. The fillings do not wear as well as composite resin fillings, but they are generally considered good materials to use for root caries and for sealants.
|
[
"#### Glass ionomer cement",
"{{Main\\|Glass ionomer cement}}\nThe concept of using \"smart\" materials in dentistry has attracted a lot of attention in recent years. Conventional glass ionomer cements (GICs) have many applications in dentistry. They are biocompatible with the dental pulp to some extent. Clinically, this material was initially used as a biomaterial to replace the lost osseous tissues in the human body.",
"GIC fillings are a mixture of glass and an organic acid.",
"The cavity preparation of a GIC filling is the same as a composite resin. GICs are chemically set via an acid\\-base reaction. Upon mixing of the material components, no light cure is needed to harden the material once placed in the cavity preparation. After the initial set, GICs still need time to fully set and harden.",
"An advantage of GICs compared to other restorative materials is that they can be placed in cavities without any need for bonding agents. Another advantage is that they are not subject to shrinkage and microleakage, as the bonding mechanism is an acid\\-base reaction and not a polymerization reaction. Additionally, GICs contain and release [fluoride](/wiki/Fluoride \"Fluoride\"), which is important to prevent carious lesions. As GICs release their fluoride, they can be \"recharged\" by the use of fluoride\\-containing toothpaste; this means they can be used to treat patients at high risk of caries.",
"Although they are tooth\\-colored, GICs vary in translucency, and their aesthetic potential is not as great as that of composite resins. Newer formulations that contain light\\-cured resins can achieve a greater aesthetic result, but do not release fluoride as well as conventional GICs.",
"The most important disadvantage of GICs is lack of adequate strength and toughness. To improve the mechanical properties of the conventional GIC, resin\\-modified ionomers have been marketed. GICs are usually weak after setting and are not stable in water; however, they become stronger with the progression of reactions and become more resistant to moisture.",
"New generations of GICs aim to regenerate tissues; they use bioactive materials in the form of a powder or solution to induce local tissue repair. These materials release chemical agents in the form of dissolved ions or growth factors such as [bone morphogenetic protein](/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein \"Bone morphogenetic protein\"), which stimulates activate cells.",
"GICs are about as expensive as composite resin. The fillings do not wear as well as composite resin fillings, but they are generally considered good materials to use for root caries and for sealants.",
""
] |
Hypotheses
----------
A number of different hypotheses for RSL formation have been proposed. The seasonality, [latitude](/wiki/Latitude "Latitude") distribution, and brightness changes strongly indicate a [volatile](/wiki/Volatility_%28chemistry%29 "Volatility (chemistry)") material—such as water or liquid {{chem\|C\|O\|2}}—is involved. One hypothesis is that RSL could form by rapid heating of nocturnal frost in agreement with experimental results.{{cite journal \| last1\=Massé \| first1\=M. \| last2\=Conway \|first2\=S. \| last3\=Gargani \|first3\=J. \| last4\=Patel \|first4\=M.R. \| last5\=Pasquon \|first5\=K. \| last6\=Mc Ewen \|first6\=A. \| last7\=Carpy \|first7\=S. \| last8\=Chevrier \|first8\=V. \| last9\=Balme \|first9\=M.R. \| last10\=Ojha \|first10\=L. \| last11\=Vincendon \|first11\=M. \| last12\=Poulet \|first12\=F. \| last13\=Costard \|first13\=F. \| last14\=Jouannic \|first14\=G. \| title\=Transport processes induced by metastable boiling water under Martian surface conditions \| journal\=Nature Geoscience \| volume\=9 \| pages\=425–428 \| date\=2016 \| issue\=6 \| doi\=10\.1038/ngeo2706 \| url\=https://hal.archives\-ouvertes.fr/hal\-01414502/file/MasseEtalNatGeo2015\_HAL.pdf }} Another one proposes flows of carbon dioxide, but the settings in which the flows occur are too warm for [carbon\-dioxide frost](/wiki/Dry_ice "Dry ice") ({{chem\|C\|O\|2}}), and at some sites is too cold for pure water. Other hypotheses include dry granular flows, but no entirely dry process can explain seasonal flows that progressively grow over weeks and months. Cornice avalanches is another hypothesis. The idea is that wind collects snow or frost just past the peak of a mountain and then this becomes an avalanche after it warms up. Seasonal melting of shallow ice would explain the RSL observations, but it would be difficult to replenish such ice annually. However, as of 2015, direct observations of seasonal deposition of soluble salts strongly suggest that RSL involve [brine](/wiki/Brine "Brine") (hydrated salts).
### Brines
The leading hypothesis involves the flow of [brines](/wiki/Brine "Brine") (very salty water).{{cite magazine \|last\=Mann \|first\=Adam \|title\=Strange Dark Streaks on Mars Get More and More Mysterious\|url\=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2014/02/flowing\-lineae\-water\-mars/ \|date\=February 18, 2014 \|magazine\=\[\[Wired (magazine)\|Wired]] \|access\-date\=February 18, 2014 }}{{Cite web \|last\=Kerr \|first\=Richard A. \|date\=August 4, 2011 \|title\=Is Mars Weeping Salty Tears? \|url\=https://www.science.org/content/article/mars\-weeping\-salty\-tears \|access\-date\=July 14, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Science (journal)\|Science]]}}{{cite web\| url\=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/science\-technology/NASA\-Finds\-Possible\-Signs\-of\-Flowing\-Water\-on\-Mars\-126807133\.html\| title\=NASA Finds Possible Signs of Flowing Water on Mars\| publisher\=voanews.com\| access\-date\=August 5, 2011}}{{cite web \|last1\=Webster \|first1\=Guy \|last2\=Brown \|first2\=Dwayne \|title\=NASA Mars Spacecraft Reveals a More Dynamic Red Planet \|url\=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release\=2013\-361\&1\#1 \|date\=December 10, 2013 \|work\=\[\[NASA]] \|access\-date\=December 10, 2013 }}{{cite news \|last\=Wall \|first\=Mike \|url\=http://www.space.com/30673\-water\-flows\-on\-mars\-discovery.html?adbid\=10153086098981466\&adbpl\=fb\&adbpr\=17610706465 \|title\=Salty Water Flows on Mars Today, Boosting Odds for Life \|work\=Space.com \|date\=28 September 2015 \|access\-date\=2015\-09\-28 }} Salt deposits over much of Mars indicate that brine was abundant in Mars's past.{{cite web\| url\=http://www.nasa.gov/mission\_pages/MRO/news/mro20110804\.html\| title\=NASA Spacecraft Data Suggest Water Flowing on Mars\| publisher\=NASA\| access\-date\=July 5, 2011\| archive\-date\=March 4, 2016\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304075750/http://www.nasa.gov/mission\_pages/MRO/news/mro20110804\.html\| url\-status\=dead}} Salinity lowers the [freezing point](/wiki/Freezing_point "Freezing point") of water to sustain a liquid flow. Less saline water would freeze at the observed temperatures. Thermal infrared data from the [Thermal Emission Imaging System](/wiki/Thermal_Emission_Imaging_System "Thermal Emission Imaging System") (THEMIS) on board the *[2001 Mars Odyssey](/wiki/2001_Mars_Odyssey "2001 Mars Odyssey")* orbiter, have allowed the temperature conditions under which RSL form to be constrained. While a small number of RSL are visible at temperatures above the freezing point of water, most are not, and many appear at temperatures as low as {{convert\|\-43\|C\|K}}. Some scientists think that under these cold conditions, a brine of [iron(III) sulfate](/wiki/Iron%28III%29_sulfate "Iron(III) sulfate") (Fe2(SO4)3) or [calcium chloride](/wiki/Calcium_chloride "Calcium chloride") ({{chem\|Ca\|Cl\|2}}) is the most likely mode of RSL formation.{{cite conference \|last1\=Mitchell \|first1\=J. \|last2\=Christensen \|first2\=P. \|title\=RECURRING SLOPE LINEAE AND THE PRESENCE OF CHLORIDES IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE OF MARS \|url\=http://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2015/pdf/1624\.pdf \|conference\=46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (2015\) \|publisher\=Lunar and Planetary Institute \|date\=March 16–20, 2015 }} Another team of scientists, using the [CRISM](/wiki/Compact_Reconnaissance_Imaging_Spectrometer_for_Mars "Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars") instrument onboard MRO, reported that the evidence for hydrated salts is most consistent with the spectral absorption features of [magnesium perchlorate](/wiki/Magnesium_perchlorate "Magnesium perchlorate") (Mg(ClO4)2), [magnesium chloride](/wiki/Magnesium_chloride "Magnesium chloride") (MgCl2(H2O)x) and [sodium perchlorate](/wiki/Sodium_perchlorate "Sodium perchlorate") ({{chem\|Na\|Cl\|O\|4}}).
Experiments and calculations demonstrated that recurring slope lineae could be produced by the [deliquescence](/wiki/Deliquescence "Deliquescence") and rehydration of hydrous chlorides and oxychlorine salts. However, under present Martian atmospheric conditions there is not enough water to complete this process.{{cite journal \| last1\=Wang \| first1\=A. \| last2\=Ling \| first2\=Z. C. \| last3\=Yan \| first3\=Y. C. \| last4\=McEwen \| first4\=A. S. \| last5\=Mellon \| first5\=M. T. \| last6\=Smith \| first6\=M. D. \| last7\=Jolliff \| first7\=B. L. \| last8\=Head \| first8\=J. \| title\=Atmosphere \- Surface H2O Exchange to Sustain the Recurring Slope Lineae (RSL) on Mars \| journal\=Lunar and Planetary Science Conference \| volume\=48 \| issue\=1964 \| pages\=2351 \| date\=2017\-03\-24 \| bibcode\=2017LPI....48\.2351W }}
These observations are the closest scientists have come to finding evidence of liquid water on the planet's surface today. Frozen water, however, has been detected near the surface in many middle to high\-latitude regions. Purported droplets of brine also appeared on struts of the [Phoenix Mars Lander](/wiki/Phoenix_Mars_Lander "Phoenix Mars Lander") in 2008\.{{cite journal \|last1\=Renno \|first1\=Nilton \|last2\=Bos \|first2\=Brent \|display\-authors\=etal \|title\=Possible physical and thermodynamical evidence for liquid water at the Phoenix landing site \|journal\=J. Geophys. Res. Planets \|date\=14 October 2009 \|volume\=114 \|issue\=E1 \|doi\=10\.1029/2009JE003362 \|ref\=phoenix\-droplets\|hdl\=2027\.42/95444 \|url\=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027\.42/95444/1/jgre2665\.pdf \|bibcode\=2009JGRE..114\.0E03R \|hdl\-access\=free }}
### Source of water
{{see also\|Water on Mars\|Groundwater on Mars}}
Liquid brine flows near the surface might explain this activity, but the exact source of the water and the mechanism behind its motion are not understood.{{cite journal\| last1\=McEwen\| first1\=Alfred.S.\| last2\=Ojha\| first2\=Lujendra \| last3\=Dundas\| first3\=Colin M.\| date\=June 17, 2011\| title\=Seasonal Flows on Warm Martian Slopes\| journal\=Science\| volume\=333\| issue\=6043\| pages\=740–743\| doi\=10\.1126/science.1204816\| issn\=0036\-8075\| bibcode \= 2011Sci...333\..740M\| pmid\=21817049\| s2cid\=10460581}}{{cite web\| url\=http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/sim/science\-2011\-aug\-4\.php\| title\=Seasonal Flows on Warm Martian Slopes\| publisher\=hirise.lpl.arizona.edu\| access\-date\=August 5, 2011}} A hypothesis proposes that the needed water could originate in the seasonal oscillations of near\-surface [adsorbed](/wiki/Adsorbed "Adsorbed") water provided by the [atmosphere](/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars%23Water_vapor "Atmosphere of Mars#Water vapor"); [perchlorates](/wiki/Perchlorate "Perchlorate") and other salts known to be present on the surface are able to attract and hold water molecules from the surrounding environment ([hygroscopic](/wiki/Hygroscopic "Hygroscopic") salts), but the dryness of the Martian air is a challenge. Water vapor must be efficiently trapped over very small areas, and seasonal variation in the atmospheric column abundance of water vapor does not match the RSL activity over active locations.{{cite conference \|last1\=McEwen \|first1\=A. \|last2\=Chojnacki \|first2\=M. \|last3\=Dundas \|first3\=C. \|last4\=L. Ojha \|first4\=L. \|title\=Recurring Slope Lineae on Mars: Atmospheric Origin? \|url\=http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC2015/EPSC2015\-786\-1\.pdf \|conference\=European Planetary Science Congress 2015 \|publisher\=EPSC Abstracts \|place\=France \|date\= 28 September 2015 }}
Deeper [groundwater](/wiki/Groundwater_on_Mars "Groundwater on Mars") may exist and could reach the surface at springs or seeps,{{cite journal \| last1 \= Levy \| first1 \= Joseph \| year \= 2012 \| title \= Hydrological characteristics of recurrent slope lineae on Mars: Evidence for liquid flow through regolith and comparisons with Antarctic terrestrial analogs \| journal \= Icarus \| volume \= 219 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 1–4 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.icarus.2012\.02\.016 }}{{cite journal \|title\=Transient liquid water and water activity at Gale crater on Mars \|journal\=Nature Geoscience \|volume\=8 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=357 \|date\= 13 April 2015 \|last1\=Martín\-Torres \|first1\=F. Javier \|last2\=Zorzano \|first2\=María\-Paz \|last3\=Valentín\-Serrano \|first3\=Patricia \|last4\=Harri \|first4\=Ari\-Matti \|last5\=Genzer \|first5\=Maria \|doi\=10\.1038/ngeo2412 \|bibcode\=2015NatGe...8\..357M }} but this cannot explain the wide distribution of RSL, extending from the tops of ridges and peaks. Also, there are apparent RSL on equatorial dunes composed of permeable sand, unlikely to be a groundwater source.
An analysis of near\-subsurface data from the *Mars Odyssey* neutron spectrometer revealed that the RSL sites do not contain any more water than found at anywhere else at similar latitudes. The authors concluded that RSL are not supplied by large, near\-surface briny aquifers. It is still possible with this data that water vapor is from deeply buried ice, from the atmosphere, or from small deeply buried aquifers.
### Dry sand flows
Dry granular flow was proposed since the first observations of RSLs but this interpretation was ruled out because of the seasonality of the process. The first proposition of a seasonal triggering in a dry context was published in March 2017 using a Knudsen pump effect.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1038/ngeo2917 \| volume\=10 \| title\=Formation of recurring slope lineae on Mars by rarefied gas\-triggered granular flows \| year\=2017 \| journal\=Nature Geoscience \| pages\=270–273 \| last1 \= Schmidt \| first1 \= Frédéric \| last2 \= Andrieu \| first2 \= François \| last3 \= Costard \| first3 \= François \| last4 \= Kocifaj \| first4 \= Miroslav \| last5 \= Meresescu \| first5 \= Alina G.\| issue\=4 \| arxiv \= 1802\.05018 \| s2cid\=55016186 }} The authors demonstrated that the RSLs stopped at an angle of 28° in Garni crater, in agreement with dry granular avalanche. In addition, the authors pointed out several limitations of the wet hypothesis, such as the fact that the detection of water was only indirect (salt detection but not water). This theory pushed back the dry flow theory.
Research published in November 2017 concludes that the observations are best explained by dry flow processes,[Recurring Martian Streaks: Flowing Sand, Not Water?](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7005). *JPL News*, NASA. 20 November 2017\.{{cite journal \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41561\-017\-0012\-5 \| volume\=10 \| title\=Granular flows at recurring slope lineae on Mars indicate a limited role for liquid water \| year\=2017 \| journal\=Nature Geoscience \| pages\=903–907 \| last1 \= Dundas \| first1 \= Colin M. \| last2 \= McEwen \| first2 \= Alfred S. \| last3 \= Chojnacki \| first3 \= Matthew \| last4 \= Milazzo \| first4 \= Moses P. \| last5 \= Byrne \| first5 \= Shane \| last6 \= McElwaine \| first6 \= Jim N. \| last7 \= Urso \| first7 \= Anna\| issue\=12 \| hdl \= 10150/627918 \| s2cid\=24606098 \| hdl\-access \= free }}[A Mars Mystery: How Did Land Form Without Much Water?](https://www.space.com/38790-mars-mystery-land-formation-with-little-water.html). Jan Raack. *Space.com*. 21 November 2017\. and remark that there is no actual [spectrographic](/wiki/Spectrography "Spectrography") evidence for water. Their research shows RSL exist only on slopes steeper than 27 degrees, enough for dry grains to descend the way they do on faces of active dunes. The RSL do not flow onto shallower than 27 degree slopes, which is inconsistent with models for water. A 2016 report also cast doubt on possible sources of underground water at RSL sites,\<ref\>[Mars Canyons Study Adds Clues about Possible Water](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=6562). *JPL News, NASA. 7 July 2016\.\</ref\> but the new research article acknowledged that hydrated salts could draw some humidity from the atmosphere and seasonal changes in hydration of salt\-containing grains might result in some trigger mechanism for RSL grainflows, such as expansion, contraction, or release of some water, that would change the cohesion of grains and cause them to fall or "flow" downslope. Furthermore, neutron spectrometer data by the* [Mars Odyssey](/wiki/Mars_Odyssey "Mars Odyssey")'' orbiter obtained over one decade, was published in December 2017, and shows no evidence of water (hydrogenated regolith) at the active sites, so its authors also support the hypotheses of either short\-lived atmospheric water vapour deliquescence, or dry granular flows. Nevertheless, the footprint of this instrument (\~100 km) is much larger than the RSLs (\~100m).
|
[
"Hypotheses\n----------",
"A number of different hypotheses for RSL formation have been proposed. The seasonality, [latitude](/wiki/Latitude \"Latitude\") distribution, and brightness changes strongly indicate a [volatile](/wiki/Volatility_%28chemistry%29 \"Volatility (chemistry)\") material—such as water or liquid {{chem\\|C\\|O\\|2}}—is involved. One hypothesis is that RSL could form by rapid heating of nocturnal frost in agreement with experimental results.{{cite journal \\| last1\\=Massé \\| first1\\=M. \\| last2\\=Conway \\|first2\\=S. \\| last3\\=Gargani \\|first3\\=J. \\| last4\\=Patel \\|first4\\=M.R. \\| last5\\=Pasquon \\|first5\\=K. \\| last6\\=Mc Ewen \\|first6\\=A. \\| last7\\=Carpy \\|first7\\=S. \\| last8\\=Chevrier \\|first8\\=V. \\| last9\\=Balme \\|first9\\=M.R. \\| last10\\=Ojha \\|first10\\=L. \\| last11\\=Vincendon \\|first11\\=M. \\| last12\\=Poulet \\|first12\\=F. \\| last13\\=Costard \\|first13\\=F. \\| last14\\=Jouannic \\|first14\\=G. \\| title\\=Transport processes induced by metastable boiling water under Martian surface conditions \\| journal\\=Nature Geoscience \\| volume\\=9 \\| pages\\=425–428 \\| date\\=2016 \\| issue\\=6 \\| doi\\=10\\.1038/ngeo2706 \\| url\\=https://hal.archives\\-ouvertes.fr/hal\\-01414502/file/MasseEtalNatGeo2015\\_HAL.pdf }} Another one proposes flows of carbon dioxide, but the settings in which the flows occur are too warm for [carbon\\-dioxide frost](/wiki/Dry_ice \"Dry ice\") ({{chem\\|C\\|O\\|2}}), and at some sites is too cold for pure water. Other hypotheses include dry granular flows, but no entirely dry process can explain seasonal flows that progressively grow over weeks and months. Cornice avalanches is another hypothesis. The idea is that wind collects snow or frost just past the peak of a mountain and then this becomes an avalanche after it warms up. Seasonal melting of shallow ice would explain the RSL observations, but it would be difficult to replenish such ice annually. However, as of 2015, direct observations of seasonal deposition of soluble salts strongly suggest that RSL involve [brine](/wiki/Brine \"Brine\") (hydrated salts).",
"### Brines",
"The leading hypothesis involves the flow of [brines](/wiki/Brine \"Brine\") (very salty water).{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Mann \\|first\\=Adam \\|title\\=Strange Dark Streaks on Mars Get More and More Mysterious\\|url\\=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2014/02/flowing\\-lineae\\-water\\-mars/ \\|date\\=February 18, 2014 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Wired (magazine)\\|Wired]] \\|access\\-date\\=February 18, 2014 }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kerr \\|first\\=Richard A. \\|date\\=August 4, 2011 \\|title\\=Is Mars Weeping Salty Tears? \\|url\\=https://www.science.org/content/article/mars\\-weeping\\-salty\\-tears \\|access\\-date\\=July 14, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Science (journal)\\|Science]]}}{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/science\\-technology/NASA\\-Finds\\-Possible\\-Signs\\-of\\-Flowing\\-Water\\-on\\-Mars\\-126807133\\.html\\| title\\=NASA Finds Possible Signs of Flowing Water on Mars\\| publisher\\=voanews.com\\| access\\-date\\=August 5, 2011}}{{cite web \\|last1\\=Webster \\|first1\\=Guy \\|last2\\=Brown \\|first2\\=Dwayne \\|title\\=NASA Mars Spacecraft Reveals a More Dynamic Red Planet \\|url\\=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release\\=2013\\-361\\&1\\#1 \\|date\\=December 10, 2013 \\|work\\=\\[\\[NASA]] \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2013 }}{{cite news \\|last\\=Wall \\|first\\=Mike \\|url\\=http://www.space.com/30673\\-water\\-flows\\-on\\-mars\\-discovery.html?adbid\\=10153086098981466\\&adbpl\\=fb\\&adbpr\\=17610706465 \\|title\\=Salty Water Flows on Mars Today, Boosting Odds for Life \\|work\\=Space.com \\|date\\=28 September 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-28 }} Salt deposits over much of Mars indicate that brine was abundant in Mars's past.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.nasa.gov/mission\\_pages/MRO/news/mro20110804\\.html\\| title\\=NASA Spacecraft Data Suggest Water Flowing on Mars\\| publisher\\=NASA\\| access\\-date\\=July 5, 2011\\| archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2016\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304075750/http://www.nasa.gov/mission\\_pages/MRO/news/mro20110804\\.html\\| url\\-status\\=dead}} Salinity lowers the [freezing point](/wiki/Freezing_point \"Freezing point\") of water to sustain a liquid flow. Less saline water would freeze at the observed temperatures. Thermal infrared data from the [Thermal Emission Imaging System](/wiki/Thermal_Emission_Imaging_System \"Thermal Emission Imaging System\") (THEMIS) on board the *[2001 Mars Odyssey](/wiki/2001_Mars_Odyssey \"2001 Mars Odyssey\")* orbiter, have allowed the temperature conditions under which RSL form to be constrained. While a small number of RSL are visible at temperatures above the freezing point of water, most are not, and many appear at temperatures as low as {{convert\\|\\-43\\|C\\|K}}. Some scientists think that under these cold conditions, a brine of [iron(III) sulfate](/wiki/Iron%28III%29_sulfate \"Iron(III) sulfate\") (Fe2(SO4)3) or [calcium chloride](/wiki/Calcium_chloride \"Calcium chloride\") ({{chem\\|Ca\\|Cl\\|2}}) is the most likely mode of RSL formation.{{cite conference \\|last1\\=Mitchell \\|first1\\=J. \\|last2\\=Christensen \\|first2\\=P. \\|title\\=RECURRING SLOPE LINEAE AND THE PRESENCE OF CHLORIDES IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE OF MARS \\|url\\=http://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2015/pdf/1624\\.pdf \\|conference\\=46th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (2015\\) \\|publisher\\=Lunar and Planetary Institute \\|date\\=March 16–20, 2015 }} Another team of scientists, using the [CRISM](/wiki/Compact_Reconnaissance_Imaging_Spectrometer_for_Mars \"Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars\") instrument onboard MRO, reported that the evidence for hydrated salts is most consistent with the spectral absorption features of [magnesium perchlorate](/wiki/Magnesium_perchlorate \"Magnesium perchlorate\") (Mg(ClO4)2), [magnesium chloride](/wiki/Magnesium_chloride \"Magnesium chloride\") (MgCl2(H2O)x) and [sodium perchlorate](/wiki/Sodium_perchlorate \"Sodium perchlorate\") ({{chem\\|Na\\|Cl\\|O\\|4}}).",
"Experiments and calculations demonstrated that recurring slope lineae could be produced by the [deliquescence](/wiki/Deliquescence \"Deliquescence\") and rehydration of hydrous chlorides and oxychlorine salts. However, under present Martian atmospheric conditions there is not enough water to complete this process.{{cite journal \\| last1\\=Wang \\| first1\\=A. \\| last2\\=Ling \\| first2\\=Z. C. \\| last3\\=Yan \\| first3\\=Y. C. \\| last4\\=McEwen \\| first4\\=A. S. \\| last5\\=Mellon \\| first5\\=M. T. \\| last6\\=Smith \\| first6\\=M. D. \\| last7\\=Jolliff \\| first7\\=B. L. \\| last8\\=Head \\| first8\\=J. \\| title\\=Atmosphere \\- Surface H2O Exchange to Sustain the Recurring Slope Lineae (RSL) on Mars \\| journal\\=Lunar and Planetary Science Conference \\| volume\\=48 \\| issue\\=1964 \\| pages\\=2351 \\| date\\=2017\\-03\\-24 \\| bibcode\\=2017LPI....48\\.2351W }}",
"These observations are the closest scientists have come to finding evidence of liquid water on the planet's surface today. Frozen water, however, has been detected near the surface in many middle to high\\-latitude regions. Purported droplets of brine also appeared on struts of the [Phoenix Mars Lander](/wiki/Phoenix_Mars_Lander \"Phoenix Mars Lander\") in 2008\\.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Renno \\|first1\\=Nilton \\|last2\\=Bos \\|first2\\=Brent \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|title\\=Possible physical and thermodynamical evidence for liquid water at the Phoenix landing site \\|journal\\=J. Geophys. Res. Planets \\|date\\=14 October 2009 \\|volume\\=114 \\|issue\\=E1 \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2009JE003362 \\|ref\\=phoenix\\-droplets\\|hdl\\=2027\\.42/95444 \\|url\\=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027\\.42/95444/1/jgre2665\\.pdf \\|bibcode\\=2009JGRE..114\\.0E03R \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Source of water",
"{{see also\\|Water on Mars\\|Groundwater on Mars}}",
"Liquid brine flows near the surface might explain this activity, but the exact source of the water and the mechanism behind its motion are not understood.{{cite journal\\| last1\\=McEwen\\| first1\\=Alfred.S.\\| last2\\=Ojha\\| first2\\=Lujendra \\| last3\\=Dundas\\| first3\\=Colin M.\\| date\\=June 17, 2011\\| title\\=Seasonal Flows on Warm Martian Slopes\\| journal\\=Science\\| volume\\=333\\| issue\\=6043\\| pages\\=740–743\\| doi\\=10\\.1126/science.1204816\\| issn\\=0036\\-8075\\| bibcode \\= 2011Sci...333\\..740M\\| pmid\\=21817049\\| s2cid\\=10460581}}{{cite web\\| url\\=http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/sim/science\\-2011\\-aug\\-4\\.php\\| title\\=Seasonal Flows on Warm Martian Slopes\\| publisher\\=hirise.lpl.arizona.edu\\| access\\-date\\=August 5, 2011}} A hypothesis proposes that the needed water could originate in the seasonal oscillations of near\\-surface [adsorbed](/wiki/Adsorbed \"Adsorbed\") water provided by the [atmosphere](/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars%23Water_vapor \"Atmosphere of Mars#Water vapor\"); [perchlorates](/wiki/Perchlorate \"Perchlorate\") and other salts known to be present on the surface are able to attract and hold water molecules from the surrounding environment ([hygroscopic](/wiki/Hygroscopic \"Hygroscopic\") salts), but the dryness of the Martian air is a challenge. Water vapor must be efficiently trapped over very small areas, and seasonal variation in the atmospheric column abundance of water vapor does not match the RSL activity over active locations.{{cite conference \\|last1\\=McEwen \\|first1\\=A. \\|last2\\=Chojnacki \\|first2\\=M. \\|last3\\=Dundas \\|first3\\=C. \\|last4\\=L. Ojha \\|first4\\=L. \\|title\\=Recurring Slope Lineae on Mars: Atmospheric Origin? \\|url\\=http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC2015/EPSC2015\\-786\\-1\\.pdf \\|conference\\=European Planetary Science Congress 2015 \\|publisher\\=EPSC Abstracts \\|place\\=France \\|date\\= 28 September 2015 }}",
"Deeper [groundwater](/wiki/Groundwater_on_Mars \"Groundwater on Mars\") may exist and could reach the surface at springs or seeps,{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Levy \\| first1 \\= Joseph \\| year \\= 2012 \\| title \\= Hydrological characteristics of recurrent slope lineae on Mars: Evidence for liquid flow through regolith and comparisons with Antarctic terrestrial analogs \\| journal \\= Icarus \\| volume \\= 219 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 1–4 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.icarus.2012\\.02\\.016 }}{{cite journal \\|title\\=Transient liquid water and water activity at Gale crater on Mars \\|journal\\=Nature Geoscience \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=357 \\|date\\= 13 April 2015 \\|last1\\=Martín\\-Torres \\|first1\\=F. Javier \\|last2\\=Zorzano \\|first2\\=María\\-Paz \\|last3\\=Valentín\\-Serrano \\|first3\\=Patricia \\|last4\\=Harri \\|first4\\=Ari\\-Matti \\|last5\\=Genzer \\|first5\\=Maria \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/ngeo2412 \\|bibcode\\=2015NatGe...8\\..357M }} but this cannot explain the wide distribution of RSL, extending from the tops of ridges and peaks. Also, there are apparent RSL on equatorial dunes composed of permeable sand, unlikely to be a groundwater source.",
"An analysis of near\\-subsurface data from the *Mars Odyssey* neutron spectrometer revealed that the RSL sites do not contain any more water than found at anywhere else at similar latitudes. The authors concluded that RSL are not supplied by large, near\\-surface briny aquifers. It is still possible with this data that water vapor is from deeply buried ice, from the atmosphere, or from small deeply buried aquifers.",
"### Dry sand flows",
"Dry granular flow was proposed since the first observations of RSLs but this interpretation was ruled out because of the seasonality of the process. The first proposition of a seasonal triggering in a dry context was published in March 2017 using a Knudsen pump effect.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/ngeo2917 \\| volume\\=10 \\| title\\=Formation of recurring slope lineae on Mars by rarefied gas\\-triggered granular flows \\| year\\=2017 \\| journal\\=Nature Geoscience \\| pages\\=270–273 \\| last1 \\= Schmidt \\| first1 \\= Frédéric \\| last2 \\= Andrieu \\| first2 \\= François \\| last3 \\= Costard \\| first3 \\= François \\| last4 \\= Kocifaj \\| first4 \\= Miroslav \\| last5 \\= Meresescu \\| first5 \\= Alina G.\\| issue\\=4 \\| arxiv \\= 1802\\.05018 \\| s2cid\\=55016186 }} The authors demonstrated that the RSLs stopped at an angle of 28° in Garni crater, in agreement with dry granular avalanche. In addition, the authors pointed out several limitations of the wet hypothesis, such as the fact that the detection of water was only indirect (salt detection but not water). This theory pushed back the dry flow theory. \nResearch published in November 2017 concludes that the observations are best explained by dry flow processes,[Recurring Martian Streaks: Flowing Sand, Not Water?](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7005). *JPL News*, NASA. 20 November 2017\\.{{cite journal \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41561\\-017\\-0012\\-5 \\| volume\\=10 \\| title\\=Granular flows at recurring slope lineae on Mars indicate a limited role for liquid water \\| year\\=2017 \\| journal\\=Nature Geoscience \\| pages\\=903–907 \\| last1 \\= Dundas \\| first1 \\= Colin M. \\| last2 \\= McEwen \\| first2 \\= Alfred S. \\| last3 \\= Chojnacki \\| first3 \\= Matthew \\| last4 \\= Milazzo \\| first4 \\= Moses P. \\| last5 \\= Byrne \\| first5 \\= Shane \\| last6 \\= McElwaine \\| first6 \\= Jim N. \\| last7 \\= Urso \\| first7 \\= Anna\\| issue\\=12 \\| hdl \\= 10150/627918 \\| s2cid\\=24606098 \\| hdl\\-access \\= free }}[A Mars Mystery: How Did Land Form Without Much Water?](https://www.space.com/38790-mars-mystery-land-formation-with-little-water.html). Jan Raack. *Space.com*. 21 November 2017\\. and remark that there is no actual [spectrographic](/wiki/Spectrography \"Spectrography\") evidence for water. Their research shows RSL exist only on slopes steeper than 27 degrees, enough for dry grains to descend the way they do on faces of active dunes. The RSL do not flow onto shallower than 27 degree slopes, which is inconsistent with models for water. A 2016 report also cast doubt on possible sources of underground water at RSL sites,\\<ref\\>[Mars Canyons Study Adds Clues about Possible Water](https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=6562). *JPL News, NASA. 7 July 2016\\.\\</ref\\> but the new research article acknowledged that hydrated salts could draw some humidity from the atmosphere and seasonal changes in hydration of salt\\-containing grains might result in some trigger mechanism for RSL grainflows, such as expansion, contraction, or release of some water, that would change the cohesion of grains and cause them to fall or \"flow\" downslope. Furthermore, neutron spectrometer data by the* [Mars Odyssey](/wiki/Mars_Odyssey \"Mars Odyssey\")'' orbiter obtained over one decade, was published in December 2017, and shows no evidence of water (hydrogenated regolith) at the active sites, so its authors also support the hypotheses of either short\\-lived atmospheric water vapour deliquescence, or dry granular flows. Nevertheless, the footprint of this instrument (\\~100 km) is much larger than the RSLs (\\~100m).",
""
] |
Early life
----------
Agee attended [Maplesville High School](/wiki/Maplesville_High_School "Maplesville High School"), where he earned All\-state honors in [football](/wiki/American_football "American football"), [basketball](/wiki/Basketball "Basketball"), and [track](/wiki/Track_and_field "Track and field"). He also practiced [baseball](/wiki/Baseball "Baseball").
He accepted a football scholarship from [Auburn University](/wiki/Auburn_University "Auburn University"). His best season came as a [redshirt](/wiki/Redshirt_%28college_sports%29 "Redshirt (college sports)") freshman playing in a [wishbone offense](/wiki/Wishbone_offense "Wishbone offense"), on a backfield that included [Bo Jackson](/wiki/Bo_Jackson "Bo Jackson"), [Lionel James](/wiki/Lionel_James "Lionel James") and [Brent Fullwood](/wiki/Brent_Fullwood "Brent Fullwood"). He was third on the team with 115 carries for 604 yards (5\.3\-yard average) and 4 [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown "Touchdown"). He had 24 carries for 219 yards and 2 [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown "Touchdown") against the [University of Maryland](/wiki/University_of_Maryland "University of Maryland").{{Cite web \|date\=November 5, 1983 \|title\=Freshman Tommie Agee showed Saturday why Auburn Coach Pat... \|url\=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1983/11/05/Freshman\-Tommie\-Agee\-showed\-Saturday\-why\-Auburn\-Coach\-Pat/4566436856400/ \|access\-date\=September 27, 2018 \|website\=UPI.com}}
As a sophomore the team changed the offense to an [I formation](/wiki/I_formation "I formation"), where he was forced to focus more on his blocking. He registered 94 carries (second on the team) for 456 yards (third on the team), a 4\.9\-yard average and one [touchdown](/wiki/Touchdown "Touchdown").
As a junior, he was third on the team with 81 carries for 402 yards (5\.0\-yard average) and 4 [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown "Touchdown"). He had 95 rushing yards, including a 68\-yard run against [Florida State University](/wiki/Florida_State_University "Florida State University"). He scored 2 touchdowns against the [University of Southern Mississippi](/wiki/University_of_Southern_Mississippi "University of Southern Mississippi").{{Cite web \|title\=Bo Jackson Gains 205 as No. 1 Auburn Beats Southern Mississippi \|website\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \|date\=September 15, 1985 \|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1985\-09\-15\-sp\-23270\-story.html \|access\-date\=September 27, 2018}}
As a senior, he was second on the team with 66 carries for 271 yards (4\.1\-yard average), one rushing [touchdown](/wiki/Touchdown "Touchdown"), 18 receptions for 200 yards and one receiving [touchdown](/wiki/Touchdown "Touchdown"). He also was named the [special teams](/wiki/Special_teams "Special teams") captain.
Agee was a four\-year starter at [fullback](/wiki/Fullback_%28American_football%29 "Fullback (American football)"), that was primarily used as the lead blocker for Bo Jackson and Brent Fullwood. He finished his college career with 356 carries for 1,733 yards (4\.9\-yard average), 10 rushing [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown "Touchdown"), 32 receptions for 321 yards, 3 receiving [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown "Touchdown"), and returned 10 kickoffs for a 21\.5 yard average.
In 2019, he was inducted into the [Alabama Sports Hall of Fame](/wiki/Alabama_Sports_Hall_of_Fame "Alabama Sports Hall of Fame").
|
[
"Early life\n----------",
"Agee attended [Maplesville High School](/wiki/Maplesville_High_School \"Maplesville High School\"), where he earned All\\-state honors in [football](/wiki/American_football \"American football\"), [basketball](/wiki/Basketball \"Basketball\"), and [track](/wiki/Track_and_field \"Track and field\"). He also practiced [baseball](/wiki/Baseball \"Baseball\").",
"He accepted a football scholarship from [Auburn University](/wiki/Auburn_University \"Auburn University\"). His best season came as a [redshirt](/wiki/Redshirt_%28college_sports%29 \"Redshirt (college sports)\") freshman playing in a [wishbone offense](/wiki/Wishbone_offense \"Wishbone offense\"), on a backfield that included [Bo Jackson](/wiki/Bo_Jackson \"Bo Jackson\"), [Lionel James](/wiki/Lionel_James \"Lionel James\") and [Brent Fullwood](/wiki/Brent_Fullwood \"Brent Fullwood\"). He was third on the team with 115 carries for 604 yards (5\\.3\\-yard average) and 4 [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown \"Touchdown\"). He had 24 carries for 219 yards and 2 [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown \"Touchdown\") against the [University of Maryland](/wiki/University_of_Maryland \"University of Maryland\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=November 5, 1983 \\|title\\=Freshman Tommie Agee showed Saturday why Auburn Coach Pat... \\|url\\=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1983/11/05/Freshman\\-Tommie\\-Agee\\-showed\\-Saturday\\-why\\-Auburn\\-Coach\\-Pat/4566436856400/ \\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2018 \\|website\\=UPI.com}}",
"As a sophomore the team changed the offense to an [I formation](/wiki/I_formation \"I formation\"), where he was forced to focus more on his blocking. He registered 94 carries (second on the team) for 456 yards (third on the team), a 4\\.9\\-yard average and one [touchdown](/wiki/Touchdown \"Touchdown\").",
"As a junior, he was third on the team with 81 carries for 402 yards (5\\.0\\-yard average) and 4 [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown \"Touchdown\"). He had 95 rushing yards, including a 68\\-yard run against [Florida State University](/wiki/Florida_State_University \"Florida State University\"). He scored 2 touchdowns against the [University of Southern Mississippi](/wiki/University_of_Southern_Mississippi \"University of Southern Mississippi\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Bo Jackson Gains 205 as No. 1 Auburn Beats Southern Mississippi \\|website\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\|date\\=September 15, 1985 \\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1985\\-09\\-15\\-sp\\-23270\\-story.html \\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2018}}",
"As a senior, he was second on the team with 66 carries for 271 yards (4\\.1\\-yard average), one rushing [touchdown](/wiki/Touchdown \"Touchdown\"), 18 receptions for 200 yards and one receiving [touchdown](/wiki/Touchdown \"Touchdown\"). He also was named the [special teams](/wiki/Special_teams \"Special teams\") captain.",
"Agee was a four\\-year starter at [fullback](/wiki/Fullback_%28American_football%29 \"Fullback (American football)\"), that was primarily used as the lead blocker for Bo Jackson and Brent Fullwood. He finished his college career with 356 carries for 1,733 yards (4\\.9\\-yard average), 10 rushing [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown \"Touchdown\"), 32 receptions for 321 yards, 3 receiving [touchdowns](/wiki/Touchdown \"Touchdown\"), and returned 10 kickoffs for a 21\\.5 yard average.",
"In 2019, he was inducted into the [Alabama Sports Hall of Fame](/wiki/Alabama_Sports_Hall_of_Fame \"Alabama Sports Hall of Fame\").",
""
] |
History
-------
The company's first product was *North American Women's Letters and Diaries*, a collection of 150,000 pages of letters and diaries by women from colonial times through the 1950s.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2016}}
In 2000, in collaboration with the ARTFL project at the University of Chicago,{{cite web\|author\=The ARTFL Project \|url\=http://artfl\-project.uchicago.edu/content/artfl\-collaborations \|title\=ARTFL Collaborations \| The ARTFL Project \|publisher\=Artfl\-project.uchicago.edu \|access\-date\=December 15, 2012}} the company began using [semantic indexing](/wiki/Latent_semantic_indexing "Latent semantic indexing") techniques in its humanities databases. It created [metadata](/wiki/Metadata "Metadata") elements for gender, age, and sexual orientation of characters within plays; author nationality, birthplace and death place, as well as where and when an item was written. These elements were then combined with full\-text search to allow material to be analyzed in new ways.Shlomo Argamon, Charles Cooney, Russell Horton, Mark Olsen and Sterling Stein, "Gender, Race, and Nationality in Black Drama, 1850–2000: Mining Differences in Language Use in Authors and their Characters", [Digital Humanities Quarterly](/wiki/Digital_Humanities_Quarterly "Digital Humanities Quarterly"), Spring 2009, Volume 3 Number 2\.How Semantic Tagging Increases Findability, Heather Hadden, EContent Magazine, October 2008\. [http://www.hedden\-information.com/SemanticTagging.pdf](http://www.hedden-information.com/SemanticTagging.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214102122/http://www.hedden\-information.com/SemanticTagging.pdf \|date\=December 14, 2010 }}Rhind\-Tutt, Stephen. "Different Direction for Electronic Publishers: How Indexing Can Increase Functionality." Technicalities 21(3\):1,13\-15, May/June 2001
In 2003, the company began a major partnership with The Center for the Historical Study of Women and Gender at the [State University of New York](/wiki/State_University_of_New_York "State University of New York") to publish *[Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600–2000](/wiki/Women_and_Social_Movements_in_the_United_States%2C_1600%E2%80%932000 "Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600–2000")*. This has subsequently become a leading site for the study of women's history.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.albany.edu/jmmh/vol2no1/women\-socialmovs.html \|title\=Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1830–1930 Web site. A Journal for MultiMedia History Web site review \|publisher\=Albany.edu \|date\=May 7, 1999 \|access\-date\=December 15, 2012}}Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600–2000 Bonnie S. Anderson, *[Women's History Review](/wiki/Women%27s_History_Review "Women's History Review")*, 1747\-583X, volume 19, issue 5, 2010, pages 795–797\.
In November 2004, Alexander Street acquired the principal assets of Classical International,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA601032\.html \|title\=Database Marketplace 2005: Shopping for Information \|publisher\=Libraryjournal.com \|access\-date\=December 15, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728105838/http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA601032\.html \|archive\-date\=July 28, 2012 }} a London and New York–based publisher of [streaming music](/wiki/Streaming_music "Streaming music") for libraries. This led to a new range of music publications, including a partnership with the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution "Smithsonian Institution") to provide [Smithsonian Global Sound](/wiki/Smithsonian_Global_Sound "Smithsonian Global Sound") for Libraries and African American Song.
In November 2005, Alexander Street acquired the range of religious products produced by Ad Fontes, including *The Digital Library of Classic Protestant Texts* and *The Digital Library of the Catholic Reformation*.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2016}}
In October 2006, the company acquired the assets of University Music Editions, a small microfilm publisher specializing in the publication of scores, journals and other musically oriented publications. These collections were subsequently released as part of Classical Scores Library.
Late in 2006, the company began developing online collections of video. *Theatre in Video* was published in April 2007 and has been followed by a succession of online streaming video collections. Using techniques such as semantic indexing, initially developed for textual databases, it was an early provider of synchronized, scrolling transcripts that allow the watcher to read ahead. At the 2010 Midsummer American Library Association, the company advertised 9 streaming video collections spanning more than 9,000 individual video titles.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA6728271\.html \|title\=Webcast Report: Video in the Library: Trends and Best Practices \|publisher\=Libraryjournal.com \|access\-date\=December 15, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728105842/http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA6728271\.html \|archive\-date\=July 28, 2012 }}
In April 2007, Alexander Street acquired the principal products of HarpWeek, publisher of *[Harper's Weekly](/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly "Harper's Weekly")* and *Lincoln and the Civil War*.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2016}} In June 2009 Alexander Street Press and Arcadia Publishing launched a research website to college local history information from around the United States and Canada.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by\-topic/new\-titles/adult\-announcements/article/10501\-alexander\-street\-and\-arcadia\-publishing\-launch\-online\-local\-history\-collection.html\|title\=Alexander Street and Arcadia Publishing Launch Online Local History Collection\|website\=PublishersWeekly.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-29}}
In September 2010, Alexander Street acquired Microtraining Associates, a specialist producer and distributor of therapy and counseling videos. In 2011, Alexander Street acquired the documentary film distributor Filmmakers Library.{{Cite web\| title \= Filmakers Library, Inc. Joins Forces with Alexander Street Press, LLC\| work \= Alexander Street\| access\-date \= 2019\-01\-26\| url \= https://alexanderstreet.com/content/filmakers\-library\-inc\-joins\-forces\-alexander\-street\-press\-llc}} In 2012, it acquired the principal assets of Asia Pacific Films.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2016}} In November 2013, Alexander Street announced the acquisition of Insight Media, a New York–based vendor of DVD and streaming media, bringing the ASP catalog to more than 50,000 academic video titles.{{cite web \|title\=Alexander Street Press acquires Insight Media \|website\=Research Information \|url\=http://www.researchinformation.info/news/news\_story.php?news\_id\=1410 \|access\-date\=March 23, 2016}}
In one of the first and largest independent surveys on streaming video in North American academic libraries by Deg Farrelly (Arizona State University) and Jane Hutchison ([William Paterson University](/wiki/William_Paterson_University "William Paterson University")), Alexander Street emerged as the leading vendor, used at more than 60% of sites.{{cite web\|url\=http://repository.asu.edu/items/18973\|title\=Streaming Video in Academic Libraries: Preliminary Results from a National Survey\|work\=asu.edu\|access\-date\=March 23, 2016}} Insight Media was present at some 10% of sites.
In 2013, the company launched a series of case study databases which combine books, audio, video, reports, pamphlets, and other primary sources. The first two of these were *Engineering Case Studies Online*, which documented major accidents of the 20th century, and *Psychological Experiments Online*, which documented seminal experiments on and about humans.{{Cite journal\|last\=Makowski\|first\=Jenna\|last2\=Parker\|first2\=David\|date\=2016\-03\-07\|title\=Alexander Street goes open access\|journal\=Insights\|volume\=29\|issue\=1\|pages\=53–56\|doi\=10\.1629/uksg.279\|issn\=2048\-7754\|doi\-access\=free}}
In 2015, the company secured an arrangement with CBS to publish episodes of *[Sixty Minutes](/wiki/Sixty_Minutes "Sixty Minutes")* from 1996 to 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://newsbreaks.infotoday.com/Digest/em\-Minutesem\-Archive\-Comes\-to\-Alexander\-Street\-Press\-101960\.asp\|title\=60 Minutes Archive Comes to Alexander Street Press\|author\=Information Today\|work\=infotoday.com\|access\-date\=March 23, 2016}} It also announced [open access](/wiki/Open_access "Open access") initiatives in anthropology (*The Anthropology Commons*) and music (*The Open Music Library*).{{cite web\|url\=http://librarylearningspace.com/newsite/tag/alexander\-street\-press/\|title\=Alexander Street Press \- librarylearningspace.com\|work\=librarylearningspace.com\|access\-date\=March 23, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220013239/http://librarylearningspace.com/newsite/tag/alexander\-street\-press/\|archive\-date\=February 20, 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} The following June, Alexander Street Press was acquired by ProQuest and renamed "Alexander Street – a ProQuest Company."{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by\-topic/industry\-news/industry\-deals/article/70729\-proquest\-acquires\-alexander\-street.html\|title\=ProQuest Acquires Alexander Street\|website\=www.publishersweekly.com\|access\-date\=2019\-03\-29}}
In February 2022 ProQuest was itself acquired by Clarivate{{Cite journal \|last\=Breeding \|first\=Marshall \|date\=2022\-02\-15 \|title\=ProQuest merges into Clarivate: an update on business integration \|url\=https://librarytechnology.org/document/27003 \|journal\=Library Technology Newsletter \|language\=en \|volume\=1 \|issue\=02 \|pages\=2}} and Alexander Street became a Clarivate company.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The company's first product was *North American Women's Letters and Diaries*, a collection of 150,000 pages of letters and diaries by women from colonial times through the 1950s.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2016}}",
"In 2000, in collaboration with the ARTFL project at the University of Chicago,{{cite web\\|author\\=The ARTFL Project \\|url\\=http://artfl\\-project.uchicago.edu/content/artfl\\-collaborations \\|title\\=ARTFL Collaborations \\| The ARTFL Project \\|publisher\\=Artfl\\-project.uchicago.edu \\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2012}} the company began using [semantic indexing](/wiki/Latent_semantic_indexing \"Latent semantic indexing\") techniques in its humanities databases. It created [metadata](/wiki/Metadata \"Metadata\") elements for gender, age, and sexual orientation of characters within plays; author nationality, birthplace and death place, as well as where and when an item was written. These elements were then combined with full\\-text search to allow material to be analyzed in new ways.Shlomo Argamon, Charles Cooney, Russell Horton, Mark Olsen and Sterling Stein, \"Gender, Race, and Nationality in Black Drama, 1850–2000: Mining Differences in Language Use in Authors and their Characters\", [Digital Humanities Quarterly](/wiki/Digital_Humanities_Quarterly \"Digital Humanities Quarterly\"), Spring 2009, Volume 3 Number 2\\.How Semantic Tagging Increases Findability, Heather Hadden, EContent Magazine, October 2008\\. [http://www.hedden\\-information.com/SemanticTagging.pdf](http://www.hedden-information.com/SemanticTagging.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214102122/http://www.hedden\\-information.com/SemanticTagging.pdf \\|date\\=December 14, 2010 }}Rhind\\-Tutt, Stephen. \"Different Direction for Electronic Publishers: How Indexing Can Increase Functionality.\" Technicalities 21(3\\):1,13\\-15, May/June 2001",
"In 2003, the company began a major partnership with The Center for the Historical Study of Women and Gender at the [State University of New York](/wiki/State_University_of_New_York \"State University of New York\") to publish *[Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600–2000](/wiki/Women_and_Social_Movements_in_the_United_States%2C_1600%E2%80%932000 \"Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600–2000\")*. This has subsequently become a leading site for the study of women's history.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.albany.edu/jmmh/vol2no1/women\\-socialmovs.html \\|title\\=Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1830–1930 Web site. A Journal for MultiMedia History Web site review \\|publisher\\=Albany.edu \\|date\\=May 7, 1999 \\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2012}}Women and Social Movements in the United States, 1600–2000 Bonnie S. Anderson, *[Women's History Review](/wiki/Women%27s_History_Review \"Women's History Review\")*, 1747\\-583X, volume 19, issue 5, 2010, pages 795–797\\.",
"In November 2004, Alexander Street acquired the principal assets of Classical International,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA601032\\.html \\|title\\=Database Marketplace 2005: Shopping for Information \\|publisher\\=Libraryjournal.com \\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728105838/http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA601032\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 28, 2012 }} a London and New York–based publisher of [streaming music](/wiki/Streaming_music \"Streaming music\") for libraries. This led to a new range of music publications, including a partnership with the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\") to provide [Smithsonian Global Sound](/wiki/Smithsonian_Global_Sound \"Smithsonian Global Sound\") for Libraries and African American Song.",
"In November 2005, Alexander Street acquired the range of religious products produced by Ad Fontes, including *The Digital Library of Classic Protestant Texts* and *The Digital Library of the Catholic Reformation*.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2016}}",
"In October 2006, the company acquired the assets of University Music Editions, a small microfilm publisher specializing in the publication of scores, journals and other musically oriented publications. These collections were subsequently released as part of Classical Scores Library.",
"Late in 2006, the company began developing online collections of video. *Theatre in Video* was published in April 2007 and has been followed by a succession of online streaming video collections. Using techniques such as semantic indexing, initially developed for textual databases, it was an early provider of synchronized, scrolling transcripts that allow the watcher to read ahead. At the 2010 Midsummer American Library Association, the company advertised 9 streaming video collections spanning more than 9,000 individual video titles.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA6728271\\.html \\|title\\=Webcast Report: Video in the Library: Trends and Best Practices \\|publisher\\=Libraryjournal.com \\|access\\-date\\=December 15, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728105842/http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA6728271\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 28, 2012 }}",
"In April 2007, Alexander Street acquired the principal products of HarpWeek, publisher of *[Harper's Weekly](/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly \"Harper's Weekly\")* and *Lincoln and the Civil War*.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2016}} In June 2009 Alexander Street Press and Arcadia Publishing launched a research website to college local history information from around the United States and Canada.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by\\-topic/new\\-titles/adult\\-announcements/article/10501\\-alexander\\-street\\-and\\-arcadia\\-publishing\\-launch\\-online\\-local\\-history\\-collection.html\\|title\\=Alexander Street and Arcadia Publishing Launch Online Local History Collection\\|website\\=PublishersWeekly.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-29}}",
"In September 2010, Alexander Street acquired Microtraining Associates, a specialist producer and distributor of therapy and counseling videos. In 2011, Alexander Street acquired the documentary film distributor Filmmakers Library.{{Cite web\\| title \\= Filmakers Library, Inc. Joins Forces with Alexander Street Press, LLC\\| work \\= Alexander Street\\| access\\-date \\= 2019\\-01\\-26\\| url \\= https://alexanderstreet.com/content/filmakers\\-library\\-inc\\-joins\\-forces\\-alexander\\-street\\-press\\-llc}} In 2012, it acquired the principal assets of Asia Pacific Films.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2016}} In November 2013, Alexander Street announced the acquisition of Insight Media, a New York–based vendor of DVD and streaming media, bringing the ASP catalog to more than 50,000 academic video titles.{{cite web \\|title\\=Alexander Street Press acquires Insight Media \\|website\\=Research Information \\|url\\=http://www.researchinformation.info/news/news\\_story.php?news\\_id\\=1410 \\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2016}}",
"In one of the first and largest independent surveys on streaming video in North American academic libraries by Deg Farrelly (Arizona State University) and Jane Hutchison ([William Paterson University](/wiki/William_Paterson_University \"William Paterson University\")), Alexander Street emerged as the leading vendor, used at more than 60% of sites.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://repository.asu.edu/items/18973\\|title\\=Streaming Video in Academic Libraries: Preliminary Results from a National Survey\\|work\\=asu.edu\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2016}} Insight Media was present at some 10% of sites.",
"In 2013, the company launched a series of case study databases which combine books, audio, video, reports, pamphlets, and other primary sources. The first two of these were *Engineering Case Studies Online*, which documented major accidents of the 20th century, and *Psychological Experiments Online*, which documented seminal experiments on and about humans.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Makowski\\|first\\=Jenna\\|last2\\=Parker\\|first2\\=David\\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-07\\|title\\=Alexander Street goes open access\\|journal\\=Insights\\|volume\\=29\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=53–56\\|doi\\=10\\.1629/uksg.279\\|issn\\=2048\\-7754\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"In 2015, the company secured an arrangement with CBS to publish episodes of *[Sixty Minutes](/wiki/Sixty_Minutes \"Sixty Minutes\")* from 1996 to 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://newsbreaks.infotoday.com/Digest/em\\-Minutesem\\-Archive\\-Comes\\-to\\-Alexander\\-Street\\-Press\\-101960\\.asp\\|title\\=60 Minutes Archive Comes to Alexander Street Press\\|author\\=Information Today\\|work\\=infotoday.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2016}} It also announced [open access](/wiki/Open_access \"Open access\") initiatives in anthropology (*The Anthropology Commons*) and music (*The Open Music Library*).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://librarylearningspace.com/newsite/tag/alexander\\-street\\-press/\\|title\\=Alexander Street Press \\- librarylearningspace.com\\|work\\=librarylearningspace.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 23, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220013239/http://librarylearningspace.com/newsite/tag/alexander\\-street\\-press/\\|archive\\-date\\=February 20, 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The following June, Alexander Street Press was acquired by ProQuest and renamed \"Alexander Street – a ProQuest Company.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by\\-topic/industry\\-news/industry\\-deals/article/70729\\-proquest\\-acquires\\-alexander\\-street.html\\|title\\=ProQuest Acquires Alexander Street\\|website\\=www.publishersweekly.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-29}}",
"In February 2022 ProQuest was itself acquired by Clarivate{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Breeding \\|first\\=Marshall \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-15 \\|title\\=ProQuest merges into Clarivate: an update on business integration \\|url\\=https://librarytechnology.org/document/27003 \\|journal\\=Library Technology Newsletter \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=1 \\|issue\\=02 \\|pages\\=2}} and Alexander Street became a Clarivate company.",
""
] |
Standard numbering sequences
----------------------------
[thumb\|right\|A vehicle registration plate of New Zealand in the optional 'Europlate' style](/wiki/File:2006_Ferrari_F430_F1._FZ200_%2816819988608%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "2006 Ferrari F430 F1. FZ200 (16819988608) (cropped).jpg")
### Cars and heavy vehicles
* 1964–1987: **AAnnnn**
* 1987–2001: **AAnnnn**
* 2001–present: **AAAnnn**
Private cars, taxis, and heavier road vehicles in New Zealand have number plates with up to six characters. From 1964 until March 2001 these number plates had two letters followed by one to four numbers (format *LLnnnn*), the sequence having started with AA1 and continuing through to ZZ9989 chronologically (for example, XE3782 would have been issued in 1998\). An observer could therefore ascertain the approximate date of the first registration of a vehicle using the number plate.
By the end of 2000, this system had reached the end of the alphabet ("ZZ"). The series officially ended with plate ZZ9989{{snd}} the sequence ZZ9990 to ZZ9999 had appeared as personalized plates years earlier. A new system began in April 2001, with three letters (starting with "AAA") followed by three numbers (format *Ln*), with *nnn* starting at 100\. [Land Transport New Zealand](/wiki/Land_Transport_New_Zealand "Land Transport New Zealand") also issued AAA100 to AAA103 as personalized plates, officially meaning that the first plate in the new series read AAA104\.
Starting with "CEA", the number ranges started with 1, as in the old system. The authorities issued this series according to the first two letters – the third letter and numbers did not necessarily get issued in sequence.
Unlike in many countries, observers cannot normally identify a location of registration by simply looking at the number plate. One exception to this rule occurred when *Ln* plates first appeared in 1964: most plates went to the regions in batches, starting with the "AA" series in Southland and moving progressively north. For some time one could reasonably infer that an "AF" plate hailed from Dunedin, an "AI" plate from South Canterbury, and so on. In some later instances issuers coded plates to the area of registration, such as in 1966 with the allocation of plates beginning with "CE" to the Manawatu\-Wanganui region, in 1974–1976 with the allocation of plates beginning with "HB" to the Hawke's Bay region, in May 1989 with the allocation of plates beginning with "OG" to Wellington region, and in July 2000 with the allocation of plates beginning with "ZI" to Auckland region.
### Motorcycles and tractors
These vehicles use one of several five\-character systems. Since 2009 the system has consisted of one letter, followed by one number followed by three letters; for example `A2ATL`.
The previous system consisted of one or two numbers followed by three letters. The system incremented the number sequence first, so after plate 12ABC came 13ABC, and 99ABC preceded 1ABD. In July 2009, these plates had reached the "ZUU" range.
### Caravans and trailers
{{As of\|2024\|}}, caravan and trailer number plates have the format *nnnLn* (e g.`123A1`). This format was introunced in mid 2021\. Before then, these plates had the format *nnLnn* (e.g. `10A12`) launched in 2019\. Before then, these plates had the format *nLnnn* (e.g. `1A123`), launched in 2014, prior to that was *LnnnL* (e.g. `A123A`), reaching `N881S` by July 2009\.
Also, silver\-on\-black plates can have trailers with motorcycle plates before the "RNA" range in 1990\.
Two older formats are the *Lnnnn* format and the *nnnnL* format which were still shown on black\-on\-white plates (e.g. `6176M`, `P8317`). Some silver\-on\-black plates had this format with *nnnn*I (e.g. `5727I`), and some black\-on\-white plates issued in 2002 have the format *{{Not a typo\|nnnAL}}* (excluding W, Y and Z as the second letter) (e.g. `123AB`), in preparation of the new *LnnnL* format launched later that year.
|
[
"Standard numbering sequences\n----------------------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|A vehicle registration plate of New Zealand in the optional 'Europlate' style](/wiki/File:2006_Ferrari_F430_F1._FZ200_%2816819988608%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"2006 Ferrari F430 F1. FZ200 (16819988608) (cropped).jpg\")",
"### Cars and heavy vehicles",
"* 1964–1987: **AAnnnn**\n* 1987–2001: **AAnnnn**\n* 2001–present: **AAAnnn**",
"Private cars, taxis, and heavier road vehicles in New Zealand have number plates with up to six characters. From 1964 until March 2001 these number plates had two letters followed by one to four numbers (format *LLnnnn*), the sequence having started with AA1 and continuing through to ZZ9989 chronologically (for example, XE3782 would have been issued in 1998\\). An observer could therefore ascertain the approximate date of the first registration of a vehicle using the number plate.",
"By the end of 2000, this system had reached the end of the alphabet (\"ZZ\"). The series officially ended with plate ZZ9989{{snd}} the sequence ZZ9990 to ZZ9999 had appeared as personalized plates years earlier. A new system began in April 2001, with three letters (starting with \"AAA\") followed by three numbers (format *Ln*), with *nnn* starting at 100\\. [Land Transport New Zealand](/wiki/Land_Transport_New_Zealand \"Land Transport New Zealand\") also issued AAA100 to AAA103 as personalized plates, officially meaning that the first plate in the new series read AAA104\\.",
"Starting with \"CEA\", the number ranges started with 1, as in the old system. The authorities issued this series according to the first two letters – the third letter and numbers did not necessarily get issued in sequence.",
"Unlike in many countries, observers cannot normally identify a location of registration by simply looking at the number plate. One exception to this rule occurred when *Ln* plates first appeared in 1964: most plates went to the regions in batches, starting with the \"AA\" series in Southland and moving progressively north. For some time one could reasonably infer that an \"AF\" plate hailed from Dunedin, an \"AI\" plate from South Canterbury, and so on. In some later instances issuers coded plates to the area of registration, such as in 1966 with the allocation of plates beginning with \"CE\" to the Manawatu\\-Wanganui region, in 1974–1976 with the allocation of plates beginning with \"HB\" to the Hawke's Bay region, in May 1989 with the allocation of plates beginning with \"OG\" to Wellington region, and in July 2000 with the allocation of plates beginning with \"ZI\" to Auckland region.",
"### Motorcycles and tractors",
"These vehicles use one of several five\\-character systems. Since 2009 the system has consisted of one letter, followed by one number followed by three letters; for example `A2ATL`.",
"The previous system consisted of one or two numbers followed by three letters. The system incremented the number sequence first, so after plate 12ABC came 13ABC, and 99ABC preceded 1ABD. In July 2009, these plates had reached the \"ZUU\" range.",
"### Caravans and trailers",
"{{As of\\|2024\\|}}, caravan and trailer number plates have the format *nnnLn* (e g.`123A1`). This format was introunced in mid 2021\\. Before then, these plates had the format *nnLnn* (e.g. `10A12`) launched in 2019\\. Before then, these plates had the format *nLnnn* (e.g. `1A123`), launched in 2014, prior to that was *LnnnL* (e.g. `A123A`), reaching `N881S` by July 2009\\.\nAlso, silver\\-on\\-black plates can have trailers with motorcycle plates before the \"RNA\" range in 1990\\.\nTwo older formats are the *Lnnnn* format and the *nnnnL* format which were still shown on black\\-on\\-white plates (e.g. `6176M`, `P8317`). Some silver\\-on\\-black plates had this format with *nnnn*I (e.g. `5727I`), and some black\\-on\\-white plates issued in 2002 have the format *{{Not a typo\\|nnnAL}}* (excluding W, Y and Z as the second letter) (e.g. `123AB`), in preparation of the new *LnnnL* format launched later that year.",
""
] |
Exceptions
----------
The registration system avoids several combinations of letters.
In the two\-letter serial format, use of the letter V was discontinued following the FV series in 1971, as it could be easily confused with the letter U. The letter Q was not used as the first letter (the RA series thus followed the PZ series in 1991\), although it was used as the second letter.
The MN series was skipped in 1985 as it was reserved for the [Cook Islands](/wiki/Cook_Islands "Cook Islands"). Other two\-letter series skipped include BO, FA, FO, FU, II, and IO.
From late 1996 until the end of the two\-letter format in April 2001, each series (with three exceptions) started from 1000 instead of from 1, meaning that serials were strictly six characters in length. The UR series was the first such series; the three exceptions were the WS, WT and WU series. The strict use of six\-character serials continued into the three\-letter format, with each series starting from 100, up to and including the CDZ series in 2004\.
The *LLnnnn* system deliberately reserved plates starting with the combinations "CC", "DC" and "FC" for diplomatic vehicles, DC plates are registered to vehicles owned by foreign embassies and high commissions in Wellington, CC plates are registered to vehicles owned by foreign consulates in Auckland and Christchurch, FC plates are registered to vehicles owned by foreign ambassadors and their family members. Mayoral and ministerial vehicles used the prefix "CR" (Crown). The Prime Minister receives plate CR1{{cite web \|last1\=Kay \|first1\=Martin \|last2\=Small \|first2\=Vernon \|date\=20 November 2008 \|title\=Last ride for Clark as Key takes wheel \|url\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/4766587a11\.html \|newspaper\=\[\[The Dominion Post (Wellington)\|The Dominion Post]] \|location\=Wellington \|publisher\=Fairfax Media \|access\-date\=3 December 2008 \|quote\=... Miss Clark gave the thumbs\-up as she left Parliament in CR1 on her last ride in the limousine reserved for the nation's leader. She returned in one of the Crown's pool cars. Mr Key, who went to Government House soon after her, came back in CR1\.}} while the plate DC1 is reserved for the [British High Commissioner to New Zealand](/wiki/List_of_High_Commissioners_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_New_Zealand "List of High Commissioners of the United Kingdom to New Zealand").
As the official representative of the monarch in New Zealand, the Governor General's primary vehicle carries no number plate but instead displays the royal crown. It is the only standard car permitted to operate on New Zealand roads without a number plate. However, in the NZTA System, the combination "CROWN" is used, and was issued in 1986, predating all other personalised plates by two years.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nzta.govt.nz/roads\-and\-rail/research\-and\-data/fascinating\-facts/number\-plates/ \|title\=Number plates \|access\-date\=27 November 2021}}
Since the change to the *LLLnnn* format, the letters I, O and X have appeared only on plates starting with "AAI", "AAO", and "AAX" respectively; presumably the potential for confusing these letters with numbers and other similar looking letters was only realised after those initial series. {{As of\|2012\|alt\=Current}} plates eschew the letters I, O, V, and X, meaning that letter sequences skip straight from HZZ to JAA and NZZ to PAA.
A number of three\-letter combinations have been skipped, mainly to avoid [offence](/wiki/Profanity "Profanity"). These include: ARS, ASS, BAD, BAG, BAT, BRA, BUM, BUT, CNT, CUM, CUN, DUM, FAG, FAK, FAT, FCK, FKN, FKQ, FKU, FQM, FQN, FUC, FUK, FUQ, FUZ, HAG, JAP, JEW, KFC, KGB, KKK, KLL, KNT, KUM, LSD, NAZ, NGA, PEE, PMS and PUS. Despite possible negative connotations, the FTP and GAY combinations were issued during 2011{{cite news \|first\= Jay \|last\= Boreham \|date\= 28 January 2018 \|title\= No OR6ASM on our highways: The number plates rejected by NZTA in 2017 \|url\= https://www.stuff.co.nz/auckland/100854592/No\-OR6ASM\-on\-our\-highways\-The\-number\-plates\-rejected\-by\-NZTA\-in\-2017 \|publisher\= Stuff \|access\-date\= 24 November 2018}}{{cite web \|last\=van der Stoep \|first\=Leigh \|date\=25 September 2011 \|title\=Whatever their fancy, drivers obliged to live with GAY \|url\= http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c\_id\=1\&objectid\=10754151 \|newspaper\=\[\[The New Zealand Herald]] \|access\-date\=13 February 2013}} and NGR in 2021\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/motoring/300290826/man\-wants\-offensive\-number\-plate\-removed\-from\-circulation\|title\=Man wants offensive number plate removed from circulation \|work\=Stuff\|date\=2021\-05\-03\|access\-date\=2021\-05\-03}}
Some [MG](/wiki/MG_Cars "MG Cars") models featured plates with serials in the MG series, used as semi\-personalised plates, in advance of the official MG release. The full BMW series has been bought up by [BMW](/wiki/BMW "BMW") dealers for similar use, while some [Hyundai](/wiki/Hyundai_Motor_Company "Hyundai Motor Company") and [Kia](/wiki/Kia_Motors "Kia Motors") cars feature plates with serials in the HYU and KIA series respectively.
Serials in the CCC and DCC series have been reserved, presumably for diplomatic vehicles. The combinations EBA, FCC, FNA–FNZ, G(A–H)A, MMM, NWA, PCP, PDW, PFZ, PGF, PGR, PHN, PQW, PSD, and PUB were also excluded.
Car\-dealers use a separate temporary series of yellow\-coloured plates. These use one of several combinations of letters and numbers, most often a letter X followed by up to four digits. Originally black, these plates later became yellow in colour.
In May 2019, after the [Christchurch mosque shootings](/wiki/Christchurch_mosque_shootings "Christchurch mosque shootings"), the NZTA offered to replace any plates with the prefix "GUN" (issued in 2013\) on request, although the series was not withdrawn.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/112378613/nzta\-to\-replace\-gun\-number\-plates\-for\-free \|title\=NZTA to replace GUN number plates for free \|publisher\= Stuff (Fairfax) \|date\= 1 May 2019}}
|
[
"Exceptions\n----------",
"The registration system avoids several combinations of letters.",
"In the two\\-letter serial format, use of the letter V was discontinued following the FV series in 1971, as it could be easily confused with the letter U. The letter Q was not used as the first letter (the RA series thus followed the PZ series in 1991\\), although it was used as the second letter.",
"The MN series was skipped in 1985 as it was reserved for the [Cook Islands](/wiki/Cook_Islands \"Cook Islands\"). Other two\\-letter series skipped include BO, FA, FO, FU, II, and IO.",
"From late 1996 until the end of the two\\-letter format in April 2001, each series (with three exceptions) started from 1000 instead of from 1, meaning that serials were strictly six characters in length. The UR series was the first such series; the three exceptions were the WS, WT and WU series. The strict use of six\\-character serials continued into the three\\-letter format, with each series starting from 100, up to and including the CDZ series in 2004\\.",
"The *LLnnnn* system deliberately reserved plates starting with the combinations \"CC\", \"DC\" and \"FC\" for diplomatic vehicles, DC plates are registered to vehicles owned by foreign embassies and high commissions in Wellington, CC plates are registered to vehicles owned by foreign consulates in Auckland and Christchurch, FC plates are registered to vehicles owned by foreign ambassadors and their family members. Mayoral and ministerial vehicles used the prefix \"CR\" (Crown). The Prime Minister receives plate CR1{{cite web \\|last1\\=Kay \\|first1\\=Martin \\|last2\\=Small \\|first2\\=Vernon \\|date\\=20 November 2008 \\|title\\=Last ride for Clark as Key takes wheel \\|url\\=http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/4766587a11\\.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Dominion Post (Wellington)\\|The Dominion Post]] \\|location\\=Wellington \\|publisher\\=Fairfax Media \\|access\\-date\\=3 December 2008 \\|quote\\=... Miss Clark gave the thumbs\\-up as she left Parliament in CR1 on her last ride in the limousine reserved for the nation's leader. She returned in one of the Crown's pool cars. Mr Key, who went to Government House soon after her, came back in CR1\\.}} while the plate DC1 is reserved for the [British High Commissioner to New Zealand](/wiki/List_of_High_Commissioners_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_New_Zealand \"List of High Commissioners of the United Kingdom to New Zealand\").",
"As the official representative of the monarch in New Zealand, the Governor General's primary vehicle carries no number plate but instead displays the royal crown. It is the only standard car permitted to operate on New Zealand roads without a number plate. However, in the NZTA System, the combination \"CROWN\" is used, and was issued in 1986, predating all other personalised plates by two years.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nzta.govt.nz/roads\\-and\\-rail/research\\-and\\-data/fascinating\\-facts/number\\-plates/ \\|title\\=Number plates \\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2021}}",
"Since the change to the *LLLnnn* format, the letters I, O and X have appeared only on plates starting with \"AAI\", \"AAO\", and \"AAX\" respectively; presumably the potential for confusing these letters with numbers and other similar looking letters was only realised after those initial series. {{As of\\|2012\\|alt\\=Current}} plates eschew the letters I, O, V, and X, meaning that letter sequences skip straight from HZZ to JAA and NZZ to PAA.",
"A number of three\\-letter combinations have been skipped, mainly to avoid [offence](/wiki/Profanity \"Profanity\"). These include: ARS, ASS, BAD, BAG, BAT, BRA, BUM, BUT, CNT, CUM, CUN, DUM, FAG, FAK, FAT, FCK, FKN, FKQ, FKU, FQM, FQN, FUC, FUK, FUQ, FUZ, HAG, JAP, JEW, KFC, KGB, KKK, KLL, KNT, KUM, LSD, NAZ, NGA, PEE, PMS and PUS. Despite possible negative connotations, the FTP and GAY combinations were issued during 2011{{cite news \\|first\\= Jay \\|last\\= Boreham \\|date\\= 28 January 2018 \\|title\\= No OR6ASM on our highways: The number plates rejected by NZTA in 2017 \\|url\\= https://www.stuff.co.nz/auckland/100854592/No\\-OR6ASM\\-on\\-our\\-highways\\-The\\-number\\-plates\\-rejected\\-by\\-NZTA\\-in\\-2017 \\|publisher\\= Stuff \\|access\\-date\\= 24 November 2018}}{{cite web \\|last\\=van der Stoep \\|first\\=Leigh \\|date\\=25 September 2011 \\|title\\=Whatever their fancy, drivers obliged to live with GAY \\|url\\= http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c\\_id\\=1\\&objectid\\=10754151 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New Zealand Herald]] \\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2013}} and NGR in 2021\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/motoring/300290826/man\\-wants\\-offensive\\-number\\-plate\\-removed\\-from\\-circulation\\|title\\=Man wants offensive number plate removed from circulation \\|work\\=Stuff\\|date\\=2021\\-05\\-03\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-03}}",
"Some [MG](/wiki/MG_Cars \"MG Cars\") models featured plates with serials in the MG series, used as semi\\-personalised plates, in advance of the official MG release. The full BMW series has been bought up by [BMW](/wiki/BMW \"BMW\") dealers for similar use, while some [Hyundai](/wiki/Hyundai_Motor_Company \"Hyundai Motor Company\") and [Kia](/wiki/Kia_Motors \"Kia Motors\") cars feature plates with serials in the HYU and KIA series respectively.",
"Serials in the CCC and DCC series have been reserved, presumably for diplomatic vehicles. The combinations EBA, FCC, FNA–FNZ, G(A–H)A, MMM, NWA, PCP, PDW, PFZ, PGF, PGR, PHN, PQW, PSD, and PUB were also excluded.",
"Car\\-dealers use a separate temporary series of yellow\\-coloured plates. These use one of several combinations of letters and numbers, most often a letter X followed by up to four digits. Originally black, these plates later became yellow in colour.",
"In May 2019, after the [Christchurch mosque shootings](/wiki/Christchurch_mosque_shootings \"Christchurch mosque shootings\"), the NZTA offered to replace any plates with the prefix \"GUN\" (issued in 2013\\) on request, although the series was not withdrawn.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/112378613/nzta\\-to\\-replace\\-gun\\-number\\-plates\\-for\\-free \\|title\\=NZTA to replace GUN number plates for free \\|publisher\\= Stuff (Fairfax) \\|date\\= 1 May 2019}}",
""
] |
Number\-plate lookup systems
----------------------------
Section 236{{cite web\|url\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1998/0110/latest/DLM3701404\.html\|title\=Section 236 Application for information from register\|publisher\=newzealand.govt.nz\|access\-date\=9 December 2012\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530075225/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1998/0110/latest/DLM3701404\.html\|archive\-date\=30 May 2013 }} and 237{{cite web\|url\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1998/0110/latest/DLM3701412\.html\|title\=Section 237 Entitlement to receive information
\|publisher\=newzealand.govt.nz\|access\-date\=9 December 2012}} of the Land Transport Act 1998 (LTA){{cite web\|url\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1998/0110/latest/DLM433613\.html\|title\=Land Transport Act 1998
\|publisher\=newzealand.govt.nz\|access\-date\=9 December 2012}} allows public access to the Motor Vehicle Register{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicle/registration\-licensing/information.html\|title\=Motor Vehicle Register information\|publisher\=NZ Transport Agency\|access\-date\=9 December 2012}} maintained by the [NZ Transport Agency](/wiki/NZ_Transport_Agency "NZ Transport Agency"). The Motor Vehicle Register records information about vehicles used on New Zealand roads and the persons responsible for their use. The information from the Register can be sourced directly from the NZTA as well as from third parties who include the information with their vehicle information reports.
### Services available
Services provided directly by the New Zealand Transport Agency are listed on the official website.{{Cite web\|last\=Agency\|first\=NZ Transport\|title\=Requesting register information {{!}} Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency\|url\=https://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicles/how\-the\-motor\-vehicle\-register\-affects\-you/requesting\-register\-information/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-25\|website\=www.nzta.govt.nz\|language\=en\-NZ}}
#### Stolen vehicle check
Run by the police, this service allows the public to check whether a vehicle has been reported stolen.{{Cite web\|title\=New Zealand Police stolen vehicles page\|url\=https://www.police.govt.nz/can\-you\-help\-us/stolen\-vehicles\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-25\|website\=New Zealand Police\|language\=en}}
#### Basic vehicle information
Multiple [vehicle report providers](/wiki/%23Vehicle_report_providers "#Vehicle report providers") allow to check basic vehicle information free of charge by entering the registration plate number.
#### Owner confirmation
Although the personal information of vehicle owners is not available to the public, the ownership can generally be confirmed by entering the name or driver's licence number of the owner. Some of the [vehicle report providers](/wiki/%23Vehicle_report_providers "#Vehicle report providers") (including CarJam, Autocheck, Checka, That Car) allow to confirm the owner free of charge.
#### Securities check
Before purchasing a vehicle, buyers can conduct a search of the [Personal Property Securities Register](/wiki/Personal_Property_Securities_Register "Personal Property Securities Register") to ensure there is no money owed on it.
#### Automotive parts ordering
Most vehicle manufactures attach a [VIN](/wiki/Vehicle_Identification_Number "Vehicle Identification Number") to their vehicles for identification purposes. This can be used to identify a vehicle's particular characteristics for parts ordering and fluid type during [maintenance](/wiki/Auto_maintenance "Auto maintenance"). A Licence Plate Lookup returns the vehicle's VIN and other data, removing the need for a tradesman to physically locate and record this 17\-digit code.
With the influx of [Japanese import](/wiki/Japanese_used_vehicle_exporting "Japanese used vehicle exporting") vehicles, VINs were being attached at the NZ border and not by the manufacturer. As a result, much of the information contained in the VIN for parts\-purchasing purposes is absent{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicle/registration\-licensing/registration/vin.html\|title\=NZ Import VIN vs Manufacturer's VIN
\|publisher\=NZ Transport Agency\|access\-date\=10 December 2012}} and many vehicles still require a tradesperson to physically identify a particular chassis and engine type. VINs attached at the NZ border start with the characters 7A.
Goodyear incorporated a licence plate lookup system into its New Zealand website to suggest the correct tyre for a vehicle, although inspection, specialised equipment and a tradesman will always be required when changing tyres.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2022}}
### Programming interface
As well as purchasing this information from the NZTA through its official supplier Motochek, several companies offer automated access to their vehicle record cache on a cost per vehicle basis. This has reduced the purchase cost of the information and allows businesses to develop their own licence plate lookup systems. The companies that currently offer interfaces include MotorWeb, CarJam and Checka.
### Land Transport Act versus Official Information Act
While the information on the Motor Vehicle Register is official information, the Official Information Act 1982 (OIA){{cite web\|url\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1982/0156/latest/DLM64785\.html\|title\=Official Information Act 1982
\|publisher\=newzealand.govt.nz\|access\-date\=9 December 2012}} does not affect operation of the LTA. Section 52(3\)(b)(ii){{cite web\|url\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1982/0156/latest/DLM65917\.html\|title\=Official Information Act 1982 Section 52
\|publisher\=newzealand.govt.nz\|access\-date\=10 December 2012}} the OIA provides that nothing in the OIA derogates from:
"Any provision which is contained in any other Act of Parliament... and which ...regulates the manner in which official information may be obtained or made available."
### Data inconsistencies
Inconsistencies exist in the register data making automated matching of vehicles difficult. Although many input fields are available{{cite web\|url\=http://vehicleinspection.nzta.govt.nz/virms/entry\-certification/pre\-registration\-and\-vin/vehicle\-attributes/vehicle\-attributes\-definitions\|title\=Vehicle Attributes
\|publisher\=NZ Transport Agency\|access\-date\=10 December 2012}} most are not mandatory and the quality of the data entered differs depending on the experience of the operator and the information available to them. Open input fields are used in some instances where lists should be provided causing spelling differences and errors. Model and submodel names are sometimes reversed, vehicle features are often omitted. Over a third of all chassis and engine types are missing, incorrect or not [machine readable](/wiki/Machine-readable_data "Machine-readable data").
### Prohibitive laws preventing deep analysis
The NZTA offers data analysis of the register{{cite web
\|url\=http://www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/motor\-vehicle\-registration\-statistics/about.html
\|title\=New Zealand Motor Vehicle Registration Statistics
\|publisher\=NZ Transport Agency
\|access\-date\=10 December 2012
\|url\-status\=dead
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125005712/http://www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/motor\-vehicle\-registration\-statistics/about.html
\|archive\-date\=25 January 2013 }} but not with VIN, engine number or chassis codes as these can uniquely identify a vehicle. Technically, analysis would exclude all uniquely identifying data; however, this is a legal grey area that has hindered the development of vehicle matching systems using Motor Vehicle Register information.{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2021}}
|
[
"Number\\-plate lookup systems\n----------------------------",
"Section 236{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1998/0110/latest/DLM3701404\\.html\\|title\\=Section 236 Application for information from register\\|publisher\\=newzealand.govt.nz\\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2012\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530075225/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1998/0110/latest/DLM3701404\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=30 May 2013 }} and 237{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1998/0110/latest/DLM3701412\\.html\\|title\\=Section 237 Entitlement to receive information\n\\|publisher\\=newzealand.govt.nz\\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2012}} of the Land Transport Act 1998 (LTA){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1998/0110/latest/DLM433613\\.html\\|title\\=Land Transport Act 1998\n\\|publisher\\=newzealand.govt.nz\\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2012}} allows public access to the Motor Vehicle Register{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicle/registration\\-licensing/information.html\\|title\\=Motor Vehicle Register information\\|publisher\\=NZ Transport Agency\\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2012}} maintained by the [NZ Transport Agency](/wiki/NZ_Transport_Agency \"NZ Transport Agency\"). The Motor Vehicle Register records information about vehicles used on New Zealand roads and the persons responsible for their use. The information from the Register can be sourced directly from the NZTA as well as from third parties who include the information with their vehicle information reports.",
"### Services available",
"Services provided directly by the New Zealand Transport Agency are listed on the official website.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Agency\\|first\\=NZ Transport\\|title\\=Requesting register information {{!}} Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency\\|url\\=https://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicles/how\\-the\\-motor\\-vehicle\\-register\\-affects\\-you/requesting\\-register\\-information/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-25\\|website\\=www.nzta.govt.nz\\|language\\=en\\-NZ}}",
"#### Stolen vehicle check",
"Run by the police, this service allows the public to check whether a vehicle has been reported stolen.{{Cite web\\|title\\=New Zealand Police stolen vehicles page\\|url\\=https://www.police.govt.nz/can\\-you\\-help\\-us/stolen\\-vehicles\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-25\\|website\\=New Zealand Police\\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Basic vehicle information",
"Multiple [vehicle report providers](/wiki/%23Vehicle_report_providers \"#Vehicle report providers\") allow to check basic vehicle information free of charge by entering the registration plate number.",
"#### Owner confirmation",
"Although the personal information of vehicle owners is not available to the public, the ownership can generally be confirmed by entering the name or driver's licence number of the owner. Some of the [vehicle report providers](/wiki/%23Vehicle_report_providers \"#Vehicle report providers\") (including CarJam, Autocheck, Checka, That Car) allow to confirm the owner free of charge.",
"#### Securities check",
"Before purchasing a vehicle, buyers can conduct a search of the [Personal Property Securities Register](/wiki/Personal_Property_Securities_Register \"Personal Property Securities Register\") to ensure there is no money owed on it.",
"#### Automotive parts ordering",
"Most vehicle manufactures attach a [VIN](/wiki/Vehicle_Identification_Number \"Vehicle Identification Number\") to their vehicles for identification purposes. This can be used to identify a vehicle's particular characteristics for parts ordering and fluid type during [maintenance](/wiki/Auto_maintenance \"Auto maintenance\"). A Licence Plate Lookup returns the vehicle's VIN and other data, removing the need for a tradesman to physically locate and record this 17\\-digit code.",
"With the influx of [Japanese import](/wiki/Japanese_used_vehicle_exporting \"Japanese used vehicle exporting\") vehicles, VINs were being attached at the NZ border and not by the manufacturer. As a result, much of the information contained in the VIN for parts\\-purchasing purposes is absent{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicle/registration\\-licensing/registration/vin.html\\|title\\=NZ Import VIN vs Manufacturer's VIN\n\\|publisher\\=NZ Transport Agency\\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2012}} and many vehicles still require a tradesperson to physically identify a particular chassis and engine type. VINs attached at the NZ border start with the characters 7A.",
"Goodyear incorporated a licence plate lookup system into its New Zealand website to suggest the correct tyre for a vehicle, although inspection, specialised equipment and a tradesman will always be required when changing tyres.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2022}}",
"### Programming interface",
"As well as purchasing this information from the NZTA through its official supplier Motochek, several companies offer automated access to their vehicle record cache on a cost per vehicle basis. This has reduced the purchase cost of the information and allows businesses to develop their own licence plate lookup systems. The companies that currently offer interfaces include MotorWeb, CarJam and Checka.",
"### Land Transport Act versus Official Information Act",
"While the information on the Motor Vehicle Register is official information, the Official Information Act 1982 (OIA){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1982/0156/latest/DLM64785\\.html\\|title\\=Official Information Act 1982\n\\|publisher\\=newzealand.govt.nz\\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2012}} does not affect operation of the LTA. Section 52(3\\)(b)(ii){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1982/0156/latest/DLM65917\\.html\\|title\\=Official Information Act 1982 Section 52\n\\|publisher\\=newzealand.govt.nz\\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2012}} the OIA provides that nothing in the OIA derogates from:\n\"Any provision which is contained in any other Act of Parliament... and which ...regulates the manner in which official information may be obtained or made available.\"",
"### Data inconsistencies",
"Inconsistencies exist in the register data making automated matching of vehicles difficult. Although many input fields are available{{cite web\\|url\\=http://vehicleinspection.nzta.govt.nz/virms/entry\\-certification/pre\\-registration\\-and\\-vin/vehicle\\-attributes/vehicle\\-attributes\\-definitions\\|title\\=Vehicle Attributes\n\\|publisher\\=NZ Transport Agency\\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2012}} most are not mandatory and the quality of the data entered differs depending on the experience of the operator and the information available to them. Open input fields are used in some instances where lists should be provided causing spelling differences and errors. Model and submodel names are sometimes reversed, vehicle features are often omitted. Over a third of all chassis and engine types are missing, incorrect or not [machine readable](/wiki/Machine-readable_data \"Machine-readable data\").",
"### Prohibitive laws preventing deep analysis",
"The NZTA offers data analysis of the register{{cite web\n \\|url\\=http://www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/motor\\-vehicle\\-registration\\-statistics/about.html \n \\|title\\=New Zealand Motor Vehicle Registration Statistics \n \\|publisher\\=NZ Transport Agency \n \\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2012 \n \\|url\\-status\\=dead \n \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125005712/http://www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/motor\\-vehicle\\-registration\\-statistics/about.html \n \\|archive\\-date\\=25 January 2013 }} but not with VIN, engine number or chassis codes as these can uniquely identify a vehicle. Technically, analysis would exclude all uniquely identifying data; however, this is a legal grey area that has hindered the development of vehicle matching systems using Motor Vehicle Register information.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2021}}",
""
] |
### Services available
Services provided directly by the New Zealand Transport Agency are listed on the official website.{{Cite web\|last\=Agency\|first\=NZ Transport\|title\=Requesting register information {{!}} Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency\|url\=https://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicles/how\-the\-motor\-vehicle\-register\-affects\-you/requesting\-register\-information/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-25\|website\=www.nzta.govt.nz\|language\=en\-NZ}}
#### Stolen vehicle check
Run by the police, this service allows the public to check whether a vehicle has been reported stolen.{{Cite web\|title\=New Zealand Police stolen vehicles page\|url\=https://www.police.govt.nz/can\-you\-help\-us/stolen\-vehicles\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-25\|website\=New Zealand Police\|language\=en}}
#### Basic vehicle information
Multiple [vehicle report providers](/wiki/%23Vehicle_report_providers "#Vehicle report providers") allow to check basic vehicle information free of charge by entering the registration plate number.
#### Owner confirmation
Although the personal information of vehicle owners is not available to the public, the ownership can generally be confirmed by entering the name or driver's licence number of the owner. Some of the [vehicle report providers](/wiki/%23Vehicle_report_providers "#Vehicle report providers") (including CarJam, Autocheck, Checka, That Car) allow to confirm the owner free of charge.
#### Securities check
Before purchasing a vehicle, buyers can conduct a search of the [Personal Property Securities Register](/wiki/Personal_Property_Securities_Register "Personal Property Securities Register") to ensure there is no money owed on it.
#### Automotive parts ordering
Most vehicle manufactures attach a [VIN](/wiki/Vehicle_Identification_Number "Vehicle Identification Number") to their vehicles for identification purposes. This can be used to identify a vehicle's particular characteristics for parts ordering and fluid type during [maintenance](/wiki/Auto_maintenance "Auto maintenance"). A Licence Plate Lookup returns the vehicle's VIN and other data, removing the need for a tradesman to physically locate and record this 17\-digit code.
With the influx of [Japanese import](/wiki/Japanese_used_vehicle_exporting "Japanese used vehicle exporting") vehicles, VINs were being attached at the NZ border and not by the manufacturer. As a result, much of the information contained in the VIN for parts\-purchasing purposes is absent{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicle/registration\-licensing/registration/vin.html\|title\=NZ Import VIN vs Manufacturer's VIN
\|publisher\=NZ Transport Agency\|access\-date\=10 December 2012}} and many vehicles still require a tradesperson to physically identify a particular chassis and engine type. VINs attached at the NZ border start with the characters 7A.
Goodyear incorporated a licence plate lookup system into its New Zealand website to suggest the correct tyre for a vehicle, although inspection, specialised equipment and a tradesman will always be required when changing tyres.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2022}}
|
[
"### Services available",
"Services provided directly by the New Zealand Transport Agency are listed on the official website.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Agency\\|first\\=NZ Transport\\|title\\=Requesting register information {{!}} Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency\\|url\\=https://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicles/how\\-the\\-motor\\-vehicle\\-register\\-affects\\-you/requesting\\-register\\-information/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-25\\|website\\=www.nzta.govt.nz\\|language\\=en\\-NZ}}",
"#### Stolen vehicle check",
"Run by the police, this service allows the public to check whether a vehicle has been reported stolen.{{Cite web\\|title\\=New Zealand Police stolen vehicles page\\|url\\=https://www.police.govt.nz/can\\-you\\-help\\-us/stolen\\-vehicles\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-25\\|website\\=New Zealand Police\\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Basic vehicle information",
"Multiple [vehicle report providers](/wiki/%23Vehicle_report_providers \"#Vehicle report providers\") allow to check basic vehicle information free of charge by entering the registration plate number.",
"#### Owner confirmation",
"Although the personal information of vehicle owners is not available to the public, the ownership can generally be confirmed by entering the name or driver's licence number of the owner. Some of the [vehicle report providers](/wiki/%23Vehicle_report_providers \"#Vehicle report providers\") (including CarJam, Autocheck, Checka, That Car) allow to confirm the owner free of charge.",
"#### Securities check",
"Before purchasing a vehicle, buyers can conduct a search of the [Personal Property Securities Register](/wiki/Personal_Property_Securities_Register \"Personal Property Securities Register\") to ensure there is no money owed on it.",
"#### Automotive parts ordering",
"Most vehicle manufactures attach a [VIN](/wiki/Vehicle_Identification_Number \"Vehicle Identification Number\") to their vehicles for identification purposes. This can be used to identify a vehicle's particular characteristics for parts ordering and fluid type during [maintenance](/wiki/Auto_maintenance \"Auto maintenance\"). A Licence Plate Lookup returns the vehicle's VIN and other data, removing the need for a tradesman to physically locate and record this 17\\-digit code.",
"With the influx of [Japanese import](/wiki/Japanese_used_vehicle_exporting \"Japanese used vehicle exporting\") vehicles, VINs were being attached at the NZ border and not by the manufacturer. As a result, much of the information contained in the VIN for parts\\-purchasing purposes is absent{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nzta.govt.nz/vehicle/registration\\-licensing/registration/vin.html\\|title\\=NZ Import VIN vs Manufacturer's VIN\n\\|publisher\\=NZ Transport Agency\\|access\\-date\\=10 December 2012}} and many vehicles still require a tradesperson to physically identify a particular chassis and engine type. VINs attached at the NZ border start with the characters 7A.",
"Goodyear incorporated a licence plate lookup system into its New Zealand website to suggest the correct tyre for a vehicle, although inspection, specialised equipment and a tradesman will always be required when changing tyres.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2022}}",
""
] |
Activities
----------
The organization carries out a range of activities including, advocacy, events, media and education.
### Advocacy
Caabu works to improve Arab\-British relations in Parliament with ministers, senior civil servants, MPs and Lords from across the political spectrum.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.caabu.org/what\-we\-do/advocacy/overview\|title\=Overview – Caabu\|website\=Caabu.org\|accessdate\=18 August 2018}} It raises key issues with leading politicians and civil servants, including democratic reform in the Middle East and North Africa, the arms trade, Universal Jurisdiction, the [siege of Gaza](/wiki/Blockade_of_the_Gaza_Strip "Blockade of the Gaza Strip") and settlements.
Caabu also writes reports and briefings on critical issues affecting the Arab world for politicians and the general public
### Delegations
Caabu takes delegations of politicians out to the Middle East, to give them a better understanding of the region and its key issues.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.caabu.org/what\-we\-do/advocacy/delegations\|title\=Delegations – Caabu\|website\=Caabu.org\|accessdate\=18 August 2018}} Between 1997 and 2017 Caabu has taken over 60 delegations to a variety of Arab countries, including [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria"), [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan "Jordan"), [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar "Qatar"), [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia"), [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen "Yemen"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") and [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya"), involving over 200 [MPs](/wiki/Member_of_parliament "Member of parliament") and [Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords "House of Lords"). The majority of Caabu's delegations visit [Gaza](/wiki/Gaza_Strip "Gaza Strip") and the [West Bank](/wiki/West_Bank "West Bank"), where delegates meet both Palestinian and Israeli officials, activists and businessmen.
Since the [General Election on 8 June 2017](/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election "2017 United Kingdom general election"), Caabu has taken two parliamentary delegations to the West Bank. The delegations have included former Labour Minister for Education and Minister for the Arts, Baroness [Tessa Blackstone](/wiki/Tessa_Blackstone%2C_Baroness_Blackstone "Tessa Blackstone, Baroness Blackstone"), Labour's Shadow Minister for Early Years, [Tracy Brabin](/wiki/Tracy_Brabin "Tracy Brabin"), and former Secretary of State for Scotland, former Government Deputy Chief Whip and Liberal Democrat MP for Orkney and Shetland, [Alistair Carmichael](/wiki/Alistair_Carmichael "Alistair Carmichael").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.caabu.org/what\-we\-do/advocacy/delegations/caabu\-delegations\-palestine\-2017\|title\=Caabu delegations to Palestine 2017 – \- Caabu\|website\=Caabu.org\|accessdate\=18 August 2018}}
### Events
Caabu runs a programme of private and public events. The organisation hosts expert speakers at the [House of Commons](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom "House of Commons of the United Kingdom"), party conferences, the [Arab\-British Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Arab-British_Chamber_of_Commerce "Arab-British Chamber of Commerce") and universities. Caabu also organises round\-table seminars for journalists, academics and NGO workers at the [Arab British Centre](http://www.arabbritishcentre.org.uk/). In the past Caabu has organised a speaking tour to the UK for [Tawakkul Karman](/wiki/Tawakkul_Karman "Tawakkul Karman"), the Yemeni co\-winner of the Novel Peace Prize, and contributed to the 2013 conference [Supporting Open Economies, Inclusive Growth – Women's Role in Arab Countries](http://www.caabu.org/news/news/supporting-open-economies-inclusive-growth-womens-role-arab-countries), as part of the G8 Deauville Partnership with Arab Countries in Transition.
### Media
Caabu monitors the British media for misrepresentations of the Arab world for the purpose of objective reporting. A daily digest of news coverage on the Middle East in the major broadsheets is sent to members of the organisation. Caabu also provides expert comment for television, radio and print on issues affecting the Middle East. Director Chris Doyle gave conducted over 200 interviews on the Arab world in the since 2012\.
### Education
Caabu runs an education programme that reaches out to 5–10,000 school children every year.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.caabu.org/what\-we\-do/education/overview\|title\=Overview – Caabu\|website\=Caabu.org\|accessdate\=18 August 2018}} The education programme was designed to give UK school children the opportunity to learn about the Arab world. It works to improve understanding of the history and culture of the Middle East and counter negative and misleading images. Topics included a genrrla introduction to the Arab World, its people and culture; the [Israel\-Palestine conflict](/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict "Israeli–Palestinian conflict"); the Arab Uprisings, Arab stereotypes and perceptions of Muslims in the UK.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.caabu.org/what\-we\-do/education/school\-workshops\|title\=School workshops – Caabu\|website\=Caabu.org\|accessdate\=18 August 2018}} Caabu continues to give educational talks for schools upon request.
### Syria programme
Caabu launched a Syria programme in 2011, working to highlight events in Syria and raise issues on human rights, international law and the humanitarian situation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.caabu.org/what\-we\-do/syria\-programme/about\-syria\-programme\|title\=About the Syria programme – Caabu\|website\=Caabu.org\|accessdate\=18 August 2018}} Caabu has also run seven workshops inside Syria with civil society activists focusing on citizenship, leadership and media training.
|
[
"Activities\n----------",
"The organization carries out a range of activities including, advocacy, events, media and education.",
"### Advocacy",
"Caabu works to improve Arab\\-British relations in Parliament with ministers, senior civil servants, MPs and Lords from across the political spectrum.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.caabu.org/what\\-we\\-do/advocacy/overview\\|title\\=Overview – Caabu\\|website\\=Caabu.org\\|accessdate\\=18 August 2018}} It raises key issues with leading politicians and civil servants, including democratic reform in the Middle East and North Africa, the arms trade, Universal Jurisdiction, the [siege of Gaza](/wiki/Blockade_of_the_Gaza_Strip \"Blockade of the Gaza Strip\") and settlements.",
"Caabu also writes reports and briefings on critical issues affecting the Arab world for politicians and the general public",
"### Delegations",
"Caabu takes delegations of politicians out to the Middle East, to give them a better understanding of the region and its key issues.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.caabu.org/what\\-we\\-do/advocacy/delegations\\|title\\=Delegations – Caabu\\|website\\=Caabu.org\\|accessdate\\=18 August 2018}} Between 1997 and 2017 Caabu has taken over 60 delegations to a variety of Arab countries, including [Lebanon](/wiki/Lebanon \"Lebanon\"), [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\"), [Jordan](/wiki/Jordan \"Jordan\"), [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar \"Qatar\"), [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\"), [Yemen](/wiki/Yemen \"Yemen\"), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") and [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"), involving over 200 [MPs](/wiki/Member_of_parliament \"Member of parliament\") and [Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords \"House of Lords\"). The majority of Caabu's delegations visit [Gaza](/wiki/Gaza_Strip \"Gaza Strip\") and the [West Bank](/wiki/West_Bank \"West Bank\"), where delegates meet both Palestinian and Israeli officials, activists and businessmen.",
"Since the [General Election on 8 June 2017](/wiki/2017_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2017 United Kingdom general election\"), Caabu has taken two parliamentary delegations to the West Bank. The delegations have included former Labour Minister for Education and Minister for the Arts, Baroness [Tessa Blackstone](/wiki/Tessa_Blackstone%2C_Baroness_Blackstone \"Tessa Blackstone, Baroness Blackstone\"), Labour's Shadow Minister for Early Years, [Tracy Brabin](/wiki/Tracy_Brabin \"Tracy Brabin\"), and former Secretary of State for Scotland, former Government Deputy Chief Whip and Liberal Democrat MP for Orkney and Shetland, [Alistair Carmichael](/wiki/Alistair_Carmichael \"Alistair Carmichael\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.caabu.org/what\\-we\\-do/advocacy/delegations/caabu\\-delegations\\-palestine\\-2017\\|title\\=Caabu delegations to Palestine 2017 – \\- Caabu\\|website\\=Caabu.org\\|accessdate\\=18 August 2018}}",
"### Events",
"Caabu runs a programme of private and public events. The organisation hosts expert speakers at the [House of Commons](/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom \"House of Commons of the United Kingdom\"), party conferences, the [Arab\\-British Chamber of Commerce](/wiki/Arab-British_Chamber_of_Commerce \"Arab-British Chamber of Commerce\") and universities. Caabu also organises round\\-table seminars for journalists, academics and NGO workers at the [Arab British Centre](http://www.arabbritishcentre.org.uk/). In the past Caabu has organised a speaking tour to the UK for [Tawakkul Karman](/wiki/Tawakkul_Karman \"Tawakkul Karman\"), the Yemeni co\\-winner of the Novel Peace Prize, and contributed to the 2013 conference [Supporting Open Economies, Inclusive Growth – Women's Role in Arab Countries](http://www.caabu.org/news/news/supporting-open-economies-inclusive-growth-womens-role-arab-countries), as part of the G8 Deauville Partnership with Arab Countries in Transition.",
"### Media",
"Caabu monitors the British media for misrepresentations of the Arab world for the purpose of objective reporting. A daily digest of news coverage on the Middle East in the major broadsheets is sent to members of the organisation. Caabu also provides expert comment for television, radio and print on issues affecting the Middle East. Director Chris Doyle gave conducted over 200 interviews on the Arab world in the since 2012\\.",
"### Education",
"Caabu runs an education programme that reaches out to 5–10,000 school children every year.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.caabu.org/what\\-we\\-do/education/overview\\|title\\=Overview – Caabu\\|website\\=Caabu.org\\|accessdate\\=18 August 2018}} The education programme was designed to give UK school children the opportunity to learn about the Arab world. It works to improve understanding of the history and culture of the Middle East and counter negative and misleading images. Topics included a genrrla introduction to the Arab World, its people and culture; the [Israel\\-Palestine conflict](/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict \"Israeli–Palestinian conflict\"); the Arab Uprisings, Arab stereotypes and perceptions of Muslims in the UK.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.caabu.org/what\\-we\\-do/education/school\\-workshops\\|title\\=School workshops – Caabu\\|website\\=Caabu.org\\|accessdate\\=18 August 2018}} Caabu continues to give educational talks for schools upon request.",
"### Syria programme",
"Caabu launched a Syria programme in 2011, working to highlight events in Syria and raise issues on human rights, international law and the humanitarian situation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.caabu.org/what\\-we\\-do/syria\\-programme/about\\-syria\\-programme\\|title\\=About the Syria programme – Caabu\\|website\\=Caabu.org\\|accessdate\\=18 August 2018}} Caabu has also run seven workshops inside Syria with civil society activists focusing on citizenship, leadership and media training.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Juozas Urbšys was born on 29 February 1896 in [Šeteniai](/wiki/%C5%A0eteniai "Šeteniai"), a village north of [Kėdainiai](/wiki/K%C4%97dainiai "Kėdainiai").LR užsienio reikalų ministerija. [Juozas Urbšys (1938 12 05 – 1940 06 16\)](http://www.urm.lt/popup2.php?item_id=12518){{Dead link\|date\=April 2023 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}. Retrieved on 2008\-05\-28 In 1907 Urbšys attended a school in [Panevėžys](/wiki/Panev%C4%97%C5%BEys "Panevėžys"), graduating in 1914\. Soon afterwards he pursued his education in [Riga](/wiki/Riga "Riga"), [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia"). The outbreak of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") interrupted his studies and he enlisted in the army in 1916\.[Juozas Urbšys](http://www.kedainiai.rvb.lt/juozurb.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610042937/http://www.kedainiai.rvb.lt/juozurb.html \|date\=2008\-06\-10 }}. Retrieved on 2008\-05\-28 A few years later, Urbšys completed his education at Chuguyevo Military School ({{lang\-ru\|Чугуево}}, now [Chuhuiv](/wiki/Chuhuiv "Chuhuiv") in [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine")), returning to Lithuania in 1918 after [Lithuania re\-established its independence](/wiki/Act_of_Independence_of_Lithuania "Act of Independence of Lithuania"). He continued to serve in the [Lithuanian military](/wiki/Lithuanian_Armed_Forces "Lithuanian Armed Forces") until 1922\.
After joining the foreign service, Urbšys worked in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") between 1922 and 1927\. His next assignment was in [Paris, France](/wiki/Paris%2C_France "Paris, France"), a post he held until 1932\. Urbšys was then named Lithuanian Minister Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia "Latvia"), although he did not hold this position for long; in 1934 he was appointed the head of the political department in the Foreign Affairs Ministry. In 1938 he became the Lithuanian Minister of Foreign Affairs. Urbšys' service in this capacity coincided with significant international developments.
Rumors arose in 1939 that [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") would attempt to re\-annex the [Baltic Seaport](/wiki/Baltic_Sea "Baltic Sea") city of [Klaipėda](/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da "Klaipėda") from Lithuania (part of the [Memelland](/wiki/Memelland "Memelland") region, the city and its surrounding area had until 1919 been part of the German province of [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia "East Prussia")). Urbšys had been representing Lithuania during the coronation of [Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII "Pope Pius XII") in Rome on 12 March; while returning to Lithuania, he stopped in Berlin in an attempt to clarify the rumors. On 20 March [Ribbentrop](/wiki/Ribbentrop "Ribbentrop"), the German foreign minister, met with Urbšys.{{cite book \| last\=Skirius \| first\=Juozas \| title\=Gimtoji istorija. Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės \| url\=http://mkp.emokykla.lt/gimtoji/ \| access\-date\=2008\-03\-14 \| year\=2002 \| publisher\=Elektroninės leidybos namai \| location\=Vilnius \| isbn\=9986\-9216\-9\-4 \| chapter\=Klaipėdos krašto aneksija 1939–1940 m. \| chapter\-url\=http://mkp.emokykla.lt/gimtoji/?id\=10117 \| language\=lt \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303191252/http://mkp.emokykla.lt/gimtoji/ \| archive\-date\=2008\-03\-03 }} Ribbentrop demanded the cession of Klaipėda to Germany and threatened military action. Urbšys relayed [the ultimatum](/wiki/1939_German_ultimatum_to_Lithuania "1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania") to the Lithuanian government. While a clear deadline was not given, Lithuania was told to make a speedy decision, and that any clashes or German casualties would inevitably provoke a response from the [German military](/wiki/German_military "German military"). Without any material international support, Lithuania had no choice but to accept the ultimatum. Lithuanian diplomats characterized the acceptance as a "necessary evil" that preserved its independence and hoped it was merely a temporary retreat.{{cite book \| last\=Eidintas \| first\=Alfonsas \|author2\=Vytautas Žalys \|author3\=Alfred Erich Senn \| editor\=Ed. Edvardas Tuskenis \| title\=Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918\-1940 \| edition\=Paperback \|date\=September 1999 \| publisher\=St. Martin's Press \| location\=New York \| isbn\=0\-312\-22458\-3 \| pages\=162–166}}
Another major diplomatic development occurred during October 1939\. During the course of a visit to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), Urbšys met with [Vyacheslav Molotov](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov "Vyacheslav Molotov"), [Chairman](/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union "Premier of the Soviet Union") of the [Council of People's Commissars](/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars "Council of People's Commissars") and the [People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_%28Soviet_Union%29 "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)"). [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin") joined the group soon afterwards.[Lituanus](/wiki/Lituanus "Lituanus"). [Lithuania and Soviet Union 1939\-1940](http://www.lituanus.org/1989/89_2_03.htm). Retrieved on 2008\-05\-28 During the discussion a draft of a mutual assistance pact was presented, which resulted in the stationing of [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") troops in Lithuania. The city of [Vilnius](/wiki/Vilnius "Vilnius") and its surrounding region, which had been annexed by [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland") in 1920, was returned to Lithuania. However, after about one year, the Soviet authorities presented [an ultimatum](/wiki/1940_Soviet_ultimatum_to_Lithuania "1940 Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania") that [ended Lithuania's independence](/wiki/Occupation_of_Baltic_States "Occupation of Baltic States"). Urbšys' career as foreign minister ended in 1940\. Soviet authorities sent him initially to a prison in [Tambov](/wiki/Tambov "Tambov"); he was later moved to prisons in [Saratov](/wiki/Saratov "Saratov"), Ivanov and elsewhere. Of his 13 years in prison, 11 were spent in solitary confinement. He was released in 1954 without the right to live in what was now the [Lithuanian SSR](/wiki/Lithuanian_SSR "Lithuanian SSR"). He was allowed to return to Lithuania in 1956\.
Urbšys continued to make his living by translating works in the [French language](/wiki/French_language "French language") into [Lithuanian](/wiki/Lithuanian_language "Lithuanian language"). He regained notability after publishing his memoirs in 1988, a work described as one of the first to address Lithuanian history under Soviet rule. After Lithuania [again regained its independence](/wiki/Act_of_the_Re-Establishment_of_the_State_of_Lithuania "Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania"), Urbšys was named an [honorary citizen](/wiki/Honorary_citizen "Honorary citizen") of [Kėdainiai](/wiki/K%C4%97dainiai "Kėdainiai") (in 1990\) and [Kaunas](/wiki/Kaunas "Kaunas") (1991\). His health was frail, preventing him from fully participating in the political process of independence, but he enjoyed the authority and respect of the Lithuanian people. Urbšys died on 30 April 1991\. After lying in state at the city of Kaunas' War Museum, he was entombed in [Petrašiūnai Cemetery](/wiki/Petra%C5%A1i%C5%ABnai_Cemetery "Petrašiūnai Cemetery").
His last political action was performed on 23 August 1988, when his speech, recorded in a [tape recorder](/wiki/Tape_recorder "Tape recorder"), was played during a [Sąjūdis](/wiki/S%C4%85j%C5%ABdis "Sąjūdis") rally. In the speech he narrated about the [Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty](/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Mutual_Assistance_Treaty "Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty") signing in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow").{{cite web \|last1\=Gritėnas \|first1\=Paulius \|title\=Juozo Urbšio išpažintis švedų diplomatui: "1940\-aisiais pasipriešinimas jau nebuvo įmanomas" \|url\=https://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/istorija/paskutinis\-tarpukario\-lietuvos\-diplomatijos\-vadovas\-juozas\-urbsys\-1940\-aisiais\-pasipriesinimas\-jau\-nebuvo\-imanomas\-582\-1041428 \|website\=15min.lt \|access\-date\=19 October 2018}}
Close to his death, Urbšys was interviewed by a Swedish diplomat, who visited him on 9 September 1990 in his poor Soviet era flat that was located in the outskirts of the [Kaunas](/wiki/Kaunas "Kaunas") city (soon after the declaration of the [Act of the Re\-Establishment of the State of Lithuania](/wiki/Act_of_the_Re-Establishment_of_the_State_of_Lithuania "Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania") on 11 March 1990\). When asked about the possible Lithuanian military resistance against the [Soviet invasion in 1940](/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_%281940%29 "Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)"), he said that it would have been impossible and that there is no reason to compare Lithuania situation with [Finland](/wiki/Finland "Finland"), who fought the [Winter War](/wiki/Winter_War "Winter War"), because it had a much better geographical position, [Karelia](/wiki/Karelia "Karelia") and [Mannerheim Lines](/wiki/Mannerheim_Line "Mannerheim Line"). He also noted that the resistance might have only made the horrific occupation conditions of the state even worse.
Two schools have been named for Juozas Urbšys: Kaunas 29th Secondary School and a school in [Tiskūnai](/wiki/Tisk%C5%ABnai "Tiskūnai").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Juozas Urbšys was born on 29 February 1896 in [Šeteniai](/wiki/%C5%A0eteniai \"Šeteniai\"), a village north of [Kėdainiai](/wiki/K%C4%97dainiai \"Kėdainiai\").LR užsienio reikalų ministerija. [Juozas Urbšys (1938 12 05 – 1940 06 16\\)](http://www.urm.lt/popup2.php?item_id=12518){{Dead link\\|date\\=April 2023 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}. Retrieved on 2008\\-05\\-28 In 1907 Urbšys attended a school in [Panevėžys](/wiki/Panev%C4%97%C5%BEys \"Panevėžys\"), graduating in 1914\\. Soon afterwards he pursued his education in [Riga](/wiki/Riga \"Riga\"), [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\"). The outbreak of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") interrupted his studies and he enlisted in the army in 1916\\.[Juozas Urbšys](http://www.kedainiai.rvb.lt/juozurb.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610042937/http://www.kedainiai.rvb.lt/juozurb.html \\|date\\=2008\\-06\\-10 }}. Retrieved on 2008\\-05\\-28 A few years later, Urbšys completed his education at Chuguyevo Military School ({{lang\\-ru\\|Чугуево}}, now [Chuhuiv](/wiki/Chuhuiv \"Chuhuiv\") in [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\")), returning to Lithuania in 1918 after [Lithuania re\\-established its independence](/wiki/Act_of_Independence_of_Lithuania \"Act of Independence of Lithuania\"). He continued to serve in the [Lithuanian military](/wiki/Lithuanian_Armed_Forces \"Lithuanian Armed Forces\") until 1922\\.",
"After joining the foreign service, Urbšys worked in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") between 1922 and 1927\\. His next assignment was in [Paris, France](/wiki/Paris%2C_France \"Paris, France\"), a post he held until 1932\\. Urbšys was then named Lithuanian Minister Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to [Latvia](/wiki/Latvia \"Latvia\"), although he did not hold this position for long; in 1934 he was appointed the head of the political department in the Foreign Affairs Ministry. In 1938 he became the Lithuanian Minister of Foreign Affairs. Urbšys' service in this capacity coincided with significant international developments.",
"Rumors arose in 1939 that [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") would attempt to re\\-annex the [Baltic Seaport](/wiki/Baltic_Sea \"Baltic Sea\") city of [Klaipėda](/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da \"Klaipėda\") from Lithuania (part of the [Memelland](/wiki/Memelland \"Memelland\") region, the city and its surrounding area had until 1919 been part of the German province of [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia \"East Prussia\")). Urbšys had been representing Lithuania during the coronation of [Pope Pius XII](/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII \"Pope Pius XII\") in Rome on 12 March; while returning to Lithuania, he stopped in Berlin in an attempt to clarify the rumors. On 20 March [Ribbentrop](/wiki/Ribbentrop \"Ribbentrop\"), the German foreign minister, met with Urbšys.{{cite book \\| last\\=Skirius \\| first\\=Juozas \\| title\\=Gimtoji istorija. Nuo 7 iki 12 klasės \\| url\\=http://mkp.emokykla.lt/gimtoji/ \\| access\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-14 \\| year\\=2002 \\| publisher\\=Elektroninės leidybos namai \\| location\\=Vilnius \\| isbn\\=9986\\-9216\\-9\\-4 \\| chapter\\=Klaipėdos krašto aneksija 1939–1940 m. \\| chapter\\-url\\=http://mkp.emokykla.lt/gimtoji/?id\\=10117 \\| language\\=lt \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080303191252/http://mkp.emokykla.lt/gimtoji/ \\| archive\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-03 }} Ribbentrop demanded the cession of Klaipėda to Germany and threatened military action. Urbšys relayed [the ultimatum](/wiki/1939_German_ultimatum_to_Lithuania \"1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania\") to the Lithuanian government. While a clear deadline was not given, Lithuania was told to make a speedy decision, and that any clashes or German casualties would inevitably provoke a response from the [German military](/wiki/German_military \"German military\"). Without any material international support, Lithuania had no choice but to accept the ultimatum. Lithuanian diplomats characterized the acceptance as a \"necessary evil\" that preserved its independence and hoped it was merely a temporary retreat.{{cite book \\| last\\=Eidintas \\| first\\=Alfonsas \\|author2\\=Vytautas Žalys \\|author3\\=Alfred Erich Senn \\| editor\\=Ed. Edvardas Tuskenis \\| title\\=Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918\\-1940 \\| edition\\=Paperback \\|date\\=September 1999 \\| publisher\\=St. Martin's Press \\| location\\=New York \\| isbn\\=0\\-312\\-22458\\-3 \\| pages\\=162–166}}",
"Another major diplomatic development occurred during October 1939\\. During the course of a visit to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), Urbšys met with [Vyacheslav Molotov](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov \"Vyacheslav Molotov\"), [Chairman](/wiki/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Premier of the Soviet Union\") of the [Council of People's Commissars](/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars \"Council of People's Commissars\") and the [People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)\"). [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\") joined the group soon afterwards.[Lituanus](/wiki/Lituanus \"Lituanus\"). [Lithuania and Soviet Union 1939\\-1940](http://www.lituanus.org/1989/89_2_03.htm). Retrieved on 2008\\-05\\-28 During the discussion a draft of a mutual assistance pact was presented, which resulted in the stationing of [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") troops in Lithuania. The city of [Vilnius](/wiki/Vilnius \"Vilnius\") and its surrounding region, which had been annexed by [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\") in 1920, was returned to Lithuania. However, after about one year, the Soviet authorities presented [an ultimatum](/wiki/1940_Soviet_ultimatum_to_Lithuania \"1940 Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania\") that [ended Lithuania's independence](/wiki/Occupation_of_Baltic_States \"Occupation of Baltic States\"). Urbšys' career as foreign minister ended in 1940\\. Soviet authorities sent him initially to a prison in [Tambov](/wiki/Tambov \"Tambov\"); he was later moved to prisons in [Saratov](/wiki/Saratov \"Saratov\"), Ivanov and elsewhere. Of his 13 years in prison, 11 were spent in solitary confinement. He was released in 1954 without the right to live in what was now the [Lithuanian SSR](/wiki/Lithuanian_SSR \"Lithuanian SSR\"). He was allowed to return to Lithuania in 1956\\.",
"Urbšys continued to make his living by translating works in the [French language](/wiki/French_language \"French language\") into [Lithuanian](/wiki/Lithuanian_language \"Lithuanian language\"). He regained notability after publishing his memoirs in 1988, a work described as one of the first to address Lithuanian history under Soviet rule. After Lithuania [again regained its independence](/wiki/Act_of_the_Re-Establishment_of_the_State_of_Lithuania \"Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania\"), Urbšys was named an [honorary citizen](/wiki/Honorary_citizen \"Honorary citizen\") of [Kėdainiai](/wiki/K%C4%97dainiai \"Kėdainiai\") (in 1990\\) and [Kaunas](/wiki/Kaunas \"Kaunas\") (1991\\). His health was frail, preventing him from fully participating in the political process of independence, but he enjoyed the authority and respect of the Lithuanian people. Urbšys died on 30 April 1991\\. After lying in state at the city of Kaunas' War Museum, he was entombed in [Petrašiūnai Cemetery](/wiki/Petra%C5%A1i%C5%ABnai_Cemetery \"Petrašiūnai Cemetery\").",
"His last political action was performed on 23 August 1988, when his speech, recorded in a [tape recorder](/wiki/Tape_recorder \"Tape recorder\"), was played during a [Sąjūdis](/wiki/S%C4%85j%C5%ABdis \"Sąjūdis\") rally. In the speech he narrated about the [Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty](/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Mutual_Assistance_Treaty \"Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty\") signing in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Gritėnas \\|first1\\=Paulius \\|title\\=Juozo Urbšio išpažintis švedų diplomatui: \"1940\\-aisiais pasipriešinimas jau nebuvo įmanomas\" \\|url\\=https://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/istorija/paskutinis\\-tarpukario\\-lietuvos\\-diplomatijos\\-vadovas\\-juozas\\-urbsys\\-1940\\-aisiais\\-pasipriesinimas\\-jau\\-nebuvo\\-imanomas\\-582\\-1041428 \\|website\\=15min.lt \\|access\\-date\\=19 October 2018}}",
"Close to his death, Urbšys was interviewed by a Swedish diplomat, who visited him on 9 September 1990 in his poor Soviet era flat that was located in the outskirts of the [Kaunas](/wiki/Kaunas \"Kaunas\") city (soon after the declaration of the [Act of the Re\\-Establishment of the State of Lithuania](/wiki/Act_of_the_Re-Establishment_of_the_State_of_Lithuania \"Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania\") on 11 March 1990\\). When asked about the possible Lithuanian military resistance against the [Soviet invasion in 1940](/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_%281940%29 \"Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)\"), he said that it would have been impossible and that there is no reason to compare Lithuania situation with [Finland](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\"), who fought the [Winter War](/wiki/Winter_War \"Winter War\"), because it had a much better geographical position, [Karelia](/wiki/Karelia \"Karelia\") and [Mannerheim Lines](/wiki/Mannerheim_Line \"Mannerheim Line\"). He also noted that the resistance might have only made the horrific occupation conditions of the state even worse.",
"Two schools have been named for Juozas Urbšys: Kaunas 29th Secondary School and a school in [Tiskūnai](/wiki/Tisk%C5%ABnai \"Tiskūnai\").",
""
] |
Jurisdiction
------------
The CRTC regulates all [Canadian](/wiki/Canada "Canada") broadcasting and telecommunications activities and enforces rules it creates to carry out the policies assigned to it; the best\-known of these is probably the [Canadian content](/wiki/Canadian_content "Canadian content") rules. The CRTC reports to the [Parliament of Canada](/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada "Parliament of Canada") through the [Minister of Canadian Heritage](/wiki/Minister_of_Canadian_Heritage "Minister of Canadian Heritage"), which is responsible for the Broadcasting Act, and has an informal relationship with [Industry Canada](/wiki/Industry_Canada "Industry Canada"), which is responsible for the [Telecommunications Act](/wiki/Telecommunications_Act_%28Canada%29 "Telecommunications Act (Canada)"). Provisions in these two acts, along with less\-formal instructions issued by the [federal cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_Canada "Cabinet of Canada") known as [orders\-in\-council](/wiki/Order_in_Council "Order in Council"), represent the bulk of the CRTC's jurisdiction.
In many cases, such as the cabinet\-directed prohibition on foreign ownership for broadcasters[Direction to the CRTC (Ineligibility of Non\-Canadians)](http://canlii.ca/t/80ml) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20120709031814/http://canlii.ca/t/80ml \|date\=2012\-07\-09 }} ([CanLII](/wiki/CanLII "CanLII")) and the legislated principle of the predominance of Canadian content,{{cite web \|url\=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/B\-9\.01/bo\-ga:l\_I\-gb:s\_3//en\#anchorbo\-ga:l\_I\-gb:s\_3 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605050143/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/B\-9\.01/bo\-ga%3Al\_I\-gb%3As\_3//en\#anchorbo\-ga:l\_I\-gb:s\_3 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2011\-06\-05 \|title\=Broadcasting Act at 3\.(1\)(f) \|publisher\=Laws.justice.gc.ca \|access\-date\=2011\-02\-26 }} these acts and orders often leave the CRTC less room to change policy than critics sometimes suggest, and the result is that the commission is often the lightning rod for policy criticism that could arguably be better directed at the government itself.
Complaints against broadcasters, such as concerns around offensive programming, are dealt with by the [Canadian Broadcast Standards Council](/wiki/Canadian_Broadcast_Standards_Council "Canadian Broadcast Standards Council") (CBSC), an independent broadcast industry association, rather than by the CRTC, although CBSC decisions can be appealed to the CRTC if necessary. However, the CRTC is also sometimes erroneously criticized for CBSC decisions — for example, the CRTC was erroneously criticized for the CBSC's decisions pertaining to the airing of [Howard Stern](/wiki/Howard_Stern "Howard Stern")'s terrestrial radio show in Canada in the late 1990s, as well as the CBSC's controversial ruling on the [Dire Straits](/wiki/Dire_Straits "Dire Straits") song "[Money for Nothing](/wiki/Money_for_Nothing_%28song%29 "Money for Nothing (song)")".["CRTC asks for review of controversial ‘Money for Nothing’ decision"](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/arts/music/crtc-asks-for-review-of-controversial-money-for-nothing-decision/article1878524/). *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail "The Globe and Mail")*, January 21, 2011\.
The commission is not fully equivalent to the U.S. [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission "Federal Communications Commission"), which has additional powers over technical matters, in broadcasting and other aspects of communications, in that country. In Canada, [Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada](/wiki/Innovation%2C_Science_and_Economic_Development_Canada "Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada") (formerly Industry Canada) is responsible for allocating frequencies and call signs, managing the broadcast spectrum, and regulating other technical issues such as interference with electronics equipment.
### Regulation of broadcast distributors
The CRTC has in the past regulated the prices [cable television](/wiki/Cable_television "Cable television") broadcast distributors are allowed to charge. In most major markets, however, prices are no longer regulated due to increased competition for broadcast distribution from [satellite television](/wiki/Satellite_television "Satellite television").
The CRTC also regulates which channels broadcast distributors must or may offer. Per the Broadcasting Act[Department of Justice, Laws of Canada](http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/B-9.01/8815.html) (at §3\.(1\)(t)(i)) the commission also gives priority to Canadian signals—many non\-Canadian channels which compete with Canadian channels are thus not approved for distribution in Canada. The CRTC argues that allowing free trade in television stations would overwhelm the smaller Canadian market, preventing it from upholding its responsibility to foster a national conversation. Some people, however, consider this tantamount to [censorship](/wiki/Censorship "Censorship").
The CRTC's [simultaneous substitution](/wiki/Simultaneous_substitution "Simultaneous substitution") rules require that when a Canadian network licenses a television show from a [US](/wiki/United_States "United States") network and shows it in the same time slot, upon request by the Canadian broadcaster, Canadian broadcast distributors must replace the show on the US channel with the broadcast of the Canadian channel, along with any overlays and commercials.
As *[Grey's Anatomy](/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy "Grey's Anatomy")* is on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company"), but is carried in Canada on [CTV](/wiki/CTV_Television_Network "CTV Television Network") at the same time, for instance, the cable, satellite, or other broadcast distributor must send the CTV feed over the signal of the carried ABC affiliate, even where the ABC version is somehow different, particularly commercials.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/Eng/INFO\_SHT/Bdt10\.htm \|title\=Signal substitution – same program, different commercials CRTC \|publisher\=Crtc.gc.ca \|date\=2010\-01\-18 \|access\-date\=2011\-02\-26 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225172410/http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info\_sht/bdt10\.htm \|archive\-date\=2009\-02\-25 }} (These rules are not intended to apply in case of differing *episodes* of the same series; this difference may not always be communicated to distributors, although this is rather rare.) Viewers via home [antenna](/wiki/Television_antenna "Television antenna") who receive both American and Canadian networks on their personal sets are not affected by sim\-sub.
The goal of this policy is to create a market in which Canadian networks can realize revenue through advertising sales in spite of their inability to match the rates that the much larger American networks can afford to pay for syndicated programming. This policy is also why Canadian viewers do not see [American advertisements](/wiki/Super_Bowl_advertising "Super Bowl advertising") during the [Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl "Super Bowl"), even when tuning into one of the many American networks carried on Canadian televisions.
The CRTC also regulates radio in Canada, including [community radio](/wiki/Community_radio_in_Canada "Community radio in Canada"), where the CRTC requires that at least 15% of each station's output must be locally produced spoken word content.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2010/2010\-499\.htm\|title\=Campus and community radio policy \- CRTC's 2010 revised policy for campus and community radio stations\|last\=(CRTC)\|first\=Government of Canada, Canadian Radio\-television and Telecommunications Commission\|website\=www.crtc.gc.ca\|date\=22 July 2010\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-10\-12}}
### Regulation of the Internet
In a major May 1999 decision on "New Media", the CRTC held that under the Broadcasting Act the CRTC had jurisdiction over certain content communicated over the Internet including audio and video, but excluding content that is primarily alphanumeric such as emails and most webpages. It also issued an exemption order committing to a policy of non\-interference.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/1999/PB99\-197\.htm \|title\=Public Notice CRTC 1999\-197 \|date\=17 December 1999 \|publisher\=Crtc.gc.ca \|access\-date\=2011\-02\-26}}
In May 2011, in response to the increase presence of [Over\-the\-Top](/wiki/Over-the-Top "Over-the-Top") (OTT) programming, the CRTC put a call out to the public to provide input on the impact OTT programming is having on Canadian content and existing broadcasting subscriptions through satellite and cable.{{cite web \| title\=Broadcasting and Telecom Notice of Consultation CRTC 2011\-344 \| url\= http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2011/2011\-344\.htm \| publisher\=Crtc.gc.ca \|date \= 2011\-05\-25\|access\-date\=2011\-10\-24}}
On October 5, 2011, the CRTC released their findings that included consultations with stakeholders from the telecommunication industry, media producers, and cultural leaders among others. The evidence was inconclusive, suggesting that an increased availability of OTT options is not having a negative impact on the availability or diversity of Canadian content, one of the key policy mandates of the CRTC, nor are there signs that there has been a significant decline of television subscriptions through cable or satellite. However, given the rapid progress in the industry they are working on a more in depth study to be concluded in May 2012\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/publications/reports/rp1110\.htm\| title\=Results of the fact\-finding exercise on the over\-the\-top programming services October 2011 \| publisher\=Crtc.gc.ca \|date \= 2011\-10\-05\|access\-date\=2011\-10\-24}}
The CRTC does not *directly* regulate rates, quality of service issues, or business practices for Internet service providers. However, the CRTC does continually monitor the sector and associated trends.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info\_sht/t1003\.htm \|title\=Internet \|publisher\=CRTC \|date\=2009\-09\-11 \|access\-date\=2011\-02\-26}} To handle complains, the CRTC was ordered by the Government of Canada to create an independent, industry\-funded agency to resolve complaints from consumers and small business retail telecom customers. In July 2007, the [Commission for Complaints for Telecom\-Television Services (CCTS)](/wiki/Commission_for_Complaints_for_Telecom-television_Services "Commission for Complaints for Telecom-television Services") opened its doors.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ccts\-cprst.ca/about\-ccts/overview/a\-short\-history/\|title\=A short history\|website\=CCTS\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-05}}
[Third Party ISP Access](/wiki/Third_Party_ISP_Access "Third Party ISP Access") refers to a ruling forcing [Cable operators](/wiki/Cable_television "Cable television") (MSO) to offer Internet access to third party resellers.
### Regulation of telephone service
The commission currently has some jurisdiction over the provision of local landline [telephone](/wiki/Telephone "Telephone") service in Canada. This is largely limited to the major incumbent carriers, such as [Bell Canada](/wiki/Bell_Canada "Bell Canada") and [Telus](/wiki/Telus "Telus"), for traditional landline service (but not [Voice over Internet Protocol](/wiki/Voice_over_Internet_Protocol "Voice over Internet Protocol") (VoIP)). It has begun the gradual deregulation of such services where, in the commission's opinion, a sufficient level of competition exists.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/com100/2006/r060406\.htm\|publisher\=CRTC.gc.ca\|title\=CRTC sets criteria for the deregulation of local telephone service\|date\=2004\-04\-06\|access\-date\=2011\-10\-29\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120731084146/http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/com100/2006/r060406\.htm\|archive\-date\=2012\-07\-31}}
The CRTC is sometimes blamed for the current state of the [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone") industry in Canada, in which there are only three national mobile network operators – [Bell Mobility](/wiki/Bell_Mobility "Bell Mobility"), [Telus Mobility](/wiki/Telus_Mobility "Telus Mobility"), and [Rogers Wireless](/wiki/Rogers_Wireless "Rogers Wireless") – as well as a handful of [MVNOs](/wiki/MVNO "MVNO") operating on these networks. In fact, the commission has very little to do with the regulation of mobile phone service, outside of "undue preference" issues (for example, a carrier offering a superior rate or service to some subscribers and not others without a good reason).
It does not regulate service rates, service quality, or other business practices, and commission approval is not necessary for wireless provider sales or mergers as in the broadcasting industry.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/INFO\_SHT/t1021\.htm \|title\=Cellular (wireless) telephone services \|publisher\=Crtc.gc.ca \|date\=2009\-09\-18 \|access\-date\=2011\-02\-26}} Moreover, it does not deal with the availability of spectrum for mobile phone service, which is part of the [Industry Canada](/wiki/Industry_Canada "Industry Canada") mandate, nor the maintenance of competition, which is largely the responsibility of [The Competition Bureau](/wiki/The_Competition_Bureau "The Competition Bureau").
### Transfers of ownership/foreign ownership
Any transfer of more than 30% of the ownership of a broadcasting licence (including cable/satellite distribution licences) requires advance approval of the commission. One condition normally taken into account in such a decision is the level of foreign ownership; federal regulations require that Canadian citizens ultimately own a majority of a broadcast licence. Usually this takes the form of a public process, where interested parties can express their concerns and sometimes including a public hearing, followed by a commission decision.
While landline and mobile telephone providers must also be majority\-owned by Canadians under the federal [Telecommunications Act](/wiki/Telecommunications_Act_%28Canada%29 "Telecommunications Act (Canada)"), the CRTC is not responsible for enforcement of this provision. In fact, the commission does not require licences at all for telephone companies, and CRTC approval is therefore not generally required for the sale of a telephone company, unless said company also owns a broadcast licence.
|
[
"Jurisdiction\n------------",
"The CRTC regulates all [Canadian](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") broadcasting and telecommunications activities and enforces rules it creates to carry out the policies assigned to it; the best\\-known of these is probably the [Canadian content](/wiki/Canadian_content \"Canadian content\") rules. The CRTC reports to the [Parliament of Canada](/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada \"Parliament of Canada\") through the [Minister of Canadian Heritage](/wiki/Minister_of_Canadian_Heritage \"Minister of Canadian Heritage\"), which is responsible for the Broadcasting Act, and has an informal relationship with [Industry Canada](/wiki/Industry_Canada \"Industry Canada\"), which is responsible for the [Telecommunications Act](/wiki/Telecommunications_Act_%28Canada%29 \"Telecommunications Act (Canada)\"). Provisions in these two acts, along with less\\-formal instructions issued by the [federal cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_Canada \"Cabinet of Canada\") known as [orders\\-in\\-council](/wiki/Order_in_Council \"Order in Council\"), represent the bulk of the CRTC's jurisdiction.",
"In many cases, such as the cabinet\\-directed prohibition on foreign ownership for broadcasters[Direction to the CRTC (Ineligibility of Non\\-Canadians)](http://canlii.ca/t/80ml) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20120709031814/http://canlii.ca/t/80ml \\|date\\=2012\\-07\\-09 }} ([CanLII](/wiki/CanLII \"CanLII\")) and the legislated principle of the predominance of Canadian content,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/B\\-9\\.01/bo\\-ga:l\\_I\\-gb:s\\_3//en\\#anchorbo\\-ga:l\\_I\\-gb:s\\_3 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605050143/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/B\\-9\\.01/bo\\-ga%3Al\\_I\\-gb%3As\\_3//en\\#anchorbo\\-ga:l\\_I\\-gb:s\\_3 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-05 \\|title\\=Broadcasting Act at 3\\.(1\\)(f) \\|publisher\\=Laws.justice.gc.ca \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-02\\-26 }} these acts and orders often leave the CRTC less room to change policy than critics sometimes suggest, and the result is that the commission is often the lightning rod for policy criticism that could arguably be better directed at the government itself.",
"Complaints against broadcasters, such as concerns around offensive programming, are dealt with by the [Canadian Broadcast Standards Council](/wiki/Canadian_Broadcast_Standards_Council \"Canadian Broadcast Standards Council\") (CBSC), an independent broadcast industry association, rather than by the CRTC, although CBSC decisions can be appealed to the CRTC if necessary. However, the CRTC is also sometimes erroneously criticized for CBSC decisions — for example, the CRTC was erroneously criticized for the CBSC's decisions pertaining to the airing of [Howard Stern](/wiki/Howard_Stern \"Howard Stern\")'s terrestrial radio show in Canada in the late 1990s, as well as the CBSC's controversial ruling on the [Dire Straits](/wiki/Dire_Straits \"Dire Straits\") song \"[Money for Nothing](/wiki/Money_for_Nothing_%28song%29 \"Money for Nothing (song)\")\".[\"CRTC asks for review of controversial ‘Money for Nothing’ decision\"](https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/arts/music/crtc-asks-for-review-of-controversial-money-for-nothing-decision/article1878524/). *[The Globe and Mail](/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail \"The Globe and Mail\")*, January 21, 2011\\.",
"The commission is not fully equivalent to the U.S. [Federal Communications Commission](/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission \"Federal Communications Commission\"), which has additional powers over technical matters, in broadcasting and other aspects of communications, in that country. In Canada, [Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada](/wiki/Innovation%2C_Science_and_Economic_Development_Canada \"Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada\") (formerly Industry Canada) is responsible for allocating frequencies and call signs, managing the broadcast spectrum, and regulating other technical issues such as interference with electronics equipment.",
"### Regulation of broadcast distributors",
"The CRTC has in the past regulated the prices [cable television](/wiki/Cable_television \"Cable television\") broadcast distributors are allowed to charge. In most major markets, however, prices are no longer regulated due to increased competition for broadcast distribution from [satellite television](/wiki/Satellite_television \"Satellite television\").",
"The CRTC also regulates which channels broadcast distributors must or may offer. Per the Broadcasting Act[Department of Justice, Laws of Canada](http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/B-9.01/8815.html) (at §3\\.(1\\)(t)(i)) the commission also gives priority to Canadian signals—many non\\-Canadian channels which compete with Canadian channels are thus not approved for distribution in Canada. The CRTC argues that allowing free trade in television stations would overwhelm the smaller Canadian market, preventing it from upholding its responsibility to foster a national conversation. Some people, however, consider this tantamount to [censorship](/wiki/Censorship \"Censorship\").",
"The CRTC's [simultaneous substitution](/wiki/Simultaneous_substitution \"Simultaneous substitution\") rules require that when a Canadian network licenses a television show from a [US](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") network and shows it in the same time slot, upon request by the Canadian broadcaster, Canadian broadcast distributors must replace the show on the US channel with the broadcast of the Canadian channel, along with any overlays and commercials.",
"As *[Grey's Anatomy](/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy \"Grey's Anatomy\")* is on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\"), but is carried in Canada on [CTV](/wiki/CTV_Television_Network \"CTV Television Network\") at the same time, for instance, the cable, satellite, or other broadcast distributor must send the CTV feed over the signal of the carried ABC affiliate, even where the ABC version is somehow different, particularly commercials.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/Eng/INFO\\_SHT/Bdt10\\.htm \\|title\\=Signal substitution – same program, different commercials CRTC \\|publisher\\=Crtc.gc.ca \\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-02\\-26 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225172410/http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info\\_sht/bdt10\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-25 }} (These rules are not intended to apply in case of differing *episodes* of the same series; this difference may not always be communicated to distributors, although this is rather rare.) Viewers via home [antenna](/wiki/Television_antenna \"Television antenna\") who receive both American and Canadian networks on their personal sets are not affected by sim\\-sub.",
"The goal of this policy is to create a market in which Canadian networks can realize revenue through advertising sales in spite of their inability to match the rates that the much larger American networks can afford to pay for syndicated programming. This policy is also why Canadian viewers do not see [American advertisements](/wiki/Super_Bowl_advertising \"Super Bowl advertising\") during the [Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl \"Super Bowl\"), even when tuning into one of the many American networks carried on Canadian televisions.",
"The CRTC also regulates radio in Canada, including [community radio](/wiki/Community_radio_in_Canada \"Community radio in Canada\"), where the CRTC requires that at least 15% of each station's output must be locally produced spoken word content.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2010/2010\\-499\\.htm\\|title\\=Campus and community radio policy \\- CRTC's 2010 revised policy for campus and community radio stations\\|last\\=(CRTC)\\|first\\=Government of Canada, Canadian Radio\\-television and Telecommunications Commission\\|website\\=www.crtc.gc.ca\\|date\\=22 July 2010\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-12}}",
"### Regulation of the Internet",
"In a major May 1999 decision on \"New Media\", the CRTC held that under the Broadcasting Act the CRTC had jurisdiction over certain content communicated over the Internet including audio and video, but excluding content that is primarily alphanumeric such as emails and most webpages. It also issued an exemption order committing to a policy of non\\-interference.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/1999/PB99\\-197\\.htm \\|title\\=Public Notice CRTC 1999\\-197 \\|date\\=17 December 1999 \\|publisher\\=Crtc.gc.ca \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-02\\-26}}",
"In May 2011, in response to the increase presence of [Over\\-the\\-Top](/wiki/Over-the-Top \"Over-the-Top\") (OTT) programming, the CRTC put a call out to the public to provide input on the impact OTT programming is having on Canadian content and existing broadcasting subscriptions through satellite and cable.{{cite web \\| title\\=Broadcasting and Telecom Notice of Consultation CRTC 2011\\-344 \\| url\\= http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2011/2011\\-344\\.htm \\| publisher\\=Crtc.gc.ca \\|date \\= 2011\\-05\\-25\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-24}}",
"On October 5, 2011, the CRTC released their findings that included consultations with stakeholders from the telecommunication industry, media producers, and cultural leaders among others. The evidence was inconclusive, suggesting that an increased availability of OTT options is not having a negative impact on the availability or diversity of Canadian content, one of the key policy mandates of the CRTC, nor are there signs that there has been a significant decline of television subscriptions through cable or satellite. However, given the rapid progress in the industry they are working on a more in depth study to be concluded in May 2012\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/publications/reports/rp1110\\.htm\\| title\\=Results of the fact\\-finding exercise on the over\\-the\\-top programming services October 2011 \\| publisher\\=Crtc.gc.ca \\|date \\= 2011\\-10\\-05\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-24}}",
"The CRTC does not *directly* regulate rates, quality of service issues, or business practices for Internet service providers. However, the CRTC does continually monitor the sector and associated trends.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info\\_sht/t1003\\.htm \\|title\\=Internet \\|publisher\\=CRTC \\|date\\=2009\\-09\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-02\\-26}} To handle complains, the CRTC was ordered by the Government of Canada to create an independent, industry\\-funded agency to resolve complaints from consumers and small business retail telecom customers. In July 2007, the [Commission for Complaints for Telecom\\-Television Services (CCTS)](/wiki/Commission_for_Complaints_for_Telecom-television_Services \"Commission for Complaints for Telecom-television Services\") opened its doors.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ccts\\-cprst.ca/about\\-ccts/overview/a\\-short\\-history/\\|title\\=A short history\\|website\\=CCTS\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-05}}",
"[Third Party ISP Access](/wiki/Third_Party_ISP_Access \"Third Party ISP Access\") refers to a ruling forcing [Cable operators](/wiki/Cable_television \"Cable television\") (MSO) to offer Internet access to third party resellers.",
"### Regulation of telephone service",
"The commission currently has some jurisdiction over the provision of local landline [telephone](/wiki/Telephone \"Telephone\") service in Canada. This is largely limited to the major incumbent carriers, such as [Bell Canada](/wiki/Bell_Canada \"Bell Canada\") and [Telus](/wiki/Telus \"Telus\"), for traditional landline service (but not [Voice over Internet Protocol](/wiki/Voice_over_Internet_Protocol \"Voice over Internet Protocol\") (VoIP)). It has begun the gradual deregulation of such services where, in the commission's opinion, a sufficient level of competition exists.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/com100/2006/r060406\\.htm\\|publisher\\=CRTC.gc.ca\\|title\\=CRTC sets criteria for the deregulation of local telephone service\\|date\\=2004\\-04\\-06\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-29\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120731084146/http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/com100/2006/r060406\\.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-31}}",
"The CRTC is sometimes blamed for the current state of the [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") industry in Canada, in which there are only three national mobile network operators – [Bell Mobility](/wiki/Bell_Mobility \"Bell Mobility\"), [Telus Mobility](/wiki/Telus_Mobility \"Telus Mobility\"), and [Rogers Wireless](/wiki/Rogers_Wireless \"Rogers Wireless\") – as well as a handful of [MVNOs](/wiki/MVNO \"MVNO\") operating on these networks. In fact, the commission has very little to do with the regulation of mobile phone service, outside of \"undue preference\" issues (for example, a carrier offering a superior rate or service to some subscribers and not others without a good reason).",
"It does not regulate service rates, service quality, or other business practices, and commission approval is not necessary for wireless provider sales or mergers as in the broadcasting industry.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/INFO\\_SHT/t1021\\.htm \\|title\\=Cellular (wireless) telephone services \\|publisher\\=Crtc.gc.ca \\|date\\=2009\\-09\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-02\\-26}} Moreover, it does not deal with the availability of spectrum for mobile phone service, which is part of the [Industry Canada](/wiki/Industry_Canada \"Industry Canada\") mandate, nor the maintenance of competition, which is largely the responsibility of [The Competition Bureau](/wiki/The_Competition_Bureau \"The Competition Bureau\").",
"### Transfers of ownership/foreign ownership",
"Any transfer of more than 30% of the ownership of a broadcasting licence (including cable/satellite distribution licences) requires advance approval of the commission. One condition normally taken into account in such a decision is the level of foreign ownership; federal regulations require that Canadian citizens ultimately own a majority of a broadcast licence. Usually this takes the form of a public process, where interested parties can express their concerns and sometimes including a public hearing, followed by a commission decision.",
"While landline and mobile telephone providers must also be majority\\-owned by Canadians under the federal [Telecommunications Act](/wiki/Telecommunications_Act_%28Canada%29 \"Telecommunications Act (Canada)\"), the CRTC is not responsible for enforcement of this provision. In fact, the commission does not require licences at all for telephone companies, and CRTC approval is therefore not generally required for the sale of a telephone company, unless said company also owns a broadcast licence.",
""
] |
### Regulation of broadcast distributors
The CRTC has in the past regulated the prices [cable television](/wiki/Cable_television "Cable television") broadcast distributors are allowed to charge. In most major markets, however, prices are no longer regulated due to increased competition for broadcast distribution from [satellite television](/wiki/Satellite_television "Satellite television").
The CRTC also regulates which channels broadcast distributors must or may offer. Per the Broadcasting Act[Department of Justice, Laws of Canada](http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/B-9.01/8815.html) (at §3\.(1\)(t)(i)) the commission also gives priority to Canadian signals—many non\-Canadian channels which compete with Canadian channels are thus not approved for distribution in Canada. The CRTC argues that allowing free trade in television stations would overwhelm the smaller Canadian market, preventing it from upholding its responsibility to foster a national conversation. Some people, however, consider this tantamount to [censorship](/wiki/Censorship "Censorship").
The CRTC's [simultaneous substitution](/wiki/Simultaneous_substitution "Simultaneous substitution") rules require that when a Canadian network licenses a television show from a [US](/wiki/United_States "United States") network and shows it in the same time slot, upon request by the Canadian broadcaster, Canadian broadcast distributors must replace the show on the US channel with the broadcast of the Canadian channel, along with any overlays and commercials.
As *[Grey's Anatomy](/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy "Grey's Anatomy")* is on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company"), but is carried in Canada on [CTV](/wiki/CTV_Television_Network "CTV Television Network") at the same time, for instance, the cable, satellite, or other broadcast distributor must send the CTV feed over the signal of the carried ABC affiliate, even where the ABC version is somehow different, particularly commercials.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/Eng/INFO\_SHT/Bdt10\.htm \|title\=Signal substitution – same program, different commercials CRTC \|publisher\=Crtc.gc.ca \|date\=2010\-01\-18 \|access\-date\=2011\-02\-26 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225172410/http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info\_sht/bdt10\.htm \|archive\-date\=2009\-02\-25 }} (These rules are not intended to apply in case of differing *episodes* of the same series; this difference may not always be communicated to distributors, although this is rather rare.) Viewers via home [antenna](/wiki/Television_antenna "Television antenna") who receive both American and Canadian networks on their personal sets are not affected by sim\-sub.
The goal of this policy is to create a market in which Canadian networks can realize revenue through advertising sales in spite of their inability to match the rates that the much larger American networks can afford to pay for syndicated programming. This policy is also why Canadian viewers do not see [American advertisements](/wiki/Super_Bowl_advertising "Super Bowl advertising") during the [Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl "Super Bowl"), even when tuning into one of the many American networks carried on Canadian televisions.
The CRTC also regulates radio in Canada, including [community radio](/wiki/Community_radio_in_Canada "Community radio in Canada"), where the CRTC requires that at least 15% of each station's output must be locally produced spoken word content.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2010/2010\-499\.htm\|title\=Campus and community radio policy \- CRTC's 2010 revised policy for campus and community radio stations\|last\=(CRTC)\|first\=Government of Canada, Canadian Radio\-television and Telecommunications Commission\|website\=www.crtc.gc.ca\|date\=22 July 2010\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-10\-12}}
|
[
"### Regulation of broadcast distributors",
"The CRTC has in the past regulated the prices [cable television](/wiki/Cable_television \"Cable television\") broadcast distributors are allowed to charge. In most major markets, however, prices are no longer regulated due to increased competition for broadcast distribution from [satellite television](/wiki/Satellite_television \"Satellite television\").",
"The CRTC also regulates which channels broadcast distributors must or may offer. Per the Broadcasting Act[Department of Justice, Laws of Canada](http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/B-9.01/8815.html) (at §3\\.(1\\)(t)(i)) the commission also gives priority to Canadian signals—many non\\-Canadian channels which compete with Canadian channels are thus not approved for distribution in Canada. The CRTC argues that allowing free trade in television stations would overwhelm the smaller Canadian market, preventing it from upholding its responsibility to foster a national conversation. Some people, however, consider this tantamount to [censorship](/wiki/Censorship \"Censorship\").",
"The CRTC's [simultaneous substitution](/wiki/Simultaneous_substitution \"Simultaneous substitution\") rules require that when a Canadian network licenses a television show from a [US](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") network and shows it in the same time slot, upon request by the Canadian broadcaster, Canadian broadcast distributors must replace the show on the US channel with the broadcast of the Canadian channel, along with any overlays and commercials.",
"As *[Grey's Anatomy](/wiki/Grey%27s_Anatomy \"Grey's Anatomy\")* is on [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\"), but is carried in Canada on [CTV](/wiki/CTV_Television_Network \"CTV Television Network\") at the same time, for instance, the cable, satellite, or other broadcast distributor must send the CTV feed over the signal of the carried ABC affiliate, even where the ABC version is somehow different, particularly commercials.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/Eng/INFO\\_SHT/Bdt10\\.htm \\|title\\=Signal substitution – same program, different commercials CRTC \\|publisher\\=Crtc.gc.ca \\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-18 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-02\\-26 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225172410/http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info\\_sht/bdt10\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-02\\-25 }} (These rules are not intended to apply in case of differing *episodes* of the same series; this difference may not always be communicated to distributors, although this is rather rare.) Viewers via home [antenna](/wiki/Television_antenna \"Television antenna\") who receive both American and Canadian networks on their personal sets are not affected by sim\\-sub.",
"The goal of this policy is to create a market in which Canadian networks can realize revenue through advertising sales in spite of their inability to match the rates that the much larger American networks can afford to pay for syndicated programming. This policy is also why Canadian viewers do not see [American advertisements](/wiki/Super_Bowl_advertising \"Super Bowl advertising\") during the [Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl \"Super Bowl\"), even when tuning into one of the many American networks carried on Canadian televisions.",
"The CRTC also regulates radio in Canada, including [community radio](/wiki/Community_radio_in_Canada \"Community radio in Canada\"), where the CRTC requires that at least 15% of each station's output must be locally produced spoken word content.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/archive/2010/2010\\-499\\.htm\\|title\\=Campus and community radio policy \\- CRTC's 2010 revised policy for campus and community radio stations\\|last\\=(CRTC)\\|first\\=Government of Canada, Canadian Radio\\-television and Telecommunications Commission\\|website\\=www.crtc.gc.ca\\|date\\=22 July 2010\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-12}}",
""
] |
1986–1998: Kings of the Sun (1986–2001\)
----------------------------------------
The Hoad brothers formed Kings of the Sun in Sydney with Anthony Ragg on bass guitar (ex\-Ballistics) and Ron Thiessen on guitar (ex\-[Uncanny X\-Men](/wiki/Uncanny_X-Men_%28band%29 "Uncanny X-Men (band)")). The name references [Yul Brynner](/wiki/Yul_Brynner "Yul Brynner")'s 1963 feature film [of the same name](/wiki/Kings_of_the_Sun "Kings of the Sun").{{cite web \|title\=The New Kings of the Sun \|url\=http://www.kingsofthesunband.com/index.php/newsarchive/14\-thenewkingsofthesun \|website\=Kings of the Sun Band Official Website \|access\-date\=2 November 2015 }}
In 1986 the Kings of the Sun were formed in Sydney as a pop rock quartet and briefly signed to [Mushroom](/wiki/Mushroom_Records "Mushroom Records"). Their debut single, "Bottom of My Heart", was released in October, which reached the top 50 on the [Kent Music Report](/wiki/Kent_Music_Report "Kent Music Report") singles chart. Kings of the Sun were signed to [RCA](/wiki/RCA_Records "RCA Records") when executive Simon Lowe saw them perform. The group toured the United States during 1987\. In New York City they worked on their first album, without Thiessen.
In October 1988 they released their debut studio album, *Kings of the Sun*, which was produced by [Eddie Kramer](/wiki/Eddie_Kramer "Eddie Kramer") and mixed by Dave Thoener. Australian musicologist [Ian McFarlane](/wiki/Ian_McFarlane "Ian McFarlane") praised it as a "no\-frills, hard rock album with a raw feel for pop economy". Its lead single "Serpentine" (July), peaked at number 48 in Australia. After the album was released Glenn Morris joined on lead guitar as they toured the US supporting [Joe Satriani](/wiki/Joe_Satriani "Joe Satriani") and then [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe") supporting [Kiss](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 "Kiss (band)"). They returned to Australia in late 1988\.
They opened for [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses "Guns N' Roses") on the Australian leg of their [Appetite for Destruction Tour](/wiki/Appetite_for_Destruction_Tour "Appetite for Destruction Tour") in December. However, Kings of the Sun were removed from that tour when Jeffrey "dropped his pants in front of the audience" at their Sydney show and expressed his opinion on Guns N' Roses. Tensions had developed between the two groups due to Clifford's remark in the local *On the Street* magazine: he claimed Guns N' Roses took much of their image from [Rose Tattoo](/wiki/Rose_Tattoo "Rose Tattoo")."Throwing Down the Palms The 'Kings' Return", *On the Street*, Issue No 417, Wednesday 14 December 1988\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.hotmetalonline.com/2012/07/31/guns\-nroses\-sydney\-entertainment\-centre\-1988/ \|title\=Guns N' Roses, Sydney Entertainment Centre, 1988 \|work\=hotmetalonline.com \|access\-date\=2 November 2015 }} Clifford recalled in July 2012, "When I said those things, I meant them. It wasn't necessarily aimed at Guns N' Roses. It was aimed at the Australian press and public. 'OK, make a fuss over Guns N' Roses but at least know that Rose Tattoo exists.'"{{cite web \|last1\=Mascord \|first1\=Steve \|title\=Kings of the Sun Drummer Responds to Axl Rose 24 Years After Guns N' Roses Front\-man Kicked Him out of the Sydney Entertainment Centre \|url\=http://www.triplem.com.au/sydney/music/news/2012/7/kings\-of\-the\-sun\-drummer\-responds\-to\-axl\-rose\-24\-years\-after\-guns\-n\-roses\-frontman\-kicked\-him\-out\-of\-the\-sydney\-entertainment\-centre/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204145409/http://www.triplem.com.au/sydney/music/news/2012/7/kings\-of\-the\-sun\-drummer\-responds\-to\-axl\-rose\-24\-years\-after\-guns\-n\-roses\-frontman\-kicked\-him\-out\-of\-the\-sydney\-entertainment\-centre/ \|publisher\=Triple M \|date\=27 July 2012 \|access\-date\=17 June 2024 \|archive\-date\=4 February 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }}
Another line\-up change occurred in mid\-1989 when Morris left for eight months to join [the Screaming Tribesmen](/wiki/The_Screaming_Tribesmen "The Screaming Tribesmen") but he rejoined before KOTS released their second album, *Full Frontal Attack*, in August 1990\. It was produced by William Wittman. Dave Thoener returned to mix it, which was their last album for RCA. It reached the [ARIA albums chart](/wiki/ARIA_Charts "ARIA Charts") top 100\. Kings of the Sun supported [Lita Ford](/wiki/Lita_Ford "Lita Ford")'s US tour during late 1990 before returning to tour Australia and co\-headlining with [the Screaming Jets](/wiki/The_Screaming_Jets "The Screaming Jets") early in 1991\. Morris and Ragg both left in 1992\.
The band's third album *Resurrection* was released in May 1993 through Mushroom. It was recorded at [A\&M Studios](/wiki/A%26M_Studios "A&M Studios") and Paramount Studios and mastered at Precision Mastering. Kings of the Sun self\-produced the album except for two tracks, "First Thing About Rock'n'Roll (I Remember)" and "Fuzz", by mixer Mark Dearnley. [Phil Soussan](/wiki/Phil_Soussan "Phil Soussan") ([Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne "Ozzy Osbourne")) played bass guitar on all tracks except of "Fuzz", which Brad Spurr contributed; Spurr joined on bass guitar after its release. Two singles were issued from the album, "Trapped Inside Your Heart" (April) and "Road to Nowhere" (July), which McFarlane observed, "offered further doses of raunchy rock'n'roll". The band supported [Jimmy Barnes](/wiki/Jimmy_Barnes "Jimmy Barnes") on his Australian tour during 1993\.
Spurr left in 1995 and was replaced by Dean Turner on bass guitar. The band recorded a "live\-in\-the\-studio" album *Daddy Was a Hobo Man* in 1997, but it was not released until 2011 as an independent release.{{cite web\|title\=2011 ''Daddy Was a Hobo Man'' \|url\=http://www.kingsofthesunband.com/index.php/hoboman\|publisher\=Kings of the Sun Band\|access\-date\=2 November 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160227200455/http://kingsofthesunband.com/index.php/hoboman\|archive\-date\=27 February 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} Of the album, Clifford stated "we wanted to record with no commercial pressure what so ever, also, at the time we wanted to record as a 3 piece and live in the studio, this is what you're hearing." In May 1998 the band supported [Sammy Hagar](/wiki/Sammy_Hagar "Sammy Hagar")'s Australian tour. Their line\-up had the Hoad brothers joined by Quentin Elliot on guitar and Chris Lewis on bass guitar. Kings of the Sun officially disbanded in 2001\.
|
[
"1986–1998: Kings of the Sun (1986–2001\\)\n----------------------------------------",
"The Hoad brothers formed Kings of the Sun in Sydney with Anthony Ragg on bass guitar (ex\\-Ballistics) and Ron Thiessen on guitar (ex\\-[Uncanny X\\-Men](/wiki/Uncanny_X-Men_%28band%29 \"Uncanny X-Men (band)\")). The name references [Yul Brynner](/wiki/Yul_Brynner \"Yul Brynner\")'s 1963 feature film [of the same name](/wiki/Kings_of_the_Sun \"Kings of the Sun\").{{cite web \\|title\\=The New Kings of the Sun \\|url\\=http://www.kingsofthesunband.com/index.php/newsarchive/14\\-thenewkingsofthesun \\|website\\=Kings of the Sun Band Official Website \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2015 }}\nIn 1986 the Kings of the Sun were formed in Sydney as a pop rock quartet and briefly signed to [Mushroom](/wiki/Mushroom_Records \"Mushroom Records\"). Their debut single, \"Bottom of My Heart\", was released in October, which reached the top 50 on the [Kent Music Report](/wiki/Kent_Music_Report \"Kent Music Report\") singles chart. Kings of the Sun were signed to [RCA](/wiki/RCA_Records \"RCA Records\") when executive Simon Lowe saw them perform. The group toured the United States during 1987\\. In New York City they worked on their first album, without Thiessen.",
"In October 1988 they released their debut studio album, *Kings of the Sun*, which was produced by [Eddie Kramer](/wiki/Eddie_Kramer \"Eddie Kramer\") and mixed by Dave Thoener. Australian musicologist [Ian McFarlane](/wiki/Ian_McFarlane \"Ian McFarlane\") praised it as a \"no\\-frills, hard rock album with a raw feel for pop economy\". Its lead single \"Serpentine\" (July), peaked at number 48 in Australia. After the album was released Glenn Morris joined on lead guitar as they toured the US supporting [Joe Satriani](/wiki/Joe_Satriani \"Joe Satriani\") and then [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") supporting [Kiss](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 \"Kiss (band)\"). They returned to Australia in late 1988\\.",
"They opened for [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses \"Guns N' Roses\") on the Australian leg of their [Appetite for Destruction Tour](/wiki/Appetite_for_Destruction_Tour \"Appetite for Destruction Tour\") in December. However, Kings of the Sun were removed from that tour when Jeffrey \"dropped his pants in front of the audience\" at their Sydney show and expressed his opinion on Guns N' Roses. Tensions had developed between the two groups due to Clifford's remark in the local *On the Street* magazine: he claimed Guns N' Roses took much of their image from [Rose Tattoo](/wiki/Rose_Tattoo \"Rose Tattoo\").\"Throwing Down the Palms The 'Kings' Return\", *On the Street*, Issue No 417, Wednesday 14 December 1988\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hotmetalonline.com/2012/07/31/guns\\-nroses\\-sydney\\-entertainment\\-centre\\-1988/ \\|title\\=Guns N' Roses, Sydney Entertainment Centre, 1988 \\|work\\=hotmetalonline.com \\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2015 }} Clifford recalled in July 2012, \"When I said those things, I meant them. It wasn't necessarily aimed at Guns N' Roses. It was aimed at the Australian press and public. 'OK, make a fuss over Guns N' Roses but at least know that Rose Tattoo exists.'\"{{cite web \\|last1\\=Mascord \\|first1\\=Steve \\|title\\=Kings of the Sun Drummer Responds to Axl Rose 24 Years After Guns N' Roses Front\\-man Kicked Him out of the Sydney Entertainment Centre \\|url\\=http://www.triplem.com.au/sydney/music/news/2012/7/kings\\-of\\-the\\-sun\\-drummer\\-responds\\-to\\-axl\\-rose\\-24\\-years\\-after\\-guns\\-n\\-roses\\-frontman\\-kicked\\-him\\-out\\-of\\-the\\-sydney\\-entertainment\\-centre/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204145409/http://www.triplem.com.au/sydney/music/news/2012/7/kings\\-of\\-the\\-sun\\-drummer\\-responds\\-to\\-axl\\-rose\\-24\\-years\\-after\\-guns\\-n\\-roses\\-frontman\\-kicked\\-him\\-out\\-of\\-the\\-sydney\\-entertainment\\-centre/ \\|publisher\\=Triple M \\|date\\=27 July 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2024 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 February 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"Another line\\-up change occurred in mid\\-1989 when Morris left for eight months to join [the Screaming Tribesmen](/wiki/The_Screaming_Tribesmen \"The Screaming Tribesmen\") but he rejoined before KOTS released their second album, *Full Frontal Attack*, in August 1990\\. It was produced by William Wittman. Dave Thoener returned to mix it, which was their last album for RCA. It reached the [ARIA albums chart](/wiki/ARIA_Charts \"ARIA Charts\") top 100\\. Kings of the Sun supported [Lita Ford](/wiki/Lita_Ford \"Lita Ford\")'s US tour during late 1990 before returning to tour Australia and co\\-headlining with [the Screaming Jets](/wiki/The_Screaming_Jets \"The Screaming Jets\") early in 1991\\. Morris and Ragg both left in 1992\\.",
"The band's third album *Resurrection* was released in May 1993 through Mushroom. It was recorded at [A\\&M Studios](/wiki/A%26M_Studios \"A&M Studios\") and Paramount Studios and mastered at Precision Mastering. Kings of the Sun self\\-produced the album except for two tracks, \"First Thing About Rock'n'Roll (I Remember)\" and \"Fuzz\", by mixer Mark Dearnley. [Phil Soussan](/wiki/Phil_Soussan \"Phil Soussan\") ([Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne \"Ozzy Osbourne\")) played bass guitar on all tracks except of \"Fuzz\", which Brad Spurr contributed; Spurr joined on bass guitar after its release. Two singles were issued from the album, \"Trapped Inside Your Heart\" (April) and \"Road to Nowhere\" (July), which McFarlane observed, \"offered further doses of raunchy rock'n'roll\". The band supported [Jimmy Barnes](/wiki/Jimmy_Barnes \"Jimmy Barnes\") on his Australian tour during 1993\\.",
"Spurr left in 1995 and was replaced by Dean Turner on bass guitar. The band recorded a \"live\\-in\\-the\\-studio\" album *Daddy Was a Hobo Man* in 1997, but it was not released until 2011 as an independent release.{{cite web\\|title\\=2011 ''Daddy Was a Hobo Man'' \\|url\\=http://www.kingsofthesunband.com/index.php/hoboman\\|publisher\\=Kings of the Sun Band\\|access\\-date\\=2 November 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160227200455/http://kingsofthesunband.com/index.php/hoboman\\|archive\\-date\\=27 February 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Of the album, Clifford stated \"we wanted to record with no commercial pressure what so ever, also, at the time we wanted to record as a 3 piece and live in the studio, this is what you're hearing.\" In May 1998 the band supported [Sammy Hagar](/wiki/Sammy_Hagar \"Sammy Hagar\")'s Australian tour. Their line\\-up had the Hoad brothers joined by Quentin Elliot on guitar and Chris Lewis on bass guitar. Kings of the Sun officially disbanded in 2001\\.",
""
] |
Great Auroral Exhibition of 1859
--------------------------------
In his memoir[Memoir Elias Loomis 1811–1889\.](http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/eloomis.pdf) by [H. A. Newton](/wiki/Hubert_Anson_Newton "Hubert Anson Newton"), Read Before the [National Academy](/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences "United States National Academy of Sciences"), April 16, 1890 of Loomis, [Hubert Anson Newton](/wiki/Hubert_Anson_Newton "Hubert Anson Newton") summarized Loomis's work on the historical [Geomagnetic Storm](/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm "Geomagnetic storm") of 1859\.
> Closely connected with [terrestrial magnetism](/wiki/Terrestrial_magnetism "Terrestrial magnetism"), and to be considered with it, is the [Aurora Borealis](/wiki/Aurora_Borealis "Aurora Borealis"). In the week that covered the end of August and the beginning of September, 1859, there occurred an exceedingly brilliant display of the [Northern Lights](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)"). Believing that an exhaustive discussion of a single [aurora](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)") promised to do more for the promotion of science than an imperfect study of an indefinite number of them, Professor Loomis undertook at once to collect and to collate accounts of this display. A large number of such accounts were secured from North America, from Europe, from Asia, and from places in the [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere "Southern Hemisphere"); especially all the reports from the [Smithsonian](/wiki/Smithsonian "Smithsonian") observers and correspondents, were placed in his hands by the Secretary, [Professor Henry](/wiki/Joseph_Henry "Joseph Henry").
These observations and the discussions of them were given to the public during the following two years, in a series of nine papers in the [American Journal of Science](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Science "American Journal of Science").
Few, if any, displays on record were as remarkable as was this one for brilliancy or for geographical extent. Certainly about no [aurora](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)") have there been collected so many facts. The display continued for a week. The luminous region entirely encircled the [North Pole](/wiki/North_Pole "North Pole") of the earth. It extended on this continent on the 2d of September as far south, as [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba"), and to an unknown distance to the north. In altitude the bases of the columns of light were about fifty miles above the earth's surface, and the streamers shot up at times to a height of five hundred miles. Thus over a broad belt on both continents this large region above the lower atmosphere was filled with masses of luminous material. A display similar to this, and possibly of equal brilliancy, was at the same time witnessed in the [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere "Southern Hemisphere").
The nine papers were mainly devoted to the statements of observers. Professor Loomis, however, went on to collect facts about other [auroras](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)"), and to make inductions from the whole of the material thus brought together. He showed that there was good reason for believing that not only was this display represented by a corresponding one in the [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere "Southern Hemisphere"), but that all remarkable displays in either [hemisphere](/wiki/Earth "Earth") are accompanied by corresponding ones in the other.
He showed also that all the principal phenomena of electricity were developed during the [auroral](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)") display of 1859; that light was developed in passing from one conductor to another, that heat in poor conductors, that the peculiar electric shock to the animal system, the excitement of [magnetism](/wiki/Magnetism "Magnetism") in irons, the deflection of the [magnetic](/wiki/Magnetic "Magnetic") needle, the decomposition of chemical solutions, each and all were produced during the auroral storm, and evidently by its agency. There were also in [America](/wiki/United_States "United States") effects upon the [telegraph](/wiki/Telegraph "Telegraph") that were entirely consistent with the assumption previously made by [Walker](/wiki/Charles_Vincent_Walker "Charles Vincent Walker") for England, that currents of electricity moved from northeast to southwest across the country. From the observations of the motion of auroral beams, he showed that they also moved from north\-northeast to south\-southwest, there being thus a general correspondence in motion between the electrical currents and the motion of the beams.
The following are the nine papers published by Professor Loomis pertaining to the [Geomagnetic Storm](/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm "Geomagnetic storm") of 1859\.
> [The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September, 1859\.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679510&view=1up&seq=403)
>
> Am. Jour. Sci. (2\), vol. 28, pp. 385–408\. November, 1859\.
[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—2nd article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679511&view=1up&seq=112)
Am. Jour. Sci. (2\), vol. 29, pp. 92–97\. January, 1860\.
[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—3rd article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679511&view=1up&seq=269)
Am. Jour. Sci. (2\), vol. 29, pp. 249–266\. February, 1860\.
[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—4th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679511&view=1up&seq=406)
Am. Jour. Sci. (2\), vol. 29, pp. 386–399\. May, 1860\.
[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and the geographical distribution of auroras and thunder storms—5th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679512&view=1up&seq=93)
Am. Jour. Sci. (2\), vol. 30, pp. 79–100\. July, 1860\.
[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—6th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679512&view=1up&seq=363)
(Selected from the Smithsonian papers.)
Am. Jour. Sci. (2\), vol. 30, pp. 339–361\. November, 1860\.
[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—7th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679513&view=1up&seq=85)
Am. Jour. Sci. (2\), vol. 32, pp. 71–84\. July, 1861\.
[On the great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and auroras generally—8th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679513&view=1up&seq=334)
Am. Jour. Sci. (2\), vol. 32, pp. 318–335\. September, 1861\.
[On electrical currents circulating near the earth's surface and their connection with the phenomena of the aurora polaris—9th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679515&view=1up&seq=62)
Am. Jour. Sci. (2\), vol. 34\. pp. 34–45\. July, 1862\.
(On the action of electrical currents and the motion of auroral beams.)
As part of a 2006 review[The Great Historical Geomagnetic Storm of 1859: A Modern Look](http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_tockey=%23TOC%235738%232006%23999619997%23635314%23FLA%23&_cdi=5738&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=2386405&md5=ec2cbc7919b3c9c69062345990b04609) Edited by C.R. Clauer and [G. Siscoe](/wiki/George_Siscoe "George Siscoe"); Advances in Space Research, Volume 38, Issue 2, Pages 115–388 (2006\) of the Geomagnetic Storm of 1859, M. A. Shea and D. F. Smart edited a compendium[Compendium of the eight articles on the “Carrington Event” attributed to or written by Elias Loomis in the American Journal of Science, 1859–1861](http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0273117706004480) by M.A. Shea, and D.F. Smart; Advances in Space Research, Volume 38, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 313–385 of eight articles published by Elias Loomis in the *[American Journal of Science](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Science "American Journal of Science")* from 1859 to 1861\. The ninth and final paper was omitted and not referenced. Of the eleven pages in the ninth paper, only half a page deals with the great auroral exhibition of 1859, previously reported by Loomis, while the bulk of the paper deals with auroral events predating 1859\.
In the Compendium, for the 5th article in the series, the section on thunderstorms totaling six pages, is omitted with footnotes documenting the removal by the editors. In the citation to the 5th article the page range is given as 79–94, the correct range is 79–100\.
The citations for the 3rd and 4th articles gives the page ranges as 249–265 and 386–397; the correct values are 249–266 and 386–399, but the content is complete for both articles in the Compendium.
In a November 21, 1861, paper[On the Great Magnetic Disturbance Which Extended from August 28 to September 7, 1859, as Recorded by Photography at the Kew Observatory](https://www.jstor.org/pss/108745) by Balfour Stewart, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 151, (1861\), pp. 423–430 to the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society "Royal Society") [Balfour Stewart](/wiki/Balfour_Stewart "Balfour Stewart") acknowledged the work of Professor E. Loomis.
> It is unnecessary to enter into further particulars regarding this meteor, as the description of it given by observations at places widely apart have been collected together by Professor E. Loomis, and published in a series of papers communicated to the *[American Journal of Science and Arts](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Science "American Journal of Science")*. I shall only add that, both from the European, the [American](/wiki/Americas "Americas"), and the Australian accounts, **there appear to have been two great displays**, each commencing at nearly the same absolute time, throughout the globe, —the first on the evening of 28 August, and the second on the early morning of 2 September, [Greenwich time](/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time "Greenwich Mean Time").
### Great Auroral Exhibition of 1859, Other Reports
**Reports Associated With the 28 August, 1859, Geomagnetic Storm**
[Balfour Stewart](/wiki/Balfour_Stewart "Balfour Stewart") reported that a large [magnetic storm](/wiki/Magnetic_storm "Magnetic storm") began at 22:30 GMT on the evening of August 28, 1859, as measured by self\-recording [magnetometer](/wiki/Magnetometer%23Survey_magnetometers "Magnetometer#Survey magnetometers") at the [Kew Observatory](/wiki/Kew_Observatory "Kew Observatory").
* [THE AURORA BOREALIS.; THE BRILLIANT DISPLAY ON SUNDAY NIGHT. PHENOMENA CONNECTED WITH THE EVENT.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/08/30/archives/the-aurora-borealis-the-brilliant-display-on-sunday-night-phenomena.html?sq=Aurora&scp=3&st=p)
Mr. Meriam's Observations on the Aurora—E. M. Picks Up a Piece of the Auroral Light.
The Aurora as Seen Elsewhere—Remarkable Electrical Effects.;
*The New York Times*, August 30, 1859, Tuesday; Page 1, 3087 words[THE AURORA BOREALIS.; THE BRILLIANT DISPLAY ON SUNDAY NIGHT. PHENOMENA CONNECTED WITH THE EVENT.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/08/30/archives/the-aurora-borealis-the-brilliant-display-on-sunday-night-phenomena.html?sq=Aurora&scp=3&st=p) Mr. Meriam's Observations on the Aurora—E. M. Picks Up a Piece of the Auroral Light. The Aurora as Seen Elsewhere—Remarkable Electrical Effects.; *The New York Times*, August 30, 1859, Tuesday; Page 1, 3087 words
[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times") report on 30 August, 1859, on the magnetic storm of August 28, 1859, was on page one, [above the fold](/wiki/Above_the_fold "Above the fold"), upper right corner and two full columns in length. This was a major news story for that date. The later reports on the magnetic storm and auroral displays associated with the [Carrington Solar Flare](/wiki/Richard_Christopher_Carrington%23Carrington_Solar_Flare "Richard Christopher Carrington#Carrington Solar Flare") did not enjoy the same level of coverage, even though some of the displays may have been more spectacular given the timing of the second storm close after the 28 August storm.
**Reports Associated With the [Carrington White Light Solar Flare Geomagnetic Storm](/wiki/Carrington_Event "Carrington Event")**
[Balfour Stewart](/wiki/Balfour_Stewart "Balfour Stewart") reported that the [magnetic storm](/wiki/Magnetic_storm "Magnetic storm") from the [Carrington solar flare](/wiki/Richard_Christopher_Carrington%23Carrington_Super_Flare "Richard Christopher Carrington#Carrington Super Flare") began at 05:00 GMT on the morning of September 2, 1859, as measured by the self\-recording magnetometer at the Kew Observatory. This was equivalent to approximately midnight 00:00 EST in New York City. In all areas of the United States, not obscured by clouds, viewing conditions would have been ideal while the magnetic storm was at maximum intensity. Note that some locations in the Western United States could have reported events for late in the evening of September 1, 1859\.
* [AURORA AUSTRALIS.; Magnificent Display on Friday Morning.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/09/03/archives/aurora-australis-magnificent-display-on-friday-morning-mr-merlams.html?sq=Aurora&scp=2&st=p)
Mr. Merlam's Opinions on the Bareul Light—One of his Friends Finds a Place of the Aurora on his Lion\-corp.
The Aurural Display in Boston.;
*The New York Times*, September 3, 1859, Saturday; Page 4, 1150 words[AURORA AUSTRALIS.; Magnificent Display on Friday Morning.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/09/03/archives/aurora-australis-magnificent-display-on-friday-morning-mr-merlams.html?sq=Aurora&scp=2&st=p) Mr. Merlam's Opinions on the Bareul Light—One of his Friends Finds a Place of the Aurora on his Lion\-corp. The Aurural Display in Boston.; *The New York Times*, September 3, 1859, Saturday; Page 4, 1150 words
*The New York Times* report from [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") is of particular note because it may provide enough information to calculate the minimum [illumination](/wiki/Lighting "Lighting") generated by the [aurora](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)").
> **The Auroral Display in Boston**{{cite journal\|doi\=10\.1016/j.asr.2005\.12\.021 \| bibcode\=2006AdSpR..38\..145G \| volume\=38 \| issue\=2 \| title\=Eyewitness reports of the great auroral storm of 1859 \| year\=2006 \| journal\=Advances in Space Research \| pages\=145–154 \| last1 \= Green \| first1 \= James L.\| hdl\=2060/20050210157 \| hdl\-access\=free }}[The Journal of Education for Upper Canada; The Late Aurora Borealis and the Telegraph](https://books.google.com/books?id=xesBAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA132) 1858, Page 132, Ryerson, et al.
>
> Boston, Friday, Sept. 2
>
>
> There was another display on the [aurora](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)") last night, so brilliant that at about one o'clock ordinary print could be read by the light. The effect continued through this forenoon considerably affecting the working of the telegraph lines. The [auroral](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)") currents from east to west were so regular that the operators on the Eastern lines were able to hold communication and transmit messages over the line between this [city](/wiki/Boston "Boston") and [Portland](/wiki/Portland%2C_Connecticut "Portland, Connecticut"), the usual batteries being discontinued from the wire. The same effects were experienced upon the [Cape Cod](/wiki/Cape_Cod "Cape Cod") and other lines.
One o'clock [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") time on Friday September 2, would have been 6:00 GMT and the self\-recording magnetograph at the Kew Observatory was recording the geomagnetic storm, which was then one hour old, at its full intensity.
* [AURORAL PHENOMENA.; Remarkable Effect of the Aurora Upon the Telegraph Wires.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/09/05/archives/auroral-phenomena-remarkable-effect-of-the-aurora-upon-the.html?sq=Aurora&scp=1&st=p);
*The New York Times*, September 5, 1859, Monday; Page 2, 1683 words[AURORAL PHENOMENA.; Remarkable Effect of the Aurora Upon the Telegraph Wires.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/09/05/archives/auroral-phenomena-remarkable-effect-of-the-aurora-upon-the.html?sq=Aurora&scp=1&st=p); *The New York Times*, September 5, 1859, Monday; Page 2, 1683 words
**Reports Associated With Both Geomagnetic Storms**
* [History, Theory, and Practice of the Electric Telegraph](https://books.google.com/books?id=NK83AAAAMAAJ)
By George Bartlett Prescott (1860\); 468 pages[History, Theory, and Practice of the Electric Telegraph](https://books.google.com/books?id=NK83AAAAMAAJ) By George Bartlett Prescott (1860\); 468 pages
In George Bartlett Prescott's book, [Chapter XIX on Terrestrial Magnetism (pp. 305–332\)](https://books.google.com/books?id=NK83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA305) contains multiple reports of [Auroral](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 "Aurora (astronomy)") events disrupting telegraph communications, the times for which are in good agreement with the times reports by [Balfour Stewart](/wiki/Balfour_Stewart "Balfour Stewart") for the two [magnetic storms](/wiki/Magnetic_storm "Magnetic storm") between August 28 and September 2, 1859\. Detailed descriptions of the events and stations involved are provided in the narratives.
* [The Telegraph in America: Its Founders, Promoters and Noted Men](https://books.google.com/books?id=YewOAAAAYAAJ)
By James D. Reid (1879\); 846 pages;[The Telegraph in America: Its Founders, Promoters and Noted Men](https://books.google.com/books?id=CCXxGAAACAAJ) By James D. Reid (1879\); 846 pages
* [The Telegraph in America: Its Founders, Promoters and Noted Men](https://books.google.com/books?id=SI_WAAAACAAJ)
By James D. Reid (2015\); 846 pages;
James D. Reid's book is recommended by the author of the report "The Aurora Borealis and the Telegraph.Patti Norton ["The Aurora Borealis and the Telegraph"](http://www.rainbowriderstradingpost.com/article1.html)
|
[
"Great Auroral Exhibition of 1859\n--------------------------------",
"In his memoir[Memoir Elias Loomis 1811–1889\\.](http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/eloomis.pdf) by [H. A. Newton](/wiki/Hubert_Anson_Newton \"Hubert Anson Newton\"), Read Before the [National Academy](/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences \"United States National Academy of Sciences\"), April 16, 1890 of Loomis, [Hubert Anson Newton](/wiki/Hubert_Anson_Newton \"Hubert Anson Newton\") summarized Loomis's work on the historical [Geomagnetic Storm](/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm \"Geomagnetic storm\") of 1859\\.",
"",
"> Closely connected with [terrestrial magnetism](/wiki/Terrestrial_magnetism \"Terrestrial magnetism\"), and to be considered with it, is the [Aurora Borealis](/wiki/Aurora_Borealis \"Aurora Borealis\"). In the week that covered the end of August and the beginning of September, 1859, there occurred an exceedingly brilliant display of the [Northern Lights](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\"). Believing that an exhaustive discussion of a single [aurora](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\") promised to do more for the promotion of science than an imperfect study of an indefinite number of them, Professor Loomis undertook at once to collect and to collate accounts of this display. A large number of such accounts were secured from North America, from Europe, from Asia, and from places in the [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere \"Southern Hemisphere\"); especially all the reports from the [Smithsonian](/wiki/Smithsonian \"Smithsonian\") observers and correspondents, were placed in his hands by the Secretary, [Professor Henry](/wiki/Joseph_Henry \"Joseph Henry\").",
"These observations and the discussions of them were given to the public during the following two years, in a series of nine papers in the [American Journal of Science](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Science \"American Journal of Science\").\nFew, if any, displays on record were as remarkable as was this one for brilliancy or for geographical extent. Certainly about no [aurora](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\") have there been collected so many facts. The display continued for a week. The luminous region entirely encircled the [North Pole](/wiki/North_Pole \"North Pole\") of the earth. It extended on this continent on the 2d of September as far south, as [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\"), and to an unknown distance to the north. In altitude the bases of the columns of light were about fifty miles above the earth's surface, and the streamers shot up at times to a height of five hundred miles. Thus over a broad belt on both continents this large region above the lower atmosphere was filled with masses of luminous material. A display similar to this, and possibly of equal brilliancy, was at the same time witnessed in the [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere \"Southern Hemisphere\").\nThe nine papers were mainly devoted to the statements of observers. Professor Loomis, however, went on to collect facts about other [auroras](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\"), and to make inductions from the whole of the material thus brought together. He showed that there was good reason for believing that not only was this display represented by a corresponding one in the [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere \"Southern Hemisphere\"), but that all remarkable displays in either [hemisphere](/wiki/Earth \"Earth\") are accompanied by corresponding ones in the other.\nHe showed also that all the principal phenomena of electricity were developed during the [auroral](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\") display of 1859; that light was developed in passing from one conductor to another, that heat in poor conductors, that the peculiar electric shock to the animal system, the excitement of [magnetism](/wiki/Magnetism \"Magnetism\") in irons, the deflection of the [magnetic](/wiki/Magnetic \"Magnetic\") needle, the decomposition of chemical solutions, each and all were produced during the auroral storm, and evidently by its agency. There were also in [America](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") effects upon the [telegraph](/wiki/Telegraph \"Telegraph\") that were entirely consistent with the assumption previously made by [Walker](/wiki/Charles_Vincent_Walker \"Charles Vincent Walker\") for England, that currents of electricity moved from northeast to southwest across the country. From the observations of the motion of auroral beams, he showed that they also moved from north\\-northeast to south\\-southwest, there being thus a general correspondence in motion between the electrical currents and the motion of the beams.",
"The following are the nine papers published by Professor Loomis pertaining to the [Geomagnetic Storm](/wiki/Geomagnetic_storm \"Geomagnetic storm\") of 1859\\.",
"> [The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September, 1859\\.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679510&view=1up&seq=403) \n> \n> Am. Jour. Sci. (2\\), vol. 28, pp. 385–408\\. November, 1859\\.",
"",
"[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—2nd article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679511&view=1up&seq=112)",
"Am. Jour. Sci. (2\\), vol. 29, pp. 92–97\\. January, 1860\\.\n[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—3rd article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679511&view=1up&seq=269)",
"Am. Jour. Sci. (2\\), vol. 29, pp. 249–266\\. February, 1860\\.\n[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—4th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679511&view=1up&seq=406)",
"Am. Jour. Sci. (2\\), vol. 29, pp. 386–399\\. May, 1860\\.\n[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and the geographical distribution of auroras and thunder storms—5th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679512&view=1up&seq=93)",
"Am. Jour. Sci. (2\\), vol. 30, pp. 79–100\\. July, 1860\\.\n[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—6th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679512&view=1up&seq=363)",
"(Selected from the Smithsonian papers.)",
"Am. Jour. Sci. (2\\), vol. 30, pp. 339–361\\. November, 1860\\.\n[The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—7th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679513&view=1up&seq=85)",
"Am. Jour. Sci. (2\\), vol. 32, pp. 71–84\\. July, 1861\\.\n[On the great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and auroras generally—8th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679513&view=1up&seq=334)",
"Am. Jour. Sci. (2\\), vol. 32, pp. 318–335\\. September, 1861\\.\n[On electrical currents circulating near the earth's surface and their connection with the phenomena of the aurora polaris—9th article.](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001679515&view=1up&seq=62)",
"Am. Jour. Sci. (2\\), vol. 34\\. pp. 34–45\\. July, 1862\\.",
"(On the action of electrical currents and the motion of auroral beams.)",
"As part of a 2006 review[The Great Historical Geomagnetic Storm of 1859: A Modern Look](http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_tockey=%23TOC%235738%232006%23999619997%23635314%23FLA%23&_cdi=5738&_pubType=J&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=2386405&md5=ec2cbc7919b3c9c69062345990b04609) Edited by C.R. Clauer and [G. Siscoe](/wiki/George_Siscoe \"George Siscoe\"); Advances in Space Research, Volume 38, Issue 2, Pages 115–388 (2006\\) of the Geomagnetic Storm of 1859, M. A. Shea and D. F. Smart edited a compendium[Compendium of the eight articles on the “Carrington Event” attributed to or written by Elias Loomis in the American Journal of Science, 1859–1861](http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0273117706004480) by M.A. Shea, and D.F. Smart; Advances in Space Research, Volume 38, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 313–385 of eight articles published by Elias Loomis in the *[American Journal of Science](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Science \"American Journal of Science\")* from 1859 to 1861\\. The ninth and final paper was omitted and not referenced. Of the eleven pages in the ninth paper, only half a page deals with the great auroral exhibition of 1859, previously reported by Loomis, while the bulk of the paper deals with auroral events predating 1859\\.",
"In the Compendium, for the 5th article in the series, the section on thunderstorms totaling six pages, is omitted with footnotes documenting the removal by the editors. In the citation to the 5th article the page range is given as 79–94, the correct range is 79–100\\.",
"The citations for the 3rd and 4th articles gives the page ranges as 249–265 and 386–397; the correct values are 249–266 and 386–399, but the content is complete for both articles in the Compendium.",
"In a November 21, 1861, paper[On the Great Magnetic Disturbance Which Extended from August 28 to September 7, 1859, as Recorded by Photography at the Kew Observatory](https://www.jstor.org/pss/108745) by Balfour Stewart, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 151, (1861\\), pp. 423–430 to the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society \"Royal Society\") [Balfour Stewart](/wiki/Balfour_Stewart \"Balfour Stewart\") acknowledged the work of Professor E. Loomis.",
"> It is unnecessary to enter into further particulars regarding this meteor, as the description of it given by observations at places widely apart have been collected together by Professor E. Loomis, and published in a series of papers communicated to the *[American Journal of Science and Arts](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Science \"American Journal of Science\")*. I shall only add that, both from the European, the [American](/wiki/Americas \"Americas\"), and the Australian accounts, **there appear to have been two great displays**, each commencing at nearly the same absolute time, throughout the globe, —the first on the evening of 28 August, and the second on the early morning of 2 September, [Greenwich time](/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time \"Greenwich Mean Time\").",
"",
"### Great Auroral Exhibition of 1859, Other Reports",
"**Reports Associated With the 28 August, 1859, Geomagnetic Storm**",
"[Balfour Stewart](/wiki/Balfour_Stewart \"Balfour Stewart\") reported that a large [magnetic storm](/wiki/Magnetic_storm \"Magnetic storm\") began at 22:30 GMT on the evening of August 28, 1859, as measured by self\\-recording [magnetometer](/wiki/Magnetometer%23Survey_magnetometers \"Magnetometer#Survey magnetometers\") at the [Kew Observatory](/wiki/Kew_Observatory \"Kew Observatory\"). \n* [THE AURORA BOREALIS.; THE BRILLIANT DISPLAY ON SUNDAY NIGHT. PHENOMENA CONNECTED WITH THE EVENT.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/08/30/archives/the-aurora-borealis-the-brilliant-display-on-sunday-night-phenomena.html?sq=Aurora&scp=3&st=p) \nMr. Meriam's Observations on the Aurora—E. M. Picks Up a Piece of the Auroral Light. \nThe Aurora as Seen Elsewhere—Remarkable Electrical Effects.; \n*The New York Times*, August 30, 1859, Tuesday; Page 1, 3087 words[THE AURORA BOREALIS.; THE BRILLIANT DISPLAY ON SUNDAY NIGHT. PHENOMENA CONNECTED WITH THE EVENT.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/08/30/archives/the-aurora-borealis-the-brilliant-display-on-sunday-night-phenomena.html?sq=Aurora&scp=3&st=p) Mr. Meriam's Observations on the Aurora—E. M. Picks Up a Piece of the Auroral Light. The Aurora as Seen Elsewhere—Remarkable Electrical Effects.; *The New York Times*, August 30, 1859, Tuesday; Page 1, 3087 words",
"[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\") report on 30 August, 1859, on the magnetic storm of August 28, 1859, was on page one, [above the fold](/wiki/Above_the_fold \"Above the fold\"), upper right corner and two full columns in length. This was a major news story for that date. The later reports on the magnetic storm and auroral displays associated with the [Carrington Solar Flare](/wiki/Richard_Christopher_Carrington%23Carrington_Solar_Flare \"Richard Christopher Carrington#Carrington Solar Flare\") did not enjoy the same level of coverage, even though some of the displays may have been more spectacular given the timing of the second storm close after the 28 August storm.",
"**Reports Associated With the [Carrington White Light Solar Flare Geomagnetic Storm](/wiki/Carrington_Event \"Carrington Event\")**",
"[Balfour Stewart](/wiki/Balfour_Stewart \"Balfour Stewart\") reported that the [magnetic storm](/wiki/Magnetic_storm \"Magnetic storm\") from the [Carrington solar flare](/wiki/Richard_Christopher_Carrington%23Carrington_Super_Flare \"Richard Christopher Carrington#Carrington Super Flare\") began at 05:00 GMT on the morning of September 2, 1859, as measured by the self\\-recording magnetometer at the Kew Observatory. This was equivalent to approximately midnight 00:00 EST in New York City. In all areas of the United States, not obscured by clouds, viewing conditions would have been ideal while the magnetic storm was at maximum intensity. Note that some locations in the Western United States could have reported events for late in the evening of September 1, 1859\\.\n* [AURORA AUSTRALIS.; Magnificent Display on Friday Morning.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/09/03/archives/aurora-australis-magnificent-display-on-friday-morning-mr-merlams.html?sq=Aurora&scp=2&st=p) \nMr. Merlam's Opinions on the Bareul Light—One of his Friends Finds a Place of the Aurora on his Lion\\-corp. \nThe Aurural Display in Boston.; \n*The New York Times*, September 3, 1859, Saturday; Page 4, 1150 words[AURORA AUSTRALIS.; Magnificent Display on Friday Morning.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/09/03/archives/aurora-australis-magnificent-display-on-friday-morning-mr-merlams.html?sq=Aurora&scp=2&st=p) Mr. Merlam's Opinions on the Bareul Light—One of his Friends Finds a Place of the Aurora on his Lion\\-corp. The Aurural Display in Boston.; *The New York Times*, September 3, 1859, Saturday; Page 4, 1150 words",
"*The New York Times* report from [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") is of particular note because it may provide enough information to calculate the minimum [illumination](/wiki/Lighting \"Lighting\") generated by the [aurora](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\").",
"",
"> **The Auroral Display in Boston**{{cite journal\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.asr.2005\\.12\\.021 \\| bibcode\\=2006AdSpR..38\\..145G \\| volume\\=38 \\| issue\\=2 \\| title\\=Eyewitness reports of the great auroral storm of 1859 \\| year\\=2006 \\| journal\\=Advances in Space Research \\| pages\\=145–154 \\| last1 \\= Green \\| first1 \\= James L.\\| hdl\\=2060/20050210157 \\| hdl\\-access\\=free }}[The Journal of Education for Upper Canada; The Late Aurora Borealis and the Telegraph](https://books.google.com/books?id=xesBAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA132) 1858, Page 132, Ryerson, et al. \n> \n> Boston, Friday, Sept. 2\n> \n> \n> There was another display on the [aurora](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\") last night, so brilliant that at about one o'clock ordinary print could be read by the light. The effect continued through this forenoon considerably affecting the working of the telegraph lines. The [auroral](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\") currents from east to west were so regular that the operators on the Eastern lines were able to hold communication and transmit messages over the line between this [city](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") and [Portland](/wiki/Portland%2C_Connecticut \"Portland, Connecticut\"), the usual batteries being discontinued from the wire. The same effects were experienced upon the [Cape Cod](/wiki/Cape_Cod \"Cape Cod\") and other lines.",
"One o'clock [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") time on Friday September 2, would have been 6:00 GMT and the self\\-recording magnetograph at the Kew Observatory was recording the geomagnetic storm, which was then one hour old, at its full intensity.\n* [AURORAL PHENOMENA.; Remarkable Effect of the Aurora Upon the Telegraph Wires.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/09/05/archives/auroral-phenomena-remarkable-effect-of-the-aurora-upon-the.html?sq=Aurora&scp=1&st=p); \n*The New York Times*, September 5, 1859, Monday; Page 2, 1683 words[AURORAL PHENOMENA.; Remarkable Effect of the Aurora Upon the Telegraph Wires.](https://www.nytimes.com/1859/09/05/archives/auroral-phenomena-remarkable-effect-of-the-aurora-upon-the.html?sq=Aurora&scp=1&st=p); *The New York Times*, September 5, 1859, Monday; Page 2, 1683 words",
"**Reports Associated With Both Geomagnetic Storms**\n* [History, Theory, and Practice of the Electric Telegraph](https://books.google.com/books?id=NK83AAAAMAAJ) \nBy George Bartlett Prescott (1860\\); 468 pages[History, Theory, and Practice of the Electric Telegraph](https://books.google.com/books?id=NK83AAAAMAAJ) By George Bartlett Prescott (1860\\); 468 pages",
"In George Bartlett Prescott's book, [Chapter XIX on Terrestrial Magnetism (pp. 305–332\\)](https://books.google.com/books?id=NK83AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA305) contains multiple reports of [Auroral](/wiki/Aurora_%28astronomy%29 \"Aurora (astronomy)\") events disrupting telegraph communications, the times for which are in good agreement with the times reports by [Balfour Stewart](/wiki/Balfour_Stewart \"Balfour Stewart\") for the two [magnetic storms](/wiki/Magnetic_storm \"Magnetic storm\") between August 28 and September 2, 1859\\. Detailed descriptions of the events and stations involved are provided in the narratives.\n* [The Telegraph in America: Its Founders, Promoters and Noted Men](https://books.google.com/books?id=YewOAAAAYAAJ) \nBy James D. Reid (1879\\); 846 pages;[The Telegraph in America: Its Founders, Promoters and Noted Men](https://books.google.com/books?id=CCXxGAAACAAJ) By James D. Reid (1879\\); 846 pages\n* [The Telegraph in America: Its Founders, Promoters and Noted Men](https://books.google.com/books?id=SI_WAAAACAAJ) \nBy James D. Reid (2015\\); 846 pages;",
"James D. Reid's book is recommended by the author of the report \"The Aurora Borealis and the Telegraph.Patti Norton [\"The Aurora Borealis and the Telegraph\"](http://www.rainbowriderstradingpost.com/article1.html)",
""
] |
Academic career
---------------
In 1959, Rêgo went to the [University of São Paulo](/wiki/University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo "University of São Paulo") to pursue a doctorate in General Botany, returning in 1965 to São Luís.
The researcher achieved the title of associate professor in General Botany after three years at the University of São Paulo (USP), as a [Capes](/wiki/Coordena%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_Aperfeicoamento_de_Pessoal_de_N%C3%ADvel_Superior "Coordenação de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior") scholarship holder, having completed her thesis "Contribution to the morphological and anatomical recognition of Tagetes minuta L" in 1977, which was defended at the [Federal University of Maranhão (UFMA)](/wiki/Federal_University_of_Maranh%C3%A3o "Federal University of Maranhão"), becoming a professor in the university's Department of [Pharmacy](/wiki/Pharmacy "Pharmacy").
Throughout her academic career, she published several books, reports and articles, such as: "50 medicinal teas from the flora of Maranhão" and "Phytogeography of medicinal plants in Maranhão", "Survey of the flora of the Baixada Maranhão" (1977\); "Analysis of the fundamental characteristics of the Pre\-Amazon" (1980\); "Medicinal plants of the Maranhão flora" in UFMA research notebooks, 1985 and in "Acta Amazônica" (1977\).
In January 1984, she created the "Ático SEABRA" [herbarium](/wiki/Herbarium "Herbarium") at UFMA, where 10,800 species that characterize the flora of the state of Maranhão were catalogued, with support from [CNPq](/wiki/National_Council_for_Scientific_and_Technological_Development "National Council for Scientific and Technological Development") (National Council for Scientific and Technological Development). tinctures, ointments and syrups.{{cite web \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-06 \|date\=2007\-09\-03 \|first\=© Sesc \|language\=pt\-br \|last\=SP \|title\=Sesc SP \|url\=https://portal.sescsp.org.br/online/artigo/4709\_a\+ciencia\+milenar\+de\+terezinha\+rego \|website\=portal.sescsp.org.br}}
Rêgo also specialized in phytotherapy at the [University of Havana](/wiki/University_of_Havana "University of Havana"), in Cuba, in addition to having trained in the Emergency Toxicological Chemistry Course, 1970; Biology Course, 1970; Update Course on Medication Analysis, at the "I Maranhão Congress of Pharmacists", 1974; Botanical Systematics Course, 1976; Plant Anatomy Course, 1982, in Brasília.
Rêgo retired from the university in 1991, but continued working as an advisor between 1999 and 2021, continuing with research, conferences, classes, and activities at the "Ático Seabra" Herbarium.
|
[
"Academic career\n---------------",
"In 1959, Rêgo went to the [University of São Paulo](/wiki/University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"University of São Paulo\") to pursue a doctorate in General Botany, returning in 1965 to São Luís.",
"The researcher achieved the title of associate professor in General Botany after three years at the University of São Paulo (USP), as a [Capes](/wiki/Coordena%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_Aperfeicoamento_de_Pessoal_de_N%C3%ADvel_Superior \"Coordenação de Aperfeicoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior\") scholarship holder, having completed her thesis \"Contribution to the morphological and anatomical recognition of Tagetes minuta L\" in 1977, which was defended at the [Federal University of Maranhão (UFMA)](/wiki/Federal_University_of_Maranh%C3%A3o \"Federal University of Maranhão\"), becoming a professor in the university's Department of [Pharmacy](/wiki/Pharmacy \"Pharmacy\").",
"Throughout her academic career, she published several books, reports and articles, such as: \"50 medicinal teas from the flora of Maranhão\" and \"Phytogeography of medicinal plants in Maranhão\", \"Survey of the flora of the Baixada Maranhão\" (1977\\); \"Analysis of the fundamental characteristics of the Pre\\-Amazon\" (1980\\); \"Medicinal plants of the Maranhão flora\" in UFMA research notebooks, 1985 and in \"Acta Amazônica\" (1977\\).",
"In January 1984, she created the \"Ático SEABRA\" [herbarium](/wiki/Herbarium \"Herbarium\") at UFMA, where 10,800 species that characterize the flora of the state of Maranhão were catalogued, with support from [CNPq](/wiki/National_Council_for_Scientific_and_Technological_Development \"National Council for Scientific and Technological Development\") (National Council for Scientific and Technological Development). tinctures, ointments and syrups.{{cite web \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-06 \\|date\\=2007\\-09\\-03 \\|first\\=© Sesc \\|language\\=pt\\-br \\|last\\=SP \\|title\\=Sesc SP \\|url\\=https://portal.sescsp.org.br/online/artigo/4709\\_a\\+ciencia\\+milenar\\+de\\+terezinha\\+rego \\|website\\=portal.sescsp.org.br}}",
"Rêgo also specialized in phytotherapy at the [University of Havana](/wiki/University_of_Havana \"University of Havana\"), in Cuba, in addition to having trained in the Emergency Toxicological Chemistry Course, 1970; Biology Course, 1970; Update Course on Medication Analysis, at the \"I Maranhão Congress of Pharmacists\", 1974; Botanical Systematics Course, 1976; Plant Anatomy Course, 1982, in Brasília.",
"Rêgo retired from the university in 1991, but continued working as an advisor between 1999 and 2021, continuing with research, conferences, classes, and activities at the \"Ático Seabra\" Herbarium.",
""
] |
Personal life and death
-----------------------
Rêgo was married for more than 56 years to the dental surgeon from Piauí Artur Nunes do Rêgo, with whom she had two daughters, Tânia Maria Silva Rêgo, teacher and doctoral candidate in music, and Telma Maria Silva Rêgo, professor of philosophy.
After contracting pneumonia, Rêgo died from respiratory failure in São Luís on 3 May 2024, at the age of 91\. She was admitted in serious condition to a private hospital in the capital a week prior after falling and hitting her head.{{cite web \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-06 \|date\=2024\-05\-03 \|language\=pt\-br \|title\=Terezinha Rêgo, referência em fitoterapia, morre aos 91 anos, em São Luís \|url\=https://g1\.globo.com/ma/maranhao/noticia/2024/05/03/terezinha\-rego\-referencia\-em\-fitoterapia\-morre\-aos\-91\-anos\-em\-sao\-luis.ghtml \|website\=G1}}
### Recognition and legacy
Among Rêgo's main works, three herbal medicines are Essência de Cabacinha, Urucum Syrup and Assa\-Peixe Tincture. Cabacinha Essence is the result of 20 years of research, being used to treat sinusitis, rhinitis and adenoid problems through the infusion of [cabacinha](/wiki/Luffa_operculata "Luffa operculata") fruit in alcohol. Rêgo also did research on [chanana](/wiki/Tunera_guynensis "Tunera guynensis"), a yellow flower that has an energetic substance that can be used to improve the immune system, with its component being used in the treatment of cancer at the Aldenora Bello Hospital, in São Luís.
From 2001 onwards, Chinese universities began to exchange with the Federal University of Maranhão (UFMA), with annatto syrup being used to combat Asian pneumonia (SARS) and was especially useful during the outbreak of the disease in 2003\. Much of Brazil's [annatto](/wiki/Annatto "Annatto") production is exported to China, turning into syrup. Rêgo was honored by the Brazil\-China Chamber of Industry and Commerce for sending three medicines to combat the disease, in addition to annatto syrup, used to treat pneumonia, and assa\-peixe tincture, a herb originating from Baixada Maranhense, to alleviate the effects of diabetes; and gourd essence, for cases of nasal congestion.{{cite web \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-06 \|title\=Terezinha Rego é homenageada pela Câmara de Indústria e Comércio Brasil\-China \|url\=https://portais.ufma.br/PortalUfma/paginas/noticias/noticia.jsf?id\=357 \|website\=portais.ufma.br}}
In the 1990s, she was elected, in Cuba, representative of Ethnobotany in Latin America, from 1990 to 1994\.
In 1983, her work was awarded an award at the Ethnobotany Congress in Córdoba, Spain, for her research with the [Canela indigenous people](/wiki/Canela_dialect "Canela dialect"), after spending several days in the village in the late 1970s, selecting and classifying 75 plants that were used for medicinal purposes. The work was published by the Brazilian Botanical Society.
In 2019, a special session was held in honor of the [Federal Senate of Brazil](/wiki/Federal_Senate_%28Brazil%29 "Federal Senate (Brazil)") to the professor for the health of the needy population and the training of new pharmacists.{{cite web \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-06 \|language\=pt\-br \|title\=Professora e fitoterapeuta Terezinha Rêgo é homenageada no Senado \|url\=https://www12\.senado.leg.br/noticias/materias/2019/09/23/professora\-e\-fitoterapeuta\-terezinha\-rego\-e\-homenageada\-no\-senado \|website\=Senado Federal}}
The professor was a founding member of the Maranhão Academy of Sciences, coordinated the Maranhão Biotechnology Center (MAR\-BIO) and phytotherapy projects in needy communities in Maranhão through the state Farmácia Viva program, which has 32 gardens implemented in state agencies, institutions teaching facilities, schools, quilombola communities and terreiros.
|
[
"Personal life and death\n-----------------------",
"Rêgo was married for more than 56 years to the dental surgeon from Piauí Artur Nunes do Rêgo, with whom she had two daughters, Tânia Maria Silva Rêgo, teacher and doctoral candidate in music, and Telma Maria Silva Rêgo, professor of philosophy.",
"After contracting pneumonia, Rêgo died from respiratory failure in São Luís on 3 May 2024, at the age of 91\\. She was admitted in serious condition to a private hospital in the capital a week prior after falling and hitting her head.{{cite web \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-06 \\|date\\=2024\\-05\\-03 \\|language\\=pt\\-br \\|title\\=Terezinha Rêgo, referência em fitoterapia, morre aos 91 anos, em São Luís \\|url\\=https://g1\\.globo.com/ma/maranhao/noticia/2024/05/03/terezinha\\-rego\\-referencia\\-em\\-fitoterapia\\-morre\\-aos\\-91\\-anos\\-em\\-sao\\-luis.ghtml \\|website\\=G1}}",
"### Recognition and legacy",
"Among Rêgo's main works, three herbal medicines are Essência de Cabacinha, Urucum Syrup and Assa\\-Peixe Tincture. Cabacinha Essence is the result of 20 years of research, being used to treat sinusitis, rhinitis and adenoid problems through the infusion of [cabacinha](/wiki/Luffa_operculata \"Luffa operculata\") fruit in alcohol. Rêgo also did research on [chanana](/wiki/Tunera_guynensis \"Tunera guynensis\"), a yellow flower that has an energetic substance that can be used to improve the immune system, with its component being used in the treatment of cancer at the Aldenora Bello Hospital, in São Luís.",
"From 2001 onwards, Chinese universities began to exchange with the Federal University of Maranhão (UFMA), with annatto syrup being used to combat Asian pneumonia (SARS) and was especially useful during the outbreak of the disease in 2003\\. Much of Brazil's [annatto](/wiki/Annatto \"Annatto\") production is exported to China, turning into syrup. Rêgo was honored by the Brazil\\-China Chamber of Industry and Commerce for sending three medicines to combat the disease, in addition to annatto syrup, used to treat pneumonia, and assa\\-peixe tincture, a herb originating from Baixada Maranhense, to alleviate the effects of diabetes; and gourd essence, for cases of nasal congestion.{{cite web \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-06 \\|title\\=Terezinha Rego é homenageada pela Câmara de Indústria e Comércio Brasil\\-China \\|url\\=https://portais.ufma.br/PortalUfma/paginas/noticias/noticia.jsf?id\\=357 \\|website\\=portais.ufma.br}}",
"In the 1990s, she was elected, in Cuba, representative of Ethnobotany in Latin America, from 1990 to 1994\\.",
"In 1983, her work was awarded an award at the Ethnobotany Congress in Córdoba, Spain, for her research with the [Canela indigenous people](/wiki/Canela_dialect \"Canela dialect\"), after spending several days in the village in the late 1970s, selecting and classifying 75 plants that were used for medicinal purposes. The work was published by the Brazilian Botanical Society.",
"In 2019, a special session was held in honor of the [Federal Senate of Brazil](/wiki/Federal_Senate_%28Brazil%29 \"Federal Senate (Brazil)\") to the professor for the health of the needy population and the training of new pharmacists.{{cite web \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-06 \\|language\\=pt\\-br \\|title\\=Professora e fitoterapeuta Terezinha Rêgo é homenageada no Senado \\|url\\=https://www12\\.senado.leg.br/noticias/materias/2019/09/23/professora\\-e\\-fitoterapeuta\\-terezinha\\-rego\\-e\\-homenageada\\-no\\-senado \\|website\\=Senado Federal}}",
"The professor was a founding member of the Maranhão Academy of Sciences, coordinated the Maranhão Biotechnology Center (MAR\\-BIO) and phytotherapy projects in needy communities in Maranhão through the state Farmácia Viva program, which has 32 gardens implemented in state agencies, institutions teaching facilities, schools, quilombola communities and terreiros.",
""
] |
### 1981 series
#### Plate number design
The 1981 design was the most widely used plate number design, in production from 1981 to 2014\. LTO issued the numbering format **LLL\-DDD** for automobile vehicles, and **LL\-DDDD** and **DDDD\-LL** for motorcycles. Color\-coded year stickers appeared in 1982, based on the license plate's color scheme. Stickers for vehicle classification appeared in the same year.
#### Registration area prefix
The first letter in the 1981 series of license plates represents the prefix, which denotes the following region where the vehicle was registered. The letter **S** is used to indicate a government\-owned vehicle.
| Prefix | Region |
| --- | --- |
| **A** | Ilocos Region and Cordillera Administrative Region |
| **B** | Cagayan Valley |
| **C** | Central Luzon |
| **D** | Calabarzon and Mimaropa |
| **E** | Bicol Region |
| **F** | Western Visayas |
| **G** | Central Visayas |
| **H** | Eastern Visayas |
| **J** | Zamboanga Peninsula and Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao |
| **K** | Northern Mindanao |
| **L** | Davao Region and Caraga |
| **M** | Soccsksargen |
| **N** | National Capital Region |
| **P** |
| **R** | Central Luzon |
| **T** | National Capital Region |
| **U** |
| **V** | Calabarzon and Mimaropa |
| **W** | National Capital Region |
| **X** |
| **Y** | Central Visayas |
| **Z** | National Capital Region |
The letters **I** and **O** were not used in plates as the prefix to avoid confusion with the numbers **1** and **0**. In 2009, they are displayed either in the middle or end, which is exclusively for private vehicles.
The letter **Q** was also used on regular plate circulation for motorcycles in public use. In 2009, it was used as a middle or last letter for NCR plates, while it was used as a last letter for Central Visayas plates.
#### Vehicle classification by second letter
The second letter on the number plate classifies whether the vehicle is a wheeled trailer or an automobile. It is also used to classify whether the vehicle is private or public use. Letter **U** in the second letter represents a privately used trailer, while **Z** represents a publicly used trailer. Letters **V**, **W**, **X** and **Y** were used to indicate public utility vehicles. On the motorcycle license plates, **U** and **Z** represent private use for three\-wheeled motorcycles, while **V**, **W**, **X** and **Y** represent public use in all types of motorcycles.
#### Vehicle classification by paint scheme
* **Green on White:** The most common type of registration plate, for privately owned vehicles. White background replaced by [Rizal Monument](/wiki/Rizal_Monument "Rizal Monument") in 2002 for automobiles.
* **Black on Yellow:** Commercial vehicle or public utility vehicles
* **Red on White:** Government\-owned vehicles. Color white replaced by [Rizal Monument](/wiki/Rizal_Monument "Rizal Monument") in 2003 for automobiles.
* **Blue on White:** Vehicles in Diplomatic Use and Other Exempted Vehicles. Color white replaced by [Rizal Monument](/wiki/Rizal_Monument "Rizal Monument") placed in left side in 2002 for automobiles.
#### Inscriptions
* **PILIPINAS** ("Philippines", the most common inscription, in production 1981–1995, 2001–2003 for private and government vehicles, 2001–2014 for commercial and public utility vehicles)
* **[PHILIPPINES 2000](/wiki/Philippines_2000 "Philippines 2000")** (1995–2000\)
* **ANGAT PINOY 2004** ("Rising Filipino 2004", in production 2000–2001\)
* **PILIPINAS \- PERLAS NG SILANGAN** ("Pearl of the Orient", in production 2002\)
* **MATATAG NA REPUBLIKA** ("Strong Republic", in production 2003 – April 12, 2014, for private, tourist and government vehicles)
* **MC** (used for private motorcycles, placed in top left)
* **TC** (used for motorcycles and tricycles in public use or for\-hire, placed in top left)
|
[
"### 1981 series",
"#### Plate number design",
"The 1981 design was the most widely used plate number design, in production from 1981 to 2014\\. LTO issued the numbering format **LLL\\-DDD** for automobile vehicles, and **LL\\-DDDD** and **DDDD\\-LL** for motorcycles. Color\\-coded year stickers appeared in 1982, based on the license plate's color scheme. Stickers for vehicle classification appeared in the same year.",
"#### Registration area prefix",
"The first letter in the 1981 series of license plates represents the prefix, which denotes the following region where the vehicle was registered. The letter **S** is used to indicate a government\\-owned vehicle.",
"| Prefix | Region |\n| --- | --- |\n| **A** | Ilocos Region and Cordillera Administrative Region |\n| **B** | Cagayan Valley |\n| **C** | Central Luzon |\n| **D** | Calabarzon and Mimaropa |\n| **E** | Bicol Region |\n| **F** | Western Visayas |\n| **G** | Central Visayas |\n| **H** | Eastern Visayas |\n| **J** | Zamboanga Peninsula and Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao |\n| **K** | Northern Mindanao |\n| **L** | Davao Region and Caraga |\n| **M** | Soccsksargen |\n| **N** | National Capital Region |\n| **P** |\n| **R** | Central Luzon |\n| **T** | National Capital Region |\n| **U** |\n| **V** | Calabarzon and Mimaropa |\n| **W** | National Capital Region |\n| **X** |\n| **Y** | Central Visayas |\n| **Z** | National Capital Region |",
"The letters **I** and **O** were not used in plates as the prefix to avoid confusion with the numbers **1** and **0**. In 2009, they are displayed either in the middle or end, which is exclusively for private vehicles.",
"The letter **Q** was also used on regular plate circulation for motorcycles in public use. In 2009, it was used as a middle or last letter for NCR plates, while it was used as a last letter for Central Visayas plates.",
"#### Vehicle classification by second letter",
"The second letter on the number plate classifies whether the vehicle is a wheeled trailer or an automobile. It is also used to classify whether the vehicle is private or public use. Letter **U** in the second letter represents a privately used trailer, while **Z** represents a publicly used trailer. Letters **V**, **W**, **X** and **Y** were used to indicate public utility vehicles. On the motorcycle license plates, **U** and **Z** represent private use for three\\-wheeled motorcycles, while **V**, **W**, **X** and **Y** represent public use in all types of motorcycles.",
"#### Vehicle classification by paint scheme",
"* **Green on White:** The most common type of registration plate, for privately owned vehicles. White background replaced by [Rizal Monument](/wiki/Rizal_Monument \"Rizal Monument\") in 2002 for automobiles.\n* **Black on Yellow:** Commercial vehicle or public utility vehicles\n* **Red on White:** Government\\-owned vehicles. Color white replaced by [Rizal Monument](/wiki/Rizal_Monument \"Rizal Monument\") in 2003 for automobiles.\n* **Blue on White:** Vehicles in Diplomatic Use and Other Exempted Vehicles. Color white replaced by [Rizal Monument](/wiki/Rizal_Monument \"Rizal Monument\") placed in left side in 2002 for automobiles.",
"#### Inscriptions",
"* **PILIPINAS** (\"Philippines\", the most common inscription, in production 1981–1995, 2001–2003 for private and government vehicles, 2001–2014 for commercial and public utility vehicles)\n* **[PHILIPPINES 2000](/wiki/Philippines_2000 \"Philippines 2000\")** (1995–2000\\)\n* **ANGAT PINOY 2004** (\"Rising Filipino 2004\", in production 2000–2001\\)\n* **PILIPINAS \\- PERLAS NG SILANGAN** (\"Pearl of the Orient\", in production 2002\\)\n* **MATATAG NA REPUBLIKA** (\"Strong Republic\", in production 2003 – April 12, 2014, for private, tourist and government vehicles)\n* **MC** (used for private motorcycles, placed in top left)\n* **TC** (used for motorcycles and tricycles in public use or for\\-hire, placed in top left)"
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1880\= 32
\|1950\= 109
\|1960\= 117
\|1970\= 132
\|1980\= 149
\|1990\= 136
\|2000\= 113
\|2010\= 223
\|2020\= 157
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=July 8, 2012}} of 2010, there were 223 people, 104 households, and 58 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|297\.3\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 121 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|161\.3\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 97\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.8% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)").
There were 104 households, of which 20\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 2\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44\.2% were non\-families. 36\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.14 and the average family size was 2\.84\.
The median age in the village was 48\.1 years. 17\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 17% were from 25 to 44; 34\.1% were from 45 to 64; and 22% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 54\.7% male and 45\.3% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 113 people, 50 households, and 31 families living in the town. The population density was {{convert\|666\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 67 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|395\.1\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 100\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)").
There were 50 households, out of which 30\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 14\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38\.0% were non\-families. 36\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.26 and the average family size was 3\.00\.
In the town the population was spread out, with 26\.5% under the age of 18, 8\.0% from 18 to 24, 16\.8% from 25 to 44, 28\.3% from 45 to 64, and 20\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 76\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 72\.9 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $19,583, and the median income for a family was $19,583\. Males had a median income of $20,313 versus $16,250 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $11,318\. There were 31\.0% of families and 30\.5% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 37\.1% of under eighteens and 17\.4% of those over 64\.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1880\\= 32\n\\|1950\\= 109\n\\|1960\\= 117\n\\|1970\\= 132\n\\|1980\\= 149\n\\|1990\\= 136\n\\|2000\\= 113\n\\|2010\\= 223\n\\|2020\\= 157\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=July 8, 2012}} of 2010, there were 223 people, 104 households, and 58 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|297\\.3\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 121 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|161\\.3\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 97\\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.8% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\").",
"There were 104 households, of which 20\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 2\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44\\.2% were non\\-families. 36\\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.14 and the average family size was 2\\.84\\.",
"The median age in the village was 48\\.1 years. 17\\.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\\.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 17% were from 25 to 44; 34\\.1% were from 45 to 64; and 22% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 54\\.7% male and 45\\.3% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 113 people, 50 households, and 31 families living in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|666\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 67 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|395\\.1\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 100\\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\").",
"There were 50 households, out of which 30\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48\\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 14\\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38\\.0% were non\\-families. 36\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.26 and the average family size was 3\\.00\\.",
"In the town the population was spread out, with 26\\.5% under the age of 18, 8\\.0% from 18 to 24, 16\\.8% from 25 to 44, 28\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 20\\.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 76\\.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 72\\.9 males.",
"The median income for a household in the town was $19,583, and the median income for a family was $19,583\\. Males had a median income of $20,313 versus $16,250 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $11,318\\. There were 31\\.0% of families and 30\\.5% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 37\\.1% of under eighteens and 17\\.4% of those over 64\\.",
""
] |
Life
----
He was educated at [Amenia](/wiki/Amenia_%28town%29%2C_New_York "Amenia (town), New York") Seminary, and graduated from [Yale College](/wiki/Yale_College "Yale College") in 1841\. Then he studied law, was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice in Poughkeepsie in 1844\.
Dean was elected as a [Democrat](/wiki/USDemocrat "USDemocrat") to the [32nd](/wiki/32nd_United_States_Congress "32nd United States Congress") and [33rd United States Congresses](/wiki/33rd_United_States_Congress "33rd United States Congress"), and served from March 4, 1851, to July 3, 1854, when he resigned.
He was appointed a justice of the [New York Supreme Court](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court "New York Supreme Court") (2nd District) on June 26, 1854, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Seward Barculo, and remained on the bench until the end of 1855, being [ex officio](/wiki/Ex_officio "Ex officio") a judge of the [New York Court of Appeals](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals "New York Court of Appeals") in 1855\. Afterwards he removed to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), and resumed the practice of law.
He was a member of the [New York State Assembly](/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly "New York State Assembly") (New York Co., 15th D.) in [1863](/wiki/86th_New_York_State_Legislature "86th New York State Legislature"), and was the Democratic candidate for Speaker in the tied assembly. Dean and the Republican candidate [Henry Sherwood](/wiki/Henry_Sherwood_%28New_York_politician%29 "Henry Sherwood (New York politician)") retired after the 78th ballot, and [Theophilus C. Callicot](/wiki/Theophilus_C._Callicot "Theophilus C. Callicot") was elected Speaker on the 92nd ballot.
### Death
He died on October 12, 1870, and was buried at the Presbyterian Cemetery in Pleasant Valley. Later he was re\-interred at the Portland Evergreen Cemetery in [Brocton, New York](/wiki/Brocton%2C_New_York "Brocton, New York").
|
[
"Life\n----",
"He was educated at [Amenia](/wiki/Amenia_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Amenia (town), New York\") Seminary, and graduated from [Yale College](/wiki/Yale_College \"Yale College\") in 1841\\. Then he studied law, was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice in Poughkeepsie in 1844\\.",
"Dean was elected as a [Democrat](/wiki/USDemocrat \"USDemocrat\") to the [32nd](/wiki/32nd_United_States_Congress \"32nd United States Congress\") and [33rd United States Congresses](/wiki/33rd_United_States_Congress \"33rd United States Congress\"), and served from March 4, 1851, to July 3, 1854, when he resigned.",
"He was appointed a justice of the [New York Supreme Court](/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court \"New York Supreme Court\") (2nd District) on June 26, 1854, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Seward Barculo, and remained on the bench until the end of 1855, being [ex officio](/wiki/Ex_officio \"Ex officio\") a judge of the [New York Court of Appeals](/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals \"New York Court of Appeals\") in 1855\\. Afterwards he removed to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), and resumed the practice of law.",
"He was a member of the [New York State Assembly](/wiki/New_York_State_Assembly \"New York State Assembly\") (New York Co., 15th D.) in [1863](/wiki/86th_New_York_State_Legislature \"86th New York State Legislature\"), and was the Democratic candidate for Speaker in the tied assembly. Dean and the Republican candidate [Henry Sherwood](/wiki/Henry_Sherwood_%28New_York_politician%29 \"Henry Sherwood (New York politician)\") retired after the 78th ballot, and [Theophilus C. Callicot](/wiki/Theophilus_C._Callicot \"Theophilus C. Callicot\") was elected Speaker on the 92nd ballot.",
"### Death",
"He died on October 12, 1870, and was buried at the Presbyterian Cemetery in Pleasant Valley. Later he was re\\-interred at the Portland Evergreen Cemetery in [Brocton, New York](/wiki/Brocton%2C_New_York \"Brocton, New York\").",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|Lionel No. 100 Electric Locomotive, 1903\-1905](/wiki/File:Lionel_No._100_Electric_Locomotive%2C_1903.jpg "Lionel No. 100 Electric Locomotive, 1903.jpg")
[thumb\|Lionel No. 7 Locomotive, 1918\-1923](/wiki/File:Lionel_No._6_Special_Locomotive%2C_1908-1909.jpg "Lionel No. 6 Special Locomotive, 1908-1909.jpg")
[thumb\|Lionel Corporation products](/wiki/File:Lionel_Corporation_Products.JPG "Lionel Corporation Products.JPG")
The original **Lionel Corporation** was founded in 1900 by [Joshua Lionel Cowen](/wiki/Joshua_Lionel_Cowen "Joshua Lionel Cowen") and Harry C. Grant in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City").[Corporate Snapshot](http://www.lionel.com/CentralStation/LionelPastAndPresent/CorpSnapShot.cfm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609211616/http://www.lionel.com/CentralStation/LionelPastAndPresent/CorpSnapShot.cfm \|date\=2009\-06\-09 }} The company's devotees disagree over the date of incorporation: the official paperwork is dated September 5, but the paperwork was not filed until September 22, more than two weeks later. Initially, the company specialized in electrical novelties, such as fans and lighting devices.["Lionel's Very First Catalog Discovered!!"](http://www.train99.com/howto/finds/finds5.html)
### Pre\-World War II era (1900–1942\)
Lionel's first train, the Electric Express, was long thought by historians to have been intended for use as a storefront display, rather than for sale to consumers. Delivered in December 1900, it operated on a brass track and was powered by a battery and a motor that Cowen had intended to use for an electric fan. Cowen hoped the public's fascination with railroads and electricity would draw attention to his other goods for sale. Instead, the public approached store owners about buying trains, prompting Lionel to begin making toy trains for the general public. Lionel sold 12 examples of the Electric Express.Stephan, Elizabeth A. *O'Brien's Collecting Toy Trains, 5th Ed.*, Krause Publications (2006\), Page 181\. {{ISBN\|0\-87341\-769\-0}}
More recently, *Greenberg's Guide to Lionel Trains* (2014\) concluded differently: it said that the first Lionel product was the motorized Converse Trolley, with the Electric Express being made to diversify the motor's use.
Lionel's earliest trains were larger than the sizes commonly available today, running on two\-rail tracks with the rails 2{{frac\|7\|8}} inches apart. In 1906, Lionel began offering a three\-rail track that simplified wiring of reverse loops and accessories. Its outer rails were 2{{frac\|1\|8}} inches apart, which did not match any of the existing standards that other manufacturers had been using since 1891\. Whether this was an accidental misreading of [Märklin](/wiki/M%C3%A4rklin "Märklin")'s [2 gauge](/wiki/2_gauge "2 gauge") specifications or an intentional incompatibility is unclear.
Lionel marketed the non\-standard track as "The Standard of the World," soon adopted the name in catalogs as [Standard Gauge](/wiki/Standard_Gauge_%28toy_trains%29 "Standard Gauge (toy trains)"), and trademarked the name. When other U.S. companies began using Lionel's standard, they usually called it *wide gauge*. Starting in 1915, Lionel followed most of its U.S. competitors and adopted the smaller [O gauge](/wiki/O_scale "O scale") standard for its budget\-level trains.{{cite web \|title\=The Rise and Fall and Rise Again of Lionel Trains \|url\=https://www.spikesys.com/Modelrr/lionel.html \|website\=www.spikesys.com \|access\-date\=29 October 2022}}
During the pre\-Great War era, Lionel competed with [Ives Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company "Ives Manufacturing Company"), [Boucher Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Boucher_Manufacturing_Company "Boucher Manufacturing Company"), [Dorfan](/wiki/Dorfan "Dorfan"), [Louis Marx and Company](/wiki/Louis_Marx_and_Company "Louis Marx and Company") and [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer "American Flyer").
By the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), Lionel was one of three major U.S. toy train manufacturers; the others were American Flyer and Louis Marx and Company. Cowen convinced department stores to incorporate his toy trains in their [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") displays, linking toy trains to the holiday, and making them popular Christmas presents. Lionel made its trains larger than those of its competitors, making them appear a better value. Competitors criticized the lack of realism of Lionel's trains. Cowen had been unwilling to invest in the equipment necessary for [lithography](/wiki/Lithography "Lithography"), so its early offerings were simply painted in solid colors of [enamel paint](/wiki/Enamel_paint "Enamel paint") with [brass](/wiki/Brass "Brass") detail parts. Lionel responded by targeting advertising at children, telling them its products were the most realistic toy trains. Additionally, Lionel criticized the durability of competitors' products in ads targeted at parents.
By 1922, Lionel was competing mainly against [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer "American Flyer") and [Ives Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company "Ives Manufacturing Company") . Also in 1922, Boucher bought out Voltamp and started making what was known as the "Rolls\-Royce" of standard gauge trains. In 1925, American Flyer jumped into the standard gauge market; and by 1926, Dorfan started making their own standard gauge trains as well.
[William Walthers](/wiki/Wm._K._Walthers "Wm. K. Walthers"), a large seller of model railroads, asked Cowen in 1929 why Lionel painted its trains in bright and unrealistic colors. Cowen said that the majority of trains were purchased by mothers for their children, and the bright colors attracted women buyers.Hollander, Ron. *All Aboard!*, 1981\. Page 89\. In 1929, Lionel opened a factory in [Hillside, New Jersey](/wiki/Hillside%2C_New_Jersey "Hillside, New Jersey"), where it produced trains until 1974\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nj.com/business/index.ssf/2013/12/made\_in\_jersey\_lionel\_trains\_\-\_chuggin\_around\_the\_christmas\_tree.html\|title\=Made in Jersey: Lionel trains \- chuggin' around the Christmas tree\|date\=24 December 2013}}
By the 1920s, Lionel had overcome [Ives](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company "Ives Manufacturing Company") to become *the* market leader, selling metal trains with colourful paint schemes. Lionel's fierce ad campaigning took a toll on Ives, which filed bankruptcy in 1928\. Lionel and [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer "American Flyer") bought Ives and operated it jointly until 1930, when Lionel bought Flyer's share outright, causing Lionel to operate Ives as a subsidiary until 1932\.
[left\|thumb\|Lionel advertisement from 1929](/wiki/File:Lionel_Trains_-_1929_advertisement.jpg "Lionel Trains - 1929 advertisement.jpg")
The [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") badly hurt Lionel and other toy companies. In 1930, Lionel's operating profit dropped to $82,000 \- its operating profit in 1927 had been more than $500,000 \- and in 1931, it lost $207,000\. The trains were considered a luxury item. At the height of the Depression, one of Lionel's more extravagant locomotives cost as much as a used [Ford Model T](/wiki/Ford_Model_T "Ford Model T"). In an effort to compete with companies that were willing to undercut Lionel's prices, without diluting its premium Lionel and Ives brands, Lionel introduced a line of inexpensive electric toy trains under the *Winner Toys''' or* Winner Toy Corp. *brand name, which were sold from 1930 to 1932\. The starting price for a set, which included a transformer, was $3\.25\. These and other efforts to improve its financial standing were unable to keep Lionel from going into receivership in May 1934\.*
The product widely credited with saving the company was a wind\-up handcar featuring [Mickey and Minnie Mouse](/wiki/Mickey_Mouse "Mickey Mouse"), which operated on O gauge track and sold for $1\. Lionel manufactured 250,000 units, but was still unable to keep up with demand. But at a wholesale price of .55 cents, the handcar's sales did not provide enough profit to pay off Lionel's debts of $300,000; however, the model did provide much\-needed cash. It was the success of the more expensive but profitable 752E City of Portland Union Pacific Streamliner that gave the company much needed revenue. As Lionel's first scale\-model, the Streamliner gave the company considerable presence in the model market. It was the start of the company's scale\-detailed, die\-cast look. While numerous equally successful streamliners were issued in the following years, the handcar experiment was not repeated. Lionel left the novelty market to the cheaper toy manufacturers.
Lionel avoided bankruptcy and emerged from receivership the next year. By 1939, Lionel had discontinued its standard gauge products, concentrating instead on the more\-affordable (and lucrative) O\-gauge and [OO gauge](/wiki/OO_gauge "OO gauge"), which it had introduced in 1938\.
Lionel ceased toy production in 1942 to produce nautical items for the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). During this period, Lionel produced ads aimed at American teenagers, to begin planning their post\-war layouts. Lionel also introduced the so\-called [Lionel Wartime Freight Train](/wiki/Lionel_Wartime_Freight_Train "Lionel Wartime Freight Train"), a detailed set of cut\-and\-fold models of Lionel trains printed on cardstock. These were notoriously difficult to put together.
#### Models
Lionel made many models, including scale models, of actual trains. The Red Comet and Blue Streak sets included models of [New York Central's](/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroad "New York Central Railroad") Commodore Vanderbilt locomotive. In 1934, Lionel made a 1:45 scale model of [Union Pacific's](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad "Union Pacific Railroad") M10000 diesel streamliner (also called the City of Denver) that runs on O gauge track. It was followed by a model of this diesel's successor, the City of Portland. The 763E and 700E are 1:48 scale models of 4\-6\-4 Hudsons. In 1938, Lionel made a model of [Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Burlington_and_Quincy_Railroad "Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad")'s Burlington Zephyr streamliner called the Flying Yankee.
### Post\-war era (1945–1969\)
[thumb\|right\|Post\-war Lionel trains and accessories](/wiki/Image:PostWarLionel.jpg "PostWarLionel.jpg")
Lionel resumed producing toy trains in late 1945, replacing their original product line with less colorful, but more realistic, trains and concentrating exclusively on O\-gauge trains.
Many of Lionel's steam locomotives of this period, had a new feature: smoke, produced by dropping a small tablet or a special oil into the locomotive's smokestack, which contained an electric heating element. Many diesel, electric, and steam engines made after 1950 had Lionel's Magne\-Traction, which made the wheels magnetic in order to grip the track better. Lionel's most popular toy train ever mass\-produced was the Santa Fe F3, numbered 2333, released in 1948\.
By 1953, Lionel sales reached their highest level at over $32 million. During the same year, Lionel reportedly became the world's largest toy manufacturer. As the 1950s progressed, Lionel sales began to decline in proportion to the growing prevalence of space and military\-themed toys and slot car racing sets. These changes coincided with the decline in rail travel as private automobiles proliferated, and the launching of [Sputnik](/wiki/Sputnik "Sputnik"), which began the space\-race between the United States and Soviet Union. There was an associated military build\-up as the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") progressed after World War II. The remaining interest in toy and model trains that existed was geared toward HO scale, which gradually overtook O gauge in popularity. It had more realistic detailing and its smaller size enabled the enthusiast to do more modelling within the same amount of space. Lionel attempted to keep pace with changing trends by offering space and military\-themed train sets, and introducing their own HO line of trains. But they were never able to reclaim the market share they once held in the toy industry, and by 1958 reported a net loss of $469,057\.
Company founder Joshua Cowen officially retired that same year. On September 8, 1965, Cowen died at the age of 88 in Palm Beach, Florida.*All Aboard! The Story of Joshua Lionel Cowen \& His Lionel Train Company*, by Ron Hollander
Beginning in the 1960s, Lionel attempted to diversify into other product lines, such as phonographs, science, weather station and plastics engineering kits. Toy train sales continued to decline and the company endured a series of management turnovers. In 1967 Lionel purchased American Flyer trains from bankrupt [A. C. Gilbert Company](/wiki/A._C._Gilbert_Company "A. C. Gilbert Company"), but did not have a new catalog for that year.
In December 1968 Ronald Saypol, Joshua Cowen's former grandson\-in\-law, became President and CEO of the Lionel Corporation, and in the following year, in an attempt to divest the company of what was by then determined to be a cash drain by the board and shareholders, began negotiations to sell their toy train line and lease the Lionel name to [Model Products Corporation (MPC)](/wiki/Model_Products_Corporation "Model Products Corporation"), a subsidiary of General Mills, Inc.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la\-me\-ronald\-saypol\-20141209\-story.html\|title \= Ronald Saypol dies at 85; led model\-train maker Lionel into retailing\| website\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \|date \= 8 December 2014}} 1969 was the final year the Lionel Corporation published a toy train catalog and manufactured O gauge trains.
#### Models
Lionel started the postwar period in 1945 with a train set introducing remote\-control uncoupling. The locomotive was the 224, a pre\-war carryover 2\-6\-2 Prairie type. In 1947, Lionel produced a model of the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad "Pennsylvania Railroad")'s [GG1](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad_class_GG1 "Pennsylvania Railroad class GG1"). One year later, Lionel began production of their famous [Santa Fe](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway "Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway") [F3](/wiki/EMD_F3 "EMD F3"). As a direct descendant of the pre\-war 763E locomotive, in 1950, Lionel released the 773, another scale Hudson. The Lionel [FA](/wiki/ALCO_FA "ALCO FA") model was also introduced in 1950\.
Many collectors and operators ranked the 746, released in 1957, as the best postwar Lionel locomotive. It is a model of Norfolk and Western's J class steam engine. During both the pre\-war and post\-war eras, Lionel made many models of electric locomotives; during the post\-war era, Lionel made models of the [EP\-5](/wiki/New_Haven_EP-5 "New Haven EP-5") and [Virginian EL\-C](/wiki/Virginian_EL-C "Virginian EL-C"), in addition to the [GG1](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad_class_GG1 "Pennsylvania Railroad class GG1"). From 1946 through 1949, Lionel issued the 726 2\-8\-4 Berkshire, which is a prized item today. From 1950 to 1951, Lionel produced the 736 Berkshire, which was basically a 726 with Magne\-Traction. In 1952, the Korean war caused a shortage of magnetic materials, so Lionel reissued the 726 as the 726rr (726 rerun). From 1953 until 1968, Lionel produced the 736 again.
#### Construction set
During the post\-war period, Lionel produced a [construction set](/wiki/Construction_set "Construction set"), using a unique component set. While competitive sets used nut and bolt fasteners, the Lionel set employed round\-head aircraft rivets retained with rubber grommets, eliminating the need for tools. The structural elements were hollow beams of square cross section made from folded and quite thin sheet aluminum. It was subject to destruction if stepped upon. A more substantial folded aluminum base plate was used to form the foundation of most constructions, and additional circular plates could be used to construct larger wheels or pivots. Pulleys, gussets, and splices were also included. The deluxe kits included an electric AC motor with a worm drive and reduction gearset that was powered from household power. While innovative, the lack of general purpose beam members with enough holes limited the adaptability of the set to complex constructions. Finished assemblies also lacked the robust durability of its principal competition at the time, the [Erector Set](/wiki/Erector_Set "Erector Set").
#### Outsells American Flyer
During the 1950s, Lionel outsold its closest competitor, [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer "American Flyer"), by nearly 2:1, peaking in 1953\. Some Lionel company histories say Lionel (including more than just trains) was the largest toy company in the world by the early 1950s. Had that been the case, it was a short\-lived greatness: Lionel's 1955 sales were some $23 million, while rival [Marx](/wiki/Louis_Marx_and_Company "Louis Marx and Company")'s toy (more than just trains) sales were $50 million.
The 1946–1956 decade was Lionel's Golden Age. The Lionel Santa Fe 2333 Diesel locomotive, an [EMD F3](/wiki/EMD_F3 "EMD F3") in the colorful [Santa Fe](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway "Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway") "Warbonnet" paint scheme that was introduced in 1948, became the Lionel company icon and the icon of the era. The 2343, 2383, and 2353 Santa Fe F3's improved on it. Lionel declined rapidly after 1956\. Hobbyists preferred the smaller but more realistic [HO scale](/wiki/HO_scale "HO scale") trains, and children's interest shifted from toy trains to toy cars. The shift caught Lionel off guard, and in 1957, they hastily introduced a line of HO\-scale trains licensed from [Rivarossi](/wiki/Rivarossi "Rivarossi") and a line of [slot car](/wiki/Slot_car "Slot car") racing sets. Neither product line was as popular as its O\-gauge trains. Efforts to increase train set profitability and/or sales by cheaper manufacture (largely by replacing castings and folded sheet metal with unpainted injected\-molded colored plastic) were largely unsuccessful; 1957 was Lionel's last profitable post\-war year.Stephan, Elizabeth A. *O'Brien's Collecting Toy Trains, 5th Ed.*, Krause Publications. Page 182\. {{ISBN\|0\-87341\-769\-0}}
In 1959, Cowen and son sold their interest in the Lionel company and retired. The buyer was Cowen's grandnephew, [Roy Cohn](/wiki/Roy_Cohn "Roy Cohn") (businessman and attorney to Senator [Joseph McCarthy](/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy "Joseph McCarthy")) who replaced most of Cowen's management. The business direction of the Lionel company changed: it added subsidiary companies unrelated to toy train sets — among them were Dale Electronics, Sterling Electric Motors, and Telerad Manufacturing.Osterhoff, Robert J. "When the Lights Went out at Lionel", *Classic Toy Trains*, May 1999\. Page 76\. During Cohn's unsuccessful four\-year tenure, Lionel lost more than [US$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")13 million.
#### Diversification
As part of the diversification, Lionel formed a relationship with the [Porter Chemical Company](/wiki/Porter_Chemical_Company "Porter Chemical Company"), whose owner, Harold M. Porter, was a member of the Lionel Board of Directors.[Price List of Lionel Stock Certificates](http://www.trainpaper.com/certificates_pricelist.html) Lionel began making a variety of scientifically oriented, hands\-on educational toys, designated "Lionel\-Porter." The product line, cataloged from 1961 to 1968, included Chemcraft *chemistry sets,* Microcraft *microscope sets,* Biocraft *biology sets, and sets teaching about mineralogy, physics, geology, mathematics, and industrial science, along with a junior line of tool sets.[Better life through chemistry, *Classic Toy Trains Magazine*](http://www.trains.com/ctt/default.aspx?c=a&id=341)*
#### Decline and bankruptcy
Lionel's efforts to diversify failed to compensate for the public's declining interest in its toy trains. By 1966, Lionel's revenue was $28 million, 40 percent from government contracts. Meanwhile, Lionel's closest competitor also was fading: in January 1967, the parent company of rival American Flyer, the A. C. Gilbert Company, went bankrupt. Lionel bought the American Flyer *brand name and product line in May of that year in a $150,000 deal; however, Lionel lacked the money to exploit them and filed bankruptcy less than four months later, on August 7, 1967\.*
In 1969, Lionel's sales had declined to just over $1 million per year. Lionel sold the product die tooling for its struggling train line and leased the rights to the Lionel *brand name to the cereal company [General Mills](/wiki/General_Mills "General Mills"). The Lionel brand name continues today, owned by [Lionel, LLC](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC "Lionel, LLC"). But many Lionel train enthusiasts consider 1969 the end of the "true Lionel trains", due to the original Lionel Corporation divesting itself of toy train production and the changes in design and manufacture, sometimes for the worse, that took place under Lionel trains' new owners.*
### As a holding company (1970–1993\)
After the Lionel Corporation sold the rights to manufacture trains to General Mills in 1969, the Modern Era began the following year with train products being reproduced and introduced. The Lionel Corporation would continue as a holding company. It invested in [various chains of retail stores](/wiki/Lionel_Kiddie_City "Lionel Kiddie City") and electronics companies while receiving royalties on toy train sales made by [General Mills](/wiki/General_Mills "General Mills") (later [Lionel Trains, Inc.](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC "Lionel, LLC")). In 1991, it sold its trademarks to Lionel Trains, Inc. for $10 million and eventually went out of business in 1993\.
#### Lionel MPC (1970–1986\)
In 1970, after tooling purchased from the Lionel Corporation was moved to a new factory in Mt. Clemens, Michigan, limited production of Lionel trains as a new product line under MPC began. Rolling stock debuted with "fast\-angle wheels" with needlepoint bearings. This new wheel design, coupled with the use of Delrin plastic trucks, reduced rolling friction that allowed for longer trains to be run and is still in use by Lionel today. Lionel also began to offer trains in a wider variety of road names and colors and with improved graphics that were not previously available during the postwar period.
[thumb\|A Lionel O gauge layout in New York City](/wiki/File:Lionel_Xmas_shop_O_layout_1095_AoA_jeh.jpg "Lionel Xmas shop O layout 1095 AoA jeh.jpg")
In 1971, Lionel debuted a new electronic sound system in their engines, called "Mighty Sound of Steam," to replace the electro\-mechanical air whistles of the pre\-war and post\-war eras. An internal reorganization in 1973 caused Lionel to become part of General Mills' Fundimensions group. A new line of scale\-sized freight cars, called "Standard O", was introduced that same year. The new line of trains included the Blue Streak Freight, an entry\-level O\-27 gauge train set produced by Lionel. The set included a blue Jersey Central Lines steam locomotive with a 2\-4\-2 wheel configuration and attached tender car. Lionel integrated several features into the locomotive, including a working headlight and a smoke unit.{{cite web\|last1\=Coopee\|first1\=Todd\|title\=Blue Streak Freight Train from Lionel\|url\=https://toytales.ca/blue\-streak\-freight\-train\-lionel/\|website\=ToyTales.ca\|date\=13 August 2018}} In 1974, Lionel began to offer trains in HO scale for the first time since the postwar period; they were last cataloged in 1966\. In 1975, Lionel introduced a 75th anniversary freight set that consisted of their U36B diesel engine and rolling stock that included images of catalog covers and logos from Lionel's past. One year later, Lionel released a model of the American Freedom Train to celebrate the nation's bicentennial.
The brand rose to prominence in 1976 following a series of television commercials featuring [Johnny Cash](/wiki/Johnny_Cash "Johnny Cash"), who was a longtime Lionel collector.{{cite book\|title\=Lionel Trains: A Pictorial History of Trains and Their Collectors\|page\=19\|author\=Turner Publishing\|publisher\=Turner Publishing Company\|year\=2004\|isbn\=1563119587}}
In 1979, Lionel re\-issued the Fairbanks\-Morse Train Master diesel locomotive and re\-introduced the American Flyer S gauge line of trains, both of which had not been produced since 1966\. Starting in the 1980s, Lionel began to issue more postwar\-derived operating accessories, such as the Lumber Mill, Ice Depot, and News Stand. In 1984, they released the 783 Hudson locomotive, which descended from the 773 scale\-sized Hudson originally made in 1950 and again in the 1960s.
#### Lionel, LLC (1986–present)
{{Main\|Lionel, LLC}}
In 1985, General Mills spun off its Kenner\-Parker division, with Lionel being placed under Kenner\-Parker. In 1986, Lionel was sold again, this time to toy train collector and real estate developer Richard P. Kughn of Detroit, Michigan; it became Lionel Trains Inc (LTI). In 1989, Lionel phased out the Mighty Sound of Steam and replaced it with what would eventually be called "RailSounds," beginning with their re\-issue of the pre\-war B6 Pennsylvania switcher. It was rebranded as Lionel LLC in 1995\. Lionel, LLC owns all trademarks and most of the rights associated with the Lionel Corporation.
#### Lionel Morsan
In the early 1970s Lionel bought Morsan Tents from founder Mort Jarashaw. It was a small chain of sporting goods stores based in New Jersey, which became Lionel Morsan.
### Bankruptcy and buyout
After the sale of its train product lines in 1969, Lionel Corporation became a holding company that specialized in toy stores. By the early 1980s, Lionel operated some 150 stores,Liebeck, Laura: "Deja vu all over again: Lionel re\-visits Chapter 11", *Discount Store News*, 8 July 1991 under the names [Lionel Kiddie City, Lionel Playworld, and Lionel Toy Warehouse.](/wiki/Lionel_Kiddie_City "Lionel Kiddie City") For a time it was the second\-largest toy store chain in the United States. Lionel entered financial troubles during the [early 1980s recession](/wiki/Early_1980s_recession "Early 1980s recession") and filed for [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](/wiki/Chapter_11%2C_Title_11%2C_United_States_Code "Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code") in February 1982\. After reducing to 55 stores, it emerged from bankruptcy in September 1985\.
By 1991, the chain had regrown to 100 stores and was the fourth\-largest toy retailer in the country, but it encountered financial troubles due to a combination of factors. In 1989, Robert I. Toussie L.P., a partnership of several retail executives, attempted to buy the company. Lionel resisted and the fight drained the company of cash. Meanwhile, non\-specialty discount stores expanded their toy sections and undercut the prices of specialty toy chains."Liquidations leave Toy's R US, Kay\-Bee toying alone", *Discount Store News,* 5 July 1993 Additionally, Lionel found it difficult to compete on price with the larger [Toys "R" Us](/wiki/Toys_%22R%22_Us "Toys "), and it attempted to expand too rapidly in a weakened economy."Lionel Leisure 'branches out': toy retailer acquires part ownership of closeouter", *Discount Store News,* September 17, 1990 After a string of unprofitable quarters, it filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on June 14, 1991\. In 1992, Lionel again tried to reverse its fortunes by merging with the bankrupt [Child World](/wiki/Child_World "Child World"), the United States' \#3 toy retailer, but was unable to secure financing.Liebeck, Laura: "Child World is grounded: rescue by Lionel falters", *Discount Store News,* 3 August 1992 By February 1993, Lionel had closed all but 29 stores in six states, concentrating on the markets of [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), central [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey"), [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore"), [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland"), and south [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida")."Lionel closing 27 stores in struggle for survival", *Discount Store News,* 1 February 1993 Unable to reach an agreement for reorganization with its creditors, on June 2, 1993, Lionel announced its intention to liquidate all of its stores and go out of business.[One of the World's Largest and Most Prestigious Collecting Societies](http://www.tcamembers.org/articles/collecting/stockcer/index.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041210114506/http://www.tcamembers.org/articles/collecting/stockcer/index.html \|date\=2004\-12\-10 }}
The Lionel trademarks were purchased by Richard Kughn, the [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan "Detroit, Michigan") [real estate](/wiki/Real_estate "Real estate") magnate who had bought the Lionel product line from General Mills in 1986\. See [Lionel, LLC](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC "Lionel, LLC")*.*
Lionel trains were manufactured from 1920 to 1929 in a factory at 605 21st Street in [Irvington, New Jersey](/wiki/Irvington%2C_New_Jersey "Irvington, New Jersey"). The factory was destroyed by a fire on April 5, 2004\.{{cite book \|last\=Osterhoff \|first\=Robert J. \|year\=2008 \|title\=Inside The Lionel Trains Fun Factory: The History of a Manufacturing Icon and The Place Where Childhood Dreams Were Made \|url\=http://projectroar.com/content/sample\_pages/Inside%20The%20Lionel%20Trains%20Fun%20Factory%20Sample%20Pages.pdf \|publisher\=Project Roar Publishing \|page\=9 \|isbn\=9781933600055 \|editor1\-last\=Carp \| editor1\-first\=Roger \| editor2\-last\=Schmid \| editor2\-first\=John W. \| editor3\-last\=Schmid \| editor3\-first\=George J.}} According to a report from the local fire department, 100 firefighters were needed to extinguish the blaze. The building had been vacant for ten years and was in a state of disrepair, according to Fire Chief Don Huber.
Trains were manufactured from 1929 to 1974 in the Lionel factory at 28 Sager Place in [Hillside, New Jersey](/wiki/Hillside%2C_New_Jersey "Hillside, New Jersey").{{verify source\|date\=November 2019}}
Photos of both New Jersey factories in derelict state prior to their demise can be seen at the ihorse.com Web site.[Factories of the LIONEL CORP](http://www.ihorse.com/factory.htm)
The building that housed the last Lionel office is located at 26750 23 Mile Road, [Chesterfield, Michigan](/wiki/Chesterfield%2C_Michigan "Chesterfield, Michigan"); as of March 31, 2017, the building was available for lease.{{cite web\|title\=26750 23 Mile 1, Chesterfield Twp, MI 48051 (MLS ID 31279045\)\|url\=http://commercial.century21\.com/listing/26750\-23\-mile\-1\-chesterfield\-twp\-mi\-48051\-REN022366004\|website\=Century21 Commercial\|publisher\=Century 21 Real Estate LLC\|access\-date\=31 March 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401145230/http://commercial.century21\.com/listing/26750\-23\-mile\-1\-chesterfield\-twp\-mi\-48051\-REN022366004\|archive\-date\=1 April 2017}} The former Lionel assembly factory was located at 50625 Richard W. Blvd, Chesterfield — a short drive from the office building.
Games licensed by Lionel Corporation
------------------------------------
* [Lionel Trains: On Track](/wiki/Lionel_Trains:On_Track "On Track")*: Nintendo DS game*
* [3D Ultra Lionel Traintown](/wiki/3D_Ultra_Lionel_Traintown "3D Ultra Lionel Traintown") *(and its sequel,* Deluxe''): Windows game
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|Lionel No. 100 Electric Locomotive, 1903\\-1905](/wiki/File:Lionel_No._100_Electric_Locomotive%2C_1903.jpg \"Lionel No. 100 Electric Locomotive, 1903.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Lionel No. 7 Locomotive, 1918\\-1923](/wiki/File:Lionel_No._6_Special_Locomotive%2C_1908-1909.jpg \"Lionel No. 6 Special Locomotive, 1908-1909.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Lionel Corporation products](/wiki/File:Lionel_Corporation_Products.JPG \"Lionel Corporation Products.JPG\")\nThe original **Lionel Corporation** was founded in 1900 by [Joshua Lionel Cowen](/wiki/Joshua_Lionel_Cowen \"Joshua Lionel Cowen\") and Harry C. Grant in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").[Corporate Snapshot](http://www.lionel.com/CentralStation/LionelPastAndPresent/CorpSnapShot.cfm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609211616/http://www.lionel.com/CentralStation/LionelPastAndPresent/CorpSnapShot.cfm \\|date\\=2009\\-06\\-09 }} The company's devotees disagree over the date of incorporation: the official paperwork is dated September 5, but the paperwork was not filed until September 22, more than two weeks later. Initially, the company specialized in electrical novelties, such as fans and lighting devices.[\"Lionel's Very First Catalog Discovered!!\"](http://www.train99.com/howto/finds/finds5.html)",
"### Pre\\-World War II era (1900–1942\\)",
"Lionel's first train, the Electric Express, was long thought by historians to have been intended for use as a storefront display, rather than for sale to consumers. Delivered in December 1900, it operated on a brass track and was powered by a battery and a motor that Cowen had intended to use for an electric fan. Cowen hoped the public's fascination with railroads and electricity would draw attention to his other goods for sale. Instead, the public approached store owners about buying trains, prompting Lionel to begin making toy trains for the general public. Lionel sold 12 examples of the Electric Express.Stephan, Elizabeth A. *O'Brien's Collecting Toy Trains, 5th Ed.*, Krause Publications (2006\\), Page 181\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-87341\\-769\\-0}}",
"More recently, *Greenberg's Guide to Lionel Trains* (2014\\) concluded differently: it said that the first Lionel product was the motorized Converse Trolley, with the Electric Express being made to diversify the motor's use.",
"Lionel's earliest trains were larger than the sizes commonly available today, running on two\\-rail tracks with the rails 2{{frac\\|7\\|8}} inches apart. In 1906, Lionel began offering a three\\-rail track that simplified wiring of reverse loops and accessories. Its outer rails were 2{{frac\\|1\\|8}} inches apart, which did not match any of the existing standards that other manufacturers had been using since 1891\\. Whether this was an accidental misreading of [Märklin](/wiki/M%C3%A4rklin \"Märklin\")'s [2 gauge](/wiki/2_gauge \"2 gauge\") specifications or an intentional incompatibility is unclear.",
"Lionel marketed the non\\-standard track as \"The Standard of the World,\" soon adopted the name in catalogs as [Standard Gauge](/wiki/Standard_Gauge_%28toy_trains%29 \"Standard Gauge (toy trains)\"), and trademarked the name. When other U.S. companies began using Lionel's standard, they usually called it *wide gauge*. Starting in 1915, Lionel followed most of its U.S. competitors and adopted the smaller [O gauge](/wiki/O_scale \"O scale\") standard for its budget\\-level trains.{{cite web \\|title\\=The Rise and Fall and Rise Again of Lionel Trains \\|url\\=https://www.spikesys.com/Modelrr/lionel.html \\|website\\=www.spikesys.com \\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2022}}",
"During the pre\\-Great War era, Lionel competed with [Ives Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company \"Ives Manufacturing Company\"), [Boucher Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Boucher_Manufacturing_Company \"Boucher Manufacturing Company\"), [Dorfan](/wiki/Dorfan \"Dorfan\"), [Louis Marx and Company](/wiki/Louis_Marx_and_Company \"Louis Marx and Company\") and [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer \"American Flyer\").",
"By the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), Lionel was one of three major U.S. toy train manufacturers; the others were American Flyer and Louis Marx and Company. Cowen convinced department stores to incorporate his toy trains in their [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") displays, linking toy trains to the holiday, and making them popular Christmas presents. Lionel made its trains larger than those of its competitors, making them appear a better value. Competitors criticized the lack of realism of Lionel's trains. Cowen had been unwilling to invest in the equipment necessary for [lithography](/wiki/Lithography \"Lithography\"), so its early offerings were simply painted in solid colors of [enamel paint](/wiki/Enamel_paint \"Enamel paint\") with [brass](/wiki/Brass \"Brass\") detail parts. Lionel responded by targeting advertising at children, telling them its products were the most realistic toy trains. Additionally, Lionel criticized the durability of competitors' products in ads targeted at parents.",
"By 1922, Lionel was competing mainly against [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer \"American Flyer\") and [Ives Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company \"Ives Manufacturing Company\") . Also in 1922, Boucher bought out Voltamp and started making what was known as the \"Rolls\\-Royce\" of standard gauge trains. In 1925, American Flyer jumped into the standard gauge market; and by 1926, Dorfan started making their own standard gauge trains as well.",
"[William Walthers](/wiki/Wm._K._Walthers \"Wm. K. Walthers\"), a large seller of model railroads, asked Cowen in 1929 why Lionel painted its trains in bright and unrealistic colors. Cowen said that the majority of trains were purchased by mothers for their children, and the bright colors attracted women buyers.Hollander, Ron. *All Aboard!*, 1981\\. Page 89\\. In 1929, Lionel opened a factory in [Hillside, New Jersey](/wiki/Hillside%2C_New_Jersey \"Hillside, New Jersey\"), where it produced trains until 1974\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nj.com/business/index.ssf/2013/12/made\\_in\\_jersey\\_lionel\\_trains\\_\\-\\_chuggin\\_around\\_the\\_christmas\\_tree.html\\|title\\=Made in Jersey: Lionel trains \\- chuggin' around the Christmas tree\\|date\\=24 December 2013}}",
"By the 1920s, Lionel had overcome [Ives](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company \"Ives Manufacturing Company\") to become *the* market leader, selling metal trains with colourful paint schemes. Lionel's fierce ad campaigning took a toll on Ives, which filed bankruptcy in 1928\\. Lionel and [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer \"American Flyer\") bought Ives and operated it jointly until 1930, when Lionel bought Flyer's share outright, causing Lionel to operate Ives as a subsidiary until 1932\\.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Lionel advertisement from 1929](/wiki/File:Lionel_Trains_-_1929_advertisement.jpg \"Lionel Trains - 1929 advertisement.jpg\")\nThe [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") badly hurt Lionel and other toy companies. In 1930, Lionel's operating profit dropped to $82,000 \\- its operating profit in 1927 had been more than $500,000 \\- and in 1931, it lost $207,000\\. The trains were considered a luxury item. At the height of the Depression, one of Lionel's more extravagant locomotives cost as much as a used [Ford Model T](/wiki/Ford_Model_T \"Ford Model T\"). In an effort to compete with companies that were willing to undercut Lionel's prices, without diluting its premium Lionel and Ives brands, Lionel introduced a line of inexpensive electric toy trains under the *Winner Toys''' or* Winner Toy Corp. *brand name, which were sold from 1930 to 1932\\. The starting price for a set, which included a transformer, was $3\\.25\\. These and other efforts to improve its financial standing were unable to keep Lionel from going into receivership in May 1934\\.*",
"The product widely credited with saving the company was a wind\\-up handcar featuring [Mickey and Minnie Mouse](/wiki/Mickey_Mouse \"Mickey Mouse\"), which operated on O gauge track and sold for $1\\. Lionel manufactured 250,000 units, but was still unable to keep up with demand. But at a wholesale price of .55 cents, the handcar's sales did not provide enough profit to pay off Lionel's debts of $300,000; however, the model did provide much\\-needed cash. It was the success of the more expensive but profitable 752E City of Portland Union Pacific Streamliner that gave the company much needed revenue. As Lionel's first scale\\-model, the Streamliner gave the company considerable presence in the model market. It was the start of the company's scale\\-detailed, die\\-cast look. While numerous equally successful streamliners were issued in the following years, the handcar experiment was not repeated. Lionel left the novelty market to the cheaper toy manufacturers.\nLionel avoided bankruptcy and emerged from receivership the next year. By 1939, Lionel had discontinued its standard gauge products, concentrating instead on the more\\-affordable (and lucrative) O\\-gauge and [OO gauge](/wiki/OO_gauge \"OO gauge\"), which it had introduced in 1938\\.\nLionel ceased toy production in 1942 to produce nautical items for the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). During this period, Lionel produced ads aimed at American teenagers, to begin planning their post\\-war layouts. Lionel also introduced the so\\-called [Lionel Wartime Freight Train](/wiki/Lionel_Wartime_Freight_Train \"Lionel Wartime Freight Train\"), a detailed set of cut\\-and\\-fold models of Lionel trains printed on cardstock. These were notoriously difficult to put together.\n#### Models",
"Lionel made many models, including scale models, of actual trains. The Red Comet and Blue Streak sets included models of [New York Central's](/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroad \"New York Central Railroad\") Commodore Vanderbilt locomotive. In 1934, Lionel made a 1:45 scale model of [Union Pacific's](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad \"Union Pacific Railroad\") M10000 diesel streamliner (also called the City of Denver) that runs on O gauge track. It was followed by a model of this diesel's successor, the City of Portland. The 763E and 700E are 1:48 scale models of 4\\-6\\-4 Hudsons. In 1938, Lionel made a model of [Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Burlington_and_Quincy_Railroad \"Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad\")'s Burlington Zephyr streamliner called the Flying Yankee.\n### Post\\-war era (1945–1969\\)",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Post\\-war Lionel trains and accessories](/wiki/Image:PostWarLionel.jpg \"PostWarLionel.jpg\")\nLionel resumed producing toy trains in late 1945, replacing their original product line with less colorful, but more realistic, trains and concentrating exclusively on O\\-gauge trains.\nMany of Lionel's steam locomotives of this period, had a new feature: smoke, produced by dropping a small tablet or a special oil into the locomotive's smokestack, which contained an electric heating element. Many diesel, electric, and steam engines made after 1950 had Lionel's Magne\\-Traction, which made the wheels magnetic in order to grip the track better. Lionel's most popular toy train ever mass\\-produced was the Santa Fe F3, numbered 2333, released in 1948\\.\nBy 1953, Lionel sales reached their highest level at over $32 million. During the same year, Lionel reportedly became the world's largest toy manufacturer. As the 1950s progressed, Lionel sales began to decline in proportion to the growing prevalence of space and military\\-themed toys and slot car racing sets. These changes coincided with the decline in rail travel as private automobiles proliferated, and the launching of [Sputnik](/wiki/Sputnik \"Sputnik\"), which began the space\\-race between the United States and Soviet Union. There was an associated military build\\-up as the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") progressed after World War II. The remaining interest in toy and model trains that existed was geared toward HO scale, which gradually overtook O gauge in popularity. It had more realistic detailing and its smaller size enabled the enthusiast to do more modelling within the same amount of space. Lionel attempted to keep pace with changing trends by offering space and military\\-themed train sets, and introducing their own HO line of trains. But they were never able to reclaim the market share they once held in the toy industry, and by 1958 reported a net loss of $469,057\\.\nCompany founder Joshua Cowen officially retired that same year. On September 8, 1965, Cowen died at the age of 88 in Palm Beach, Florida.*All Aboard! The Story of Joshua Lionel Cowen \\& His Lionel Train Company*, by Ron Hollander\nBeginning in the 1960s, Lionel attempted to diversify into other product lines, such as phonographs, science, weather station and plastics engineering kits. Toy train sales continued to decline and the company endured a series of management turnovers. In 1967 Lionel purchased American Flyer trains from bankrupt [A. C. Gilbert Company](/wiki/A._C._Gilbert_Company \"A. C. Gilbert Company\"), but did not have a new catalog for that year.\nIn December 1968 Ronald Saypol, Joshua Cowen's former grandson\\-in\\-law, became President and CEO of the Lionel Corporation, and in the following year, in an attempt to divest the company of what was by then determined to be a cash drain by the board and shareholders, began negotiations to sell their toy train line and lease the Lionel name to [Model Products Corporation (MPC)](/wiki/Model_Products_Corporation \"Model Products Corporation\"), a subsidiary of General Mills, Inc.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la\\-me\\-ronald\\-saypol\\-20141209\\-story.html\\|title \\= Ronald Saypol dies at 85; led model\\-train maker Lionel into retailing\\| website\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\|date \\= 8 December 2014}} 1969 was the final year the Lionel Corporation published a toy train catalog and manufactured O gauge trains.\n#### Models",
"Lionel started the postwar period in 1945 with a train set introducing remote\\-control uncoupling. The locomotive was the 224, a pre\\-war carryover 2\\-6\\-2 Prairie type. In 1947, Lionel produced a model of the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad \"Pennsylvania Railroad\")'s [GG1](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad_class_GG1 \"Pennsylvania Railroad class GG1\"). One year later, Lionel began production of their famous [Santa Fe](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway \"Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway\") [F3](/wiki/EMD_F3 \"EMD F3\"). As a direct descendant of the pre\\-war 763E locomotive, in 1950, Lionel released the 773, another scale Hudson. The Lionel [FA](/wiki/ALCO_FA \"ALCO FA\") model was also introduced in 1950\\.\nMany collectors and operators ranked the 746, released in 1957, as the best postwar Lionel locomotive. It is a model of Norfolk and Western's J class steam engine. During both the pre\\-war and post\\-war eras, Lionel made many models of electric locomotives; during the post\\-war era, Lionel made models of the [EP\\-5](/wiki/New_Haven_EP-5 \"New Haven EP-5\") and [Virginian EL\\-C](/wiki/Virginian_EL-C \"Virginian EL-C\"), in addition to the [GG1](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad_class_GG1 \"Pennsylvania Railroad class GG1\"). From 1946 through 1949, Lionel issued the 726 2\\-8\\-4 Berkshire, which is a prized item today. From 1950 to 1951, Lionel produced the 736 Berkshire, which was basically a 726 with Magne\\-Traction. In 1952, the Korean war caused a shortage of magnetic materials, so Lionel reissued the 726 as the 726rr (726 rerun). From 1953 until 1968, Lionel produced the 736 again.\n#### Construction set",
"During the post\\-war period, Lionel produced a [construction set](/wiki/Construction_set \"Construction set\"), using a unique component set. While competitive sets used nut and bolt fasteners, the Lionel set employed round\\-head aircraft rivets retained with rubber grommets, eliminating the need for tools. The structural elements were hollow beams of square cross section made from folded and quite thin sheet aluminum. It was subject to destruction if stepped upon. A more substantial folded aluminum base plate was used to form the foundation of most constructions, and additional circular plates could be used to construct larger wheels or pivots. Pulleys, gussets, and splices were also included. The deluxe kits included an electric AC motor with a worm drive and reduction gearset that was powered from household power. While innovative, the lack of general purpose beam members with enough holes limited the adaptability of the set to complex constructions. Finished assemblies also lacked the robust durability of its principal competition at the time, the [Erector Set](/wiki/Erector_Set \"Erector Set\").\n#### Outsells American Flyer",
"During the 1950s, Lionel outsold its closest competitor, [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer \"American Flyer\"), by nearly 2:1, peaking in 1953\\. Some Lionel company histories say Lionel (including more than just trains) was the largest toy company in the world by the early 1950s. Had that been the case, it was a short\\-lived greatness: Lionel's 1955 sales were some $23 million, while rival [Marx](/wiki/Louis_Marx_and_Company \"Louis Marx and Company\")'s toy (more than just trains) sales were $50 million.\nThe 1946–1956 decade was Lionel's Golden Age. The Lionel Santa Fe 2333 Diesel locomotive, an [EMD F3](/wiki/EMD_F3 \"EMD F3\") in the colorful [Santa Fe](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway \"Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway\") \"Warbonnet\" paint scheme that was introduced in 1948, became the Lionel company icon and the icon of the era. The 2343, 2383, and 2353 Santa Fe F3's improved on it. Lionel declined rapidly after 1956\\. Hobbyists preferred the smaller but more realistic [HO scale](/wiki/HO_scale \"HO scale\") trains, and children's interest shifted from toy trains to toy cars. The shift caught Lionel off guard, and in 1957, they hastily introduced a line of HO\\-scale trains licensed from [Rivarossi](/wiki/Rivarossi \"Rivarossi\") and a line of [slot car](/wiki/Slot_car \"Slot car\") racing sets. Neither product line was as popular as its O\\-gauge trains. Efforts to increase train set profitability and/or sales by cheaper manufacture (largely by replacing castings and folded sheet metal with unpainted injected\\-molded colored plastic) were largely unsuccessful; 1957 was Lionel's last profitable post\\-war year.Stephan, Elizabeth A. *O'Brien's Collecting Toy Trains, 5th Ed.*, Krause Publications. Page 182\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-87341\\-769\\-0}}\nIn 1959, Cowen and son sold their interest in the Lionel company and retired. The buyer was Cowen's grandnephew, [Roy Cohn](/wiki/Roy_Cohn \"Roy Cohn\") (businessman and attorney to Senator [Joseph McCarthy](/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy \"Joseph McCarthy\")) who replaced most of Cowen's management. The business direction of the Lionel company changed: it added subsidiary companies unrelated to toy train sets — among them were Dale Electronics, Sterling Electric Motors, and Telerad Manufacturing.Osterhoff, Robert J. \"When the Lights Went out at Lionel\", *Classic Toy Trains*, May 1999\\. Page 76\\. During Cohn's unsuccessful four\\-year tenure, Lionel lost more than [US$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")13 million.\n#### Diversification",
"As part of the diversification, Lionel formed a relationship with the [Porter Chemical Company](/wiki/Porter_Chemical_Company \"Porter Chemical Company\"), whose owner, Harold M. Porter, was a member of the Lionel Board of Directors.[Price List of Lionel Stock Certificates](http://www.trainpaper.com/certificates_pricelist.html) Lionel began making a variety of scientifically oriented, hands\\-on educational toys, designated \"Lionel\\-Porter.\" The product line, cataloged from 1961 to 1968, included Chemcraft *chemistry sets,* Microcraft *microscope sets,* Biocraft *biology sets, and sets teaching about mineralogy, physics, geology, mathematics, and industrial science, along with a junior line of tool sets.[Better life through chemistry, *Classic Toy Trains Magazine*](http://www.trains.com/ctt/default.aspx?c=a&id=341)*",
"#### Decline and bankruptcy",
"Lionel's efforts to diversify failed to compensate for the public's declining interest in its toy trains. By 1966, Lionel's revenue was $28 million, 40 percent from government contracts. Meanwhile, Lionel's closest competitor also was fading: in January 1967, the parent company of rival American Flyer, the A. C. Gilbert Company, went bankrupt. Lionel bought the American Flyer *brand name and product line in May of that year in a $150,000 deal; however, Lionel lacked the money to exploit them and filed bankruptcy less than four months later, on August 7, 1967\\.*",
"In 1969, Lionel's sales had declined to just over $1 million per year. Lionel sold the product die tooling for its struggling train line and leased the rights to the Lionel *brand name to the cereal company [General Mills](/wiki/General_Mills \"General Mills\"). The Lionel brand name continues today, owned by [Lionel, LLC](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC \"Lionel, LLC\"). But many Lionel train enthusiasts consider 1969 the end of the \"true Lionel trains\", due to the original Lionel Corporation divesting itself of toy train production and the changes in design and manufacture, sometimes for the worse, that took place under Lionel trains' new owners.*",
"### As a holding company (1970–1993\\)",
"After the Lionel Corporation sold the rights to manufacture trains to General Mills in 1969, the Modern Era began the following year with train products being reproduced and introduced. The Lionel Corporation would continue as a holding company. It invested in [various chains of retail stores](/wiki/Lionel_Kiddie_City \"Lionel Kiddie City\") and electronics companies while receiving royalties on toy train sales made by [General Mills](/wiki/General_Mills \"General Mills\") (later [Lionel Trains, Inc.](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC \"Lionel, LLC\")). In 1991, it sold its trademarks to Lionel Trains, Inc. for $10 million and eventually went out of business in 1993\\.\n#### Lionel MPC (1970–1986\\)",
"In 1970, after tooling purchased from the Lionel Corporation was moved to a new factory in Mt. Clemens, Michigan, limited production of Lionel trains as a new product line under MPC began. Rolling stock debuted with \"fast\\-angle wheels\" with needlepoint bearings. This new wheel design, coupled with the use of Delrin plastic trucks, reduced rolling friction that allowed for longer trains to be run and is still in use by Lionel today. Lionel also began to offer trains in a wider variety of road names and colors and with improved graphics that were not previously available during the postwar period.\n[thumb\\|A Lionel O gauge layout in New York City](/wiki/File:Lionel_Xmas_shop_O_layout_1095_AoA_jeh.jpg \"Lionel Xmas shop O layout 1095 AoA jeh.jpg\")\nIn 1971, Lionel debuted a new electronic sound system in their engines, called \"Mighty Sound of Steam,\" to replace the electro\\-mechanical air whistles of the pre\\-war and post\\-war eras. An internal reorganization in 1973 caused Lionel to become part of General Mills' Fundimensions group. A new line of scale\\-sized freight cars, called \"Standard O\", was introduced that same year. The new line of trains included the Blue Streak Freight, an entry\\-level O\\-27 gauge train set produced by Lionel. The set included a blue Jersey Central Lines steam locomotive with a 2\\-4\\-2 wheel configuration and attached tender car. Lionel integrated several features into the locomotive, including a working headlight and a smoke unit.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Coopee\\|first1\\=Todd\\|title\\=Blue Streak Freight Train from Lionel\\|url\\=https://toytales.ca/blue\\-streak\\-freight\\-train\\-lionel/\\|website\\=ToyTales.ca\\|date\\=13 August 2018}} In 1974, Lionel began to offer trains in HO scale for the first time since the postwar period; they were last cataloged in 1966\\. In 1975, Lionel introduced a 75th anniversary freight set that consisted of their U36B diesel engine and rolling stock that included images of catalog covers and logos from Lionel's past. One year later, Lionel released a model of the American Freedom Train to celebrate the nation's bicentennial.\nThe brand rose to prominence in 1976 following a series of television commercials featuring [Johnny Cash](/wiki/Johnny_Cash \"Johnny Cash\"), who was a longtime Lionel collector.{{cite book\\|title\\=Lionel Trains: A Pictorial History of Trains and Their Collectors\\|page\\=19\\|author\\=Turner Publishing\\|publisher\\=Turner Publishing Company\\|year\\=2004\\|isbn\\=1563119587}}\nIn 1979, Lionel re\\-issued the Fairbanks\\-Morse Train Master diesel locomotive and re\\-introduced the American Flyer S gauge line of trains, both of which had not been produced since 1966\\. Starting in the 1980s, Lionel began to issue more postwar\\-derived operating accessories, such as the Lumber Mill, Ice Depot, and News Stand. In 1984, they released the 783 Hudson locomotive, which descended from the 773 scale\\-sized Hudson originally made in 1950 and again in the 1960s.\n#### Lionel, LLC (1986–present)",
"{{Main\\|Lionel, LLC}}\nIn 1985, General Mills spun off its Kenner\\-Parker division, with Lionel being placed under Kenner\\-Parker. In 1986, Lionel was sold again, this time to toy train collector and real estate developer Richard P. Kughn of Detroit, Michigan; it became Lionel Trains Inc (LTI). In 1989, Lionel phased out the Mighty Sound of Steam and replaced it with what would eventually be called \"RailSounds,\" beginning with their re\\-issue of the pre\\-war B6 Pennsylvania switcher. It was rebranded as Lionel LLC in 1995\\. Lionel, LLC owns all trademarks and most of the rights associated with the Lionel Corporation.\n#### Lionel Morsan",
"In the early 1970s Lionel bought Morsan Tents from founder Mort Jarashaw. It was a small chain of sporting goods stores based in New Jersey, which became Lionel Morsan.\n### Bankruptcy and buyout",
"After the sale of its train product lines in 1969, Lionel Corporation became a holding company that specialized in toy stores. By the early 1980s, Lionel operated some 150 stores,Liebeck, Laura: \"Deja vu all over again: Lionel re\\-visits Chapter 11\", *Discount Store News*, 8 July 1991 under the names [Lionel Kiddie City, Lionel Playworld, and Lionel Toy Warehouse.](/wiki/Lionel_Kiddie_City \"Lionel Kiddie City\") For a time it was the second\\-largest toy store chain in the United States. Lionel entered financial troubles during the [early 1980s recession](/wiki/Early_1980s_recession \"Early 1980s recession\") and filed for [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](/wiki/Chapter_11%2C_Title_11%2C_United_States_Code \"Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code\") in February 1982\\. After reducing to 55 stores, it emerged from bankruptcy in September 1985\\.\nBy 1991, the chain had regrown to 100 stores and was the fourth\\-largest toy retailer in the country, but it encountered financial troubles due to a combination of factors. In 1989, Robert I. Toussie L.P., a partnership of several retail executives, attempted to buy the company. Lionel resisted and the fight drained the company of cash. Meanwhile, non\\-specialty discount stores expanded their toy sections and undercut the prices of specialty toy chains.\"Liquidations leave Toy's R US, Kay\\-Bee toying alone\", *Discount Store News,* 5 July 1993 Additionally, Lionel found it difficult to compete on price with the larger [Toys \"R\" Us](/wiki/Toys_%22R%22_Us \"Toys \"), and it attempted to expand too rapidly in a weakened economy.\"Lionel Leisure 'branches out': toy retailer acquires part ownership of closeouter\", *Discount Store News,* September 17, 1990 After a string of unprofitable quarters, it filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on June 14, 1991\\. In 1992, Lionel again tried to reverse its fortunes by merging with the bankrupt [Child World](/wiki/Child_World \"Child World\"), the United States' \\#3 toy retailer, but was unable to secure financing.Liebeck, Laura: \"Child World is grounded: rescue by Lionel falters\", *Discount Store News,* 3 August 1992 By February 1993, Lionel had closed all but 29 stores in six states, concentrating on the markets of [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), central [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\"), [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\"), [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), and south [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\").\"Lionel closing 27 stores in struggle for survival\", *Discount Store News,* 1 February 1993 Unable to reach an agreement for reorganization with its creditors, on June 2, 1993, Lionel announced its intention to liquidate all of its stores and go out of business.[One of the World's Largest and Most Prestigious Collecting Societies](http://www.tcamembers.org/articles/collecting/stockcer/index.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041210114506/http://www.tcamembers.org/articles/collecting/stockcer/index.html \\|date\\=2004\\-12\\-10 }}\nThe Lionel trademarks were purchased by Richard Kughn, the [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan \"Detroit, Michigan\") [real estate](/wiki/Real_estate \"Real estate\") magnate who had bought the Lionel product line from General Mills in 1986\\. See [Lionel, LLC](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC \"Lionel, LLC\")*.*",
"Lionel trains were manufactured from 1920 to 1929 in a factory at 605 21st Street in [Irvington, New Jersey](/wiki/Irvington%2C_New_Jersey \"Irvington, New Jersey\"). The factory was destroyed by a fire on April 5, 2004\\.{{cite book \\|last\\=Osterhoff \\|first\\=Robert J. \\|year\\=2008 \\|title\\=Inside The Lionel Trains Fun Factory: The History of a Manufacturing Icon and The Place Where Childhood Dreams Were Made \\|url\\=http://projectroar.com/content/sample\\_pages/Inside%20The%20Lionel%20Trains%20Fun%20Factory%20Sample%20Pages.pdf \\|publisher\\=Project Roar Publishing \\|page\\=9 \\|isbn\\=9781933600055 \\|editor1\\-last\\=Carp \\| editor1\\-first\\=Roger \\| editor2\\-last\\=Schmid \\| editor2\\-first\\=John W. \\| editor3\\-last\\=Schmid \\| editor3\\-first\\=George J.}} According to a report from the local fire department, 100 firefighters were needed to extinguish the blaze. The building had been vacant for ten years and was in a state of disrepair, according to Fire Chief Don Huber.\nTrains were manufactured from 1929 to 1974 in the Lionel factory at 28 Sager Place in [Hillside, New Jersey](/wiki/Hillside%2C_New_Jersey \"Hillside, New Jersey\").{{verify source\\|date\\=November 2019}}\nPhotos of both New Jersey factories in derelict state prior to their demise can be seen at the ihorse.com Web site.[Factories of the LIONEL CORP](http://www.ihorse.com/factory.htm)\nThe building that housed the last Lionel office is located at 26750 23 Mile Road, [Chesterfield, Michigan](/wiki/Chesterfield%2C_Michigan \"Chesterfield, Michigan\"); as of March 31, 2017, the building was available for lease.{{cite web\\|title\\=26750 23 Mile 1, Chesterfield Twp, MI 48051 (MLS ID 31279045\\)\\|url\\=http://commercial.century21\\.com/listing/26750\\-23\\-mile\\-1\\-chesterfield\\-twp\\-mi\\-48051\\-REN022366004\\|website\\=Century21 Commercial\\|publisher\\=Century 21 Real Estate LLC\\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401145230/http://commercial.century21\\.com/listing/26750\\-23\\-mile\\-1\\-chesterfield\\-twp\\-mi\\-48051\\-REN022366004\\|archive\\-date\\=1 April 2017}} The former Lionel assembly factory was located at 50625 Richard W. Blvd, Chesterfield — a short drive from the office building.\nGames licensed by Lionel Corporation\n------------------------------------",
"* [Lionel Trains: On Track](/wiki/Lionel_Trains:On_Track \"On Track\")*: Nintendo DS game*\n* [3D Ultra Lionel Traintown](/wiki/3D_Ultra_Lionel_Traintown \"3D Ultra Lionel Traintown\") *(and its sequel,* Deluxe''): Windows game"
] |
### Pre\-World War II era (1900–1942\)
Lionel's first train, the Electric Express, was long thought by historians to have been intended for use as a storefront display, rather than for sale to consumers. Delivered in December 1900, it operated on a brass track and was powered by a battery and a motor that Cowen had intended to use for an electric fan. Cowen hoped the public's fascination with railroads and electricity would draw attention to his other goods for sale. Instead, the public approached store owners about buying trains, prompting Lionel to begin making toy trains for the general public. Lionel sold 12 examples of the Electric Express.Stephan, Elizabeth A. *O'Brien's Collecting Toy Trains, 5th Ed.*, Krause Publications (2006\), Page 181\. {{ISBN\|0\-87341\-769\-0}}
More recently, *Greenberg's Guide to Lionel Trains* (2014\) concluded differently: it said that the first Lionel product was the motorized Converse Trolley, with the Electric Express being made to diversify the motor's use.
Lionel's earliest trains were larger than the sizes commonly available today, running on two\-rail tracks with the rails 2{{frac\|7\|8}} inches apart. In 1906, Lionel began offering a three\-rail track that simplified wiring of reverse loops and accessories. Its outer rails were 2{{frac\|1\|8}} inches apart, which did not match any of the existing standards that other manufacturers had been using since 1891\. Whether this was an accidental misreading of [Märklin](/wiki/M%C3%A4rklin "Märklin")'s [2 gauge](/wiki/2_gauge "2 gauge") specifications or an intentional incompatibility is unclear.
Lionel marketed the non\-standard track as "The Standard of the World," soon adopted the name in catalogs as [Standard Gauge](/wiki/Standard_Gauge_%28toy_trains%29 "Standard Gauge (toy trains)"), and trademarked the name. When other U.S. companies began using Lionel's standard, they usually called it *wide gauge*. Starting in 1915, Lionel followed most of its U.S. competitors and adopted the smaller [O gauge](/wiki/O_scale "O scale") standard for its budget\-level trains.{{cite web \|title\=The Rise and Fall and Rise Again of Lionel Trains \|url\=https://www.spikesys.com/Modelrr/lionel.html \|website\=www.spikesys.com \|access\-date\=29 October 2022}}
During the pre\-Great War era, Lionel competed with [Ives Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company "Ives Manufacturing Company"), [Boucher Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Boucher_Manufacturing_Company "Boucher Manufacturing Company"), [Dorfan](/wiki/Dorfan "Dorfan"), [Louis Marx and Company](/wiki/Louis_Marx_and_Company "Louis Marx and Company") and [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer "American Flyer").
By the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), Lionel was one of three major U.S. toy train manufacturers; the others were American Flyer and Louis Marx and Company. Cowen convinced department stores to incorporate his toy trains in their [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") displays, linking toy trains to the holiday, and making them popular Christmas presents. Lionel made its trains larger than those of its competitors, making them appear a better value. Competitors criticized the lack of realism of Lionel's trains. Cowen had been unwilling to invest in the equipment necessary for [lithography](/wiki/Lithography "Lithography"), so its early offerings were simply painted in solid colors of [enamel paint](/wiki/Enamel_paint "Enamel paint") with [brass](/wiki/Brass "Brass") detail parts. Lionel responded by targeting advertising at children, telling them its products were the most realistic toy trains. Additionally, Lionel criticized the durability of competitors' products in ads targeted at parents.
By 1922, Lionel was competing mainly against [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer "American Flyer") and [Ives Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company "Ives Manufacturing Company") . Also in 1922, Boucher bought out Voltamp and started making what was known as the "Rolls\-Royce" of standard gauge trains. In 1925, American Flyer jumped into the standard gauge market; and by 1926, Dorfan started making their own standard gauge trains as well.
[William Walthers](/wiki/Wm._K._Walthers "Wm. K. Walthers"), a large seller of model railroads, asked Cowen in 1929 why Lionel painted its trains in bright and unrealistic colors. Cowen said that the majority of trains were purchased by mothers for their children, and the bright colors attracted women buyers.Hollander, Ron. *All Aboard!*, 1981\. Page 89\. In 1929, Lionel opened a factory in [Hillside, New Jersey](/wiki/Hillside%2C_New_Jersey "Hillside, New Jersey"), where it produced trains until 1974\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.nj.com/business/index.ssf/2013/12/made\_in\_jersey\_lionel\_trains\_\-\_chuggin\_around\_the\_christmas\_tree.html\|title\=Made in Jersey: Lionel trains \- chuggin' around the Christmas tree\|date\=24 December 2013}}
By the 1920s, Lionel had overcome [Ives](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company "Ives Manufacturing Company") to become *the* market leader, selling metal trains with colourful paint schemes. Lionel's fierce ad campaigning took a toll on Ives, which filed bankruptcy in 1928\. Lionel and [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer "American Flyer") bought Ives and operated it jointly until 1930, when Lionel bought Flyer's share outright, causing Lionel to operate Ives as a subsidiary until 1932\.
[left\|thumb\|Lionel advertisement from 1929](/wiki/File:Lionel_Trains_-_1929_advertisement.jpg "Lionel Trains - 1929 advertisement.jpg")
The [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") badly hurt Lionel and other toy companies. In 1930, Lionel's operating profit dropped to $82,000 \- its operating profit in 1927 had been more than $500,000 \- and in 1931, it lost $207,000\. The trains were considered a luxury item. At the height of the Depression, one of Lionel's more extravagant locomotives cost as much as a used [Ford Model T](/wiki/Ford_Model_T "Ford Model T"). In an effort to compete with companies that were willing to undercut Lionel's prices, without diluting its premium Lionel and Ives brands, Lionel introduced a line of inexpensive electric toy trains under the *Winner Toys''' or* Winner Toy Corp. *brand name, which were sold from 1930 to 1932\. The starting price for a set, which included a transformer, was $3\.25\. These and other efforts to improve its financial standing were unable to keep Lionel from going into receivership in May 1934\.*
The product widely credited with saving the company was a wind\-up handcar featuring [Mickey and Minnie Mouse](/wiki/Mickey_Mouse "Mickey Mouse"), which operated on O gauge track and sold for $1\. Lionel manufactured 250,000 units, but was still unable to keep up with demand. But at a wholesale price of .55 cents, the handcar's sales did not provide enough profit to pay off Lionel's debts of $300,000; however, the model did provide much\-needed cash. It was the success of the more expensive but profitable 752E City of Portland Union Pacific Streamliner that gave the company much needed revenue. As Lionel's first scale\-model, the Streamliner gave the company considerable presence in the model market. It was the start of the company's scale\-detailed, die\-cast look. While numerous equally successful streamliners were issued in the following years, the handcar experiment was not repeated. Lionel left the novelty market to the cheaper toy manufacturers.
Lionel avoided bankruptcy and emerged from receivership the next year. By 1939, Lionel had discontinued its standard gauge products, concentrating instead on the more\-affordable (and lucrative) O\-gauge and [OO gauge](/wiki/OO_gauge "OO gauge"), which it had introduced in 1938\.
Lionel ceased toy production in 1942 to produce nautical items for the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). During this period, Lionel produced ads aimed at American teenagers, to begin planning their post\-war layouts. Lionel also introduced the so\-called [Lionel Wartime Freight Train](/wiki/Lionel_Wartime_Freight_Train "Lionel Wartime Freight Train"), a detailed set of cut\-and\-fold models of Lionel trains printed on cardstock. These were notoriously difficult to put together.
#### Models
Lionel made many models, including scale models, of actual trains. The Red Comet and Blue Streak sets included models of [New York Central's](/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroad "New York Central Railroad") Commodore Vanderbilt locomotive. In 1934, Lionel made a 1:45 scale model of [Union Pacific's](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad "Union Pacific Railroad") M10000 diesel streamliner (also called the City of Denver) that runs on O gauge track. It was followed by a model of this diesel's successor, the City of Portland. The 763E and 700E are 1:48 scale models of 4\-6\-4 Hudsons. In 1938, Lionel made a model of [Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Burlington_and_Quincy_Railroad "Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad")'s Burlington Zephyr streamliner called the Flying Yankee.
### Post\-war era (1945–1969\)
[thumb\|right\|Post\-war Lionel trains and accessories](/wiki/Image:PostWarLionel.jpg "PostWarLionel.jpg")
Lionel resumed producing toy trains in late 1945, replacing their original product line with less colorful, but more realistic, trains and concentrating exclusively on O\-gauge trains.
Many of Lionel's steam locomotives of this period, had a new feature: smoke, produced by dropping a small tablet or a special oil into the locomotive's smokestack, which contained an electric heating element. Many diesel, electric, and steam engines made after 1950 had Lionel's Magne\-Traction, which made the wheels magnetic in order to grip the track better. Lionel's most popular toy train ever mass\-produced was the Santa Fe F3, numbered 2333, released in 1948\.
By 1953, Lionel sales reached their highest level at over $32 million. During the same year, Lionel reportedly became the world's largest toy manufacturer. As the 1950s progressed, Lionel sales began to decline in proportion to the growing prevalence of space and military\-themed toys and slot car racing sets. These changes coincided with the decline in rail travel as private automobiles proliferated, and the launching of [Sputnik](/wiki/Sputnik "Sputnik"), which began the space\-race between the United States and Soviet Union. There was an associated military build\-up as the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") progressed after World War II. The remaining interest in toy and model trains that existed was geared toward HO scale, which gradually overtook O gauge in popularity. It had more realistic detailing and its smaller size enabled the enthusiast to do more modelling within the same amount of space. Lionel attempted to keep pace with changing trends by offering space and military\-themed train sets, and introducing their own HO line of trains. But they were never able to reclaim the market share they once held in the toy industry, and by 1958 reported a net loss of $469,057\.
Company founder Joshua Cowen officially retired that same year. On September 8, 1965, Cowen died at the age of 88 in Palm Beach, Florida.*All Aboard! The Story of Joshua Lionel Cowen \& His Lionel Train Company*, by Ron Hollander
Beginning in the 1960s, Lionel attempted to diversify into other product lines, such as phonographs, science, weather station and plastics engineering kits. Toy train sales continued to decline and the company endured a series of management turnovers. In 1967 Lionel purchased American Flyer trains from bankrupt [A. C. Gilbert Company](/wiki/A._C._Gilbert_Company "A. C. Gilbert Company"), but did not have a new catalog for that year.
In December 1968 Ronald Saypol, Joshua Cowen's former grandson\-in\-law, became President and CEO of the Lionel Corporation, and in the following year, in an attempt to divest the company of what was by then determined to be a cash drain by the board and shareholders, began negotiations to sell their toy train line and lease the Lionel name to [Model Products Corporation (MPC)](/wiki/Model_Products_Corporation "Model Products Corporation"), a subsidiary of General Mills, Inc.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la\-me\-ronald\-saypol\-20141209\-story.html\|title \= Ronald Saypol dies at 85; led model\-train maker Lionel into retailing\| website\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]] \|date \= 8 December 2014}} 1969 was the final year the Lionel Corporation published a toy train catalog and manufactured O gauge trains.
#### Models
Lionel started the postwar period in 1945 with a train set introducing remote\-control uncoupling. The locomotive was the 224, a pre\-war carryover 2\-6\-2 Prairie type. In 1947, Lionel produced a model of the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad "Pennsylvania Railroad")'s [GG1](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad_class_GG1 "Pennsylvania Railroad class GG1"). One year later, Lionel began production of their famous [Santa Fe](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway "Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway") [F3](/wiki/EMD_F3 "EMD F3"). As a direct descendant of the pre\-war 763E locomotive, in 1950, Lionel released the 773, another scale Hudson. The Lionel [FA](/wiki/ALCO_FA "ALCO FA") model was also introduced in 1950\.
Many collectors and operators ranked the 746, released in 1957, as the best postwar Lionel locomotive. It is a model of Norfolk and Western's J class steam engine. During both the pre\-war and post\-war eras, Lionel made many models of electric locomotives; during the post\-war era, Lionel made models of the [EP\-5](/wiki/New_Haven_EP-5 "New Haven EP-5") and [Virginian EL\-C](/wiki/Virginian_EL-C "Virginian EL-C"), in addition to the [GG1](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad_class_GG1 "Pennsylvania Railroad class GG1"). From 1946 through 1949, Lionel issued the 726 2\-8\-4 Berkshire, which is a prized item today. From 1950 to 1951, Lionel produced the 736 Berkshire, which was basically a 726 with Magne\-Traction. In 1952, the Korean war caused a shortage of magnetic materials, so Lionel reissued the 726 as the 726rr (726 rerun). From 1953 until 1968, Lionel produced the 736 again.
#### Construction set
During the post\-war period, Lionel produced a [construction set](/wiki/Construction_set "Construction set"), using a unique component set. While competitive sets used nut and bolt fasteners, the Lionel set employed round\-head aircraft rivets retained with rubber grommets, eliminating the need for tools. The structural elements were hollow beams of square cross section made from folded and quite thin sheet aluminum. It was subject to destruction if stepped upon. A more substantial folded aluminum base plate was used to form the foundation of most constructions, and additional circular plates could be used to construct larger wheels or pivots. Pulleys, gussets, and splices were also included. The deluxe kits included an electric AC motor with a worm drive and reduction gearset that was powered from household power. While innovative, the lack of general purpose beam members with enough holes limited the adaptability of the set to complex constructions. Finished assemblies also lacked the robust durability of its principal competition at the time, the [Erector Set](/wiki/Erector_Set "Erector Set").
#### Outsells American Flyer
During the 1950s, Lionel outsold its closest competitor, [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer "American Flyer"), by nearly 2:1, peaking in 1953\. Some Lionel company histories say Lionel (including more than just trains) was the largest toy company in the world by the early 1950s. Had that been the case, it was a short\-lived greatness: Lionel's 1955 sales were some $23 million, while rival [Marx](/wiki/Louis_Marx_and_Company "Louis Marx and Company")'s toy (more than just trains) sales were $50 million.
The 1946–1956 decade was Lionel's Golden Age. The Lionel Santa Fe 2333 Diesel locomotive, an [EMD F3](/wiki/EMD_F3 "EMD F3") in the colorful [Santa Fe](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway "Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway") "Warbonnet" paint scheme that was introduced in 1948, became the Lionel company icon and the icon of the era. The 2343, 2383, and 2353 Santa Fe F3's improved on it. Lionel declined rapidly after 1956\. Hobbyists preferred the smaller but more realistic [HO scale](/wiki/HO_scale "HO scale") trains, and children's interest shifted from toy trains to toy cars. The shift caught Lionel off guard, and in 1957, they hastily introduced a line of HO\-scale trains licensed from [Rivarossi](/wiki/Rivarossi "Rivarossi") and a line of [slot car](/wiki/Slot_car "Slot car") racing sets. Neither product line was as popular as its O\-gauge trains. Efforts to increase train set profitability and/or sales by cheaper manufacture (largely by replacing castings and folded sheet metal with unpainted injected\-molded colored plastic) were largely unsuccessful; 1957 was Lionel's last profitable post\-war year.Stephan, Elizabeth A. *O'Brien's Collecting Toy Trains, 5th Ed.*, Krause Publications. Page 182\. {{ISBN\|0\-87341\-769\-0}}
In 1959, Cowen and son sold their interest in the Lionel company and retired. The buyer was Cowen's grandnephew, [Roy Cohn](/wiki/Roy_Cohn "Roy Cohn") (businessman and attorney to Senator [Joseph McCarthy](/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy "Joseph McCarthy")) who replaced most of Cowen's management. The business direction of the Lionel company changed: it added subsidiary companies unrelated to toy train sets — among them were Dale Electronics, Sterling Electric Motors, and Telerad Manufacturing.Osterhoff, Robert J. "When the Lights Went out at Lionel", *Classic Toy Trains*, May 1999\. Page 76\. During Cohn's unsuccessful four\-year tenure, Lionel lost more than [US$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")13 million.
#### Diversification
As part of the diversification, Lionel formed a relationship with the [Porter Chemical Company](/wiki/Porter_Chemical_Company "Porter Chemical Company"), whose owner, Harold M. Porter, was a member of the Lionel Board of Directors.[Price List of Lionel Stock Certificates](http://www.trainpaper.com/certificates_pricelist.html) Lionel began making a variety of scientifically oriented, hands\-on educational toys, designated "Lionel\-Porter." The product line, cataloged from 1961 to 1968, included Chemcraft *chemistry sets,* Microcraft *microscope sets,* Biocraft *biology sets, and sets teaching about mineralogy, physics, geology, mathematics, and industrial science, along with a junior line of tool sets.[Better life through chemistry, *Classic Toy Trains Magazine*](http://www.trains.com/ctt/default.aspx?c=a&id=341)*
#### Decline and bankruptcy
Lionel's efforts to diversify failed to compensate for the public's declining interest in its toy trains. By 1966, Lionel's revenue was $28 million, 40 percent from government contracts. Meanwhile, Lionel's closest competitor also was fading: in January 1967, the parent company of rival American Flyer, the A. C. Gilbert Company, went bankrupt. Lionel bought the American Flyer *brand name and product line in May of that year in a $150,000 deal; however, Lionel lacked the money to exploit them and filed bankruptcy less than four months later, on August 7, 1967\.*
In 1969, Lionel's sales had declined to just over $1 million per year. Lionel sold the product die tooling for its struggling train line and leased the rights to the Lionel *brand name to the cereal company [General Mills](/wiki/General_Mills "General Mills"). The Lionel brand name continues today, owned by [Lionel, LLC](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC "Lionel, LLC"). But many Lionel train enthusiasts consider 1969 the end of the "true Lionel trains", due to the original Lionel Corporation divesting itself of toy train production and the changes in design and manufacture, sometimes for the worse, that took place under Lionel trains' new owners.*
### As a holding company (1970–1993\)
After the Lionel Corporation sold the rights to manufacture trains to General Mills in 1969, the Modern Era began the following year with train products being reproduced and introduced. The Lionel Corporation would continue as a holding company. It invested in [various chains of retail stores](/wiki/Lionel_Kiddie_City "Lionel Kiddie City") and electronics companies while receiving royalties on toy train sales made by [General Mills](/wiki/General_Mills "General Mills") (later [Lionel Trains, Inc.](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC "Lionel, LLC")). In 1991, it sold its trademarks to Lionel Trains, Inc. for $10 million and eventually went out of business in 1993\.
#### Lionel MPC (1970–1986\)
In 1970, after tooling purchased from the Lionel Corporation was moved to a new factory in Mt. Clemens, Michigan, limited production of Lionel trains as a new product line under MPC began. Rolling stock debuted with "fast\-angle wheels" with needlepoint bearings. This new wheel design, coupled with the use of Delrin plastic trucks, reduced rolling friction that allowed for longer trains to be run and is still in use by Lionel today. Lionel also began to offer trains in a wider variety of road names and colors and with improved graphics that were not previously available during the postwar period.
[thumb\|A Lionel O gauge layout in New York City](/wiki/File:Lionel_Xmas_shop_O_layout_1095_AoA_jeh.jpg "Lionel Xmas shop O layout 1095 AoA jeh.jpg")
In 1971, Lionel debuted a new electronic sound system in their engines, called "Mighty Sound of Steam," to replace the electro\-mechanical air whistles of the pre\-war and post\-war eras. An internal reorganization in 1973 caused Lionel to become part of General Mills' Fundimensions group. A new line of scale\-sized freight cars, called "Standard O", was introduced that same year. The new line of trains included the Blue Streak Freight, an entry\-level O\-27 gauge train set produced by Lionel. The set included a blue Jersey Central Lines steam locomotive with a 2\-4\-2 wheel configuration and attached tender car. Lionel integrated several features into the locomotive, including a working headlight and a smoke unit.{{cite web\|last1\=Coopee\|first1\=Todd\|title\=Blue Streak Freight Train from Lionel\|url\=https://toytales.ca/blue\-streak\-freight\-train\-lionel/\|website\=ToyTales.ca\|date\=13 August 2018}} In 1974, Lionel began to offer trains in HO scale for the first time since the postwar period; they were last cataloged in 1966\. In 1975, Lionel introduced a 75th anniversary freight set that consisted of their U36B diesel engine and rolling stock that included images of catalog covers and logos from Lionel's past. One year later, Lionel released a model of the American Freedom Train to celebrate the nation's bicentennial.
The brand rose to prominence in 1976 following a series of television commercials featuring [Johnny Cash](/wiki/Johnny_Cash "Johnny Cash"), who was a longtime Lionel collector.{{cite book\|title\=Lionel Trains: A Pictorial History of Trains and Their Collectors\|page\=19\|author\=Turner Publishing\|publisher\=Turner Publishing Company\|year\=2004\|isbn\=1563119587}}
In 1979, Lionel re\-issued the Fairbanks\-Morse Train Master diesel locomotive and re\-introduced the American Flyer S gauge line of trains, both of which had not been produced since 1966\. Starting in the 1980s, Lionel began to issue more postwar\-derived operating accessories, such as the Lumber Mill, Ice Depot, and News Stand. In 1984, they released the 783 Hudson locomotive, which descended from the 773 scale\-sized Hudson originally made in 1950 and again in the 1960s.
#### Lionel, LLC (1986–present)
{{Main\|Lionel, LLC}}
In 1985, General Mills spun off its Kenner\-Parker division, with Lionel being placed under Kenner\-Parker. In 1986, Lionel was sold again, this time to toy train collector and real estate developer Richard P. Kughn of Detroit, Michigan; it became Lionel Trains Inc (LTI). In 1989, Lionel phased out the Mighty Sound of Steam and replaced it with what would eventually be called "RailSounds," beginning with their re\-issue of the pre\-war B6 Pennsylvania switcher. It was rebranded as Lionel LLC in 1995\. Lionel, LLC owns all trademarks and most of the rights associated with the Lionel Corporation.
#### Lionel Morsan
In the early 1970s Lionel bought Morsan Tents from founder Mort Jarashaw. It was a small chain of sporting goods stores based in New Jersey, which became Lionel Morsan.
### Bankruptcy and buyout
After the sale of its train product lines in 1969, Lionel Corporation became a holding company that specialized in toy stores. By the early 1980s, Lionel operated some 150 stores,Liebeck, Laura: "Deja vu all over again: Lionel re\-visits Chapter 11", *Discount Store News*, 8 July 1991 under the names [Lionel Kiddie City, Lionel Playworld, and Lionel Toy Warehouse.](/wiki/Lionel_Kiddie_City "Lionel Kiddie City") For a time it was the second\-largest toy store chain in the United States. Lionel entered financial troubles during the [early 1980s recession](/wiki/Early_1980s_recession "Early 1980s recession") and filed for [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](/wiki/Chapter_11%2C_Title_11%2C_United_States_Code "Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code") in February 1982\. After reducing to 55 stores, it emerged from bankruptcy in September 1985\.
By 1991, the chain had regrown to 100 stores and was the fourth\-largest toy retailer in the country, but it encountered financial troubles due to a combination of factors. In 1989, Robert I. Toussie L.P., a partnership of several retail executives, attempted to buy the company. Lionel resisted and the fight drained the company of cash. Meanwhile, non\-specialty discount stores expanded their toy sections and undercut the prices of specialty toy chains."Liquidations leave Toy's R US, Kay\-Bee toying alone", *Discount Store News,* 5 July 1993 Additionally, Lionel found it difficult to compete on price with the larger [Toys "R" Us](/wiki/Toys_%22R%22_Us "Toys "), and it attempted to expand too rapidly in a weakened economy."Lionel Leisure 'branches out': toy retailer acquires part ownership of closeouter", *Discount Store News,* September 17, 1990 After a string of unprofitable quarters, it filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on June 14, 1991\. In 1992, Lionel again tried to reverse its fortunes by merging with the bankrupt [Child World](/wiki/Child_World "Child World"), the United States' \#3 toy retailer, but was unable to secure financing.Liebeck, Laura: "Child World is grounded: rescue by Lionel falters", *Discount Store News,* 3 August 1992 By February 1993, Lionel had closed all but 29 stores in six states, concentrating on the markets of [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), central [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey"), [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore"), [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland"), and south [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida")."Lionel closing 27 stores in struggle for survival", *Discount Store News,* 1 February 1993 Unable to reach an agreement for reorganization with its creditors, on June 2, 1993, Lionel announced its intention to liquidate all of its stores and go out of business.[One of the World's Largest and Most Prestigious Collecting Societies](http://www.tcamembers.org/articles/collecting/stockcer/index.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041210114506/http://www.tcamembers.org/articles/collecting/stockcer/index.html \|date\=2004\-12\-10 }}
The Lionel trademarks were purchased by Richard Kughn, the [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan "Detroit, Michigan") [real estate](/wiki/Real_estate "Real estate") magnate who had bought the Lionel product line from General Mills in 1986\. See [Lionel, LLC](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC "Lionel, LLC")*.*
Lionel trains were manufactured from 1920 to 1929 in a factory at 605 21st Street in [Irvington, New Jersey](/wiki/Irvington%2C_New_Jersey "Irvington, New Jersey"). The factory was destroyed by a fire on April 5, 2004\.{{cite book \|last\=Osterhoff \|first\=Robert J. \|year\=2008 \|title\=Inside The Lionel Trains Fun Factory: The History of a Manufacturing Icon and The Place Where Childhood Dreams Were Made \|url\=http://projectroar.com/content/sample\_pages/Inside%20The%20Lionel%20Trains%20Fun%20Factory%20Sample%20Pages.pdf \|publisher\=Project Roar Publishing \|page\=9 \|isbn\=9781933600055 \|editor1\-last\=Carp \| editor1\-first\=Roger \| editor2\-last\=Schmid \| editor2\-first\=John W. \| editor3\-last\=Schmid \| editor3\-first\=George J.}} According to a report from the local fire department, 100 firefighters were needed to extinguish the blaze. The building had been vacant for ten years and was in a state of disrepair, according to Fire Chief Don Huber.
Trains were manufactured from 1929 to 1974 in the Lionel factory at 28 Sager Place in [Hillside, New Jersey](/wiki/Hillside%2C_New_Jersey "Hillside, New Jersey").{{verify source\|date\=November 2019}}
Photos of both New Jersey factories in derelict state prior to their demise can be seen at the ihorse.com Web site.[Factories of the LIONEL CORP](http://www.ihorse.com/factory.htm)
The building that housed the last Lionel office is located at 26750 23 Mile Road, [Chesterfield, Michigan](/wiki/Chesterfield%2C_Michigan "Chesterfield, Michigan"); as of March 31, 2017, the building was available for lease.{{cite web\|title\=26750 23 Mile 1, Chesterfield Twp, MI 48051 (MLS ID 31279045\)\|url\=http://commercial.century21\.com/listing/26750\-23\-mile\-1\-chesterfield\-twp\-mi\-48051\-REN022366004\|website\=Century21 Commercial\|publisher\=Century 21 Real Estate LLC\|access\-date\=31 March 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401145230/http://commercial.century21\.com/listing/26750\-23\-mile\-1\-chesterfield\-twp\-mi\-48051\-REN022366004\|archive\-date\=1 April 2017}} The former Lionel assembly factory was located at 50625 Richard W. Blvd, Chesterfield — a short drive from the office building.
Games licensed by Lionel Corporation
------------------------------------
* [Lionel Trains: On Track](/wiki/Lionel_Trains:On_Track "On Track")*: Nintendo DS game*
* [3D Ultra Lionel Traintown](/wiki/3D_Ultra_Lionel_Traintown "3D Ultra Lionel Traintown") *(and its sequel,* Deluxe''): Windows game
|
[
"### Pre\\-World War II era (1900–1942\\)",
"Lionel's first train, the Electric Express, was long thought by historians to have been intended for use as a storefront display, rather than for sale to consumers. Delivered in December 1900, it operated on a brass track and was powered by a battery and a motor that Cowen had intended to use for an electric fan. Cowen hoped the public's fascination with railroads and electricity would draw attention to his other goods for sale. Instead, the public approached store owners about buying trains, prompting Lionel to begin making toy trains for the general public. Lionel sold 12 examples of the Electric Express.Stephan, Elizabeth A. *O'Brien's Collecting Toy Trains, 5th Ed.*, Krause Publications (2006\\), Page 181\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-87341\\-769\\-0}}",
"More recently, *Greenberg's Guide to Lionel Trains* (2014\\) concluded differently: it said that the first Lionel product was the motorized Converse Trolley, with the Electric Express being made to diversify the motor's use.",
"Lionel's earliest trains were larger than the sizes commonly available today, running on two\\-rail tracks with the rails 2{{frac\\|7\\|8}} inches apart. In 1906, Lionel began offering a three\\-rail track that simplified wiring of reverse loops and accessories. Its outer rails were 2{{frac\\|1\\|8}} inches apart, which did not match any of the existing standards that other manufacturers had been using since 1891\\. Whether this was an accidental misreading of [Märklin](/wiki/M%C3%A4rklin \"Märklin\")'s [2 gauge](/wiki/2_gauge \"2 gauge\") specifications or an intentional incompatibility is unclear.",
"Lionel marketed the non\\-standard track as \"The Standard of the World,\" soon adopted the name in catalogs as [Standard Gauge](/wiki/Standard_Gauge_%28toy_trains%29 \"Standard Gauge (toy trains)\"), and trademarked the name. When other U.S. companies began using Lionel's standard, they usually called it *wide gauge*. Starting in 1915, Lionel followed most of its U.S. competitors and adopted the smaller [O gauge](/wiki/O_scale \"O scale\") standard for its budget\\-level trains.{{cite web \\|title\\=The Rise and Fall and Rise Again of Lionel Trains \\|url\\=https://www.spikesys.com/Modelrr/lionel.html \\|website\\=www.spikesys.com \\|access\\-date\\=29 October 2022}}",
"During the pre\\-Great War era, Lionel competed with [Ives Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company \"Ives Manufacturing Company\"), [Boucher Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Boucher_Manufacturing_Company \"Boucher Manufacturing Company\"), [Dorfan](/wiki/Dorfan \"Dorfan\"), [Louis Marx and Company](/wiki/Louis_Marx_and_Company \"Louis Marx and Company\") and [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer \"American Flyer\").",
"By the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), Lionel was one of three major U.S. toy train manufacturers; the others were American Flyer and Louis Marx and Company. Cowen convinced department stores to incorporate his toy trains in their [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") displays, linking toy trains to the holiday, and making them popular Christmas presents. Lionel made its trains larger than those of its competitors, making them appear a better value. Competitors criticized the lack of realism of Lionel's trains. Cowen had been unwilling to invest in the equipment necessary for [lithography](/wiki/Lithography \"Lithography\"), so its early offerings were simply painted in solid colors of [enamel paint](/wiki/Enamel_paint \"Enamel paint\") with [brass](/wiki/Brass \"Brass\") detail parts. Lionel responded by targeting advertising at children, telling them its products were the most realistic toy trains. Additionally, Lionel criticized the durability of competitors' products in ads targeted at parents.",
"By 1922, Lionel was competing mainly against [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer \"American Flyer\") and [Ives Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company \"Ives Manufacturing Company\") . Also in 1922, Boucher bought out Voltamp and started making what was known as the \"Rolls\\-Royce\" of standard gauge trains. In 1925, American Flyer jumped into the standard gauge market; and by 1926, Dorfan started making their own standard gauge trains as well.",
"[William Walthers](/wiki/Wm._K._Walthers \"Wm. K. Walthers\"), a large seller of model railroads, asked Cowen in 1929 why Lionel painted its trains in bright and unrealistic colors. Cowen said that the majority of trains were purchased by mothers for their children, and the bright colors attracted women buyers.Hollander, Ron. *All Aboard!*, 1981\\. Page 89\\. In 1929, Lionel opened a factory in [Hillside, New Jersey](/wiki/Hillside%2C_New_Jersey \"Hillside, New Jersey\"), where it produced trains until 1974\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nj.com/business/index.ssf/2013/12/made\\_in\\_jersey\\_lionel\\_trains\\_\\-\\_chuggin\\_around\\_the\\_christmas\\_tree.html\\|title\\=Made in Jersey: Lionel trains \\- chuggin' around the Christmas tree\\|date\\=24 December 2013}}",
"By the 1920s, Lionel had overcome [Ives](/wiki/Ives_Manufacturing_Company \"Ives Manufacturing Company\") to become *the* market leader, selling metal trains with colourful paint schemes. Lionel's fierce ad campaigning took a toll on Ives, which filed bankruptcy in 1928\\. Lionel and [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer \"American Flyer\") bought Ives and operated it jointly until 1930, when Lionel bought Flyer's share outright, causing Lionel to operate Ives as a subsidiary until 1932\\.",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Lionel advertisement from 1929](/wiki/File:Lionel_Trains_-_1929_advertisement.jpg \"Lionel Trains - 1929 advertisement.jpg\")\nThe [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") badly hurt Lionel and other toy companies. In 1930, Lionel's operating profit dropped to $82,000 \\- its operating profit in 1927 had been more than $500,000 \\- and in 1931, it lost $207,000\\. The trains were considered a luxury item. At the height of the Depression, one of Lionel's more extravagant locomotives cost as much as a used [Ford Model T](/wiki/Ford_Model_T \"Ford Model T\"). In an effort to compete with companies that were willing to undercut Lionel's prices, without diluting its premium Lionel and Ives brands, Lionel introduced a line of inexpensive electric toy trains under the *Winner Toys''' or* Winner Toy Corp. *brand name, which were sold from 1930 to 1932\\. The starting price for a set, which included a transformer, was $3\\.25\\. These and other efforts to improve its financial standing were unable to keep Lionel from going into receivership in May 1934\\.*",
"The product widely credited with saving the company was a wind\\-up handcar featuring [Mickey and Minnie Mouse](/wiki/Mickey_Mouse \"Mickey Mouse\"), which operated on O gauge track and sold for $1\\. Lionel manufactured 250,000 units, but was still unable to keep up with demand. But at a wholesale price of .55 cents, the handcar's sales did not provide enough profit to pay off Lionel's debts of $300,000; however, the model did provide much\\-needed cash. It was the success of the more expensive but profitable 752E City of Portland Union Pacific Streamliner that gave the company much needed revenue. As Lionel's first scale\\-model, the Streamliner gave the company considerable presence in the model market. It was the start of the company's scale\\-detailed, die\\-cast look. While numerous equally successful streamliners were issued in the following years, the handcar experiment was not repeated. Lionel left the novelty market to the cheaper toy manufacturers.\nLionel avoided bankruptcy and emerged from receivership the next year. By 1939, Lionel had discontinued its standard gauge products, concentrating instead on the more\\-affordable (and lucrative) O\\-gauge and [OO gauge](/wiki/OO_gauge \"OO gauge\"), which it had introduced in 1938\\.\nLionel ceased toy production in 1942 to produce nautical items for the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). During this period, Lionel produced ads aimed at American teenagers, to begin planning their post\\-war layouts. Lionel also introduced the so\\-called [Lionel Wartime Freight Train](/wiki/Lionel_Wartime_Freight_Train \"Lionel Wartime Freight Train\"), a detailed set of cut\\-and\\-fold models of Lionel trains printed on cardstock. These were notoriously difficult to put together.\n#### Models",
"Lionel made many models, including scale models, of actual trains. The Red Comet and Blue Streak sets included models of [New York Central's](/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroad \"New York Central Railroad\") Commodore Vanderbilt locomotive. In 1934, Lionel made a 1:45 scale model of [Union Pacific's](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad \"Union Pacific Railroad\") M10000 diesel streamliner (also called the City of Denver) that runs on O gauge track. It was followed by a model of this diesel's successor, the City of Portland. The 763E and 700E are 1:48 scale models of 4\\-6\\-4 Hudsons. In 1938, Lionel made a model of [Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad](/wiki/Chicago%2C_Burlington_and_Quincy_Railroad \"Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad\")'s Burlington Zephyr streamliner called the Flying Yankee.\n### Post\\-war era (1945–1969\\)",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Post\\-war Lionel trains and accessories](/wiki/Image:PostWarLionel.jpg \"PostWarLionel.jpg\")\nLionel resumed producing toy trains in late 1945, replacing their original product line with less colorful, but more realistic, trains and concentrating exclusively on O\\-gauge trains.\nMany of Lionel's steam locomotives of this period, had a new feature: smoke, produced by dropping a small tablet or a special oil into the locomotive's smokestack, which contained an electric heating element. Many diesel, electric, and steam engines made after 1950 had Lionel's Magne\\-Traction, which made the wheels magnetic in order to grip the track better. Lionel's most popular toy train ever mass\\-produced was the Santa Fe F3, numbered 2333, released in 1948\\.\nBy 1953, Lionel sales reached their highest level at over $32 million. During the same year, Lionel reportedly became the world's largest toy manufacturer. As the 1950s progressed, Lionel sales began to decline in proportion to the growing prevalence of space and military\\-themed toys and slot car racing sets. These changes coincided with the decline in rail travel as private automobiles proliferated, and the launching of [Sputnik](/wiki/Sputnik \"Sputnik\"), which began the space\\-race between the United States and Soviet Union. There was an associated military build\\-up as the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") progressed after World War II. The remaining interest in toy and model trains that existed was geared toward HO scale, which gradually overtook O gauge in popularity. It had more realistic detailing and its smaller size enabled the enthusiast to do more modelling within the same amount of space. Lionel attempted to keep pace with changing trends by offering space and military\\-themed train sets, and introducing their own HO line of trains. But they were never able to reclaim the market share they once held in the toy industry, and by 1958 reported a net loss of $469,057\\.\nCompany founder Joshua Cowen officially retired that same year. On September 8, 1965, Cowen died at the age of 88 in Palm Beach, Florida.*All Aboard! The Story of Joshua Lionel Cowen \\& His Lionel Train Company*, by Ron Hollander\nBeginning in the 1960s, Lionel attempted to diversify into other product lines, such as phonographs, science, weather station and plastics engineering kits. Toy train sales continued to decline and the company endured a series of management turnovers. In 1967 Lionel purchased American Flyer trains from bankrupt [A. C. Gilbert Company](/wiki/A._C._Gilbert_Company \"A. C. Gilbert Company\"), but did not have a new catalog for that year.\nIn December 1968 Ronald Saypol, Joshua Cowen's former grandson\\-in\\-law, became President and CEO of the Lionel Corporation, and in the following year, in an attempt to divest the company of what was by then determined to be a cash drain by the board and shareholders, began negotiations to sell their toy train line and lease the Lionel name to [Model Products Corporation (MPC)](/wiki/Model_Products_Corporation \"Model Products Corporation\"), a subsidiary of General Mills, Inc.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la\\-me\\-ronald\\-saypol\\-20141209\\-story.html\\|title \\= Ronald Saypol dies at 85; led model\\-train maker Lionel into retailing\\| website\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]] \\|date \\= 8 December 2014}} 1969 was the final year the Lionel Corporation published a toy train catalog and manufactured O gauge trains.\n#### Models",
"Lionel started the postwar period in 1945 with a train set introducing remote\\-control uncoupling. The locomotive was the 224, a pre\\-war carryover 2\\-6\\-2 Prairie type. In 1947, Lionel produced a model of the [Pennsylvania Railroad](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad \"Pennsylvania Railroad\")'s [GG1](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad_class_GG1 \"Pennsylvania Railroad class GG1\"). One year later, Lionel began production of their famous [Santa Fe](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway \"Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway\") [F3](/wiki/EMD_F3 \"EMD F3\"). As a direct descendant of the pre\\-war 763E locomotive, in 1950, Lionel released the 773, another scale Hudson. The Lionel [FA](/wiki/ALCO_FA \"ALCO FA\") model was also introduced in 1950\\.\nMany collectors and operators ranked the 746, released in 1957, as the best postwar Lionel locomotive. It is a model of Norfolk and Western's J class steam engine. During both the pre\\-war and post\\-war eras, Lionel made many models of electric locomotives; during the post\\-war era, Lionel made models of the [EP\\-5](/wiki/New_Haven_EP-5 \"New Haven EP-5\") and [Virginian EL\\-C](/wiki/Virginian_EL-C \"Virginian EL-C\"), in addition to the [GG1](/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad_class_GG1 \"Pennsylvania Railroad class GG1\"). From 1946 through 1949, Lionel issued the 726 2\\-8\\-4 Berkshire, which is a prized item today. From 1950 to 1951, Lionel produced the 736 Berkshire, which was basically a 726 with Magne\\-Traction. In 1952, the Korean war caused a shortage of magnetic materials, so Lionel reissued the 726 as the 726rr (726 rerun). From 1953 until 1968, Lionel produced the 736 again.\n#### Construction set",
"During the post\\-war period, Lionel produced a [construction set](/wiki/Construction_set \"Construction set\"), using a unique component set. While competitive sets used nut and bolt fasteners, the Lionel set employed round\\-head aircraft rivets retained with rubber grommets, eliminating the need for tools. The structural elements were hollow beams of square cross section made from folded and quite thin sheet aluminum. It was subject to destruction if stepped upon. A more substantial folded aluminum base plate was used to form the foundation of most constructions, and additional circular plates could be used to construct larger wheels or pivots. Pulleys, gussets, and splices were also included. The deluxe kits included an electric AC motor with a worm drive and reduction gearset that was powered from household power. While innovative, the lack of general purpose beam members with enough holes limited the adaptability of the set to complex constructions. Finished assemblies also lacked the robust durability of its principal competition at the time, the [Erector Set](/wiki/Erector_Set \"Erector Set\").\n#### Outsells American Flyer",
"During the 1950s, Lionel outsold its closest competitor, [American Flyer](/wiki/American_Flyer \"American Flyer\"), by nearly 2:1, peaking in 1953\\. Some Lionel company histories say Lionel (including more than just trains) was the largest toy company in the world by the early 1950s. Had that been the case, it was a short\\-lived greatness: Lionel's 1955 sales were some $23 million, while rival [Marx](/wiki/Louis_Marx_and_Company \"Louis Marx and Company\")'s toy (more than just trains) sales were $50 million.\nThe 1946–1956 decade was Lionel's Golden Age. The Lionel Santa Fe 2333 Diesel locomotive, an [EMD F3](/wiki/EMD_F3 \"EMD F3\") in the colorful [Santa Fe](/wiki/Atchison%2C_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway \"Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway\") \"Warbonnet\" paint scheme that was introduced in 1948, became the Lionel company icon and the icon of the era. The 2343, 2383, and 2353 Santa Fe F3's improved on it. Lionel declined rapidly after 1956\\. Hobbyists preferred the smaller but more realistic [HO scale](/wiki/HO_scale \"HO scale\") trains, and children's interest shifted from toy trains to toy cars. The shift caught Lionel off guard, and in 1957, they hastily introduced a line of HO\\-scale trains licensed from [Rivarossi](/wiki/Rivarossi \"Rivarossi\") and a line of [slot car](/wiki/Slot_car \"Slot car\") racing sets. Neither product line was as popular as its O\\-gauge trains. Efforts to increase train set profitability and/or sales by cheaper manufacture (largely by replacing castings and folded sheet metal with unpainted injected\\-molded colored plastic) were largely unsuccessful; 1957 was Lionel's last profitable post\\-war year.Stephan, Elizabeth A. *O'Brien's Collecting Toy Trains, 5th Ed.*, Krause Publications. Page 182\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-87341\\-769\\-0}}\nIn 1959, Cowen and son sold their interest in the Lionel company and retired. The buyer was Cowen's grandnephew, [Roy Cohn](/wiki/Roy_Cohn \"Roy Cohn\") (businessman and attorney to Senator [Joseph McCarthy](/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy \"Joseph McCarthy\")) who replaced most of Cowen's management. The business direction of the Lionel company changed: it added subsidiary companies unrelated to toy train sets — among them were Dale Electronics, Sterling Electric Motors, and Telerad Manufacturing.Osterhoff, Robert J. \"When the Lights Went out at Lionel\", *Classic Toy Trains*, May 1999\\. Page 76\\. During Cohn's unsuccessful four\\-year tenure, Lionel lost more than [US$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")13 million.\n#### Diversification",
"As part of the diversification, Lionel formed a relationship with the [Porter Chemical Company](/wiki/Porter_Chemical_Company \"Porter Chemical Company\"), whose owner, Harold M. Porter, was a member of the Lionel Board of Directors.[Price List of Lionel Stock Certificates](http://www.trainpaper.com/certificates_pricelist.html) Lionel began making a variety of scientifically oriented, hands\\-on educational toys, designated \"Lionel\\-Porter.\" The product line, cataloged from 1961 to 1968, included Chemcraft *chemistry sets,* Microcraft *microscope sets,* Biocraft *biology sets, and sets teaching about mineralogy, physics, geology, mathematics, and industrial science, along with a junior line of tool sets.[Better life through chemistry, *Classic Toy Trains Magazine*](http://www.trains.com/ctt/default.aspx?c=a&id=341)*",
"#### Decline and bankruptcy",
"Lionel's efforts to diversify failed to compensate for the public's declining interest in its toy trains. By 1966, Lionel's revenue was $28 million, 40 percent from government contracts. Meanwhile, Lionel's closest competitor also was fading: in January 1967, the parent company of rival American Flyer, the A. C. Gilbert Company, went bankrupt. Lionel bought the American Flyer *brand name and product line in May of that year in a $150,000 deal; however, Lionel lacked the money to exploit them and filed bankruptcy less than four months later, on August 7, 1967\\.*",
"In 1969, Lionel's sales had declined to just over $1 million per year. Lionel sold the product die tooling for its struggling train line and leased the rights to the Lionel *brand name to the cereal company [General Mills](/wiki/General_Mills \"General Mills\"). The Lionel brand name continues today, owned by [Lionel, LLC](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC \"Lionel, LLC\"). But many Lionel train enthusiasts consider 1969 the end of the \"true Lionel trains\", due to the original Lionel Corporation divesting itself of toy train production and the changes in design and manufacture, sometimes for the worse, that took place under Lionel trains' new owners.*",
"### As a holding company (1970–1993\\)",
"After the Lionel Corporation sold the rights to manufacture trains to General Mills in 1969, the Modern Era began the following year with train products being reproduced and introduced. The Lionel Corporation would continue as a holding company. It invested in [various chains of retail stores](/wiki/Lionel_Kiddie_City \"Lionel Kiddie City\") and electronics companies while receiving royalties on toy train sales made by [General Mills](/wiki/General_Mills \"General Mills\") (later [Lionel Trains, Inc.](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC \"Lionel, LLC\")). In 1991, it sold its trademarks to Lionel Trains, Inc. for $10 million and eventually went out of business in 1993\\.\n#### Lionel MPC (1970–1986\\)",
"In 1970, after tooling purchased from the Lionel Corporation was moved to a new factory in Mt. Clemens, Michigan, limited production of Lionel trains as a new product line under MPC began. Rolling stock debuted with \"fast\\-angle wheels\" with needlepoint bearings. This new wheel design, coupled with the use of Delrin plastic trucks, reduced rolling friction that allowed for longer trains to be run and is still in use by Lionel today. Lionel also began to offer trains in a wider variety of road names and colors and with improved graphics that were not previously available during the postwar period.\n[thumb\\|A Lionel O gauge layout in New York City](/wiki/File:Lionel_Xmas_shop_O_layout_1095_AoA_jeh.jpg \"Lionel Xmas shop O layout 1095 AoA jeh.jpg\")\nIn 1971, Lionel debuted a new electronic sound system in their engines, called \"Mighty Sound of Steam,\" to replace the electro\\-mechanical air whistles of the pre\\-war and post\\-war eras. An internal reorganization in 1973 caused Lionel to become part of General Mills' Fundimensions group. A new line of scale\\-sized freight cars, called \"Standard O\", was introduced that same year. The new line of trains included the Blue Streak Freight, an entry\\-level O\\-27 gauge train set produced by Lionel. The set included a blue Jersey Central Lines steam locomotive with a 2\\-4\\-2 wheel configuration and attached tender car. Lionel integrated several features into the locomotive, including a working headlight and a smoke unit.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Coopee\\|first1\\=Todd\\|title\\=Blue Streak Freight Train from Lionel\\|url\\=https://toytales.ca/blue\\-streak\\-freight\\-train\\-lionel/\\|website\\=ToyTales.ca\\|date\\=13 August 2018}} In 1974, Lionel began to offer trains in HO scale for the first time since the postwar period; they were last cataloged in 1966\\. In 1975, Lionel introduced a 75th anniversary freight set that consisted of their U36B diesel engine and rolling stock that included images of catalog covers and logos from Lionel's past. One year later, Lionel released a model of the American Freedom Train to celebrate the nation's bicentennial.\nThe brand rose to prominence in 1976 following a series of television commercials featuring [Johnny Cash](/wiki/Johnny_Cash \"Johnny Cash\"), who was a longtime Lionel collector.{{cite book\\|title\\=Lionel Trains: A Pictorial History of Trains and Their Collectors\\|page\\=19\\|author\\=Turner Publishing\\|publisher\\=Turner Publishing Company\\|year\\=2004\\|isbn\\=1563119587}}\nIn 1979, Lionel re\\-issued the Fairbanks\\-Morse Train Master diesel locomotive and re\\-introduced the American Flyer S gauge line of trains, both of which had not been produced since 1966\\. Starting in the 1980s, Lionel began to issue more postwar\\-derived operating accessories, such as the Lumber Mill, Ice Depot, and News Stand. In 1984, they released the 783 Hudson locomotive, which descended from the 773 scale\\-sized Hudson originally made in 1950 and again in the 1960s.\n#### Lionel, LLC (1986–present)",
"{{Main\\|Lionel, LLC}}\nIn 1985, General Mills spun off its Kenner\\-Parker division, with Lionel being placed under Kenner\\-Parker. In 1986, Lionel was sold again, this time to toy train collector and real estate developer Richard P. Kughn of Detroit, Michigan; it became Lionel Trains Inc (LTI). In 1989, Lionel phased out the Mighty Sound of Steam and replaced it with what would eventually be called \"RailSounds,\" beginning with their re\\-issue of the pre\\-war B6 Pennsylvania switcher. It was rebranded as Lionel LLC in 1995\\. Lionel, LLC owns all trademarks and most of the rights associated with the Lionel Corporation.\n#### Lionel Morsan",
"In the early 1970s Lionel bought Morsan Tents from founder Mort Jarashaw. It was a small chain of sporting goods stores based in New Jersey, which became Lionel Morsan.\n### Bankruptcy and buyout",
"After the sale of its train product lines in 1969, Lionel Corporation became a holding company that specialized in toy stores. By the early 1980s, Lionel operated some 150 stores,Liebeck, Laura: \"Deja vu all over again: Lionel re\\-visits Chapter 11\", *Discount Store News*, 8 July 1991 under the names [Lionel Kiddie City, Lionel Playworld, and Lionel Toy Warehouse.](/wiki/Lionel_Kiddie_City \"Lionel Kiddie City\") For a time it was the second\\-largest toy store chain in the United States. Lionel entered financial troubles during the [early 1980s recession](/wiki/Early_1980s_recession \"Early 1980s recession\") and filed for [Chapter 11 bankruptcy](/wiki/Chapter_11%2C_Title_11%2C_United_States_Code \"Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code\") in February 1982\\. After reducing to 55 stores, it emerged from bankruptcy in September 1985\\.\nBy 1991, the chain had regrown to 100 stores and was the fourth\\-largest toy retailer in the country, but it encountered financial troubles due to a combination of factors. In 1989, Robert I. Toussie L.P., a partnership of several retail executives, attempted to buy the company. Lionel resisted and the fight drained the company of cash. Meanwhile, non\\-specialty discount stores expanded their toy sections and undercut the prices of specialty toy chains.\"Liquidations leave Toy's R US, Kay\\-Bee toying alone\", *Discount Store News,* 5 July 1993 Additionally, Lionel found it difficult to compete on price with the larger [Toys \"R\" Us](/wiki/Toys_%22R%22_Us \"Toys \"), and it attempted to expand too rapidly in a weakened economy.\"Lionel Leisure 'branches out': toy retailer acquires part ownership of closeouter\", *Discount Store News,* September 17, 1990 After a string of unprofitable quarters, it filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on June 14, 1991\\. In 1992, Lionel again tried to reverse its fortunes by merging with the bankrupt [Child World](/wiki/Child_World \"Child World\"), the United States' \\#3 toy retailer, but was unable to secure financing.Liebeck, Laura: \"Child World is grounded: rescue by Lionel falters\", *Discount Store News,* 3 August 1992 By February 1993, Lionel had closed all but 29 stores in six states, concentrating on the markets of [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), central [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\"), [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\"), [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), and south [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\").\"Lionel closing 27 stores in struggle for survival\", *Discount Store News,* 1 February 1993 Unable to reach an agreement for reorganization with its creditors, on June 2, 1993, Lionel announced its intention to liquidate all of its stores and go out of business.[One of the World's Largest and Most Prestigious Collecting Societies](http://www.tcamembers.org/articles/collecting/stockcer/index.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20041210114506/http://www.tcamembers.org/articles/collecting/stockcer/index.html \\|date\\=2004\\-12\\-10 }}\nThe Lionel trademarks were purchased by Richard Kughn, the [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan \"Detroit, Michigan\") [real estate](/wiki/Real_estate \"Real estate\") magnate who had bought the Lionel product line from General Mills in 1986\\. See [Lionel, LLC](/wiki/Lionel%2C_LLC \"Lionel, LLC\")*.*",
"Lionel trains were manufactured from 1920 to 1929 in a factory at 605 21st Street in [Irvington, New Jersey](/wiki/Irvington%2C_New_Jersey \"Irvington, New Jersey\"). The factory was destroyed by a fire on April 5, 2004\\.{{cite book \\|last\\=Osterhoff \\|first\\=Robert J. \\|year\\=2008 \\|title\\=Inside The Lionel Trains Fun Factory: The History of a Manufacturing Icon and The Place Where Childhood Dreams Were Made \\|url\\=http://projectroar.com/content/sample\\_pages/Inside%20The%20Lionel%20Trains%20Fun%20Factory%20Sample%20Pages.pdf \\|publisher\\=Project Roar Publishing \\|page\\=9 \\|isbn\\=9781933600055 \\|editor1\\-last\\=Carp \\| editor1\\-first\\=Roger \\| editor2\\-last\\=Schmid \\| editor2\\-first\\=John W. \\| editor3\\-last\\=Schmid \\| editor3\\-first\\=George J.}} According to a report from the local fire department, 100 firefighters were needed to extinguish the blaze. The building had been vacant for ten years and was in a state of disrepair, according to Fire Chief Don Huber.\nTrains were manufactured from 1929 to 1974 in the Lionel factory at 28 Sager Place in [Hillside, New Jersey](/wiki/Hillside%2C_New_Jersey \"Hillside, New Jersey\").{{verify source\\|date\\=November 2019}}\nPhotos of both New Jersey factories in derelict state prior to their demise can be seen at the ihorse.com Web site.[Factories of the LIONEL CORP](http://www.ihorse.com/factory.htm)\nThe building that housed the last Lionel office is located at 26750 23 Mile Road, [Chesterfield, Michigan](/wiki/Chesterfield%2C_Michigan \"Chesterfield, Michigan\"); as of March 31, 2017, the building was available for lease.{{cite web\\|title\\=26750 23 Mile 1, Chesterfield Twp, MI 48051 (MLS ID 31279045\\)\\|url\\=http://commercial.century21\\.com/listing/26750\\-23\\-mile\\-1\\-chesterfield\\-twp\\-mi\\-48051\\-REN022366004\\|website\\=Century21 Commercial\\|publisher\\=Century 21 Real Estate LLC\\|access\\-date\\=31 March 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401145230/http://commercial.century21\\.com/listing/26750\\-23\\-mile\\-1\\-chesterfield\\-twp\\-mi\\-48051\\-REN022366004\\|archive\\-date\\=1 April 2017}} The former Lionel assembly factory was located at 50625 Richard W. Blvd, Chesterfield — a short drive from the office building.\nGames licensed by Lionel Corporation\n------------------------------------",
"* [Lionel Trains: On Track](/wiki/Lionel_Trains:On_Track \"On Track\")*: Nintendo DS game*\n* [3D Ultra Lionel Traintown](/wiki/3D_Ultra_Lionel_Traintown \"3D Ultra Lionel Traintown\") *(and its sequel,* Deluxe''): Windows game"
] |
Naval career
------------
Lyons was appointed to the [fifth\-rate](/wiki/Fifth-rate "Fifth-rate") [HMS *Cambrian*](/wiki/HMS_Cambrian_%281841%29 "HMS Cambrian (1841)") on the [East Indies and China Station](/wiki/East_Indies_and_China_Station "East Indies and China Station") and then transferred to the [second\-rate](/wiki/Second-rate "Second-rate") [HMS *Albion*](/wiki/HMS_Albion_%281842%29 "HMS Albion (1842)"), flagship of his uncle, [Sir Edmund Lyons](/wiki/Edmund_Lyons%2C_1st_Baron_Lyons "Edmund Lyons, 1st Baron Lyons"), who was Second\-in\-Command of the [Mediterranean Fleet](/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet "Mediterranean Fleet"), in 1853\.Heathcote, p. 159
[thumb\|upright\=1\.4\|The [Battle of Kinburn](/wiki/Battle_of_Kinburn_%281855%29 "Battle of Kinburn (1855)") in October 1855](/wiki/File:Anonimo_Bombardamento_e_presa_del_forte_di_Kinburn_incisione_L%27Illustration_15_dic_1855_Parigi.JPG "Anonimo Bombardamento e presa del forte di Kinburn incisione L'Illustration 15 dic 1855 Parigi.JPG")
Lyons was promoted to [mate](/wiki/Mate_%28naval_officer%29 "Mate (naval officer)") in October 1853 and transferred to the paddle frigate [HMS *Firebrand*](/wiki/HMS_Firebrand_%281842%29 "HMS Firebrand (1842)"), which was engaged in the blockade of the [Danube Delta](/wiki/Danube_Delta "Danube Delta"), which was being held by the Russians at the start of the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War "Crimean War"). Lyons was promoted to [lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant_%28Royal_Navy%29 "Lieutenant (Royal Navy)") on 26 June 1854\.
### Lyons’s Rampage at the Danube
During the blockade of the mouth of the Danube, Captain Parker, Lyons's commanding officer, decided to attack the guardhouses and signal stations higher up the River, for these were responsible for the supply and communication of the Russian enemy. On 8 July, Captain Parker proceeded up the Danube, the banks of which were lined by Cossacks, who opened fire. When he reached the first Russian fort, defended by a stockade and a battery, Captain Parker was shot and killed by a Cossack.
When Parker was killed, Lyons took control of the British boats and proceeded to destroy not only the first Russian signal station, but the next four signal stations up the River, causing the Russians to flee. For this, he was [mentioned in dispatches](/wiki/Mentioned_in_dispatches "Mentioned in dispatches").
Lyons then became commander of HMS Firebrand for the [bombardment of Sevastopol](/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_%281854%E2%80%9355%29 "Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55)") in October 1854, which was led by his uncle, [Admiral Edmund Lyons, 1st Baron Lyons](/wiki/Edmund_Lyons%2C_1st_Baron_Lyons "Edmund Lyons, 1st Baron Lyons"). When the British flagship, HMS *Albion*, was set on fire by the Russians, Lyons attached it, whilst burning, to his own ship and towed it to safety.
### Kerch and Kinburn
In December 1854, Lyons's uncle [Edmund Lyons, 1st Baron Lyons](/wiki/Edmund_Lyons%2C_1st_Baron_Lyons "Edmund Lyons, 1st Baron Lyons"), became [Commander in Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet](/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet "Mediterranean Fleet") and appointed Lyons as his [Flag\-Lieutenant](/wiki/Flag_Lieutenant "Flag Lieutenant"). Lyons commanded the [first\-rate](/wiki/First-rate "First-rate") [HMS *Royal Albert*](/wiki/HMS_Royal_Albert_%281854%29 "HMS Royal Albert (1854)"), in December 1854 during the operations at [Kerch](/wiki/Kerch "Kerch") in October 1854 and at the [Battle of Kinburn](/wiki/Battle_of_Kinburn_%281855%29 "Battle of Kinburn (1855)") in October 1855\.Heathcote, p. 160 He was promoted to [commander](/wiki/Commander "Commander") on 9 August.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.pdavis.nl/ShowBiog.php?id\=1377 \|title\=Algernon Lyons\|publisher\=William Loney\|access\-date\=28 December 2014}}
### American Civil War
Lyons became commanding officer of the [sloop](/wiki/Sloop-of-war "Sloop-of-war") [HMS *Racer*](/wiki/HMS_Racer_%281857%29 "HMS Racer (1857)") on the [North America and West Indies Station](/wiki/North_America_and_West_Indies_Station "North America and West Indies Station") in May 1860\. In HMS *Racer* he had the difficult task of protecting British merchant vessels seeking to evade the blockade being imposed by the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") on [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America "Confederate States of America") ports.
### Pacific Station
Lyons was promoted to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28Royal_Navy%29 "Captain (Royal Navy)") on 1 December 1862\. He became commanding officer of the [corvette](/wiki/Corvette "Corvette") [HMS *Charybdis*](/wiki/HMS_Charybdis_%281859%29 "HMS Charybdis (1859)") on the [Pacific Station](/wiki/Pacific_Station "Pacific Station") in January 1867 and commanding officer of the [frigate](/wiki/Frigate "Frigate") {{HMS\|Immortalité\|1859\|6}} in a detached squadron in October 1872\.
He was appointed [Commodore\-in\-Charge at Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica_Dockyard "Jamaica Dockyard") in 1875\. In April 1878 he became commanding officer of the armoured turret ship [HMS *Monarch*](/wiki/HMS_Monarch_%281868%29 "HMS Monarch (1868)") in the [Mediterranean Fleet](/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet "Mediterranean Fleet") in April 1878\. He was deployed to [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople") during his tour in HMS *Monarch*.
### Admiral
Lyons was promoted to [rear\-admiral](/wiki/Rear-admiral "Rear-admiral") on 26 September 1878\.{{London Gazette\|issue\=24629\|page\=5372\|date\=1 October 1878}} He became Commander\-in\-Chief, [Pacific Station](/wiki/Pacific_Station "Pacific Station"), with his flag in the armoured ship [HMS *Swiftsure*](/wiki/HMS_Swiftsure_%281870%29 "HMS Swiftsure (1870)"), in December 1881\. On 27 October 1884, he was promoted to [vice\-admiral](/wiki/Vice-admiral "Vice-admiral").{{London Gazette\| issue \= 25409\| date \= 28 October 1884\| page \= 4653}} He became Commander\-in\-Chief of the [North America and West Indies Station](/wiki/North_America_and_West_Indies_Station "North America and West Indies Station") in September 1886: in this position, his flagship was the [central battery ship](/wiki/Central_battery_ship "Central battery ship") [HMS *Bellerophon*](/wiki/HMS_Bellerophon_%281865%29 "HMS Bellerophon (1865)"), in September 1886\.
[thumb\|left\|The [central battery ship](/wiki/Central_battery_ship "Central battery ship") [HMS *Bellerophon*](/wiki/HMS_Bellerophon_%281865%29 "HMS Bellerophon (1865)"), Lyons's flagship as Commander\-in\-Chief, North America and West Indies Station](/wiki/File:HMS_Bellerophon_%281865%29.jpg "HMS Bellerophon (1865).jpg")
Lyons was promoted to [admiral](/wiki/Admiral "Admiral") on 15 December 1888{{London Gazette\|issue\=25883\|page\=7140\|date\=14 December 1888}} and appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in 1889\.{{London Gazette\|issue\=25939\|page\=2873\|date\=25 May 1889}}
### Admiral of the Fleet
He was appointed [Commander\-in\-Chief, Plymouth](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief%2C_Plymouth "Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth"), in June 1892\. He became a [Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath](/wiki/Knight_Grand_Cross_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath "Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath") in June 1897{{London Gazette\|issue\=26867\|page\=3567\|date\=25 June 1897}} and was promoted [Admiral of the Fleet](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_%28Royal_Navy%29 "Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)") on 23 August 1897\.{{London Gazette\|issue\=26885\|page\=4726\|date\=24 August 1897}} In February 1895, he was appointed [First and Principal Naval Aide\-de\-Camp](/wiki/List_of_First_and_Principal_Naval_Aides-de-Camp "List of First and Principal Naval Aides-de-Camp") to [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria").{{London Gazette\|issue\=26601\|page\=1066\|date\=22 February 1895}}
He was a Deputy Lieutenant{{London Gazette\|issue\=25606\|page\=3333\|date\=9 July 1886}} and Justice of the Peace for [Glamorgan](/wiki/Glamorgan "Glamorgan").
He retired on 30 August 1903\.{{London Gazette\|issue\=27593\|page\=5476\|date\=1 September 1903}}
[thumb\|[Kilvrough Manor](/wiki/Kilvrough_Manor "Kilvrough Manor"), the Lyons family home in Glamorgan](/wiki/File:Kilvrough_Manor.jpg "Kilvrough Manor.jpg")
|
[
"Naval career\n------------",
"Lyons was appointed to the [fifth\\-rate](/wiki/Fifth-rate \"Fifth-rate\") [HMS *Cambrian*](/wiki/HMS_Cambrian_%281841%29 \"HMS Cambrian (1841)\") on the [East Indies and China Station](/wiki/East_Indies_and_China_Station \"East Indies and China Station\") and then transferred to the [second\\-rate](/wiki/Second-rate \"Second-rate\") [HMS *Albion*](/wiki/HMS_Albion_%281842%29 \"HMS Albion (1842)\"), flagship of his uncle, [Sir Edmund Lyons](/wiki/Edmund_Lyons%2C_1st_Baron_Lyons \"Edmund Lyons, 1st Baron Lyons\"), who was Second\\-in\\-Command of the [Mediterranean Fleet](/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet \"Mediterranean Fleet\"), in 1853\\.Heathcote, p. 159\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.4\\|The [Battle of Kinburn](/wiki/Battle_of_Kinburn_%281855%29 \"Battle of Kinburn (1855)\") in October 1855](/wiki/File:Anonimo_Bombardamento_e_presa_del_forte_di_Kinburn_incisione_L%27Illustration_15_dic_1855_Parigi.JPG \"Anonimo Bombardamento e presa del forte di Kinburn incisione L'Illustration 15 dic 1855 Parigi.JPG\")",
"Lyons was promoted to [mate](/wiki/Mate_%28naval_officer%29 \"Mate (naval officer)\") in October 1853 and transferred to the paddle frigate [HMS *Firebrand*](/wiki/HMS_Firebrand_%281842%29 \"HMS Firebrand (1842)\"), which was engaged in the blockade of the [Danube Delta](/wiki/Danube_Delta \"Danube Delta\"), which was being held by the Russians at the start of the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\"). Lyons was promoted to [lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant_%28Royal_Navy%29 \"Lieutenant (Royal Navy)\") on 26 June 1854\\.",
"### Lyons’s Rampage at the Danube",
"During the blockade of the mouth of the Danube, Captain Parker, Lyons's commanding officer, decided to attack the guardhouses and signal stations higher up the River, for these were responsible for the supply and communication of the Russian enemy. On 8 July, Captain Parker proceeded up the Danube, the banks of which were lined by Cossacks, who opened fire. When he reached the first Russian fort, defended by a stockade and a battery, Captain Parker was shot and killed by a Cossack.",
"When Parker was killed, Lyons took control of the British boats and proceeded to destroy not only the first Russian signal station, but the next four signal stations up the River, causing the Russians to flee. For this, he was [mentioned in dispatches](/wiki/Mentioned_in_dispatches \"Mentioned in dispatches\").",
"Lyons then became commander of HMS Firebrand for the [bombardment of Sevastopol](/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_%281854%E2%80%9355%29 \"Siege of Sevastopol (1854–55)\") in October 1854, which was led by his uncle, [Admiral Edmund Lyons, 1st Baron Lyons](/wiki/Edmund_Lyons%2C_1st_Baron_Lyons \"Edmund Lyons, 1st Baron Lyons\"). When the British flagship, HMS *Albion*, was set on fire by the Russians, Lyons attached it, whilst burning, to his own ship and towed it to safety.",
"### Kerch and Kinburn",
"In December 1854, Lyons's uncle [Edmund Lyons, 1st Baron Lyons](/wiki/Edmund_Lyons%2C_1st_Baron_Lyons \"Edmund Lyons, 1st Baron Lyons\"), became [Commander in Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet](/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet \"Mediterranean Fleet\") and appointed Lyons as his [Flag\\-Lieutenant](/wiki/Flag_Lieutenant \"Flag Lieutenant\"). Lyons commanded the [first\\-rate](/wiki/First-rate \"First-rate\") [HMS *Royal Albert*](/wiki/HMS_Royal_Albert_%281854%29 \"HMS Royal Albert (1854)\"), in December 1854 during the operations at [Kerch](/wiki/Kerch \"Kerch\") in October 1854 and at the [Battle of Kinburn](/wiki/Battle_of_Kinburn_%281855%29 \"Battle of Kinburn (1855)\") in October 1855\\.Heathcote, p. 160 He was promoted to [commander](/wiki/Commander \"Commander\") on 9 August.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pdavis.nl/ShowBiog.php?id\\=1377 \\|title\\=Algernon Lyons\\|publisher\\=William Loney\\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2014}}",
"### American Civil War",
"Lyons became commanding officer of the [sloop](/wiki/Sloop-of-war \"Sloop-of-war\") [HMS *Racer*](/wiki/HMS_Racer_%281857%29 \"HMS Racer (1857)\") on the [North America and West Indies Station](/wiki/North_America_and_West_Indies_Station \"North America and West Indies Station\") in May 1860\\. In HMS *Racer* he had the difficult task of protecting British merchant vessels seeking to evade the blockade being imposed by the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") on [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\") ports.",
"### Pacific Station",
"Lyons was promoted to [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28Royal_Navy%29 \"Captain (Royal Navy)\") on 1 December 1862\\. He became commanding officer of the [corvette](/wiki/Corvette \"Corvette\") [HMS *Charybdis*](/wiki/HMS_Charybdis_%281859%29 \"HMS Charybdis (1859)\") on the [Pacific Station](/wiki/Pacific_Station \"Pacific Station\") in January 1867 and commanding officer of the [frigate](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\") {{HMS\\|Immortalité\\|1859\\|6}} in a detached squadron in October 1872\\.\nHe was appointed [Commodore\\-in\\-Charge at Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica_Dockyard \"Jamaica Dockyard\") in 1875\\. In April 1878 he became commanding officer of the armoured turret ship [HMS *Monarch*](/wiki/HMS_Monarch_%281868%29 \"HMS Monarch (1868)\") in the [Mediterranean Fleet](/wiki/Mediterranean_Fleet \"Mediterranean Fleet\") in April 1878\\. He was deployed to [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\") during his tour in HMS *Monarch*.",
"### Admiral",
"Lyons was promoted to [rear\\-admiral](/wiki/Rear-admiral \"Rear-admiral\") on 26 September 1878\\.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=24629\\|page\\=5372\\|date\\=1 October 1878}} He became Commander\\-in\\-Chief, [Pacific Station](/wiki/Pacific_Station \"Pacific Station\"), with his flag in the armoured ship [HMS *Swiftsure*](/wiki/HMS_Swiftsure_%281870%29 \"HMS Swiftsure (1870)\"), in December 1881\\. On 27 October 1884, he was promoted to [vice\\-admiral](/wiki/Vice-admiral \"Vice-admiral\").{{London Gazette\\| issue \\= 25409\\| date \\= 28 October 1884\\| page \\= 4653}} He became Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the [North America and West Indies Station](/wiki/North_America_and_West_Indies_Station \"North America and West Indies Station\") in September 1886: in this position, his flagship was the [central battery ship](/wiki/Central_battery_ship \"Central battery ship\") [HMS *Bellerophon*](/wiki/HMS_Bellerophon_%281865%29 \"HMS Bellerophon (1865)\"), in September 1886\\.\n[thumb\\|left\\|The [central battery ship](/wiki/Central_battery_ship \"Central battery ship\") [HMS *Bellerophon*](/wiki/HMS_Bellerophon_%281865%29 \"HMS Bellerophon (1865)\"), Lyons's flagship as Commander\\-in\\-Chief, North America and West Indies Station](/wiki/File:HMS_Bellerophon_%281865%29.jpg \"HMS Bellerophon (1865).jpg\")",
"Lyons was promoted to [admiral](/wiki/Admiral \"Admiral\") on 15 December 1888{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=25883\\|page\\=7140\\|date\\=14 December 1888}} and appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in 1889\\.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=25939\\|page\\=2873\\|date\\=25 May 1889}}",
"### Admiral of the Fleet",
"He was appointed [Commander\\-in\\-Chief, Plymouth](/wiki/Commander-in-Chief%2C_Plymouth \"Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth\"), in June 1892\\. He became a [Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath](/wiki/Knight_Grand_Cross_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath \"Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath\") in June 1897{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=26867\\|page\\=3567\\|date\\=25 June 1897}} and was promoted [Admiral of the Fleet](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_%28Royal_Navy%29 \"Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)\") on 23 August 1897\\.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=26885\\|page\\=4726\\|date\\=24 August 1897}} In February 1895, he was appointed [First and Principal Naval Aide\\-de\\-Camp](/wiki/List_of_First_and_Principal_Naval_Aides-de-Camp \"List of First and Principal Naval Aides-de-Camp\") to [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\").{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=26601\\|page\\=1066\\|date\\=22 February 1895}}",
"He was a Deputy Lieutenant{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=25606\\|page\\=3333\\|date\\=9 July 1886}} and Justice of the Peace for [Glamorgan](/wiki/Glamorgan \"Glamorgan\").",
"He retired on 30 August 1903\\.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=27593\\|page\\=5476\\|date\\=1 September 1903}}\n[thumb\\|[Kilvrough Manor](/wiki/Kilvrough_Manor \"Kilvrough Manor\"), the Lyons family home in Glamorgan](/wiki/File:Kilvrough_Manor.jpg \"Kilvrough Manor.jpg\")",
""
] |
Batteries
---------
[thumb\|Geographic distribution of critical minerals for Li\-ion batteries.](/wiki/File:LiBs-Critical.png "LiBs-Critical.png")
The [electric vehicle battery](/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery "Electric vehicle battery") accounts for 30–40% of the value of the vehicle. There is rapidly growing demand for its components because of growth in the electric vehicle market as well as in [battery storage power stations](/wiki/Battery_storage_power_station "Battery storage power station"). This is driven largely by the ongoing [transition to renewable energy](/wiki/Energy_transition "Energy transition").
The [Li\-NMC type](/wiki/Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxides "Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides") uses the [critical minerals](/wiki/Technology-critical_element "Technology-critical element") [lithium](/wiki/Lithium "Lithium"), [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt "Cobalt"), [nickel](/wiki/Nickel "Nickel"), and [manganese](/wiki/Manganese "Manganese"). This imposes limits on large\-scale adoption of this type. High concentration from resources to market heightens risk for power lithium\-ion battery supply chains globally. 2023\. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 30/24, 65558\-71\. Y. Miao, L. Liu, K. Xu, J. Li. doi: 10\.1007/s11356\-023\-27035\-9\. These three elements are concentrated in only 12 countries, with [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia") being the only country that has all three.{{Cite web \|last\=Mills \|first\=Ryan \|date\=2023\-03\-08 \|title\=EV Batteries 101: Supply Chains \|url\=https://rmi.org/ev\-batteries\-101\-supply\-chains/ \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-17 \|website\=\[\[Rocky Mountain Institute]] \|language\=en\-US}}
The [Lithium iron phosphate battery](/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery "Lithium iron phosphate battery") (LFP), which has become the leading technology in China, is more sustainable. The [sodium\-ion battery](/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery "Sodium-ion battery") (Na\-ion) completely avoids the need for critical minerals.{{cite web \|title\=Global EV Outlook 2023: Trends in batteries \|url\=https://www.iea.org/reports/global\-ev\-outlook\-2023/trends\-in\-batteries \|publisher\=IEA \|location\=Paris}}
| | Li\-NMC | LFP | Sodium\-ion |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| global BEV market share | 59%{{cite web \|title\=Global EV Outlook 2024 \|url\=https://www.iea.org/reports/global\-ev\-outlook\-2024 \|publisher\=IEA \|access\-date\=12 May 2024 \|location\=Paris \|date\=2024}}{{rp\|85}} | 41% | \<1% (high potential){{cite web \|last1\=Stephan \|first1\=Annegret \|title\=Alternatives to lithium\-ion batteries: potentials and challenges of alternative battery technologies \|url\=https://www.isi.fraunhofer.de/en/blog/themen/batterie\-update/alternative\-batterie\-technologien\-lithium\-ionen\-potenziale\-herausforderungen.html \|publisher\=Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI \|date\=2024\-02\-06}} |
| lithium | X | X | \- |
| manganese | X | \- | \- |
| nickel | X | \- | \- |
| cobalt | X | \- | \- |
Securing the [supply chain](/wiki/Supply_chain "Supply chain") for these materials is a major world economic issue.{{cite journal \|last1\=Zeng \|first1\=Anqi \|last2\=Chen \|first2\=Wu \|last3\=Rasmussen \|first3\=Kasper Dalgas \|last4\=Zhu \|first4\=Xuehong \|last5\=Lundhaug \|first5\=Maren \|last6\=Müller \|first6\=Daniel B. \|last7\=Tan \|first7\=Juan \|last8\=Keiding \|first8\=Jakob K. \|last9\=Liu \|first9\=Litao \|last10\=Dai \|first10\=Tao \|last11\=Wang \|first11\=Anjian \|last12\=Liu \|first12\=Gang \|title\=Battery technology and recycling alone will not save the electric mobility transition from future cobalt shortages \|journal\=Nature Communications \|date\=15 March 2022 \|volume\=13 \|issue\=1 \|page\=1341 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41467\-022\-29022\-z \|pmid\=35292628 \|pmc\=8924274 \|bibcode\=2022NatCo..13\.1341Z }} It has been estimated that battery recycling can provide up to 60% of market demand for the three critical elements. Recycling and advancement in battery technology are proposed strategies to reduce demand for raw materials. Recycling lithium\-ion batteries in particular reduces energy consumption. Supply chain issues could create bottlenecks, increase costs of EVs and slow their uptake.{{Cite book \|title\=Global Supply Chains of EV Batteries \|publisher\=\[\[International Energy Agency]] \|year\=2022}}{{Cite news \|last\=Ziegler \|first\=Bart \|title\=Electric Vehicles Require Lots of Scarce Parts. Is the Supply Chain Up to It? \|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/electric\-vehicles\-scarce\-parts\-supply\-chain\-11668206037 \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-26 \|newspaper\=Wall Street Journal \|date\=12 November 2022 \|language\=en\-US}} Nations set up incentives for domestic growth in the market, to further secure their stake in the supply chain.
Deposits of critical minerals are concentrated in a small number of countries, mostly in the [Global South](/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South "Global North and Global South"). Mining these deposits presents dangers to nearby communities because of weak regulation, corruption, and [environmental degradation](/wiki/Environmental_degradation "Environmental degradation"). The mining impacts the quality of the food and water local communities depend upon, and the metals end up in their bodies. Miners also experience low pay, dangerous conditions, and violent treatment.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Calvão \|first1\=Filipe \|last2\=McDonald \|first2\=Catherine \|last3\=Bolay \|first3\=Matthieu \|date\=December 2021 \|title\=Cobalt mining and the corporate outsourcing of responsibility in the Democratic Republic of Congo \|journal\=The Extractive Industries and Society \|volume\=8 \|issue\=4 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.exis.2021\.02\.004 \|bibcode\=2021ExIS....800884C }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice\|cc\=by4\|from this source\=yes}}{{cite book \|last1\=Kara \|first1\=Siddharth \|title\=Cobalt Red: How the Blood of the Congo Powers Our Lives \|date\=2023 \|publisher\=St. Martin's Publishing Group \|isbn\=978\-1\-250\-28429\-7 \|page\=130 }} Electric vehicles require more of these critical minerals than most cars, amplifying these effects. These communities face [human rights](/wiki/Human_rights "Human rights") violations, [environmental justice](/wiki/Environmental_justice "Environmental justice") issues, problems with child labour, and potentially generational legacies of contamination from mining activities. Environmental justice issues arising from the supply chain affect the entire globe, through depredation of the atmosphere from pollution byproduct. Manufacture of battery technology is largely dominated by China. However, burning less [petroleum products](/wiki/Petroleum_product "Petroleum product") in vehicles can reduce the [environmental impact of the petroleum industry](/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry "Environmental impact of the petroleum industry") because, {{As of\|2023\|lc\=y}}, most petroleum is used in vehicles.{{cite news \|last1\=Sanicola \|first1\=Laura \|title\=How electric vehicles are accelerating the end of the oil age \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos\-transportation/how\-electric\-vehicles\-are\-accelerating\-end\-oil\-age\-2023\-12\-06/ \|work\=Reuters \|date\=6 December 2023 }}
The battery supply chain includes:
**Upstream activities** include mining for required raw materials, which include critical materials such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, manganese, and graphite as well as other required minerals such as [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper").{{cite news \|last1\=Brinn \|first1\=Jordan \|title\=Electric Vehicle Battery Supply Chains: The Basics \|url\=https://www.nrdc.org/bio/jordan\-brinn/electric\-vehicle\-battery\-supply\-chains\-basics \|work\=NRDC \|date\=7 July 2022 }}
**Midstream activities** include refining and smelting of raw mineral ores with heat or chemical treatment to achieve the high\-purity materials required for batteries, as well as the manufacture of [cathodes](/wiki/Cathode "Cathode") and [anodes](/wiki/Anode "Anode") for battery cells. Lower environmental impacts for refining can be achieved by decarbonized electricity generation, automated process control, exhaust gas cleaning, and recycling used electrolytes.
**Downstream activities** include manufacturing of the batteries and end goods for the consumer. The production of lithium batteries in China has nearly three times higher emissions than the US because electricity generation in China relies more on coal.
**End of life activities** include recycling or recovery of materials when possible.
Disposal of spent LIBs without recycling could be detrimental to the environment. Recycling lithium\-ion batteries reduces energy consumption, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and results in 51\.3% natural resource savings when compared to discarding them in landfills.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Boyden \|first1\=Anna \|last2\=Kie Soo \|first2\=Vi \|last3\=Doolan \|first3\=Matthew \|date\=2016 \|title\=The Environmental Impacts of Recycling Portable Lithium\-Ion Batteries \|journal\=Procedia CIRP \|volume\=48 \|pages\=188–193 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.procir.2016\.03\.100 \|doi\-access\=free }} Recycling can potentially lower the overall energy emissions of battery production as the LIB recycling industry grows larger. When not recycled, the disposal of cobalt extraction involves non\-sulfidic tailings, which has an impact on land use.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Farjana \|first1\=Shahjadi \|last2\=Huda \|first2\=Nazmul \|last3\=Mahmud \|first3\=Parvez \|date\=August 2019 \|title\=Life cycle assessment of cobalt extraction process \|journal\=Journal of Sustainable Mining \|volume\=18 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=150–161 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jsm.2019\.03\.002 \|hdl\=10536/DRO/DU:30135831 \|hdl\-access\=free }} Even in the recycling process, CO2 emissions are still produced, continuing to impact the environment regardless of how LIBs are disposed.
Recycling of battery minerals is limited but is expected to rise in the 2030s when there are more spent batteries. Increasing recycling would bring considerable social and environmental benefits.{{Cite web \|title\=Reliable supply of minerals – The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions – Analysis \|url\=https://www.iea.org/reports/the\-role\-of\-critical\-minerals\-in\-clean\-energy\-transitions/reliable\-supply\-of\-minerals \|access\-date\=2023\-04\-17 \|website\=IEA \|language\=en\-GB}}
### Countries roles in the supply chain
{{Seealso\|Electric vehicle industry in China}}
[thumb\|331x331px\|Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain{{cite web \|date\=2024 \|title\=Batteries and secure energy transitions \|url\=https://www.iea.org/reports/batteries\-and\-secure\-energy\-transitions \|publisher\=IEA \|location\=Paris}}{{rp\|58}}](/wiki/File:Geographical_distribution_of_the_global_battery_supply_chain.png "Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain.png")
[China](/wiki/China "China") dominates the electric car industry, accounting for three\-quarters of global lithium\-ion battery production. Most refining of [lithium](/wiki/Lithium "Lithium"), [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt "Cobalt"), and [graphite](/wiki/Graphite "Graphite") takes place in China. Japan and Korea host significant midstream cell manufacturing and downstream supply chain activities. Europe and the United States have a relatively small share of the supply chain.
In 2021, 3\.3 million EVs were sold in China, up 400% from 2019 and higher than the global sales in 2020\.
Upstream activities (mining and processing) largely take place in countries with [extractivist](/wiki/Extractivism "Extractivism") economies such as [Chile](/wiki/Mining_in_Chile "Mining in Chile") and the [Democratic Republic of the Congo](/wiki/Mining_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Congo "Mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo"). Nickel is mined in [Australia](/wiki/Nickel_mining_in_Western_Australia "Nickel mining in Western Australia"),{{cite news \|title\=About 50kg of nickel goes into each Tesla battery but the world isn't producing enough to keep up with demand \|url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022\-08\-16/nickel\-metal\-batteries\-energy\-race\-to\-produce\-to\-match\-demand/101334424 \|work\=ABC \|date\=15 August 2022}} [Russia](/wiki/Norilsk_Nickel "Norilsk Nickel"),{{cite news \|title\=Biden’s sanctions of Russian energy give electric vehicle batteries a pass \|url\=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/10/energy/russia\-sanctions\-energy\-nickel/index.html \|work\=CNN \|date\=10 March 2022}} [New Caledonia](/wiki/Nickel_mining_in_New_Caledonia "Nickel mining in New Caledonia") and [Indonesia](/wiki/Nickel_mining_in_Indonesia "Nickel mining in Indonesia").{{cite news \|title\=New Caledonia unrest pushes nickel sector deeper into crisis \|url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/live\-news/20240528\-new\-caledonia\-unrest\-pushes\-nickel\-sector\-deeper\-into\-crisis \|work\=France 24 \|date\=28 May 2024}}{{cite news \|title\=Indonesia’s massive metals build\-out is felling the forest for batteries \|url\=https://apnews.com/article/indonesia\-nickel\-deforestation\-rainforest\-mining\-tesla\-ev\-184550cddf1df6aad8e883862ab366df \|work\=AP News \|date\=15 July 2024}} Cobalt si mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.{{cite news \|title\=How 'modern\-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy \|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red\-cobalt\-congo\-drc\-mining\-siddharth\-kara \|work\=\[\[NPR]] \|date\=1 February 2023}}
In April 2024, the United States and the United Kingdom announced a ban on imports of [aluminum](/wiki/Aluminum "Aluminum"), [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper"), and [nickel](/wiki/Nickel "Nickel") from Russia.{{cite news \|title\=US, UK take action targeting Russian aluminum, copper and nickel \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us\-takes\-action\-targeting\-russian\-aluminum\-copper\-nickel\-2024\-04\-12/ \|work\=Reuters \|date\=12 April 2024}} China is [Norilsk Nickel](/wiki/Norilsk_Nickel "Norilsk Nickel")'s largest export market since 2023\.{{cite news \|title\=Nornickel weighs projects in new top market China \|url\=https://www.miningweekly.com/article/nornickel\-weighs\-projects\-in\-new\-top\-market\-china\-2024\-07\-19 \|work\=Mining Weekly \|date\=19 July 2024}}
### Other components
EVs have fewer parts than ICEs. On average, a motor for an electric car has about 20 moving parts, but a comparable ICE would have 200 or more.
Some electric vehicles motors are [permanent magnet motors](/wiki/Permanent_magnet_motor "Permanent magnet motor") that require [rare\-earth elements](/wiki/Rare-earth_element "Rare-earth element") such as [neodymium](/wiki/Neodymium "Neodymium") and [dysprosium](/wiki/Dysprosium "Dysprosium"). Production of these materials is also dominated by China and poses environmental problems. An alternative motor is the [AC induction motor](/wiki/Induction_motor "Induction motor"), which does not use these minerals but requires additional [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper").
These components also contribute to the environmental justice issues caused by the extraction of cobalt and other mineral resources, just as batteries do. Radioactive dust and mine sewage from mining for these resources contribute to environmental impacts.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Schreiber \|first1\=Andrea \|last2\=Marx \|first2\=Josefine \|last3\=Zapp \|first3\=Petra \|date\=October 15, 2021 \|title\=Life Cycle Assessment studies of rare earths production \- Findings from a systematic review \|journal\=Science of the Total Environment \|volume\=791 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.scitotenv.2021\.148257 \|bibcode\=2021ScTEn.79148257S }} Another aspect of the pipeline, metal refining, contributes to the environmental impacts through production of electrolytes, electricity consumption, and used cathodes. Used Cathodes amplify the toxicity of marine ecosystems by the leaching of heavy metals during the smelting process.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Dong \|first1\=Di \|last2\=van Oers \|first2\=Lauran \|last3\=Tukker \|first3\=Arnold \|last4\=van der Voet \|first4\=Ester \|date\=November 20, 2020 \|title\=Assessing the future environmental impacts of copper production in China: Implications of the energy transition \|journal\=Journal of Cleaner Production \|volume\=274 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jclepro.2020\.122825 \|bibcode\=2020JCPro.27422825D \|hdl\=1887/3133500 \|hdl\-access\=free }} The result of cobalt presence in the soil is its accumulation in plants, and their fruits. High cobalt amounts accumulate in the rest of the food chain, reaching land and air animals. Effects of excess cobalt include lower animal weight gain and a higher birth mortality.{{Cite book \|last1\=Srivastava \|first1\=Prashant \|title\=Appraisal of Metal(loids) in the Ecosystem \|last2\=Bolan \|first2\=Nanthi \|last3\=Casagrande \|first3\=Veronica \|last4\=Joshua \|first4\=Benjamin \|publisher\=Elsevier \|year\=2022 \|isbn\=978\-0\-323\-85621\-8 \|pages\=81–104 \|language\=en}}
Electric vehicles require more semiconductors than internal combustion engines (ICEs). Taiwan is the world's largest producer of semiconductors.
|
[
"Batteries\n---------",
"[thumb\\|Geographic distribution of critical minerals for Li\\-ion batteries.](/wiki/File:LiBs-Critical.png \"LiBs-Critical.png\") \nThe [electric vehicle battery](/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery \"Electric vehicle battery\") accounts for 30–40% of the value of the vehicle. There is rapidly growing demand for its components because of growth in the electric vehicle market as well as in [battery storage power stations](/wiki/Battery_storage_power_station \"Battery storage power station\"). This is driven largely by the ongoing [transition to renewable energy](/wiki/Energy_transition \"Energy transition\").",
"The [Li\\-NMC type](/wiki/Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxides \"Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides\") uses the [critical minerals](/wiki/Technology-critical_element \"Technology-critical element\") [lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\"), [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt \"Cobalt\"), [nickel](/wiki/Nickel \"Nickel\"), and [manganese](/wiki/Manganese \"Manganese\"). This imposes limits on large\\-scale adoption of this type. High concentration from resources to market heightens risk for power lithium\\-ion battery supply chains globally. 2023\\. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 30/24, 65558\\-71\\. Y. Miao, L. Liu, K. Xu, J. Li. doi: 10\\.1007/s11356\\-023\\-27035\\-9\\. These three elements are concentrated in only 12 countries, with [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") being the only country that has all three.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Mills \\|first\\=Ryan \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-08 \\|title\\=EV Batteries 101: Supply Chains \\|url\\=https://rmi.org/ev\\-batteries\\-101\\-supply\\-chains/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-17 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Rocky Mountain Institute]] \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"The [Lithium iron phosphate battery](/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery \"Lithium iron phosphate battery\") (LFP), which has become the leading technology in China, is more sustainable. The [sodium\\-ion battery](/wiki/Sodium-ion_battery \"Sodium-ion battery\") (Na\\-ion) completely avoids the need for critical minerals.{{cite web \\|title\\=Global EV Outlook 2023: Trends in batteries \\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/reports/global\\-ev\\-outlook\\-2023/trends\\-in\\-batteries \\|publisher\\=IEA \\|location\\=Paris}}",
"",
"| | Li\\-NMC | LFP | Sodium\\-ion |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| global BEV market share | 59%{{cite web \\|title\\=Global EV Outlook 2024 \\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/reports/global\\-ev\\-outlook\\-2024 \\|publisher\\=IEA \\|access\\-date\\=12 May 2024 \\|location\\=Paris \\|date\\=2024}}{{rp\\|85}} | 41% | \\<1% (high potential){{cite web \\|last1\\=Stephan \\|first1\\=Annegret \\|title\\=Alternatives to lithium\\-ion batteries: potentials and challenges of alternative battery technologies \\|url\\=https://www.isi.fraunhofer.de/en/blog/themen/batterie\\-update/alternative\\-batterie\\-technologien\\-lithium\\-ionen\\-potenziale\\-herausforderungen.html \\|publisher\\=Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI \\|date\\=2024\\-02\\-06}} |\n| lithium | X | X | \\- |\n| manganese | X | \\- | \\- |\n| nickel | X | \\- | \\- |\n| cobalt | X | \\- | \\- |",
"Securing the [supply chain](/wiki/Supply_chain \"Supply chain\") for these materials is a major world economic issue.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Zeng \\|first1\\=Anqi \\|last2\\=Chen \\|first2\\=Wu \\|last3\\=Rasmussen \\|first3\\=Kasper Dalgas \\|last4\\=Zhu \\|first4\\=Xuehong \\|last5\\=Lundhaug \\|first5\\=Maren \\|last6\\=Müller \\|first6\\=Daniel B. \\|last7\\=Tan \\|first7\\=Juan \\|last8\\=Keiding \\|first8\\=Jakob K. \\|last9\\=Liu \\|first9\\=Litao \\|last10\\=Dai \\|first10\\=Tao \\|last11\\=Wang \\|first11\\=Anjian \\|last12\\=Liu \\|first12\\=Gang \\|title\\=Battery technology and recycling alone will not save the electric mobility transition from future cobalt shortages \\|journal\\=Nature Communications \\|date\\=15 March 2022 \\|volume\\=13 \\|issue\\=1 \\|page\\=1341 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41467\\-022\\-29022\\-z \\|pmid\\=35292628 \\|pmc\\=8924274 \\|bibcode\\=2022NatCo..13\\.1341Z }} It has been estimated that battery recycling can provide up to 60% of market demand for the three critical elements. Recycling and advancement in battery technology are proposed strategies to reduce demand for raw materials. Recycling lithium\\-ion batteries in particular reduces energy consumption. Supply chain issues could create bottlenecks, increase costs of EVs and slow their uptake.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Global Supply Chains of EV Batteries \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[International Energy Agency]] \\|year\\=2022}}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Ziegler \\|first\\=Bart \\|title\\=Electric Vehicles Require Lots of Scarce Parts. Is the Supply Chain Up to It? \\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/electric\\-vehicles\\-scarce\\-parts\\-supply\\-chain\\-11668206037 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-26 \\|newspaper\\=Wall Street Journal \\|date\\=12 November 2022 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Nations set up incentives for domestic growth in the market, to further secure their stake in the supply chain.",
"Deposits of critical minerals are concentrated in a small number of countries, mostly in the [Global South](/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South \"Global North and Global South\"). Mining these deposits presents dangers to nearby communities because of weak regulation, corruption, and [environmental degradation](/wiki/Environmental_degradation \"Environmental degradation\"). The mining impacts the quality of the food and water local communities depend upon, and the metals end up in their bodies. Miners also experience low pay, dangerous conditions, and violent treatment.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Calvão \\|first1\\=Filipe \\|last2\\=McDonald \\|first2\\=Catherine \\|last3\\=Bolay \\|first3\\=Matthieu \\|date\\=December 2021 \\|title\\=Cobalt mining and the corporate outsourcing of responsibility in the Democratic Republic of Congo \\|journal\\=The Extractive Industries and Society \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=4 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.exis.2021\\.02\\.004 \\|bibcode\\=2021ExIS....800884C }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice\\|cc\\=by4\\|from this source\\=yes}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Kara \\|first1\\=Siddharth \\|title\\=Cobalt Red: How the Blood of the Congo Powers Our Lives \\|date\\=2023 \\|publisher\\=St. Martin's Publishing Group \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-250\\-28429\\-7 \\|page\\=130 }} Electric vehicles require more of these critical minerals than most cars, amplifying these effects. These communities face [human rights](/wiki/Human_rights \"Human rights\") violations, [environmental justice](/wiki/Environmental_justice \"Environmental justice\") issues, problems with child labour, and potentially generational legacies of contamination from mining activities. Environmental justice issues arising from the supply chain affect the entire globe, through depredation of the atmosphere from pollution byproduct. Manufacture of battery technology is largely dominated by China. However, burning less [petroleum products](/wiki/Petroleum_product \"Petroleum product\") in vehicles can reduce the [environmental impact of the petroleum industry](/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry \"Environmental impact of the petroleum industry\") because, {{As of\\|2023\\|lc\\=y}}, most petroleum is used in vehicles.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Sanicola \\|first1\\=Laura \\|title\\=How electric vehicles are accelerating the end of the oil age \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/business/autos\\-transportation/how\\-electric\\-vehicles\\-are\\-accelerating\\-end\\-oil\\-age\\-2023\\-12\\-06/ \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=6 December 2023 }}",
"The battery supply chain includes:",
"**Upstream activities** include mining for required raw materials, which include critical materials such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, manganese, and graphite as well as other required minerals such as [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Brinn \\|first1\\=Jordan \\|title\\=Electric Vehicle Battery Supply Chains: The Basics \\|url\\=https://www.nrdc.org/bio/jordan\\-brinn/electric\\-vehicle\\-battery\\-supply\\-chains\\-basics \\|work\\=NRDC \\|date\\=7 July 2022 }}",
"**Midstream activities** include refining and smelting of raw mineral ores with heat or chemical treatment to achieve the high\\-purity materials required for batteries, as well as the manufacture of [cathodes](/wiki/Cathode \"Cathode\") and [anodes](/wiki/Anode \"Anode\") for battery cells. Lower environmental impacts for refining can be achieved by decarbonized electricity generation, automated process control, exhaust gas cleaning, and recycling used electrolytes.",
"**Downstream activities** include manufacturing of the batteries and end goods for the consumer. The production of lithium batteries in China has nearly three times higher emissions than the US because electricity generation in China relies more on coal.",
"**End of life activities** include recycling or recovery of materials when possible.",
"Disposal of spent LIBs without recycling could be detrimental to the environment. Recycling lithium\\-ion batteries reduces energy consumption, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and results in 51\\.3% natural resource savings when compared to discarding them in landfills.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Boyden \\|first1\\=Anna \\|last2\\=Kie Soo \\|first2\\=Vi \\|last3\\=Doolan \\|first3\\=Matthew \\|date\\=2016 \\|title\\=The Environmental Impacts of Recycling Portable Lithium\\-Ion Batteries \\|journal\\=Procedia CIRP \\|volume\\=48 \\|pages\\=188–193 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.procir.2016\\.03\\.100 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Recycling can potentially lower the overall energy emissions of battery production as the LIB recycling industry grows larger. When not recycled, the disposal of cobalt extraction involves non\\-sulfidic tailings, which has an impact on land use.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Farjana \\|first1\\=Shahjadi \\|last2\\=Huda \\|first2\\=Nazmul \\|last3\\=Mahmud \\|first3\\=Parvez \\|date\\=August 2019 \\|title\\=Life cycle assessment of cobalt extraction process \\|journal\\=Journal of Sustainable Mining \\|volume\\=18 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=150–161 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jsm.2019\\.03\\.002 \\|hdl\\=10536/DRO/DU:30135831 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }} Even in the recycling process, CO2 emissions are still produced, continuing to impact the environment regardless of how LIBs are disposed.",
"Recycling of battery minerals is limited but is expected to rise in the 2030s when there are more spent batteries. Increasing recycling would bring considerable social and environmental benefits.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Reliable supply of minerals – The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions – Analysis \\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/reports/the\\-role\\-of\\-critical\\-minerals\\-in\\-clean\\-energy\\-transitions/reliable\\-supply\\-of\\-minerals \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-17 \\|website\\=IEA \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"### Countries roles in the supply chain",
"{{Seealso\\|Electric vehicle industry in China}}\n[thumb\\|331x331px\\|Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain{{cite web \\|date\\=2024 \\|title\\=Batteries and secure energy transitions \\|url\\=https://www.iea.org/reports/batteries\\-and\\-secure\\-energy\\-transitions \\|publisher\\=IEA \\|location\\=Paris}}{{rp\\|58}}](/wiki/File:Geographical_distribution_of_the_global_battery_supply_chain.png \"Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain.png\")",
"[China](/wiki/China \"China\") dominates the electric car industry, accounting for three\\-quarters of global lithium\\-ion battery production. Most refining of [lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\"), [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt \"Cobalt\"), and [graphite](/wiki/Graphite \"Graphite\") takes place in China. Japan and Korea host significant midstream cell manufacturing and downstream supply chain activities. Europe and the United States have a relatively small share of the supply chain.",
"In 2021, 3\\.3 million EVs were sold in China, up 400% from 2019 and higher than the global sales in 2020\\.",
"Upstream activities (mining and processing) largely take place in countries with [extractivist](/wiki/Extractivism \"Extractivism\") economies such as [Chile](/wiki/Mining_in_Chile \"Mining in Chile\") and the [Democratic Republic of the Congo](/wiki/Mining_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_Congo \"Mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo\"). Nickel is mined in [Australia](/wiki/Nickel_mining_in_Western_Australia \"Nickel mining in Western Australia\"),{{cite news \\|title\\=About 50kg of nickel goes into each Tesla battery but the world isn't producing enough to keep up with demand \\|url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022\\-08\\-16/nickel\\-metal\\-batteries\\-energy\\-race\\-to\\-produce\\-to\\-match\\-demand/101334424 \\|work\\=ABC \\|date\\=15 August 2022}} [Russia](/wiki/Norilsk_Nickel \"Norilsk Nickel\"),{{cite news \\|title\\=Biden’s sanctions of Russian energy give electric vehicle batteries a pass \\|url\\=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/03/10/energy/russia\\-sanctions\\-energy\\-nickel/index.html \\|work\\=CNN \\|date\\=10 March 2022}} [New Caledonia](/wiki/Nickel_mining_in_New_Caledonia \"Nickel mining in New Caledonia\") and [Indonesia](/wiki/Nickel_mining_in_Indonesia \"Nickel mining in Indonesia\").{{cite news \\|title\\=New Caledonia unrest pushes nickel sector deeper into crisis \\|url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/live\\-news/20240528\\-new\\-caledonia\\-unrest\\-pushes\\-nickel\\-sector\\-deeper\\-into\\-crisis \\|work\\=France 24 \\|date\\=28 May 2024}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Indonesia’s massive metals build\\-out is felling the forest for batteries \\|url\\=https://apnews.com/article/indonesia\\-nickel\\-deforestation\\-rainforest\\-mining\\-tesla\\-ev\\-184550cddf1df6aad8e883862ab366df \\|work\\=AP News \\|date\\=15 July 2024}} Cobalt si mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.{{cite news \\|title\\=How 'modern\\-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red\\-cobalt\\-congo\\-drc\\-mining\\-siddharth\\-kara \\|work\\=\\[\\[NPR]] \\|date\\=1 February 2023}}",
"In April 2024, the United States and the United Kingdom announced a ban on imports of [aluminum](/wiki/Aluminum \"Aluminum\"), [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\"), and [nickel](/wiki/Nickel \"Nickel\") from Russia.{{cite news \\|title\\=US, UK take action targeting Russian aluminum, copper and nickel \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/us\\-takes\\-action\\-targeting\\-russian\\-aluminum\\-copper\\-nickel\\-2024\\-04\\-12/ \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=12 April 2024}} China is [Norilsk Nickel](/wiki/Norilsk_Nickel \"Norilsk Nickel\")'s largest export market since 2023\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=Nornickel weighs projects in new top market China \\|url\\=https://www.miningweekly.com/article/nornickel\\-weighs\\-projects\\-in\\-new\\-top\\-market\\-china\\-2024\\-07\\-19 \\|work\\=Mining Weekly \\|date\\=19 July 2024}}",
"### Other components",
"EVs have fewer parts than ICEs. On average, a motor for an electric car has about 20 moving parts, but a comparable ICE would have 200 or more.",
"Some electric vehicles motors are [permanent magnet motors](/wiki/Permanent_magnet_motor \"Permanent magnet motor\") that require [rare\\-earth elements](/wiki/Rare-earth_element \"Rare-earth element\") such as [neodymium](/wiki/Neodymium \"Neodymium\") and [dysprosium](/wiki/Dysprosium \"Dysprosium\"). Production of these materials is also dominated by China and poses environmental problems. An alternative motor is the [AC induction motor](/wiki/Induction_motor \"Induction motor\"), which does not use these minerals but requires additional [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\").",
"These components also contribute to the environmental justice issues caused by the extraction of cobalt and other mineral resources, just as batteries do. Radioactive dust and mine sewage from mining for these resources contribute to environmental impacts.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Schreiber \\|first1\\=Andrea \\|last2\\=Marx \\|first2\\=Josefine \\|last3\\=Zapp \\|first3\\=Petra \\|date\\=October 15, 2021 \\|title\\=Life Cycle Assessment studies of rare earths production \\- Findings from a systematic review \\|journal\\=Science of the Total Environment \\|volume\\=791 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.scitotenv.2021\\.148257 \\|bibcode\\=2021ScTEn.79148257S }} Another aspect of the pipeline, metal refining, contributes to the environmental impacts through production of electrolytes, electricity consumption, and used cathodes. Used Cathodes amplify the toxicity of marine ecosystems by the leaching of heavy metals during the smelting process.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Dong \\|first1\\=Di \\|last2\\=van Oers \\|first2\\=Lauran \\|last3\\=Tukker \\|first3\\=Arnold \\|last4\\=van der Voet \\|first4\\=Ester \\|date\\=November 20, 2020 \\|title\\=Assessing the future environmental impacts of copper production in China: Implications of the energy transition \\|journal\\=Journal of Cleaner Production \\|volume\\=274 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jclepro.2020\\.122825 \\|bibcode\\=2020JCPro.27422825D \\|hdl\\=1887/3133500 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }} The result of cobalt presence in the soil is its accumulation in plants, and their fruits. High cobalt amounts accumulate in the rest of the food chain, reaching land and air animals. Effects of excess cobalt include lower animal weight gain and a higher birth mortality.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Srivastava \\|first1\\=Prashant \\|title\\=Appraisal of Metal(loids) in the Ecosystem \\|last2\\=Bolan \\|first2\\=Nanthi \\|last3\\=Casagrande \\|first3\\=Veronica \\|last4\\=Joshua \\|first4\\=Benjamin \\|publisher\\=Elsevier \\|year\\=2022 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-323\\-85621\\-8 \\|pages\\=81–104 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Electric vehicles require more semiconductors than internal combustion engines (ICEs). Taiwan is the world's largest producer of semiconductors.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Young archaeologist Dr. Valerie Cammon ([Polly Shannon](/wiki/Polly_Shannon "Polly Shannon")) and her colleague Dr. Kim (Philip Moon) go by ship to a volcanic island in the Mediterranean sea. While she seeks relics in a cave, a seaquake sinks their ship without survivors. At about the same time all archaeologists except for Dr. Cammon get eaten by the re\-awakened ancient [Lernaean Hydra](/wiki/Lernaean_Hydra "Lernaean Hydra").
During the tempest, a whole island disappears. Two months later, Vincent ([Alex McArthur](/wiki/Alex_McArthur "Alex McArthur")) and Dixie Camden (Jana Williams) intended to organize a man\-hunt for cranky millionaires. Their Captain ([Michael Shamus Wiles](/wiki/Michael_Shamus_Wiles "Michael Shamus Wiles")), unaware of the Hydra, suggests the nearby, aforementioned island as a substitute.
Four ex\-convicts, Tim Nolan ([George Stults](/wiki/George_Stults "George Stults")), Gwen Russell ([Dawn Olivieri](/wiki/Dawn_Olivieri "Dawn Olivieri")), Bob Crick ([James Wlcek](/wiki/James_Wlcek "James Wlcek")) and Ronnie Kaplan ([Texas Battle](/wiki/Texas_Battle "Texas Battle")), are marooned at the shore and given 24 hours' headstart.
The following day the rich hunters (played by [Paul Rae](/wiki/Paul_Rae "Paul Rae"), [Roark Critchlow](/wiki/Roark_Critchlow "Roark Critchlow"), [Ricco Ross](/wiki/Ricco_Ross "Ricco Ross") and [William Gregory Lee](/wiki/William_Gregory_Lee "William Gregory Lee")) arrive, having been informed that their targets are responsible for various crimes similar to their personal losses in their lives (Kaplan killed a woman in a drunk driving crash, Crick raped and murdered another woman, and Gwen hired a hitman to kill her husband, although Nolan was randomly selected as the intended fourth victim had a heart attack during the abduction). However, the hunters attract the Hydra's attention and get eaten. The same fate befalls some of the fugitives.
Dr. Cammon runs into the surviving fugitives and helps Tim to find the magic sword of [Hercules](/wiki/Hercules "Hercules"). As Dr. Cammon tries to distract the Hydra, Tim gets the sword so he can now fight the beast, but, sadly, he retrieves the sword too late and Dr. Cammon is torn apart and eaten by the Hydra. Tim manages to cut off its heads for good, but fails to cut the last head completely off. With Dr. Cammon dead, the remaining fugitives are forced to go on without her help.
Eventually, the only ones left are Tim and Gwen and they return to the ship, not knowing that the Hydra has recovered and is following them. Now only one\-headed, it can move like a snake and makes its way into the belly of the ship.
Gwen wants to use the radio for calling SOS but the microphone is damaged. Mr. Camden blindsides her and blackmails Tim. The Hydra kills Camden from behind, then devours Dixie. Tim grabs the magic sword again and this time, he really kills the monster.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Young archaeologist Dr. Valerie Cammon ([Polly Shannon](/wiki/Polly_Shannon \"Polly Shannon\")) and her colleague Dr. Kim (Philip Moon) go by ship to a volcanic island in the Mediterranean sea. While she seeks relics in a cave, a seaquake sinks their ship without survivors. At about the same time all archaeologists except for Dr. Cammon get eaten by the re\\-awakened ancient [Lernaean Hydra](/wiki/Lernaean_Hydra \"Lernaean Hydra\").",
"During the tempest, a whole island disappears. Two months later, Vincent ([Alex McArthur](/wiki/Alex_McArthur \"Alex McArthur\")) and Dixie Camden (Jana Williams) intended to organize a man\\-hunt for cranky millionaires. Their Captain ([Michael Shamus Wiles](/wiki/Michael_Shamus_Wiles \"Michael Shamus Wiles\")), unaware of the Hydra, suggests the nearby, aforementioned island as a substitute.",
"Four ex\\-convicts, Tim Nolan ([George Stults](/wiki/George_Stults \"George Stults\")), Gwen Russell ([Dawn Olivieri](/wiki/Dawn_Olivieri \"Dawn Olivieri\")), Bob Crick ([James Wlcek](/wiki/James_Wlcek \"James Wlcek\")) and Ronnie Kaplan ([Texas Battle](/wiki/Texas_Battle \"Texas Battle\")), are marooned at the shore and given 24 hours' headstart.",
"The following day the rich hunters (played by [Paul Rae](/wiki/Paul_Rae \"Paul Rae\"), [Roark Critchlow](/wiki/Roark_Critchlow \"Roark Critchlow\"), [Ricco Ross](/wiki/Ricco_Ross \"Ricco Ross\") and [William Gregory Lee](/wiki/William_Gregory_Lee \"William Gregory Lee\")) arrive, having been informed that their targets are responsible for various crimes similar to their personal losses in their lives (Kaplan killed a woman in a drunk driving crash, Crick raped and murdered another woman, and Gwen hired a hitman to kill her husband, although Nolan was randomly selected as the intended fourth victim had a heart attack during the abduction). However, the hunters attract the Hydra's attention and get eaten. The same fate befalls some of the fugitives.",
"Dr. Cammon runs into the surviving fugitives and helps Tim to find the magic sword of [Hercules](/wiki/Hercules \"Hercules\"). As Dr. Cammon tries to distract the Hydra, Tim gets the sword so he can now fight the beast, but, sadly, he retrieves the sword too late and Dr. Cammon is torn apart and eaten by the Hydra. Tim manages to cut off its heads for good, but fails to cut the last head completely off. With Dr. Cammon dead, the remaining fugitives are forced to go on without her help.",
"Eventually, the only ones left are Tim and Gwen and they return to the ship, not knowing that the Hydra has recovered and is following them. Now only one\\-headed, it can move like a snake and makes its way into the belly of the ship.",
"Gwen wants to use the radio for calling SOS but the microphone is damaged. Mr. Camden blindsides her and blackmails Tim. The Hydra kills Camden from behind, then devours Dixie. Tim grabs the magic sword again and this time, he really kills the monster.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
George Hartford's family came to New Hampshire in the late 1600s when Nicholas Hartford immigrated from [Hertfordshire, England](/wiki/Hertfordshire%2C_England "Hertfordshire, England"). George's grandfather moved to Augusta, Maine in 1796 and settled on a farm where their son, Joshua Brackett Hartford married Martha Soren and had two sons, George and his younger brother, John. Joshua and Martha operated a boarding house and livery stable that is now the site of a firehouse in Augusta.{{cite book \| last \= Anderson \| first \= Avis \| title \= The Story of the Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company \| publisher \= Arcadia \| year \= 2002 \| isbn \= 978\-0\-7385\-1038\-5}} George received minimal formal education and at age 18 sailed to [Boston, Massachusetts](/wiki/Boston%2C_Massachusetts "Boston, Massachusetts"), where he worked as a dry goods store clerk.{{cite book \| last \= Walsh \| first \= William \| title \= The Rise \& Decline of The Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company \| publisher \= Lyle Stuart Inc. \| year \= 1986 \| isbn \= 0\-8184\-0382\-9}} The company founding myth is that George Hartford and George Gilman started A\&P in New York City in 1859\. However, the 1859 [St. Louis, Missouri](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri "St. Louis, Missouri") directory lists George and his brother John Hartford as employees of Gilman's leather tanning firm which was based in New York but had an office in St. Louis. By 1860, the Hartford brothers returned to Augusta, Maine where John was listed in the census as a merchant and George as a box maker. Shortly after the census, John moved to New York City, where he is listed in the city directory with George Gilman in the tea importing business that ultimately became A\&P. There is no known record of George Hartford in New York prior to 1861\. While John Hartford quickly left the firm, George joined Gilman as a clerk by 1861; he later was promoted to bookkeeper, then cashier in 1866\.
Gilman was a master at promotion and the business quickly expanded by advertising low prices. In addition to the stores in New York, Gilman also built a nationwide [mail order](/wiki/Mail_order "Mail order") business. During this period, Hartford's role continued to grow and in 1871 he was responsible for expanding A\&P to Chicago after [the great fire](/wiki/Great_Chicago_fire "Great Chicago fire"). A\&P's first store outside New York City was opened within days after the disaster. By 1875, A\&P had stores in 16 cities. Three years later, Gilman retired and left the active management of the firm to Hartford. By then, the firm operated 70 lavishly\-equipped stores and a mail order business with combined annual sales of $1 million.
In July 1861, George married Marie Josephine Ludlum of Goshen, New York. They had two children: Maria Josephine Hartford (1862 \- 1941\) and [George Ludlum Hartford](/wiki/George_Ludlum_Hartford "George Ludlum Hartford") (1864 \- 1957\) while in Brooklyn. After his promotion to cashier in 1866, Hartford moved his family to Orange, New Jersey where they had three additional children; [Edward Vassallo Hartford](/wiki/Edward_V._Hartford "Edward V. Hartford") (1870 \- 1922\), [John Augustine Hartford](/wiki/John_Augustine_Hartford "John Augustine Hartford") (1872 \- 1951\) and Marie Louise Hartford (1875 \- 1927\). When the incumbent Mayor decided not to seek reelection in 1878, the local Democratic organization experienced difficulties finding a candidate and ultimately asked George Hartford. As a Catholic, Hartford was acceptable to the large Irish and German immigrant communities, and as a businessman, he appealed to many Republicans. Mayor Hartford was a progressive, building schools, installing electric lighting and starting a municipal water system. The burning issue during the period was temperance and in 1888, the Mayor shut down saloons operating illegally on Sunday. That action generated substantial opposition within the Democratic Party and in 1890 Hartford was defeated.
About 1880, A\&P started selling sugar in its stores and continued aggressive growth. By 1884, the firm operated stores as far west as Kansas City and south as Atlanta. The company also operated wagon routes to serve rural customers. About this time, two of Mr. Hartford's sons, George L. Hartford and John A. Hartford joined the firm. Company lore is that George convinced his father to expand the product line to include A\&P branded baking powder. Over the next decade, the company added other A\&P branded products such as condensed milk, spices, and butter. As it expanded its offerings, the tea company was gradually creating the first grocery chain. By the end of the century, the firm had sales of $5 million from 198 stores as well as its mail order and wagon route operations. However, other new grocery chains were expanding more rapidly and blanketing their respective territories while the tea company's stores were spread over a much larger area. The firm quickly found itself at a disadvantage.
The middle son, [Edward V. Hartford](/wiki/Edward_V._Hartford "Edward V. Hartford") served the firm as secretary after graduating from [Stevens Institute of Technology](/wiki/Stevens_Institute_of_Technology "Stevens Institute of Technology"), but never was active in the company day to day. Edward invented the automobile shock absorber and established a successful automobile parts manufacturer. His son, [Huntington Hartford](/wiki/Huntington_Hartford "Huntington Hartford") developed [Paradise Island](/wiki/Paradise_Island "Paradise Island"), [Bahamas](/wiki/Bahamas "Bahamas"), founded the Gallery of Modern Art in New York City, and was one of the world's wealthiest men in the 1960s.
In 1901, George Gilman died without a will, starting a legal battle among his numerous heirs. Mr. Hartford stepped into the battle by asserting that in 1878, Gilman give him half of the company in an unwritten partnership agreement. Evidence provided to the court established that Hartford received half of A\&P's profits since 1878 and that all of the company's leases were in his name. The heirs realized that without Hartford, the firm would quickly become unprofitable. Therefore, they agreed to a settlement where the company was incorporated at $2\.1 million. Under this agreement, the Gilman heirs received $1\.25 million in preferred shares paying 6% per year while Hartford received $700,000 in common stock and the remainder of the preferred shares. This gave Hartford control of all of the voting stock. Over the years, Hartford was also able to repurchase the preferred shares from the Gilman heirs. At the end of the litigation, A\&P only ranked fifth nationally and the Hartfords moved aggressively to rebuild the enterprise. The chain opened one store every three weeks and expanded the wagon routes to over 5000\.
In 1907 or 1908, George Hartford Sr. divided management responsibilities among his sons with George Jr. controlling finance and John directing sales and operations. The two ran the company as a team for over 40 years. The younger Hartford moved aggressively to expand the company and by 1912, A\&P operated 400 stores. Food prices were a political issue in that year's presidential race and a few chains experimented with a low cost no frills format. After long debate, the elder Hartford and his first son, George agreed to John's proposal to experiment with a low cost economy store. Capitalized at only $3,000 including its initial inventory, the store operated with only a manager and eliminated fancy fixtures and premiums. The company quickly expanded the concept and by 1915 the chain operated 1600 stores.
George Hartford Sr. died in 1917 and left his estate to a one generation trust equally divided among his five children. He was buried in [Rosedale Cemetery](/wiki/Rosedale_Cemetery_%28Orange%2C_New_Jersey%29 "Rosedale Cemetery (Orange, New Jersey)") in Orange, New Jersey.{{Cite web \|title\=Rosedale Cemetery Walking Guide of Notable Interments \|url\=https://rosedalecemetery.org/wp\-content/uploads/RosedaleCemetery\_BF\-Walking\-Guide\_Q07999\_D2\.pdf \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-08}} The Trust was administered by his sons George and John who exercised control over the company's stock. As a result, the company's leadership remained constant until the two brothers died in the 1950s. The Hartford family would retain controlling interest in the company until 1979\.
Bronze busts honoring Hartford and seven other merchants stand between the [Chicago River](/wiki/Chicago_River "Chicago River") and the [Merchandise Mart](/wiki/Merchandise_Mart "Merchandise Mart") in downtown [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"). In 1953, the busts were commissioned by the owner of the building, [Joseph Kennedy](/wiki/Joseph_Kennedy "Joseph Kennedy"), the father of President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.merchandisemart.com/officeretail/about.html\|access\-date\=July 19, 2007\|title\=Merchandise Mart Office Retail\|publisher\=merchandisemart.com\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025004147/http://www.merchandisemart.com/officeretail/about.html\|archive\-date\=October 25, 2006\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news\|url\=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_qn4155/is\_19991022/ai\_n13840605\|title\=A lot of Merchandise\|date\=October 22, 1999\|author\=Kennedy, Christopher G.\|work\=\[\[Chicago Sun\-Times]]}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"George Hartford's family came to New Hampshire in the late 1600s when Nicholas Hartford immigrated from [Hertfordshire, England](/wiki/Hertfordshire%2C_England \"Hertfordshire, England\"). George's grandfather moved to Augusta, Maine in 1796 and settled on a farm where their son, Joshua Brackett Hartford married Martha Soren and had two sons, George and his younger brother, John. Joshua and Martha operated a boarding house and livery stable that is now the site of a firehouse in Augusta.{{cite book \\| last \\= Anderson \\| first \\= Avis \\| title \\= The Story of the Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company \\| publisher \\= Arcadia \\| year \\= 2002 \\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-7385\\-1038\\-5}} George received minimal formal education and at age 18 sailed to [Boston, Massachusetts](/wiki/Boston%2C_Massachusetts \"Boston, Massachusetts\"), where he worked as a dry goods store clerk.{{cite book \\| last \\= Walsh \\| first \\= William \\| title \\= The Rise \\& Decline of The Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company \\| publisher \\= Lyle Stuart Inc. \\| year \\= 1986 \\| isbn \\= 0\\-8184\\-0382\\-9}} The company founding myth is that George Hartford and George Gilman started A\\&P in New York City in 1859\\. However, the 1859 [St. Louis, Missouri](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri \"St. Louis, Missouri\") directory lists George and his brother John Hartford as employees of Gilman's leather tanning firm which was based in New York but had an office in St. Louis. By 1860, the Hartford brothers returned to Augusta, Maine where John was listed in the census as a merchant and George as a box maker. Shortly after the census, John moved to New York City, where he is listed in the city directory with George Gilman in the tea importing business that ultimately became A\\&P. There is no known record of George Hartford in New York prior to 1861\\. While John Hartford quickly left the firm, George joined Gilman as a clerk by 1861; he later was promoted to bookkeeper, then cashier in 1866\\.",
"Gilman was a master at promotion and the business quickly expanded by advertising low prices. In addition to the stores in New York, Gilman also built a nationwide [mail order](/wiki/Mail_order \"Mail order\") business. During this period, Hartford's role continued to grow and in 1871 he was responsible for expanding A\\&P to Chicago after [the great fire](/wiki/Great_Chicago_fire \"Great Chicago fire\"). A\\&P's first store outside New York City was opened within days after the disaster. By 1875, A\\&P had stores in 16 cities. Three years later, Gilman retired and left the active management of the firm to Hartford. By then, the firm operated 70 lavishly\\-equipped stores and a mail order business with combined annual sales of $1 million.",
"In July 1861, George married Marie Josephine Ludlum of Goshen, New York. They had two children: Maria Josephine Hartford (1862 \\- 1941\\) and [George Ludlum Hartford](/wiki/George_Ludlum_Hartford \"George Ludlum Hartford\") (1864 \\- 1957\\) while in Brooklyn. After his promotion to cashier in 1866, Hartford moved his family to Orange, New Jersey where they had three additional children; [Edward Vassallo Hartford](/wiki/Edward_V._Hartford \"Edward V. Hartford\") (1870 \\- 1922\\), [John Augustine Hartford](/wiki/John_Augustine_Hartford \"John Augustine Hartford\") (1872 \\- 1951\\) and Marie Louise Hartford (1875 \\- 1927\\). When the incumbent Mayor decided not to seek reelection in 1878, the local Democratic organization experienced difficulties finding a candidate and ultimately asked George Hartford. As a Catholic, Hartford was acceptable to the large Irish and German immigrant communities, and as a businessman, he appealed to many Republicans. Mayor Hartford was a progressive, building schools, installing electric lighting and starting a municipal water system. The burning issue during the period was temperance and in 1888, the Mayor shut down saloons operating illegally on Sunday. That action generated substantial opposition within the Democratic Party and in 1890 Hartford was defeated.",
"About 1880, A\\&P started selling sugar in its stores and continued aggressive growth. By 1884, the firm operated stores as far west as Kansas City and south as Atlanta. The company also operated wagon routes to serve rural customers. About this time, two of Mr. Hartford's sons, George L. Hartford and John A. Hartford joined the firm. Company lore is that George convinced his father to expand the product line to include A\\&P branded baking powder. Over the next decade, the company added other A\\&P branded products such as condensed milk, spices, and butter. As it expanded its offerings, the tea company was gradually creating the first grocery chain. By the end of the century, the firm had sales of $5 million from 198 stores as well as its mail order and wagon route operations. However, other new grocery chains were expanding more rapidly and blanketing their respective territories while the tea company's stores were spread over a much larger area. The firm quickly found itself at a disadvantage.",
"The middle son, [Edward V. Hartford](/wiki/Edward_V._Hartford \"Edward V. Hartford\") served the firm as secretary after graduating from [Stevens Institute of Technology](/wiki/Stevens_Institute_of_Technology \"Stevens Institute of Technology\"), but never was active in the company day to day. Edward invented the automobile shock absorber and established a successful automobile parts manufacturer. His son, [Huntington Hartford](/wiki/Huntington_Hartford \"Huntington Hartford\") developed [Paradise Island](/wiki/Paradise_Island \"Paradise Island\"), [Bahamas](/wiki/Bahamas \"Bahamas\"), founded the Gallery of Modern Art in New York City, and was one of the world's wealthiest men in the 1960s.",
"In 1901, George Gilman died without a will, starting a legal battle among his numerous heirs. Mr. Hartford stepped into the battle by asserting that in 1878, Gilman give him half of the company in an unwritten partnership agreement. Evidence provided to the court established that Hartford received half of A\\&P's profits since 1878 and that all of the company's leases were in his name. The heirs realized that without Hartford, the firm would quickly become unprofitable. Therefore, they agreed to a settlement where the company was incorporated at $2\\.1 million. Under this agreement, the Gilman heirs received $1\\.25 million in preferred shares paying 6% per year while Hartford received $700,000 in common stock and the remainder of the preferred shares. This gave Hartford control of all of the voting stock. Over the years, Hartford was also able to repurchase the preferred shares from the Gilman heirs. At the end of the litigation, A\\&P only ranked fifth nationally and the Hartfords moved aggressively to rebuild the enterprise. The chain opened one store every three weeks and expanded the wagon routes to over 5000\\.",
"In 1907 or 1908, George Hartford Sr. divided management responsibilities among his sons with George Jr. controlling finance and John directing sales and operations. The two ran the company as a team for over 40 years. The younger Hartford moved aggressively to expand the company and by 1912, A\\&P operated 400 stores. Food prices were a political issue in that year's presidential race and a few chains experimented with a low cost no frills format. After long debate, the elder Hartford and his first son, George agreed to John's proposal to experiment with a low cost economy store. Capitalized at only $3,000 including its initial inventory, the store operated with only a manager and eliminated fancy fixtures and premiums. The company quickly expanded the concept and by 1915 the chain operated 1600 stores.",
"George Hartford Sr. died in 1917 and left his estate to a one generation trust equally divided among his five children. He was buried in [Rosedale Cemetery](/wiki/Rosedale_Cemetery_%28Orange%2C_New_Jersey%29 \"Rosedale Cemetery (Orange, New Jersey)\") in Orange, New Jersey.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Rosedale Cemetery Walking Guide of Notable Interments \\|url\\=https://rosedalecemetery.org/wp\\-content/uploads/RosedaleCemetery\\_BF\\-Walking\\-Guide\\_Q07999\\_D2\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-08}} The Trust was administered by his sons George and John who exercised control over the company's stock. As a result, the company's leadership remained constant until the two brothers died in the 1950s. The Hartford family would retain controlling interest in the company until 1979\\.",
"Bronze busts honoring Hartford and seven other merchants stand between the [Chicago River](/wiki/Chicago_River \"Chicago River\") and the [Merchandise Mart](/wiki/Merchandise_Mart \"Merchandise Mart\") in downtown [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"). In 1953, the busts were commissioned by the owner of the building, [Joseph Kennedy](/wiki/Joseph_Kennedy \"Joseph Kennedy\"), the father of President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.merchandisemart.com/officeretail/about.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2007\\|title\\=Merchandise Mart Office Retail\\|publisher\\=merchandisemart.com\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061025004147/http://www.merchandisemart.com/officeretail/about.html\\|archive\\-date\\=October 25, 2006\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_qn4155/is\\_19991022/ai\\_n13840605\\|title\\=A lot of Merchandise\\|date\\=October 22, 1999\\|author\\=Kennedy, Christopher G.\\|work\\=\\[\\[Chicago Sun\\-Times]]}}",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|The Main Street in Lifford.](/wiki/File:Main_Street%2C_Lifford_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1303969.jpg "Main Street, Lifford - geograph.org.uk - 1303969.jpg")
The town grew up around a castle built there by [Manghus Ó Domhnaill](/wiki/Manus_O%27Donnell "Manus O'Donnell"), ruler of [Tír Chonaill](/wiki/T%C3%ADr_Chonaill "Tír Chonaill") (mostly modern County Donegal), in the 16th century. It later became a [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") [garrison town](/wiki/Garrison "Garrison") until most of [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") won independence as a [dominion](/wiki/Dominion "Dominion") called the [Irish Free State](/wiki/Irish_Free_State "Irish Free State") in early December 1922\. It lies across the [River Foyle](/wiki/River_Foyle "River Foyle") from [Strabane](/wiki/Strabane "Strabane") (in [County Tyrone](/wiki/County_Tyrone "County Tyrone"), [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland")) and is linked to that town by [Lifford Bridge](/wiki/Lifford_Bridge "Lifford Bridge"). [Manus O'Donnell](/wiki/Manus_O%27Donnell "Manus O'Donnell") began building the castle in 1527{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T100011\.html \|title\=(p665\) \|access\-date\=16 May 2013 \|archive\-date\=3 March 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205428/http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T100011\.html \|url\-status\=dead }} on the Wednesday after [St. Brendan](/wiki/St._Brendan "St. Brendan")'s Day (Saint Brendan's feast day is celebrated on 16 May). He completed the masonry and woodwork by the end of that summer even though the [O’Neill's](/wiki/O%27Neill_dynasty "O'Neill dynasty") of [Tír Eoghain](/wiki/T%C3%ADr_Eoghain "Tír Eoghain") were at war with him. In 1543 the castle of *Leithbher* was given to Cahir (the son of Donnell Balbh) O'Gallagher to be guarded for the O’Donnell clan. He then proceeded to banish the people loyal to the [O’Donnell's](/wiki/O%27Donnell_dynasty "O'Donnell dynasty") from the castle so that he could keep it for himself. In 1544 Calvagh went to the English Lord Justice, and brought back English soldiers with him to [Tirconnell](/wiki/Tyrconnell "Tyrconnell"), the olden name for [County Donegal](/wiki/County_Donegal "County Donegal"). O'Donnell, Calvagh, and these men went with ‘ordnance and engines for taking towns’ to the castle of Lifford to take it back from the descendants of the O'Gallaghers.
Cahir, the son of Tuathal Balbh \& Turlough, the son of Felim Fin O'Gallagher, who had been taken hostage earlier, was brought to the castle to see if the [O’Gallagher's](/wiki/Gallagher_%28surname%29 "Gallagher (surname)") would surrender. Which they wouldn't. As the English attacked one was killed instantly so they killed Cahir, the son of Tuathal on the spot. The castle was then surrendered to O’Donnell to spare the life of Turlough, the son of Felim Fin and another son of Tuathal Balbh.
Lifford Castle is no longer standing but there is a poem["The bardic poems of Tadhg Dall Ó Huiginn (1550–1591\)"](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T402563/text005.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082814/http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T402563/text005\.html \|date\=4 March 2016 }} CELT, the Corpus of Electronic Texts. Retrieved 16 May 2013 from the late 16th century about the castle, which describes the owners and surroundings at the time.
"A beloved dwelling is the castle of Lifford, homestead of a wealth abounding encampment; forge of hospitality for the men of [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster "Ulster"), a dwelling it is hard to leave.
Beloved are the two who keep that house without excess, without lack; the ward of the stout, even\-surfaced tower are the supporting pillars of the province.
Short is the day, no matter what its length, in the company of the royal warrior of Conchobhar's Plain; fleet are the long days from the lady of bright\-walled Tara.
The daughter of noble [Shane O'Neill](/wiki/Shane_O%27Neill_%28Irish_chieftain%29 "Shane O'Neill (Irish chieftain)"), and the son of O'Donnell of Dún Iomgháin—they are in the ancient, comely dwelling as entertainers of guests.
Dear the hostel in which these are wont to be, dear the folk who dwell in the hostel; the people of the house and the house of that people happy is any who shall get honor such as theirs.
Beloved the delightful, lofty building, its tables, its coverlets, its cupboards; its wondrous, handsome, firm walls, its smooth marble arches.
Beloved is the castle in which we used to spend a while at chess\-playing, a while with the daughters of the men of Bregia, a while with the fair books of the poets.
The fortress of smooth\-lawned Lifford no one in the world can leave it once it is found; that dwelling is the [Durlas](/wiki/Thurles "Thurles") of the north.
Or else it is Eamhain which used to vary in form, or Croghan of the children of Mágha, or Tara of the race of Cobhthach—this bright castle, rich in trees and horses.
Or it is [Naas](/wiki/Naas "Naas"), the fortress of [Leinster](/wiki/Leinster "Leinster"), as it was first fashioned; or the fertile, ancient abode of the children of Corc, green, conspicuous [Cashel](/wiki/Cashel%2C_County_Tipperary "Cashel, County Tipperary").
Or it is fair Lifford itself—hardly is any of these castles better—which hath of yore assumed those shapes ye are wont to hold dear".
The [Battle of Lifford](/wiki/Battle_of_Lifford "Battle of Lifford") was fought in 1600 during [Tyrone's Rebellion](/wiki/Tyrone%27s_Rebellion "Tyrone's Rebellion").
Following the defeat of [O'Doherty's Rebellion](/wiki/O%27Doherty%27s_Rebellion "O'Doherty's Rebellion") at the [Battle of Kilmacrennan](/wiki/Battle_of_Kilmacrennan "Battle of Kilmacrennan") in 1608, a number of captured rebels were brought to Lifford where they were tried by Irish civilian courts and executed. The most notable rebel to be executed was [Phelim Reagh MacDavitt](/wiki/Phelim_Reagh_MacDavitt "Phelim Reagh MacDavitt").
[Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons and Command \- Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons \- Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=B1MSAAAAYAAJ&dq=Sir+Richard+Hansard&pg=PA1105). Books.google.ie. Retrieved on 23 July 2013\.The Second Part of the Institutes of the Laws of England, Page 547{{cite web\|url\=https://www.sabre\-roads.org.uk/wiki/index.php/Lifford\_Bridge\|title\=Lifford Bridge\|publisher\=Sabre\|access\-date\=29 November 2019}}{{Circular reference\|date\=August 2021}}
Lifford achieved national recognition in the 2008 [Tidy Towns](/wiki/Tidy_Towns_%28Ireland%29 "Tidy Towns (Ireland)") Awards {{cite web \|url\=http://www.tidytowns.ie/results.php \|title\=Welcome to TidyTowns Ireland \|publisher\=Tidytowns.ie \|access\-date\=14 May 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918210352/http://www.tidytowns.ie/results.php \|archive\-date\=18 September 2009 \|df\=dmy\-all }} as the best newcomer to the competition in Category 'C'.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The Main Street in Lifford.](/wiki/File:Main_Street%2C_Lifford_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1303969.jpg \"Main Street, Lifford - geograph.org.uk - 1303969.jpg\")",
"The town grew up around a castle built there by [Manghus Ó Domhnaill](/wiki/Manus_O%27Donnell \"Manus O'Donnell\"), ruler of [Tír Chonaill](/wiki/T%C3%ADr_Chonaill \"Tír Chonaill\") (mostly modern County Donegal), in the 16th century. It later became a [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") [garrison town](/wiki/Garrison \"Garrison\") until most of [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") won independence as a [dominion](/wiki/Dominion \"Dominion\") called the [Irish Free State](/wiki/Irish_Free_State \"Irish Free State\") in early December 1922\\. It lies across the [River Foyle](/wiki/River_Foyle \"River Foyle\") from [Strabane](/wiki/Strabane \"Strabane\") (in [County Tyrone](/wiki/County_Tyrone \"County Tyrone\"), [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\")) and is linked to that town by [Lifford Bridge](/wiki/Lifford_Bridge \"Lifford Bridge\"). [Manus O'Donnell](/wiki/Manus_O%27Donnell \"Manus O'Donnell\") began building the castle in 1527{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T100011\\.html \\|title\\=(p665\\) \\|access\\-date\\=16 May 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205428/http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T100011\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} on the Wednesday after [St. Brendan](/wiki/St._Brendan \"St. Brendan\")'s Day (Saint Brendan's feast day is celebrated on 16 May). He completed the masonry and woodwork by the end of that summer even though the [O’Neill's](/wiki/O%27Neill_dynasty \"O'Neill dynasty\") of [Tír Eoghain](/wiki/T%C3%ADr_Eoghain \"Tír Eoghain\") were at war with him. In 1543 the castle of *Leithbher* was given to Cahir (the son of Donnell Balbh) O'Gallagher to be guarded for the O’Donnell clan. He then proceeded to banish the people loyal to the [O’Donnell's](/wiki/O%27Donnell_dynasty \"O'Donnell dynasty\") from the castle so that he could keep it for himself. In 1544 Calvagh went to the English Lord Justice, and brought back English soldiers with him to [Tirconnell](/wiki/Tyrconnell \"Tyrconnell\"), the olden name for [County Donegal](/wiki/County_Donegal \"County Donegal\"). O'Donnell, Calvagh, and these men went with ‘ordnance and engines for taking towns’ to the castle of Lifford to take it back from the descendants of the O'Gallaghers.",
"Cahir, the son of Tuathal Balbh \\& Turlough, the son of Felim Fin O'Gallagher, who had been taken hostage earlier, was brought to the castle to see if the [O’Gallagher's](/wiki/Gallagher_%28surname%29 \"Gallagher (surname)\") would surrender. Which they wouldn't. As the English attacked one was killed instantly so they killed Cahir, the son of Tuathal on the spot. The castle was then surrendered to O’Donnell to spare the life of Turlough, the son of Felim Fin and another son of Tuathal Balbh.\nLifford Castle is no longer standing but there is a poem[\"The bardic poems of Tadhg Dall Ó Huiginn (1550–1591\\)\"](http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T402563/text005.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082814/http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T402563/text005\\.html \\|date\\=4 March 2016 }} CELT, the Corpus of Electronic Texts. Retrieved 16 May 2013 from the late 16th century about the castle, which describes the owners and surroundings at the time.",
"\"A beloved dwelling is the castle of Lifford, homestead of a wealth abounding encampment; forge of hospitality for the men of [Ulster](/wiki/Ulster \"Ulster\"), a dwelling it is hard to leave.\nBeloved are the two who keep that house without excess, without lack; the ward of the stout, even\\-surfaced tower are the supporting pillars of the province.\nShort is the day, no matter what its length, in the company of the royal warrior of Conchobhar's Plain; fleet are the long days from the lady of bright\\-walled Tara.\nThe daughter of noble [Shane O'Neill](/wiki/Shane_O%27Neill_%28Irish_chieftain%29 \"Shane O'Neill (Irish chieftain)\"), and the son of O'Donnell of Dún Iomgháin—they are in the ancient, comely dwelling as entertainers of guests.\nDear the hostel in which these are wont to be, dear the folk who dwell in the hostel; the people of the house and the house of that people happy is any who shall get honor such as theirs.\nBeloved the delightful, lofty building, its tables, its coverlets, its cupboards; its wondrous, handsome, firm walls, its smooth marble arches.\nBeloved is the castle in which we used to spend a while at chess\\-playing, a while with the daughters of the men of Bregia, a while with the fair books of the poets.\nThe fortress of smooth\\-lawned Lifford no one in the world can leave it once it is found; that dwelling is the [Durlas](/wiki/Thurles \"Thurles\") of the north.\nOr else it is Eamhain which used to vary in form, or Croghan of the children of Mágha, or Tara of the race of Cobhthach—this bright castle, rich in trees and horses.\nOr it is [Naas](/wiki/Naas \"Naas\"), the fortress of [Leinster](/wiki/Leinster \"Leinster\"), as it was first fashioned; or the fertile, ancient abode of the children of Corc, green, conspicuous [Cashel](/wiki/Cashel%2C_County_Tipperary \"Cashel, County Tipperary\").\nOr it is fair Lifford itself—hardly is any of these castles better—which hath of yore assumed those shapes ye are wont to hold dear\".",
"The [Battle of Lifford](/wiki/Battle_of_Lifford \"Battle of Lifford\") was fought in 1600 during [Tyrone's Rebellion](/wiki/Tyrone%27s_Rebellion \"Tyrone's Rebellion\").",
"Following the defeat of [O'Doherty's Rebellion](/wiki/O%27Doherty%27s_Rebellion \"O'Doherty's Rebellion\") at the [Battle of Kilmacrennan](/wiki/Battle_of_Kilmacrennan \"Battle of Kilmacrennan\") in 1608, a number of captured rebels were brought to Lifford where they were tried by Irish civilian courts and executed. The most notable rebel to be executed was [Phelim Reagh MacDavitt](/wiki/Phelim_Reagh_MacDavitt \"Phelim Reagh MacDavitt\").",
"[Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons and Command \\- Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons \\- Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=B1MSAAAAYAAJ&dq=Sir+Richard+Hansard&pg=PA1105). Books.google.ie. Retrieved on 23 July 2013\\.The Second Part of the Institutes of the Laws of England, Page 547{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sabre\\-roads.org.uk/wiki/index.php/Lifford\\_Bridge\\|title\\=Lifford Bridge\\|publisher\\=Sabre\\|access\\-date\\=29 November 2019}}{{Circular reference\\|date\\=August 2021}}",
"Lifford achieved national recognition in the 2008 [Tidy Towns](/wiki/Tidy_Towns_%28Ireland%29 \"Tidy Towns (Ireland)\") Awards {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tidytowns.ie/results.php \\|title\\=Welcome to TidyTowns Ireland \\|publisher\\=Tidytowns.ie \\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918210352/http://www.tidytowns.ie/results.php \\|archive\\-date\\=18 September 2009 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} as the best newcomer to the competition in Category 'C'.",
""
] |
Applications
------------
### Measuring distance between distributions
The **maximum mean discrepancy (MMD)** is a distance\-measure between distributions P(X) and Q(Y) which is defined as the distance between their embeddings in the RKHS
\\text{MMD}(P,Q) \= \\left \\\| \\mu\_X \- \\mu\_Y \\right \\\|\_{\\mathcal{H}} .
While most distance\-measures between distributions such as the widely used [Kullback–Leibler divergence](/wiki/Kullback%E2%80%93Leibler_divergence "Kullback–Leibler divergence") either require density estimation (either parametrically or nonparametrically) or space partitioning/bias correction strategies, the MMD is easily estimated as an empirical mean which is concentrated around the true value of the MMD. The characterization of this distance as the *maximum mean discrepancy* refers to the fact that computing the MMD is equivalent to finding the RKHS function that maximizes the difference in expectations between the two probability distributions
\\text{MMD}(P,Q) \= \\sup\_{\\\|f \\\|\_\\mathcal{H} \\le 1} \\left( \\mathbb{E} \[f(X)] \- \\mathbb{E} \[f(Y)] \\right),
a form of [integral probability metric](/wiki/Integral_probability_metric "Integral probability metric").
### Kernel two\-sample test
Given *n* training examples from P(X) and *m* samples from Q(Y), one can formulate a test statistic based on the empirical estimate of the MMD
\\begin{align}
\\widehat{\\text{MMD}}(P,Q) \& \= \\left\\\| \\frac{1}{n}\\sum\_{i\=1}^n \\varphi(x\_i) \- \\frac{1}{m}\\sum\_{i\=1}^m \\varphi(y\_i) \\right \\\|\_{\\mathcal{H}}^2 \\\\\[5pt]
\& \= \\frac{1}{n^2} \\sum\_{i\=1}^n\\sum\_{j\=1}^n k(x\_i, x\_j) \+ \\frac{1}{m^2} \\sum\_{i\=1}^m\\sum\_{j\=1}^m k(y\_i, y\_j) \- \\frac{2}{nm} \\sum\_{i\=1}^n\\sum\_{j\=1}^m k(x\_i, y\_j)
\\end{align}
to obtain a **two\-sample test** A. Gretton, K. Borgwardt, M. Rasch, B. Schölkopf, A. Smola. (2012\). [A kernel two\-sample test](http://jmlr.org/papers/volume13/gretton12a/gretton12a.pdf). *Journal of Machine Learning Research*, **13**: 723–773\. of the null hypothesis that both samples stem from the same distribution (i.e. P \= Q) against the broad alternative P \\neq Q.
### Density estimation via kernel embeddings
Although learning algorithms in the kernel embedding framework circumvent the need for intermediate density estimation, one may nonetheless use the empirical embedding to perform density estimation based on *n* samples drawn from an underlying distribution P\_X^\*. This can be done by solving the following optimization problem M. Dudík, S. J. Phillips, R. E. Schapire. (2007\). [Maximum Entropy Distribution Estimation with Generalized Regularization and an Application to Species Distribution Modeling](http://classes.soe.ucsc.edu/cmps242/Winter08/lect/15/maxent_genreg_jmlr.pdf). *Journal of Machine Learning Research*, **8**: 1217–1260\.
\\max\_{P\_X} H(P\_X) subject to \\\|\\widehat{\\mu}\_X \- \\mu\_X\[P\_X] \\\|\_\\mathcal{H} \\le \\varepsilon
where the maximization is done over the entire space of distributions on \\Omega. Here, \\mu\_X\[P\_X] is the kernel embedding of the proposed density P\_X and H is an entropy\-like quantity (e.g. [Entropy](/wiki/Entropy_%28information_theory%29 "Entropy (information theory)"), [KL divergence](/wiki/Kullback%E2%80%93Leibler_divergence "Kullback–Leibler divergence"), [Bregman divergence](/wiki/Bregman_divergence "Bregman divergence")). The distribution which solves this optimization may be interpreted as a compromise between fitting the empirical kernel means of the samples well, while still allocating a substantial portion of the probability mass to all regions of the probability space (much of which may not be represented in the training examples). In practice, a good approximate solution of the difficult optimization may be found by restricting the space of candidate densities to a mixture of *M* candidate distributions with regularized mixing proportions. Connections between the ideas underlying [Gaussian processes](/wiki/Gaussian_process "Gaussian process") and [conditional random fields](/wiki/Conditional_random_fields "Conditional random fields") may be drawn with the estimation of conditional probability distributions in this fashion, if one views the feature mappings associated with the kernel as sufficient statistics in generalized (possibly infinite\-dimensional) [exponential families](/wiki/Exponential_family "Exponential family").
### Measuring dependence of random variables
A measure of the statistical dependence between random variables X and Y (from any domains on which sensible kernels can be defined) can be formulated based on the Hilbert–Schmidt Independence Criterion A. Gretton, O. Bousquet, A. Smola, B. Schölkopf. (2005\). [Measuring statistical dependence with Hilbert–Schmidt norms](http://www.gatsby.ucl.ac.uk/~gretton/papers/GreBouSmoSch05.pdf). *Proc. Intl. Conf. on Algorithmic Learning Theory*: 63–78\.
\\text{HSIC}(X, Y) \= \\left \\\| \\mathcal{C}\_{XY} \- \\mu\_X \\otimes \\mu\_Y \\right \\\|\_{\\mathcal{H} \\otimes \\mathcal{H}}^2
and can be used as a principled replacement for [mutual information](/wiki/Mutual_information "Mutual information"), [Pearson correlation](/wiki/Pearson_correlation "Pearson correlation") or any other dependence measure used in learning algorithms. Most notably, HSIC can detect arbitrary dependencies (when a characteristic kernel is used in the embeddings, HSIC is zero if and only if the variables are [independent](/wiki/Independence_%28probability_theory%29 "Independence (probability theory)")), and can be used to measure dependence between different types of data (e.g. images and text captions). Given *n* i.i.d. samples of each random variable, a simple parameter\-free [unbiased](/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator "Bias of an estimator") estimator of HSIC which exhibits [concentration](/wiki/Concentration_of_measure "Concentration of measure") about the true value can be computed in O(n(d\_f^2 \+d\_g^2\)) time, where the Gram matrices of the two datasets are approximated using \\mathbf{A} \\mathbf{A}^T, \\mathbf{B} \\mathbf{B}^T with \\mathbf{A} \\in \\R^{n \\times d\_f}, \\mathbf{B} \\in \\R^{n \\times d\_g}. The desirable properties of HSIC have led to the formulation of numerous algorithms which utilize this dependence measure for a variety of common machine learning tasks such as: [feature selection](/wiki/Feature_selection "Feature selection") (BAHSIC L. Song, A. Smola, A. Gretton, K. Borgwardt, J. Bedo. (2007\). [Supervised feature selection via dependence estimation](http://www.machinelearning.org/proceedings/icml2007/papers/244.pdf). *Proc. Intl. Conf. Machine Learning*, Omnipress: 823–830\.), [clustering](/wiki/Cluster_analysis "Cluster analysis") (CLUHSIC L. Song, A. Smola, A. Gretton, K. Borgwardt. (2007\). [A dependence maximization view of clustering](http://machinelearning.wustl.edu/mlpapers/paper_files/icml2007_SongSGB07.pdf). *Proc. Intl. Conf. Machine Learning*. Omnipress: 815–822\.), and [dimensionality reduction](/wiki/Dimensionality_reduction "Dimensionality reduction") (MUHSIC L. Song, A. Smola, K. Borgwardt, A. Gretton. (2007\). [Colored maximum variance unfolding](http://machinelearning.wustl.edu/mlpapers/paper_files/NIPS2007_492.pdf). *Neural Information Processing Systems*.).
HSIC can be extended to measure the dependence of multiple random variables. The question of when HSIC captures independence in this case has recently been studied:Zoltán Szabó, Bharath K. Sriperumbudur. [Characteristic and Universal Tensor Product Kernels](http://jmlr.org/papers/v18/17-492.html). *Journal of Machine Learning Research*, 19:1–29, 2018\. for
more than two variables
* on \\R^d: the characteristic property of the individual kernels remains an equivalent condition.
* on general domains: the characteristic property of the kernel components is necessary but *not sufficient*.
### Kernel belief propagation
[Belief propagation](/wiki/Belief_propagation "Belief propagation") is a fundamental algorithm for inference in [graphical models](/wiki/Graphical_model "Graphical model") in which nodes repeatedly pass and receive messages corresponding to the evaluation of conditional expectations. In the kernel embedding framework, the messages may be represented as RKHS functions and the conditional distribution embeddings can be applied to efficiently compute message updates. Given *n* samples of random variables represented by nodes in a [Markov random field](/wiki/Markov_random_field "Markov random field"), the incoming message to node *t* from node *u* can be expressed as
m\_{ut}(\\cdot) \= \\sum\_{i\=1}^n \\beta\_{ut}^i \\varphi(x\_t^i)
if it assumed to lie in the RKHS. The **kernel belief propagation update** message from *t* to node *s* is then given by
\\widehat{m}\_{ts} \= \\left( \\odot\_{u \\in N(t) \\backslash s} \\mathbf{K}\_t \\boldsymbol{\\beta}\_{ut} \\right)^T (\\mathbf{K}\_s \+ \\lambda \\mathbf{I} )^{\-1} \\boldsymbol{\\Upsilon}\_s^T \\varphi(x\_s)
where \\odot denotes the element\-wise vector product, N(t) \\backslash s is the set of nodes connected to *t* excluding node *s*, \\boldsymbol{\\beta}\_{ut} \= \\left(\\beta\_{ut}^1, \\dots, \\beta\_{ut}^n \\right) , \\mathbf{K}\_t, \\mathbf{K}\_s are the Gram matrices of the samples from variables X\_t, X\_s , respectively, and \\boldsymbol{\\Upsilon}\_s \= \\left(\\varphi(x\_s^1\),\\dots, \\varphi(x\_s^n)\\right) is the feature matrix for the samples from X\_s.
Thus, if the incoming messages to node *t* are linear combinations of feature mapped samples from X\_t , then the outgoing message from this node is also a linear combination of feature mapped samples from X\_s . This RKHS function representation of message\-passing updates therefore produces an efficient belief propagation algorithm in which the [potentials](/wiki/Markov_random_field%23Clique_factorization "Markov random field#Clique factorization") are nonparametric functions inferred from the data so that arbitrary statistical relationships may be modeled.
### Nonparametric filtering in hidden Markov models
In the [hidden Markov model](/wiki/Hidden_Markov_model "Hidden Markov model") (HMM), two key quantities of interest are the transition probabilities between hidden states P(S^t \\mid S^{t\-1}) and the emission probabilities P(O^t \\mid S^t) for observations. Using the kernel conditional distribution embedding framework, these quantities may be expressed in terms of samples from the HMM. A serious limitation of the embedding methods in this domain is the need for training samples containing hidden states, as otherwise inference with arbitrary distributions in the HMM is not possible.
One common use of HMMs is [filtering](/wiki/Hidden_Markov_model%23Filtering "Hidden Markov model#Filtering") in which the goal is to estimate posterior distribution over the hidden state s^t at time step *t* given a history of previous observations h^t \= (o^1, \\dots, o^t) from the system. In filtering, a **belief state** P(S^{t\+1} \\mid h^{t\+1}) is recursively maintained via a prediction step (where updates P(S^{t\+1} \\mid h^t) \= \\mathbb{E}\[P(S^{t\+1} \\mid S^t) \\mid h^t] are computed by marginalizing out the previous hidden state) followed by a conditioning step (where updates P(S^{t\+1} \\mid h^t, o^{t\+1}) \\propto P(o^{t\+1} \\mid S^{t\+1}) P(S^{t\+1} \\mid h^t) are computed by applying Bayes' rule to condition on a new observation). The RKHS embedding of the belief state at time *t\+1* can be recursively expressed as
\\mu\_{S^{t\+1} \\mid h^{t\+1}} \= \\mathcal{C}\_{S^{t\+1} O^{t\+1}}^\\pi \\left(\\mathcal{C}\_{O^{t\+1} O^{t\+1}}^\\pi \\right)^{\-1} \\varphi(o^{t\+1})
by computing the embeddings of the prediction step via the [kernel sum rule](/wiki/%23Kernel_sum_rule "#Kernel sum rule") and the embedding of the conditioning step via [kernel Bayes' rule](/wiki/%23Kernel_Bayes%27_rule "#Kernel Bayes' rule"). Assuming a training sample (\\widetilde{s}^1, \\dots, \\widetilde{s}^T, \\widetilde{o}^1, \\dots, \\widetilde{o}^T) is given, one can in practice estimate
\\widehat{\\mu}\_{S^{t\+1} \\mid h^{t\+1}} \= \\sum\_{i\=1}^T \\alpha\_i^t \\varphi(\\widetilde{s}^t)
and filtering with kernel embeddings is thus implemented recursively using the following updates for the weights \\boldsymbol{\\alpha} \= (\\alpha\_1, \\dots, \\alpha\_T)
\\mathbf{D}^{t\+1} \= \\operatorname{diag}\\left((G\+\\lambda \\mathbf{I})^{\-1} \\widetilde{G} \\boldsymbol{\\alpha}^t \\right)
\\boldsymbol{\\alpha}^{t\+1} \= \\mathbf{D}^{t\+1} \\mathbf{K} \\left( (\\mathbf{D}^{t\+1} K)^2 \+ \\widetilde{\\lambda} \\mathbf{I} \\right)^{\-1} \\mathbf{D}^{t\+1} \\mathbf{K}\_{o^{t\+1}}
where \\mathbf{G}, \\mathbf{K} denote the Gram matrices of \\widetilde{s}^1, \\dots, \\widetilde{s}^T and \\widetilde{o}^1, \\dots, \\widetilde{o}^T respectively, \\widetilde{\\mathbf{G}} is a transfer Gram matrix defined as \\widetilde{\\mathbf{G}}\_{ij} \= k(\\widetilde{s}\_i, \\widetilde{s}\_{j\+1}), and \\mathbf{K}\_{o^{t\+1}} \= (k(\\widetilde{o}^1, o^{t\+1}), \\dots, k(\\widetilde{o}^T, o^{t\+1}))^T.
### Support measure machines
The **support measure machine** (SMM) is a generalization of the [support vector machine](/wiki/Support_vector_machine "Support vector machine") (SVM) in which the training examples are probability distributions paired with labels \\{P\_i, y\_i\\}\_{i\=1}^n, \\ y\_i \\in \\{\+1, \-1\\} .K. Muandet, K. Fukumizu, F. Dinuzzo, B. Schölkopf. (2012\). [Learning from Distributions via Support Measure Machines](http://books.nips.cc/papers/files/nips25/NIPS2012_0015.pdf). *Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems*: 10–18\. SMMs solve the standard SVM [dual optimization problem](/wiki/Support_vector_machine%23Dual_form "Support vector machine#Dual form") using the following **expected kernel**
K\\left(P(X), Q(Z)\\right) \= \\langle \\mu\_X , \\mu\_Z \\rangle\_\\mathcal{H} \= \\mathbb{E} \[k(x,z)]
which is computable in closed form for many common specific distributions P\_i (such as the Gaussian distribution) combined with popular embedding kernels k (e.g. the Gaussian kernel or polynomial kernel), or can be accurately empirically estimated from i.i.d. samples \\{x\_i\\}\_{i\=1}^n \\sim P(X), \\{z\_j\\}\_{j\=1}^m \\sim Q(Z) via
\\widehat{K} (X, Z) \= \\frac{1}{n m} \\sum\_{i\=1}^n \\sum\_{j\=1}^m k(x\_i, z\_j)
Under certain choices of the embedding kernel k, the SMM applied to training examples \\{P\_i, y\_i\\}\_{i\=1}^n is equivalent to a SVM trained on samples \\{x\_i, y\_i\\}\_{i\=1}^n, and thus the SMM can be viewed as a *flexible* SVM in which a different data\-dependent kernel (specified by the assumed form of the distribution P\_i ) may be placed on each training point.
### Domain adaptation under covariate, target, and conditional shift
The goal of [domain adaptation](/wiki/Domain_adaptation "Domain adaptation") is the formulation of learning algorithms which generalize well when the training and test data have different distributions. Given training examples \\{(x\_i^\\text{tr}, y\_i^\\text{tr})\\}\_{i\=1}^n and a test set \\{(x\_j^\\text{te}, y\_j^\\text{te}) \\}\_{j\=1}^m where the y\_j^\\text{te} are unknown, three types of differences are commonly assumed between the distribution of the training examples P^\\text{tr}(X,Y) and the test distribution P^\\text{te}(X,Y):\<ref name \= "DA"\>K. Zhang, B. Schölkopf, K. Muandet, Z. Wang. (2013\). [Domain adaptation under target and conditional shift](http://jmlr.org/proceedings/papers/v28/zhang13d.pdf). *Journal of Machine Learning Research, **28**(3\): 819–827\.\</ref\>A. Gretton, A. Smola, J. Huang, M. Schmittfull, K. Borgwardt, B. Schölkopf. (2008\). Covariate shift and local learning by distribution matching. *In J. Quinonero\-Candela, M. Sugiyama, A. Schwaighofer, N. Lawrence (eds.). Dataset shift in machine learning*, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA: 131–160\.
**Covariate shift** in which the marginal distribution of the covariates changes across domains: P^\\text{tr}(X) \\neq P^\\text{te}(X)
**Target shift** in which the marginal distribution of the outputs changes across domains: P^\\text{tr}(Y) \\neq P^\\text{te}(Y)
**Conditional shift** in which P(Y) remains the same across domains, but the conditional distributions differ: P^\\text{tr}(X \\mid Y) \\neq P^\\text{te}(X \\mid Y). In general, the presence of conditional shift leads to an [ill\-posed](/wiki/Well-posed_problem "Well-posed problem") problem, and the additional assumption that P(X \\mid Y) changes only under [location](/wiki/Location_parameter "Location parameter")\-[scale](/wiki/Scale_parameter "Scale parameter") (LS) transformations on X is commonly imposed to make the problem tractable.*
By utilizing the kernel embedding of marginal and conditional distributions, practical approaches to deal with the presence of these types of differences between training and test domains can be formulated. Covariate shift may be accounted for by reweighting examples via estimates of the ratio P^\\text{te}(X)/P^\\text{tr}(X) obtained directly from the kernel embeddings of the marginal distributions of X in each domain without any need for explicit estimation of the distributions. Target shift, which cannot be similarly dealt with since no samples from Y are available in the test domain, is accounted for by weighting training examples using the vector \\boldsymbol{\\beta}^\*(\\mathbf{y}^\\text{tr}) which solves the following optimization problem (where in practice, empirical approximations must be used)
\\min\_{\\boldsymbol{\\beta}(y)} \\left \\\|\\mathcal{C}\_{{(X \\mid Y)}^\\text{tr}} \\mathbb{E} \[\\boldsymbol{\\beta}(y) \\varphi(y^\\text{tr})] \- \\mu\_{X^\\text{te}} \\right \\\|\_\\mathcal{H}^2 subject to \\boldsymbol{\\beta}(y) \\ge 0, \\mathbb{E} \[\\boldsymbol{\\beta}(y^\\text{tr})] \= 1
To deal with location scale conditional shift, one can perform a LS transformation of the training points to obtain new transformed training data \\mathbf{X}^\\text{new} \= \\mathbf{X}^\\text{tr} \\odot \\mathbf{W} \+ \\mathbf{B} (where \\odot denotes the element\-wise vector product). To ensure similar distributions between the new transformed training samples and the test data, \\mathbf{W},\\mathbf{B} are estimated by minimizing the following empirical kernel embedding distance
\\left \\\| \\widehat{\\mu}\_{X^\\text{new}} \- \\widehat{\\mu}\_{X^\\text{te}} \\right \\\|\_{\\mathcal{H}}^2 \= \\left \\\| \\widehat{\\mathcal{C}}\_{(X \\mid Y)^\\text{new}} \\widehat{\\mu}\_{Y^\\text{tr}} \- \\widehat{\\mu}\_{X^\\text{te}} \\right \\\|\_{\\mathcal{H}}^2
In general, the kernel embedding methods for dealing with LS conditional shift and target shift may be combined to find a reweighted transformation of the training data which mimics the test distribution, and these methods may perform well even in the presence of conditional shifts other than location\-scale changes.
### Domain generalization via invariant feature representation
Given 1. 1. 1. N *sets of training examples sampled i.i.d. from distributions P^{(1\)}(X,Y), P^{(2\)}(X,Y), \\ldots, P^{(N)}(X,Y), the goal of **domain generalization** is to formulate learning algorithms which perform well on test examples sampled from a previously unseen domain P^\*(X,Y) where no data from the test domain is available at training time. If conditional distributions P(Y \\mid X) are assumed to be relatively similar across all domains, then a learner capable of domain generalization must estimate a functional relationship between the variables which is robust to changes in the marginals P(X). Based on kernel embeddings of these distributions, Domain Invariant Component Analysis (DICA) is a method which determines the transformation of the training data that minimizes the difference between marginal distributions while preserving a common conditional distribution shared between all training domains.K. Muandet, D. Balduzzi, B. Schölkopf. (2013\).[Domain Generalization Via Invariant Feature Representation](http://jmlr.org/proceedings/papers/v28/muandet13.pdf). *30th International Conference on Machine Learning*. DICA thus extracts* invariants*, features that transfer across domains, and may be viewed as a generalization of many popular dimension\-reduction methods such as [kernel principal component analysis](/wiki/Kernel_principal_component_analysis "Kernel principal component analysis"), transfer component analysis, and covariance operator inverse regression.*
Defining a probability distribution \\mathcal{P} on the RKHS \\mathcal{H} with
\\mathcal{P} \\left (\\mu\_{X^{(i)}Y^{(i)}} \\right ) \= \\frac{1}{N} \\qquad \\text{ for } i\=1,\\dots, N,
DICA measures dissimilarity between domains via **distributional variance** which is computed as
V\_\\mathcal{H} (\\mathcal{P}) \= \\frac{1}{N} \\operatorname{tr}(\\mathbf{G}) \- \\frac{1}{N^2} \\sum\_{i,j\=1}^N \\mathbf{G}\_{ij}
where
\\mathbf{G}\_{ij} \= \\left \\langle \\mu\_{X^{(i)}}, \\mu\_{X^{(j)}} \\right \\rangle\_\\mathcal{H}
so \\mathbf{G} is a N \\times N Gram matrix over the distributions from which the training data are sampled. Finding an [orthogonal transform](/wiki/Orthogonal_matrix "Orthogonal matrix") onto a low\-dimensional [subspace](/wiki/Linear_subspace "Linear subspace") B *(in the feature space) which minimizes the distributional variance, DICA simultaneously ensures that* B *aligns with the [bases](/wiki/Basis_function "Basis function") of a **central subspace*** C *for which Y becomes independent of X given C^T X across all domains. In the absence of target values Y, an unsupervised version of DICA may be formulated which finds a low\-dimensional subspace that minimizes distributional variance while simultaneously maximizing the variance of X (in the feature space) across all domains (rather than preserving a central subspace).*### Distribution regression
In distribution regression, the goal is to regress from probability distributions to reals (or vectors). Many important [machine learning](/wiki/Machine_learning "Machine learning") and statistical tasks fit into this framework, including [multi\-instance learning](/wiki/Multiple-instance_learning "Multiple-instance learning"), and [point estimation](/wiki/Point_estimation "Point estimation") problems without analytical solution (such as [hyperparameter](/wiki/Hyperparameter_%28Bayesian_statistics%29 "Hyperparameter (Bayesian statistics)") or [entropy estimation](/wiki/Entropy_estimation "Entropy estimation")). In practice only samples from sampled distributions are observable, and the estimates have to rely on similarities computed between sets of points''. Distribution regression has been successfully applied for example in supervised entropy learning, and aerosol prediction using multispectral satellite images.Z. Szabó, B. Sriperumbudur, B. Póczos, A. Gretton. [Learning Theory for Distribution Regression](http://jmlr.org/papers/v17/14-510.html). *Journal of Machine Learning Research*, 17(152\):1–40, 2016\.
Given {\\left(\\{X\_{i,n}\\}\_{n\=1}^{N\_i}, y\_i\\right)}\_{i\=1}^\\ell training data, where the \\hat{X\_i} :\= \\{X\_{i,n}\\}\_{n\=1}^{N\_i} bag contains samples from a probability distribution X\_i and the i^\\text{th} output label is y\_i\\in \\R, one can tackle the distribution regression task by taking the embeddings of the distributions, and learning the regressor from the embeddings to the outputs. In other words, one can consider the following kernel [ridge regression](/wiki/Tikhonov_regularization "Tikhonov regularization") problem (\\lambda\>0\)
J(f) \= \\frac{1}{\\ell} \\sum\_{i\=1}^\\ell \\left\[f\\left(\\mu\_{\\hat{X\_i}}\\right)\-y\_i\\right]^2 \+ \\lambda \\\|f\\\|\_{\\mathcal{H}(K)}^2 \\to \\min\_{f\\in \\mathcal{H}(K)},
where
\\mu\_{\\hat{X}\_i} \= \\int\_\\Omega k(\\cdot,u) \\, \\mathrm{d} \\hat{X}\_i(u)\= \\frac{1}{N\_i} \\sum\_{n\=1}^{N\_i} k(\\cdot, X\_{i,n})
with a k kernel on the domain of X\_i\-s (k:\\Omega\\times \\Omega \\to \\R), K is a kernel on the embedded distributions, and \\mathcal{H}(K) is the RKHS determined by K. Examples for K include the linear kernel \\left\[ K(\\mu\_P,\\mu\_Q) \= \\langle\\mu\_P,\\mu\_Q\\rangle\_{\\mathcal{H}(k)} \\right] , the Gaussian kernel \\left\[ K(\\mu\_P,\\mu\_Q) \= e^{\-\\left\\\|\\mu\_P\-\\mu\_Q\\right\\\|\_{H(k)}^2/(2\\sigma^2\)} \\right] , the exponential kernel \\left\[ K(\\mu\_P,\\mu\_Q) \= e^{\-\\left\\\|\\mu\_P\-\\mu\_Q\\right\\\|\_{H(k)}/(2\\sigma^2\)} \\right] , the Cauchy kernel \\left\[ K(\\mu\_P,\\mu\_Q) \= \\left(1\+ \\left\\\|\\mu\_P\-\\mu\_Q\\right\\\|\_{H(k)}^2/\\sigma^2 \\right)^{\-1} \\right] , the generalized t\-student kernel \\left\[ K(\\mu\_P,\\mu\_Q) \= \\left(1\+ \\left\\\|\\mu\_P\-\\mu\_Q\\right\\\|\_{H(k)}^{\\sigma} \\right)^{\-1}, (\\sigma \\le 2\) \\right] , or the inverse multiquadrics kernel \\left\[ K(\\mu\_P,\\mu\_Q) \= \\left(\\left\\\|\\mu\_P\-\\mu\_Q\\right\\\|\_{H(k)}^2 \+ \\sigma^2 \\right)^{\-\\frac{1}{2}} \\right] .
The prediction on a new distribution (\\hat{X}) takes the simple, analytical form
\\hat{y}\\big(\\hat{X}\\big) \= \\mathbf{k} \[\\mathbf{G} \+ \\lambda \\ell]^{\-1}\\mathbf{y},
where \\mathbf{k}\=\\big\[K \\big(\\mu\_{\\hat{X}\_i},\\mu\_{\\hat{X}}\\big)\\big]\\in \\R^{1\\times \\ell}, \\mathbf{G}\=\[G\_{ij}]\\in \\R^{\\ell\\times \\ell}, G\_{ij} \= K\\big(\\mu\_{\\hat{X}\_i},\\mu\_{\\hat{X}\_j}\\big)\\in \\R, \\mathbf{y}\=\[y\_1;\\ldots;y\_\\ell]\\in \\R^\\ell. Under mild regularity conditions this estimator can be shown to be consistent and it can achieve the one\-stage sampled (as if one had access to the true X\_i\-s) [minimax optimal](/wiki/Minimax_estimator "Minimax estimator") rate. In the J objective function y\_i\-s are real numbers; the results can also be extended to the case when y\_i\-s are d\-dimensional vectors, or more generally elements of a [separable](/wiki/Separable_space "Separable space") [Hilbert space](/wiki/Hilbert_space "Hilbert space") using operator\-valued K kernels.
|
[
"Applications\n------------",
"### Measuring distance between distributions",
"The **maximum mean discrepancy (MMD)** is a distance\\-measure between distributions P(X) and Q(Y) which is defined as the distance between their embeddings in the RKHS",
"\\\\text{MMD}(P,Q) \\= \\\\left \\\\\\| \\\\mu\\_X \\- \\\\mu\\_Y \\\\right \\\\\\|\\_{\\\\mathcal{H}} .\nWhile most distance\\-measures between distributions such as the widely used [Kullback–Leibler divergence](/wiki/Kullback%E2%80%93Leibler_divergence \"Kullback–Leibler divergence\") either require density estimation (either parametrically or nonparametrically) or space partitioning/bias correction strategies, the MMD is easily estimated as an empirical mean which is concentrated around the true value of the MMD. The characterization of this distance as the *maximum mean discrepancy* refers to the fact that computing the MMD is equivalent to finding the RKHS function that maximizes the difference in expectations between the two probability distributions \n\\\\text{MMD}(P,Q) \\= \\\\sup\\_{\\\\\\|f \\\\\\|\\_\\\\mathcal{H} \\\\le 1} \\\\left( \\\\mathbb{E} \\[f(X)] \\- \\\\mathbb{E} \\[f(Y)] \\\\right),\na form of [integral probability metric](/wiki/Integral_probability_metric \"Integral probability metric\").",
"### Kernel two\\-sample test",
"Given *n* training examples from P(X) and *m* samples from Q(Y), one can formulate a test statistic based on the empirical estimate of the MMD",
"",
"\\\\begin{align}\n\\\\widehat{\\\\text{MMD}}(P,Q) \\& \\= \\\\left\\\\\\| \\\\frac{1}{n}\\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^n \\\\varphi(x\\_i) \\- \\\\frac{1}{m}\\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^m \\\\varphi(y\\_i) \\\\right \\\\\\|\\_{\\\\mathcal{H}}^2 \\\\\\\\\\[5pt]\n\\& \\= \\\\frac{1}{n^2} \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^n\\\\sum\\_{j\\=1}^n k(x\\_i, x\\_j) \\+ \\\\frac{1}{m^2} \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^m\\\\sum\\_{j\\=1}^m k(y\\_i, y\\_j) \\- \\\\frac{2}{nm} \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^n\\\\sum\\_{j\\=1}^m k(x\\_i, y\\_j)\n\\\\end{align}",
"to obtain a **two\\-sample test** A. Gretton, K. Borgwardt, M. Rasch, B. Schölkopf, A. Smola. (2012\\). [A kernel two\\-sample test](http://jmlr.org/papers/volume13/gretton12a/gretton12a.pdf). *Journal of Machine Learning Research*, **13**: 723–773\\. of the null hypothesis that both samples stem from the same distribution (i.e. P \\= Q) against the broad alternative P \\\\neq Q.",
"### Density estimation via kernel embeddings",
"Although learning algorithms in the kernel embedding framework circumvent the need for intermediate density estimation, one may nonetheless use the empirical embedding to perform density estimation based on *n* samples drawn from an underlying distribution P\\_X^\\*. This can be done by solving the following optimization problem M. Dudík, S. J. Phillips, R. E. Schapire. (2007\\). [Maximum Entropy Distribution Estimation with Generalized Regularization and an Application to Species Distribution Modeling](http://classes.soe.ucsc.edu/cmps242/Winter08/lect/15/maxent_genreg_jmlr.pdf). *Journal of Machine Learning Research*, **8**: 1217–1260\\.",
"\\\\max\\_{P\\_X} H(P\\_X) subject to \\\\\\|\\\\widehat{\\\\mu}\\_X \\- \\\\mu\\_X\\[P\\_X] \\\\\\|\\_\\\\mathcal{H} \\\\le \\\\varepsilon\nwhere the maximization is done over the entire space of distributions on \\\\Omega. Here, \\\\mu\\_X\\[P\\_X] is the kernel embedding of the proposed density P\\_X and H is an entropy\\-like quantity (e.g. [Entropy](/wiki/Entropy_%28information_theory%29 \"Entropy (information theory)\"), [KL divergence](/wiki/Kullback%E2%80%93Leibler_divergence \"Kullback–Leibler divergence\"), [Bregman divergence](/wiki/Bregman_divergence \"Bregman divergence\")). The distribution which solves this optimization may be interpreted as a compromise between fitting the empirical kernel means of the samples well, while still allocating a substantial portion of the probability mass to all regions of the probability space (much of which may not be represented in the training examples). In practice, a good approximate solution of the difficult optimization may be found by restricting the space of candidate densities to a mixture of *M* candidate distributions with regularized mixing proportions. Connections between the ideas underlying [Gaussian processes](/wiki/Gaussian_process \"Gaussian process\") and [conditional random fields](/wiki/Conditional_random_fields \"Conditional random fields\") may be drawn with the estimation of conditional probability distributions in this fashion, if one views the feature mappings associated with the kernel as sufficient statistics in generalized (possibly infinite\\-dimensional) [exponential families](/wiki/Exponential_family \"Exponential family\").",
"### Measuring dependence of random variables",
"A measure of the statistical dependence between random variables X and Y (from any domains on which sensible kernels can be defined) can be formulated based on the Hilbert–Schmidt Independence Criterion A. Gretton, O. Bousquet, A. Smola, B. Schölkopf. (2005\\). [Measuring statistical dependence with Hilbert–Schmidt norms](http://www.gatsby.ucl.ac.uk/~gretton/papers/GreBouSmoSch05.pdf). *Proc. Intl. Conf. on Algorithmic Learning Theory*: 63–78\\.",
"\\\\text{HSIC}(X, Y) \\= \\\\left \\\\\\| \\\\mathcal{C}\\_{XY} \\- \\\\mu\\_X \\\\otimes \\\\mu\\_Y \\\\right \\\\\\|\\_{\\\\mathcal{H} \\\\otimes \\\\mathcal{H}}^2 \nand can be used as a principled replacement for [mutual information](/wiki/Mutual_information \"Mutual information\"), [Pearson correlation](/wiki/Pearson_correlation \"Pearson correlation\") or any other dependence measure used in learning algorithms. Most notably, HSIC can detect arbitrary dependencies (when a characteristic kernel is used in the embeddings, HSIC is zero if and only if the variables are [independent](/wiki/Independence_%28probability_theory%29 \"Independence (probability theory)\")), and can be used to measure dependence between different types of data (e.g. images and text captions). Given *n* i.i.d. samples of each random variable, a simple parameter\\-free [unbiased](/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator \"Bias of an estimator\") estimator of HSIC which exhibits [concentration](/wiki/Concentration_of_measure \"Concentration of measure\") about the true value can be computed in O(n(d\\_f^2 \\+d\\_g^2\\)) time, where the Gram matrices of the two datasets are approximated using \\\\mathbf{A} \\\\mathbf{A}^T, \\\\mathbf{B} \\\\mathbf{B}^T with \\\\mathbf{A} \\\\in \\\\R^{n \\\\times d\\_f}, \\\\mathbf{B} \\\\in \\\\R^{n \\\\times d\\_g}. The desirable properties of HSIC have led to the formulation of numerous algorithms which utilize this dependence measure for a variety of common machine learning tasks such as: [feature selection](/wiki/Feature_selection \"Feature selection\") (BAHSIC L. Song, A. Smola, A. Gretton, K. Borgwardt, J. Bedo. (2007\\). [Supervised feature selection via dependence estimation](http://www.machinelearning.org/proceedings/icml2007/papers/244.pdf). *Proc. Intl. Conf. Machine Learning*, Omnipress: 823–830\\.), [clustering](/wiki/Cluster_analysis \"Cluster analysis\") (CLUHSIC L. Song, A. Smola, A. Gretton, K. Borgwardt. (2007\\). [A dependence maximization view of clustering](http://machinelearning.wustl.edu/mlpapers/paper_files/icml2007_SongSGB07.pdf). *Proc. Intl. Conf. Machine Learning*. Omnipress: 815–822\\.), and [dimensionality reduction](/wiki/Dimensionality_reduction \"Dimensionality reduction\") (MUHSIC L. Song, A. Smola, K. Borgwardt, A. Gretton. (2007\\). [Colored maximum variance unfolding](http://machinelearning.wustl.edu/mlpapers/paper_files/NIPS2007_492.pdf). *Neural Information Processing Systems*.).",
"HSIC can be extended to measure the dependence of multiple random variables. The question of when HSIC captures independence in this case has recently been studied:Zoltán Szabó, Bharath K. Sriperumbudur. [Characteristic and Universal Tensor Product Kernels](http://jmlr.org/papers/v18/17-492.html). *Journal of Machine Learning Research*, 19:1–29, 2018\\. for \nmore than two variables\n* on \\\\R^d: the characteristic property of the individual kernels remains an equivalent condition.\n* on general domains: the characteristic property of the kernel components is necessary but *not sufficient*.",
"### Kernel belief propagation",
"[Belief propagation](/wiki/Belief_propagation \"Belief propagation\") is a fundamental algorithm for inference in [graphical models](/wiki/Graphical_model \"Graphical model\") in which nodes repeatedly pass and receive messages corresponding to the evaluation of conditional expectations. In the kernel embedding framework, the messages may be represented as RKHS functions and the conditional distribution embeddings can be applied to efficiently compute message updates. Given *n* samples of random variables represented by nodes in a [Markov random field](/wiki/Markov_random_field \"Markov random field\"), the incoming message to node *t* from node *u* can be expressed as",
"m\\_{ut}(\\\\cdot) \\= \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^n \\\\beta\\_{ut}^i \\\\varphi(x\\_t^i)\nif it assumed to lie in the RKHS. The **kernel belief propagation update** message from *t* to node *s* is then given by",
"\\\\widehat{m}\\_{ts} \\= \\\\left( \\\\odot\\_{u \\\\in N(t) \\\\backslash s} \\\\mathbf{K}\\_t \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\beta}\\_{ut} \\\\right)^T (\\\\mathbf{K}\\_s \\+ \\\\lambda \\\\mathbf{I} )^{\\-1} \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\Upsilon}\\_s^T \\\\varphi(x\\_s)\nwhere \\\\odot denotes the element\\-wise vector product, N(t) \\\\backslash s is the set of nodes connected to *t* excluding node *s*, \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\beta}\\_{ut} \\= \\\\left(\\\\beta\\_{ut}^1, \\\\dots, \\\\beta\\_{ut}^n \\\\right) , \\\\mathbf{K}\\_t, \\\\mathbf{K}\\_s are the Gram matrices of the samples from variables X\\_t, X\\_s , respectively, and \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\Upsilon}\\_s \\= \\\\left(\\\\varphi(x\\_s^1\\),\\\\dots, \\\\varphi(x\\_s^n)\\\\right) is the feature matrix for the samples from X\\_s.",
"Thus, if the incoming messages to node *t* are linear combinations of feature mapped samples from X\\_t , then the outgoing message from this node is also a linear combination of feature mapped samples from X\\_s . This RKHS function representation of message\\-passing updates therefore produces an efficient belief propagation algorithm in which the [potentials](/wiki/Markov_random_field%23Clique_factorization \"Markov random field#Clique factorization\") are nonparametric functions inferred from the data so that arbitrary statistical relationships may be modeled.",
"### Nonparametric filtering in hidden Markov models",
"In the [hidden Markov model](/wiki/Hidden_Markov_model \"Hidden Markov model\") (HMM), two key quantities of interest are the transition probabilities between hidden states P(S^t \\\\mid S^{t\\-1}) and the emission probabilities P(O^t \\\\mid S^t) for observations. Using the kernel conditional distribution embedding framework, these quantities may be expressed in terms of samples from the HMM. A serious limitation of the embedding methods in this domain is the need for training samples containing hidden states, as otherwise inference with arbitrary distributions in the HMM is not possible.",
"One common use of HMMs is [filtering](/wiki/Hidden_Markov_model%23Filtering \"Hidden Markov model#Filtering\") in which the goal is to estimate posterior distribution over the hidden state s^t at time step *t* given a history of previous observations h^t \\= (o^1, \\\\dots, o^t) from the system. In filtering, a **belief state** P(S^{t\\+1} \\\\mid h^{t\\+1}) is recursively maintained via a prediction step (where updates P(S^{t\\+1} \\\\mid h^t) \\= \\\\mathbb{E}\\[P(S^{t\\+1} \\\\mid S^t) \\\\mid h^t] are computed by marginalizing out the previous hidden state) followed by a conditioning step (where updates P(S^{t\\+1} \\\\mid h^t, o^{t\\+1}) \\\\propto P(o^{t\\+1} \\\\mid S^{t\\+1}) P(S^{t\\+1} \\\\mid h^t) are computed by applying Bayes' rule to condition on a new observation). The RKHS embedding of the belief state at time *t\\+1* can be recursively expressed as",
"\\\\mu\\_{S^{t\\+1} \\\\mid h^{t\\+1}} \\= \\\\mathcal{C}\\_{S^{t\\+1} O^{t\\+1}}^\\\\pi \\\\left(\\\\mathcal{C}\\_{O^{t\\+1} O^{t\\+1}}^\\\\pi \\\\right)^{\\-1} \\\\varphi(o^{t\\+1}) \nby computing the embeddings of the prediction step via the [kernel sum rule](/wiki/%23Kernel_sum_rule \"#Kernel sum rule\") and the embedding of the conditioning step via [kernel Bayes' rule](/wiki/%23Kernel_Bayes%27_rule \"#Kernel Bayes' rule\"). Assuming a training sample (\\\\widetilde{s}^1, \\\\dots, \\\\widetilde{s}^T, \\\\widetilde{o}^1, \\\\dots, \\\\widetilde{o}^T) is given, one can in practice estimate",
"\\\\widehat{\\\\mu}\\_{S^{t\\+1} \\\\mid h^{t\\+1}} \\= \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^T \\\\alpha\\_i^t \\\\varphi(\\\\widetilde{s}^t)\nand filtering with kernel embeddings is thus implemented recursively using the following updates for the weights \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\alpha} \\= (\\\\alpha\\_1, \\\\dots, \\\\alpha\\_T)",
"\\\\mathbf{D}^{t\\+1} \\= \\\\operatorname{diag}\\\\left((G\\+\\\\lambda \\\\mathbf{I})^{\\-1} \\\\widetilde{G} \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\alpha}^t \\\\right)\n\\\\boldsymbol{\\\\alpha}^{t\\+1} \\= \\\\mathbf{D}^{t\\+1} \\\\mathbf{K} \\\\left( (\\\\mathbf{D}^{t\\+1} K)^2 \\+ \\\\widetilde{\\\\lambda} \\\\mathbf{I} \\\\right)^{\\-1} \\\\mathbf{D}^{t\\+1} \\\\mathbf{K}\\_{o^{t\\+1}} \nwhere \\\\mathbf{G}, \\\\mathbf{K} denote the Gram matrices of \\\\widetilde{s}^1, \\\\dots, \\\\widetilde{s}^T and \\\\widetilde{o}^1, \\\\dots, \\\\widetilde{o}^T respectively, \\\\widetilde{\\\\mathbf{G}} is a transfer Gram matrix defined as \\\\widetilde{\\\\mathbf{G}}\\_{ij} \\= k(\\\\widetilde{s}\\_i, \\\\widetilde{s}\\_{j\\+1}), and \\\\mathbf{K}\\_{o^{t\\+1}} \\= (k(\\\\widetilde{o}^1, o^{t\\+1}), \\\\dots, k(\\\\widetilde{o}^T, o^{t\\+1}))^T.",
"### Support measure machines",
"The **support measure machine** (SMM) is a generalization of the [support vector machine](/wiki/Support_vector_machine \"Support vector machine\") (SVM) in which the training examples are probability distributions paired with labels \\\\{P\\_i, y\\_i\\\\}\\_{i\\=1}^n, \\\\ y\\_i \\\\in \\\\{\\+1, \\-1\\\\} .K. Muandet, K. Fukumizu, F. Dinuzzo, B. Schölkopf. (2012\\). [Learning from Distributions via Support Measure Machines](http://books.nips.cc/papers/files/nips25/NIPS2012_0015.pdf). *Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems*: 10–18\\. SMMs solve the standard SVM [dual optimization problem](/wiki/Support_vector_machine%23Dual_form \"Support vector machine#Dual form\") using the following **expected kernel**",
"K\\\\left(P(X), Q(Z)\\\\right) \\= \\\\langle \\\\mu\\_X , \\\\mu\\_Z \\\\rangle\\_\\\\mathcal{H} \\= \\\\mathbb{E} \\[k(x,z)] \nwhich is computable in closed form for many common specific distributions P\\_i (such as the Gaussian distribution) combined with popular embedding kernels k (e.g. the Gaussian kernel or polynomial kernel), or can be accurately empirically estimated from i.i.d. samples \\\\{x\\_i\\\\}\\_{i\\=1}^n \\\\sim P(X), \\\\{z\\_j\\\\}\\_{j\\=1}^m \\\\sim Q(Z) via",
"\\\\widehat{K} (X, Z) \\= \\\\frac{1}{n m} \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^n \\\\sum\\_{j\\=1}^m k(x\\_i, z\\_j) \nUnder certain choices of the embedding kernel k, the SMM applied to training examples \\\\{P\\_i, y\\_i\\\\}\\_{i\\=1}^n is equivalent to a SVM trained on samples \\\\{x\\_i, y\\_i\\\\}\\_{i\\=1}^n, and thus the SMM can be viewed as a *flexible* SVM in which a different data\\-dependent kernel (specified by the assumed form of the distribution P\\_i ) may be placed on each training point.",
"### Domain adaptation under covariate, target, and conditional shift",
"The goal of [domain adaptation](/wiki/Domain_adaptation \"Domain adaptation\") is the formulation of learning algorithms which generalize well when the training and test data have different distributions. Given training examples \\\\{(x\\_i^\\\\text{tr}, y\\_i^\\\\text{tr})\\\\}\\_{i\\=1}^n and a test set \\\\{(x\\_j^\\\\text{te}, y\\_j^\\\\text{te}) \\\\}\\_{j\\=1}^m where the y\\_j^\\\\text{te} are unknown, three types of differences are commonly assumed between the distribution of the training examples P^\\\\text{tr}(X,Y) and the test distribution P^\\\\text{te}(X,Y):\\<ref name \\= \"DA\"\\>K. Zhang, B. Schölkopf, K. Muandet, Z. Wang. (2013\\). [Domain adaptation under target and conditional shift](http://jmlr.org/proceedings/papers/v28/zhang13d.pdf). *Journal of Machine Learning Research, **28**(3\\): 819–827\\.\\</ref\\>A. Gretton, A. Smola, J. Huang, M. Schmittfull, K. Borgwardt, B. Schölkopf. (2008\\). Covariate shift and local learning by distribution matching. *In J. Quinonero\\-Candela, M. Sugiyama, A. Schwaighofer, N. Lawrence (eds.). Dataset shift in machine learning*, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA: 131–160\\.\n**Covariate shift** in which the marginal distribution of the covariates changes across domains: P^\\\\text{tr}(X) \\\\neq P^\\\\text{te}(X)\n**Target shift** in which the marginal distribution of the outputs changes across domains: P^\\\\text{tr}(Y) \\\\neq P^\\\\text{te}(Y)\n**Conditional shift** in which P(Y) remains the same across domains, but the conditional distributions differ: P^\\\\text{tr}(X \\\\mid Y) \\\\neq P^\\\\text{te}(X \\\\mid Y). In general, the presence of conditional shift leads to an [ill\\-posed](/wiki/Well-posed_problem \"Well-posed problem\") problem, and the additional assumption that P(X \\\\mid Y) changes only under [location](/wiki/Location_parameter \"Location parameter\")\\-[scale](/wiki/Scale_parameter \"Scale parameter\") (LS) transformations on X is commonly imposed to make the problem tractable.*",
"By utilizing the kernel embedding of marginal and conditional distributions, practical approaches to deal with the presence of these types of differences between training and test domains can be formulated. Covariate shift may be accounted for by reweighting examples via estimates of the ratio P^\\\\text{te}(X)/P^\\\\text{tr}(X) obtained directly from the kernel embeddings of the marginal distributions of X in each domain without any need for explicit estimation of the distributions. Target shift, which cannot be similarly dealt with since no samples from Y are available in the test domain, is accounted for by weighting training examples using the vector \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\beta}^\\*(\\\\mathbf{y}^\\\\text{tr}) which solves the following optimization problem (where in practice, empirical approximations must be used) \n\\\\min\\_{\\\\boldsymbol{\\\\beta}(y)} \\\\left \\\\\\|\\\\mathcal{C}\\_{{(X \\\\mid Y)}^\\\\text{tr}} \\\\mathbb{E} \\[\\\\boldsymbol{\\\\beta}(y) \\\\varphi(y^\\\\text{tr})] \\- \\\\mu\\_{X^\\\\text{te}} \\\\right \\\\\\|\\_\\\\mathcal{H}^2 subject to \\\\boldsymbol{\\\\beta}(y) \\\\ge 0, \\\\mathbb{E} \\[\\\\boldsymbol{\\\\beta}(y^\\\\text{tr})] \\= 1\nTo deal with location scale conditional shift, one can perform a LS transformation of the training points to obtain new transformed training data \\\\mathbf{X}^\\\\text{new} \\= \\\\mathbf{X}^\\\\text{tr} \\\\odot \\\\mathbf{W} \\+ \\\\mathbf{B} (where \\\\odot denotes the element\\-wise vector product). To ensure similar distributions between the new transformed training samples and the test data, \\\\mathbf{W},\\\\mathbf{B} are estimated by minimizing the following empirical kernel embedding distance \n\\\\left \\\\\\| \\\\widehat{\\\\mu}\\_{X^\\\\text{new}} \\- \\\\widehat{\\\\mu}\\_{X^\\\\text{te}} \\\\right \\\\\\|\\_{\\\\mathcal{H}}^2 \\= \\\\left \\\\\\| \\\\widehat{\\\\mathcal{C}}\\_{(X \\\\mid Y)^\\\\text{new}} \\\\widehat{\\\\mu}\\_{Y^\\\\text{tr}} \\- \\\\widehat{\\\\mu}\\_{X^\\\\text{te}} \\\\right \\\\\\|\\_{\\\\mathcal{H}}^2 \nIn general, the kernel embedding methods for dealing with LS conditional shift and target shift may be combined to find a reweighted transformation of the training data which mimics the test distribution, and these methods may perform well even in the presence of conditional shifts other than location\\-scale changes.\n### Domain generalization via invariant feature representation",
"Given 1. 1. 1. N *sets of training examples sampled i.i.d. from distributions P^{(1\\)}(X,Y), P^{(2\\)}(X,Y), \\\\ldots, P^{(N)}(X,Y), the goal of **domain generalization** is to formulate learning algorithms which perform well on test examples sampled from a previously unseen domain P^\\*(X,Y) where no data from the test domain is available at training time. If conditional distributions P(Y \\\\mid X) are assumed to be relatively similar across all domains, then a learner capable of domain generalization must estimate a functional relationship between the variables which is robust to changes in the marginals P(X). Based on kernel embeddings of these distributions, Domain Invariant Component Analysis (DICA) is a method which determines the transformation of the training data that minimizes the difference between marginal distributions while preserving a common conditional distribution shared between all training domains.K. Muandet, D. Balduzzi, B. Schölkopf. (2013\\).[Domain Generalization Via Invariant Feature Representation](http://jmlr.org/proceedings/papers/v28/muandet13.pdf). *30th International Conference on Machine Learning*. DICA thus extracts* invariants*, features that transfer across domains, and may be viewed as a generalization of many popular dimension\\-reduction methods such as [kernel principal component analysis](/wiki/Kernel_principal_component_analysis \"Kernel principal component analysis\"), transfer component analysis, and covariance operator inverse regression.*",
"Defining a probability distribution \\\\mathcal{P} on the RKHS \\\\mathcal{H} with\n\\\\mathcal{P} \\\\left (\\\\mu\\_{X^{(i)}Y^{(i)}} \\\\right ) \\= \\\\frac{1}{N} \\\\qquad \\\\text{ for } i\\=1,\\\\dots, N,\nDICA measures dissimilarity between domains via **distributional variance** which is computed as\nV\\_\\\\mathcal{H} (\\\\mathcal{P}) \\= \\\\frac{1}{N} \\\\operatorname{tr}(\\\\mathbf{G}) \\- \\\\frac{1}{N^2} \\\\sum\\_{i,j\\=1}^N \\\\mathbf{G}\\_{ij} \nwhere\n\\\\mathbf{G}\\_{ij} \\= \\\\left \\\\langle \\\\mu\\_{X^{(i)}}, \\\\mu\\_{X^{(j)}} \\\\right \\\\rangle\\_\\\\mathcal{H} \nso \\\\mathbf{G} is a N \\\\times N Gram matrix over the distributions from which the training data are sampled. Finding an [orthogonal transform](/wiki/Orthogonal_matrix \"Orthogonal matrix\") onto a low\\-dimensional [subspace](/wiki/Linear_subspace \"Linear subspace\") B *(in the feature space) which minimizes the distributional variance, DICA simultaneously ensures that* B *aligns with the [bases](/wiki/Basis_function \"Basis function\") of a **central subspace*** C *for which Y becomes independent of X given C^T X across all domains. In the absence of target values Y, an unsupervised version of DICA may be formulated which finds a low\\-dimensional subspace that minimizes distributional variance while simultaneously maximizing the variance of X (in the feature space) across all domains (rather than preserving a central subspace).*### Distribution regression",
"In distribution regression, the goal is to regress from probability distributions to reals (or vectors). Many important [machine learning](/wiki/Machine_learning \"Machine learning\") and statistical tasks fit into this framework, including [multi\\-instance learning](/wiki/Multiple-instance_learning \"Multiple-instance learning\"), and [point estimation](/wiki/Point_estimation \"Point estimation\") problems without analytical solution (such as [hyperparameter](/wiki/Hyperparameter_%28Bayesian_statistics%29 \"Hyperparameter (Bayesian statistics)\") or [entropy estimation](/wiki/Entropy_estimation \"Entropy estimation\")). In practice only samples from sampled distributions are observable, and the estimates have to rely on similarities computed between sets of points''. Distribution regression has been successfully applied for example in supervised entropy learning, and aerosol prediction using multispectral satellite images.Z. Szabó, B. Sriperumbudur, B. Póczos, A. Gretton. [Learning Theory for Distribution Regression](http://jmlr.org/papers/v17/14-510.html). *Journal of Machine Learning Research*, 17(152\\):1–40, 2016\\.",
"Given {\\\\left(\\\\{X\\_{i,n}\\\\}\\_{n\\=1}^{N\\_i}, y\\_i\\\\right)}\\_{i\\=1}^\\\\ell training data, where the \\\\hat{X\\_i} :\\= \\\\{X\\_{i,n}\\\\}\\_{n\\=1}^{N\\_i} bag contains samples from a probability distribution X\\_i and the i^\\\\text{th} output label is y\\_i\\\\in \\\\R, one can tackle the distribution regression task by taking the embeddings of the distributions, and learning the regressor from the embeddings to the outputs. In other words, one can consider the following kernel [ridge regression](/wiki/Tikhonov_regularization \"Tikhonov regularization\") problem (\\\\lambda\\>0\\)",
"J(f) \\= \\\\frac{1}{\\\\ell} \\\\sum\\_{i\\=1}^\\\\ell \\\\left\\[f\\\\left(\\\\mu\\_{\\\\hat{X\\_i}}\\\\right)\\-y\\_i\\\\right]^2 \\+ \\\\lambda \\\\\\|f\\\\\\|\\_{\\\\mathcal{H}(K)}^2 \\\\to \\\\min\\_{f\\\\in \\\\mathcal{H}(K)}, \nwhere",
"\\\\mu\\_{\\\\hat{X}\\_i} \\= \\\\int\\_\\\\Omega k(\\\\cdot,u) \\\\, \\\\mathrm{d} \\\\hat{X}\\_i(u)\\= \\\\frac{1}{N\\_i} \\\\sum\\_{n\\=1}^{N\\_i} k(\\\\cdot, X\\_{i,n})\nwith a k kernel on the domain of X\\_i\\-s (k:\\\\Omega\\\\times \\\\Omega \\\\to \\\\R), K is a kernel on the embedded distributions, and \\\\mathcal{H}(K) is the RKHS determined by K. Examples for K include the linear kernel \\\\left\\[ K(\\\\mu\\_P,\\\\mu\\_Q) \\= \\\\langle\\\\mu\\_P,\\\\mu\\_Q\\\\rangle\\_{\\\\mathcal{H}(k)} \\\\right] , the Gaussian kernel \\\\left\\[ K(\\\\mu\\_P,\\\\mu\\_Q) \\= e^{\\-\\\\left\\\\\\|\\\\mu\\_P\\-\\\\mu\\_Q\\\\right\\\\\\|\\_{H(k)}^2/(2\\\\sigma^2\\)} \\\\right] , the exponential kernel \\\\left\\[ K(\\\\mu\\_P,\\\\mu\\_Q) \\= e^{\\-\\\\left\\\\\\|\\\\mu\\_P\\-\\\\mu\\_Q\\\\right\\\\\\|\\_{H(k)}/(2\\\\sigma^2\\)} \\\\right] , the Cauchy kernel \\\\left\\[ K(\\\\mu\\_P,\\\\mu\\_Q) \\= \\\\left(1\\+ \\\\left\\\\\\|\\\\mu\\_P\\-\\\\mu\\_Q\\\\right\\\\\\|\\_{H(k)}^2/\\\\sigma^2 \\\\right)^{\\-1} \\\\right] , the generalized t\\-student kernel \\\\left\\[ K(\\\\mu\\_P,\\\\mu\\_Q) \\= \\\\left(1\\+ \\\\left\\\\\\|\\\\mu\\_P\\-\\\\mu\\_Q\\\\right\\\\\\|\\_{H(k)}^{\\\\sigma} \\\\right)^{\\-1}, (\\\\sigma \\\\le 2\\) \\\\right] , or the inverse multiquadrics kernel \\\\left\\[ K(\\\\mu\\_P,\\\\mu\\_Q) \\= \\\\left(\\\\left\\\\\\|\\\\mu\\_P\\-\\\\mu\\_Q\\\\right\\\\\\|\\_{H(k)}^2 \\+ \\\\sigma^2 \\\\right)^{\\-\\\\frac{1}{2}} \\\\right] .",
"The prediction on a new distribution (\\\\hat{X}) takes the simple, analytical form\n \\\\hat{y}\\\\big(\\\\hat{X}\\\\big) \\= \\\\mathbf{k} \\[\\\\mathbf{G} \\+ \\\\lambda \\\\ell]^{\\-1}\\\\mathbf{y}, \nwhere \\\\mathbf{k}\\=\\\\big\\[K \\\\big(\\\\mu\\_{\\\\hat{X}\\_i},\\\\mu\\_{\\\\hat{X}}\\\\big)\\\\big]\\\\in \\\\R^{1\\\\times \\\\ell}, \\\\mathbf{G}\\=\\[G\\_{ij}]\\\\in \\\\R^{\\\\ell\\\\times \\\\ell}, G\\_{ij} \\= K\\\\big(\\\\mu\\_{\\\\hat{X}\\_i},\\\\mu\\_{\\\\hat{X}\\_j}\\\\big)\\\\in \\\\R, \\\\mathbf{y}\\=\\[y\\_1;\\\\ldots;y\\_\\\\ell]\\\\in \\\\R^\\\\ell. Under mild regularity conditions this estimator can be shown to be consistent and it can achieve the one\\-stage sampled (as if one had access to the true X\\_i\\-s) [minimax optimal](/wiki/Minimax_estimator \"Minimax estimator\") rate. In the J objective function y\\_i\\-s are real numbers; the results can also be extended to the case when y\\_i\\-s are d\\-dimensional vectors, or more generally elements of a [separable](/wiki/Separable_space \"Separable space\") [Hilbert space](/wiki/Hilbert_space \"Hilbert space\") using operator\\-valued K kernels.",
""
] |
Life
----
Baskakov was born in 1905 in [Solvychegodsk](/wiki/Solvychegodsk "Solvychegodsk") in [Vologda Governorate](/wiki/Vologda_Governorate "Vologda Governorate") (now [Arkhangelsk Oblast](/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast "Arkhangelsk Oblast")) in a large family of a district government official. His father came from a family banished in the beginning of the 19th century from [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg") to the [Vologda](/wiki/Vologda "Vologda") province, and mother was a daughter of an official and a teacher. In a book about Russian surnames of Turkic origin (1979\) Baskakov gives the following comment about his surname: "The surname *Baskakov* comes from a Tatar [baskak](/wiki/Baskak "Baskak"), Amragan (\*Amyr\-khan), a viceroy in the second half of the 13th century in [Vladimir](/wiki/Vladimir%2C_Russia "Vladimir, Russia"). The Turkic origin of this surname is confirmed by the very root of the surname *basqaq* "the one who puts seal, a viceroy of the Khan of the [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde "Golden Horde")", and by the heraldic data: a curved sword in the center and an image of a Tatar over the crest who is holding a red curved saber" (p. 245\).
As a young student, in 1916, Baskakov met an old friend of his father's, Bessonov, a Russian [dragoman](/wiki/Dragoman "Dragoman") or envoy to [Jedda](/wiki/Jedda "Jedda") (then part of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire")). The Russian diplomat's stories about eastern countries affected young Baskakov's imagination. He took a great interest in the East, and Turkey in particular. He began reading about Turkey and even tried to study the Turkish language by himself. In Baskakov's words, "This pursuit probably affected choice of my speciality \- Turkology, which my father later named "missionary work", or maybe my speciality was prompted by the genes of my ancestors, Turks or Mongols?".
In 1918, when Baskakov was attending the gymnasium in the town [Gryazov](/wiki/Gryazov "Gryazov"), he took part in a piano class at Gryazov's musical school. From that time music accompanied him throughout his life. Post\-revolutionary shocks of 1920s immediately tested the vicissitudes of life, from 1919 to 1922\. While studying in a unified labor school reorganized from his gymnasium, Baskakov worked as an ordinary clerk, and as a draftsman in the public health department. In 1922 Baskakov graduated from high school and went to Gryazov pedagogical school, but the aspirations to become an [Orientalist](/wiki/Oriental_studies "Oriental studies") did not leave him.
In 1923 Baskakov came to [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") to enter the [Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies](/wiki/Moscow_Institute_of_Oriental_Studies "Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies"). He naively entered in a questionnaire that he sympathized with "[anarchists\-collectivists](/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism "Anarcho-syndicalism")" group that had just joined [Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union "Communist Party of the Soviet Union"), and on the first interview was refused admittance. After that, without hesitation, he turned to a private Institute of the Word headed by [Musin\-Pushkin](/wiki/Musin-Pushkin "Musin-Pushkin"), now a Linguistics Institute of the [Russian Academy of Science](/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Science "Russian Academy of Science"). But unable to meet the payments, he had to leave Moscow and to return to Vologda, to work in pedagogical school. At the start of 1924 Baskakov was dismissed first from his pedagogical school, and then from Vologda pedagogical school, for participation in an anti\-religious dispute where he advocated that God is good, and the Satan is evil, and that God always wins, and that people need religion.
Baskakov fled to [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine"), near [Cherkassy](/wiki/Cherkassy "Cherkassy"), and earned living as a tutor. In 1924, Baskakov went to [Leningrad](/wiki/Leningrad "Leningrad") and attempted to enter the Oriental Institute, but failed again. A third attempt was a success, Baskakov was accepted to the [San\-Gali](/wiki/San-Gali "San-Gali") State Institute of People's Education. San\-Gali State Institute was a two\-year educational institution that was preparing teachers for high school. A number of prominent "former people" found shelter there.
In 1925, Baskakov was admitted to the Moscow State University Ethnographic branch of the Historical Ethnological faculty. During his study Baskakov traveled to [Karakalpak ASSR](/wiki/Karakalpak_ASSR "Karakalpak ASSR"), [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan"), [Kirgizia](/wiki/Kirgizia "Kirgizia") and [Khorezm](/wiki/Khwarezm "Khwarezm") area of [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan") to gather material on [Uighurs](/wiki/Uyghur_language "Uyghur language"), [Kirghiz](/wiki/Kyrgyz_language "Kyrgyz language") and [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakh_language "Kazakh language") languages, ethnography, language and folklore of [Karakalpaks](/wiki/Karakalpaks "Karakalpaks") and [Khorezm](/wiki/Khwarezm "Khwarezm") [Uzbeks](/wiki/Uzbeks "Uzbeks"). His instructors were [A.N. Maksimov](/wiki/A.N._Maksimov "A.N. Maksimov"), P.F. Preobrajensky, V.K. Trutovsky, M.N. Peterson, V.A. Gordlevsky, folklore also the literature, N.K. Dmitriev, and [Vasily Bartold](/wiki/Vasily_Bartold "Vasily Bartold") lectured on history of [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia") and [Jeti\-su](/wiki/Jetisu "Jetisu") Türks.
In 1929 Baskakov graduated from the University with a degree in history, archeology, ethnography, languages, folklore and literature of Turkic peoples. Baskakov was retained by the faculty of Turkic philology, with additional duties at the Central Ethnographical Museum, and continued expeditions to the [Karakalpak ASSR](/wiki/Karakalpak_ASSR "Karakalpak ASSR"), and [Khorezm](/wiki/Khwarezm "Khwarezm"). In 1930, Baskakov was sent to Karakalpak ASSR regional department of national education to chair a committee to institute a transitional [Latin alphabet](/wiki/Latin_alphabet "Latin alphabet") for the Karakalpak people, to substitute for their traditional [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic "Arabic") alphabet. In 1930\-1931, Baskakov helped to organize the Karakalpak Regional Museum and a Scientific Institute.
In 1931, Baskakov returned to Moscow and joined Linguistic Commission of Research Association for National (ethnic) and Colonial problems at the Communist University of Eastern Workers (CUEW), and became a docent of CUEW. In 1934 Baskakov was appointed to the [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_SFSR "Russian SFSR") Central Committee of New Alphabet (CCNA) and sent to [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan"), [Kirgizia](/wiki/Kirgizia "Kirgizia") and [Oirot](/wiki/Altay_people "Altay people") (present [Mountain Altai](/wiki/Altai_Mountains "Altai Mountains")) to study problems of "language construction" in the native schools. Baskakov was sent to all territories populated by [Nogais](/wiki/Nogais "Nogais") ([Astrakhan](/wiki/Astrakhan "Astrakhan"), [Dagestan ASSR](/wiki/Dagestan_ASSR "Dagestan ASSR"), [Krasnodar](/wiki/Krasnodar "Krasnodar"), [Crimea ASSR](/wiki/Crimean_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic")) with an aim to "create" a "Nogai literary language" with a new quasi\-Cyrillic alphabet.
In 1936, Baskakov became a docent of Uighur language faculty in the [Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies](/wiki/Moscow_Institute_of_Oriental_Studies "Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies"), later a Language and Literacy Institute of USSR peoples. In 1938, as a reward for his publications, Baskakov became a PhD in Philology without writing a thesis dissertation. In 1939\-1940, Baskakov worked on country\-wide transitioning of the Turkic peoples from the Arabic to a slew of quasi\-Cyrillic alphabets, visiting Kazan, Ufa, Tashkent and Alma\-Ata. During World War II, Baskakov was sent to [Oirot](/wiki/Altay_people "Altay people") ([Altaians](/wiki/Altaians "Altaians")). Living in Altai enabled Baskakov to collect rich material on dialects and folklore of Altaians across their land. In 1943, Baskakov returned to Moscow to work in [N. Ya. Marr](/wiki/Nicholas_Marr "Nicholas Marr") Institute of Language and Thinking of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In that institution, under its many different names, Baskakov worked for almost 50 years. He visited Lithuania, Northern Caucasus, Turkmenia and Khakassia helping to establish new scientific institutions. In 1950, Baskakov wrote a dissertation themed "Karakalpak language. Parts of speech and word\-formation" for the Doctor of Philology degree. In 1989, Baskakov retired from active work, but continued voluntary work, and remained a chief scientist in the Karakalpak branch of the Uzbek SSR Academy of Sciences.
Baskakov was an honorary member of the Great Britain Royal Asian society, Turkish linguistic society, International Uralo\-Altai society (Hamburg), Scientific organization of Polish Orientalists, Scientific organization of Hungarian Orientalists Kereshi\-Choma, a corresponding member of Finno\-Ugric society (Helsinki).
He died in 1996, having survived the entire existence of the Soviet Union.
|
[
"Life\n----",
"Baskakov was born in 1905 in [Solvychegodsk](/wiki/Solvychegodsk \"Solvychegodsk\") in [Vologda Governorate](/wiki/Vologda_Governorate \"Vologda Governorate\") (now [Arkhangelsk Oblast](/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast \"Arkhangelsk Oblast\")) in a large family of a district government official. His father came from a family banished in the beginning of the 19th century from [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\") to the [Vologda](/wiki/Vologda \"Vologda\") province, and mother was a daughter of an official and a teacher. In a book about Russian surnames of Turkic origin (1979\\) Baskakov gives the following comment about his surname: \"The surname *Baskakov* comes from a Tatar [baskak](/wiki/Baskak \"Baskak\"), Amragan (\\*Amyr\\-khan), a viceroy in the second half of the 13th century in [Vladimir](/wiki/Vladimir%2C_Russia \"Vladimir, Russia\"). The Turkic origin of this surname is confirmed by the very root of the surname *basqaq* \"the one who puts seal, a viceroy of the Khan of the [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde \"Golden Horde\")\", and by the heraldic data: a curved sword in the center and an image of a Tatar over the crest who is holding a red curved saber\" (p. 245\\).",
"As a young student, in 1916, Baskakov met an old friend of his father's, Bessonov, a Russian [dragoman](/wiki/Dragoman \"Dragoman\") or envoy to [Jedda](/wiki/Jedda \"Jedda\") (then part of the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\")). The Russian diplomat's stories about eastern countries affected young Baskakov's imagination. He took a great interest in the East, and Turkey in particular. He began reading about Turkey and even tried to study the Turkish language by himself. In Baskakov's words, \"This pursuit probably affected choice of my speciality \\- Turkology, which my father later named \"missionary work\", or maybe my speciality was prompted by the genes of my ancestors, Turks or Mongols?\".",
"In 1918, when Baskakov was attending the gymnasium in the town [Gryazov](/wiki/Gryazov \"Gryazov\"), he took part in a piano class at Gryazov's musical school. From that time music accompanied him throughout his life. Post\\-revolutionary shocks of 1920s immediately tested the vicissitudes of life, from 1919 to 1922\\. While studying in a unified labor school reorganized from his gymnasium, Baskakov worked as an ordinary clerk, and as a draftsman in the public health department. In 1922 Baskakov graduated from high school and went to Gryazov pedagogical school, but the aspirations to become an [Orientalist](/wiki/Oriental_studies \"Oriental studies\") did not leave him.",
"In 1923 Baskakov came to [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") to enter the [Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies](/wiki/Moscow_Institute_of_Oriental_Studies \"Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies\"). He naively entered in a questionnaire that he sympathized with \"[anarchists\\-collectivists](/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism \"Anarcho-syndicalism\")\" group that had just joined [Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Communist Party of the Soviet Union\"), and on the first interview was refused admittance. After that, without hesitation, he turned to a private Institute of the Word headed by [Musin\\-Pushkin](/wiki/Musin-Pushkin \"Musin-Pushkin\"), now a Linguistics Institute of the [Russian Academy of Science](/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Science \"Russian Academy of Science\"). But unable to meet the payments, he had to leave Moscow and to return to Vologda, to work in pedagogical school. At the start of 1924 Baskakov was dismissed first from his pedagogical school, and then from Vologda pedagogical school, for participation in an anti\\-religious dispute where he advocated that God is good, and the Satan is evil, and that God always wins, and that people need religion.",
"Baskakov fled to [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\"), near [Cherkassy](/wiki/Cherkassy \"Cherkassy\"), and earned living as a tutor. In 1924, Baskakov went to [Leningrad](/wiki/Leningrad \"Leningrad\") and attempted to enter the Oriental Institute, but failed again. A third attempt was a success, Baskakov was accepted to the [San\\-Gali](/wiki/San-Gali \"San-Gali\") State Institute of People's Education. San\\-Gali State Institute was a two\\-year educational institution that was preparing teachers for high school. A number of prominent \"former people\" found shelter there.",
"In 1925, Baskakov was admitted to the Moscow State University Ethnographic branch of the Historical Ethnological faculty. During his study Baskakov traveled to [Karakalpak ASSR](/wiki/Karakalpak_ASSR \"Karakalpak ASSR\"), [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\"), [Kirgizia](/wiki/Kirgizia \"Kirgizia\") and [Khorezm](/wiki/Khwarezm \"Khwarezm\") area of [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan \"Uzbekistan\") to gather material on [Uighurs](/wiki/Uyghur_language \"Uyghur language\"), [Kirghiz](/wiki/Kyrgyz_language \"Kyrgyz language\") and [Kazakh](/wiki/Kazakh_language \"Kazakh language\") languages, ethnography, language and folklore of [Karakalpaks](/wiki/Karakalpaks \"Karakalpaks\") and [Khorezm](/wiki/Khwarezm \"Khwarezm\") [Uzbeks](/wiki/Uzbeks \"Uzbeks\"). His instructors were [A.N. Maksimov](/wiki/A.N._Maksimov \"A.N. Maksimov\"), P.F. Preobrajensky, V.K. Trutovsky, M.N. Peterson, V.A. Gordlevsky, folklore also the literature, N.K. Dmitriev, and [Vasily Bartold](/wiki/Vasily_Bartold \"Vasily Bartold\") lectured on history of [Central Asia](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\") and [Jeti\\-su](/wiki/Jetisu \"Jetisu\") Türks.",
"In 1929 Baskakov graduated from the University with a degree in history, archeology, ethnography, languages, folklore and literature of Turkic peoples. Baskakov was retained by the faculty of Turkic philology, with additional duties at the Central Ethnographical Museum, and continued expeditions to the [Karakalpak ASSR](/wiki/Karakalpak_ASSR \"Karakalpak ASSR\"), and [Khorezm](/wiki/Khwarezm \"Khwarezm\"). In 1930, Baskakov was sent to Karakalpak ASSR regional department of national education to chair a committee to institute a transitional [Latin alphabet](/wiki/Latin_alphabet \"Latin alphabet\") for the Karakalpak people, to substitute for their traditional [Arabic](/wiki/Arabic \"Arabic\") alphabet. In 1930\\-1931, Baskakov helped to organize the Karakalpak Regional Museum and a Scientific Institute.",
"In 1931, Baskakov returned to Moscow and joined Linguistic Commission of Research Association for National (ethnic) and Colonial problems at the Communist University of Eastern Workers (CUEW), and became a docent of CUEW. In 1934 Baskakov was appointed to the [Russian SFSR](/wiki/Russian_SFSR \"Russian SFSR\") Central Committee of New Alphabet (CCNA) and sent to [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\"), [Kirgizia](/wiki/Kirgizia \"Kirgizia\") and [Oirot](/wiki/Altay_people \"Altay people\") (present [Mountain Altai](/wiki/Altai_Mountains \"Altai Mountains\")) to study problems of \"language construction\" in the native schools. Baskakov was sent to all territories populated by [Nogais](/wiki/Nogais \"Nogais\") ([Astrakhan](/wiki/Astrakhan \"Astrakhan\"), [Dagestan ASSR](/wiki/Dagestan_ASSR \"Dagestan ASSR\"), [Krasnodar](/wiki/Krasnodar \"Krasnodar\"), [Crimea ASSR](/wiki/Crimean_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic\")) with an aim to \"create\" a \"Nogai literary language\" with a new quasi\\-Cyrillic alphabet.",
"In 1936, Baskakov became a docent of Uighur language faculty in the [Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies](/wiki/Moscow_Institute_of_Oriental_Studies \"Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies\"), later a Language and Literacy Institute of USSR peoples. In 1938, as a reward for his publications, Baskakov became a PhD in Philology without writing a thesis dissertation. In 1939\\-1940, Baskakov worked on country\\-wide transitioning of the Turkic peoples from the Arabic to a slew of quasi\\-Cyrillic alphabets, visiting Kazan, Ufa, Tashkent and Alma\\-Ata. During World War II, Baskakov was sent to [Oirot](/wiki/Altay_people \"Altay people\") ([Altaians](/wiki/Altaians \"Altaians\")). Living in Altai enabled Baskakov to collect rich material on dialects and folklore of Altaians across their land. In 1943, Baskakov returned to Moscow to work in [N. Ya. Marr](/wiki/Nicholas_Marr \"Nicholas Marr\") Institute of Language and Thinking of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In that institution, under its many different names, Baskakov worked for almost 50 years. He visited Lithuania, Northern Caucasus, Turkmenia and Khakassia helping to establish new scientific institutions. In 1950, Baskakov wrote a dissertation themed \"Karakalpak language. Parts of speech and word\\-formation\" for the Doctor of Philology degree. In 1989, Baskakov retired from active work, but continued voluntary work, and remained a chief scientist in the Karakalpak branch of the Uzbek SSR Academy of Sciences.",
"Baskakov was an honorary member of the Great Britain Royal Asian society, Turkish linguistic society, International Uralo\\-Altai society (Hamburg), Scientific organization of Polish Orientalists, Scientific organization of Hungarian Orientalists Kereshi\\-Choma, a corresponding member of Finno\\-Ugric society (Helsinki).",
"He died in 1996, having survived the entire existence of the Soviet Union.",
""
] |
Scientific contribution
-----------------------
Retirement allowed Baskakov to work on collected material and publications. Before the beginning of the 20th century, few Turkic languages were studied and reflected in dictionaries and grammar books, without which was impossible to teach languages or conduct constructive research. Baskakov actively joined in creation of lexicographical and grammatical works for poorly studied and totally unknown major Turkic languages.
Studying a number of Turkic languages simultaneously, Baskakov evaluated the degree of their genetic affinity, and learned the principles of Turkic typology, which eventually resulted in creation of a synthesizing concept, a new classification of Turkic languages. First published in 1952, the Baskakov taxonomical classification, unlike the previous classifications built on limited number of linguistic attributes, accounted for grammatical system and lexical structure of the Turkic languages as a whole, coordinating formation of separate language groups with the history of their peoples.
Baskakov's classification of Turkic languages was published twice as a textbook *Introduction to study of Turkic languages* (1962 and 1969\), and is well known to the Türkologists of the world. Baskakov's classification remains the only classification built with understanding of the history of the Turkic peoples known at the time.
From the end of the 1970s Baskakov developed a typological model of the grammatical system of the Turkic languages. Baskakov developed a complete concept of Turkic language type, described in three monographs, "Historical structural typology of Turkic languages" (1975\), "Historical typological morphology of Turkic languages" (1979\), and "Historical typological phonology of Turkic languages" (1988\). Baskakov's concept recognized isomorphism of all language levels, from the top syntax level.
From the end of the 1970s, Baskakov developed a typological model of the grammatical system of Turkic languages. Baskakov's concept on the most ancient typological structure of Turkic languages found "hypothetically initial pre\-agglutinative form of Turkic, where abstract grammatical constructions were formed from main roots in postposition, and were gradually transformed to analytical elements, and then to affixes of the synthetic form".
Even though typologically the languages of the Altai family are related, their genetic relationship is contested. Baskakov advocated a genetic relationship of Turkic, Mongolian, Tunguso\-Manchurian, Korean and Japanese languages.
|
[
"Scientific contribution\n-----------------------",
"Retirement allowed Baskakov to work on collected material and publications. Before the beginning of the 20th century, few Turkic languages were studied and reflected in dictionaries and grammar books, without which was impossible to teach languages or conduct constructive research. Baskakov actively joined in creation of lexicographical and grammatical works for poorly studied and totally unknown major Turkic languages.",
"Studying a number of Turkic languages simultaneously, Baskakov evaluated the degree of their genetic affinity, and learned the principles of Turkic typology, which eventually resulted in creation of a synthesizing concept, a new classification of Turkic languages. First published in 1952, the Baskakov taxonomical classification, unlike the previous classifications built on limited number of linguistic attributes, accounted for grammatical system and lexical structure of the Turkic languages as a whole, coordinating formation of separate language groups with the history of their peoples.",
"Baskakov's classification of Turkic languages was published twice as a textbook *Introduction to study of Turkic languages* (1962 and 1969\\), and is well known to the Türkologists of the world. Baskakov's classification remains the only classification built with understanding of the history of the Turkic peoples known at the time.",
"From the end of the 1970s Baskakov developed a typological model of the grammatical system of the Turkic languages. Baskakov developed a complete concept of Turkic language type, described in three monographs, \"Historical structural typology of Turkic languages\" (1975\\), \"Historical typological morphology of Turkic languages\" (1979\\), and \"Historical typological phonology of Turkic languages\" (1988\\). Baskakov's concept recognized isomorphism of all language levels, from the top syntax level.",
"From the end of the 1970s, Baskakov developed a typological model of the grammatical system of Turkic languages. Baskakov's concept on the most ancient typological structure of Turkic languages found \"hypothetically initial pre\\-agglutinative form of Turkic, where abstract grammatical constructions were formed from main roots in postposition, and were gradually transformed to analytical elements, and then to affixes of the synthetic form\".",
"Even though typologically the languages of the Altai family are related, their genetic relationship is contested. Baskakov advocated a genetic relationship of Turkic, Mongolian, Tunguso\\-Manchurian, Korean and Japanese languages.",
""
] |
Musical career
--------------
Hyra began playing the guitar in his mid\-twenties, learning to play music by [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan") and [Bruce Springsteen](/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen "Bruce Springsteen"), among others. He moved to [Long Island, New York](/wiki/Long_Island%2C_New_York "Long Island, New York"), in the late eighties where his sister, Annie, was attending college. Finding that the two of them sounded good together, they wrote music; when they moved to [Knoxville, Tennessee](/wiki/Knoxville%2C_Tennessee "Knoxville, Tennessee"), the two had written four original songs and performed them at open mic nights in various clubs. One club owner was fond of the two and gave them a permanent opening slot for more established artists for about two years. They performed under the band name the Hyras.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.billypilgrim.net/biography/index.html \|title\=Tunes, Technology, and Time Travel: a Billy Pilgrim Biography \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-26 \|website\=Trafalmadore \|last\=Zimmerman \|first\=Matthew \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-16 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716071728/http://www.billypilgrim.net/biography/index.html \|url\-status\=bot: unknown }}
### 1990\-1998: Billy Pilgrim
{{Main\|Billy Pilgrim (duo)}}
After a few months living in Knoxville, Hyra and his sister were approached by singer/songwriter [Kristian Bush](/wiki/Kristian_Bush "Kristian Bush") on summer break from [Emory University](/wiki/Emory_University "Emory University"), and shortly afterwards began performing with them. Bush had made a few contacts to studio owners from his college band, which they would use to record their first albums. The Hyra's first album *Big Back Porch Songs* featured Bush on guitar, and Bush's *Politics and Pocketchange* album featured Annie's vocals. The Hyra's had booked a list of upcoming performances, but Annie would accept a job offer in [Miami, Florida](/wiki/Miami%2C_Florida "Miami, Florida"); Hyra requested Bush fill in, and he agreed. Hyra moved to [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta%2C_Georgia "Atlanta, Georgia"), and Bush continued college at Emory University.
The two performed for about a year with songs they have written over time, and rented two days of studio time in Knoxville to record an album, produced by Danny Brown. They recorded and mixed fourteen songs, released as *St. Christopher's Crossing*. With the release they began playing hundreds of shows in college towns in the southeast. They would later attract the interest of an indie label, Sister Ruby, so the two recorded another album for them. Hyra considered the difference in quality between the two albums to be "exponential", which he considered to be because of their increasing confidence. The album was titled *Words Like Numbers*, coined by Hyra; it's derived from a line from *[Dont Look Back](/wiki/Dont_Look_Back "Dont Look Back")*, a documentary about Bob Dylan, where Dylan referred to himself as a "mathematical songwriter" who used "words like numbers." The album was a success, attracting the attention of [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records "Atlantic Records"), who signed them onto their label the same night of release. Hyra described the attention and series of events as "a whirlwind" of events. With the new label they decided to switch the name of the band. Hyra drafted up a list of names and they agreed with the one at the top; [Billy Pilgrim](/wiki/Billy_Pilgrim_%28duo%29 "Billy Pilgrim (duo)"), named after the character from the science fiction novel *[Slaughterhouse\-Five](/wiki/Slaughterhouse-Five "Slaughterhouse-Five")*.
{{Quote box\|quote\="You’re blood brothers when you go through the trenches of the music business together at that age \[...] It was the mid\-Nineties and we were both very green. Kristian was fresh out of college! We traveled all over the world together, just with two acoustic guitars and two voices." \|source\= Andrew Hyra on his relationship with \[\[Kristian Bush]] \|width\=30em\|align\=right}}
The duo released the self\-titled album *Billy Pilgrim* in 1993, in association with producers Don McCollister and [Hugh Padgham](/wiki/Hugh_Padgham "Hugh Padgham"), who had a group of London musicians overdub the master with additional instruments.{{Cite web \|url\=https://tasteofcountry.com/kristian\-bush\-pre\-sugarland\-band\-billy\-pilgrim\-lost\-album\-time\-machine/ \|title\=Kristian Bush's Pre\-Sugarland Album Band Billy Pilgrim Releasing Their Long Lost Album \[Listen] \|date\=2020\-07\-16 \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-25 \|website\=\[\[Taste Of Country]] \|last\=Trapp \|first\=Phillip \|archive\-date\=2023\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027011858/https://tasteofcountry.com/kristian\-bush\-pre\-sugarland\-band\-billy\-pilgrim\-lost\-album\-time\-machine/ \|url\-status\=live }} To accompany the album the two would perform nationwide at 50 [Tower Records](/wiki/Tower_Records "Tower Records") locations.{{Cite news \|title\=Pilgrim's progress to be measured with Tower tour \|last\=Sprague \|first\=David \|date\=1994\-01\-15 \|publisher\=\[\[Billboard (magazine)\|Billboard]] \|issue\=3 \|volume\=106}} It was a critical success, with *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone "Rolling Stone")* calling it "a passionate debut that taps into both the delights and disappointments of a generation that simply wants the comfort of what love can provide" in a 4/5 star rating.{{Cite news \|title\=Recordings \|last\=Chuck \|first\=Dean \|date\=1994\-06\-02 \|publisher\=\[\[Rolling Stone]] \|issue\=683}} Although the album did not receive much commercial attention, "Get Me Out Of Here" and "Insomniac", two songs on the album, were receiving heavy airplay on AAA radio. In 1995 they opened on a worldwide tour for [Melissa Etheridge](/wiki/Melissa_Etheridge "Melissa Etheridge"), but copies for *Billy Pilgrim* weren't made in time to be promoted throughout it, according to Hyra. To increase their momentum, Atlantic Records made the two record another album in December 1994; unprepared, they scrambled to write new material two weeks ahead of the date of recording. They were paired with a group of veteran musicians who emphasized sounds that took away from their original music. Their second album, *[Bloom](/wiki/Bloom_%28Billy_Pilgrim_album%29 "Bloom (Billy Pilgrim album)")*, released in 1995\. The lead single "Sweet Louisiana Sound" was a critical success, making a full rotation on [VH1](/wiki/VH1 "VH1"). At their peak they "traveled all over the world together, just with two acoustic guitars and two voices."{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-country/see\-kristian\-bush\-reunite\-his\-nineties\-folk\-rock\-band\-billy\-pilgrim\-186979/ \|title\=See Kristian Bush Reunite His Nineties Folk\-Rock Band Billy Pilgrim \|date\=2016\-01\-22 \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-25 \|website\=\[\[Rolling Stone]] \|last\=Leahey \|first\=Andrew \|archive\-date\=2023\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027013137/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\-country/see\-kristian\-bush\-reunite\-his\-nineties\-folk\-rock\-band\-billy\-pilgrim\-186979/ \|url\-status\=live }} Critically the band was compared to various other bands, including [The Rembrandts](/wiki/The_Rembrandts "The Rembrandts"), [R.E.M.](/wiki/R.E.M. "R.E.M."), and the [dB's](/wiki/DB%27s "DB's"); Hyra grew accustomed to these comparisons, but criticized a [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana") magazine for comparing them to [Kenny Loggins](/wiki/Kenny_Loggins "Kenny Loggins"), "of all people".{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.pauseandplay.com/billy\-pilgrims\-ready\-to\-bloom/ \|title\=Billy Pilgrim’s Ready to ‘Bloom’ \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-14 \|website\=Pause \& Play \|archive\-date\=2023\-12\-11 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211023138/https://www.pauseandplay.com/billy\-pilgrims\-ready\-to\-bloom/ \|url\-status\=live }} Hyra referred to their relationships as "blood brothers" having been so young and new to the industry.
{{Quote box\|quote\="The synergy we have onstage, and how Brandon{{efn\|Brandon Bush, brother of Kristian Bush}} has worked into it so beautifully, is really special. I think that really comes across on the ''9/23/00'' album." \|source\= Andrew Hyra on Billy Pilgrim's ''9/23/00'' live recording \|width\=30em\|align\=right}}
*Bloom* was also a critical success, earning praise from the *[Daily Herald](/wiki/Daily_Herald_%28Arlington_Heights%2C_Illinois%29 "Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, Illinois)")*,{{cite news \|last1\=Kening \|first1\=Dan \|title\=Billy Pilgrim, Mary Karlzen \|work\=Daily Herald \|date\=October 6, 1995 \|location\=Time Out \|page\=10}} *[The San Diego Union\-Tribune](/wiki/The_San_Diego_Union-Tribune "The San Diego Union-Tribune")*,{{cite news \|last1\=Krubel \|first1\=James \|title\=BLOOM BILLY PILGRIM \|work\=The San Diego Union\-Tribune \|date\=June 8, 1995 \|location\=Entertainment \|page\=11}} and *[The Record](/wiki/The_Record_%28North_Jersey%29 "The Record (North Jersey)")*,.{{cite news \|last1\=Jaeger \|first1\=Barbara \|title\=QUICK SPINS \|work\=The Record \|date\=August 25, 1995 \|location\=LIFESTYLE/PREVIEWS \|page\=7}} However, sales for *Bloom* were underwhelming, and with increasing focus on [Hooty and the Blowfish](/wiki/Hooty_and_the_Blowfish "Hooty and the Blowfish"), Atlanta Records dropped the duo in 1996\. Hyra was personally relieved, having felt he regained control that he lost under the record label. The two toured sporadically and planned to release a third album. Eventually, Hyra decided to move to [California](/wiki/California "California"), describing it as his "wandering minstrel" phase, and wanted to explore more of the world without the pressure of corporate music. In 1997 Bush announced the two would release solo albums, but such plans never materialized at the time. They played a farewell tour in February 1998, but did not have an official break up.
### 1999\-2013: Solo career and Billy Pilgrim hiatus
Over the four years following being dropped by Atlantic Records, Hyra continued to write and perform solo music. In June 1999 he released *Spill*, a collection of unreleased music ranging from rock to acoustic. It was originally going to be a double album release, but shortened to one due to financial constraints. Bush performed on two of the songs, and Annie was originally planned to supply vocals, but such plans never happened and she was replaced by Elissa Hadley; Hyra said she "channeled Annie in a way".
In the late 1990s Bush released various demos, outtakes, and live performances of Billy Pilgrim on [MP3\.com](/wiki/MP3.com "MP3.com"), which helped finance another album. The album, *Billy In the Time Machine*, was recorded in four separate sessions over the course of eight months. It was scheduled to be released May 12, 2001\. The final works the two made together before unofficially disbanding were compiled into masters tapes. The tapes were burned in a studio fire in late 2000\.{{Cite web \|url\=https://magnetmagazine.com/2021/03/24/magnet\-television\-qa\-with\-kristian\-bush\-and\-andrew\-hyra\-billy\-pilgrim/ \|title\=Magnet Television: Q\&A With Kristian Bush and Andrew Hyra (Billy Pilgrim) \|date\=2021\-03\-24 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-19 \|website\=Magnet Magazine \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119233320/https://magnetmagazine.com/2021/03/24/magnet\-television\-qa\-with\-kristian\-bush\-and\-andrew\-hyra\-billy\-pilgrim/ \|url\-status\=live }} One copy was salvaged from the accident and made into a CD, of which 500 copies were made and distributed at their final performance in 2001 at [Eddie's Attic](/wiki/Eddie%27s_Attic "Eddie's Attic"). The band was never declared disbanded but the two lost contact with each other.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.redlightmanagement.com/artists/billy\-pilgrim/ \|title\=Billy Pilgrim \- Artist Bio \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-25 \|website\=Red Light Management \|archive\-date\=2023\-10\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027011902/https://www.redlightmanagement.com/artists/billy\-pilgrim/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Following the hiatus, Hyra took a break from music and began working as a [carpenter](/wiki/Carpenter "Carpenter") to spend more time with his family,{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.ajc.com/blog/music/watch\-kristian\-bush\-reunite\-with\-billy\-pilgrim\-partner\-andrew\-hyra\-eddie\-attic/eFjHUCeCAbtiXUOKxQZUUJ/ \|title\=Watch Kristian Bush reunite with Billy Pilgrim partner Andrew Hyra at Eddie's Attic \|date\=2016\-11\-28 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|website\=\[\[Atlanta Journal\-Constitution]] \|last\=Ruggieri \|first\=Melissa \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124191821/https://www.ajc.com/blog/music/watch\-kristian\-bush\-reunite\-with\-billy\-pilgrim\-partner\-andrew\-hyra\-eddie\-attic/eFjHUCeCAbtiXUOKxQZUUJ/ \|url\-status\=live }} and also not wanting to be recognized only for his success when he was young. He returned to regularly performing about 6 years later.{{Cite web \|url\=https://themusicuniverse.com/episode\-50\-kristian\-bush\-andrew\-hyra\-billy\-pilgrim/ \|title\=Episode 50 – Kristian Bush \& Andrew Hyra of Billy Pilgrim \|date\=2020\-09\-11 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-27 \|website\=The Music Universe \|last\=Iahn \|first\=Buddy \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124180029/https://themusicuniverse.com/episode\-50\-kristian\-bush\-andrew\-hyra\-billy\-pilgrim/ \|url\-status\=live }} He moved to [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), releasing the album *Curios* in 2011\.{{Cite web \|url\=https://happeningnext.com/event/andrew\-hyra\-eid4snw2nm61w1 \|title\=Andrew Hyra \- Uptown Grill's Playlist Theater, LaSalle, IL \|date\=2022\-10\-20 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|website\=Happening Next \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124191822/https://happeningnext.com/event/andrew\-hyra\-eid4snw2nm61w1 \|url\-status\=live }}
### 2014\-present: Smokin' Novas and Billy Pilgrim reunion
Hyra later relocated to [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)") in 2011\. In 2014 he would form the band Smokin' Novas with Atlanta guitarist Brian Bristow. They released a self\-titled debut album in 2015, followed by a second album, *Travel Mercies*.{{Cite web \|url\=https://thecosmicamerican.net/smokin\-novas/ \|title\=The Smokin’ Novas hit all countours of Americana on ‘Travel Mercies’ \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|website\=The Cosmic American \|last\=Ritland \|first\=Erik \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124191825/https://thecosmicamerican.net/smokin\-novas/ \|url\-status\=live }} He relocated to [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut "Connecticut") in 2016\.
Hyra performed with Smokin’ Novas at the 30A festival at Eddie's Attic in 2016 and reunited with Bush during a solo set that he was performing at the festival. Recognizing that Hyra was in attendance, he began playing "I Won’t Tell," a song from Billy Pilgrim's *Bloom*; Hyra joined him onstage, to Bush's surprise, and sang harmony. They performed various songs from the band, including "Hurricane Season", "Try", and "Sweet Louisiana Sound". Bush said the following in a *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone "Rolling Stone")* interview:
> "I was playing the song, and people started clapping and standing up, and I was like, ‘We’re not even in the good part of the song yet!’ Then I realized what was happening. Andrew was walking up. We sang the rest of the song together, and the harmonies sounded like they always did. After 15 years! It was beautiful and emotional. I turned to him afterwards and said, ‘So. . .I started [this country band](/wiki/Sugarland "Sugarland").'"
Plans to reunite the band were not made at the time, but Hyra performed background vocals on a studio demo for Bush the following week. Hyra said that music had become more of a casual endeavor for him. Annie Hyra died in 2019 and both Bush and his brother Brandon attended her funeral; Hyra credits this second reunion as the moment they both got in the headspace for recording and performing again. They declared it was time to get back together when Bush discovered he was in possession of a recording of *In the Time Machine* after cleaning out his house during the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"). They released a remastered version of the album, as well as re\-releases of all of their works, in 2020\. Hyra would also move to [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina "South Carolina") that year. They performed a livestream at Eddie's Attic, and Hyra planned to collaborate with Bush's other band Dark Water.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.ajc.com/life/music\-blog/billy\-pilgrim\-returns\-with\-resurrected\-album\-livestream\-from\-eddies\-attic/HIQIUEPG4BENNCAZZUTQUYU6YQ/ \|title\=Billy Pilgrim returns with resurrected album, livestream from Eddie’s Attic \|date\=2020\-09\-03 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|website\=\[\[Atlanta Journal\-Constitution]] \|last\=Ruggieri \|first\=Melissa \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124180035/https://www.ajc.com/life/music\-blog/billy\-pilgrim\-returns\-with\-resurrected\-album\-livestream\-from\-eddies\-attic/HIQIUEPG4BENNCAZZUTQUYU6YQ/ \|url\-status\=live }} In 2023 Hyra also appeared on 2 cuts of Bush's album *[This Year](/wiki/This_Year "This Year")*, including the lead single "Love and Blue Jeans".{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.cmt.com/news/yy5xuj/charles\-esten\-priscilla\-block\-sam\-williams\-alana\-springsteen\-and\-more\-release\-new\-music \|title\=CMT Roundup: Charles Esten, Priscilla Block, Sam Williams, Alana Springsteen and More Release New Music \|date\=2023\-03\-03 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|website\=\[\[Country Music Television]] \|last\=Watts \|first\=Cindy \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124180027/https://www.cmt.com/news/yy5xuj/charles\-esten\-priscilla\-block\-sam\-williams\-alana\-springsteen\-and\-more\-release\-new\-music \|url\-status\=dead }} Hyra described the reunion, and therefore the sudden change in his life, as "a whirlwind" of events.
The duo reunited for a small tour in 2023 and played the Grand Old Opry in 2024\.[https://www.opry.com/artists/billy\-pilgrim](https://www.opry.com/artists/billy-pilgrim) In May 2024 the duo played three sold\-out shows at Eddie's Attic.
Hyra is currently working on a solo album, *Now and Then*, set to release in 2024\.{{Cite web \|url\=https://patch.com/georgia/duluth/calendar/event/20230910/4eec5a16\-e596\-4de0\-8695\-310b93a53c81/andrew\-hyra\-nick\-leet\-and\-matthew\-kahler \|title\=Andrew Hyra, Nick Leet and Matthew Kahler \|date\=2023\-09\-10 \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|website\=Patch \|archive\-date\=2023\-11\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124180027/https://patch.com/georgia/duluth/calendar/event/20230910/4eec5a16\-e596\-4de0\-8695\-310b93a53c81/andrew\-hyra\-nick\-leet\-and\-matthew\-kahler \|url\-status\=live }}
|
[
"Musical career\n--------------",
"Hyra began playing the guitar in his mid\\-twenties, learning to play music by [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\") and [Bruce Springsteen](/wiki/Bruce_Springsteen \"Bruce Springsteen\"), among others. He moved to [Long Island, New York](/wiki/Long_Island%2C_New_York \"Long Island, New York\"), in the late eighties where his sister, Annie, was attending college. Finding that the two of them sounded good together, they wrote music; when they moved to [Knoxville, Tennessee](/wiki/Knoxville%2C_Tennessee \"Knoxville, Tennessee\"), the two had written four original songs and performed them at open mic nights in various clubs. One club owner was fond of the two and gave them a permanent opening slot for more established artists for about two years. They performed under the band name the Hyras.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.billypilgrim.net/biography/index.html \\|title\\=Tunes, Technology, and Time Travel: a Billy Pilgrim Biography \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-26 \\|website\\=Trafalmadore \\|last\\=Zimmerman \\|first\\=Matthew \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-16 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716071728/http://www.billypilgrim.net/biography/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=bot: unknown }}",
"### 1990\\-1998: Billy Pilgrim",
"{{Main\\|Billy Pilgrim (duo)}}",
"After a few months living in Knoxville, Hyra and his sister were approached by singer/songwriter [Kristian Bush](/wiki/Kristian_Bush \"Kristian Bush\") on summer break from [Emory University](/wiki/Emory_University \"Emory University\"), and shortly afterwards began performing with them. Bush had made a few contacts to studio owners from his college band, which they would use to record their first albums. The Hyra's first album *Big Back Porch Songs* featured Bush on guitar, and Bush's *Politics and Pocketchange* album featured Annie's vocals. The Hyra's had booked a list of upcoming performances, but Annie would accept a job offer in [Miami, Florida](/wiki/Miami%2C_Florida \"Miami, Florida\"); Hyra requested Bush fill in, and he agreed. Hyra moved to [Atlanta, Georgia](/wiki/Atlanta%2C_Georgia \"Atlanta, Georgia\"), and Bush continued college at Emory University.",
"The two performed for about a year with songs they have written over time, and rented two days of studio time in Knoxville to record an album, produced by Danny Brown. They recorded and mixed fourteen songs, released as *St. Christopher's Crossing*. With the release they began playing hundreds of shows in college towns in the southeast. They would later attract the interest of an indie label, Sister Ruby, so the two recorded another album for them. Hyra considered the difference in quality between the two albums to be \"exponential\", which he considered to be because of their increasing confidence. The album was titled *Words Like Numbers*, coined by Hyra; it's derived from a line from *[Dont Look Back](/wiki/Dont_Look_Back \"Dont Look Back\")*, a documentary about Bob Dylan, where Dylan referred to himself as a \"mathematical songwriter\" who used \"words like numbers.\" The album was a success, attracting the attention of [Atlantic Records](/wiki/Atlantic_Records \"Atlantic Records\"), who signed them onto their label the same night of release. Hyra described the attention and series of events as \"a whirlwind\" of events. With the new label they decided to switch the name of the band. Hyra drafted up a list of names and they agreed with the one at the top; [Billy Pilgrim](/wiki/Billy_Pilgrim_%28duo%29 \"Billy Pilgrim (duo)\"), named after the character from the science fiction novel *[Slaughterhouse\\-Five](/wiki/Slaughterhouse-Five \"Slaughterhouse-Five\")*.",
"{{Quote box\\|quote\\=\"You’re blood brothers when you go through the trenches of the music business together at that age \\[...] It was the mid\\-Nineties and we were both very green. Kristian was fresh out of college! We traveled all over the world together, just with two acoustic guitars and two voices.\" \\|source\\= Andrew Hyra on his relationship with \\[\\[Kristian Bush]] \\|width\\=30em\\|align\\=right}}",
"The duo released the self\\-titled album *Billy Pilgrim* in 1993, in association with producers Don McCollister and [Hugh Padgham](/wiki/Hugh_Padgham \"Hugh Padgham\"), who had a group of London musicians overdub the master with additional instruments.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://tasteofcountry.com/kristian\\-bush\\-pre\\-sugarland\\-band\\-billy\\-pilgrim\\-lost\\-album\\-time\\-machine/ \\|title\\=Kristian Bush's Pre\\-Sugarland Album Band Billy Pilgrim Releasing Their Long Lost Album \\[Listen] \\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-16 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-25 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Taste Of Country]] \\|last\\=Trapp \\|first\\=Phillip \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027011858/https://tasteofcountry.com/kristian\\-bush\\-pre\\-sugarland\\-band\\-billy\\-pilgrim\\-lost\\-album\\-time\\-machine/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} To accompany the album the two would perform nationwide at 50 [Tower Records](/wiki/Tower_Records \"Tower Records\") locations.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Pilgrim's progress to be measured with Tower tour \\|last\\=Sprague \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=1994\\-01\\-15 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Billboard (magazine)\\|Billboard]] \\|issue\\=3 \\|volume\\=106}} It was a critical success, with *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone \"Rolling Stone\")* calling it \"a passionate debut that taps into both the delights and disappointments of a generation that simply wants the comfort of what love can provide\" in a 4/5 star rating.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Recordings \\|last\\=Chuck \\|first\\=Dean \\|date\\=1994\\-06\\-02 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]] \\|issue\\=683}} Although the album did not receive much commercial attention, \"Get Me Out Of Here\" and \"Insomniac\", two songs on the album, were receiving heavy airplay on AAA radio. In 1995 they opened on a worldwide tour for [Melissa Etheridge](/wiki/Melissa_Etheridge \"Melissa Etheridge\"), but copies for *Billy Pilgrim* weren't made in time to be promoted throughout it, according to Hyra. To increase their momentum, Atlantic Records made the two record another album in December 1994; unprepared, they scrambled to write new material two weeks ahead of the date of recording. They were paired with a group of veteran musicians who emphasized sounds that took away from their original music. Their second album, *[Bloom](/wiki/Bloom_%28Billy_Pilgrim_album%29 \"Bloom (Billy Pilgrim album)\")*, released in 1995\\. The lead single \"Sweet Louisiana Sound\" was a critical success, making a full rotation on [VH1](/wiki/VH1 \"VH1\"). At their peak they \"traveled all over the world together, just with two acoustic guitars and two voices.\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-country/see\\-kristian\\-bush\\-reunite\\-his\\-nineties\\-folk\\-rock\\-band\\-billy\\-pilgrim\\-186979/ \\|title\\=See Kristian Bush Reunite His Nineties Folk\\-Rock Band Billy Pilgrim \\|date\\=2016\\-01\\-22 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-25 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]] \\|last\\=Leahey \\|first\\=Andrew \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027013137/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music\\-country/see\\-kristian\\-bush\\-reunite\\-his\\-nineties\\-folk\\-rock\\-band\\-billy\\-pilgrim\\-186979/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Critically the band was compared to various other bands, including [The Rembrandts](/wiki/The_Rembrandts \"The Rembrandts\"), [R.E.M.](/wiki/R.E.M. \"R.E.M.\"), and the [dB's](/wiki/DB%27s \"DB's\"); Hyra grew accustomed to these comparisons, but criticized a [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\") magazine for comparing them to [Kenny Loggins](/wiki/Kenny_Loggins \"Kenny Loggins\"), \"of all people\".{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.pauseandplay.com/billy\\-pilgrims\\-ready\\-to\\-bloom/ \\|title\\=Billy Pilgrim’s Ready to ‘Bloom’ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-14 \\|website\\=Pause \\& Play \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-11 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211023138/https://www.pauseandplay.com/billy\\-pilgrims\\-ready\\-to\\-bloom/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Hyra referred to their relationships as \"blood brothers\" having been so young and new to the industry.",
"{{Quote box\\|quote\\=\"The synergy we have onstage, and how Brandon{{efn\\|Brandon Bush, brother of Kristian Bush}} has worked into it so beautifully, is really special. I think that really comes across on the ''9/23/00'' album.\" \\|source\\= Andrew Hyra on Billy Pilgrim's ''9/23/00'' live recording \\|width\\=30em\\|align\\=right}}",
"*Bloom* was also a critical success, earning praise from the *[Daily Herald](/wiki/Daily_Herald_%28Arlington_Heights%2C_Illinois%29 \"Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, Illinois)\")*,{{cite news \\|last1\\=Kening \\|first1\\=Dan \\|title\\=Billy Pilgrim, Mary Karlzen \\|work\\=Daily Herald \\|date\\=October 6, 1995 \\|location\\=Time Out \\|page\\=10}} *[The San Diego Union\\-Tribune](/wiki/The_San_Diego_Union-Tribune \"The San Diego Union-Tribune\")*,{{cite news \\|last1\\=Krubel \\|first1\\=James \\|title\\=BLOOM BILLY PILGRIM \\|work\\=The San Diego Union\\-Tribune \\|date\\=June 8, 1995 \\|location\\=Entertainment \\|page\\=11}} and *[The Record](/wiki/The_Record_%28North_Jersey%29 \"The Record (North Jersey)\")*,.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Jaeger \\|first1\\=Barbara \\|title\\=QUICK SPINS \\|work\\=The Record \\|date\\=August 25, 1995 \\|location\\=LIFESTYLE/PREVIEWS \\|page\\=7}} However, sales for *Bloom* were underwhelming, and with increasing focus on [Hooty and the Blowfish](/wiki/Hooty_and_the_Blowfish \"Hooty and the Blowfish\"), Atlanta Records dropped the duo in 1996\\. Hyra was personally relieved, having felt he regained control that he lost under the record label. The two toured sporadically and planned to release a third album. Eventually, Hyra decided to move to [California](/wiki/California \"California\"), describing it as his \"wandering minstrel\" phase, and wanted to explore more of the world without the pressure of corporate music. In 1997 Bush announced the two would release solo albums, but such plans never materialized at the time. They played a farewell tour in February 1998, but did not have an official break up.",
"### 1999\\-2013: Solo career and Billy Pilgrim hiatus",
"Over the four years following being dropped by Atlantic Records, Hyra continued to write and perform solo music. In June 1999 he released *Spill*, a collection of unreleased music ranging from rock to acoustic. It was originally going to be a double album release, but shortened to one due to financial constraints. Bush performed on two of the songs, and Annie was originally planned to supply vocals, but such plans never happened and she was replaced by Elissa Hadley; Hyra said she \"channeled Annie in a way\".",
"In the late 1990s Bush released various demos, outtakes, and live performances of Billy Pilgrim on [MP3\\.com](/wiki/MP3.com \"MP3.com\"), which helped finance another album. The album, *Billy In the Time Machine*, was recorded in four separate sessions over the course of eight months. It was scheduled to be released May 12, 2001\\. The final works the two made together before unofficially disbanding were compiled into masters tapes. The tapes were burned in a studio fire in late 2000\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://magnetmagazine.com/2021/03/24/magnet\\-television\\-qa\\-with\\-kristian\\-bush\\-and\\-andrew\\-hyra\\-billy\\-pilgrim/ \\|title\\=Magnet Television: Q\\&A With Kristian Bush and Andrew Hyra (Billy Pilgrim) \\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-24 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-19 \\|website\\=Magnet Magazine \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119233320/https://magnetmagazine.com/2021/03/24/magnet\\-television\\-qa\\-with\\-kristian\\-bush\\-and\\-andrew\\-hyra\\-billy\\-pilgrim/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} One copy was salvaged from the accident and made into a CD, of which 500 copies were made and distributed at their final performance in 2001 at [Eddie's Attic](/wiki/Eddie%27s_Attic \"Eddie's Attic\"). The band was never declared disbanded but the two lost contact with each other.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.redlightmanagement.com/artists/billy\\-pilgrim/ \\|title\\=Billy Pilgrim \\- Artist Bio \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-25 \\|website\\=Red Light Management \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027011902/https://www.redlightmanagement.com/artists/billy\\-pilgrim/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Following the hiatus, Hyra took a break from music and began working as a [carpenter](/wiki/Carpenter \"Carpenter\") to spend more time with his family,{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ajc.com/blog/music/watch\\-kristian\\-bush\\-reunite\\-with\\-billy\\-pilgrim\\-partner\\-andrew\\-hyra\\-eddie\\-attic/eFjHUCeCAbtiXUOKxQZUUJ/ \\|title\\=Watch Kristian Bush reunite with Billy Pilgrim partner Andrew Hyra at Eddie's Attic \\|date\\=2016\\-11\\-28 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Atlanta Journal\\-Constitution]] \\|last\\=Ruggieri \\|first\\=Melissa \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124191821/https://www.ajc.com/blog/music/watch\\-kristian\\-bush\\-reunite\\-with\\-billy\\-pilgrim\\-partner\\-andrew\\-hyra\\-eddie\\-attic/eFjHUCeCAbtiXUOKxQZUUJ/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and also not wanting to be recognized only for his success when he was young. He returned to regularly performing about 6 years later.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://themusicuniverse.com/episode\\-50\\-kristian\\-bush\\-andrew\\-hyra\\-billy\\-pilgrim/ \\|title\\=Episode 50 – Kristian Bush \\& Andrew Hyra of Billy Pilgrim \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-27 \\|website\\=The Music Universe \\|last\\=Iahn \\|first\\=Buddy \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124180029/https://themusicuniverse.com/episode\\-50\\-kristian\\-bush\\-andrew\\-hyra\\-billy\\-pilgrim/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He moved to [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), releasing the album *Curios* in 2011\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://happeningnext.com/event/andrew\\-hyra\\-eid4snw2nm61w1 \\|title\\=Andrew Hyra \\- Uptown Grill's Playlist Theater, LaSalle, IL \\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-20 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|website\\=Happening Next \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124191822/https://happeningnext.com/event/andrew\\-hyra\\-eid4snw2nm61w1 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### 2014\\-present: Smokin' Novas and Billy Pilgrim reunion",
"Hyra later relocated to [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\") in 2011\\. In 2014 he would form the band Smokin' Novas with Atlanta guitarist Brian Bristow. They released a self\\-titled debut album in 2015, followed by a second album, *Travel Mercies*.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://thecosmicamerican.net/smokin\\-novas/ \\|title\\=The Smokin’ Novas hit all countours of Americana on ‘Travel Mercies’ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|website\\=The Cosmic American \\|last\\=Ritland \\|first\\=Erik \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124191825/https://thecosmicamerican.net/smokin\\-novas/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He relocated to [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut \"Connecticut\") in 2016\\.",
"Hyra performed with Smokin’ Novas at the 30A festival at Eddie's Attic in 2016 and reunited with Bush during a solo set that he was performing at the festival. Recognizing that Hyra was in attendance, he began playing \"I Won’t Tell,\" a song from Billy Pilgrim's *Bloom*; Hyra joined him onstage, to Bush's surprise, and sang harmony. They performed various songs from the band, including \"Hurricane Season\", \"Try\", and \"Sweet Louisiana Sound\". Bush said the following in a *[Rolling Stone](/wiki/Rolling_Stone \"Rolling Stone\")* interview:",
"",
"> \"I was playing the song, and people started clapping and standing up, and I was like, ‘We’re not even in the good part of the song yet!’ Then I realized what was happening. Andrew was walking up. We sang the rest of the song together, and the harmonies sounded like they always did. After 15 years! It was beautiful and emotional. I turned to him afterwards and said, ‘So. . .I started [this country band](/wiki/Sugarland \"Sugarland\").'\"",
"Plans to reunite the band were not made at the time, but Hyra performed background vocals on a studio demo for Bush the following week. Hyra said that music had become more of a casual endeavor for him. Annie Hyra died in 2019 and both Bush and his brother Brandon attended her funeral; Hyra credits this second reunion as the moment they both got in the headspace for recording and performing again. They declared it was time to get back together when Bush discovered he was in possession of a recording of *In the Time Machine* after cleaning out his house during the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"). They released a remastered version of the album, as well as re\\-releases of all of their works, in 2020\\. Hyra would also move to [South Carolina](/wiki/South_Carolina \"South Carolina\") that year. They performed a livestream at Eddie's Attic, and Hyra planned to collaborate with Bush's other band Dark Water.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ajc.com/life/music\\-blog/billy\\-pilgrim\\-returns\\-with\\-resurrected\\-album\\-livestream\\-from\\-eddies\\-attic/HIQIUEPG4BENNCAZZUTQUYU6YQ/ \\|title\\=Billy Pilgrim returns with resurrected album, livestream from Eddie’s Attic \\|date\\=2020\\-09\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Atlanta Journal\\-Constitution]] \\|last\\=Ruggieri \\|first\\=Melissa \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124180035/https://www.ajc.com/life/music\\-blog/billy\\-pilgrim\\-returns\\-with\\-resurrected\\-album\\-livestream\\-from\\-eddies\\-attic/HIQIUEPG4BENNCAZZUTQUYU6YQ/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In 2023 Hyra also appeared on 2 cuts of Bush's album *[This Year](/wiki/This_Year \"This Year\")*, including the lead single \"Love and Blue Jeans\".{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.cmt.com/news/yy5xuj/charles\\-esten\\-priscilla\\-block\\-sam\\-williams\\-alana\\-springsteen\\-and\\-more\\-release\\-new\\-music \\|title\\=CMT Roundup: Charles Esten, Priscilla Block, Sam Williams, Alana Springsteen and More Release New Music \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Country Music Television]] \\|last\\=Watts \\|first\\=Cindy \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124180027/https://www.cmt.com/news/yy5xuj/charles\\-esten\\-priscilla\\-block\\-sam\\-williams\\-alana\\-springsteen\\-and\\-more\\-release\\-new\\-music \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Hyra described the reunion, and therefore the sudden change in his life, as \"a whirlwind\" of events.",
"The duo reunited for a small tour in 2023 and played the Grand Old Opry in 2024\\.[https://www.opry.com/artists/billy\\-pilgrim](https://www.opry.com/artists/billy-pilgrim) In May 2024 the duo played three sold\\-out shows at Eddie's Attic.",
"Hyra is currently working on a solo album, *Now and Then*, set to release in 2024\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://patch.com/georgia/duluth/calendar/event/20230910/4eec5a16\\-e596\\-4de0\\-8695\\-310b93a53c81/andrew\\-hyra\\-nick\\-leet\\-and\\-matthew\\-kahler \\|title\\=Andrew Hyra, Nick Leet and Matthew Kahler \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-10 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|website\\=Patch \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231124180027/https://patch.com/georgia/duluth/calendar/event/20230910/4eec5a16\\-e596\\-4de0\\-8695\\-310b93a53c81/andrew\\-hyra\\-nick\\-leet\\-and\\-matthew\\-kahler \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
""
] |
Mathematical description
------------------------
Consider a slender body with pointed edges at the front and back. The supersonic flow past this body will be nearly parallel to the x\-axis everywhere since the shock waves formed (one at the leading edge and one at the trailing edge) will be weak; as a consequence, the flow will be potential everywhere, which can be described using the [velocity potential](/wiki/Velocity_potential "Velocity potential") \\varphi \= xv\_1 \+ \\phi, where v\_1 is the incoming uniform velocity and \\phi characterising the small deviation from the uniform flow. In the linearized theory, \\phi satisfies
\\frac{\\partial^2\\phi}{\\partial y^2} \+ \\frac{\\partial^2\\phi}{\\partial z^2} \- \\beta^2 \\frac{\\partial^2\\phi}{\\partial x^2} \=0,
where \\beta^2\=(v\_1^2\-c\_1^2\)/c\_1^2\=M\_1^2\-1, c\_1 is the [sound speed](/wiki/Sound_speed "Sound speed") in the incoming flow and M\_1 is the [Mach number](/wiki/Mach_number "Mach number") of the incoming flow. This is just the two\-dimensional [wave equation](/wiki/Wave_equation "Wave equation") and \\phi is a disturbance propagated with an apparent time x/v\_1 and with an apparent velocity v\_1/\\beta.
Let the origin (x,y,z)\=(0,0,0\) be located at the leading end of the pointed body. Further, let S(x) be the cross\-sectional area (perpendicular to the x\-axis) and l be the length of the slender body, so that S(x)\=0 for x\<0 and for x\>1. Of course, in supersonic flows, disturbances (i.e., \\phi) can be propagated only into the region behind the [Mach cone](/wiki/Mach_wave "Mach wave"). The weak Mach cone for the leading\-edge is given by x\-\\beta r\=0, whereas the weak Mach cone for the trailing edge is given by x\-\\beta r \= l, where r^2\=y^2\+z^2 is the squared radial distance from the x\-axis.
The disturbance far away from the body is just like a cylindrical wave propagation. In front of the cone x\-\\beta r\=0, the solution is simply given by \\phi\=0. Between the cones x\-\\beta r \= 0 and x\-\\beta r \= l, the solution is given byLandau, L. D., \& Lifshitz, E. M. (2013\). Fluid mechanics: Landau And Lifshitz: course of theoretical physics, Volume 6 (Vol. 6\). Elsevier. section 123\. pages 123\-124
\\phi(x,r) \= \- \\frac{v\_1}{2\\pi}\\int\_0^{x\-\\beta r} \\frac{S'(\\xi)d\\xi}{\\sqrt{(x\-\\xi)^2\-\\beta^2r^2}}
whereas the behind the cone x\-\\beta r \= l, the solution is given by
\\phi(x,r) \= \- \\frac{v\_1}{2\\pi}\\int\_0^{l} \\frac{S'(\\xi)d\\xi}{\\sqrt{(x\-\\xi)^2\-\\beta^2r^2}}.
The solution described above is exact for all r when the slender body is a solid of revolution. If this is not the case, the solution is valid at large distances will have correction associated with the non\-linear distortion of the shock profile, whose strength is proportional to (M\_1\-1\)^{1/8}r^{\-3/4} and a factor depending on the shape function S(x).Whitham, G. B. (2011\). Linear and nonlinear waves. John Wiley \& Sons. pages 335\-336\.
The [drag force](/wiki/Drag_%28physics%29 "Drag (physics)") F is just the x\-component of the momentum per unit time. To calculate this, consider a cylindrical surface with a large radius and with an axis along the x\-axis. The momentum flux density crossing through this surface is simply given by \\Pi\_{xr}\=\\rho v\_r (v\_1\+v\_x)\\approx \\rho\_1 (\\partial\\phi/\\partial r)(v\_1\+\\partial\\phi/\\partial x). Integrating \\Pi\_{xr} over the cylindrical surface gives the drag force. Due to symmetry, the first term in \\Pi\_{xr} upon integration gives zero since the net mass flux \\rho v\_r is zero on the cylindrical surface considered. The second term gives the non\-zero contribution,
F \= \-2\\pi r \\rho\_1 \\int\_{\-\\infty}^\\infty \\frac{\\partial \\phi}{\\partial r}\\frac{\\partial\\phi}{\\partial x} dx.
At large distances, the values x\-\\xi \\sim \\beta r (the wave region) are the most important in the solution for \\phi; this is because, as mentioned earlier, \\phi is a like disturbance propating with a speed v\_1/\\beta with an apparent time x/v\_1. This means that we can approximate the expression in the denominator as (x\-\\xi)^2\-\\beta^2r^2\\approx 2\\beta r (x\-\\xi\-\\beta r). Then we can write, for example,
\\phi(x,r) \= \- \\frac{v\_1}{2\\pi\\sqrt{2\\beta r}}\\int\_0^{x\-\\beta r} \\frac{S'(\\xi)d\\xi}{\\sqrt{x\-\\xi\-\\beta r}} \= \- \\frac{v\_1}{2\\pi\\sqrt{2\\beta r}}\\int\_0^{\\infty} \\frac{S'(x\-\\beta r\-s)ds}{\\sqrt{s}}, \\quad s\=x\-\\xi\-\\beta r, \\,\\,r\\gg 1\.
From this expression, we can calculate \\partial\\phi/\\partial r, which is also equal to \-\\beta\\partial\\phi/\\partial x since we are in the wave region. The factor 1/\\sqrt r appearing in front of the integral need not to be differentiated since this gives rise to the small correction proportional to 1/r. Effecting the differentiation and returning to the original variables, we find
\\frac{\\partial \\phi}{\\partial r} \= \-\\beta \\frac{\\partial \\phi}{\\partial x}\= \\frac{v\_1}{2\\pi}\\sqrt{\\frac{\\beta}{2r}}\\int\_0^{x\-\\beta r} \\frac{S''(\\xi)d\\xi}{\\sqrt{x\-\\xi\-\\beta r}}.
Substituting this in the drag force formula gives us
F \= \\frac{\\rho\_1 v\_1^2}{4\\pi} \\int\_{\-\\infty}^\\infty \\int\_0^X \\int\_0^X \\frac{S''(\\xi\_1\)S''(\\xi\_2\) d\\xi\_1d\\xi\_2dX}{\\sqrt{(X\-\\xi\_1\)(X\-\\xi\_2\)}}, \\quad X\=x\-\\beta r.
This can be simplified by carrying out the integration over X. When the integration order is changed, the limit for X ranges from the \\mathrm{max}(\\xi\_1,\\xi\_2\) to L\\to\\infty. Upon integration, we have
F \= \- \\frac{\\rho\_1 v\_1^2}{2\\pi} \\int\_0^l \\int\_0^{\\xi\_2} S''(\\xi\_1\)S''(\\xi\_2\)\[\\ln(\\xi\_2\-\\xi\_1\)\-\\ln 4L]d\\xi\_1d\\xi\_2\.
The integral containing the term L is zero because S'(0\)\=S'(l)\=0 (of course, in addition to S(0\)\=S(l)\=0).
The final formula for the [wave drag](/wiki/Wave_drag "Wave drag") force may be written as
F \= \- \\frac{\\rho\_1 v\_1^2}{2\\pi} \\int\_0^l \\int\_0^{\\xi\_2} S''(\\xi\_1\)S''(\\xi\_2\)\\ln(\\xi\_2\-\\xi\_1\)d\\xi\_1d\\xi\_2,
or
F \= \- \\frac{\\rho\_1 v\_1^2}{2\\pi} \\int\_0^l \\int\_0^{l} S''(\\xi\_1\)S''(\\xi\_2\)\\ln\|\\xi\_2\-\\xi\_1\|d\\xi\_1d\\xi\_2\.
The [drag coefficient](/wiki/Drag_coefficient "Drag coefficient") is then given by
C\_d \= \\frac{F}{\\rho\_1^2 v\_1^2 l^2/2}.
Since F\\sim \\rho\_1 v\_1^2 S^2/l^2 that follows from the formula derived above, C\_d \\sim S^2/l^4, indicating that the drag coefficient is proportional to the square of the cross\-sectional area and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the body length.
The shape with smallest wave drag for a given volume V and length l can be obtained from the wave drag force formula. This shape is known as the [Sears–Haack body](/wiki/Sears%E2%80%93Haack_body "Sears–Haack body").Haack, W. (1941\). Geschossformen kleinsten wellenwiderstandes. Bericht der Lilienthal\-Gesellschaft, 136(1\), 14\-28\.Sears, W. R. (1947\). On projectiles of minimum wave drag. Quarterly of Applied Mathematics, 4(4\), 361\-366\.
|
[
"Mathematical description\n------------------------",
"Consider a slender body with pointed edges at the front and back. The supersonic flow past this body will be nearly parallel to the x\\-axis everywhere since the shock waves formed (one at the leading edge and one at the trailing edge) will be weak; as a consequence, the flow will be potential everywhere, which can be described using the [velocity potential](/wiki/Velocity_potential \"Velocity potential\") \\\\varphi \\= xv\\_1 \\+ \\\\phi, where v\\_1 is the incoming uniform velocity and \\\\phi characterising the small deviation from the uniform flow. In the linearized theory, \\\\phi satisfies",
"\\\\frac{\\\\partial^2\\\\phi}{\\\\partial y^2} \\+ \\\\frac{\\\\partial^2\\\\phi}{\\\\partial z^2} \\- \\\\beta^2 \\\\frac{\\\\partial^2\\\\phi}{\\\\partial x^2} \\=0,\nwhere \\\\beta^2\\=(v\\_1^2\\-c\\_1^2\\)/c\\_1^2\\=M\\_1^2\\-1, c\\_1 is the [sound speed](/wiki/Sound_speed \"Sound speed\") in the incoming flow and M\\_1 is the [Mach number](/wiki/Mach_number \"Mach number\") of the incoming flow. This is just the two\\-dimensional [wave equation](/wiki/Wave_equation \"Wave equation\") and \\\\phi is a disturbance propagated with an apparent time x/v\\_1 and with an apparent velocity v\\_1/\\\\beta.",
"Let the origin (x,y,z)\\=(0,0,0\\) be located at the leading end of the pointed body. Further, let S(x) be the cross\\-sectional area (perpendicular to the x\\-axis) and l be the length of the slender body, so that S(x)\\=0 for x\\<0 and for x\\>1. Of course, in supersonic flows, disturbances (i.e., \\\\phi) can be propagated only into the region behind the [Mach cone](/wiki/Mach_wave \"Mach wave\"). The weak Mach cone for the leading\\-edge is given by x\\-\\\\beta r\\=0, whereas the weak Mach cone for the trailing edge is given by x\\-\\\\beta r \\= l, where r^2\\=y^2\\+z^2 is the squared radial distance from the x\\-axis.",
"The disturbance far away from the body is just like a cylindrical wave propagation. In front of the cone x\\-\\\\beta r\\=0, the solution is simply given by \\\\phi\\=0. Between the cones x\\-\\\\beta r \\= 0 and x\\-\\\\beta r \\= l, the solution is given byLandau, L. D., \\& Lifshitz, E. M. (2013\\). Fluid mechanics: Landau And Lifshitz: course of theoretical physics, Volume 6 (Vol. 6\\). Elsevier. section 123\\. pages 123\\-124",
"\\\\phi(x,r) \\= \\- \\\\frac{v\\_1}{2\\\\pi}\\\\int\\_0^{x\\-\\\\beta r} \\\\frac{S'(\\\\xi)d\\\\xi}{\\\\sqrt{(x\\-\\\\xi)^2\\-\\\\beta^2r^2}}\nwhereas the behind the cone x\\-\\\\beta r \\= l, the solution is given by",
"\\\\phi(x,r) \\= \\- \\\\frac{v\\_1}{2\\\\pi}\\\\int\\_0^{l} \\\\frac{S'(\\\\xi)d\\\\xi}{\\\\sqrt{(x\\-\\\\xi)^2\\-\\\\beta^2r^2}}.\nThe solution described above is exact for all r when the slender body is a solid of revolution. If this is not the case, the solution is valid at large distances will have correction associated with the non\\-linear distortion of the shock profile, whose strength is proportional to (M\\_1\\-1\\)^{1/8}r^{\\-3/4} and a factor depending on the shape function S(x).Whitham, G. B. (2011\\). Linear and nonlinear waves. John Wiley \\& Sons. pages 335\\-336\\.",
"The [drag force](/wiki/Drag_%28physics%29 \"Drag (physics)\") F is just the x\\-component of the momentum per unit time. To calculate this, consider a cylindrical surface with a large radius and with an axis along the x\\-axis. The momentum flux density crossing through this surface is simply given by \\\\Pi\\_{xr}\\=\\\\rho v\\_r (v\\_1\\+v\\_x)\\\\approx \\\\rho\\_1 (\\\\partial\\\\phi/\\\\partial r)(v\\_1\\+\\\\partial\\\\phi/\\\\partial x). Integrating \\\\Pi\\_{xr} over the cylindrical surface gives the drag force. Due to symmetry, the first term in \\\\Pi\\_{xr} upon integration gives zero since the net mass flux \\\\rho v\\_r is zero on the cylindrical surface considered. The second term gives the non\\-zero contribution,",
"F \\= \\-2\\\\pi r \\\\rho\\_1 \\\\int\\_{\\-\\\\infty}^\\\\infty \\\\frac{\\\\partial \\\\phi}{\\\\partial r}\\\\frac{\\\\partial\\\\phi}{\\\\partial x} dx.\nAt large distances, the values x\\-\\\\xi \\\\sim \\\\beta r (the wave region) are the most important in the solution for \\\\phi; this is because, as mentioned earlier, \\\\phi is a like disturbance propating with a speed v\\_1/\\\\beta with an apparent time x/v\\_1. This means that we can approximate the expression in the denominator as (x\\-\\\\xi)^2\\-\\\\beta^2r^2\\\\approx 2\\\\beta r (x\\-\\\\xi\\-\\\\beta r). Then we can write, for example,",
"\\\\phi(x,r) \\= \\- \\\\frac{v\\_1}{2\\\\pi\\\\sqrt{2\\\\beta r}}\\\\int\\_0^{x\\-\\\\beta r} \\\\frac{S'(\\\\xi)d\\\\xi}{\\\\sqrt{x\\-\\\\xi\\-\\\\beta r}} \\= \\- \\\\frac{v\\_1}{2\\\\pi\\\\sqrt{2\\\\beta r}}\\\\int\\_0^{\\\\infty} \\\\frac{S'(x\\-\\\\beta r\\-s)ds}{\\\\sqrt{s}}, \\\\quad s\\=x\\-\\\\xi\\-\\\\beta r, \\\\,\\\\,r\\\\gg 1\\.\nFrom this expression, we can calculate \\\\partial\\\\phi/\\\\partial r, which is also equal to \\-\\\\beta\\\\partial\\\\phi/\\\\partial x since we are in the wave region. The factor 1/\\\\sqrt r appearing in front of the integral need not to be differentiated since this gives rise to the small correction proportional to 1/r. Effecting the differentiation and returning to the original variables, we find",
"\\\\frac{\\\\partial \\\\phi}{\\\\partial r} \\= \\-\\\\beta \\\\frac{\\\\partial \\\\phi}{\\\\partial x}\\= \\\\frac{v\\_1}{2\\\\pi}\\\\sqrt{\\\\frac{\\\\beta}{2r}}\\\\int\\_0^{x\\-\\\\beta r} \\\\frac{S''(\\\\xi)d\\\\xi}{\\\\sqrt{x\\-\\\\xi\\-\\\\beta r}}.\nSubstituting this in the drag force formula gives us",
"F \\= \\\\frac{\\\\rho\\_1 v\\_1^2}{4\\\\pi} \\\\int\\_{\\-\\\\infty}^\\\\infty \\\\int\\_0^X \\\\int\\_0^X \\\\frac{S''(\\\\xi\\_1\\)S''(\\\\xi\\_2\\) d\\\\xi\\_1d\\\\xi\\_2dX}{\\\\sqrt{(X\\-\\\\xi\\_1\\)(X\\-\\\\xi\\_2\\)}}, \\\\quad X\\=x\\-\\\\beta r.\nThis can be simplified by carrying out the integration over X. When the integration order is changed, the limit for X ranges from the \\\\mathrm{max}(\\\\xi\\_1,\\\\xi\\_2\\) to L\\\\to\\\\infty. Upon integration, we have",
"F \\= \\- \\\\frac{\\\\rho\\_1 v\\_1^2}{2\\\\pi} \\\\int\\_0^l \\\\int\\_0^{\\\\xi\\_2} S''(\\\\xi\\_1\\)S''(\\\\xi\\_2\\)\\[\\\\ln(\\\\xi\\_2\\-\\\\xi\\_1\\)\\-\\\\ln 4L]d\\\\xi\\_1d\\\\xi\\_2\\.\nThe integral containing the term L is zero because S'(0\\)\\=S'(l)\\=0 (of course, in addition to S(0\\)\\=S(l)\\=0).",
"The final formula for the [wave drag](/wiki/Wave_drag \"Wave drag\") force may be written as",
"F \\= \\- \\\\frac{\\\\rho\\_1 v\\_1^2}{2\\\\pi} \\\\int\\_0^l \\\\int\\_0^{\\\\xi\\_2} S''(\\\\xi\\_1\\)S''(\\\\xi\\_2\\)\\\\ln(\\\\xi\\_2\\-\\\\xi\\_1\\)d\\\\xi\\_1d\\\\xi\\_2,\nor",
"F \\= \\- \\\\frac{\\\\rho\\_1 v\\_1^2}{2\\\\pi} \\\\int\\_0^l \\\\int\\_0^{l} S''(\\\\xi\\_1\\)S''(\\\\xi\\_2\\)\\\\ln\\|\\\\xi\\_2\\-\\\\xi\\_1\\|d\\\\xi\\_1d\\\\xi\\_2\\.",
"The [drag coefficient](/wiki/Drag_coefficient \"Drag coefficient\") is then given by",
"C\\_d \\= \\\\frac{F}{\\\\rho\\_1^2 v\\_1^2 l^2/2}.\nSince F\\\\sim \\\\rho\\_1 v\\_1^2 S^2/l^2 that follows from the formula derived above, C\\_d \\\\sim S^2/l^4, indicating that the drag coefficient is proportional to the square of the cross\\-sectional area and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the body length.",
"The shape with smallest wave drag for a given volume V and length l can be obtained from the wave drag force formula. This shape is known as the [Sears–Haack body](/wiki/Sears%E2%80%93Haack_body \"Sears–Haack body\").Haack, W. (1941\\). Geschossformen kleinsten wellenwiderstandes. Bericht der Lilienthal\\-Gesellschaft, 136(1\\), 14\\-28\\.Sears, W. R. (1947\\). On projectiles of minimum wave drag. Quarterly of Applied Mathematics, 4(4\\), 361\\-366\\.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years
Williana Jones, known to family and friends as "Liane," was born on January 2, 1882, in [Petersburg, Virginia](/wiki/Petersburg%2C_Virginia "Petersburg, Virginia").Philip Sterling, "Williana J. Burroughs: Ousted from New York Public School System, Now Communist Candidate for Comptroller," *The Daily Worker,* vol. 10, no. 232 (September 27, 1933\), p. 5\. Her mother had formerly been a slave for 16 years,Jeffrey B. Perry, *Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 1883\-1918\.* New York: Columbia University Press, 2009; p. 90\. her father died when Williana was just four years old. Her widowed mother left [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia") for [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), bringing Williana together with a sister and a brother (Gordon Jones), where she worked as a cook. Her mother proved unable to care for her children adequately, however, so Williana spent the next seven years in the Colored Orphan Asylum, located at the time on the corner of 143rd Street and Amsterdam Avenue in [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem "Harlem"). Her mother was able to retrieve her three children from the orphanage only when Williana was 11\.
Williana attended [public school](/wiki/Public_school_%28government_funded%29 "Public school (government funded)") in New York, where she was an excellent student. In 1909, Williana Jones married Charles Burroughs, a postal worker and actor.Perry, *Hubert Harrison,* pg. 91\. After graduation, she attended New York City Normal College, known today as [Hunter College](/wiki/Hunter_College "Hunter College"), where she achieved credentials to become a teacher. In 1910 she obtained her first teaching position, in charge of a [first grade](/wiki/First_grade "First grade") classroom.
In 1926, Burroughs moved to [P.S. 48](/wiki/P.S._48 "P.S. 48") in [Queens, New York](/wiki/Queens%2C_New_York "Queens, New York"), where she taught first and second grade children. She was soon recruited into the [New York City Teachers Union](/wiki/New_York_City_Teachers_Union "New York City Teachers Union"), in which she was active as part of the Communist\-led "Rank and File caucus."Clarence Taylor, *Reds at the Blackboard: Communism, Civil Rights, and the New York City Teachers Union.* New York: Columbia University Press, 2011; p. 59\.
### Political career
Williana Burroughs joined the [Workers (Communist) Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA "Communist Party USA") in September 1926\."Files of the Communist Party USA in the Comintern Archives," Russian State Archive for Social\-Political History (RGASPI), f. 515, op. 1, d. 1599, l. 1\. Available on microfilm, reel 122\. She became active in the campaign for defense of the [Scottsboro boys](/wiki/Scottsboro_boys "Scottsboro boys") and was chairman of the Blumberg Defense Council, an organization formed to defend Isidore Blumberg, a teacher removed from the New York public schools system due to his political views.
The Communist Party sent Burroughs to the [6th World Congress](/wiki/6th_World_Congress_of_the_Comintern "6th World Congress of the Comintern") of the [Communist International](/wiki/Communist_International "Communist International") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") in the summer of 1928 as a representative of the [American Negro Labor Congress](/wiki/American_Negro_Labor_Congress "American Negro Labor Congress"), a Communist Party auxiliary group.Mark Solomon, *The Cry was Unity: Communists and African Americans, 1917\-36\.* Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1998; p. 264\. Burroughs traveled with her husband and her two youngest sons to the convention, with the boys remaining in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") to attend school thereafter.Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism.* New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995; p. 199\. Burroughs would not be reunited with them until 1937\.Solomon, *The Cry was Unity,* p. 265\.
Burroughs made use of the [pseudonym](/wiki/Pseudonym "Pseudonym") "Mary Adams" in the communist movement during the 1920s and 1930s, publishing an article for the party's daily newspaper under that name for [May Day](/wiki/May_Day "May Day") 1928\.Perry, *Hubert Harrison,* p. 437, fn. 45\. She became prominent within the party organization and was selected as an alternate delegate to the 6th National Convention of the Communist Party USA in March 1929\.
Upon returning to the United States in January 1931, she resumed teaching. In 1933 Burroughs spoke out at a meeting of the New York City Board of Education, and in June 1933 Burroughs was dismissed from her post for "conduct unbecoming to a teacher and prejudicial to law and order."
After loss of her teaching position, Burroughs was the Communist Party's candidate for [New York Comptroller](/wiki/New_York_Comptroller "New York Comptroller") in the fall of 1933 and the Communist Party's candidate for [Lieutenant Governor of New York](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_New_York "Lieutenant Governor of New York") in 1934\. She also ran the Harlem Worker's School from 1933 to 1934\.
Burroughs was regarded as one of the CP's most effective witnesses during the public hearings over the [1935 Harlem riot](/wiki/1935_Harlem_riot "1935 Harlem riot").
She returned to the Soviet Union in the spring of 1937, the year of the [Great Terror](/wiki/Great_Purge "Great Purge"), where she worked as an announcer and editor for the English\-language broadcasts of [Radio Moscow](/wiki/Radio_Moscow "Radio Moscow"), the international [shortwave](/wiki/Shortwave "Shortwave") news service of the Soviet government. Burroughs remained in Moscow for virtually the rest of her life. In the spring of 1940 she made a request to return to the United States together with her sons but was persuaded to stay owing to the lack of capable Americans remaining in the USSR.Ross to Dimitrov, September 14, 1942, RGASPI f. 495, op. 73, d. 152\. Translated and published in full in Klehr, Haynes, and Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism,* pg. 201\. The war intervened and Burroughs and her sons remained in Moscow until 1945, when she finally managed to return to New York with the younger boy.Klehr, Haynes, and Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism,* p. 200, fn. 4\.
### Death and legacy
Williana Jones Burroughs died on December 24, 1945, at the Manhattan home of her friend Hermie Huiswoud, just two months after her return to the United States and barely more than a week before what would have been her 64th birthday.
Her son Charles Burroughs, the oldest of the boys who had been left in Moscow, retained his American citizenship and was inducted into the [U.S. Army](/wiki/U.S._Army "U.S. Army") early in 1945\. After his military service he returned to the United States and in 1961 co\-founded the [DuSable Museum of African American History](/wiki/DuSable_Museum_of_African_American_History "DuSable Museum of African American History") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), of which he remained curator until 1980\. A Chicago [high school](/wiki/High_school "High school") is named after him.
Her granddaughter Carola Burroughs was interviewed by Yelena Demikovsky for the [documentary](/wiki/Documentary "Documentary") *Black Russians \- The Red Experience*, about African\-Americans who moved to the Soviet Union.{{cn\|date\=April 2023}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years",
"Williana Jones, known to family and friends as \"Liane,\" was born on January 2, 1882, in [Petersburg, Virginia](/wiki/Petersburg%2C_Virginia \"Petersburg, Virginia\").Philip Sterling, \"Williana J. Burroughs: Ousted from New York Public School System, Now Communist Candidate for Comptroller,\" *The Daily Worker,* vol. 10, no. 232 (September 27, 1933\\), p. 5\\. Her mother had formerly been a slave for 16 years,Jeffrey B. Perry, *Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 1883\\-1918\\.* New York: Columbia University Press, 2009; p. 90\\. her father died when Williana was just four years old. Her widowed mother left [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\") for [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), bringing Williana together with a sister and a brother (Gordon Jones), where she worked as a cook. Her mother proved unable to care for her children adequately, however, so Williana spent the next seven years in the Colored Orphan Asylum, located at the time on the corner of 143rd Street and Amsterdam Avenue in [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem \"Harlem\"). Her mother was able to retrieve her three children from the orphanage only when Williana was 11\\.",
"Williana attended [public school](/wiki/Public_school_%28government_funded%29 \"Public school (government funded)\") in New York, where she was an excellent student. In 1909, Williana Jones married Charles Burroughs, a postal worker and actor.Perry, *Hubert Harrison,* pg. 91\\. After graduation, she attended New York City Normal College, known today as [Hunter College](/wiki/Hunter_College \"Hunter College\"), where she achieved credentials to become a teacher. In 1910 she obtained her first teaching position, in charge of a [first grade](/wiki/First_grade \"First grade\") classroom.",
"In 1926, Burroughs moved to [P.S. 48](/wiki/P.S._48 \"P.S. 48\") in [Queens, New York](/wiki/Queens%2C_New_York \"Queens, New York\"), where she taught first and second grade children. She was soon recruited into the [New York City Teachers Union](/wiki/New_York_City_Teachers_Union \"New York City Teachers Union\"), in which she was active as part of the Communist\\-led \"Rank and File caucus.\"Clarence Taylor, *Reds at the Blackboard: Communism, Civil Rights, and the New York City Teachers Union.* New York: Columbia University Press, 2011; p. 59\\.",
"### Political career",
"Williana Burroughs joined the [Workers (Communist) Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA \"Communist Party USA\") in September 1926\\.\"Files of the Communist Party USA in the Comintern Archives,\" Russian State Archive for Social\\-Political History (RGASPI), f. 515, op. 1, d. 1599, l. 1\\. Available on microfilm, reel 122\\. She became active in the campaign for defense of the [Scottsboro boys](/wiki/Scottsboro_boys \"Scottsboro boys\") and was chairman of the Blumberg Defense Council, an organization formed to defend Isidore Blumberg, a teacher removed from the New York public schools system due to his political views.",
"The Communist Party sent Burroughs to the [6th World Congress](/wiki/6th_World_Congress_of_the_Comintern \"6th World Congress of the Comintern\") of the [Communist International](/wiki/Communist_International \"Communist International\") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") in the summer of 1928 as a representative of the [American Negro Labor Congress](/wiki/American_Negro_Labor_Congress \"American Negro Labor Congress\"), a Communist Party auxiliary group.Mark Solomon, *The Cry was Unity: Communists and African Americans, 1917\\-36\\.* Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1998; p. 264\\. Burroughs traveled with her husband and her two youngest sons to the convention, with the boys remaining in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") to attend school thereafter.Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism.* New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995; p. 199\\. Burroughs would not be reunited with them until 1937\\.Solomon, *The Cry was Unity,* p. 265\\.",
"Burroughs made use of the [pseudonym](/wiki/Pseudonym \"Pseudonym\") \"Mary Adams\" in the communist movement during the 1920s and 1930s, publishing an article for the party's daily newspaper under that name for [May Day](/wiki/May_Day \"May Day\") 1928\\.Perry, *Hubert Harrison,* p. 437, fn. 45\\. She became prominent within the party organization and was selected as an alternate delegate to the 6th National Convention of the Communist Party USA in March 1929\\.",
"Upon returning to the United States in January 1931, she resumed teaching. In 1933 Burroughs spoke out at a meeting of the New York City Board of Education, and in June 1933 Burroughs was dismissed from her post for \"conduct unbecoming to a teacher and prejudicial to law and order.\"",
"After loss of her teaching position, Burroughs was the Communist Party's candidate for [New York Comptroller](/wiki/New_York_Comptroller \"New York Comptroller\") in the fall of 1933 and the Communist Party's candidate for [Lieutenant Governor of New York](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_New_York \"Lieutenant Governor of New York\") in 1934\\. She also ran the Harlem Worker's School from 1933 to 1934\\.",
"Burroughs was regarded as one of the CP's most effective witnesses during the public hearings over the [1935 Harlem riot](/wiki/1935_Harlem_riot \"1935 Harlem riot\").",
"She returned to the Soviet Union in the spring of 1937, the year of the [Great Terror](/wiki/Great_Purge \"Great Purge\"), where she worked as an announcer and editor for the English\\-language broadcasts of [Radio Moscow](/wiki/Radio_Moscow \"Radio Moscow\"), the international [shortwave](/wiki/Shortwave \"Shortwave\") news service of the Soviet government. Burroughs remained in Moscow for virtually the rest of her life. In the spring of 1940 she made a request to return to the United States together with her sons but was persuaded to stay owing to the lack of capable Americans remaining in the USSR.Ross to Dimitrov, September 14, 1942, RGASPI f. 495, op. 73, d. 152\\. Translated and published in full in Klehr, Haynes, and Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism,* pg. 201\\. The war intervened and Burroughs and her sons remained in Moscow until 1945, when she finally managed to return to New York with the younger boy.Klehr, Haynes, and Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism,* p. 200, fn. 4\\.",
"### Death and legacy",
"Williana Jones Burroughs died on December 24, 1945, at the Manhattan home of her friend Hermie Huiswoud, just two months after her return to the United States and barely more than a week before what would have been her 64th birthday.",
"Her son Charles Burroughs, the oldest of the boys who had been left in Moscow, retained his American citizenship and was inducted into the [U.S. Army](/wiki/U.S._Army \"U.S. Army\") early in 1945\\. After his military service he returned to the United States and in 1961 co\\-founded the [DuSable Museum of African American History](/wiki/DuSable_Museum_of_African_American_History \"DuSable Museum of African American History\") in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), of which he remained curator until 1980\\. A Chicago [high school](/wiki/High_school \"High school\") is named after him.",
"Her granddaughter Carola Burroughs was interviewed by Yelena Demikovsky for the [documentary](/wiki/Documentary \"Documentary\") *Black Russians \\- The Red Experience*, about African\\-Americans who moved to the Soviet Union.{{cn\\|date\\=April 2023}}",
""
] |
### Political career
Williana Burroughs joined the [Workers (Communist) Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA "Communist Party USA") in September 1926\."Files of the Communist Party USA in the Comintern Archives," Russian State Archive for Social\-Political History (RGASPI), f. 515, op. 1, d. 1599, l. 1\. Available on microfilm, reel 122\. She became active in the campaign for defense of the [Scottsboro boys](/wiki/Scottsboro_boys "Scottsboro boys") and was chairman of the Blumberg Defense Council, an organization formed to defend Isidore Blumberg, a teacher removed from the New York public schools system due to his political views.
The Communist Party sent Burroughs to the [6th World Congress](/wiki/6th_World_Congress_of_the_Comintern "6th World Congress of the Comintern") of the [Communist International](/wiki/Communist_International "Communist International") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") in the summer of 1928 as a representative of the [American Negro Labor Congress](/wiki/American_Negro_Labor_Congress "American Negro Labor Congress"), a Communist Party auxiliary group.Mark Solomon, *The Cry was Unity: Communists and African Americans, 1917\-36\.* Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1998; p. 264\. Burroughs traveled with her husband and her two youngest sons to the convention, with the boys remaining in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") to attend school thereafter.Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism.* New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995; p. 199\. Burroughs would not be reunited with them until 1937\.Solomon, *The Cry was Unity,* p. 265\.
Burroughs made use of the [pseudonym](/wiki/Pseudonym "Pseudonym") "Mary Adams" in the communist movement during the 1920s and 1930s, publishing an article for the party's daily newspaper under that name for [May Day](/wiki/May_Day "May Day") 1928\.Perry, *Hubert Harrison,* p. 437, fn. 45\. She became prominent within the party organization and was selected as an alternate delegate to the 6th National Convention of the Communist Party USA in March 1929\.
Upon returning to the United States in January 1931, she resumed teaching. In 1933 Burroughs spoke out at a meeting of the New York City Board of Education, and in June 1933 Burroughs was dismissed from her post for "conduct unbecoming to a teacher and prejudicial to law and order."
After loss of her teaching position, Burroughs was the Communist Party's candidate for [New York Comptroller](/wiki/New_York_Comptroller "New York Comptroller") in the fall of 1933 and the Communist Party's candidate for [Lieutenant Governor of New York](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_New_York "Lieutenant Governor of New York") in 1934\. She also ran the Harlem Worker's School from 1933 to 1934\.
Burroughs was regarded as one of the CP's most effective witnesses during the public hearings over the [1935 Harlem riot](/wiki/1935_Harlem_riot "1935 Harlem riot").
She returned to the Soviet Union in the spring of 1937, the year of the [Great Terror](/wiki/Great_Purge "Great Purge"), where she worked as an announcer and editor for the English\-language broadcasts of [Radio Moscow](/wiki/Radio_Moscow "Radio Moscow"), the international [shortwave](/wiki/Shortwave "Shortwave") news service of the Soviet government. Burroughs remained in Moscow for virtually the rest of her life. In the spring of 1940 she made a request to return to the United States together with her sons but was persuaded to stay owing to the lack of capable Americans remaining in the USSR.Ross to Dimitrov, September 14, 1942, RGASPI f. 495, op. 73, d. 152\. Translated and published in full in Klehr, Haynes, and Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism,* pg. 201\. The war intervened and Burroughs and her sons remained in Moscow until 1945, when she finally managed to return to New York with the younger boy.Klehr, Haynes, and Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism,* p. 200, fn. 4\.
|
[
"### Political career",
"Williana Burroughs joined the [Workers (Communist) Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA \"Communist Party USA\") in September 1926\\.\"Files of the Communist Party USA in the Comintern Archives,\" Russian State Archive for Social\\-Political History (RGASPI), f. 515, op. 1, d. 1599, l. 1\\. Available on microfilm, reel 122\\. She became active in the campaign for defense of the [Scottsboro boys](/wiki/Scottsboro_boys \"Scottsboro boys\") and was chairman of the Blumberg Defense Council, an organization formed to defend Isidore Blumberg, a teacher removed from the New York public schools system due to his political views.",
"The Communist Party sent Burroughs to the [6th World Congress](/wiki/6th_World_Congress_of_the_Comintern \"6th World Congress of the Comintern\") of the [Communist International](/wiki/Communist_International \"Communist International\") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") in the summer of 1928 as a representative of the [American Negro Labor Congress](/wiki/American_Negro_Labor_Congress \"American Negro Labor Congress\"), a Communist Party auxiliary group.Mark Solomon, *The Cry was Unity: Communists and African Americans, 1917\\-36\\.* Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1998; p. 264\\. Burroughs traveled with her husband and her two youngest sons to the convention, with the boys remaining in the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") to attend school thereafter.Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism.* New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995; p. 199\\. Burroughs would not be reunited with them until 1937\\.Solomon, *The Cry was Unity,* p. 265\\.",
"Burroughs made use of the [pseudonym](/wiki/Pseudonym \"Pseudonym\") \"Mary Adams\" in the communist movement during the 1920s and 1930s, publishing an article for the party's daily newspaper under that name for [May Day](/wiki/May_Day \"May Day\") 1928\\.Perry, *Hubert Harrison,* p. 437, fn. 45\\. She became prominent within the party organization and was selected as an alternate delegate to the 6th National Convention of the Communist Party USA in March 1929\\.",
"Upon returning to the United States in January 1931, she resumed teaching. In 1933 Burroughs spoke out at a meeting of the New York City Board of Education, and in June 1933 Burroughs was dismissed from her post for \"conduct unbecoming to a teacher and prejudicial to law and order.\"",
"After loss of her teaching position, Burroughs was the Communist Party's candidate for [New York Comptroller](/wiki/New_York_Comptroller \"New York Comptroller\") in the fall of 1933 and the Communist Party's candidate for [Lieutenant Governor of New York](/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_New_York \"Lieutenant Governor of New York\") in 1934\\. She also ran the Harlem Worker's School from 1933 to 1934\\.",
"Burroughs was regarded as one of the CP's most effective witnesses during the public hearings over the [1935 Harlem riot](/wiki/1935_Harlem_riot \"1935 Harlem riot\").",
"She returned to the Soviet Union in the spring of 1937, the year of the [Great Terror](/wiki/Great_Purge \"Great Purge\"), where she worked as an announcer and editor for the English\\-language broadcasts of [Radio Moscow](/wiki/Radio_Moscow \"Radio Moscow\"), the international [shortwave](/wiki/Shortwave \"Shortwave\") news service of the Soviet government. Burroughs remained in Moscow for virtually the rest of her life. In the spring of 1940 she made a request to return to the United States together with her sons but was persuaded to stay owing to the lack of capable Americans remaining in the USSR.Ross to Dimitrov, September 14, 1942, RGASPI f. 495, op. 73, d. 152\\. Translated and published in full in Klehr, Haynes, and Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism,* pg. 201\\. The war intervened and Burroughs and her sons remained in Moscow until 1945, when she finally managed to return to New York with the younger boy.Klehr, Haynes, and Firsov, *The Secret World of American Communism,* p. 200, fn. 4\\.",
""
] |
Details
-------
The ITS\-90 is designed to represent the [thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale](/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature "Thermodynamic temperature") (referencing [absolute zero](/wiki/Absolute_zero "Absolute zero")) as closely as possible throughout its range. Many different thermometer designs are required to cover the entire range. These include helium vapor pressure thermometers, helium gas thermometers, [standard platinum resistance thermometers](/wiki/Resistance_thermometer "Resistance thermometer") (known as SPRTs) and [monochromatic radiation thermometers](/wiki/Infrared_thermometer "Infrared thermometer").
Although the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales were (until 2019\) defined using the [triple point](/wiki/Triple_point "Triple point") of water ({{val\|273\.16\|u\=K}} or {{val\|0\.01\|u\=degC}}), it is impractical to use this definition at temperatures that are very different from the triple point of water. Accordingly, ITS\-90 uses numerous defined points, all of which are based on various [thermodynamic](/wiki/Thermodynamics "Thermodynamics") equilibrium states of fourteen pure [chemical elements](/wiki/Chemical_elements "Chemical elements") and one [compound](/wiki/Chemical_compound "Chemical compound") (water). Most of the defined points are based on a [phase transition](/wiki/Phase_transition "Phase transition"); specifically the [melting](/wiki/Melting_point "Melting point")/[freezing](/wiki/Freezing "Freezing") point of a pure chemical element. However, the deepest [cryogenic](/wiki/Cryogenics "Cryogenics") points are based exclusively on the [vapor pressure](/wiki/Vapor_pressure "Vapor pressure")/temperature relationship of helium and its isotopes whereas the remainder of its cold points (those less than room temperature) are based on [triple points](/wiki/Triple_point "Triple point"). Examples of other defining points are the triple point of [equilibrium](/wiki/Spin_isomers_of_hydrogen "Spin isomers of hydrogen") hydrogen ({{val\|13\.8033\|u\=K}} or {{val\|\-259\.3467\|u\=degC}}) and the freezing point of aluminium ({{val\|933\.473\|u\=K}} or {{val\|660\.323\|u\=degC}}).
The defining fixed points of the ITS\-90 refer to pure chemical samples with specific isotopic compositions.{{Cite web\|date\=28 June 2017\|title\=Technical Annex for the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS\-90\)\|url\=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41791796/MeP\_K\_Technical\_Annex.pdf/b320a377\-c601\-ec64\-7c48\-fe7d04c88861\|access\-date\=24 June 2021\|website\=BIPM}} As a consequence of this, the ITS\-90 contains several equations {{Cite web\|date\=28 June 2017\|title\=Technical Annex for the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS\-90\)\|url\=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41791796/MeP\_K\_Technical\_Annex.pdf/b320a377\-c601\-ec64\-7c48\-fe7d04c88861\|access\-date\=24 June 2021\|website\=BIPM}}{{Cite web\|date\=1 January 2018\|title\=Guide to the Realisation of the ITS\-90 \- Triple Point of Water\|url\=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41773843/Guide\_ITS\-90\_2\_2\_TPW\-2018\.pdf/b4feee2a\-3e84\-cc30\-eba7\-94592b247bd2?version\=1\.4\|access\-date\=24 June 2021\|website\=BIPM}}{{Cite web\|date\=1 January 2018\|title\=Guide to the Realisation of the ITS\-90 \- Fixed Points: Influence of Impurities\|url\=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41773843/Guide\_ITS\-90\_2\_1\_Impurities\_2018\.pdf/68567148\-cc72\-e4a8\-7dd0\-e913a5b42b32?version\=1\.5\|access\-date\=24 June 2021\|website\=BIPM}} to correct for temperature variations due to impurities and isotopic composition.
Thermometers calibrated via the ITS\-90 use complex mathematical formulas to interpolate between its defined points.{{Cite web\|date\=27 May 2021\|title\=Guide to the Realisation of the ITS\-90 \- Platinum Resistance Thermometry\|url\=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41773843/Guide\_ITS\-90\_5\_SPRT\_2021\.pdf/c4bbbe56\-4118\-eef7\-47cb\-3ea234db40b8?version\=1\.6\|access\-date\=24 June 2021\|website\=BIPM}} The ITS\-90 specifies rigorous control over variables to ensure reproducibility from lab to lab. For instance, the small effect that atmospheric pressure has upon the various melting points is compensated for (an effect that typically amounts to no more than half a [millikelvin](/wiki/Millikelvin "Millikelvin") across the different altitudes and barometric pressures likely to be encountered). The standard also compensates for the pressure effect due to how deeply the temperature probe is immersed into the sample. The ITS\-90 also draws a distinction between "freezing" and "melting" points. The distinction depends on whether heat is going *into* (melting) or *out of* (freezing) the sample when the measurement is made. Only gallium is measured at its melting points; all other metals with defining fixed points on the ITS\-90 are measured at their freezing points.
A practical effect of the ITS\-90 is that the triple points and the freezing/melting points of its thirteen chemical elements are precisely known for all temperature measurements calibrated per the ITS\-90 since these thirteen values are fixed by definition.
|
[
"Details\n-------",
"The ITS\\-90 is designed to represent the [thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale](/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature \"Thermodynamic temperature\") (referencing [absolute zero](/wiki/Absolute_zero \"Absolute zero\")) as closely as possible throughout its range. Many different thermometer designs are required to cover the entire range. These include helium vapor pressure thermometers, helium gas thermometers, [standard platinum resistance thermometers](/wiki/Resistance_thermometer \"Resistance thermometer\") (known as SPRTs) and [monochromatic radiation thermometers](/wiki/Infrared_thermometer \"Infrared thermometer\").",
"Although the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales were (until 2019\\) defined using the [triple point](/wiki/Triple_point \"Triple point\") of water ({{val\\|273\\.16\\|u\\=K}} or {{val\\|0\\.01\\|u\\=degC}}), it is impractical to use this definition at temperatures that are very different from the triple point of water. Accordingly, ITS\\-90 uses numerous defined points, all of which are based on various [thermodynamic](/wiki/Thermodynamics \"Thermodynamics\") equilibrium states of fourteen pure [chemical elements](/wiki/Chemical_elements \"Chemical elements\") and one [compound](/wiki/Chemical_compound \"Chemical compound\") (water). Most of the defined points are based on a [phase transition](/wiki/Phase_transition \"Phase transition\"); specifically the [melting](/wiki/Melting_point \"Melting point\")/[freezing](/wiki/Freezing \"Freezing\") point of a pure chemical element. However, the deepest [cryogenic](/wiki/Cryogenics \"Cryogenics\") points are based exclusively on the [vapor pressure](/wiki/Vapor_pressure \"Vapor pressure\")/temperature relationship of helium and its isotopes whereas the remainder of its cold points (those less than room temperature) are based on [triple points](/wiki/Triple_point \"Triple point\"). Examples of other defining points are the triple point of [equilibrium](/wiki/Spin_isomers_of_hydrogen \"Spin isomers of hydrogen\") hydrogen ({{val\\|13\\.8033\\|u\\=K}} or {{val\\|\\-259\\.3467\\|u\\=degC}}) and the freezing point of aluminium ({{val\\|933\\.473\\|u\\=K}} or {{val\\|660\\.323\\|u\\=degC}}).",
"The defining fixed points of the ITS\\-90 refer to pure chemical samples with specific isotopic compositions.{{Cite web\\|date\\=28 June 2017\\|title\\=Technical Annex for the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS\\-90\\)\\|url\\=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41791796/MeP\\_K\\_Technical\\_Annex.pdf/b320a377\\-c601\\-ec64\\-7c48\\-fe7d04c88861\\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2021\\|website\\=BIPM}} As a consequence of this, the ITS\\-90 contains several equations {{Cite web\\|date\\=28 June 2017\\|title\\=Technical Annex for the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS\\-90\\)\\|url\\=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41791796/MeP\\_K\\_Technical\\_Annex.pdf/b320a377\\-c601\\-ec64\\-7c48\\-fe7d04c88861\\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2021\\|website\\=BIPM}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=1 January 2018\\|title\\=Guide to the Realisation of the ITS\\-90 \\- Triple Point of Water\\|url\\=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41773843/Guide\\_ITS\\-90\\_2\\_2\\_TPW\\-2018\\.pdf/b4feee2a\\-3e84\\-cc30\\-eba7\\-94592b247bd2?version\\=1\\.4\\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2021\\|website\\=BIPM}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=1 January 2018\\|title\\=Guide to the Realisation of the ITS\\-90 \\- Fixed Points: Influence of Impurities\\|url\\=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41773843/Guide\\_ITS\\-90\\_2\\_1\\_Impurities\\_2018\\.pdf/68567148\\-cc72\\-e4a8\\-7dd0\\-e913a5b42b32?version\\=1\\.5\\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2021\\|website\\=BIPM}} to correct for temperature variations due to impurities and isotopic composition.",
"Thermometers calibrated via the ITS\\-90 use complex mathematical formulas to interpolate between its defined points.{{Cite web\\|date\\=27 May 2021\\|title\\=Guide to the Realisation of the ITS\\-90 \\- Platinum Resistance Thermometry\\|url\\=https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41773843/Guide\\_ITS\\-90\\_5\\_SPRT\\_2021\\.pdf/c4bbbe56\\-4118\\-eef7\\-47cb\\-3ea234db40b8?version\\=1\\.6\\|access\\-date\\=24 June 2021\\|website\\=BIPM}} The ITS\\-90 specifies rigorous control over variables to ensure reproducibility from lab to lab. For instance, the small effect that atmospheric pressure has upon the various melting points is compensated for (an effect that typically amounts to no more than half a [millikelvin](/wiki/Millikelvin \"Millikelvin\") across the different altitudes and barometric pressures likely to be encountered). The standard also compensates for the pressure effect due to how deeply the temperature probe is immersed into the sample. The ITS\\-90 also draws a distinction between \"freezing\" and \"melting\" points. The distinction depends on whether heat is going *into* (melting) or *out of* (freezing) the sample when the measurement is made. Only gallium is measured at its melting points; all other metals with defining fixed points on the ITS\\-90 are measured at their freezing points.",
"A practical effect of the ITS\\-90 is that the triple points and the freezing/melting points of its thirteen chemical elements are precisely known for all temperature measurements calibrated per the ITS\\-90 since these thirteen values are fixed by definition.",
""
] |
Animal treatment
----------------
Dog vaccination is most effective for controlling dog\-mediated rabies. This can be seen throughout the region of the Americas where medical authorities have achieved rabies control.
In Haiti, the United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) is mainly focusing on dog\-mediated rabies. Specifically in collaboration with the NGO Christian Veterinary Mission, the CDC has trained, to date, more than 20 MARNDR laboratory personnel in rabies diagnostic methods (Direct Fluorescent Antibody \[DFA] and Direct Rapid Immunohistochemistry Test \[dRIT]). The organizations have also improved a diagnostic laboratory in Port\-au\-Prince by providing it with advanced equipment. The surveillance system is a bite\-reporting model where the public and medical providers report bite events to rabies control officers. In addition, more than 30 field veterinary and health agents were trained in rabies surveillance, in support of this effort.
In 2011, the CDC along with MARNDR initiated a five\-year rabies infrastructure improvement program that focused on surveillance, diagnostics, and education. The MSPP also helped out by improving public education on rabies. Because Haiti has a gross national income per capita of US$1,035, it is the only country in the American region that is part of the group of low\-income countries. The World Bank has classified 33 other low\-income countries in Africa and Asia, where dog\-mediated rabies is a major problem and results in thousands of deaths annually. The persistence of dog rabies is connected to limited resources and weak governance.
In conducting a rabies assessment, rabies control officers try to locate the offending animal. Animals that have bitten a victim are either euthanized and tested or quarantined for 14 days while remaining in their owner's residence. In addition, animals who show signs of rabies are tested, regardless of human exposure. This surveillance program is restricted to two of the ten geographical departments of the country (West and Artibonite) for security reasons. The area includes approximately 50 percent of the Haitian population. The CDC and the NGO Christian Veterinary Mission support the mission by maintaining four Haitian staff in the West Department and three in the Artibonite Department, respectively. Results of this mission showed the level of under\-reporting of canine rabies. Specifically, six cases of rabid dogs in early December, 2012, were reported for the country.
During the first nine months of the surveillance mission, 42 rabid dogs were identified in just three communities in Port\-au\-Prince during the first nine months in 2012\. That being said, no laboratory\-based surveillance exists for the human population that is exposed to rabies and all diagnoses are based on clinical history. This is because of the lack of laboratory facilities, making it difficult to identify evidence for the virus in humans and shed light on the disease as a whole for them, in Haiti. There are insufficient numbers of pathologists to collect samples for human rabies, as well. There do exist other methods for viral antigen detection that may merit study.
In 2013, the CDC and its partners began an animal rabies surveillance program in several regions of Haiti and saw an 18\-fold rise in detection of rabid animals. In 2015, the CDC evaluated Haiti's canine rabies vaccination program and found that only 45 percent of dogs were vaccinated, far short of the 70 percent needed to stop the spread of rabies in the dog population. In addition, the researchers found that Haiti had nearly 1,000,000 dogs, twice as many as previously thought.
The CDC and its partners had already begun a dog vaccination trial in evaluating the best vaccination methods for dogs in Haiti. As a part of this effort, they vaccinated 3,000 dogs in just four days during the summer of 2016 and planned to vaccinate a total of 8,000 dogs as part of this campaign.
|
[
"Animal treatment\n----------------",
"Dog vaccination is most effective for controlling dog\\-mediated rabies. This can be seen throughout the region of the Americas where medical authorities have achieved rabies control.",
"In Haiti, the United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) is mainly focusing on dog\\-mediated rabies. Specifically in collaboration with the NGO Christian Veterinary Mission, the CDC has trained, to date, more than 20 MARNDR laboratory personnel in rabies diagnostic methods (Direct Fluorescent Antibody \\[DFA] and Direct Rapid Immunohistochemistry Test \\[dRIT]). The organizations have also improved a diagnostic laboratory in Port\\-au\\-Prince by providing it with advanced equipment. The surveillance system is a bite\\-reporting model where the public and medical providers report bite events to rabies control officers. In addition, more than 30 field veterinary and health agents were trained in rabies surveillance, in support of this effort.",
"In 2011, the CDC along with MARNDR initiated a five\\-year rabies infrastructure improvement program that focused on surveillance, diagnostics, and education. The MSPP also helped out by improving public education on rabies. Because Haiti has a gross national income per capita of US$1,035, it is the only country in the American region that is part of the group of low\\-income countries. The World Bank has classified 33 other low\\-income countries in Africa and Asia, where dog\\-mediated rabies is a major problem and results in thousands of deaths annually. The persistence of dog rabies is connected to limited resources and weak governance.",
"In conducting a rabies assessment, rabies control officers try to locate the offending animal. Animals that have bitten a victim are either euthanized and tested or quarantined for 14 days while remaining in their owner's residence. In addition, animals who show signs of rabies are tested, regardless of human exposure. This surveillance program is restricted to two of the ten geographical departments of the country (West and Artibonite) for security reasons. The area includes approximately 50 percent of the Haitian population. The CDC and the NGO Christian Veterinary Mission support the mission by maintaining four Haitian staff in the West Department and three in the Artibonite Department, respectively. Results of this mission showed the level of under\\-reporting of canine rabies. Specifically, six cases of rabid dogs in early December, 2012, were reported for the country.",
"During the first nine months of the surveillance mission, 42 rabid dogs were identified in just three communities in Port\\-au\\-Prince during the first nine months in 2012\\. That being said, no laboratory\\-based surveillance exists for the human population that is exposed to rabies and all diagnoses are based on clinical history. This is because of the lack of laboratory facilities, making it difficult to identify evidence for the virus in humans and shed light on the disease as a whole for them, in Haiti. There are insufficient numbers of pathologists to collect samples for human rabies, as well. There do exist other methods for viral antigen detection that may merit study.",
"In 2013, the CDC and its partners began an animal rabies surveillance program in several regions of Haiti and saw an 18\\-fold rise in detection of rabid animals. In 2015, the CDC evaluated Haiti's canine rabies vaccination program and found that only 45 percent of dogs were vaccinated, far short of the 70 percent needed to stop the spread of rabies in the dog population. In addition, the researchers found that Haiti had nearly 1,000,000 dogs, twice as many as previously thought.",
"The CDC and its partners had already begun a dog vaccination trial in evaluating the best vaccination methods for dogs in Haiti. As a part of this effort, they vaccinated 3,000 dogs in just four days during the summer of 2016 and planned to vaccinate a total of 8,000 dogs as part of this campaign.",
""
] |
Career
------
Born in Veracruz, Mexico, he played his first tournament at the Washington State Championships in the United States in 1961\. he won his first singles title in 1963 at the [San Luis Potosi International](/wiki/San_Luis_Potosi_International "San Luis Potosi International"), he would go on to win that tournament a further five times which remains a tournament record. In November 1963, he represented his homeland in the \[GANEFO Opens New Era In World Sports: Publication of Chinese Delegation to 1963 GANEFO] inaugural Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO) in Jakarta. Partnering M.L. de Santiago, he won a silver medal in the men's doubles.
He won the singles title at [Tri\-State Championships](/wiki/Tri-State_Championships "Tri-State Championships") in Cincinnati in 1967, defeating [Jaime Fillol](/wiki/Jaime_Fillol "Jaime Fillol") in the final,{{cite news \|title\=Sports Shorts \|url\=https://newspapers.com/image/429606398/?terms\=Cincinnati%20tournament%20tennis%20\&match\=1 \|access\-date\=4 November 2023 \|work\=The Paducah Sun \|publisher\=Wikipedia Library \- newspapers.com \|date\=11 Jul 1967 \|location\=Paducah, Kentucky \|page\=11 \|language\=en}} and was a doubles finalist in Cincinnati in 1975 and 1968\.
He reached the Round of 16 at [Wimbledon](/wiki/The_Championships%2C_Wimbledon "The Championships, Wimbledon") in 1971, and the third round at the [French Open](/wiki/French_Open "French Open") and Wimbledon in 1970\. he won his final tournament at the San Luis Potosí Open in 1974\. He played his final tournament in 1982 at the Mexican Satellite tournament.
His other career singles highlights include winning the Tennessee Valley Invitation two times (1966, 1969\), the [Olaj Championships](/wiki/Olaj_Championships "Olaj Championships") (1968\), the Blue and Gray Invitation (1968\), the Mexican Championships four times consecutively (1968–1971\), the [U.S. Intercollegiate Championships](/wiki/Intercollegiate_Championships "Intercollegiate Championships") (1969\),[Hero with a hyphen](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=hkxSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BXwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3803,7986655&dq=joaquin+loyo-mayo&hl=en) the [March of Dimes Tennis Tournament](/wiki/March_of_Dimes_Tennis_Tournament "March of Dimes Tennis Tournament") (1968\), the [U.S. Intercollegiate Championships](/wiki/Intercollegiate_Championships "Intercollegiate Championships") (1969\), and the El Tapatio International (1973\).
He also represented Mexico in the [Davis Cup](/wiki/Davis_Cup "Davis Cup"), playing in 45 matches from 1964 to 1976\.[Davis Cup profile](http://www.daviscup.com/en/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=10003918)
Loyo\-Mayo's playing career was coming to an end as the ATP rankings were coming into being. He achieved a ranking of world no. 99 in the rankings on April 12, 1976\.[ATP Tour profile](http://www.atpworldtour.com/Tennis/Players/Lo/J/Joaquin-Loyo-Mayo.aspx) (and therefore does not reflect a possible higher ranking during his peak years from 1961 to 1972\.
In the late 1960s, he earned a degree in marketing at the University of Southern California. In 1989, he joined, as professional coach, Edgbaston Archery \& Lawn Tennis Society in Birmingham, United Kingdom, the oldest lawn tennis club in the world.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Born in Veracruz, Mexico, he played his first tournament at the Washington State Championships in the United States in 1961\\. he won his first singles title in 1963 at the [San Luis Potosi International](/wiki/San_Luis_Potosi_International \"San Luis Potosi International\"), he would go on to win that tournament a further five times which remains a tournament record. In November 1963, he represented his homeland in the \\[GANEFO Opens New Era In World Sports: Publication of Chinese Delegation to 1963 GANEFO] inaugural Games of the New Emerging Forces (GANEFO) in Jakarta. Partnering M.L. de Santiago, he won a silver medal in the men's doubles.",
"He won the singles title at [Tri\\-State Championships](/wiki/Tri-State_Championships \"Tri-State Championships\") in Cincinnati in 1967, defeating [Jaime Fillol](/wiki/Jaime_Fillol \"Jaime Fillol\") in the final,{{cite news \\|title\\=Sports Shorts \\|url\\=https://newspapers.com/image/429606398/?terms\\=Cincinnati%20tournament%20tennis%20\\&match\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=4 November 2023 \\|work\\=The Paducah Sun \\|publisher\\=Wikipedia Library \\- newspapers.com \\|date\\=11 Jul 1967 \\|location\\=Paducah, Kentucky \\|page\\=11 \\|language\\=en}} and was a doubles finalist in Cincinnati in 1975 and 1968\\.",
"He reached the Round of 16 at [Wimbledon](/wiki/The_Championships%2C_Wimbledon \"The Championships, Wimbledon\") in 1971, and the third round at the [French Open](/wiki/French_Open \"French Open\") and Wimbledon in 1970\\. he won his final tournament at the San Luis Potosí Open in 1974\\. He played his final tournament in 1982 at the Mexican Satellite tournament.",
"His other career singles highlights include winning the Tennessee Valley Invitation two times (1966, 1969\\), the [Olaj Championships](/wiki/Olaj_Championships \"Olaj Championships\") (1968\\), the Blue and Gray Invitation (1968\\), the Mexican Championships four times consecutively (1968–1971\\), the [U.S. Intercollegiate Championships](/wiki/Intercollegiate_Championships \"Intercollegiate Championships\") (1969\\),[Hero with a hyphen](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=hkxSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BXwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3803,7986655&dq=joaquin+loyo-mayo&hl=en) the [March of Dimes Tennis Tournament](/wiki/March_of_Dimes_Tennis_Tournament \"March of Dimes Tennis Tournament\") (1968\\), the [U.S. Intercollegiate Championships](/wiki/Intercollegiate_Championships \"Intercollegiate Championships\") (1969\\), and the El Tapatio International (1973\\).",
"He also represented Mexico in the [Davis Cup](/wiki/Davis_Cup \"Davis Cup\"), playing in 45 matches from 1964 to 1976\\.[Davis Cup profile](http://www.daviscup.com/en/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=10003918)",
"Loyo\\-Mayo's playing career was coming to an end as the ATP rankings were coming into being. He achieved a ranking of world no. 99 in the rankings on April 12, 1976\\.[ATP Tour profile](http://www.atpworldtour.com/Tennis/Players/Lo/J/Joaquin-Loyo-Mayo.aspx) (and therefore does not reflect a possible higher ranking during his peak years from 1961 to 1972\\.",
"In the late 1960s, he earned a degree in marketing at the University of Southern California. In 1989, he joined, as professional coach, Edgbaston Archery \\& Lawn Tennis Society in Birmingham, United Kingdom, the oldest lawn tennis club in the world.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
He received his MA in Composition from [Brooklyn College](/wiki/Brooklyn_College "Brooklyn College"), where he studied composition with Robert Starer. He also holds a PhD in Composition from the Eastman School of Music, where he studied under [Warren Benson](/wiki/Warren_Benson "Warren Benson") and [Samuel Adler](/wiki/Samuel_Adler_%28composer%29 "Samuel Adler (composer)"). After moving to [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles%2C_California "Los Angeles, California") in 1976 to compose and arrange for television and film, he was commissioned by several local congregations to produce the synagogue works, 'Sim Shalom' from the Regeneration album, and 'Bayom Hahu' from the Nishmat Chayim Shabbat service. His work in conjunction with Cantor Nathan Lam of [Stephen S. Wise Temple](/wiki/Stephen_S._Wise_Temple "Stephen S. Wise Temple") was recorded on several albums, including the 1986 album *Legacy*, described by one reviewer as "startling".Richard S. Ginell, ["Jewish Prayer Music Gets A Modern, Upbeat \`Legacy"](http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1986-10-17/features/8603030255_1_jewish-music-michael-isaacson-composers) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215651/http://articles.sun\-sentinel.com/1986\-10\-17/features/8603030255\_1\_jewish\-music\-michael\-isaacson\-composers \|date\=2016\-03\-03 }}, *[Sun\-Sentinel](/wiki/Sun-Sentinel "Sun-Sentinel")*, October 17, 1986\. His setting of "Bayom Hahu" was used as "a strong representation of Jewish\-sounding music" in the 1999 film *[Liberty Heights](/wiki/Liberty_Heights "Liberty Heights")* (anachronistically, since the film is set in the 1950s).Judah M. Cohen, "Exploring the Postmodern Landscape of Jewish Music", in Vincent Brook, ed., *You Should See Yourself: Jewish Identity in Postmodern American Culture* ([Rutgers University Press](/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press "Rutgers University Press"), 2006\), {{ISBN\|978\-0813538457}}, p. 116 n.23\. [Excerpts available](https://books.google.com/books?id=6txLUzGQ9eYC&dq=michael+isaacson+%22bayom+hahu%22+%22liberty+heights%22&pg=PA116) at [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books "Google Books"). In 1990, Isaacson was the first artistic director of what is now called the [Milken Archive of American Jewish Music](/wiki/Milken_Archive_of_American_Jewish_Music "Milken Archive of American Jewish Music").["Michael Isaacson"](http://www.milkenarchive.org/people/view/all/543/Isaacson,+Michael), [Milken Archive of American Jewish Music](/wiki/Milken_Archive_of_American_Jewish_Music "Milken Archive of American Jewish Music") (accessed 2013\-08\-28\).
He has conducted and produced more than fifty CDs of symphonic, chamber, and choral music, including all the permanent exhibit symphonic music for New York City's [Museum of Jewish Heritage](/wiki/Museum_of_Jewish_Heritage "Museum of Jewish Heritage"). He conducted a recording of it entitled "Heritage" with the [Israel Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Israel_Philharmonic_Orchestra "Israel Philharmonic Orchestra") in Tel Aviv and has subsequently conducted 15 CDs of Jewish music with the IPO and its chamber music group the [Israel String Quartet](/wiki/Israel_String_Quartet "Israel String Quartet"). {{Citation needed\|date\=September 2024}}
He was co\-commissioned by forty\-three North American Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist Jewish congregations to compose and produce a Sabbath evening service entitled "L'maaseih V'reisheet \- To Recreate the World" with standardized pre\-recorded accompaniment tracks and synthesis and instrumentation (EWIs and EBIs). The work simultaneously premiered on Shabbat Shirah, the Sabbath of Song in January 2001; making it the largest co\-commission of synagogue music in history. Much of his sacred music incorporates both Hebrew and English in the text. His choral arrangements of Yiddish, Ladino, and Israeli music comprise The Michael Isaacson Folk Music Series at Transcontinental Music Publications. {{Citation needed\|date\=September 2024}}
The three\-volume Michael Isaacson Songbook, published by Transcontinental Music Publications, includes 160 of his musical compositions for solo and unison voices accompanied by keyboard. He composed a three\-movement chamber work is for clarinet and string quartet entitled "The Shul In My Right Mind".
Isaacson is also the author of the 2007 book "*Jewish Music as Midrash: What Makes Music Jewish?"*, accompanied by a double CD of his musical examples. The spoken version by Dr. Isaacson is available from Oysongs.comJill Timmons, ["Michael Isaacson explores the Jewish in Jewish music"](http://www.jewishreview.org/Michael-Isaacson-explores-the-Jewish-in-Jewish-music) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110125122/http://www.jewishreview.org/Michael\-Isaacson\-explores\-the\-Jewish\-in\-Jewish\-music \|date\=2012\-01\-10 }}, *[Jewish Review](/wiki/Jewish_Review "Jewish Review")* (accessed 2013\-08\-28\).
Isaacson was one of the ten composers who were the subject of a 2006 multimedia exhibition called "A Living Legacy: American Jewish Liturgical Composers of the 20th Century" at the [Hebrew Union College\-Jewish Institute of Religion](/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College-Jewish_Institute_of_Religion "Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion") Museum in New York.["A Living Legacy: American Jewish Liturgical Composers of the 20th Century"](http://huc.edu/newspubs/pressroom/2006/12/legacy.shtml) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127062439/http://huc.edu/newspubs/pressroom/2006/12/legacy.shtml\|date\=2011\-01\-27}}, [Hebrew Union College\-Jewish Institute of Religion](/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College-Jewish_Institute_of_Religion "Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion") Museum, December 2006\.
In 2017, he was awarded *Honoris causa* a Doctor of Humane Letters from Hebrew Union College. [https://www.esm.rochester.edu/sibley/files/Michael\-Isaacson\-Collection\-1\.pdf](https://www.esm.rochester.edu/sibley/files/Michael-Isaacson-Collection-1.pdf)
Though he is known primarily for his work in music for the Jewish life cycle and worship, Isaacson has also produced over 100 chamber works for double reed instruments published by Trevco Music and works for flute and piccolo from ALRY Music. His "The Fearless Whistler" and "November Song" for piccolo have expanded the instrument's image.
The Michael Isaacson Archive – containing his publications, manuscripts, and papers – is held at the Sibley Music Library, [Eastman School of Music](/wiki/Eastman_School_of_Music "Eastman School of Music") in Rochester, New York.["Michael Isaacson Collection"](https://www.esm.rochester.edu/sibley/files/Michael-Isaacson-Collection-1.pdf,), Sibley Music Library, Eastman School of Music (accessed 2020\-05\-01\).
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"He received his MA in Composition from [Brooklyn College](/wiki/Brooklyn_College \"Brooklyn College\"), where he studied composition with Robert Starer. He also holds a PhD in Composition from the Eastman School of Music, where he studied under [Warren Benson](/wiki/Warren_Benson \"Warren Benson\") and [Samuel Adler](/wiki/Samuel_Adler_%28composer%29 \"Samuel Adler (composer)\"). After moving to [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles%2C_California \"Los Angeles, California\") in 1976 to compose and arrange for television and film, he was commissioned by several local congregations to produce the synagogue works, 'Sim Shalom' from the Regeneration album, and 'Bayom Hahu' from the Nishmat Chayim Shabbat service. His work in conjunction with Cantor Nathan Lam of [Stephen S. Wise Temple](/wiki/Stephen_S._Wise_Temple \"Stephen S. Wise Temple\") was recorded on several albums, including the 1986 album *Legacy*, described by one reviewer as \"startling\".Richard S. Ginell, [\"Jewish Prayer Music Gets A Modern, Upbeat \\`Legacy\"](http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1986-10-17/features/8603030255_1_jewish-music-michael-isaacson-composers) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303215651/http://articles.sun\\-sentinel.com/1986\\-10\\-17/features/8603030255\\_1\\_jewish\\-music\\-michael\\-isaacson\\-composers \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-03 }}, *[Sun\\-Sentinel](/wiki/Sun-Sentinel \"Sun-Sentinel\")*, October 17, 1986\\. His setting of \"Bayom Hahu\" was used as \"a strong representation of Jewish\\-sounding music\" in the 1999 film *[Liberty Heights](/wiki/Liberty_Heights \"Liberty Heights\")* (anachronistically, since the film is set in the 1950s).Judah M. Cohen, \"Exploring the Postmodern Landscape of Jewish Music\", in Vincent Brook, ed., *You Should See Yourself: Jewish Identity in Postmodern American Culture* ([Rutgers University Press](/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press \"Rutgers University Press\"), 2006\\), {{ISBN\\|978\\-0813538457}}, p. 116 n.23\\. [Excerpts available](https://books.google.com/books?id=6txLUzGQ9eYC&dq=michael+isaacson+%22bayom+hahu%22+%22liberty+heights%22&pg=PA116) at [Google Books](/wiki/Google_Books \"Google Books\"). In 1990, Isaacson was the first artistic director of what is now called the [Milken Archive of American Jewish Music](/wiki/Milken_Archive_of_American_Jewish_Music \"Milken Archive of American Jewish Music\").[\"Michael Isaacson\"](http://www.milkenarchive.org/people/view/all/543/Isaacson,+Michael), [Milken Archive of American Jewish Music](/wiki/Milken_Archive_of_American_Jewish_Music \"Milken Archive of American Jewish Music\") (accessed 2013\\-08\\-28\\).",
"He has conducted and produced more than fifty CDs of symphonic, chamber, and choral music, including all the permanent exhibit symphonic music for New York City's [Museum of Jewish Heritage](/wiki/Museum_of_Jewish_Heritage \"Museum of Jewish Heritage\"). He conducted a recording of it entitled \"Heritage\" with the [Israel Philharmonic Orchestra](/wiki/Israel_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"Israel Philharmonic Orchestra\") in Tel Aviv and has subsequently conducted 15 CDs of Jewish music with the IPO and its chamber music group the [Israel String Quartet](/wiki/Israel_String_Quartet \"Israel String Quartet\"). {{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2024}}",
"He was co\\-commissioned by forty\\-three North American Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist Jewish congregations to compose and produce a Sabbath evening service entitled \"L'maaseih V'reisheet \\- To Recreate the World\" with standardized pre\\-recorded accompaniment tracks and synthesis and instrumentation (EWIs and EBIs). The work simultaneously premiered on Shabbat Shirah, the Sabbath of Song in January 2001; making it the largest co\\-commission of synagogue music in history. Much of his sacred music incorporates both Hebrew and English in the text. His choral arrangements of Yiddish, Ladino, and Israeli music comprise The Michael Isaacson Folk Music Series at Transcontinental Music Publications. {{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2024}}",
"The three\\-volume Michael Isaacson Songbook, published by Transcontinental Music Publications, includes 160 of his musical compositions for solo and unison voices accompanied by keyboard. He composed a three\\-movement chamber work is for clarinet and string quartet entitled \"The Shul In My Right Mind\".",
"Isaacson is also the author of the 2007 book \"*Jewish Music as Midrash: What Makes Music Jewish?\"*, accompanied by a double CD of his musical examples. The spoken version by Dr. Isaacson is available from Oysongs.comJill Timmons, [\"Michael Isaacson explores the Jewish in Jewish music\"](http://www.jewishreview.org/Michael-Isaacson-explores-the-Jewish-in-Jewish-music) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110125122/http://www.jewishreview.org/Michael\\-Isaacson\\-explores\\-the\\-Jewish\\-in\\-Jewish\\-music \\|date\\=2012\\-01\\-10 }}, *[Jewish Review](/wiki/Jewish_Review \"Jewish Review\")* (accessed 2013\\-08\\-28\\).",
"Isaacson was one of the ten composers who were the subject of a 2006 multimedia exhibition called \"A Living Legacy: American Jewish Liturgical Composers of the 20th Century\" at the [Hebrew Union College\\-Jewish Institute of Religion](/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College-Jewish_Institute_of_Religion \"Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion\") Museum in New York.[\"A Living Legacy: American Jewish Liturgical Composers of the 20th Century\"](http://huc.edu/newspubs/pressroom/2006/12/legacy.shtml) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110127062439/http://huc.edu/newspubs/pressroom/2006/12/legacy.shtml\\|date\\=2011\\-01\\-27}}, [Hebrew Union College\\-Jewish Institute of Religion](/wiki/Hebrew_Union_College-Jewish_Institute_of_Religion \"Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion\") Museum, December 2006\\.",
"In 2017, he was awarded *Honoris causa* a Doctor of Humane Letters from Hebrew Union College. [https://www.esm.rochester.edu/sibley/files/Michael\\-Isaacson\\-Collection\\-1\\.pdf](https://www.esm.rochester.edu/sibley/files/Michael-Isaacson-Collection-1.pdf)",
"Though he is known primarily for his work in music for the Jewish life cycle and worship, Isaacson has also produced over 100 chamber works for double reed instruments published by Trevco Music and works for flute and piccolo from ALRY Music. His \"The Fearless Whistler\" and \"November Song\" for piccolo have expanded the instrument's image.",
"The Michael Isaacson Archive – containing his publications, manuscripts, and papers – is held at the Sibley Music Library, [Eastman School of Music](/wiki/Eastman_School_of_Music \"Eastman School of Music\") in Rochester, New York.[\"Michael Isaacson Collection\"](https://www.esm.rochester.edu/sibley/files/Michael-Isaacson-Collection-1.pdf,), Sibley Music Library, Eastman School of Music (accessed 2020\\-05\\-01\\).",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Konstantin Konstantinovich Vakulovsky was a [major general](/wiki/Major_general "Major general")'s son, born on 28 October 1894 in [Dagestan](/wiki/Dagestan "Dagestan").Kulikov 2013, pp. 88\-90\. When young, he served in the [Vladikavkaz](/wiki/Vladikavkaz "Vladikavkaz") Cadet Corps. However, he was schooled in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg") at the [Military Engineering\-Technical University](/wiki/Military_Engineering-Technical_University "Military Engineering-Technical University"), graduating on 2 August 1914\. Beginning 8 August 1914, he served as an [aerial observer](/wiki/Aerial_observer "Aerial observer") with the air detachment at the [Novogeorgievsk](/wiki/Novogeorgievsk "Novogeorgievsk") Fortress. While doing so, he enrolled in basic aviation courses and taught himself to fly.Durkota 1995, pp. 131\-133\. After flying 50 training flights without an instructor, he passed his graduation flight with distinction. On 13 June 1915, he was appointed a military pilot by the Supreme Commander in Chief of the [Imperial Russian Army](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army "Imperial Russian Army").
On 20 August 1915, the [Novogeorgievsk Fortress fell](/wiki/Siege_of_Novogeorgievsk "Siege of Novogeorgievsk") to the invading Germans. Vakulovsky departed the siege in a hazardous low level flight through ground fire and foul foggy weather. After five hours flying, he reached friendly forces with news of the fortress' fall, and with the battle standards of the fort. The feat earned the gallant pilot the [Order of Saint George](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_George "Order of Saint George") Fourth Class.
Vakulovsky and the other surviving pilots from the fallen fort were formed into the 33rd Corps Detachment of the [Imperial Russian Air Service](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Air_Service "Imperial Russian Air Service") on 29 October 1915\. They flew [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance "Reconnaissance") missions throughout the winter of 1915/1916\. On 18 February 1916, Vakulovsky flew an [aerial photography](/wiki/Aerial_photography "Aerial photography") mission over Bushof through heavy anti\-aircraft fire. On 10 April 1916, by order of the czar, he was granted the [Gold Sword for Bravery](/wiki/Gold_Sword_for_Bravery "Gold Sword for Bravery"); the citation took special notice of the Bushof [sortie](/wiki/Sortie "Sortie").
On 16 July 1916, Vakulovsky was promoted to *[Poruchik](/wiki/Poruchik "Poruchik")*. Within the week, he was given command of the nascent First Fighter Detachment, on the recommendation of [Grand Duke Alexander](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Alexander_Mikhailovich_of_Russia "Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia").
Vakulovsky scored his first aerial victory on 7 September 1916\. On the 19th, he was so severely stunned by the blast of an antiaircraft shell over Postav that he was sidelined for some weeks. He returned to duty 25 October 1916, and scored his second victory three days afterward. He came under fire immediately after that, his craft suffering a shattered propeller and splintered frame. On 28 October, he flew four sorties; on the last one, he scored a victory, but crashlanded afterwards at his own airfield.
Vakulovsky recorded no more victories for some months, but continued to fly combat. He was promoted to *[Stabskapitän](/wiki/Stabskapit%C3%A4n "Stabskapitän")* on 12 April 1917; two days later, he scored his third victory. On 12 May 1917, he participated on a raid on an enemy [aerodrome](/wiki/Aerodrome "Aerodrome") at [Kabilnichachby](/wiki/Kabilnichachby "Kabilnichachby") and claimed a victory that went unconfirmed. His reconnaissance patrols also had its hazards; on 13 June 1917, for instance, he flew an aerial photography mission over the enemy's third line trenches over [Baldohn](/wiki/Baldohn "Baldohn") at 500 meters. Antiaircraft fire set his plane afire, and he glided to a flaming landing on Dalen Island under artillery fire. Although scorched, wounded, and shocked, he escaped the wreckage.
Vakulovsky scored his next victory on 21 August 1917\. He would have another pair of victories accredited to him on 1 September 1917\. On that day, he fought on 16 separate occasions. The following month, a few [Sopwith Triplanes](/wiki/Sopwith_Triplane "Sopwith Triplane") were delivered to the First Air Division, and he requested one of them for his personal craft.
Konstantin Konstantinovich Vakulovsky died in a flying accident in the summer of 1918\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Konstantin Konstantinovich Vakulovsky was a [major general](/wiki/Major_general \"Major general\")'s son, born on 28 October 1894 in [Dagestan](/wiki/Dagestan \"Dagestan\").Kulikov 2013, pp. 88\\-90\\. When young, he served in the [Vladikavkaz](/wiki/Vladikavkaz \"Vladikavkaz\") Cadet Corps. However, he was schooled in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\") at the [Military Engineering\\-Technical University](/wiki/Military_Engineering-Technical_University \"Military Engineering-Technical University\"), graduating on 2 August 1914\\. Beginning 8 August 1914, he served as an [aerial observer](/wiki/Aerial_observer \"Aerial observer\") with the air detachment at the [Novogeorgievsk](/wiki/Novogeorgievsk \"Novogeorgievsk\") Fortress. While doing so, he enrolled in basic aviation courses and taught himself to fly.Durkota 1995, pp. 131\\-133\\. After flying 50 training flights without an instructor, he passed his graduation flight with distinction. On 13 June 1915, he was appointed a military pilot by the Supreme Commander in Chief of the [Imperial Russian Army](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army \"Imperial Russian Army\").",
"On 20 August 1915, the [Novogeorgievsk Fortress fell](/wiki/Siege_of_Novogeorgievsk \"Siege of Novogeorgievsk\") to the invading Germans. Vakulovsky departed the siege in a hazardous low level flight through ground fire and foul foggy weather. After five hours flying, he reached friendly forces with news of the fortress' fall, and with the battle standards of the fort. The feat earned the gallant pilot the [Order of Saint George](/wiki/Order_of_Saint_George \"Order of Saint George\") Fourth Class.",
"Vakulovsky and the other surviving pilots from the fallen fort were formed into the 33rd Corps Detachment of the [Imperial Russian Air Service](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Air_Service \"Imperial Russian Air Service\") on 29 October 1915\\. They flew [reconnaissance](/wiki/Reconnaissance \"Reconnaissance\") missions throughout the winter of 1915/1916\\. On 18 February 1916, Vakulovsky flew an [aerial photography](/wiki/Aerial_photography \"Aerial photography\") mission over Bushof through heavy anti\\-aircraft fire. On 10 April 1916, by order of the czar, he was granted the [Gold Sword for Bravery](/wiki/Gold_Sword_for_Bravery \"Gold Sword for Bravery\"); the citation took special notice of the Bushof [sortie](/wiki/Sortie \"Sortie\").",
"On 16 July 1916, Vakulovsky was promoted to *[Poruchik](/wiki/Poruchik \"Poruchik\")*. Within the week, he was given command of the nascent First Fighter Detachment, on the recommendation of [Grand Duke Alexander](/wiki/Grand_Duke_Alexander_Mikhailovich_of_Russia \"Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia\").",
"Vakulovsky scored his first aerial victory on 7 September 1916\\. On the 19th, he was so severely stunned by the blast of an antiaircraft shell over Postav that he was sidelined for some weeks. He returned to duty 25 October 1916, and scored his second victory three days afterward. He came under fire immediately after that, his craft suffering a shattered propeller and splintered frame. On 28 October, he flew four sorties; on the last one, he scored a victory, but crashlanded afterwards at his own airfield.",
"Vakulovsky recorded no more victories for some months, but continued to fly combat. He was promoted to *[Stabskapitän](/wiki/Stabskapit%C3%A4n \"Stabskapitän\")* on 12 April 1917; two days later, he scored his third victory. On 12 May 1917, he participated on a raid on an enemy [aerodrome](/wiki/Aerodrome \"Aerodrome\") at [Kabilnichachby](/wiki/Kabilnichachby \"Kabilnichachby\") and claimed a victory that went unconfirmed. His reconnaissance patrols also had its hazards; on 13 June 1917, for instance, he flew an aerial photography mission over the enemy's third line trenches over [Baldohn](/wiki/Baldohn \"Baldohn\") at 500 meters. Antiaircraft fire set his plane afire, and he glided to a flaming landing on Dalen Island under artillery fire. Although scorched, wounded, and shocked, he escaped the wreckage.",
"Vakulovsky scored his next victory on 21 August 1917\\. He would have another pair of victories accredited to him on 1 September 1917\\. On that day, he fought on 16 separate occasions. The following month, a few [Sopwith Triplanes](/wiki/Sopwith_Triplane \"Sopwith Triplane\") were delivered to the First Air Division, and he requested one of them for his personal craft.",
"Konstantin Konstantinovich Vakulovsky died in a flying accident in the summer of 1918\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
At a St. Louis opera house in 1860, a singer in blackface named Jerry Barton, known as "King of the Minstrels", comes backstage and asks his sweetheart, Lettie Morgan ([Ann Rutherford](/wiki/Ann_Rutherford "Ann Rutherford")), to elope. Lettie's Aunt Hortense, fearing that Barton is a fortune hunter, tells Lettie she is not the heiress she thought she was and that she has been living off her aunt's charity. With no fortune to hunt, Barton informs Lettie that an artist cannot be burdened with the responsibility of a wife.
Outside the opera house, Lettie meets a chorus girl named Honey (Barbara Pepper), who is preparing to leave with her theatrical troupe in a caravan heading West. When the troupe's producer mistakes Lettie for the star, she joins the group as "Mary Varden". The troupe's wagon train is escorted by Captain Tex Autry ([Gene Autry](/wiki/Gene_Autry "Gene Autry")) of the U.S. Cavalry and his singing plainsmen. The troupe misses the wagon train, however, and must travel alone.
On their way to San Francisco, the caravan is ambushed by a gang of thieves. Tex and his men arrive on the scene and following a gunfight, the gang is chased off. After Tex saves Lettie from a runaway wagon, he comments on the foolishness of risking his men's lives for a bunch of "crazy showgirls". Angered by his insolence, Lettie decides to walk rather than ride with Tex. Eventually she gets tired and asks Tex if she can ride with him. The troupe arrives safely at Fort Henry, which is run by Colonel Seward (Frank LaRue).
An Indian named Young Deer warns Tex that Chief White Eagle is preparing to attack the army. When horses are stolen from the fort by a renegade named Buck LaCrosse (Warner Richmond), Tex saves the horses. Utah Joe (Allan Sears), who is in league with Chief White Eagle, falsely accuses Tex of complicity with the Indians, and Tex is soon arrested for treason. Aunt Hortense arrives with Judge Forsythe Lane (Niles Welch), who hopes to marry Lettie and use her money to run for president. Aunt Hortense encourages her to marry Lane. Lettie appeals to Lane on Tex's behalf, hinting that she will marry him if he will save Tex. As the wagon train prepares to leave, Lettie sadly says goodbye to Tex, and Lane promises to join Lettie after the trial. However, Lane double\-crosses Lettie and helps to secure Tex's conviction.
Following his conviction and death sentence, Tex escapes with the help of his friends. Suspicious that Utah Joe has promised to supply Chief White Eagle with ammunition, Tex orders his friend Frog ([Smiley Burnette](/wiki/Smiley_Burnette "Smiley Burnette")) to join the wagon train to spy on Utah Joe. While the caravan camps, Frog tells Lettie that Lane encouraged Tex's conviction. Honey, who has fallen in love with Frog, tells Lettie that Lane was probably jealous of Lettie's feelings for Tex, but Lettie denies loving the soldier. When Utah Joe announces plans to take a new route through Kern Valley, Frog warns that the valley is filled with renegades and unfriendly Indians.
Later that night Tex arrives and overhears Utah Joe direct Chief White Eagle to the wagons stocked with gunpowder. Tex pulls his gun on them, and a fight ensues, during which LaCrosse arrives on the scene. As Frog and Tex try to fight off the renegades, the soldiers ride up. Chief White Eagle is shot during the scuffle, but Utah Joe escapes. LaCrosse is arrested and, under the threat of a firing squad, confesses that Utah Joe instigated the horse stealing at the fort, while he let loose the clever black stallion who opened the corral gate. LaCrosse also warns the caravan that Utah Joe is leading them into an ambush.
As the caravan prepares to leave, Utah Joe, now dressed as an Indian, sends a smoke signal, and the Indians approach. Frog is grazed by a bullet and inadvertently becomes attached to the underside of the runaway powder wagon. Tex manages to save him, and igniting the wagon, sends it into a throng of Indians. The Indians retreat once the plainsmen arrive, and as the wagon train departs, Tex and Lettie kiss, with Honey nursing Frog behind the embracing couple.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"At a St. Louis opera house in 1860, a singer in blackface named Jerry Barton, known as \"King of the Minstrels\", comes backstage and asks his sweetheart, Lettie Morgan ([Ann Rutherford](/wiki/Ann_Rutherford \"Ann Rutherford\")), to elope. Lettie's Aunt Hortense, fearing that Barton is a fortune hunter, tells Lettie she is not the heiress she thought she was and that she has been living off her aunt's charity. With no fortune to hunt, Barton informs Lettie that an artist cannot be burdened with the responsibility of a wife.",
"Outside the opera house, Lettie meets a chorus girl named Honey (Barbara Pepper), who is preparing to leave with her theatrical troupe in a caravan heading West. When the troupe's producer mistakes Lettie for the star, she joins the group as \"Mary Varden\". The troupe's wagon train is escorted by Captain Tex Autry ([Gene Autry](/wiki/Gene_Autry \"Gene Autry\")) of the U.S. Cavalry and his singing plainsmen. The troupe misses the wagon train, however, and must travel alone.",
"On their way to San Francisco, the caravan is ambushed by a gang of thieves. Tex and his men arrive on the scene and following a gunfight, the gang is chased off. After Tex saves Lettie from a runaway wagon, he comments on the foolishness of risking his men's lives for a bunch of \"crazy showgirls\". Angered by his insolence, Lettie decides to walk rather than ride with Tex. Eventually she gets tired and asks Tex if she can ride with him. The troupe arrives safely at Fort Henry, which is run by Colonel Seward (Frank LaRue).",
"An Indian named Young Deer warns Tex that Chief White Eagle is preparing to attack the army. When horses are stolen from the fort by a renegade named Buck LaCrosse (Warner Richmond), Tex saves the horses. Utah Joe (Allan Sears), who is in league with Chief White Eagle, falsely accuses Tex of complicity with the Indians, and Tex is soon arrested for treason. Aunt Hortense arrives with Judge Forsythe Lane (Niles Welch), who hopes to marry Lettie and use her money to run for president. Aunt Hortense encourages her to marry Lane. Lettie appeals to Lane on Tex's behalf, hinting that she will marry him if he will save Tex. As the wagon train prepares to leave, Lettie sadly says goodbye to Tex, and Lane promises to join Lettie after the trial. However, Lane double\\-crosses Lettie and helps to secure Tex's conviction.",
"Following his conviction and death sentence, Tex escapes with the help of his friends. Suspicious that Utah Joe has promised to supply Chief White Eagle with ammunition, Tex orders his friend Frog ([Smiley Burnette](/wiki/Smiley_Burnette \"Smiley Burnette\")) to join the wagon train to spy on Utah Joe. While the caravan camps, Frog tells Lettie that Lane encouraged Tex's conviction. Honey, who has fallen in love with Frog, tells Lettie that Lane was probably jealous of Lettie's feelings for Tex, but Lettie denies loving the soldier. When Utah Joe announces plans to take a new route through Kern Valley, Frog warns that the valley is filled with renegades and unfriendly Indians.",
"Later that night Tex arrives and overhears Utah Joe direct Chief White Eagle to the wagons stocked with gunpowder. Tex pulls his gun on them, and a fight ensues, during which LaCrosse arrives on the scene. As Frog and Tex try to fight off the renegades, the soldiers ride up. Chief White Eagle is shot during the scuffle, but Utah Joe escapes. LaCrosse is arrested and, under the threat of a firing squad, confesses that Utah Joe instigated the horse stealing at the fort, while he let loose the clever black stallion who opened the corral gate. LaCrosse also warns the caravan that Utah Joe is leading them into an ambush.",
"As the caravan prepares to leave, Utah Joe, now dressed as an Indian, sends a smoke signal, and the Indians approach. Frog is grazed by a bullet and inadvertently becomes attached to the underside of the runaway powder wagon. Tex manages to save him, and igniting the wagon, sends it into a throng of Indians. The Indians retreat once the plainsmen arrive, and as the wagon train departs, Tex and Lettie kiss, with Honey nursing Frog behind the embracing couple.",
""
] |
Mission to England
------------------
Between 1837 and 1840, Fielding was called to serve as part of the first Latter Day Saint mission to England. In June, he accompanied apostles [Heber C. Kimball](/wiki/Heber_C._Kimball "Heber C. Kimball") and [Orson Hyde](/wiki/Orson_Hyde "Orson Hyde"), along with four other missionaries on board 'The Garrick', across the Atlantic from New York to Liverpool, where they landed on 19 July 1837\. Fielding was ordained both an [elder](/wiki/Elder_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 "Elder (Latter Day Saints)") and a [high priest](/wiki/High_priest_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 "High priest (Latter Day Saints)") while in England.[Biography](http://josephsmithpapers.org/person?name=Joseph+Fielding) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105124207/http://josephsmithpapers.org/person?name\=Joseph\+Fielding \|date\=2012\-01\-05 }} of Joseph Fielding, The Joseph Smith Papers (accessed December 28, 2011\) He later served as President of the British Mission, when the remaining missionaries other than Willard Richards returned to America in April 1838\.
The importance of the Fieldings in the growth of the Latter Day Saints in England lay not just in the diligent missionary service of Joseph Fielding. The early success of this first mission was due largely to the willingness of Joseph's brother, James Fielding, to open his pulpit to the missionaries. Missionary work also began in Bedfordshire because of the Fielding family connection. In August 1837, Richards and Goodson travelled to Bedford and their first action on arriving in Bedford was to contact Matthews, who invited them to preach in his chapel. Later missionary efforts also took advantage of Fielding family connections. During the second apostolic mission of 1840, when John Taylor and Joseph Fielding took the gospel to Liverpool in January 1840, it was yet again the Fielding family connection which opened the door. Matthews had established a congregation on Hope Street, Liverpool, adapting principles of the Latter Day Saint gospel to suit his own purposes. Although they were refused permission to preach in the Hope Street chapel, it was there that they found their first convert.'The Pick \& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001\. Joseph Fielding had high hopes that his brother and other members of his family remaining in England would join the Church and spent much of the voyage praying to that end. However, he was to be sadly disappointed.
The decision of the missionaries to go first to Preston, Lancashire, was because Joseph and his friend John Taylor had written about this new, restored gospel to James Fielding. James had read those letters to his congregation at the Vauxhall Road Chapel, but kept back the parts that talked about baptism, as his non\-conformist congregation, known in Preston as Semi\-episcopalians, did not practice baptism. He was aware that the missionaries were coming to England and eagerly awaited their arrival in Preston. According to Joseph his brother had, "raised their expectations very high."Diary of Heber C. Kimball
In this way, James laid much of the ground work for the conversion of his members to the Mormon faith when they were invited by him to preach in his chapel, which they did for the first time on Sunday 23 July 1837, speaking at two services and again during the week. When the missionaries preached, many came forward desiring to be baptised. Learning of the proposed baptisms, and foreseeing correctly that he was going to lose his flock, James visited Apostle Heber C. Kimball, the mission leader, the night before, forbidding him from doing so. Elder Kimball simply replied that God was no respecter of persons and he would proceed with the baptisms.. Those first baptisms east of the Atlantic took place the following Sunday, 30 July 1837, in the River Ribble near the Old Tram Bridge, in what is now Avenham Park, Preston. The nine baptised were all from James Fielding's congregation.'The Pick \& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001\.
His brother did not take kindly to losing his flock, most of whom would join the Church, despite a late attempt to have Robert Aitken (an English priest and preacher) offer baptism to his congregation. By 21 September 1837, Heber C. Kimball was able to note of James Fielding that, "His church has left him and he is an object of pity." James was made something of a laughing stock in Preston, and referred to his brother as a 'sheep stealer.'; James later published pamphlets attacking the Church. But more lay behind his bitterness than just the loss of his congregation. At the date of the missionaries' arrival James was doing so well that his congregation had outgrown the 500 seat Vauxhall Chapel, and he had contracted to build a new, larger chapel a few streets away on Avenham Lane, which opened in January 1838 as the Primitive Episcopalian Church. It had cost £1,500 to build and the builders and contractors were pressing for payment of their bills. Without much of a congregation and therefore unable to meet the demands, James was compelled to sell the building. Ever anxious to eliminate 'dissenting' congregations, and in genuine need of more Church of England places of worship to accommodate Preston's growing population, Roger Carus Wilson, Vicar of Preston, bought the newly built chapel in April 1838 at the much reduced price of £1,000\.‘Our Churches and Chapels,’ A Hewitson, (1872\) and ‘History of Preston in Amounderness,’ H W Clemsha, (1912\). The chapel was dedicated to St James and consecrated as a Church of England place of worship on 9 June 1841\. The whole affair was of considerable embarrassment to James. By the beginning of January 1838, he became seriously ill. Many in Preston blamed Joseph, saying that he had broken his brother's heart by stealing his congregation. James eventually recovered his health but not his congregation. Joseph Fielding recorded that his brother finally left his church in March 1839\. However, according to his own statement, James continued to preach elsewhere in the Preston area for a further 13 years.'The Pick \& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001\.
Joseph was described as a good and kindly man, anxious to serve the Lord faithfully, but he felt less worthy and successful than some of his missionary companions, particularly Elders Hyde and Kimball, and struggled with his own missionary service. He was saddened by his brother's eventual rejection of the Latter\-day Saint gospel and confided to his diary that he felt, "rather lonely." His missionary companions Heber C Kimball and Orson Hyde were busy with their individual evangelism; both were experiencing great success but each tended to work alone. For often weeks at a time Joseph Fielding was left very much to his own labours in Preston. Elder Kimball, perhaps in keeping with his frontier background, felt more comfortable in spending most of his time in the country areas outside of Preston. Joseph greatly admired Elders Kimball and Hyde and felt highly favoured in having their companionship. Hyde, an eloquent speaker, he saw as very faithful and diligent, with great power in preaching; so much so that other preachers did not dare come against him. He was said to be making Methodist preachers scarce, having baptised some thirteen of them. Joseph wrote in his diary that Hyde's preaching was "very engaging and has attracted many hearers." To Joseph, Elder Kimball was a spiritual giant: "I like brother K's company, but he is so far before me that it casts me down, and I have grieved the Spirit of God by murmuring when I ought to have rejoiced and been thankful." Kimball and Hyde, it seemed to Joseph, worked in perfect unison, being on the same spiritual plane.
Despite the rapid growth in converts, Joseph Fielding was frequently disappointed with his own performance and sense of weakness. He felt that the Lord would never make much of him, yet was determined to keep him humble. At other times, however, his diligent service resulted in feelings that he was blessed with both an increase in faith and an enlargement of the mind, "it is evident that I am most pleasing to the Lord when I am most engaged in the work," he confided to his diary.'The Pick \& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001\.
Sometimes, Joseph Fielding found himself unfavourably compared to Heber C Kimball. On a fortnight's preaching in the country in mid\-October 1837, he observed that "as I was following Elder Kimball, people would rather have seen him, yet they were mostly kind." Still struggling with his personal trials in January 1838, Joseph wrote that he had laboured much, "but I seemed as nothing in my own eyes and but little in some of the people's eyes. One, not a brother, said if they had had Mr Kimball before they would have had a better congregation and more members.".'The Pick \& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001\.
By April 1838, over 1,600 had been baptized, and organized into more than twenty branches throughout the country.
Between 1838 and 1840, Fielding was left in charge of the mission when Kimball and Hyde returned to America in the spring of 1838\. He acted as [Mission President](/wiki/Mission_President "Mission President") for the church, with [Willard Richards](/wiki/Willard_Richards "Willard Richards") as his first counselor and recent British convert [William Clayton](/wiki/William_Clayton_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 "William Clayton (Latter Day Saints)") as his second counselor. Fielding married a newly baptized church member, [Hannah Greenwood](/wiki/Hannah_Greenwood_Fielding_%28Latter_Day_Saint%29 "Hannah Greenwood Fielding (Latter Day Saint)"), on June 11, 1838\. Willard Richards was a witness to his marriage and Joseph was a witness to Willard's marriage to Jenetta Richards. Joseph and Hannah had six children, two of them born in Preston: Rachel on 27 June 1839, and Ellen on 2 September 1841\.
Fielding was released as mission president when [Brigham Young](/wiki/Brigham_Young "Brigham Young") and other [apostles](/wiki/Apostle_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 "Apostle (Latter Day Saints)") arrived in England in 1840, but continued to serve as a missionary until September 1841\. He and his wife and their two children left Liverpool for the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") on 21 September 1841, on board the 'Tyrian', bound for [Nauvoo, Illinois](/wiki/Nauvoo%2C_Illinois "Nauvoo, Illinois") via New Orleans, with Joseph leading the company of 207 saints. Hundreds of members came to see them off and the company was presented with gifts for the building of the Nauvoo Temple. The ship slipped anchor and those on board sang, 'How firm a foundation, ye saints of the Lord,' as hats and handkerchiefs were waved in fond farewell. The last words heard were 'When through the deep waters I call thee to go, / The rivers of sorrow shall not thee o'erflow.' "Soon all was a dim speck upon the ocean; recorded Parley P Pratt, "a few moments more and they were vanished from view on the wide expanse and lost in the distance. May God speed them onward in their course, and land them safe in their destined port." The voyage was not without difficulty and a few scares. The ship took on water and some thought they would be drowned. To assist in distributing the food ration, Joseph enlisted the help of non\-member passenger Richard Bentley, who said that Joseph was "a kind good man, and treated me kindly."
In New Orleans, the company "took one of the best steamboats (the "General Pratt"), and for 11 shillings English each, and luggage, sailed to St. Louis, 800 or 1000 miles. "The country is seldom much above the river. There are many slave settlements; these often reminded us of the factory lords in England, in their mansions surrounded with cottages occupied by the poor oppressed laborer: it is much the same with the slaves and their masters, but the slaves pay no rent… It is a truly interesting scene to pass up this river; we often thought of the crowded population of England, who cannot get a foot of land in all their lifetime, and here we travel many hundred miles and see little but forests and no one to occupy it, and the best of land."
Joseph recorded the remarkable sight as he approached Nauvoo for the first time: "When we came within two miles of our journey's end, we began to see the effects of that industry for which the Saints are so remarkable: fences of rails and of pickets, houses and gardens on the edge of the prairie, such as we had not before seen. This said Brother \[Lorenzo] Young, is Nauvoo, but we had two miles to go yet, so extensive had this settlement of the Saints become in so short a time! We soon passed the sacred place and foundation of the temple. The arches of the vault windows were not all finished. The sight of this though by the light of the moon only gave me peculiar feelings. The idea that it was done at the special command of the Almighty was a new thing in this age. It seemed to fill the mind with solemnity and to give a sacredness to the whole place."Manuscript Journal of Joseph Fielding as quoted in 'The Pick \& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001
Joseph found his sister Mercy now a widow. The house her late husband Robert Thompson had commenced for Joseph and his family had been left unfinished. Joseph was ill and unable to work much. Eventually, he began to labour for his brother\-in\-law Hyrum Smith, who allowed him some land to farm on shares. Unexpectedly, Joseph and Hannah received a substantial loan of money from her brother in England, George Greenwood. This enabled them to purchase some 20 acres of land on the prairie about two miles from the Temple site and by 1843, they had built a home. That summer, their son Heber was born. A fourth child, Joseph, followed on 13 July 1846\.
In his journal, [Wilford Woodruff](/wiki/Wilford_Woodruff "Wilford Woodruff") recorded that Fielding received his temple [endowment](/wiki/Endowment_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 "Endowment (Latter Day Saints)") in the same session as [William Wines Phelps](/wiki/William_Wines_Phelps "William Wines Phelps"), Levi Richards, [Lot Smith](/wiki/Lot_Smith "Lot Smith"), and [Cornelius P. Lott](/wiki/Cornelius_P._Lott "Cornelius P. Lott") in the office over Joseph Smith's store on December 9, 1843\. Fielding took an addition [plural wife](/wiki/Plural_marriage "Plural marriage"), Mary Ann Peake Greenhalgh in either 1843 or 1846\. Hannah Fielding was troubled by what she had learnt of Joseph Smith’s preaching about "spiritual" wives. With many claiming that Joseph was in error, she began to have some doubts. Joseph confided to his diary: "I tell my wife I mean to hold on to the truth at any cost and the greatest cost would be to lose her, but her unbelief shall not stop us. I feel as though I can in spite of this bear her along. Our children are healthy and in every way promising, and we hope they will be in glory in a future day."Manuscript Journal of Joseph Fielding as quoted in 'The Pick \& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001
Their differences evidently resolved, Joseph and Hannah were endowed and sealed at the hand of Joseph Smith. They were endowed again once the Nauvoo Temple was sufficiently complete, and had their four children sealed to them.
In Nauvoo, Joseph Fielding found himself a witness to apostasy in the Church and many false charges laid against the prophet Joseph Smith. He wrote, "As to me, I have evidence enough that Joseph is not fallen. I have seen him…organize the kingdom of God on the earth and am myself a member of it. In this I feel myself highly honored but I feel grieved that at this time of the greatest light and the greatest glory and honor, men of so much knowledge and understanding should cut themselves off." In September 1846, Joseph, his sisters Mary and Mercy, and their families were finally obliged to leave Nauvoo. Members of the Church had been leaving since February. Joseph sold his land for $4½, some horses, a wagon, and some cloth. The group only just crossed the Mississippi River with its nine wagons, 21 cattle and 43 sheep, before Joseph’s land was taken over by the Nauvoo attackers, from where they fired into the city.
|
[
"Mission to England\n------------------",
"Between 1837 and 1840, Fielding was called to serve as part of the first Latter Day Saint mission to England. In June, he accompanied apostles [Heber C. Kimball](/wiki/Heber_C._Kimball \"Heber C. Kimball\") and [Orson Hyde](/wiki/Orson_Hyde \"Orson Hyde\"), along with four other missionaries on board 'The Garrick', across the Atlantic from New York to Liverpool, where they landed on 19 July 1837\\. Fielding was ordained both an [elder](/wiki/Elder_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 \"Elder (Latter Day Saints)\") and a [high priest](/wiki/High_priest_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 \"High priest (Latter Day Saints)\") while in England.[Biography](http://josephsmithpapers.org/person?name=Joseph+Fielding) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105124207/http://josephsmithpapers.org/person?name\\=Joseph\\+Fielding \\|date\\=2012\\-01\\-05 }} of Joseph Fielding, The Joseph Smith Papers (accessed December 28, 2011\\) He later served as President of the British Mission, when the remaining missionaries other than Willard Richards returned to America in April 1838\\.",
"The importance of the Fieldings in the growth of the Latter Day Saints in England lay not just in the diligent missionary service of Joseph Fielding. The early success of this first mission was due largely to the willingness of Joseph's brother, James Fielding, to open his pulpit to the missionaries. Missionary work also began in Bedfordshire because of the Fielding family connection. In August 1837, Richards and Goodson travelled to Bedford and their first action on arriving in Bedford was to contact Matthews, who invited them to preach in his chapel. Later missionary efforts also took advantage of Fielding family connections. During the second apostolic mission of 1840, when John Taylor and Joseph Fielding took the gospel to Liverpool in January 1840, it was yet again the Fielding family connection which opened the door. Matthews had established a congregation on Hope Street, Liverpool, adapting principles of the Latter Day Saint gospel to suit his own purposes. Although they were refused permission to preach in the Hope Street chapel, it was there that they found their first convert.'The Pick \\& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001\\. Joseph Fielding had high hopes that his brother and other members of his family remaining in England would join the Church and spent much of the voyage praying to that end. However, he was to be sadly disappointed.",
"The decision of the missionaries to go first to Preston, Lancashire, was because Joseph and his friend John Taylor had written about this new, restored gospel to James Fielding. James had read those letters to his congregation at the Vauxhall Road Chapel, but kept back the parts that talked about baptism, as his non\\-conformist congregation, known in Preston as Semi\\-episcopalians, did not practice baptism. He was aware that the missionaries were coming to England and eagerly awaited their arrival in Preston. According to Joseph his brother had, \"raised their expectations very high.\"Diary of Heber C. Kimball\nIn this way, James laid much of the ground work for the conversion of his members to the Mormon faith when they were invited by him to preach in his chapel, which they did for the first time on Sunday 23 July 1837, speaking at two services and again during the week. When the missionaries preached, many came forward desiring to be baptised. Learning of the proposed baptisms, and foreseeing correctly that he was going to lose his flock, James visited Apostle Heber C. Kimball, the mission leader, the night before, forbidding him from doing so. Elder Kimball simply replied that God was no respecter of persons and he would proceed with the baptisms.. Those first baptisms east of the Atlantic took place the following Sunday, 30 July 1837, in the River Ribble near the Old Tram Bridge, in what is now Avenham Park, Preston. The nine baptised were all from James Fielding's congregation.'The Pick \\& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001\\.",
"His brother did not take kindly to losing his flock, most of whom would join the Church, despite a late attempt to have Robert Aitken (an English priest and preacher) offer baptism to his congregation. By 21 September 1837, Heber C. Kimball was able to note of James Fielding that, \"His church has left him and he is an object of pity.\" James was made something of a laughing stock in Preston, and referred to his brother as a 'sheep stealer.'; James later published pamphlets attacking the Church. But more lay behind his bitterness than just the loss of his congregation. At the date of the missionaries' arrival James was doing so well that his congregation had outgrown the 500 seat Vauxhall Chapel, and he had contracted to build a new, larger chapel a few streets away on Avenham Lane, which opened in January 1838 as the Primitive Episcopalian Church. It had cost £1,500 to build and the builders and contractors were pressing for payment of their bills. Without much of a congregation and therefore unable to meet the demands, James was compelled to sell the building. Ever anxious to eliminate 'dissenting' congregations, and in genuine need of more Church of England places of worship to accommodate Preston's growing population, Roger Carus Wilson, Vicar of Preston, bought the newly built chapel in April 1838 at the much reduced price of £1,000\\.‘Our Churches and Chapels,’ A Hewitson, (1872\\) and ‘History of Preston in Amounderness,’ H W Clemsha, (1912\\). The chapel was dedicated to St James and consecrated as a Church of England place of worship on 9 June 1841\\. The whole affair was of considerable embarrassment to James. By the beginning of January 1838, he became seriously ill. Many in Preston blamed Joseph, saying that he had broken his brother's heart by stealing his congregation. James eventually recovered his health but not his congregation. Joseph Fielding recorded that his brother finally left his church in March 1839\\. However, according to his own statement, James continued to preach elsewhere in the Preston area for a further 13 years.'The Pick \\& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001\\.",
"Joseph was described as a good and kindly man, anxious to serve the Lord faithfully, but he felt less worthy and successful than some of his missionary companions, particularly Elders Hyde and Kimball, and struggled with his own missionary service. He was saddened by his brother's eventual rejection of the Latter\\-day Saint gospel and confided to his diary that he felt, \"rather lonely.\" His missionary companions Heber C Kimball and Orson Hyde were busy with their individual evangelism; both were experiencing great success but each tended to work alone. For often weeks at a time Joseph Fielding was left very much to his own labours in Preston. Elder Kimball, perhaps in keeping with his frontier background, felt more comfortable in spending most of his time in the country areas outside of Preston. Joseph greatly admired Elders Kimball and Hyde and felt highly favoured in having their companionship. Hyde, an eloquent speaker, he saw as very faithful and diligent, with great power in preaching; so much so that other preachers did not dare come against him. He was said to be making Methodist preachers scarce, having baptised some thirteen of them. Joseph wrote in his diary that Hyde's preaching was \"very engaging and has attracted many hearers.\" To Joseph, Elder Kimball was a spiritual giant: \"I like brother K's company, but he is so far before me that it casts me down, and I have grieved the Spirit of God by murmuring when I ought to have rejoiced and been thankful.\" Kimball and Hyde, it seemed to Joseph, worked in perfect unison, being on the same spiritual plane.",
"Despite the rapid growth in converts, Joseph Fielding was frequently disappointed with his own performance and sense of weakness. He felt that the Lord would never make much of him, yet was determined to keep him humble. At other times, however, his diligent service resulted in feelings that he was blessed with both an increase in faith and an enlargement of the mind, \"it is evident that I am most pleasing to the Lord when I am most engaged in the work,\" he confided to his diary.'The Pick \\& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001\\.\nSometimes, Joseph Fielding found himself unfavourably compared to Heber C Kimball. On a fortnight's preaching in the country in mid\\-October 1837, he observed that \"as I was following Elder Kimball, people would rather have seen him, yet they were mostly kind.\" Still struggling with his personal trials in January 1838, Joseph wrote that he had laboured much, \"but I seemed as nothing in my own eyes and but little in some of the people's eyes. One, not a brother, said if they had had Mr Kimball before they would have had a better congregation and more members.\".'The Pick \\& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001\\.",
"By April 1838, over 1,600 had been baptized, and organized into more than twenty branches throughout the country.",
"Between 1838 and 1840, Fielding was left in charge of the mission when Kimball and Hyde returned to America in the spring of 1838\\. He acted as [Mission President](/wiki/Mission_President \"Mission President\") for the church, with [Willard Richards](/wiki/Willard_Richards \"Willard Richards\") as his first counselor and recent British convert [William Clayton](/wiki/William_Clayton_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 \"William Clayton (Latter Day Saints)\") as his second counselor. Fielding married a newly baptized church member, [Hannah Greenwood](/wiki/Hannah_Greenwood_Fielding_%28Latter_Day_Saint%29 \"Hannah Greenwood Fielding (Latter Day Saint)\"), on June 11, 1838\\. Willard Richards was a witness to his marriage and Joseph was a witness to Willard's marriage to Jenetta Richards. Joseph and Hannah had six children, two of them born in Preston: Rachel on 27 June 1839, and Ellen on 2 September 1841\\.",
"Fielding was released as mission president when [Brigham Young](/wiki/Brigham_Young \"Brigham Young\") and other [apostles](/wiki/Apostle_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 \"Apostle (Latter Day Saints)\") arrived in England in 1840, but continued to serve as a missionary until September 1841\\. He and his wife and their two children left Liverpool for the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") on 21 September 1841, on board the 'Tyrian', bound for [Nauvoo, Illinois](/wiki/Nauvoo%2C_Illinois \"Nauvoo, Illinois\") via New Orleans, with Joseph leading the company of 207 saints. Hundreds of members came to see them off and the company was presented with gifts for the building of the Nauvoo Temple. The ship slipped anchor and those on board sang, 'How firm a foundation, ye saints of the Lord,' as hats and handkerchiefs were waved in fond farewell. The last words heard were 'When through the deep waters I call thee to go, / The rivers of sorrow shall not thee o'erflow.' \"Soon all was a dim speck upon the ocean; recorded Parley P Pratt, \"a few moments more and they were vanished from view on the wide expanse and lost in the distance. May God speed them onward in their course, and land them safe in their destined port.\" The voyage was not without difficulty and a few scares. The ship took on water and some thought they would be drowned. To assist in distributing the food ration, Joseph enlisted the help of non\\-member passenger Richard Bentley, who said that Joseph was \"a kind good man, and treated me kindly.\"",
"In New Orleans, the company \"took one of the best steamboats (the \"General Pratt\"), and for 11 shillings English each, and luggage, sailed to St. Louis, 800 or 1000 miles. \"The country is seldom much above the river. There are many slave settlements; these often reminded us of the factory lords in England, in their mansions surrounded with cottages occupied by the poor oppressed laborer: it is much the same with the slaves and their masters, but the slaves pay no rent… It is a truly interesting scene to pass up this river; we often thought of the crowded population of England, who cannot get a foot of land in all their lifetime, and here we travel many hundred miles and see little but forests and no one to occupy it, and the best of land.\"",
"Joseph recorded the remarkable sight as he approached Nauvoo for the first time: \"When we came within two miles of our journey's end, we began to see the effects of that industry for which the Saints are so remarkable: fences of rails and of pickets, houses and gardens on the edge of the prairie, such as we had not before seen. This said Brother \\[Lorenzo] Young, is Nauvoo, but we had two miles to go yet, so extensive had this settlement of the Saints become in so short a time! We soon passed the sacred place and foundation of the temple. The arches of the vault windows were not all finished. The sight of this though by the light of the moon only gave me peculiar feelings. The idea that it was done at the special command of the Almighty was a new thing in this age. It seemed to fill the mind with solemnity and to give a sacredness to the whole place.\"Manuscript Journal of Joseph Fielding as quoted in 'The Pick \\& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001",
"Joseph found his sister Mercy now a widow. The house her late husband Robert Thompson had commenced for Joseph and his family had been left unfinished. Joseph was ill and unable to work much. Eventually, he began to labour for his brother\\-in\\-law Hyrum Smith, who allowed him some land to farm on shares. Unexpectedly, Joseph and Hannah received a substantial loan of money from her brother in England, George Greenwood. This enabled them to purchase some 20 acres of land on the prairie about two miles from the Temple site and by 1843, they had built a home. That summer, their son Heber was born. A fourth child, Joseph, followed on 13 July 1846\\. \nIn his journal, [Wilford Woodruff](/wiki/Wilford_Woodruff \"Wilford Woodruff\") recorded that Fielding received his temple [endowment](/wiki/Endowment_%28Latter_Day_Saints%29 \"Endowment (Latter Day Saints)\") in the same session as [William Wines Phelps](/wiki/William_Wines_Phelps \"William Wines Phelps\"), Levi Richards, [Lot Smith](/wiki/Lot_Smith \"Lot Smith\"), and [Cornelius P. Lott](/wiki/Cornelius_P._Lott \"Cornelius P. Lott\") in the office over Joseph Smith's store on December 9, 1843\\. Fielding took an addition [plural wife](/wiki/Plural_marriage \"Plural marriage\"), Mary Ann Peake Greenhalgh in either 1843 or 1846\\. Hannah Fielding was troubled by what she had learnt of Joseph Smith’s preaching about \"spiritual\" wives. With many claiming that Joseph was in error, she began to have some doubts. Joseph confided to his diary: \"I tell my wife I mean to hold on to the truth at any cost and the greatest cost would be to lose her, but her unbelief shall not stop us. I feel as though I can in spite of this bear her along. Our children are healthy and in every way promising, and we hope they will be in glory in a future day.\"Manuscript Journal of Joseph Fielding as quoted in 'The Pick \\& Flower of England, the Story of the Mormons in Victorian England, David MW Pickup, Living Legend, 2001 \nTheir differences evidently resolved, Joseph and Hannah were endowed and sealed at the hand of Joseph Smith. They were endowed again once the Nauvoo Temple was sufficiently complete, and had their four children sealed to them.",
"In Nauvoo, Joseph Fielding found himself a witness to apostasy in the Church and many false charges laid against the prophet Joseph Smith. He wrote, \"As to me, I have evidence enough that Joseph is not fallen. I have seen him…organize the kingdom of God on the earth and am myself a member of it. In this I feel myself highly honored but I feel grieved that at this time of the greatest light and the greatest glory and honor, men of so much knowledge and understanding should cut themselves off.\" In September 1846, Joseph, his sisters Mary and Mercy, and their families were finally obliged to leave Nauvoo. Members of the Church had been leaving since February. Joseph sold his land for $4½, some horses, a wagon, and some cloth. The group only just crossed the Mississippi River with its nine wagons, 21 cattle and 43 sheep, before Joseph’s land was taken over by the Nauvoo attackers, from where they fired into the city.",
""
] |
Migration west
--------------
Following the [death of Joseph Smith](/wiki/Death_of_Joseph_Smith "Death of Joseph Smith"), and Fielding's brother\-in\-law, Hyrum, the church underwent a [crisis](/wiki/Succession_crisis_%28Mormonism%29 "Succession crisis (Mormonism)") over an appropriate successor for the church president. Fielding and both of his widowed sisters chose to follow Brigham Young and move west with the greater part of the Saints.
Joseph described the scenes of chaos in the Battle of Nauvoo, "The poor Saints had to flee, sick or well. They hastened to the river but the citizens judged it not best to let men leave when they were so much needed, but the sick, the women and children got over as fast as they could. I went down to the bank of the river and found many of the Saints in distress. Some had left their goods and were destitute of food and clothing. Others had left their husbands in the battle. The cannons roared tremendously on both sides for several days." At Winter Quarters in 1847, Joseph and Hannah had a child Hyrum Thomas, but he died the same year. In due course, Joseph Fielding and his family made the trek to the Salt Lake Valley. There, two further children were born: Hannah Alice in 1849, and Sarah Ann in 1851\.
In September 1846, Joseph, his sisters Mary and Mercy, and their families were finally obliged to leave Nauvoo. Members of the Church had been leaving since February. Joseph sold his land for $4\.50, some horses, a wagon, and some cloth. The group only just crossed the Mississippi River with its nine wagons, 21 cattle and 43 sheep, before Joseph’s land was taken over by the Nauvoo attackers, from where they fired into the city. Joseph described the scenes of chaos in the Battle of Nauvoo, "The poor Saints had to flee, sick or well. They hastened to the river but the citizens judged it not best to let men leave when they were so much needed, but the sick, the women and children got over as fast as they could. I went down to the bank of the river and found many of the Saints in distress. Some had left their goods and were destitute of food and clothing. Others had left their husbands in the battle. The cannons roared tremendously on both sides for several days." He supported his sisters, their children and stepchildren, traveling with them to [Winter Quarters, Nebraska](/wiki/Winter_Quarters%2C_Nebraska "Winter Quarters, Nebraska") and, in 1848, to [Utah](/wiki/Utah "Utah").
At Winter Quarters in 1847, Joseph and Hannah had a child Hyrum Thomas, but he died the same year. In due course, Joseph Fielding and his family made the trek to the Salt Lake Valley. There, two further children were born: Hannah Alice in 1849, and Sarah Ann in 1851\.
He settled near Mary's family in [Millcreek, Utah](/wiki/Millcreek%2C_Utah "Millcreek, Utah"). He died there on December 19, 1863, aged 66\. Hannah survived him to die in 1877, aged 57\.
[right\|thumb\|200px\|Joseph Fielding's grave marker](/wiki/Image:JosephFieldingGrave.jpg "JosephFieldingGrave.jpg")
|
[
"Migration west\n--------------",
"Following the [death of Joseph Smith](/wiki/Death_of_Joseph_Smith \"Death of Joseph Smith\"), and Fielding's brother\\-in\\-law, Hyrum, the church underwent a [crisis](/wiki/Succession_crisis_%28Mormonism%29 \"Succession crisis (Mormonism)\") over an appropriate successor for the church president. Fielding and both of his widowed sisters chose to follow Brigham Young and move west with the greater part of the Saints.",
"Joseph described the scenes of chaos in the Battle of Nauvoo, \"The poor Saints had to flee, sick or well. They hastened to the river but the citizens judged it not best to let men leave when they were so much needed, but the sick, the women and children got over as fast as they could. I went down to the bank of the river and found many of the Saints in distress. Some had left their goods and were destitute of food and clothing. Others had left their husbands in the battle. The cannons roared tremendously on both sides for several days.\" At Winter Quarters in 1847, Joseph and Hannah had a child Hyrum Thomas, but he died the same year. In due course, Joseph Fielding and his family made the trek to the Salt Lake Valley. There, two further children were born: Hannah Alice in 1849, and Sarah Ann in 1851\\.",
"In September 1846, Joseph, his sisters Mary and Mercy, and their families were finally obliged to leave Nauvoo. Members of the Church had been leaving since February. Joseph sold his land for $4\\.50, some horses, a wagon, and some cloth. The group only just crossed the Mississippi River with its nine wagons, 21 cattle and 43 sheep, before Joseph’s land was taken over by the Nauvoo attackers, from where they fired into the city. Joseph described the scenes of chaos in the Battle of Nauvoo, \"The poor Saints had to flee, sick or well. They hastened to the river but the citizens judged it not best to let men leave when they were so much needed, but the sick, the women and children got over as fast as they could. I went down to the bank of the river and found many of the Saints in distress. Some had left their goods and were destitute of food and clothing. Others had left their husbands in the battle. The cannons roared tremendously on both sides for several days.\" He supported his sisters, their children and stepchildren, traveling with them to [Winter Quarters, Nebraska](/wiki/Winter_Quarters%2C_Nebraska \"Winter Quarters, Nebraska\") and, in 1848, to [Utah](/wiki/Utah \"Utah\").",
"At Winter Quarters in 1847, Joseph and Hannah had a child Hyrum Thomas, but he died the same year. In due course, Joseph Fielding and his family made the trek to the Salt Lake Valley. There, two further children were born: Hannah Alice in 1849, and Sarah Ann in 1851\\.",
"He settled near Mary's family in [Millcreek, Utah](/wiki/Millcreek%2C_Utah \"Millcreek, Utah\"). He died there on December 19, 1863, aged 66\\. Hannah survived him to die in 1877, aged 57\\.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|Joseph Fielding's grave marker](/wiki/Image:JosephFieldingGrave.jpg \"JosephFieldingGrave.jpg\")",
""
] |
Career
------
Among his first music teachers were Wojciech Gawronski (a student of [Zygmunt Noskowski](/wiki/Zygmunt_Noskowski "Zygmunt Noskowski"), [Moritz Moszkowski](/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski "Moritz Moszkowski") and [Theodor Leschetizky](/wiki/Theodor_Leschetizky "Theodor Leschetizky")) and Naum Podkaminer (a student of [Hermann Graedener](/wiki/Hermann_Graedener "Hermann Graedener") and [Richard Hofmann](/wiki/Richard_Hofmann_%28composer%29 "Richard Hofmann (composer)")).
Although he began his musical studies at the [Lodz Conservatory](/wiki/Academy_of_Music_in_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA "Academy of Music in Łódź"), his study was in law at the [University of Warsaw](/wiki/University_of_Warsaw "University of Warsaw"). On January 8, 1919, Tansman won the first composers' competition held in independent [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic"), and gave a series of concerts at the [Warsaw Philharmonic](/wiki/Warsaw_National_Philharmonic_Orchestra "Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra") in the following months. In the fall of 1919, encouraged by his mentors [Ignacy Jan Paderewski](/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski "Ignacy Jan Paderewski"), [Henryk Melcer\-Szczawinski](/wiki/Henryk_Melcer-Szczawi%C5%84ski "Henryk Melcer-Szczawiński") and [Zdzisław Birnbaum](/wiki/Zdzis%C5%82aw_Birnbaum "Zdzisław Birnbaum"), Tansman decided to continue his musical career in Paris.{{harvc\|last\=Hugon\|first\=Gerald\|chapter\=Presentation du compositeur et de son oeuvre\|year\=2000\|in\=Guillot}} The first artists he was fortunate to meet shortly after his arrival were [Moritz Moszkowski](/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski "Moritz Moszkowski") and [Sarah Bernhardt](/wiki/Sarah_Bernhardt "Sarah Bernhardt"). In Paris, his musical ideas were appreciated, influenced and favoured by composers [Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel "Maurice Ravel"), [Albert Roussel](/wiki/Albert_Roussel "Albert Roussel"), [Jacques Ibert](/wiki/Jacques_Ibert "Jacques Ibert"), [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky"), musicologists and critics [Émile Vuillermoz](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Vuillermoz "Émile Vuillermoz"), [Boris de Schloezer](/wiki/Boris_de_Schl%C3%B6zer "Boris de Schlözer"), [Alexis Roland\-Manuel](/wiki/Alexis_Roland-Manuel "Alexis Roland-Manuel"), [Arthur Hoérée](/wiki/Arthur_Ho%C3%A9r%C3%A9e "Arthur Hoérée"), conductors [André Caplet](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Caplet "André Caplet"), [Gaston Poulet](/wiki/Gaston_Poulet "Gaston Poulet"), [Vladimir Golschmann](/wiki/Vladimir_Golschmann "Vladimir Golschmann"). Though [Arthur Honegger](/wiki/Arthur_Honegger "Arthur Honegger") and [Darius Milhaud](/wiki/Darius_Milhaud "Darius Milhaud") tried to persuade him to join *[Les Six](/wiki/Les_Six "Les Six")*, he declined, stating a need for creative independence. Nevertheless, he was one of the earliest and leading representatives of [neoclassicism](/wiki/Neoclassicism_%28music%29 "Neoclassicism (music)"), along with Stravinsky, Les Six, [Sergei Prokofiev](/wiki/Sergei_Prokofiev "Sergei Prokofiev"), [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith "Paul Hindemith"), [Alfredo Casella](/wiki/Alfredo_Casella "Alfredo Casella"). He was also one of the most respected members of the international music group [École de Paris](/wiki/%C3%89cole_de_Paris "École de Paris"), along with [Bohuslav Martinů](/wiki/Bohuslav_Martin%C5%AF "Bohuslav Martinů"), [Tibor Harsányi](/wiki/Tibor_Hars%C3%A1nyi "Tibor Harsányi"), [Alexander Tcherepnin](/wiki/Alexander_Tcherepnin "Alexander Tcherepnin"), [Marcel Mihalovici](/wiki/Marcel_Mihalovici "Marcel Mihalovici"), [Conrad Beck](/wiki/Conrad_Beck "Conrad Beck").{{Cite book\|last\=Cegiełła\|first\=Janusz\|author\-link\=:pl:Janusz Cegiełła\|title\=Dziecko szczęścia. Aleksander Tansman i jego czasy\|trans\-title\=The Luck Child. Alexander Tansman and His Times\|publisher\=Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy\|year\=1986\|isbn\=83\-06\-01256\-9\|location\=Warsaw\|pages\=}}
[thumb\|Cover of the score of Tansman's *Second Concerto* (1927\) dedicated to [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin "Charlie Chaplin"), Éditions [Max Eschig](/wiki/Max_Eschig "Max Eschig")](/wiki/File:Alexandre_Tansman%2C_Second_Piano_Concerto.jpg "Alexandre Tansman, Second Piano Concerto.jpg")
From the 1920s Tansman's rise to fame was meteoric, with works conducted and championed by such world\-famous baton masters as [Arturo Toscanini](/wiki/Arturo_Toscanini "Arturo Toscanini"), [Tullio Serafin](/wiki/Tullio_Serafin "Tullio Serafin"), [Willem Mengelberg](/wiki/Willem_Mengelberg "Willem Mengelberg"), [Walter Damrosch](/wiki/Walter_Damrosch "Walter Damrosch"), Sir [Henry Wood](/wiki/Henry_Wood "Henry Wood"), [Serge Koussevitzky](/wiki/Serge_Koussevitzky "Serge Koussevitzky"), [Pierre Monteux](/wiki/Pierre_Monteux "Pierre Monteux"), [Otto Klemperer](/wiki/Otto_Klemperer "Otto Klemperer"), [Rhené\-Baton](/wiki/Rhen%C3%A9-Baton "Rhené-Baton"), [Désiré\-Émile Inghelbrecht](/wiki/D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9-%C3%89mile_Inghelbrecht "Désiré-Émile Inghelbrecht"), [Walther Straram](/wiki/Walther_Straram "Walther Straram"), [Hermann Abendroth](/wiki/Hermann_Abendroth "Hermann Abendroth"), [Leopold Stokowski](/wiki/Leopold_Stokowski "Leopold Stokowski"), [Erich Kleiber](/wiki/Erich_Kleiber "Erich Kleiber"), Sir [Adrian Boult](/wiki/Adrian_Boult "Adrian Boult"), [Dimitri Mitropoulos](/wiki/Dimitri_Mitropoulos "Dimitri Mitropoulos"), [Frederick Stock](/wiki/Frederick_Stock "Frederick Stock"), [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy "Eugene Ormandy"). Tansman follows Paderewski as the second Polish composer whose theatre piece – ballet *Sextuor* – was staged by the [Metropolitan Opera](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera "Metropolitan Opera") (1927\).{{Cite book\|last\=Hugon\|first\=Gerald\|title\=Alexandre Tansman (1897–1986\). Catalogue de l'oeuvre\|publisher\=Éditions Max Eschig\|year\=1995\|isbn\=\|location\=Paris\|pages\=}}
As early as the first half of the 1920s, Belgian music critic and composer Georges Systermans wrote that Tansman's musical personality "combines poetic genius with Latin culture". Tansman's works started to be frequently performed in programs with pieces by Maurice Ravel, Igor Stravinsky and [Gian Francesco Malipiero](/wiki/Gian_Francesco_Malipiero "Gian Francesco Malipiero") on the one hand, and [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart](/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart"), [Carl Maria von Weber](/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber "Carl Maria von Weber") and [Nikolai Rimsky\-Korsakov](/wiki/Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov "Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov") on the other. Each time he visited Germany, he was invited to [Arnold Schönberg](/wiki/Arnold_Sch%C3%B6nberg "Arnold Schönberg")'s home, who at that time lectured in Berlin. In 1927 [Nicolas Slonimsky](/wiki/Nicolas_Slonimsky "Nicolas Slonimsky") called Tansman a "musical plenipotentiary of Poland in the Western World".{{Cite book\|last\=Slonimsky\|first\=Nicolas\|author\-link\=Nicolas Slonimsky\|title\=Writings on Music. Early Articles for the Boston Evening Transcript\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2004\|isbn\=0\-203\-97028\-4\|location\=New York and London\|pages\=}}
From the mid\-1920s, and into the decades that followed, Tansman's works were performed in some of the best concert halls in the world, such as [Salle Gaveau](/wiki/Salle_Gaveau "Salle Gaveau"), [Théâtre Royal de la Monnaie](/wiki/La_Monnaie "La Monnaie"), [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall "Carnegie Hall"), [Opéra National de Paris](/wiki/Paris_Opera "Paris Opera"), [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic "New York Philharmonic"), [Théâtre des Champs\-Élysées](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es "Théâtre des Champs-Élysées"), [Salle Pleyel](/wiki/Salle_Pleyel "Salle Pleyel"), [Boston Symphony Hall](/wiki/Symphony_Hall%2C_Boston "Symphony Hall, Boston"), [Théâtre Mogador](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_Mogador "Théâtre Mogador"), [Opéra National de Lyon](/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra_National_de_Lyon "Opéra National de Lyon"), [Château Royal de Laeken](/wiki/Palace_of_Laeken "Palace of Laeken"), [Théâtre de la Ville](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_la_Ville "Théâtre de la Ville"), [Palais\-Royal](/wiki/Palais-Royal "Palais-Royal"), [Berlin State Opera](/wiki/Berlin_State_Opera "Berlin State Opera"), [Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/Royal_Albert_Hall "Royal Albert Hall"), [Metropolitan Opera](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera "Metropolitan Opera"), [Severance Hall](/wiki/Severance_Hall "Severance Hall"), [Centre for Fine Arts, Brussels](/wiki/Centre_for_Fine_Arts%2C_Brussels "Centre for Fine Arts, Brussels"), [Concertgebouw, Amsterdam](/wiki/Concertgebouw%2C_Amsterdam "Concertgebouw, Amsterdam"), [DAR Constitution Hall](/wiki/DAR_Constitution_Hall "DAR Constitution Hall"), [Cologne Opera](/wiki/Cologne_Opera "Cologne Opera"), [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo") Hibiya Public Hall, [Berlin Philharmonic](/wiki/Berlin_Philharmonic "Berlin Philharmonic"), [Oslo National Theatre](/wiki/National_Theatre_%28Oslo%29 "National Theatre (Oslo)"), [Wigmore Hall](/wiki/Wigmore_Hall "Wigmore Hall"), [La Fenice](/wiki/La_Fenice "La Fenice"), [Academy of Music (Philadelphia)](/wiki/Academy_of_Music_%28Philadelphia%29 "Academy of Music (Philadelphia)"), [De Doelen](/wiki/De_Doelen "De Doelen"), [Teatro Nacional de São Carlos](/wiki/Teatro_Nacional_de_S%C3%A3o_Carlos "Teatro Nacional de São Carlos"), [Opéra de Nice](/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra_de_Nice "Opéra de Nice"), [Orchestra Hall](/wiki/Symphony_Center "Symphony Center"), [Théâtre du Vieux\-Colombier](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_du_Vieux-Colombier "Théâtre du Vieux-Colombier"), [Hollywood Bowl](/wiki/Hollywood_Bowl "Hollywood Bowl"), [Powell Hall](/wiki/Powell_Hall "Powell Hall"), [Mann Auditorium](/wiki/Mann_Auditorium "Mann Auditorium"), [Johannesburg City Hall](/wiki/Johannesburg_City_Hall "Johannesburg City Hall"), [Teatro Colón](/wiki/Teatro_Col%C3%B3n "Teatro Colón"), [Grand Auditorium](/wiki/Grand_Auditorium_%28Maison_de_la_Radio%29 "Grand Auditorium (Maison de la Radio)"), [Royce Hall](/wiki/Royce_Hall "Royce Hall").
[thumb\|Cover Irving Schwerke's book, Paris 1931, Éditions Max Eschig](/wiki/File:Tansman_by_Schwerke.jpg "Tansman by Schwerke.jpg")
In 1931, a book authored by Irving Schwerke and titled *Alexandre Tansman. Compositeur polonais (Alexander Tansman. The Polish Composer)* was published in Paris. The book was devoted to the work of Tansman until 1930 and its reception, to his individual style and the aesthetics of his oeuvre. It also contained Tansman's short biography and the first catalogue of his works and their European and American premieres. Tansman's music – according to Schwerke – "is undoubtedly the most complete homage that any Polish composer of his generation has paid to his country. It occupies a prominent place among the most important artistic manifestations of the present day".
In 1932–1933, Tansman made an unprecedented artistic tour around the world – starting with the United States, through Japan, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Singapore, [Ceylon](/wiki/Sri_Lanka "Sri Lanka"), India and Egypt, to Italy. He was honored by [Mahatma Gandhi](/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi "Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi") and Emperor [Hirohito](/wiki/Hirohito "Hirohito") of Japan. In Tokyo, Tansman was granted honorary membership of the Imperial Academy of Music and awarded Golden Ji Ji Shimpo Medal in recognition of his notable contribution to the world of arts.{{Cite book\|last\=Wendland\|first\=Wojciech\|title\=W 89 lat dookoła świata. Aleksander Tansman u źródeł kultury i tożsamości\|trans\-title\=Around the World in 89 Years. Alexander Tansman at the Sources of Culture and Identity\|publisher\=Astra Editions, Aleksander Tansman Association for the Promotion of Culture\|year\=2013\|isbn\=978\-83\-938620\-0\-9\|location\=Łódź\|pages\=}}
As [Marcel Mihalovici](/wiki/Marcel_Mihalovici "Marcel Mihalovici") noted, Tansman was one of the most prominent contemporary representatives of the centuries\-old tradition of École de Paris: "This included musicians at [Notre\-Dame Cathedral](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris "Notre-Dame de Paris") during the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance"), and later [Lully](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully "Jean-Baptiste Lully"), [Mozart](/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart"), and [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner"). Not to mention [Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin "Frédéric Chopin"), [Falla](/wiki/Manuel_de_Falla "Manuel de Falla"), [Enescu](/wiki/George_Enescu "George Enescu"), [Honegger](/wiki/Arthur_Honegger "Arthur Honegger"), [Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky"), [Prokofiev](/wiki/Sergei_Prokofiev "Sergei Prokofiev"), [Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland "Aaron Copland"), and certainly our old colleague Alexander Tansman".{{Cite book\|last\=Korabelnikova\|first\=Ludmila\|title\=Alexander Tcherepnin. The Saga of a Russian Emigré Composer\|publisher\=Indiana University Press\|year\=2008\|isbn\=978\-0\-253\-34938\-5\|location\=Bloomington, Indianapolis\|pages\=}}
In June 1938, four years after Stravinsky and in the same year as [Bruno Walter](/wiki/Bruno_Walter "Bruno Walter"), Tansman was granted French citizenship by the last president of the [Third Republic](/wiki/French_Third_Republic "French Third Republic") [Albert Lebrun](/wiki/Albert_Lebrun "Albert Lebrun"). Tansman fled Europe as his Jewish background put him in danger with [Hitler's](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") rise to power. He moved to Los Angeles, thanks to the efforts of his friend [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin "Charlie Chaplin") in founding a committee [visa](/wiki/Visa_%28document%29 "Visa (document)"). In 1941 he could join there the circle of famous emigrated artists and intellectuals that included [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky"), [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann "Thomas Mann"), [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg"), [Alma Mahler](/wiki/Alma_Mahler "Alma Mahler"), [Franz Werfel](/wiki/Franz_Werfel "Franz Werfel"), [Emil Ludwig](/wiki/Emil_Ludwig "Emil Ludwig"), [Aldous Huxley](/wiki/Aldous_Huxley "Aldous Huxley"), [Lion Feuchtwanger](/wiki/Lion_Feuchtwanger "Lion Feuchtwanger"), [Man Ray](/wiki/Man_Ray "Man Ray"), [Eugène Berman](/wiki/Berman_brothers_%28painters%29 "Berman brothers (painters)"), [Jean Renoir](/wiki/Jean_Renoir "Jean Renoir"). During this time, he also met and befriended [Golo Mann](/wiki/Golo_Mann "Golo Mann") as well as [Sholem Asch](/wiki/Sholem_Asch "Sholem Asch").
[thumb\|Cover of the score of Tansman's *Divertimento* (1944\) dedicated to [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg"), Éditions Max Eschig](/wiki/File:Alexandre_Tansman%2C_Divertimento.jpg "Alexandre Tansman, Divertimento.jpg")
During his American years Tansman toured extensively as pianist and conductor and wrote a wealth of music, e.g. three symphonies, two quartets, works for piano. In 1944 he accepted [Nathaniel Shilkret](/wiki/Nathaniel_Shilkret "Nathaniel Shilkret")'s invitation to co\-create *[Genesis Suite](/wiki/Genesis_Suite "Genesis Suite")*, alongside [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg"), [Darius Milhaud](/wiki/Darius_Milhaud "Darius Milhaud"), [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky"), [Ernst Toch](/wiki/Ernst_Toch "Ernst Toch"), [Mario Castelnuovo\-Tedesco](/wiki/Mario_Castelnuovo-Tedesco "Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco"). In the 1940s, he also wrote a few scores for [Hollywood movies](/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States "Cinema of the United States"): i.e. *[Flesh and Fantasy](/wiki/Flesh_and_Fantasy "Flesh and Fantasy")*, starring [Barbara Stanwyck](/wiki/Barbara_Stanwyck "Barbara Stanwyck"), a [biopic](/wiki/Biopic "Biopic") of the Australian medical researcher Sister [Elizabeth Kenny](/wiki/Elizabeth_Kenny "Elizabeth Kenny"), starring [Rosalind Russell](/wiki/Rosalind_Russell "Rosalind Russell"), and *[Paris Underground](/wiki/Paris_Underground_%28film%29 "Paris Underground (film)")*, starring [Constance Bennett](/wiki/Constance_Bennett "Constance Bennett"). For the [1946 Academy Awards](/wiki/18th_Academy_Awards "18th Academy Awards") ceremony, he was nominated for an [Oscar for Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Original_Score "Academy Award for Best Original Score"), for *Paris Underground*. In 1948, Tansman published a book on Igor Stravinsky, the result of a friendship between the two composers during the years of exile in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States").{{Cite book\|last\=Tansman\|first\=Alexandre\|url\=https://www.andrebreton.fr/en/work/56600100869101\|title\=Igor Stravinsky\|date\=1948\|publisher\=Amiot Dumont, Paris\|others\=Igor Stravinsky\|edition\=first publication}}
In 1946 Tansman returned to Paris and his musical career started again all over Europe. His works, with performances at times reaching over 500 a year, were performed by the best orchestras and conductors, such as [Jascha Horenstein](/wiki/Jascha_Horenstein "Jascha Horenstein"), [Rafael Kubelik](/wiki/Rafael_Kubel%C3%ADk "Rafael Kubelík"), [André Cluytens](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Cluytens "André Cluytens"), [Carlos Chávez](/wiki/Carlos_Ch%C3%A1vez "Carlos Chávez"), [Paul Kletzki](/wiki/Paul_Kletzki "Paul Kletzki"), [Charles Munch](/wiki/Charles_Munch_%28conductor%29 "Charles Munch (conductor)"), [Bruno Maderna](/wiki/Bruno_Maderna "Bruno Maderna"), [Paul van Kempen](/wiki/Paul_van_Kempen "Paul van Kempen"), Sir [Malcolm Sargent](/wiki/Malcolm_Sargent "Malcolm Sargent"), [Ferenc Fricsay](/wiki/Ferenc_Fricsay "Ferenc Fricsay"), [Charles Bruck](/wiki/Charles_Bruck "Charles Bruck"), [Øivin Fjeldstad](/wiki/%C3%98ivin_Fjeldstad "Øivin Fjeldstad"), [Eugène Bigot](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Bigot "Eugène Bigot"), [Franz André](/wiki/Franz_Andr%C3%A9 "Franz André"), [Jean Fournet](/wiki/Jean_Fournet "Jean Fournet"), [Franz Waxman](/wiki/Franz_Waxman "Franz Waxman"), [Georges Tzipine](/wiki/Georges_Tzipine "Georges Tzipine"), [Pedro de Freitas Branco](/wiki/Pedro_de_Freitas_Branco "Pedro de Freitas Branco"), [Alfred Wallenstein](/wiki/Alfred_Wallenstein "Alfred Wallenstein"), [Eduard Flipse](/wiki/Eduard_Flipse "Eduard Flipse"), [Robert Whitney](/wiki/Robert_Whitney_%28conductor%29 "Robert Whitney (conductor)"), [Manuel Rosenthal](/wiki/Manuel_Rosenthal "Manuel Rosenthal"), [Roger Wagner](/wiki/Roger_Wagner "Roger Wagner"), [Jean Périsson](/wiki/Jean_P%C3%A9risson "Jean Périsson"), [Vassil Kazandjiev](/wiki/Vassil_Kazandjiev "Vassil Kazandjiev").
Despite Tansman’s numerous performances far away from his home in France, he did not return to the United States after the 1946 end of his California residency. This eventually reduced the number of Americans who knew who he was.
[thumb\|Cover of the score of Tansman's *Hommage à Erasme de Rotterdam* (1969\), Éditions Max Eschig](/wiki/File:Alexandre_Tansman%2C_Hommage_a_Erasme_de_Rotterdam.jpg "Alexandre Tansman, Hommage a Erasme de Rotterdam.jpg")
As a ballet composer, for decades Tansman collaborated with the most eminent choreographers like [Olga Preobrajenska](/wiki/Olga_Preobrajenska "Olga Preobrajenska"), [Rudolf von Laban](/wiki/Rudolf_von_Laban "Rudolf von Laban"), [Jean Börlin](/wiki/Jean_B%C3%B6rlin "Jean Börlin"), [Adolph Bolm](/wiki/Adolph_Bolm "Adolph Bolm"), [Kurt Jooss](/wiki/Kurt_Jooss "Kurt Jooss"), [Ernst Uthoff](/wiki/Ernst_Uthoff_Biefang "Ernst Uthoff Biefang"), [Françoise Adret](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Adret "Françoise Adret").
In 1966, he was awarded the [Hector Berlioz](/wiki/Hector_Berlioz "Hector Berlioz") Prize. In 1977, in recognition of his contribution to European culture, Tansman was granted membership (after the late [Dmitri Shostakovich](/wiki/Dmitri_Shostakovich "Dmitri Shostakovich")) of the [Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium](/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Science%2C_Letters_and_Fine_Arts_of_Belgium "Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium"). In 1978, he was awarded the Music Prize of the [Académie Française](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Fran%C3%A7aise "Académie Française"), and in 1986 – the highest Commander grade of the [Ordre des Arts et des Lettres](/wiki/Ordre_des_Arts_et_des_Lettres "Ordre des Arts et des Lettres").
Notable students of Tansman include [Cristóbal Halffter](/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal_Halffter "Cristóbal Halffter"), [Leonardo Balada](/wiki/Leonardo_Balada "Leonardo Balada"), [Carmelo Bernaola](/wiki/Carmelo_Bernaola "Carmelo Bernaola"), [Yüksel Koptagel](/wiki/Y%C3%BCksel_Koptagel "Yüksel Koptagel").
During the last period of his life, he began to reestablish connections to Poland, though his career and family kept him in France, where he lived until his death in Paris in 1986\. Since 1996, in his native city of Łódź, Alexander Tansman Association for the Promotion of Culture has been organizing the Alexander Tansman International Festival and Competition of Musical Personalities (Tansman Festival).{{Cite web\|title\=Tansman Philharmonic\|url\=http://tansman.org.pl/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-31\|website\=tansman.org.pl}}
Twenty years after the composer's death, in 2006 [Henryk Górecki](/wiki/Henryk_G%C3%B3recki "Henryk Górecki") wrote his long\-awaited 4th Symphony, which he named *Tansman Episodes* by no accident. Górecki left a [cryptogram](/wiki/Cryptogram "Cryptogram") that explains the way he created the theme for the symphony, using musical letters from the first and last names of "Aleksander Tansman".{{Cite web\|date\=2014\-05\-03\|title\=(2014\) Tansman, Stravinsky, Górecki\|url\=https://onpolishmusic.com/prog\-notes/%e2%80%a2\-2014\-tansman\-stravinsky\-gorecki/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-02\|website\=On Polish Music}}{{Cite book\|last\=Wendland\|first\=Andrzej\|chapter\=The Phenomenon and Mystery of Górecki's Fourth Symphony – Tansman Episodes\|title\=Górecki in Context. Essays on Music\|publisher\=Moonrise Press\|year\=2017\|isbn\=978\-1\-945938\-10\-8\|editor\-last\=Trochimczyk\|editor\-first\=Maja\|location\=Los Angeles}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Among his first music teachers were Wojciech Gawronski (a student of [Zygmunt Noskowski](/wiki/Zygmunt_Noskowski \"Zygmunt Noskowski\"), [Moritz Moszkowski](/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski \"Moritz Moszkowski\") and [Theodor Leschetizky](/wiki/Theodor_Leschetizky \"Theodor Leschetizky\")) and Naum Podkaminer (a student of [Hermann Graedener](/wiki/Hermann_Graedener \"Hermann Graedener\") and [Richard Hofmann](/wiki/Richard_Hofmann_%28composer%29 \"Richard Hofmann (composer)\")).",
"Although he began his musical studies at the [Lodz Conservatory](/wiki/Academy_of_Music_in_%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA \"Academy of Music in Łódź\"), his study was in law at the [University of Warsaw](/wiki/University_of_Warsaw \"University of Warsaw\"). On January 8, 1919, Tansman won the first composers' competition held in independent [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\"), and gave a series of concerts at the [Warsaw Philharmonic](/wiki/Warsaw_National_Philharmonic_Orchestra \"Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra\") in the following months. In the fall of 1919, encouraged by his mentors [Ignacy Jan Paderewski](/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski \"Ignacy Jan Paderewski\"), [Henryk Melcer\\-Szczawinski](/wiki/Henryk_Melcer-Szczawi%C5%84ski \"Henryk Melcer-Szczawiński\") and [Zdzisław Birnbaum](/wiki/Zdzis%C5%82aw_Birnbaum \"Zdzisław Birnbaum\"), Tansman decided to continue his musical career in Paris.{{harvc\\|last\\=Hugon\\|first\\=Gerald\\|chapter\\=Presentation du compositeur et de son oeuvre\\|year\\=2000\\|in\\=Guillot}} The first artists he was fortunate to meet shortly after his arrival were [Moritz Moszkowski](/wiki/Moritz_Moszkowski \"Moritz Moszkowski\") and [Sarah Bernhardt](/wiki/Sarah_Bernhardt \"Sarah Bernhardt\"). In Paris, his musical ideas were appreciated, influenced and favoured by composers [Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel \"Maurice Ravel\"), [Albert Roussel](/wiki/Albert_Roussel \"Albert Roussel\"), [Jacques Ibert](/wiki/Jacques_Ibert \"Jacques Ibert\"), [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\"), musicologists and critics [Émile Vuillermoz](/wiki/%C3%89mile_Vuillermoz \"Émile Vuillermoz\"), [Boris de Schloezer](/wiki/Boris_de_Schl%C3%B6zer \"Boris de Schlözer\"), [Alexis Roland\\-Manuel](/wiki/Alexis_Roland-Manuel \"Alexis Roland-Manuel\"), [Arthur Hoérée](/wiki/Arthur_Ho%C3%A9r%C3%A9e \"Arthur Hoérée\"), conductors [André Caplet](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Caplet \"André Caplet\"), [Gaston Poulet](/wiki/Gaston_Poulet \"Gaston Poulet\"), [Vladimir Golschmann](/wiki/Vladimir_Golschmann \"Vladimir Golschmann\"). Though [Arthur Honegger](/wiki/Arthur_Honegger \"Arthur Honegger\") and [Darius Milhaud](/wiki/Darius_Milhaud \"Darius Milhaud\") tried to persuade him to join *[Les Six](/wiki/Les_Six \"Les Six\")*, he declined, stating a need for creative independence. Nevertheless, he was one of the earliest and leading representatives of [neoclassicism](/wiki/Neoclassicism_%28music%29 \"Neoclassicism (music)\"), along with Stravinsky, Les Six, [Sergei Prokofiev](/wiki/Sergei_Prokofiev \"Sergei Prokofiev\"), [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith \"Paul Hindemith\"), [Alfredo Casella](/wiki/Alfredo_Casella \"Alfredo Casella\"). He was also one of the most respected members of the international music group [École de Paris](/wiki/%C3%89cole_de_Paris \"École de Paris\"), along with [Bohuslav Martinů](/wiki/Bohuslav_Martin%C5%AF \"Bohuslav Martinů\"), [Tibor Harsányi](/wiki/Tibor_Hars%C3%A1nyi \"Tibor Harsányi\"), [Alexander Tcherepnin](/wiki/Alexander_Tcherepnin \"Alexander Tcherepnin\"), [Marcel Mihalovici](/wiki/Marcel_Mihalovici \"Marcel Mihalovici\"), [Conrad Beck](/wiki/Conrad_Beck \"Conrad Beck\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Cegiełła\\|first\\=Janusz\\|author\\-link\\=:pl:Janusz Cegiełła\\|title\\=Dziecko szczęścia. Aleksander Tansman i jego czasy\\|trans\\-title\\=The Luck Child. Alexander Tansman and His Times\\|publisher\\=Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy\\|year\\=1986\\|isbn\\=83\\-06\\-01256\\-9\\|location\\=Warsaw\\|pages\\=}}",
"[thumb\\|Cover of the score of Tansman's *Second Concerto* (1927\\) dedicated to [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin \"Charlie Chaplin\"), Éditions [Max Eschig](/wiki/Max_Eschig \"Max Eschig\")](/wiki/File:Alexandre_Tansman%2C_Second_Piano_Concerto.jpg \"Alexandre Tansman, Second Piano Concerto.jpg\")\nFrom the 1920s Tansman's rise to fame was meteoric, with works conducted and championed by such world\\-famous baton masters as [Arturo Toscanini](/wiki/Arturo_Toscanini \"Arturo Toscanini\"), [Tullio Serafin](/wiki/Tullio_Serafin \"Tullio Serafin\"), [Willem Mengelberg](/wiki/Willem_Mengelberg \"Willem Mengelberg\"), [Walter Damrosch](/wiki/Walter_Damrosch \"Walter Damrosch\"), Sir [Henry Wood](/wiki/Henry_Wood \"Henry Wood\"), [Serge Koussevitzky](/wiki/Serge_Koussevitzky \"Serge Koussevitzky\"), [Pierre Monteux](/wiki/Pierre_Monteux \"Pierre Monteux\"), [Otto Klemperer](/wiki/Otto_Klemperer \"Otto Klemperer\"), [Rhené\\-Baton](/wiki/Rhen%C3%A9-Baton \"Rhené-Baton\"), [Désiré\\-Émile Inghelbrecht](/wiki/D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9-%C3%89mile_Inghelbrecht \"Désiré-Émile Inghelbrecht\"), [Walther Straram](/wiki/Walther_Straram \"Walther Straram\"), [Hermann Abendroth](/wiki/Hermann_Abendroth \"Hermann Abendroth\"), [Leopold Stokowski](/wiki/Leopold_Stokowski \"Leopold Stokowski\"), [Erich Kleiber](/wiki/Erich_Kleiber \"Erich Kleiber\"), Sir [Adrian Boult](/wiki/Adrian_Boult \"Adrian Boult\"), [Dimitri Mitropoulos](/wiki/Dimitri_Mitropoulos \"Dimitri Mitropoulos\"), [Frederick Stock](/wiki/Frederick_Stock \"Frederick Stock\"), [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy \"Eugene Ormandy\"). Tansman follows Paderewski as the second Polish composer whose theatre piece – ballet *Sextuor* – was staged by the [Metropolitan Opera](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera \"Metropolitan Opera\") (1927\\).{{Cite book\\|last\\=Hugon\\|first\\=Gerald\\|title\\=Alexandre Tansman (1897–1986\\). Catalogue de l'oeuvre\\|publisher\\=Éditions Max Eschig\\|year\\=1995\\|isbn\\=\\|location\\=Paris\\|pages\\=}}",
"As early as the first half of the 1920s, Belgian music critic and composer Georges Systermans wrote that Tansman's musical personality \"combines poetic genius with Latin culture\". Tansman's works started to be frequently performed in programs with pieces by Maurice Ravel, Igor Stravinsky and [Gian Francesco Malipiero](/wiki/Gian_Francesco_Malipiero \"Gian Francesco Malipiero\") on the one hand, and [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart](/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart \"Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\"), [Carl Maria von Weber](/wiki/Carl_Maria_von_Weber \"Carl Maria von Weber\") and [Nikolai Rimsky\\-Korsakov](/wiki/Nikolai_Rimsky-Korsakov \"Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov\") on the other. Each time he visited Germany, he was invited to [Arnold Schönberg](/wiki/Arnold_Sch%C3%B6nberg \"Arnold Schönberg\")'s home, who at that time lectured in Berlin. In 1927 [Nicolas Slonimsky](/wiki/Nicolas_Slonimsky \"Nicolas Slonimsky\") called Tansman a \"musical plenipotentiary of Poland in the Western World\".{{Cite book\\|last\\=Slonimsky\\|first\\=Nicolas\\|author\\-link\\=Nicolas Slonimsky\\|title\\=Writings on Music. Early Articles for the Boston Evening Transcript\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2004\\|isbn\\=0\\-203\\-97028\\-4\\|location\\=New York and London\\|pages\\=}}",
"From the mid\\-1920s, and into the decades that followed, Tansman's works were performed in some of the best concert halls in the world, such as [Salle Gaveau](/wiki/Salle_Gaveau \"Salle Gaveau\"), [Théâtre Royal de la Monnaie](/wiki/La_Monnaie \"La Monnaie\"), [Carnegie Hall](/wiki/Carnegie_Hall \"Carnegie Hall\"), [Opéra National de Paris](/wiki/Paris_Opera \"Paris Opera\"), [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic \"New York Philharmonic\"), [Théâtre des Champs\\-Élysées](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_des_Champs-%C3%89lys%C3%A9es \"Théâtre des Champs-Élysées\"), [Salle Pleyel](/wiki/Salle_Pleyel \"Salle Pleyel\"), [Boston Symphony Hall](/wiki/Symphony_Hall%2C_Boston \"Symphony Hall, Boston\"), [Théâtre Mogador](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_Mogador \"Théâtre Mogador\"), [Opéra National de Lyon](/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra_National_de_Lyon \"Opéra National de Lyon\"), [Château Royal de Laeken](/wiki/Palace_of_Laeken \"Palace of Laeken\"), [Théâtre de la Ville](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_de_la_Ville \"Théâtre de la Ville\"), [Palais\\-Royal](/wiki/Palais-Royal \"Palais-Royal\"), [Berlin State Opera](/wiki/Berlin_State_Opera \"Berlin State Opera\"), [Royal Albert Hall](/wiki/Royal_Albert_Hall \"Royal Albert Hall\"), [Metropolitan Opera](/wiki/Metropolitan_Opera \"Metropolitan Opera\"), [Severance Hall](/wiki/Severance_Hall \"Severance Hall\"), [Centre for Fine Arts, Brussels](/wiki/Centre_for_Fine_Arts%2C_Brussels \"Centre for Fine Arts, Brussels\"), [Concertgebouw, Amsterdam](/wiki/Concertgebouw%2C_Amsterdam \"Concertgebouw, Amsterdam\"), [DAR Constitution Hall](/wiki/DAR_Constitution_Hall \"DAR Constitution Hall\"), [Cologne Opera](/wiki/Cologne_Opera \"Cologne Opera\"), [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\") Hibiya Public Hall, [Berlin Philharmonic](/wiki/Berlin_Philharmonic \"Berlin Philharmonic\"), [Oslo National Theatre](/wiki/National_Theatre_%28Oslo%29 \"National Theatre (Oslo)\"), [Wigmore Hall](/wiki/Wigmore_Hall \"Wigmore Hall\"), [La Fenice](/wiki/La_Fenice \"La Fenice\"), [Academy of Music (Philadelphia)](/wiki/Academy_of_Music_%28Philadelphia%29 \"Academy of Music (Philadelphia)\"), [De Doelen](/wiki/De_Doelen \"De Doelen\"), [Teatro Nacional de São Carlos](/wiki/Teatro_Nacional_de_S%C3%A3o_Carlos \"Teatro Nacional de São Carlos\"), [Opéra de Nice](/wiki/Op%C3%A9ra_de_Nice \"Opéra de Nice\"), [Orchestra Hall](/wiki/Symphony_Center \"Symphony Center\"), [Théâtre du Vieux\\-Colombier](/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_du_Vieux-Colombier \"Théâtre du Vieux-Colombier\"), [Hollywood Bowl](/wiki/Hollywood_Bowl \"Hollywood Bowl\"), [Powell Hall](/wiki/Powell_Hall \"Powell Hall\"), [Mann Auditorium](/wiki/Mann_Auditorium \"Mann Auditorium\"), [Johannesburg City Hall](/wiki/Johannesburg_City_Hall \"Johannesburg City Hall\"), [Teatro Colón](/wiki/Teatro_Col%C3%B3n \"Teatro Colón\"), [Grand Auditorium](/wiki/Grand_Auditorium_%28Maison_de_la_Radio%29 \"Grand Auditorium (Maison de la Radio)\"), [Royce Hall](/wiki/Royce_Hall \"Royce Hall\").",
"[thumb\\|Cover Irving Schwerke's book, Paris 1931, Éditions Max Eschig](/wiki/File:Tansman_by_Schwerke.jpg \"Tansman by Schwerke.jpg\")\nIn 1931, a book authored by Irving Schwerke and titled *Alexandre Tansman. Compositeur polonais (Alexander Tansman. The Polish Composer)* was published in Paris. The book was devoted to the work of Tansman until 1930 and its reception, to his individual style and the aesthetics of his oeuvre. It also contained Tansman's short biography and the first catalogue of his works and their European and American premieres. Tansman's music – according to Schwerke – \"is undoubtedly the most complete homage that any Polish composer of his generation has paid to his country. It occupies a prominent place among the most important artistic manifestations of the present day\".",
"In 1932–1933, Tansman made an unprecedented artistic tour around the world – starting with the United States, through Japan, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Singapore, [Ceylon](/wiki/Sri_Lanka \"Sri Lanka\"), India and Egypt, to Italy. He was honored by [Mahatma Gandhi](/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi \"Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi\") and Emperor [Hirohito](/wiki/Hirohito \"Hirohito\") of Japan. In Tokyo, Tansman was granted honorary membership of the Imperial Academy of Music and awarded Golden Ji Ji Shimpo Medal in recognition of his notable contribution to the world of arts.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Wendland\\|first\\=Wojciech\\|title\\=W 89 lat dookoła świata. Aleksander Tansman u źródeł kultury i tożsamości\\|trans\\-title\\=Around the World in 89 Years. Alexander Tansman at the Sources of Culture and Identity\\|publisher\\=Astra Editions, Aleksander Tansman Association for the Promotion of Culture\\|year\\=2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-83\\-938620\\-0\\-9\\|location\\=Łódź\\|pages\\=}}",
"As [Marcel Mihalovici](/wiki/Marcel_Mihalovici \"Marcel Mihalovici\") noted, Tansman was one of the most prominent contemporary representatives of the centuries\\-old tradition of École de Paris: \"This included musicians at [Notre\\-Dame Cathedral](/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris \"Notre-Dame de Paris\") during the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\"), and later [Lully](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully \"Jean-Baptiste Lully\"), [Mozart](/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart \"Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\"), and [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"). Not to mention [Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin \"Frédéric Chopin\"), [Falla](/wiki/Manuel_de_Falla \"Manuel de Falla\"), [Enescu](/wiki/George_Enescu \"George Enescu\"), [Honegger](/wiki/Arthur_Honegger \"Arthur Honegger\"), [Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\"), [Prokofiev](/wiki/Sergei_Prokofiev \"Sergei Prokofiev\"), [Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland \"Aaron Copland\"), and certainly our old colleague Alexander Tansman\".{{Cite book\\|last\\=Korabelnikova\\|first\\=Ludmila\\|title\\=Alexander Tcherepnin. The Saga of a Russian Emigré Composer\\|publisher\\=Indiana University Press\\|year\\=2008\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-253\\-34938\\-5\\|location\\=Bloomington, Indianapolis\\|pages\\=}}",
"In June 1938, four years after Stravinsky and in the same year as [Bruno Walter](/wiki/Bruno_Walter \"Bruno Walter\"), Tansman was granted French citizenship by the last president of the [Third Republic](/wiki/French_Third_Republic \"French Third Republic\") [Albert Lebrun](/wiki/Albert_Lebrun \"Albert Lebrun\"). Tansman fled Europe as his Jewish background put him in danger with [Hitler's](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") rise to power. He moved to Los Angeles, thanks to the efforts of his friend [Charlie Chaplin](/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin \"Charlie Chaplin\") in founding a committee [visa](/wiki/Visa_%28document%29 \"Visa (document)\"). In 1941 he could join there the circle of famous emigrated artists and intellectuals that included [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\"), [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann \"Thomas Mann\"), [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\"), [Alma Mahler](/wiki/Alma_Mahler \"Alma Mahler\"), [Franz Werfel](/wiki/Franz_Werfel \"Franz Werfel\"), [Emil Ludwig](/wiki/Emil_Ludwig \"Emil Ludwig\"), [Aldous Huxley](/wiki/Aldous_Huxley \"Aldous Huxley\"), [Lion Feuchtwanger](/wiki/Lion_Feuchtwanger \"Lion Feuchtwanger\"), [Man Ray](/wiki/Man_Ray \"Man Ray\"), [Eugène Berman](/wiki/Berman_brothers_%28painters%29 \"Berman brothers (painters)\"), [Jean Renoir](/wiki/Jean_Renoir \"Jean Renoir\"). During this time, he also met and befriended [Golo Mann](/wiki/Golo_Mann \"Golo Mann\") as well as [Sholem Asch](/wiki/Sholem_Asch \"Sholem Asch\").",
"[thumb\\|Cover of the score of Tansman's *Divertimento* (1944\\) dedicated to [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\"), Éditions Max Eschig](/wiki/File:Alexandre_Tansman%2C_Divertimento.jpg \"Alexandre Tansman, Divertimento.jpg\")\nDuring his American years Tansman toured extensively as pianist and conductor and wrote a wealth of music, e.g. three symphonies, two quartets, works for piano. In 1944 he accepted [Nathaniel Shilkret](/wiki/Nathaniel_Shilkret \"Nathaniel Shilkret\")'s invitation to co\\-create *[Genesis Suite](/wiki/Genesis_Suite \"Genesis Suite\")*, alongside [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\"), [Darius Milhaud](/wiki/Darius_Milhaud \"Darius Milhaud\"), [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\"), [Ernst Toch](/wiki/Ernst_Toch \"Ernst Toch\"), [Mario Castelnuovo\\-Tedesco](/wiki/Mario_Castelnuovo-Tedesco \"Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco\"). In the 1940s, he also wrote a few scores for [Hollywood movies](/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States \"Cinema of the United States\"): i.e. *[Flesh and Fantasy](/wiki/Flesh_and_Fantasy \"Flesh and Fantasy\")*, starring [Barbara Stanwyck](/wiki/Barbara_Stanwyck \"Barbara Stanwyck\"), a [biopic](/wiki/Biopic \"Biopic\") of the Australian medical researcher Sister [Elizabeth Kenny](/wiki/Elizabeth_Kenny \"Elizabeth Kenny\"), starring [Rosalind Russell](/wiki/Rosalind_Russell \"Rosalind Russell\"), and *[Paris Underground](/wiki/Paris_Underground_%28film%29 \"Paris Underground (film)\")*, starring [Constance Bennett](/wiki/Constance_Bennett \"Constance Bennett\"). For the [1946 Academy Awards](/wiki/18th_Academy_Awards \"18th Academy Awards\") ceremony, he was nominated for an [Oscar for Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture](/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Original_Score \"Academy Award for Best Original Score\"), for *Paris Underground*. In 1948, Tansman published a book on Igor Stravinsky, the result of a friendship between the two composers during the years of exile in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Tansman\\|first\\=Alexandre\\|url\\=https://www.andrebreton.fr/en/work/56600100869101\\|title\\=Igor Stravinsky\\|date\\=1948\\|publisher\\=Amiot Dumont, Paris\\|others\\=Igor Stravinsky\\|edition\\=first publication}}",
"In 1946 Tansman returned to Paris and his musical career started again all over Europe. His works, with performances at times reaching over 500 a year, were performed by the best orchestras and conductors, such as [Jascha Horenstein](/wiki/Jascha_Horenstein \"Jascha Horenstein\"), [Rafael Kubelik](/wiki/Rafael_Kubel%C3%ADk \"Rafael Kubelík\"), [André Cluytens](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Cluytens \"André Cluytens\"), [Carlos Chávez](/wiki/Carlos_Ch%C3%A1vez \"Carlos Chávez\"), [Paul Kletzki](/wiki/Paul_Kletzki \"Paul Kletzki\"), [Charles Munch](/wiki/Charles_Munch_%28conductor%29 \"Charles Munch (conductor)\"), [Bruno Maderna](/wiki/Bruno_Maderna \"Bruno Maderna\"), [Paul van Kempen](/wiki/Paul_van_Kempen \"Paul van Kempen\"), Sir [Malcolm Sargent](/wiki/Malcolm_Sargent \"Malcolm Sargent\"), [Ferenc Fricsay](/wiki/Ferenc_Fricsay \"Ferenc Fricsay\"), [Charles Bruck](/wiki/Charles_Bruck \"Charles Bruck\"), [Øivin Fjeldstad](/wiki/%C3%98ivin_Fjeldstad \"Øivin Fjeldstad\"), [Eugène Bigot](/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Bigot \"Eugène Bigot\"), [Franz André](/wiki/Franz_Andr%C3%A9 \"Franz André\"), [Jean Fournet](/wiki/Jean_Fournet \"Jean Fournet\"), [Franz Waxman](/wiki/Franz_Waxman \"Franz Waxman\"), [Georges Tzipine](/wiki/Georges_Tzipine \"Georges Tzipine\"), [Pedro de Freitas Branco](/wiki/Pedro_de_Freitas_Branco \"Pedro de Freitas Branco\"), [Alfred Wallenstein](/wiki/Alfred_Wallenstein \"Alfred Wallenstein\"), [Eduard Flipse](/wiki/Eduard_Flipse \"Eduard Flipse\"), [Robert Whitney](/wiki/Robert_Whitney_%28conductor%29 \"Robert Whitney (conductor)\"), [Manuel Rosenthal](/wiki/Manuel_Rosenthal \"Manuel Rosenthal\"), [Roger Wagner](/wiki/Roger_Wagner \"Roger Wagner\"), [Jean Périsson](/wiki/Jean_P%C3%A9risson \"Jean Périsson\"), [Vassil Kazandjiev](/wiki/Vassil_Kazandjiev \"Vassil Kazandjiev\").",
"Despite Tansman’s numerous performances far away from his home in France, he did not return to the United States after the 1946 end of his California residency. This eventually reduced the number of Americans who knew who he was.",
"[thumb\\|Cover of the score of Tansman's *Hommage à Erasme de Rotterdam* (1969\\), Éditions Max Eschig](/wiki/File:Alexandre_Tansman%2C_Hommage_a_Erasme_de_Rotterdam.jpg \"Alexandre Tansman, Hommage a Erasme de Rotterdam.jpg\")\nAs a ballet composer, for decades Tansman collaborated with the most eminent choreographers like [Olga Preobrajenska](/wiki/Olga_Preobrajenska \"Olga Preobrajenska\"), [Rudolf von Laban](/wiki/Rudolf_von_Laban \"Rudolf von Laban\"), [Jean Börlin](/wiki/Jean_B%C3%B6rlin \"Jean Börlin\"), [Adolph Bolm](/wiki/Adolph_Bolm \"Adolph Bolm\"), [Kurt Jooss](/wiki/Kurt_Jooss \"Kurt Jooss\"), [Ernst Uthoff](/wiki/Ernst_Uthoff_Biefang \"Ernst Uthoff Biefang\"), [Françoise Adret](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Adret \"Françoise Adret\").",
"In 1966, he was awarded the [Hector Berlioz](/wiki/Hector_Berlioz \"Hector Berlioz\") Prize. In 1977, in recognition of his contribution to European culture, Tansman was granted membership (after the late [Dmitri Shostakovich](/wiki/Dmitri_Shostakovich \"Dmitri Shostakovich\")) of the [Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium](/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Science%2C_Letters_and_Fine_Arts_of_Belgium \"Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium\"). In 1978, he was awarded the Music Prize of the [Académie Française](/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Fran%C3%A7aise \"Académie Française\"), and in 1986 – the highest Commander grade of the [Ordre des Arts et des Lettres](/wiki/Ordre_des_Arts_et_des_Lettres \"Ordre des Arts et des Lettres\").",
"Notable students of Tansman include [Cristóbal Halffter](/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal_Halffter \"Cristóbal Halffter\"), [Leonardo Balada](/wiki/Leonardo_Balada \"Leonardo Balada\"), [Carmelo Bernaola](/wiki/Carmelo_Bernaola \"Carmelo Bernaola\"), [Yüksel Koptagel](/wiki/Y%C3%BCksel_Koptagel \"Yüksel Koptagel\").",
"During the last period of his life, he began to reestablish connections to Poland, though his career and family kept him in France, where he lived until his death in Paris in 1986\\. Since 1996, in his native city of Łódź, Alexander Tansman Association for the Promotion of Culture has been organizing the Alexander Tansman International Festival and Competition of Musical Personalities (Tansman Festival).{{Cite web\\|title\\=Tansman Philharmonic\\|url\\=http://tansman.org.pl/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-31\\|website\\=tansman.org.pl}}",
"Twenty years after the composer's death, in 2006 [Henryk Górecki](/wiki/Henryk_G%C3%B3recki \"Henryk Górecki\") wrote his long\\-awaited 4th Symphony, which he named *Tansman Episodes* by no accident. Górecki left a [cryptogram](/wiki/Cryptogram \"Cryptogram\") that explains the way he created the theme for the symphony, using musical letters from the first and last names of \"Aleksander Tansman\".{{Cite web\\|date\\=2014\\-05\\-03\\|title\\=(2014\\) Tansman, Stravinsky, Górecki\\|url\\=https://onpolishmusic.com/prog\\-notes/%e2%80%a2\\-2014\\-tansman\\-stravinsky\\-gorecki/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-02\\|website\\=On Polish Music}}{{Cite book\\|last\\=Wendland\\|first\\=Andrzej\\|chapter\\=The Phenomenon and Mystery of Górecki's Fourth Symphony – Tansman Episodes\\|title\\=Górecki in Context. Essays on Music\\|publisher\\=Moonrise Press\\|year\\=2017\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-945938\\-10\\-8\\|editor\\-last\\=Trochimczyk\\|editor\\-first\\=Maja\\|location\\=Los Angeles}}",
""
] |
Decision
--------
Chief Justice [Roberto Concepcion](/wiki/Roberto_Concepcion "Roberto Concepcion") wrote the decision. He outlined the summary of facts, then his own dissenting opinion of the case in which he said that the 1973 Constitution has not been properly ratified according to law, and then proceeded to make the summary of votes by the members of the court.
The issues raised were:
1. Is the issue of the validity of Proclamation No. 1102 a (political) question?
2. Has the 1973 Constitution been ratified validly?
3. Has the Constitution been acquiesced to (with or without valid ratification) by the people?
4. Are petitioners entitled to relief?
5. Is the Constitution in force?
The court was severely divided on the issues raised in the petition, but when the crucial question of whether the petitioners are entitled to relief, six members of the court (Justices Makalintal, Castro, Barredo, Makasiar, Antonio and Esguerra) voted to dismiss the petition, thus upholding the 1973 Constitution and Marcos's rule. Concepcion, together with Justices Zaldivar, Fernando and Teehankee, voted to grant the relief being sought.
In the issue of whether or not the 1973 Constitution has been ratified validly, six members of the court (the Chief Justice, and Justices Makalintal, Zaldivar, Castro, Fernando and Teehankee), answered that the Constitution was not validly ratified. Barredo's opinion was equivocal in its nature according to Cruz, but Joaquin Bernas, in his book on the Constitution, annotates that his opinion would be counted as concurring with the six justices. But it is unusual{{according to whom\|date\=October 2015}} that of those who said that the Constitution was not validly ratified, [Querube Makalintal](/wiki/Querube_Makalintal "Querube Makalintal") and [Fred Ruiz Castro](/wiki/Fred_Ruiz_Castro "Fred Ruiz Castro") voted to dismiss the petitions. Makalintal and Castro, in a joint opinion, justified their non\-granting of relief on the basis of a case in relation to [Luther v. Borden](/wiki/Luther_v._Borden "Luther v. Borden") (48 U.S. (7 How.) 1; 12 L.Ed. 581, 1849\). It said that the inquiry was indeed a political determination and not a judicial one.
It was speculated{{by whom\|date\=October 2015}} that the two justices, being next in line for the position of Chief Justice, voted as such so as not to lose favor with Marcos. Makalintal was subsequently appointed Speaker of the Interim [Batasang Pambansa](/wiki/Batasang_Pambansa "Batasang Pambansa"), and Castro evidently showing his support of the Marcos regime through his court decisions and public statements.
The last sentence of the decision said, "This being the vote of the majority, there is no further judicial obstacle to the new Constitution being considered in force and effect." It is disputed{{by whom\|date\=October 2015}} as to whether Concepcion placed this sentence intentionally or someone inserted these words after he signed the decision.
|
[
"Decision\n--------",
"Chief Justice [Roberto Concepcion](/wiki/Roberto_Concepcion \"Roberto Concepcion\") wrote the decision. He outlined the summary of facts, then his own dissenting opinion of the case in which he said that the 1973 Constitution has not been properly ratified according to law, and then proceeded to make the summary of votes by the members of the court.",
"The issues raised were:",
"1. Is the issue of the validity of Proclamation No. 1102 a (political) question?\n2. Has the 1973 Constitution been ratified validly?\n3. Has the Constitution been acquiesced to (with or without valid ratification) by the people?\n4. Are petitioners entitled to relief?\n5. Is the Constitution in force?",
"The court was severely divided on the issues raised in the petition, but when the crucial question of whether the petitioners are entitled to relief, six members of the court (Justices Makalintal, Castro, Barredo, Makasiar, Antonio and Esguerra) voted to dismiss the petition, thus upholding the 1973 Constitution and Marcos's rule. Concepcion, together with Justices Zaldivar, Fernando and Teehankee, voted to grant the relief being sought.",
"In the issue of whether or not the 1973 Constitution has been ratified validly, six members of the court (the Chief Justice, and Justices Makalintal, Zaldivar, Castro, Fernando and Teehankee), answered that the Constitution was not validly ratified. Barredo's opinion was equivocal in its nature according to Cruz, but Joaquin Bernas, in his book on the Constitution, annotates that his opinion would be counted as concurring with the six justices. But it is unusual{{according to whom\\|date\\=October 2015}} that of those who said that the Constitution was not validly ratified, [Querube Makalintal](/wiki/Querube_Makalintal \"Querube Makalintal\") and [Fred Ruiz Castro](/wiki/Fred_Ruiz_Castro \"Fred Ruiz Castro\") voted to dismiss the petitions. Makalintal and Castro, in a joint opinion, justified their non\\-granting of relief on the basis of a case in relation to [Luther v. Borden](/wiki/Luther_v._Borden \"Luther v. Borden\") (48 U.S. (7 How.) 1; 12 L.Ed. 581, 1849\\). It said that the inquiry was indeed a political determination and not a judicial one.",
"It was speculated{{by whom\\|date\\=October 2015}} that the two justices, being next in line for the position of Chief Justice, voted as such so as not to lose favor with Marcos. Makalintal was subsequently appointed Speaker of the Interim [Batasang Pambansa](/wiki/Batasang_Pambansa \"Batasang Pambansa\"), and Castro evidently showing his support of the Marcos regime through his court decisions and public statements.",
"The last sentence of the decision said, \"This being the vote of the majority, there is no further judicial obstacle to the new Constitution being considered in force and effect.\" It is disputed{{by whom\\|date\\=October 2015}} as to whether Concepcion placed this sentence intentionally or someone inserted these words after he signed the decision.",
""
] |
Aftermath
---------
The Ratification Cases removed any legal challenge to the Marcos presidency. He had such power as President of the Philippines until he was forced out of power in the 1986 [People Power Revolution](/wiki/People_Power_Revolution "People Power Revolution").
Chief Justice Concepcion took a leave 18 days after the decision became public (50 days from his scheduled retirement) supposedly because he was disappointed on the outcome of the decision. He would later become a member of the [Philippine Constitutional Commission of 1986](/wiki/Philippine_Constitutional_Commission_of_1986 "Philippine Constitutional Commission of 1986") that drafted the [1987 Philippine Constitution](/wiki/1987_Philippine_Constitution "1987 Philippine Constitution"). Drawing from his experiences in the martial law years, he introduced several innovations designed to assure the independence of the Supreme Court, such as the [Judicial and Bar Council](/wiki/Judicial_and_Bar_Council "Judicial and Bar Council") and the express conferment on the Court the power to review any acts of government.
In *[The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos](/wiki/The_Conjugal_Dictatorship_of_Ferdinand_and_Imelda_Marcos "The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos")*, it was observed by Primitivo Mijares in the Chapter "Spineless Judiciary: Legitimizing A Pretender" that, while the Ratification Cases was resolved in a matter of months, the other cases involving Marcos’ imprisoned critics were not decided until a year or two later.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2015}} In fact, some of the critics withdrew their petitions, mostly for [writ of habeas corpus](/wiki/Writ_of_habeas_corpus "Writ of habeas corpus"), due to the lack of confidence that the Supreme Court would grant their relief.
Makalintal, when he became Chief Justice, also took a similar approach of Concepcion in deciding the case of the [Habeas Corpus Cases](/wiki/Philippine_Habeas_Corpus_Cases "Philippine Habeas Corpus Cases") of [Benigno Aquino Jr.](/wiki/Benigno_Aquino_Jr. "Benigno Aquino Jr.") ([*Aquino, Jr. v. Enrile (1973\)*](http://www.lawphil.net/judjuris/juri1974/sep1974/gr_l_35546_1974.html)) by summarizing the diverse votes of the members of the court. He explained the reason why there was no collegial opinion by the Court, among others, that the justices of the Supreme Court are conscious of "the future verdict of history".
At the time of Chief Justices Castro and Fernando, the Supreme Court, using the ‘legitimizing’ power, affirmed the legality of the Ratification Cases through several cases, such as *Sanidad v. COMELEC (1976\)*{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lawphil.net/judjuris/juri1976/oct1976/gr\_44640\_1976\.html\|title\=G.R. No. L\-44640\|website\=www.lawphil.net}} and *Occena v. COMELEC (1981\)*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lawphil.net/judjuris/juri1981/apr1981/gr\_56350\_1981\.html\|title\=G.R. No. L\-56350\|website\=www.lawphil.net}}
Of the four justices who voted to grant relief, Concepcion and Calixto Zaldivar left the court due to retirement. Justices Teehankee, first identified with the regime,{{by whom\|date\=October 2015}} began to show his independence by consistently dissenting on several decisions made by the court. He was accompanied in such dissents by Justice [Cecilia Muñoz\-Palma](/wiki/Cecilia_Mu%C3%B1oz-Palma "Cecilia Muñoz-Palma"), and later, by [Vicente Abad Santos](/wiki/Vicente_Abad_Santos "Vicente Abad Santos"). Fernando, though expected that he would be one to oppose the excesses of the Marcos's regime, became its supporter.
|
[
"Aftermath\n---------",
"The Ratification Cases removed any legal challenge to the Marcos presidency. He had such power as President of the Philippines until he was forced out of power in the 1986 [People Power Revolution](/wiki/People_Power_Revolution \"People Power Revolution\").",
"Chief Justice Concepcion took a leave 18 days after the decision became public (50 days from his scheduled retirement) supposedly because he was disappointed on the outcome of the decision. He would later become a member of the [Philippine Constitutional Commission of 1986](/wiki/Philippine_Constitutional_Commission_of_1986 \"Philippine Constitutional Commission of 1986\") that drafted the [1987 Philippine Constitution](/wiki/1987_Philippine_Constitution \"1987 Philippine Constitution\"). Drawing from his experiences in the martial law years, he introduced several innovations designed to assure the independence of the Supreme Court, such as the [Judicial and Bar Council](/wiki/Judicial_and_Bar_Council \"Judicial and Bar Council\") and the express conferment on the Court the power to review any acts of government.",
"In *[The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos](/wiki/The_Conjugal_Dictatorship_of_Ferdinand_and_Imelda_Marcos \"The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos\")*, it was observed by Primitivo Mijares in the Chapter \"Spineless Judiciary: Legitimizing A Pretender\" that, while the Ratification Cases was resolved in a matter of months, the other cases involving Marcos’ imprisoned critics were not decided until a year or two later.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2015}} In fact, some of the critics withdrew their petitions, mostly for [writ of habeas corpus](/wiki/Writ_of_habeas_corpus \"Writ of habeas corpus\"), due to the lack of confidence that the Supreme Court would grant their relief.",
"Makalintal, when he became Chief Justice, also took a similar approach of Concepcion in deciding the case of the [Habeas Corpus Cases](/wiki/Philippine_Habeas_Corpus_Cases \"Philippine Habeas Corpus Cases\") of [Benigno Aquino Jr.](/wiki/Benigno_Aquino_Jr. \"Benigno Aquino Jr.\") ([*Aquino, Jr. v. Enrile (1973\\)*](http://www.lawphil.net/judjuris/juri1974/sep1974/gr_l_35546_1974.html)) by summarizing the diverse votes of the members of the court. He explained the reason why there was no collegial opinion by the Court, among others, that the justices of the Supreme Court are conscious of \"the future verdict of history\".",
"At the time of Chief Justices Castro and Fernando, the Supreme Court, using the ‘legitimizing’ power, affirmed the legality of the Ratification Cases through several cases, such as *Sanidad v. COMELEC (1976\\)*{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lawphil.net/judjuris/juri1976/oct1976/gr\\_44640\\_1976\\.html\\|title\\=G.R. No. L\\-44640\\|website\\=www.lawphil.net}} and *Occena v. COMELEC (1981\\)*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lawphil.net/judjuris/juri1981/apr1981/gr\\_56350\\_1981\\.html\\|title\\=G.R. No. L\\-56350\\|website\\=www.lawphil.net}}",
"Of the four justices who voted to grant relief, Concepcion and Calixto Zaldivar left the court due to retirement. Justices Teehankee, first identified with the regime,{{by whom\\|date\\=October 2015}} began to show his independence by consistently dissenting on several decisions made by the court. He was accompanied in such dissents by Justice [Cecilia Muñoz\\-Palma](/wiki/Cecilia_Mu%C3%B1oz-Palma \"Cecilia Muñoz-Palma\"), and later, by [Vicente Abad Santos](/wiki/Vicente_Abad_Santos \"Vicente Abad Santos\"). Fernando, though expected that he would be one to oppose the excesses of the Marcos's regime, became its supporter.",
""
] |
Work as Bishop
--------------
Doane had a large diocese, and spent many years in visitation, establishing churches, and confirming persons. For many years his biggest project was supervising the building of the [Cathedral of All Saints](/wiki/Cathedral_of_All_Saints_%28Albany%2C_New_York%29 "Cathedral of All Saints (Albany, New York)"), his major legacy. He got the land donated by the wealthy [Erastus Corning](/wiki/Erastus_Corning "Erastus Corning"). The cathedral was incorporated in 1873, and the laying of its cornerstone on a downtown site on June 3, 1884, took place "with impressive ceremony." With construction complete enough for the building to be used, the Cathedral of All Saints was dedicated in 1888\.{{Cite news \|date\=1888\-05\-22 \|title\=ALBANY'S CATHEDRAL.; TO BE DEDICATED BY BISHOP DOANE ON ALL SAINTS' DAY. \|language\=en\-US \|work\=The New York Times \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1888/05/22/archives/albanys\-cathedral\-to\-be\-dedicated\-by\-bishop\-doane\-on\-all\-saints\-day.html \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-25 \|issn\=0362\-4331}} Doane liked [Gothic architecture](/wiki/Gothic_architecture "Gothic architecture") for Episcopal churches for its spiritual quality.
Until that time, smaller Episcopal churches had served as seats of the bishop. The "cathedral idea"—the concept that a bishop's main church is more than a parish church, and is the "[Mother church](/wiki/Mother_church "Mother church")"—had not yet taken hold in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). It is sometimes called the "Pioneer Cathedral" because of that.DeMille, George E., *Pioneer Cathedral*, pp. 1\-3 (1967\). The claim to be being the first cathedral deliberately constructed for that purpose is challenged by the Cathedral of Our Merciful Saviour in Faribault, MN which was begun in 1862 and consecrated in 1869\. [http://www.thecathedralfaribault.com/a\-brief\-history/](http://www.thecathedralfaribault.com/a-brief-history/) Doane and the congregation planned a cathedral complex, to include [convent](/wiki/Convent "Convent"), [cloister](/wiki/Cloister "Cloister"), hospital and school. He established the girls' school in 1870, and the convent and hospital in 1874\.Petito Jr., Robert A. and Waite, John G.; {{cite web \|url\= http://www.thecathedralofallsaints.org/files/2913/5176/7966/CAS\_Architectural\_History.pdf \|title\= "Cathedral of All Saints" \|url\-status\= dead \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121115042333/http://www.thecathedralofallsaints.org/files/2913/5176/7966/CAS\_Architectural\_History.pdf \|archive\-date\= 2012\-11\-15 }}, *Architectural History*, 14 November 2003, p. 4, Retrieved 5 February 2013 Much of the building was paid for in a gift by his friend, [J. Pierpont Morgan](/wiki/J._Pierpont_Morgan "J. Pierpont Morgan"). The church is listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places").
By 1890 Bishop Doane was in charge of the "Foreign Chapels" of the Episcopal Church.{{cite book \|last1\=Carpenter \|first1\=Gerald H.J. \|title\=The American Church in Geneva : a century of service, 1873\-1973 \|date\=1973 \|publisher\=Centennial Committee of Emmanuel Church, Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 73\-79844}} In 1892, he addressed the General Convention in Baltimore, urging the necessity of Christian education.{{Cite news \|date\=1892\-10\-14 \|title\=AGAINST THE REVISED VERSION.; A REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE EPISCOPAL CONVENTION. \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1892/10/14/archives/against\-the\-revised\-version\-a\-report\-submitted\-to\-the\-episcopal.html \|access\-date\=2024\-06\-16 \|work\=The New York Times \|language\=en\-US \|issn\=0362\-4331}}
In keeping with his plans for the cathedral and Oxford Movement traditions, Doane established an ambitious music program at the cathedral. In the late 19th century, he founded a boy's [choir school](/wiki/Choir_school "Choir school") (now defunct) and the Cathedral Choir of Men and Boys.["Bishop William Croswell Doane"](http://anglicanhistory.org/usa/wcdoane/), Anglican history, Accessed February 13, 2008\.
Doane was active in speaking out against the [women's suffrage movement](/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States "Women's suffrage in the United States"), which he opposed on the grounds that God had given men dominion over women and that women's 'natural' place was in the home caring for their children. He wrote that "an enlarged unqualified suffrage... \[is] an aggravated misery \[and a] threatening danger".Dietrick, Ellen Battelle. *Women in the Early Christian Ministry: A Reply to Bishop Doane, and Others*. Philadelphia: Alfred J. Ferris, 1897\. So influential were his views that suffragist [Ellen Battelle Dietrick](/wiki/Ellen_Battelle_Dietrick "Ellen Battelle Dietrick")'s last book, *Women in the Early Christian Ministry* (1897\)—in which she offered a refutation of Christian teachings that relegated women to second\-class status—was subtitled "A Reply to Bishop Doane, and Others".
Doane died at the age of 81 in New York City in 1913, while traveling. His [Coadjutor](/wiki/Coadjutor "Coadjutor"), [Richard Henry Nelson](/wiki/Richard_Henry_Nelson "Richard Henry Nelson"), succeeded to the position of bishop of Albany.
|
[
"Work as Bishop\n--------------",
"Doane had a large diocese, and spent many years in visitation, establishing churches, and confirming persons. For many years his biggest project was supervising the building of the [Cathedral of All Saints](/wiki/Cathedral_of_All_Saints_%28Albany%2C_New_York%29 \"Cathedral of All Saints (Albany, New York)\"), his major legacy. He got the land donated by the wealthy [Erastus Corning](/wiki/Erastus_Corning \"Erastus Corning\"). The cathedral was incorporated in 1873, and the laying of its cornerstone on a downtown site on June 3, 1884, took place \"with impressive ceremony.\" With construction complete enough for the building to be used, the Cathedral of All Saints was dedicated in 1888\\.{{Cite news \\|date\\=1888\\-05\\-22 \\|title\\=ALBANY'S CATHEDRAL.; TO BE DEDICATED BY BISHOP DOANE ON ALL SAINTS' DAY. \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1888/05/22/archives/albanys\\-cathedral\\-to\\-be\\-dedicated\\-by\\-bishop\\-doane\\-on\\-all\\-saints\\-day.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-25 \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}} Doane liked [Gothic architecture](/wiki/Gothic_architecture \"Gothic architecture\") for Episcopal churches for its spiritual quality.",
"Until that time, smaller Episcopal churches had served as seats of the bishop. The \"cathedral idea\"—the concept that a bishop's main church is more than a parish church, and is the \"[Mother church](/wiki/Mother_church \"Mother church\")\"—had not yet taken hold in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). It is sometimes called the \"Pioneer Cathedral\" because of that.DeMille, George E., *Pioneer Cathedral*, pp. 1\\-3 (1967\\). The claim to be being the first cathedral deliberately constructed for that purpose is challenged by the Cathedral of Our Merciful Saviour in Faribault, MN which was begun in 1862 and consecrated in 1869\\. [http://www.thecathedralfaribault.com/a\\-brief\\-history/](http://www.thecathedralfaribault.com/a-brief-history/) Doane and the congregation planned a cathedral complex, to include [convent](/wiki/Convent \"Convent\"), [cloister](/wiki/Cloister \"Cloister\"), hospital and school. He established the girls' school in 1870, and the convent and hospital in 1874\\.Petito Jr., Robert A. and Waite, John G.; {{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.thecathedralofallsaints.org/files/2913/5176/7966/CAS\\_Architectural\\_History.pdf \\|title\\= \"Cathedral of All Saints\" \\|url\\-status\\= dead \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121115042333/http://www.thecathedralofallsaints.org/files/2913/5176/7966/CAS\\_Architectural\\_History.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\= 2012\\-11\\-15 }}, *Architectural History*, 14 November 2003, p. 4, Retrieved 5 February 2013 Much of the building was paid for in a gift by his friend, [J. Pierpont Morgan](/wiki/J._Pierpont_Morgan \"J. Pierpont Morgan\"). The church is listed on the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\").",
"By 1890 Bishop Doane was in charge of the \"Foreign Chapels\" of the Episcopal Church.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Carpenter \\|first1\\=Gerald H.J. \\|title\\=The American Church in Geneva : a century of service, 1873\\-1973 \\|date\\=1973 \\|publisher\\=Centennial Committee of Emmanuel Church, Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 73\\-79844}} In 1892, he addressed the General Convention in Baltimore, urging the necessity of Christian education.{{Cite news \\|date\\=1892\\-10\\-14 \\|title\\=AGAINST THE REVISED VERSION.; A REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE EPISCOPAL CONVENTION. \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1892/10/14/archives/against\\-the\\-revised\\-version\\-a\\-report\\-submitted\\-to\\-the\\-episcopal.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-06\\-16 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331}}",
"In keeping with his plans for the cathedral and Oxford Movement traditions, Doane established an ambitious music program at the cathedral. In the late 19th century, he founded a boy's [choir school](/wiki/Choir_school \"Choir school\") (now defunct) and the Cathedral Choir of Men and Boys.[\"Bishop William Croswell Doane\"](http://anglicanhistory.org/usa/wcdoane/), Anglican history, Accessed February 13, 2008\\.",
"Doane was active in speaking out against the [women's suffrage movement](/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States \"Women's suffrage in the United States\"), which he opposed on the grounds that God had given men dominion over women and that women's 'natural' place was in the home caring for their children. He wrote that \"an enlarged unqualified suffrage... \\[is] an aggravated misery \\[and a] threatening danger\".Dietrick, Ellen Battelle. *Women in the Early Christian Ministry: A Reply to Bishop Doane, and Others*. Philadelphia: Alfred J. Ferris, 1897\\. So influential were his views that suffragist [Ellen Battelle Dietrick](/wiki/Ellen_Battelle_Dietrick \"Ellen Battelle Dietrick\")'s last book, *Women in the Early Christian Ministry* (1897\\)—in which she offered a refutation of Christian teachings that relegated women to second\\-class status—was subtitled \"A Reply to Bishop Doane, and Others\".",
"Doane died at the age of 81 in New York City in 1913, while traveling. His [Coadjutor](/wiki/Coadjutor \"Coadjutor\"), [Richard Henry Nelson](/wiki/Richard_Henry_Nelson \"Richard Henry Nelson\"), succeeded to the position of bishop of Albany.",
""
] |
Mixed martial arts career
-------------------------
### Early career
Primus compiled an amateur record of 5\-1 before making his professional debut in September 2010, defeating Chris Ensley via first\-round submission. In his second pro bout, Primus defeated Roy Bradshaw via submission in the first round on May 12, 2012\.
### Bellator MMA
Primus signed with Bellator in 2013\. He made his debut for the organization on September 27, 2013, at [Bellator 101](/wiki/Bellator_101 "Bellator 101") against Scott Thometz. Primus won via rear\-naked choke submission at 3:48 in the first round, improving his record to 3–0\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Bellator\-101\-Results\-PlaybyPlay\-Updates\-56879\#brent\-primus\-scott\-thometz\|title\=Brent Primus vs. Scott Thometz\|publisher\=sherdog.com\|date\=September 27, 2013}}
Primus had his second bout with the organization on November 22, 2013, at [Bellator 109](/wiki/Bellator_109 "Bellator 109"). He defeated Brett Glass by rear\-naked choke submission in the first round.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Bellator\-109\-Results\-PlaybyPlay\-Updates\-59741\#brett\-glass\-brent\-primus\|title\=Brent Primus vs. Brett Glass\|publisher\=sherdog.com\|date\=November 22, 2013}}
In his next bout, Primus faced Chris Jones at [Bellator 111](/wiki/Bellator_111 "Bellator 111") on March 7, 2014\. Primus won via TKO in the first round, which marked the first time Primus had finished an opponent that was not by rear\-naked choke.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Bellator\-111\-Results\-PlaybyPlay\-Updates\-64511\#chris\-jones\-brent\-primus\|title\=Brent Primus vs. Chris Jones\|publisher\=sherdog.com\|date\=March 7, 2014}}
After nearly a year\-and\-a\-half away from the sport, Primus returned to face [Derek Anderson](/wiki/Derek_Anderson_%28fighter%29 "Derek Anderson (fighter)") at [Bellator 141](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2015%23Bellator_141 "Bellator MMA in 2015#Bellator 141") on August 28, 2015\. He won the fight by split decision.
Primus next faced Gleristone Santos at [Bellator 153](/wiki/Bellator_153 "Bellator 153") on April 22, 2016\. He won the fight by split decision.
#### Bellator Lightweight World Champion
With an undefeated streak of five wins in Bellator, Primus faced Bellator Lightweight champion [Michael Chandler](/wiki/Michael_Chandler "Michael Chandler") at [Bellator NYC](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2017%23Bellator_NYC.2FBellator_180 "Bellator MMA in 2017#Bellator NYC.2FBellator 180") on June 24, 2017\. At 2:22 in the first round, the bout was temporarily halted by the referee to check on Chandler, whose left ankle was visibly injured. The bout was stopped in favor of Primus via TKO, awarding him the [Bellator Lightweight World Championship](/wiki/List_of_Bellator_MMA_champions%23Lightweight_World_Championship "List of Bellator MMA champions#Lightweight World Championship") and pulling off one of the biggest upsets in Bellator history.{{cite web\|url\=http://mmajunkie.com/2017/06/bellator\-nyc\-brent\-primus\-breaks\-michael\-chandlers\-leg\-wins\-lightweight\-title\|title\=Bellator NYC results: Brent Primus wins lightweight title with injury TKO over Michael Chandler\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|author\=Steven Marrocco\|date\=June 24, 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.tapology.com/search/mma\-betting\-odds/oddsmaker\-upsets\-in\-Bellator\-2\|title\=Biggest Oddsmaker Upsets in Bellator\|publisher\=tapology.com\|author\=\|date\=}}
Primus was expected to make his first title defense against Chandler in a rematch at [Bellator 197](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2018%23Bellator_197 "Bellator MMA in 2018#Bellator 197") on April 13, 2018\. However, he pulled out of the fight due to a knee injury. As a result, [Brandon Girtz](/wiki/Brandon_Girtz "Brandon Girtz") stepped in as a replacement.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2018/3/21/17149200/brent\-primus\-releases\-statement\-about\-withdrawal\-from\-michael\-chandler\-rematch\|title\=Brent Primus releases statement about withdrawal from Michael Chandler rematch\|publisher\=mmafighting.com\|author\=Shaun Al\-Shatti\|date\=March 21, 2018}}
The rematch between Primus and Chandler finally took place in the main event of [Bellator 212](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2018%23Bellator_212 "Bellator MMA in 2018#Bellator 212") on December 14, 2018\.{{cite web\|url\=https://mmajunkie.com/2018/10/brent\-primus\-vs\-michael\-chandler\-rematch\-headlines\-bellator\-troops\-event\-hawaii\-frank\-mir\-javy\-ayala\|author\=John Morgan\|publisher\=mmajunkie.com\|date\=October 11, 2018\|title\=Brent Primus vs. Michael Chandler rematch headlines new Bellator 'Salute the Troops' event in Hawaii}} Primus was out\-wrestled for the better part of the fight, and despite landing similar leg kicks to those that stopped Chandler in their first fight and dropping Chandler with a punch in the second round, Primus was defeated by Chandler via unanimous decision.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2018/12/14/18140414/bellator\-212\-results\-primus\-vs\-chandler\-2\|title\=Bellator 212 results: Primus vs Chandler 2\|work\=mmafighting.com\|date\=December 15, 2018}}
#### Post\-title era
As the first fight after losing his title, Primus faced Tim Wilde at [Bellator: Birmingham](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2019%23Bellator_Birmingham "Bellator MMA in 2019#Bellator Birmingham") on May 4, 2019\. He won the fight via [gogoplata](/wiki/Gogoplata "Gogoplata") in the first round.
Primus was expected to face Peter Queally at [Bellator 240](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2020%23Bellator_240 "Bellator MMA in 2020#Bellator 240") on February 22, 2020\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2019/12/11/21010631/brent\-primus\-vs\-peter\-queally\-set\-for\-bellator\-dublin\-co\-main\-event\|title\=Brent Primus vs. Peter Queally set for Bellator Dublin co\-main event\|author\=Peter Carroll\|date\=December 11, 2019\|publisher\=mmafighting.com}} However, Queally was forced to withdraw from the bout due to knee injury and was subsequently replaced by Chris Bungard.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2020/1/30/21114979/peter\-queally\-out\-of\-bellator\-dublin\-chris\-bungard\-steps\-in\-to\-face\-brent\-primus\|title\=Peter Queally out of Bellator Dublin, Chris Bungard steps in to face Brent Primus\|author\=Peter Carroll\|publisher\=mmafighting.com\|date\=January 30, 2020}} Primus won the bout via neck\-crank submission in the 1st round.
On April 17, 2021, Primus announced signing a new 6\-fight contract.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.instagram.com/p/CNuzh\-uLHur/ \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/instagram/brentprimus155/2553204674227108779 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-25 \|url\-access\=registration\|title\=Brent Primus on Instagram \|website\=instagram.com \|quote\=I’ll be making at least 6 more of these walks...\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-04}}{{cbignore}}
Primus faced Islam Mamedov on July 31, 2021, at [Bellator 263](/wiki/Bellator_263 "Bellator 263").{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-07\-19\|title\=Bellator 263 adds three fights including Brent Primus vs. Islam Mamedov, loses ranked bantamweight bout\|url\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2021/07/bellator\-263\-brent\-primus\-vs\-islam\-mamedov\-ilara\-joanne\-vanessa\-porto\-carey\-rabadanov\|access\-date\=2021\-07\-20\|website\=MMA Junkie\|language\=en\-US}} He lost the bout via split decision.{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-08\-01\|title\=Bellator 263 results: Islam Mamedov grinds out split decision over Brent Primus to win debut\|url\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2021/07/bellator\-263\-results\-islam\-mamedov\-grinds\-out\-split\-decision\-over\-brent\-primus\-to\-win\-debut\|access\-date\=2021\-08\-01\|website\=MMA Junkie\|language\=en\-US}}
Primus faced [Benson Henderson](/wiki/Benson_Henderson "Benson Henderson") on October 16, 2021, at [Bellator 268](/wiki/Bellator_268 "Bellator 268").{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-09\-09\|title\=Benson Henderson, Brent Primus set to face off at Bellator 268\|url\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2021/09/bellator\-268\-adds\-benson\-henderson\-vs\-brent\-primus\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-09\|website\=MMA Junkie\|language\=en\-US}} He won the fight via unanimous decision.{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-10\-17\|title\=Bellator 268 results: Brent Primus spoils Benson Henderson homecoming, calls for title opportunity\|url\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2021/10/bellator\-268\-results\-benson\-henderson\-vs\-brent\-primus\-homecoming\-spoiled\-arizona\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-17\|website\=MMA Junkie\|language\=en\-US}}
Primus faced [Alexandr Shabliy](/wiki/Alexandr_Shabliy "Alexandr Shabliy") at [Bellator 282](/wiki/Bellator_282 "Bellator 282") on June 24, 2022\.{{Cite web \|last\=Guillen \|first\=Adam Jr. \|date\=2022\-04\-01 \|title\=Brent Primus vs Alexander Shabliy targeted for Bellator 282 on June 24 \|url\=https://www.mmamania.com/2022/4/1/23005447/brent\-primus\-vs\-alexander\-shabliy\-targeted\-for\-bellator\-282\-on\-june\-24 \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-02 \|website\=MMAmania.com \|language\=en}} He lost the bout via TKO in the second round.{{Cite web \|last\=Al\-Shatti \|first\=Shaun \|date\=2022\-06\-24 \|title\=Bellator 282 video: Alexander Shabliy stuns ex\-champ Brent Primus with brutal KO \|url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2022/6/24/23182419/bellator\-282\-video\-alexander\-shabliy\-stuns\-ex\-champ\-brent\-primus\-with\-brutal\-ko \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-25 \|website\=MMA Fighting \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Sherdog.com \|title\=Bellator 282 'Mousasi vs. Eblen' Play\-by\-Play, Results \& Round Scoring \|url\=https://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Bellator\-282\-Mousasi\-vs\-Eblen\-PlaybyPlay\-Results\-Round\-Scoring\-187225\#brent\-primus\-(156\)\-alexandr\-shabliy\-(15575\) \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-25 \|website\=Sherdog \|language\=en}}
#### Lightweight Grand Prix
After an original contestant of the $1 million [Bellator Lightweight World Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_in_Bellator_MMA%23Bellator_Lightweight_World_Grand_Prix_Tournament "2023 in Bellator MMA#Bellator Lightweight World Grand Prix Tournament"), [Sidney Outlaw](/wiki/Sidney_Outlaw "Sidney Outlaw"), was suspended for a positive drug test, Primus replaced him for the quarter\-final bout against [Mansour Barnaoui](/wiki/Mansour_Barnaoui "Mansour Barnaoui") on May 12, 2023, at [Bellator 296](/wiki/Bellator_296 "Bellator 296").{{Cite web \|last\=Marrocco \|first\=Steven \|date\=2023\-02\-21 \|title\=Sidney Outlaw flunks drug test, Brent Primus enters lightweight grand prix at Bellator Paris \|url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2023/2/21/23609221/sidney\-outlaw\-flunks\-drug\-test\-brent\-primus\-enters\-lightweight\-grand\-prix\-at\-bellator\-paris \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-22 \|website\=MMA Fighting \|language\=en}} Primus won the back\-and\-forth bout by unanimous decision.{{Cite web \|last\=Anderson \|first\=Jay \|date\=2023\-05\-12 \|title\=Bellator 296: Mansour Barnaoui Starts Hot, But Brent Primus Wins Decision, Advances in Grand Prix \|url\=https://cagesidepress.com/2023/05/12/bellator\-296\-mansour\-barnaoui\-vs\-brent\-primus/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-13 \|website\=Cageside Press \|language\=en\-US}}
In the semifinals, Primus faced [reigning champion](/wiki/List_of_Bellator_MMA_champions%23Lightweight_World_Championship "List of Bellator MMA champions#Lightweight World Championship") [Usman Nurmagomedov](/wiki/Usman_Nurmagomedov "Usman Nurmagomedov") on 7 October 2023, at [Bellator 300](/wiki/Bellator_300 "Bellator 300").{{Cite web \|last\=Guillen Jr \|first\=Adam \|date\=2023\-08\-09 \|title\=Bellator 300 set with four title fights featuring Ryan Bader, Cris Cyborg and Usman Nurmagomedov \|url\=https://www.mmamania.com/platform/amp/2023/8/9/23826217/bellator\-300\-four\-title\-fights\-ryan\-bader\-cris\-cyborg\-usman\-nurmagomedov\-showtime\-mma \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-13 \|website\=SBNation \|language\=en\-US}} He originally lost the fight by unanimous decision but that result was overturned by CSAC when Nurmagomedov tested positive for prescription drug that contained a banned substance.{{Cite web \|last\=Anderson \|first\=Jay \|date\=2023\-10\-08 \|title\=Bellator 300: Usman Nurmagomedov Retains, Cruises Past Brent Primus to Grand Prix Final \|url\=https://cagesidepress.com/2023/10/08/bellator\-300\-usman\-nurmagomedov\-vs\-brent\-primus/ \|access\-date\=2023\-10\-08 \|website\=Cageside Press \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Kasabian \|first\=Paul \|date\=2023\-11\-11 \|title\=Usman Nurmagomedov Tests Positive for Banned Substance, Suspended 6 Months by CSAC \|url\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/10096946\-usman\-nurmagomedov\-tests\-positive\-for\-banned\-substance\-suspended\-6\-months\-by\-csac \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-11 \|website\=Bleacher Report \|language\=en\-us}}
### PFL
Primus started the 2024 season with a bout against Bruno Miranda on April 12, 2024 at [PFL 2](/wiki/PFL_2_%282024%29 "PFL 2 (2024)").{{Cite web \|last\=Cruz \|first\=Guilherme \|date\=2024\-03\-11 \|title\=PFL announces full line\-ups for first 3 season events, 8 ex\-Bellator champions debut \|url\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2024/3/11/24097668/pfl\-announces\-full\-line\-up\-three\-season\-events\-debut\-bellator\-champions \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-08 \|website\=MMA Fighting \|language\=en}} He won the fight due to a rear\-naked choke submission.{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-04\-13 \|title\=2024 PFL 2 video: Former Bellator champ Brent Primus taps Gabriel Miranda \|url\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2024/04/2024\-pfl\-2\-video\-brent\-primus\-vs\-gabriel\-miranda \|access\-date\=2024\-04\-14 \|website\=MMA Junkie \|language\=en\-US}}
Primus next faced Solomon Renfro at [PFL 5](/wiki/PFL_5_%282024%29 "PFL 5 (2024)") on June 21, 2024{{cite web \| url\=https://www.fightsports.tv/full\-pfl\-5\-fight\-card\-announced\-set\-for\-june\-21st\-in\-salt\-lake\-city/ \| title\=Full PFL 5 Fight Card Announced, Set for June 21st \| date\=May 2024 }} Renfro would miss the Lightweight limit weighing in at 157\.4 pounds. {{cite web \| url\=https://cagesidepress.com/2024/06/20/2024\-pfl\-5\-regular\-season\-official\-weigh\-in\-results\-one\-heavy/ \| title\=2024 PFL 5 Regular Season Official Weigh\-in Results: One Heavy \| date\=20 June 2024 }} Primus would win the fight via submission in the third round and thus secure himself the top seed for the playoff section of the PFL Lightweight tournament.{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-06\-22 \|title\=2024 PFL 5 video: Brent Primus pulls off gusty last\-minute submission of Solomon Renfro \|url\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2024/06/pfl\-video\-brent\-primus\-vs\-solomon\-renfro\-results \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-04 \|website\=MMA Junkie \|language\=en\-US}}
Primus faced [Clay Collard](/wiki/Clay_Collard "Clay Collard") in the semifinals of the [2024 Lightweight tournament](/wiki/2024_in_Professional_Fighters_League%232024_PFL_Lightweight_playoffs "2024 in Professional Fighters League#2024 PFL Lightweight playoffs") on August 16, 2024 at [PFL 8](/wiki/PFL_8_%282024%29 "PFL 8 (2024)").{{Cite web \|last\=Staff \|date\=2024\-07\-09 \|title\=Main Cards Announced for All Three 2024 PFL Playoff Events \|url\=https://cagesidepress.com/2024/07/09/main\-cards\-announced\-for\-all\-three\-2024\-pfl\-playoff\-events/ \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-05 \|website\=Cageside Press \|language\=en\-US}} He won the fight by unanimous decision.{{Cite web \|last\=Anderson \|first\=Jay \|date\=2024\-08\-17 \|title\=PFL Hollywood: Wrestling\-Heavy, Low\-Action Fight Sees Brent Primus Defeat Clay Collard \|url\=https://cagesidepress.com/2024/08/16/pfl\-hollywood\-wrestling\-heavy\-low\-action\-fight\-sees\-brent\-primus\-defeat\-clay\-collard/ \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-18 \|website\=Cageside Press \|language\=en\-US}}
|
[
"Mixed martial arts career\n-------------------------",
"### Early career",
"Primus compiled an amateur record of 5\\-1 before making his professional debut in September 2010, defeating Chris Ensley via first\\-round submission. In his second pro bout, Primus defeated Roy Bradshaw via submission in the first round on May 12, 2012\\.",
"### Bellator MMA",
"Primus signed with Bellator in 2013\\. He made his debut for the organization on September 27, 2013, at [Bellator 101](/wiki/Bellator_101 \"Bellator 101\") against Scott Thometz. Primus won via rear\\-naked choke submission at 3:48 in the first round, improving his record to 3–0\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Bellator\\-101\\-Results\\-PlaybyPlay\\-Updates\\-56879\\#brent\\-primus\\-scott\\-thometz\\|title\\=Brent Primus vs. Scott Thometz\\|publisher\\=sherdog.com\\|date\\=September 27, 2013}}",
"Primus had his second bout with the organization on November 22, 2013, at [Bellator 109](/wiki/Bellator_109 \"Bellator 109\"). He defeated Brett Glass by rear\\-naked choke submission in the first round.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Bellator\\-109\\-Results\\-PlaybyPlay\\-Updates\\-59741\\#brett\\-glass\\-brent\\-primus\\|title\\=Brent Primus vs. Brett Glass\\|publisher\\=sherdog.com\\|date\\=November 22, 2013}}",
"In his next bout, Primus faced Chris Jones at [Bellator 111](/wiki/Bellator_111 \"Bellator 111\") on March 7, 2014\\. Primus won via TKO in the first round, which marked the first time Primus had finished an opponent that was not by rear\\-naked choke.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Bellator\\-111\\-Results\\-PlaybyPlay\\-Updates\\-64511\\#chris\\-jones\\-brent\\-primus\\|title\\=Brent Primus vs. Chris Jones\\|publisher\\=sherdog.com\\|date\\=March 7, 2014}}",
"After nearly a year\\-and\\-a\\-half away from the sport, Primus returned to face [Derek Anderson](/wiki/Derek_Anderson_%28fighter%29 \"Derek Anderson (fighter)\") at [Bellator 141](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2015%23Bellator_141 \"Bellator MMA in 2015#Bellator 141\") on August 28, 2015\\. He won the fight by split decision.",
"Primus next faced Gleristone Santos at [Bellator 153](/wiki/Bellator_153 \"Bellator 153\") on April 22, 2016\\. He won the fight by split decision.",
"#### Bellator Lightweight World Champion",
"With an undefeated streak of five wins in Bellator, Primus faced Bellator Lightweight champion [Michael Chandler](/wiki/Michael_Chandler \"Michael Chandler\") at [Bellator NYC](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2017%23Bellator_NYC.2FBellator_180 \"Bellator MMA in 2017#Bellator NYC.2FBellator 180\") on June 24, 2017\\. At 2:22 in the first round, the bout was temporarily halted by the referee to check on Chandler, whose left ankle was visibly injured. The bout was stopped in favor of Primus via TKO, awarding him the [Bellator Lightweight World Championship](/wiki/List_of_Bellator_MMA_champions%23Lightweight_World_Championship \"List of Bellator MMA champions#Lightweight World Championship\") and pulling off one of the biggest upsets in Bellator history.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mmajunkie.com/2017/06/bellator\\-nyc\\-brent\\-primus\\-breaks\\-michael\\-chandlers\\-leg\\-wins\\-lightweight\\-title\\|title\\=Bellator NYC results: Brent Primus wins lightweight title with injury TKO over Michael Chandler\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|author\\=Steven Marrocco\\|date\\=June 24, 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.tapology.com/search/mma\\-betting\\-odds/oddsmaker\\-upsets\\-in\\-Bellator\\-2\\|title\\=Biggest Oddsmaker Upsets in Bellator\\|publisher\\=tapology.com\\|author\\=\\|date\\=}}",
"Primus was expected to make his first title defense against Chandler in a rematch at [Bellator 197](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2018%23Bellator_197 \"Bellator MMA in 2018#Bellator 197\") on April 13, 2018\\. However, he pulled out of the fight due to a knee injury. As a result, [Brandon Girtz](/wiki/Brandon_Girtz \"Brandon Girtz\") stepped in as a replacement.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2018/3/21/17149200/brent\\-primus\\-releases\\-statement\\-about\\-withdrawal\\-from\\-michael\\-chandler\\-rematch\\|title\\=Brent Primus releases statement about withdrawal from Michael Chandler rematch\\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com\\|author\\=Shaun Al\\-Shatti\\|date\\=March 21, 2018}}",
"The rematch between Primus and Chandler finally took place in the main event of [Bellator 212](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2018%23Bellator_212 \"Bellator MMA in 2018#Bellator 212\") on December 14, 2018\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.com/2018/10/brent\\-primus\\-vs\\-michael\\-chandler\\-rematch\\-headlines\\-bellator\\-troops\\-event\\-hawaii\\-frank\\-mir\\-javy\\-ayala\\|author\\=John Morgan\\|publisher\\=mmajunkie.com\\|date\\=October 11, 2018\\|title\\=Brent Primus vs. Michael Chandler rematch headlines new Bellator 'Salute the Troops' event in Hawaii}} Primus was out\\-wrestled for the better part of the fight, and despite landing similar leg kicks to those that stopped Chandler in their first fight and dropping Chandler with a punch in the second round, Primus was defeated by Chandler via unanimous decision.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2018/12/14/18140414/bellator\\-212\\-results\\-primus\\-vs\\-chandler\\-2\\|title\\=Bellator 212 results: Primus vs Chandler 2\\|work\\=mmafighting.com\\|date\\=December 15, 2018}}",
"#### Post\\-title era",
"As the first fight after losing his title, Primus faced Tim Wilde at [Bellator: Birmingham](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2019%23Bellator_Birmingham \"Bellator MMA in 2019#Bellator Birmingham\") on May 4, 2019\\. He won the fight via [gogoplata](/wiki/Gogoplata \"Gogoplata\") in the first round.",
"Primus was expected to face Peter Queally at [Bellator 240](/wiki/Bellator_MMA_in_2020%23Bellator_240 \"Bellator MMA in 2020#Bellator 240\") on February 22, 2020\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2019/12/11/21010631/brent\\-primus\\-vs\\-peter\\-queally\\-set\\-for\\-bellator\\-dublin\\-co\\-main\\-event\\|title\\=Brent Primus vs. Peter Queally set for Bellator Dublin co\\-main event\\|author\\=Peter Carroll\\|date\\=December 11, 2019\\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com}} However, Queally was forced to withdraw from the bout due to knee injury and was subsequently replaced by Chris Bungard.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2020/1/30/21114979/peter\\-queally\\-out\\-of\\-bellator\\-dublin\\-chris\\-bungard\\-steps\\-in\\-to\\-face\\-brent\\-primus\\|title\\=Peter Queally out of Bellator Dublin, Chris Bungard steps in to face Brent Primus\\|author\\=Peter Carroll\\|publisher\\=mmafighting.com\\|date\\=January 30, 2020}} Primus won the bout via neck\\-crank submission in the 1st round.",
"On April 17, 2021, Primus announced signing a new 6\\-fight contract.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.instagram.com/p/CNuzh\\-uLHur/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/instagram/brentprimus155/2553204674227108779 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-25 \\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|title\\=Brent Primus on Instagram \\|website\\=instagram.com \\|quote\\=I’ll be making at least 6 more of these walks...\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-04}}{{cbignore}}",
"Primus faced Islam Mamedov on July 31, 2021, at [Bellator 263](/wiki/Bellator_263 \"Bellator 263\").{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-07\\-19\\|title\\=Bellator 263 adds three fights including Brent Primus vs. Islam Mamedov, loses ranked bantamweight bout\\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2021/07/bellator\\-263\\-brent\\-primus\\-vs\\-islam\\-mamedov\\-ilara\\-joanne\\-vanessa\\-porto\\-carey\\-rabadanov\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-07\\-20\\|website\\=MMA Junkie\\|language\\=en\\-US}} He lost the bout via split decision.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-01\\|title\\=Bellator 263 results: Islam Mamedov grinds out split decision over Brent Primus to win debut\\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2021/07/bellator\\-263\\-results\\-islam\\-mamedov\\-grinds\\-out\\-split\\-decision\\-over\\-brent\\-primus\\-to\\-win\\-debut\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-08\\-01\\|website\\=MMA Junkie\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Primus faced [Benson Henderson](/wiki/Benson_Henderson \"Benson Henderson\") on October 16, 2021, at [Bellator 268](/wiki/Bellator_268 \"Bellator 268\").{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-09\\|title\\=Benson Henderson, Brent Primus set to face off at Bellator 268\\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2021/09/bellator\\-268\\-adds\\-benson\\-henderson\\-vs\\-brent\\-primus\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-09\\|website\\=MMA Junkie\\|language\\=en\\-US}} He won the fight via unanimous decision.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-17\\|title\\=Bellator 268 results: Brent Primus spoils Benson Henderson homecoming, calls for title opportunity\\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2021/10/bellator\\-268\\-results\\-benson\\-henderson\\-vs\\-brent\\-primus\\-homecoming\\-spoiled\\-arizona\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-17\\|website\\=MMA Junkie\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Primus faced [Alexandr Shabliy](/wiki/Alexandr_Shabliy \"Alexandr Shabliy\") at [Bellator 282](/wiki/Bellator_282 \"Bellator 282\") on June 24, 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Guillen \\|first\\=Adam Jr. \\|date\\=2022\\-04\\-01 \\|title\\=Brent Primus vs Alexander Shabliy targeted for Bellator 282 on June 24 \\|url\\=https://www.mmamania.com/2022/4/1/23005447/brent\\-primus\\-vs\\-alexander\\-shabliy\\-targeted\\-for\\-bellator\\-282\\-on\\-june\\-24 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-02 \\|website\\=MMAmania.com \\|language\\=en}} He lost the bout via TKO in the second round.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Al\\-Shatti \\|first\\=Shaun \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-24 \\|title\\=Bellator 282 video: Alexander Shabliy stuns ex\\-champ Brent Primus with brutal KO \\|url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2022/6/24/23182419/bellator\\-282\\-video\\-alexander\\-shabliy\\-stuns\\-ex\\-champ\\-brent\\-primus\\-with\\-brutal\\-ko \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-25 \\|website\\=MMA Fighting \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sherdog.com \\|title\\=Bellator 282 'Mousasi vs. Eblen' Play\\-by\\-Play, Results \\& Round Scoring \\|url\\=https://www.sherdog.com/news/news/Bellator\\-282\\-Mousasi\\-vs\\-Eblen\\-PlaybyPlay\\-Results\\-Round\\-Scoring\\-187225\\#brent\\-primus\\-(156\\)\\-alexandr\\-shabliy\\-(15575\\) \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-25 \\|website\\=Sherdog \\|language\\=en}}",
"#### Lightweight Grand Prix",
"After an original contestant of the $1 million [Bellator Lightweight World Grand Prix](/wiki/2023_in_Bellator_MMA%23Bellator_Lightweight_World_Grand_Prix_Tournament \"2023 in Bellator MMA#Bellator Lightweight World Grand Prix Tournament\"), [Sidney Outlaw](/wiki/Sidney_Outlaw \"Sidney Outlaw\"), was suspended for a positive drug test, Primus replaced him for the quarter\\-final bout against [Mansour Barnaoui](/wiki/Mansour_Barnaoui \"Mansour Barnaoui\") on May 12, 2023, at [Bellator 296](/wiki/Bellator_296 \"Bellator 296\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Marrocco \\|first\\=Steven \\|date\\=2023\\-02\\-21 \\|title\\=Sidney Outlaw flunks drug test, Brent Primus enters lightweight grand prix at Bellator Paris \\|url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2023/2/21/23609221/sidney\\-outlaw\\-flunks\\-drug\\-test\\-brent\\-primus\\-enters\\-lightweight\\-grand\\-prix\\-at\\-bellator\\-paris \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-22 \\|website\\=MMA Fighting \\|language\\=en}} Primus won the back\\-and\\-forth bout by unanimous decision.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Anderson \\|first\\=Jay \\|date\\=2023\\-05\\-12 \\|title\\=Bellator 296: Mansour Barnaoui Starts Hot, But Brent Primus Wins Decision, Advances in Grand Prix \\|url\\=https://cagesidepress.com/2023/05/12/bellator\\-296\\-mansour\\-barnaoui\\-vs\\-brent\\-primus/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-13 \\|website\\=Cageside Press \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"In the semifinals, Primus faced [reigning champion](/wiki/List_of_Bellator_MMA_champions%23Lightweight_World_Championship \"List of Bellator MMA champions#Lightweight World Championship\") [Usman Nurmagomedov](/wiki/Usman_Nurmagomedov \"Usman Nurmagomedov\") on 7 October 2023, at [Bellator 300](/wiki/Bellator_300 \"Bellator 300\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Guillen Jr \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=2023\\-08\\-09 \\|title\\=Bellator 300 set with four title fights featuring Ryan Bader, Cris Cyborg and Usman Nurmagomedov \\|url\\=https://www.mmamania.com/platform/amp/2023/8/9/23826217/bellator\\-300\\-four\\-title\\-fights\\-ryan\\-bader\\-cris\\-cyborg\\-usman\\-nurmagomedov\\-showtime\\-mma \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-13 \\|website\\=SBNation \\|language\\=en\\-US}} He originally lost the fight by unanimous decision but that result was overturned by CSAC when Nurmagomedov tested positive for prescription drug that contained a banned substance.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Anderson \\|first\\=Jay \\|date\\=2023\\-10\\-08 \\|title\\=Bellator 300: Usman Nurmagomedov Retains, Cruises Past Brent Primus to Grand Prix Final \\|url\\=https://cagesidepress.com/2023/10/08/bellator\\-300\\-usman\\-nurmagomedov\\-vs\\-brent\\-primus/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-10\\-08 \\|website\\=Cageside Press \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kasabian \\|first\\=Paul \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-11 \\|title\\=Usman Nurmagomedov Tests Positive for Banned Substance, Suspended 6 Months by CSAC \\|url\\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/10096946\\-usman\\-nurmagomedov\\-tests\\-positive\\-for\\-banned\\-substance\\-suspended\\-6\\-months\\-by\\-csac \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-11 \\|website\\=Bleacher Report \\|language\\=en\\-us}}",
"### PFL",
"Primus started the 2024 season with a bout against Bruno Miranda on April 12, 2024 at [PFL 2](/wiki/PFL_2_%282024%29 \"PFL 2 (2024)\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Cruz \\|first\\=Guilherme \\|date\\=2024\\-03\\-11 \\|title\\=PFL announces full line\\-ups for first 3 season events, 8 ex\\-Bellator champions debut \\|url\\=https://www.mmafighting.com/2024/3/11/24097668/pfl\\-announces\\-full\\-line\\-up\\-three\\-season\\-events\\-debut\\-bellator\\-champions \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-08 \\|website\\=MMA Fighting \\|language\\=en}} He won the fight due to a rear\\-naked choke submission.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-04\\-13 \\|title\\=2024 PFL 2 video: Former Bellator champ Brent Primus taps Gabriel Miranda \\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2024/04/2024\\-pfl\\-2\\-video\\-brent\\-primus\\-vs\\-gabriel\\-miranda \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-04\\-14 \\|website\\=MMA Junkie \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Primus next faced Solomon Renfro at [PFL 5](/wiki/PFL_5_%282024%29 \"PFL 5 (2024)\") on June 21, 2024{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.fightsports.tv/full\\-pfl\\-5\\-fight\\-card\\-announced\\-set\\-for\\-june\\-21st\\-in\\-salt\\-lake\\-city/ \\| title\\=Full PFL 5 Fight Card Announced, Set for June 21st \\| date\\=May 2024 }} Renfro would miss the Lightweight limit weighing in at 157\\.4 pounds. {{cite web \\| url\\=https://cagesidepress.com/2024/06/20/2024\\-pfl\\-5\\-regular\\-season\\-official\\-weigh\\-in\\-results\\-one\\-heavy/ \\| title\\=2024 PFL 5 Regular Season Official Weigh\\-in Results: One Heavy \\| date\\=20 June 2024 }} Primus would win the fight via submission in the third round and thus secure himself the top seed for the playoff section of the PFL Lightweight tournament.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-06\\-22 \\|title\\=2024 PFL 5 video: Brent Primus pulls off gusty last\\-minute submission of Solomon Renfro \\|url\\=https://mmajunkie.usatoday.com/2024/06/pfl\\-video\\-brent\\-primus\\-vs\\-solomon\\-renfro\\-results \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-04 \\|website\\=MMA Junkie \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Primus faced [Clay Collard](/wiki/Clay_Collard \"Clay Collard\") in the semifinals of the [2024 Lightweight tournament](/wiki/2024_in_Professional_Fighters_League%232024_PFL_Lightweight_playoffs \"2024 in Professional Fighters League#2024 PFL Lightweight playoffs\") on August 16, 2024 at [PFL 8](/wiki/PFL_8_%282024%29 \"PFL 8 (2024)\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Staff \\|date\\=2024\\-07\\-09 \\|title\\=Main Cards Announced for All Three 2024 PFL Playoff Events \\|url\\=https://cagesidepress.com/2024/07/09/main\\-cards\\-announced\\-for\\-all\\-three\\-2024\\-pfl\\-playoff\\-events/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-05 \\|website\\=Cageside Press \\|language\\=en\\-US}} He won the fight by unanimous decision.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Anderson \\|first\\=Jay \\|date\\=2024\\-08\\-17 \\|title\\=PFL Hollywood: Wrestling\\-Heavy, Low\\-Action Fight Sees Brent Primus Defeat Clay Collard \\|url\\=https://cagesidepress.com/2024/08/16/pfl\\-hollywood\\-wrestling\\-heavy\\-low\\-action\\-fight\\-sees\\-brent\\-primus\\-defeat\\-clay\\-collard/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-18 \\|website\\=Cageside Press \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
""
] |
Career
------
Heydon qualified for the [2007 UK Open](/wiki/2007_UK_Open_%28darts%29 "2007 UK Open (darts)") as an amateur qualifier, losing in the first round to [John Burton](/wiki/John_Burton_%28darts_player%29 "John Burton (darts player)"). He also reached the last 40 of the [2009 World Masters](/wiki/2009_World_Masters_%28darts%29 "2009 World Masters (darts)").
Heydon joined the PDC in 2010, and quickly made an impact, reaching a semi\-final in his second Pro Tour event in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar").[Ovens Wins In Gibraltar](http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180~1958035,00.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100608082928/http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180\~1958035,00\.html \|date\=8 June 2010 }} PDC.tv He also qualified for the [2010 UK Open](/wiki/2010_UK_Open_%28darts%29 "2010 UK Open (darts)"). Entering at the last 64, he defeated [Mark Dudbridge](/wiki/Mark_Dudbridge "Mark Dudbridge") and [Wayne Atwood](/wiki/Wayne_Atwood "Wayne Atwood") before losing to [Wes Newton](/wiki/Wes_Newton "Wes Newton") in the last 16\.
He narrowly missed out on qualification for the [2010 World Matchplay](/wiki/2010_World_Matchplay_%28darts%29 "2010 World Matchplay (darts)"), but did qualify for his first [PDC World Championship](/wiki/PDC_World_Darts_Championship "PDC World Darts Championship") in [2011](/wiki/2011_PDC_World_Darts_Championship "2011 PDC World Darts Championship"). He lost 1–3 in sets to [Robert Thornton](/wiki/Robert_Thornton_%28darts_player%29 "Robert Thornton (darts player)") in the first round, despite having darts to level the match at 2–2\.
Heydon qualified for the [2011 Grand Slam of Darts](/wiki/2011_Grand_Slam_of_Darts "2011 Grand Slam of Darts") after reaching the final of the Wildcard qualifier. He opened his campaign with a surprise 5–3 victory over Premier League champion [Gary Anderson](/wiki/Gary_Anderson_%28darts_player%29 "Gary Anderson (darts player)").
At the [2012 World Championship](/wiki/2012_PDC_World_Darts_Championship "2012 PDC World Darts Championship") Heydon almost pulled off a huge upset by knocking out reigning champion [Adrian Lewis](/wiki/Adrian_Lewis "Adrian Lewis"). He led 2–0 in the best of five sets match only for Lewis to regain parity at 2–2\. In the deciding set Heydon had three darts to move into a 2–0 lead but missed them and Lewis would ultimately be victorious. Lewis admitted after the match that Heydon had been "phenomenal" in the first two sets.{{cite web \| url\=http://www1\.skysports.com/darts/news/20876/7379984/Lewis\-survives\-Webster\-out \| title\=Lewis survives; Webster out \| publisher\=\[\[Sky Sports]] \| date\=15 December 2011 \| accessdate\=16 December 2011}} In August, Heydon beat [Brandon Walsh](/wiki/Brandon_Walsh_%28darts_player%29 "Brandon Walsh (darts player)") and [Gary Butcher](/wiki/Gary_Butcher_%28darts_player%29 "Gary Butcher (darts player)") in the UK Qualifier for the [European Tour Event 4](/wiki/2012_PDC_European_Tour_Event_4 "2012 PDC European Tour Event 4"),{{cite web \| url\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey\=4133 \| title\=2012 PDC European Tour Stuttgart UK Qualifier Results \| publisher\=Darts Database \| accessdate\=8 August 2012}} and defeated [Andy Smith](/wiki/Andy_Smith_%28darts_player%29 "Andy Smith (darts player)") 6–5 in the first round in [Stuttgart](/wiki/Stuttgart "Stuttgart").{{cite web \| url\=http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180\~2912880,00\.html \| title\=German Darts Masters \- Day One \| publisher\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]] \| accessdate\=7 September 2012 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910114224/http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180\~2912880,00\.html \| archive\-date\=10 September 2012 \| url\-status\=dead }} Heydon continued his form in round two with a 6–2 win over [Mark Walsh](/wiki/Mark_Walsh_%28darts_player%29 "Mark Walsh (darts player)") with a 100\.45 average,{{cite web \| url\=http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180\~2913350,00\.html \| title\=German Darts Masters \- Day Two \| publisher\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]] \| accessdate\=9 September 2012 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908215737/http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180\~2913350,00\.html \| archive\-date\=8 September 2012 \| url\-status\=dead }} but then lost to [James Wade](/wiki/James_Wade "James Wade") 4–6 in the last 16\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey\=4080 \| title\=2012 PDC German Darts Masters Results \| publisher\=Darts Database \| accessdate\=5 December 2012}} Heydon's best results of 2012 came after this as he reached the quarter\-finals of both the 12th and 16th Players Championship events, losing to [Andy Hamilton](/wiki/Andy_Hamilton_%28darts_player%29 "Andy Hamilton (darts player)") (5–6\) and [Jamie Caven](/wiki/Jamie_Caven "Jamie Caven") (0–6\) respectively.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\=3895 \| title\=Nigel Heydon 2012 \| publisher\=Darts Database \| accessdate\=5 December 2012\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20130114173025/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\=3895\|archivedate\=14 January 2013}} He finished the season 57th on the ProTour Order of Merit, missing out on qualification for the [World Championship](/wiki/2013_PDC_World_Darts_Championship "2013 PDC World Darts Championship") by £800\.{{cite web\|title\=ProTour Order of Merit\|url\=http://www.pdc.tv/pro\-tour\-order\-of\-merit\|work\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]]\|accessdate\=5 December 2012\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20121205003133/http://www.pdc.tv/pro\-tour\-order\-of\-merit\|archivedate\=5 December 2012}}
Heydon began 2013 by qualifying for the [UK Masters](/wiki/2013_PDC_European_Tour_Event_1 "2013 PDC European Tour Event 1") and beat [James Hubbard](/wiki/James_Hubbard_%28darts_player%29 "James Hubbard (darts player)") 6–4, before losing 6–5 to [Dave Chisnall](/wiki/Dave_Chisnall "Dave Chisnall") in the second round.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey\=4489 \| title\=2013 PDC UK Masters Results \| publisher\=Darts Database \| accessdate\=3 December 2013}} He reached the same stage of the [Austrian Darts Open](/wiki/2013_PDC_European_Tour_Event_4 "2013 PDC European Tour Event 4") where [James Wade](/wiki/James_Wade "James Wade") won 6–1\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey\=4433 \| title\=2013 PDC Austrian Darts Open Results \| publisher\=Darts Database \| accessdate\=3 December 2013}} Heydon was a last 32 loser in four of the eight [UK Open](/wiki/2013_UK_Open "2013 UK Open") qualifiers to enter the event in the second round where he was edged out 5–4 by [Andy Jenkins](/wiki/Andy_Jenkins "Andy Jenkins").{{cite web\|title\=Nigel Heydon 2013\|url\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\=3895\|work\=Darts Database\|accessdate\=3 December 2013\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20131203145953/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\=3895\|archivedate\=3 December 2013}}{{cite web \| url\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/s0dld2qovq221v5rupd3g3dwn/title/speedy\-services\-uk\-open\-\-\-thursday \| title\=Speedy Services UK Open \- Thursday \| publisher\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]] \| accessdate\=3 December 2013}} He started 2014 ranked world number 71, outside of the top 64 who retained their places on the tour and Heydon therefore entered Q School in a bid to win his spot back.{{cite web\|title\=Order of Merit on 2 January 2014\|url\=http://www.pdc.tv/pdc\-order\-of\-merit\|work\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]]\|accessdate\=12 January 2014\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20140102233715/http://www.pdc.tv/pdc\-order\-of\-merit\|archivedate\=2 January 2014}}{{cite web \| url\=http://dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventEntryList.aspx?EventKey\=5528 \| title\=2014 PDC Tour Card Qualifying School Entry List \| publisher\=Darts Database \| accessdate\=12 January 2014 \| archive\-date\=12 January 2014 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112222111/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventEntryList.aspx?EventKey\=5528 \| url\-status\=dead }} On the fourth and final day he beat Stuart Anderson 5–0 in the last round to earn a tour card. Heydon had changed his throwing style in the previous 18 months due to back problems and has also begun wearing glasses but stated afterwards that he was adapting to the changes and hopeful for further successes in the future.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1cylsh2jxcmq81ixg9ej30u8f7/title/2014\-pdc\-qualifying\-school\-day\-four \| title\=2014 PDC Qualifying School Day Four \| publisher\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]] \| accessdate\=18 January 2014 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119195834/http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1cylsh2jxcmq81ixg9ej30u8f7/title/2014\-pdc\-qualifying\-school\-day\-four \| archive\-date\=19 January 2014 \| url\-status\=dead }}
In February 2014, Heydon enjoyed his best run in an event in 16 months by reaching the last 16 of the fifth [UK Open Qualifier](/wiki/2014_PDC_Pro_Tour%23UK_Open_Qualifier "2014 PDC Pro Tour#UK Open Qualifier") with victories over the likes of [Mark Walsh](/wiki/Mark_Walsh_%28darts_player%29 "Mark Walsh (darts player)") and [Richie Burnett](/wiki/Richie_Burnett "Richie Burnett"), but lost 6–3 to eventual winner [Gary Anderson](/wiki/Gary_Anderson_%28darts_player%29 "Gary Anderson (darts player)").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1r986zj40mt7q1kvm3cdem2o7y/title/coral\-uk\-open\-qualifier\-five\-latest\|title\=Anderson Storms To Qualifier Five Win\|publisher\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]]\|accessdate\=22 February 2014}} At the [UK Open](/wiki/2014_UK_Open "2014 UK Open") itself he beat [Johnny Haines](/wiki/Johnny_Haines "Johnny Haines") 5–4 and [Steve Maish](/wiki/Steve_Maish "Steve Maish") 9–1, before losing 9–7 against [Brendan Dolan](/wiki/Brendan_Dolan "Brendan Dolan") in the fourth round.{{cite web \| url\=http://dartsdatabase.co.uk/FixtureList.aspx?EventKey\=5384 \| title\=2014 UK Open Results \| publisher\=Darts Database \| accessdate\=7 March 2014}} His form continued at the third [Players Championship](/wiki/2014_PDC_Pro_Tour%23Players_Championships "2014 PDC Pro Tour#Players Championships") as he reached the semi\-finals of a PDC event for the second time in his career by whitewashing [John Part](/wiki/John_Part "John Part") and also beating [Ian White](/wiki/Ian_White_%28darts_player%29 "Ian White (darts player)") and [Ronnie Baxter](/wiki/Ronnie_Baxter "Ronnie Baxter"), before [Phil Taylor](/wiki/Phil_Taylor_%28darts_player%29 "Phil Taylor (darts player)") defeated Heydon 6–0\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/zn83azlviegw1nxyqbw8sz3ny/title/players\-championship\-3\-latest \| title\=Anderson Pips Taylor In Crawley \| publisher\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]] \| accessdate\=22 March 2014 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324033011/http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/zn83azlviegw1nxyqbw8sz3ny/title/players\-championship\-3\-latest \| archive\-date\=24 March 2014 \| url\-status\=dead }} Heydon could not get past the last 64 in any other event during the rest of the season.{{cite web\|title\=Nigel Heydon 2014\|url\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?PlayerKey\=3895\|publisher\=Darts Database\|accessdate\=3 December 2014\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103091847/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?PlayerKey\=3895\|archivedate\=3 January 2015\|url\-status\=live}}
Heydon began 2015 70th in the world rankings and so entered Q School in a bid to earn a two\-year PDC tour card.{{cite web\|title\=Order of Merit on 5 January 2015\|url\=http://www.pdc.tv/pdc\-order\-of\-merit\|publisher\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]]\|accessdate\=15 January 2015\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108153229/http://www.pdc.tv/pdc\-order\-of\-merit\|archivedate\=8 January 2015 }} He was successful on the first day by defeating [Jim Walker](/wiki/Jim_Walker_%28darts_player%29 "Jim Walker (darts player)") 5–3 in the final round.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1610974mk282h1q5haqlc3gk3w/title/pdc\-qualifying\-school\-day\-one \| title\=PDC Qualifying School Day One \| publisher\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]] \| accessdate\=15 January 2015 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107062138/http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1610974mk282h1q5haqlc3gk3w/title/pdc\-qualifying\-school\-day\-one \| archive\-date\=7 January 2017 \| url\-status\=dead }} The highlight of Heydon's year undoubtedly came at the 11th [Players Championship](/wiki/2015_PDC_Pro_Tour%23Players_Championships "2015 PDC Pro Tour#Players Championships") event in May, when he overcame [Darren Johnson](/wiki/Darren_Johnson_%28darts_player%29 "Darren Johnson (darts player)"), [Alan Norris](/wiki/Alan_Norris_%28darts_player%29 "Alan Norris (darts player)"), [Mark Dudbridge](/wiki/Mark_Dudbridge "Mark Dudbridge"), [John Bowles](/wiki/John_Bowles_%28darts_player%29 "John Bowles (darts player)") and [Jelle Klaasen](/wiki/Jelle_Klaasen "Jelle Klaasen") to play in the semi\-finals, where he lost 6–4 to [Dave Chisnall](/wiki/Dave_Chisnall "Dave Chisnall").{{cite web \| url\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1n579ds2d5zh91wkp51vs6jbav/title/players\-championship\-11\-latest \| title\=Jubilant Chisnall Claims Barnsley Victory \| publisher\=\[\[Professional Darts Corporation\|PDC]] \| accessdate\=22 November 2015}} Other than that, Heydon was unable to get past the last 32 of any event in 2015\.{{cite web\|title\=Steve Douglas 2015\|url\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?PlayerKey\=3895\|publisher\=Darts Database\|accessdate\=22 November 2015\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122125639/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\=3895\|archivedate\=22 November 2015}}
In 2016, he qualified for the [Austrian Darts Open](/wiki/2016_Austrian_Darts_Open "2016 Austrian Darts Open"), where he made the quarter\-finals by beating Roxy\-James Rodriguez 6–4, reigning [World Grand Prix](/wiki/World_Grand_Prix_%28darts%29 "World Grand Prix (darts)") champion [Robert Thornton](/wiki/Robert_Thornton_%28darts_player%29 "Robert Thornton (darts player)") 6–5 and number six seed [Ian White](/wiki/Ian_White_%28darts_player%29 "Ian White (darts player)") 6–0\. Heydon was defeated 6–4 by [Michael Smith](/wiki/Michael_Smith_%28darts_player%29 "Michael Smith (darts player)").{{cite web \| url\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey\=7755 \| title\=2016 PDC Austrian Darts Open Results \| publisher\=Darts Database \| accessdate\=10 November 2016}} This was by far his best finish of the season as he only reached the last 32 twice in all the other events he played in.{{cite web\|title\=Nigel Heydon 2016\|url\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?PlayerKey\=3895\|publisher\=Darts Database\|accessdate\=10 November 2016\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110185925/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\=3895\|archivedate\=10 November 2016}}
In 2018 Nigel Heydon was active on the [British Darts Organisation](/wiki/British_Darts_Organisation "British Darts Organisation") circuit. He played for England in the [British International Championships (darts)](/wiki/British_International_Championships_%28darts%29 "British International Championships (darts)"), [Six Nations Cup](/wiki/Six_Nations_Cup "Six Nations Cup") \& was named in the 4 man squad for the [WDF Europe Cup](/wiki/WDF_Europe_Cup "WDF Europe Cup"). He also qualified for the [2019 BDO World Darts Championship](/wiki/2019_BDO_World_Darts_Championship "2019 BDO World Darts Championship") by winning one of the 4 places on offer in the playoffs in Bridlington, The same week he qualified for Stage finals of the [2018 World Masters (darts)](/wiki/2018_World_Masters_%28darts%29 "2018 World Masters (darts)") before losing in the last 32 to Welshman [Jim Williams (darts player)](/wiki/Jim_Williams_%28darts_player%29 "Jim Williams (darts player)") 3\-2 in a tense match.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Heydon qualified for the [2007 UK Open](/wiki/2007_UK_Open_%28darts%29 \"2007 UK Open (darts)\") as an amateur qualifier, losing in the first round to [John Burton](/wiki/John_Burton_%28darts_player%29 \"John Burton (darts player)\"). He also reached the last 40 of the [2009 World Masters](/wiki/2009_World_Masters_%28darts%29 \"2009 World Masters (darts)\").",
"Heydon joined the PDC in 2010, and quickly made an impact, reaching a semi\\-final in his second Pro Tour event in [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\").[Ovens Wins In Gibraltar](http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180~1958035,00.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100608082928/http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180\\~1958035,00\\.html \\|date\\=8 June 2010 }} PDC.tv He also qualified for the [2010 UK Open](/wiki/2010_UK_Open_%28darts%29 \"2010 UK Open (darts)\"). Entering at the last 64, he defeated [Mark Dudbridge](/wiki/Mark_Dudbridge \"Mark Dudbridge\") and [Wayne Atwood](/wiki/Wayne_Atwood \"Wayne Atwood\") before losing to [Wes Newton](/wiki/Wes_Newton \"Wes Newton\") in the last 16\\.",
"He narrowly missed out on qualification for the [2010 World Matchplay](/wiki/2010_World_Matchplay_%28darts%29 \"2010 World Matchplay (darts)\"), but did qualify for his first [PDC World Championship](/wiki/PDC_World_Darts_Championship \"PDC World Darts Championship\") in [2011](/wiki/2011_PDC_World_Darts_Championship \"2011 PDC World Darts Championship\"). He lost 1–3 in sets to [Robert Thornton](/wiki/Robert_Thornton_%28darts_player%29 \"Robert Thornton (darts player)\") in the first round, despite having darts to level the match at 2–2\\.",
"Heydon qualified for the [2011 Grand Slam of Darts](/wiki/2011_Grand_Slam_of_Darts \"2011 Grand Slam of Darts\") after reaching the final of the Wildcard qualifier. He opened his campaign with a surprise 5–3 victory over Premier League champion [Gary Anderson](/wiki/Gary_Anderson_%28darts_player%29 \"Gary Anderson (darts player)\").",
"At the [2012 World Championship](/wiki/2012_PDC_World_Darts_Championship \"2012 PDC World Darts Championship\") Heydon almost pulled off a huge upset by knocking out reigning champion [Adrian Lewis](/wiki/Adrian_Lewis \"Adrian Lewis\"). He led 2–0 in the best of five sets match only for Lewis to regain parity at 2–2\\. In the deciding set Heydon had three darts to move into a 2–0 lead but missed them and Lewis would ultimately be victorious. Lewis admitted after the match that Heydon had been \"phenomenal\" in the first two sets.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www1\\.skysports.com/darts/news/20876/7379984/Lewis\\-survives\\-Webster\\-out \\| title\\=Lewis survives; Webster out \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Sky Sports]] \\| date\\=15 December 2011 \\| accessdate\\=16 December 2011}} In August, Heydon beat [Brandon Walsh](/wiki/Brandon_Walsh_%28darts_player%29 \"Brandon Walsh (darts player)\") and [Gary Butcher](/wiki/Gary_Butcher_%28darts_player%29 \"Gary Butcher (darts player)\") in the UK Qualifier for the [European Tour Event 4](/wiki/2012_PDC_European_Tour_Event_4 \"2012 PDC European Tour Event 4\"),{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey\\=4133 \\| title\\=2012 PDC European Tour Stuttgart UK Qualifier Results \\| publisher\\=Darts Database \\| accessdate\\=8 August 2012}} and defeated [Andy Smith](/wiki/Andy_Smith_%28darts_player%29 \"Andy Smith (darts player)\") 6–5 in the first round in [Stuttgart](/wiki/Stuttgart \"Stuttgart\").{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180\\~2912880,00\\.html \\| title\\=German Darts Masters \\- Day One \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]] \\| accessdate\\=7 September 2012 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910114224/http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180\\~2912880,00\\.html \\| archive\\-date\\=10 September 2012 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} Heydon continued his form in round two with a 6–2 win over [Mark Walsh](/wiki/Mark_Walsh_%28darts_player%29 \"Mark Walsh (darts player)\") with a 100\\.45 average,{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180\\~2913350,00\\.html \\| title\\=German Darts Masters \\- Day Two \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]] \\| accessdate\\=9 September 2012 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908215737/http://www.pdc.tv/page/NewsdeskDetail/0,,10180\\~2913350,00\\.html \\| archive\\-date\\=8 September 2012 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} but then lost to [James Wade](/wiki/James_Wade \"James Wade\") 4–6 in the last 16\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey\\=4080 \\| title\\=2012 PDC German Darts Masters Results \\| publisher\\=Darts Database \\| accessdate\\=5 December 2012}} Heydon's best results of 2012 came after this as he reached the quarter\\-finals of both the 12th and 16th Players Championship events, losing to [Andy Hamilton](/wiki/Andy_Hamilton_%28darts_player%29 \"Andy Hamilton (darts player)\") (5–6\\) and [Jamie Caven](/wiki/Jamie_Caven \"Jamie Caven\") (0–6\\) respectively.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\\=3895 \\| title\\=Nigel Heydon 2012 \\| publisher\\=Darts Database \\| accessdate\\=5 December 2012\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20130114173025/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\\=3895\\|archivedate\\=14 January 2013}} He finished the season 57th on the ProTour Order of Merit, missing out on qualification for the [World Championship](/wiki/2013_PDC_World_Darts_Championship \"2013 PDC World Darts Championship\") by £800\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=ProTour Order of Merit\\|url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/pro\\-tour\\-order\\-of\\-merit\\|work\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]]\\|accessdate\\=5 December 2012\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20121205003133/http://www.pdc.tv/pro\\-tour\\-order\\-of\\-merit\\|archivedate\\=5 December 2012}}",
"Heydon began 2013 by qualifying for the [UK Masters](/wiki/2013_PDC_European_Tour_Event_1 \"2013 PDC European Tour Event 1\") and beat [James Hubbard](/wiki/James_Hubbard_%28darts_player%29 \"James Hubbard (darts player)\") 6–4, before losing 6–5 to [Dave Chisnall](/wiki/Dave_Chisnall \"Dave Chisnall\") in the second round.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey\\=4489 \\| title\\=2013 PDC UK Masters Results \\| publisher\\=Darts Database \\| accessdate\\=3 December 2013}} He reached the same stage of the [Austrian Darts Open](/wiki/2013_PDC_European_Tour_Event_4 \"2013 PDC European Tour Event 4\") where [James Wade](/wiki/James_Wade \"James Wade\") won 6–1\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey\\=4433 \\| title\\=2013 PDC Austrian Darts Open Results \\| publisher\\=Darts Database \\| accessdate\\=3 December 2013}} Heydon was a last 32 loser in four of the eight [UK Open](/wiki/2013_UK_Open \"2013 UK Open\") qualifiers to enter the event in the second round where he was edged out 5–4 by [Andy Jenkins](/wiki/Andy_Jenkins \"Andy Jenkins\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Nigel Heydon 2013\\|url\\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\\=3895\\|work\\=Darts Database\\|accessdate\\=3 December 2013\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20131203145953/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\\=3895\\|archivedate\\=3 December 2013}}{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/s0dld2qovq221v5rupd3g3dwn/title/speedy\\-services\\-uk\\-open\\-\\-\\-thursday \\| title\\=Speedy Services UK Open \\- Thursday \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]] \\| accessdate\\=3 December 2013}} He started 2014 ranked world number 71, outside of the top 64 who retained their places on the tour and Heydon therefore entered Q School in a bid to win his spot back.{{cite web\\|title\\=Order of Merit on 2 January 2014\\|url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/pdc\\-order\\-of\\-merit\\|work\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]]\\|accessdate\\=12 January 2014\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20140102233715/http://www.pdc.tv/pdc\\-order\\-of\\-merit\\|archivedate\\=2 January 2014}}{{cite web \\| url\\=http://dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventEntryList.aspx?EventKey\\=5528 \\| title\\=2014 PDC Tour Card Qualifying School Entry List \\| publisher\\=Darts Database \\| accessdate\\=12 January 2014 \\| archive\\-date\\=12 January 2014 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112222111/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventEntryList.aspx?EventKey\\=5528 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} On the fourth and final day he beat Stuart Anderson 5–0 in the last round to earn a tour card. Heydon had changed his throwing style in the previous 18 months due to back problems and has also begun wearing glasses but stated afterwards that he was adapting to the changes and hopeful for further successes in the future.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1cylsh2jxcmq81ixg9ej30u8f7/title/2014\\-pdc\\-qualifying\\-school\\-day\\-four \\| title\\=2014 PDC Qualifying School Day Four \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]] \\| accessdate\\=18 January 2014 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119195834/http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1cylsh2jxcmq81ixg9ej30u8f7/title/2014\\-pdc\\-qualifying\\-school\\-day\\-four \\| archive\\-date\\=19 January 2014 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"In February 2014, Heydon enjoyed his best run in an event in 16 months by reaching the last 16 of the fifth [UK Open Qualifier](/wiki/2014_PDC_Pro_Tour%23UK_Open_Qualifier \"2014 PDC Pro Tour#UK Open Qualifier\") with victories over the likes of [Mark Walsh](/wiki/Mark_Walsh_%28darts_player%29 \"Mark Walsh (darts player)\") and [Richie Burnett](/wiki/Richie_Burnett \"Richie Burnett\"), but lost 6–3 to eventual winner [Gary Anderson](/wiki/Gary_Anderson_%28darts_player%29 \"Gary Anderson (darts player)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1r986zj40mt7q1kvm3cdem2o7y/title/coral\\-uk\\-open\\-qualifier\\-five\\-latest\\|title\\=Anderson Storms To Qualifier Five Win\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]]\\|accessdate\\=22 February 2014}} At the [UK Open](/wiki/2014_UK_Open \"2014 UK Open\") itself he beat [Johnny Haines](/wiki/Johnny_Haines \"Johnny Haines\") 5–4 and [Steve Maish](/wiki/Steve_Maish \"Steve Maish\") 9–1, before losing 9–7 against [Brendan Dolan](/wiki/Brendan_Dolan \"Brendan Dolan\") in the fourth round.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://dartsdatabase.co.uk/FixtureList.aspx?EventKey\\=5384 \\| title\\=2014 UK Open Results \\| publisher\\=Darts Database \\| accessdate\\=7 March 2014}} His form continued at the third [Players Championship](/wiki/2014_PDC_Pro_Tour%23Players_Championships \"2014 PDC Pro Tour#Players Championships\") as he reached the semi\\-finals of a PDC event for the second time in his career by whitewashing [John Part](/wiki/John_Part \"John Part\") and also beating [Ian White](/wiki/Ian_White_%28darts_player%29 \"Ian White (darts player)\") and [Ronnie Baxter](/wiki/Ronnie_Baxter \"Ronnie Baxter\"), before [Phil Taylor](/wiki/Phil_Taylor_%28darts_player%29 \"Phil Taylor (darts player)\") defeated Heydon 6–0\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/zn83azlviegw1nxyqbw8sz3ny/title/players\\-championship\\-3\\-latest \\| title\\=Anderson Pips Taylor In Crawley \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]] \\| accessdate\\=22 March 2014 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324033011/http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/zn83azlviegw1nxyqbw8sz3ny/title/players\\-championship\\-3\\-latest \\| archive\\-date\\=24 March 2014 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} Heydon could not get past the last 64 in any other event during the rest of the season.{{cite web\\|title\\=Nigel Heydon 2014\\|url\\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?PlayerKey\\=3895\\|publisher\\=Darts Database\\|accessdate\\=3 December 2014\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103091847/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?PlayerKey\\=3895\\|archivedate\\=3 January 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"Heydon began 2015 70th in the world rankings and so entered Q School in a bid to earn a two\\-year PDC tour card.{{cite web\\|title\\=Order of Merit on 5 January 2015\\|url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/pdc\\-order\\-of\\-merit\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]]\\|accessdate\\=15 January 2015\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108153229/http://www.pdc.tv/pdc\\-order\\-of\\-merit\\|archivedate\\=8 January 2015 }} He was successful on the first day by defeating [Jim Walker](/wiki/Jim_Walker_%28darts_player%29 \"Jim Walker (darts player)\") 5–3 in the final round.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1610974mk282h1q5haqlc3gk3w/title/pdc\\-qualifying\\-school\\-day\\-one \\| title\\=PDC Qualifying School Day One \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]] \\| accessdate\\=15 January 2015 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107062138/http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1610974mk282h1q5haqlc3gk3w/title/pdc\\-qualifying\\-school\\-day\\-one \\| archive\\-date\\=7 January 2017 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }} The highlight of Heydon's year undoubtedly came at the 11th [Players Championship](/wiki/2015_PDC_Pro_Tour%23Players_Championships \"2015 PDC Pro Tour#Players Championships\") event in May, when he overcame [Darren Johnson](/wiki/Darren_Johnson_%28darts_player%29 \"Darren Johnson (darts player)\"), [Alan Norris](/wiki/Alan_Norris_%28darts_player%29 \"Alan Norris (darts player)\"), [Mark Dudbridge](/wiki/Mark_Dudbridge \"Mark Dudbridge\"), [John Bowles](/wiki/John_Bowles_%28darts_player%29 \"John Bowles (darts player)\") and [Jelle Klaasen](/wiki/Jelle_Klaasen \"Jelle Klaasen\") to play in the semi\\-finals, where he lost 6–4 to [Dave Chisnall](/wiki/Dave_Chisnall \"Dave Chisnall\").{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.pdc.tv/news/article/1n579ds2d5zh91wkp51vs6jbav/title/players\\-championship\\-11\\-latest \\| title\\=Jubilant Chisnall Claims Barnsley Victory \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Professional Darts Corporation\\|PDC]] \\| accessdate\\=22 November 2015}} Other than that, Heydon was unable to get past the last 32 of any event in 2015\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Steve Douglas 2015\\|url\\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?PlayerKey\\=3895\\|publisher\\=Darts Database\\|accessdate\\=22 November 2015\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122125639/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\\=3895\\|archivedate\\=22 November 2015}}",
"In 2016, he qualified for the [Austrian Darts Open](/wiki/2016_Austrian_Darts_Open \"2016 Austrian Darts Open\"), where he made the quarter\\-finals by beating Roxy\\-James Rodriguez 6–4, reigning [World Grand Prix](/wiki/World_Grand_Prix_%28darts%29 \"World Grand Prix (darts)\") champion [Robert Thornton](/wiki/Robert_Thornton_%28darts_player%29 \"Robert Thornton (darts player)\") 6–5 and number six seed [Ian White](/wiki/Ian_White_%28darts_player%29 \"Ian White (darts player)\") 6–0\\. Heydon was defeated 6–4 by [Michael Smith](/wiki/Michael_Smith_%28darts_player%29 \"Michael Smith (darts player)\").{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey\\=7755 \\| title\\=2016 PDC Austrian Darts Open Results \\| publisher\\=Darts Database \\| accessdate\\=10 November 2016}} This was by far his best finish of the season as he only reached the last 32 twice in all the other events he played in.{{cite web\\|title\\=Nigel Heydon 2016\\|url\\=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?PlayerKey\\=3895\\|publisher\\=Darts Database\\|accessdate\\=10 November 2016\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110185925/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey\\=3895\\|archivedate\\=10 November 2016}}",
"In 2018 Nigel Heydon was active on the [British Darts Organisation](/wiki/British_Darts_Organisation \"British Darts Organisation\") circuit. He played for England in the [British International Championships (darts)](/wiki/British_International_Championships_%28darts%29 \"British International Championships (darts)\"), [Six Nations Cup](/wiki/Six_Nations_Cup \"Six Nations Cup\") \\& was named in the 4 man squad for the [WDF Europe Cup](/wiki/WDF_Europe_Cup \"WDF Europe Cup\"). He also qualified for the [2019 BDO World Darts Championship](/wiki/2019_BDO_World_Darts_Championship \"2019 BDO World Darts Championship\") by winning one of the 4 places on offer in the playoffs in Bridlington, The same week he qualified for Stage finals of the [2018 World Masters (darts)](/wiki/2018_World_Masters_%28darts%29 \"2018 World Masters (darts)\") before losing in the last 32 to Welshman [Jim Williams (darts player)](/wiki/Jim_Williams_%28darts_player%29 \"Jim Williams (darts player)\") 3\\-2 in a tense match.",
""
] |
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